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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tennent | William Tennent | ["1 Early life","2 The Log College","3 Old Tennent Church","4 Death","5 Legacy","6 Archival collections","7 References","8 External links"] | Religious leader and educator in early America
For other people named William Tennent, see William Tennent (disambiguation).
William Tennent by unknown artist
William Tennent (1673 – May 6, 1746) was an early Scottish American Presbyterian minister and educator in British North America.
Early life
Tennent was born in Mid Calder, Linlithgowshire, Scotland, in 1673. He graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1695 and was ordained in the Church of Ireland in 1706. He migrated to the Thirteen Colonies in 1718, arriving in the colony of Pennsylvania at the urging of his wife's cousin James Logan, a Scots-Irish Quaker and close friend of William Penn. In 1726 he was called to a pastorate at the Neshaminy-Warwick Presbyterian Church in present-day Warminster, where he stayed for the remainder of his life.
The Log College
In 1727 Tennent established a religious school in a log cabin that became famous as the Log College. He filled his pupils with evangelical zeal, and a number became revivalist preachers in the First Great Awakening. The educational influence of the Log College was of importance since many of its graduates founded schools along the frontier. Princeton University is regarded as the successor to the Log College.
The name Log College had a negative connotation at the time, as it was a derisive nickname attached to the school by ministers educated in Europe. They chided Tennent for trying to educate poor farm boys considered by some to be unsuitable for the ministry.
Tennent's sons Gilbert (1703-1764) and William, Jr. were also noted early American clergymen. Rev. William Tennent, Jr. was the Presbyterian pastor of the Freehold, New Jersey congregation. A grandson, also the Rev. William Tennent, was known in church history as William Tennent the Third.
Old Tennent Church
The current edifice of the Old Tennent Church in Tennent, New Jersey, completed 1751–53, was named in memory of pastors William Tennent and his brother John Tennent.
Death
Tennent died in Warminster in 1746, and his gravesite can still be found today in the church cemetery of the Neshaminy-Warwick Presbyterian Church. Tennent's last will and testament is on record at the Bucks County Court House. It indicates that by the time he died he was still a humble servant of God, leaving what little he had to his wife Catherine (née Kennedy) Tennent. It is alleged that Tennent was also a slave owner, although the historical record is inconclusive.
Legacy
At least one school, William Tennent High School (located close to the location of the Log College) is named for Tennent. In addition, there is a Log College Middle School named in honor of the original Log College, about .25 miles (0.40 km) from the original building's location. Both are public schools within the Centennial School District in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, specifically Warminster, PA.
Inspired by the model of theological education began by Tennent and beginning in 2020, the William Tennent School of Theology was launched in Woodland Park, Colorado. The school currently offers three postgraduate degree programs, a M.A.T.S., a M.Litt., and a M.Div.
Archival collections
The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has a collection of Rev. Tennent's original sermons and notes.
References
^ "August 11: William Tennent the Third". This Day in Presbyterian History. 11 August 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
^ "Who Founded Princeton University and When?", Princeton University website.
^ "August 11: William Tennent the Third". This Day in Presbyterian History. 11 August 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
^ "William Tennent School of Theology". William Tennent School of Theology. Retrieved 2021-12-11.
External links
Neshaminy-Warwick Presbyterian Church
PDF hosted at the above site summarizing Tennent's life and career
Princeton University History
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Israel
United States
Netherlands
People
Ireland
Other
SNAC | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Tennent (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tennent_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Williamtennent.jpg"},{"link_name":"Scottish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Presbyterian minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_minister"},{"link_name":"educator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educator"},{"link_name":"British North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_North_America"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"For other people named William Tennent, see William Tennent (disambiguation).William Tennent by unknown artistWilliam Tennent (1673 – May 6, 1746) was an early Scottish American Presbyterian minister and educator in British North America.[1]","title":"William Tennent"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mid Calder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_Calder"},{"link_name":"Linlithgowshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Lothian"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"University of Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"Church of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Thirteen Colonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"James Logan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Logan_(statesman)"},{"link_name":"Scots-Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch-Irish_Americans"},{"link_name":"Quaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaker"},{"link_name":"William Penn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Penn"},{"link_name":"pastorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastor"},{"link_name":"Presbyterian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian"},{"link_name":"Warminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warminster,_Pennsylvania"}],"text":"Tennent was born in Mid Calder, Linlithgowshire, Scotland, in 1673. He graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1695 and was ordained in the Church of Ireland in 1706. He migrated to the Thirteen Colonies in 1718, arriving in the colony of Pennsylvania at the urging of his wife's cousin James Logan, a Scots-Irish Quaker and close friend of William Penn. In 1726 he was called to a pastorate at the Neshaminy-Warwick Presbyterian Church in present-day Warminster, where he stayed for the remainder of his life.","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"log cabin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_cabin"},{"link_name":"Log College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_College"},{"link_name":"First Great Awakening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Great_Awakening"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Gilbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Tennent"},{"link_name":"William Tennent, Jr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Tennent,_Jr&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Freehold, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freehold_Township,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"William Tennent the Third","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tennent_the_Third"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"In 1727 Tennent established a religious school in a log cabin that became famous as the Log College. He filled his pupils with evangelical zeal, and a number became revivalist preachers in the First Great Awakening. The educational influence of the Log College was of importance since many of its graduates founded schools along the frontier. Princeton University is regarded as the successor to the Log College.[2]The name Log College had a negative connotation at the time, as it was a derisive nickname attached to the school by ministers educated in Europe. They chided Tennent for trying to educate poor farm boys considered by some to be unsuitable for the ministry.Tennent's sons Gilbert (1703-1764) and William, Jr. were also noted early American clergymen. Rev. William Tennent, Jr. was the Presbyterian pastor of the Freehold, New Jersey congregation. A grandson, also the Rev. William Tennent, was known in church history as William Tennent the Third.[3]","title":"The Log College"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Old Tennent Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Tennent_Church"},{"link_name":"Tennent, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennent,_New_Jersey"}],"text":"The current edifice of the Old Tennent Church in Tennent, New Jersey, completed 1751–53, was named in memory of pastors William Tennent and his brother John Tennent.","title":"Old Tennent Church"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"will","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_(law)"}],"text":"Tennent died in Warminster in 1746, and his gravesite can still be found today in the church cemetery of the Neshaminy-Warwick Presbyterian Church. Tennent's last will and testament is on record at the Bucks County Court House. It indicates that by the time he died he was still a humble servant of God, leaving what little he had to his wife Catherine (née Kennedy) Tennent. It is alleged that Tennent was also a slave owner, although the historical record is inconclusive.","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Tennent High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tennent_High_School"},{"link_name":"Centennial School District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centennial_School_District,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Bucks County, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucks_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Warminster, PA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warminster_PA"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Woodland Park, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodland_Park,_Colorado"}],"text":"At least one school, William Tennent High School (located close to the location of the Log College) is named for Tennent. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wim_Kan | Wim Kan | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Dutch cabaret artist
Wim KanWim Kan in 1960Birth nameWillem Cornelis KanBorn(1911-01-15)15 January 1911Scheveningen, NetherlandsDied8 September 1983(1983-09-08) (aged 72)Nijmegen, NetherlandsMediumStand-up comedyYears active1931–1983GenresCabaret, Satire, Interactive theatre, Political theatreSpouseCorry Vonk (1901-1988)
Willem Cornelis "Wim" Kan (15 January 1911 – 8 September 1983) was a Dutch cabaret artist. Together with Toon Hermans and Wim Sonneveld, he is considered to be one of the Great Three of Dutch cabaret.
In 1936, he established the ABC Cabaret, which soon became one of the most successful Dutch cabaret groups, in which several artists debuted who later became famous.
In 1940, the ABC Cabaret was touring the Dutch East Indies, and because of the German invasion could not return to the Netherlands. After the Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies, he was deported to camps at the Burma Railway. Because of his experiences at these camps he later agitated against Hirohito's visit to the Netherlands in 1971.
Wim Kan is possibly best known as the originator of the tradition of the so-called Oudejaarsconference. These are performances of political cabaret on (or around) New Year's Eve, discussing the events of the past year. Wim Kan made the first oudejaarsconference in 1954, which was broadcast on radio. His first televised oudejaarsconference was in 1973, scoring an audience measurement of 75% and record appreciations rating of 8.8 (out of 10). Although he actually made only 5 television conferences (1973, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1982), they made such an impact that many people remember it as a yearly tradition.
References
^ "VPRO.nl". geschiedenis.vpro.nl.
^ "DNBL.org". dbnl.org.
External links
De Wim Kan Pagina: New Year's Eve cabarets, historical audio, and quotes, in cooperation with the Dutch World Broadcaster (Radio Nederland Wereldomroept).
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wim Kan.
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
United States
Netherlands
Artists
MusicBrainz
People
Netherlands
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cabaret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabaret"},{"link_name":"Toon Hermans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toon_Hermans"},{"link_name":"Wim Sonneveld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wim_Sonneveld"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"ABC Cabaret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ABC_Cabaret&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dutch East Indies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies"},{"link_name":"Burma Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Railway"},{"link_name":"Hirohito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohito"},{"link_name":"Oudejaarsconference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudejaarsconference"},{"link_name":"New Year's Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Year%27s_Eve"},{"link_name":"audience measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audience_measurement"}],"text":"Willem Cornelis \"Wim\" Kan (15 January 1911 – 8 September 1983) was a Dutch cabaret artist. Together with Toon Hermans and Wim Sonneveld, he is considered to be one of the Great Three of Dutch cabaret.[1][2]In 1936, he established the ABC Cabaret, which soon became one of the most successful Dutch cabaret groups, in which several artists debuted who later became famous.In 1940, the ABC Cabaret was touring the Dutch East Indies, and because of the German invasion could not return to the Netherlands. After the Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies, he was deported to camps at the Burma Railway. Because of his experiences at these camps he later agitated against Hirohito's visit to the Netherlands in 1971.Wim Kan is possibly best known as the originator of the tradition of the so-called Oudejaarsconference. These are performances of political cabaret on (or around) New Year's Eve, discussing the events of the past year. Wim Kan made the first oudejaarsconference in 1954, which was broadcast on radio. His first televised oudejaarsconference was in 1973, scoring an audience measurement of 75% and record appreciations rating of 8.8 (out of 10). Although he actually made only 5 television conferences (1973, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1982), they made such an impact that many people remember it as a yearly tradition.","title":"Wim Kan"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"VPRO.nl\". geschiedenis.vpro.nl.","urls":[{"url":"http://geschiedenis.vpro.nl/dossiers/25125533/","url_text":"\"VPRO.nl\""}]},{"reference":"\"DNBL.org\". dbnl.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/kan_002dagb03_01/kan_002dagb03_01_0019.htm","url_text":"\"DNBL.org\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://geschiedenis.vpro.nl/dossiers/25125533/","external_links_name":"\"VPRO.nl\""},{"Link":"http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/kan_002dagb03_01/kan_002dagb03_01_0019.htm","external_links_name":"\"DNBL.org\""},{"Link":"http://www.bennozuiddam.com/Wim-Kan.html","external_links_name":"De Wim Kan Pagina: New Year's Eve cabarets, historical audio, and quotes, in cooperation with the Dutch World Broadcaster (Radio Nederland Wereldomroept)."},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1801081/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000082004953","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/15569714","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmtyygG8bRkbF8Wg9gFrq","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/118970127","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n85117279","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070604150","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/artist/33c1b3ae-78fd-4f63-9aaa-f8567d2a1bab","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz"},{"Link":"http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/74958686","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/192968262","external_links_name":"IdRef"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WinBUGS | WinBUGS | ["1 References","2 Further reading","3 External links"] | Statistical software for Bayesian analysis
WinBUGSDeveloper(s)The BUGS ProjectInitial release1997; 27 years ago (1997)Final release1.4.3
/ August 6, 2007; 16 years ago (2007-08-06)
Written inComponent PascalOperating systemMicrosoft WindowsAvailable inEnglishTypeStatistical packageLicenseFreewareWebsitewinbugs-development.mrc-bsu.cam.ac.uk
WinBUGS is statistical software for Bayesian analysis using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods.
It is based on the BUGS (Bayesian inference Using Gibbs Sampling) project started in 1989. It runs under Microsoft Windows, though it can also be run on Linux or Mac using Wine.
It was developed by the BUGS Project, a team of British researchers at the MRC Biostatistics Unit, Cambridge, and Imperial College School of Medicine, London. Originally intended to solve problems encountered in medical statistics, it soon became widely used in other disciplines, such as ecology, sociology, and geology.
The last version of WinBUGS was version 1.4.3, released in August 2007. Development is now focused on OpenBUGS, an open-source version of the package. WinBUGS 1.4.3 remains available as a stable version for routine use, but is no longer being developed.
References
^ WinBUGS on Wine AppDB
^ Brooks, Stephen P. (2003). "Bayesian Computation: A Statistical Revolution". Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 361 (1813): 2681–2697. Bibcode:2003RSPTA.361.2681B. doi:10.1098/rsta.2003.1263. JSTOR 3559268. PMID 14667292. S2CID 7900994.
^ Lunn, D.; Spiegelhalter, D.; Thomas, A.; Best, N. (2009). "The BUGS project: Evolution, critique and future directions". Statistics in Medicine. 28 (25): 3049–3067. doi:10.1002/sim.3680. PMID 19630097. S2CID 7717482.
^ Thomas, Neal (2010-01-20). "Overview". OpenBUGS website. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
Further reading
Ntzoufras, Ioannis (2008). "WinBUGS Software: Introduction, Setup, and Basic Analysis". Bayesian Modeling Using WinBUGS. Wiley. pp. 83–123. ISBN 978-0-470-14114-4.
External links
WinBUGS Homepage
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This Microsoft Windows software-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"statistical software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_software"},{"link_name":"Bayesian analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_analysis"},{"link_name":"Markov chain Monte Carlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_chain_Monte_Carlo"},{"link_name":"Bayesian inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_inference"},{"link_name":"Gibbs Sampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbs_sampling"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_(software)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"MRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Biostatistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biostatistics"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Imperial College School of Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_College_School_of_Medicine"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"OpenBUGS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBUGS"},{"link_name":"open-source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"WinBUGS is statistical software for Bayesian analysis using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods.It is based on the BUGS (Bayesian inference Using Gibbs Sampling) project started in 1989. It runs under Microsoft Windows, though it can also be run on Linux or Mac using Wine.[1]It was developed by the BUGS Project, a team of British researchers at the MRC Biostatistics Unit, Cambridge, and Imperial College School of Medicine, London. Originally intended to solve problems encountered in medical statistics, it soon became widely used in other disciplines, such as ecology, sociology, and geology.[2]The last version of WinBUGS was version 1.4.3, released in August 2007. Development is now focused on OpenBUGS, an open-source version of the package. WinBUGS 1.4.3 remains available as a stable version for routine use, but is no longer being developed.[3][4]","title":"WinBUGS"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-470-14114-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-14114-4"}],"text":"Ntzoufras, Ioannis (2008). \"WinBUGS Software: Introduction, Setup, and Basic Analysis\". Bayesian Modeling Using WinBUGS. Wiley. pp. 83–123. ISBN 978-0-470-14114-4.","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Brooks, Stephen P. (2003). \"Bayesian Computation: A Statistical Revolution\". Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 361 (1813): 2681–2697. Bibcode:2003RSPTA.361.2681B. doi:10.1098/rsta.2003.1263. JSTOR 3559268. PMID 14667292. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_speed | Wind speed | ["1 Units","2 Factors affecting wind speed","3 Highest speed","3.1 Non-tornadic","3.2 Tornadic","4 Measurement","5 Design of structures","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"] | Rate at which air moves from high- to low-pressure areas
Not to be confused with Airspeed.
An anemometer is commonly used to measure wind speed.
Global distribution of wind speed at 10m above ground averaged over the years 1981–2010 from the CHELSA-BIOCLIM+ data set
In meteorology, wind speed, or wind flow speed, is a fundamental atmospheric quantity caused by air moving from high to low pressure, usually due to changes in temperature. Wind speed is now commonly measured with an anemometer.
Wind speed affects weather forecasting, aviation and maritime operations, construction projects, growth and metabolism rate of many plant species, and has countless other implications. Wind direction is usually almost parallel to isobars (and not perpendicular, as one might expect), due to Earth's rotation.
Units
The metre per second (m/s) is the SI unit for velocity and the unit recommended by the World Meteorological Organization for reporting wind speeds, and is amongst others used in weather forecasts in the Nordic countries. Since 2010 the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) also recommends meters per second for reporting wind speed when approaching runways, replacing their former recommendation of using kilometres per hour (km/h).
For historical reasons, other units such as miles per hour (mph), knots (kn) or feet per second (ft/s) are also sometimes used to measure wind speeds. Historically, wind speeds have also been classified using the Beaufort scale, which is based on visual observations of specifically defined wind effects at sea or on land.
Factors affecting wind speed
Wind speed is affected by a number of factors and situations, operating on varying scales (from micro to macro scales). These include the pressure gradient, Rossby waves and jet streams, and local weather conditions. There are also links to be found between wind speed and wind direction, notably with the pressure gradient and terrain conditions.
Pressure gradient is a term to describe the difference in air pressure between two points in the atmosphere or on the surface of the Earth. It is vital to wind speed, because the greater the difference in pressure, the faster the wind flows (from the high to low pressure) to balance out the variation. The pressure gradient, when combined with the Coriolis effect and friction, also influences wind direction.
Rossby waves are strong winds in the upper troposphere. These operate on a global scale and move from West to East (hence being known as Westerlies). The Rossby waves are themselves a different wind speed from what we experience in the lower troposphere.
Local weather conditions play a key role in influencing wind speed, as the formation of hurricanes, monsoons and cyclones as freak weather conditions can drastically affect the flow velocity of the wind.
Highest speed
The original anemometer that measured The Big Wind in 1934 at Mount Washington Observatory
Non-tornadic
The fastest wind speed not related to tornadoes ever recorded was during the passage of Tropical Cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996: an automatic weather station on Barrow Island, Australia, registered a maximum wind gust of 113.3 m/s (408 km/h; 253 mph; 220.2 kn; 372 ft/s) The wind gust was evaluated by the WMO Evaluation Panel who found that the anemometer was mechanically sound and the gust was within statistical probability and ratified the measurement in 2010. The anemometer was mounted 10 m above ground level (and thus 64 m above sea level). During the cyclone, several extreme gusts of greater than 83 m/s (300 km/h; 190 mph; 161 kn; 270 ft/s) were recorded, with a maximum 5-minute mean speed of 49 m/s (180 km/h; 110 mph; 95 kn; 160 ft/s) the extreme gust factor was in the order of 2.27–2.75 times the mean wind speed. The pattern and scales of the gusts suggest that a mesovortex was embedded in the already strong eyewall of the cyclone.
Currently, the second-highest surface wind speed ever officially recorded is 103.266 m/s (371.76 km/h; 231.00 mph; 200.733 kn; 338.80 ft/s) at the Mount Washington (New Hampshire) Observatory 1,917 m (6,288 ft) above sea level in the US on 12 April 1934, using a hot-wire anemometer. The anemometer, specifically designed for use on Mount Washington was later tested by the US National Weather Bureau and confirmed to be accurate.
Tornadic
Wind speeds within certain atmospheric phenomena (such as tornadoes) may greatly exceed these values but have never been accurately measured. Directly measuring these tornadic winds is rarely done as the violent wind would destroy the instruments. A method of estimating speed is to use Doppler on Wheels or mobile doppler radars to measure the wind speeds remotely. Using this method, a mobile radar (RaXPol) owned and operated by the University of Oklahoma recorded winds up to 150 metres per second (340 mph; 540 km/h) inside the 2013 El Reno tornado, marking the fastest winds ever observed by radar in history. In 1999, a mobile radar measured winds up to 135 m/s (490 km/h; 300 mph; 262 kn; 440 ft/s) during the 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado in Oklahoma on 3 May 1999, although another figure of 142 m/s (510 km/h; 320 mph; 276 kn; 470 ft/s) has also been quoted for the same tornado. Yet another number used by the Center for Severe Weather Research for that measurement is 135 ± 9 m/s (486 ± 32 km/h; 302 ± 20 mph; 262 ± 17 kn; 443 ± 30 ft/s). However, speeds measured by Doppler weather radar are not considered official records.
Wind speeds can be much higher on exoplanets. Scientists at the University of Warwick in 2015 determined that HD 189733b had winds of 2,400 m/s (8,600 km/h; 4,700 kn). In a press release, the University announced that the methods used from measuring HD 189733b's wind speeds could be used to measure wind speeds on Earth-like exoplanets.
Measurement
Main article: Anemometer
Modern day anemometer used to capture wind speed.
FT742-DM acoustic resonance wind sensor, one of the instruments now used to measure wind speed at Mount Washington ObservatoryAn anemometer is one of the tools used to measure wind speed. A device consisting of a vertical pillar and three or four concave cups, the anemometer captures the horizontal movement of air particles (wind speed).
Unlike traditional cup and vane anemometers, ultrasonic wind sensors have no moving parts and are therefore used to measure wind speed in applications that require maintenance-free performance, such as on the top of wind turbines. As the name suggests, ultrasonic wind sensors measure the wind speed using high-frequency sound. An ultrasonic anemometer has two or three pairs of sound transmitters and receivers. Stand it in the wind and each transmitter constantly beams high-frequency sound to its respective receiver. Electronic circuits inside measure the time it takes for the sound to make its journey from each transmitter to the corresponding receiver. Depending on how the wind blows, it will affect some of the sound beams more than the others, slowing it down or speeding it up very slightly. The circuits measure the difference in speeds of the beams and use that to calculate how fast the wind is blowing.
Acoustic resonance wind sensors are a variant of the ultrasonic sensor. Instead of using time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic waves within a small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their wind speed measurement. Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave's property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction.
Another tool used to measure wind velocity includes a GPS combined with pitot tube. A fluid flow velocity tool, the Pitot tube is primarily used to determine the air velocity of an aircraft.
Design of structures
Main article: Wind engineering
Anemometer on an outdoor stage set, to measure wind speed
Wind speed is a common factor in the design of structures and buildings around the world. It is often the governing factor in the required lateral strength of a structure's design.
In the United States, the wind speed used in design is often referred to as a "3-second gust" which is the highest sustained gust over a 3-second period having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50 (ASCE 7-05, updated to ASCE 7-16). This design wind speed is accepted by most building codes in the United States and often governs the lateral design of buildings and structures.
In Canada, reference wind pressures are used in design and are based on the "mean hourly" wind speed having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50. The reference wind pressure
q
{\displaystyle q}
is calculated using the following equation:
q
=
1
2
p
v
2
{\displaystyle q={\frac {1}{2}}pv^{2}}
where
p
{\displaystyle p}
is the air density and
v
{\displaystyle v}
is wind speed.
Historically, wind speeds have been reported with a variety of averaging times (such as fastest mile, 3-second gust, 1-minute and mean hourly) which designers may have to take into account. To convert wind speeds from one averaging time to another, the Durst Curve was developed which defines the relation between probable maximum wind speed averaged over t seconds, Vt, and mean wind speed over one hour V3600.
See also
American Society of Civil Engineers (promulgator of ASCE 7-05, current version is ASCE 7-16)
Beaufort scale
Fujita scale and Enhanced Fujita Scale
International Building Code (promulgator of NBC 2005)
ICAO recommendations – International System of Units
Knot (unit)
Prevailing wind
Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale
TORRO scale
Wind direction
References
^ Brun, P., Zimmermann, N.E., Hari, C., Pellissier, L., Karger, D.N. (preprint): Global climate-related predictors at kilometre resolution for the past and future. Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2022-212
^ Hogan, C. Michael (2010). "Abiotic factor". In Emily Monosson; C. Cleveland (eds.). Encyclopedia of Earth. Washington D.C.: National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from the original on 2013-06-08.
^ Windspeed | Icelandic Meteorological office "The Icelandic Meteorological Office now uses the SI (Systeme Internationale d'Unites) measurement metres per second (m/s) other Nordic meteorological institutes have used this system for years with satisfactory results"
^ International Civil Aviation Organization – International Standards and Recommended Practices – Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations – Annex 5 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation
^ Measuring Wind Speed in Knots "The reason why sea winds are measured in knots at all has to do with maritime tradition"
^ a b "Documentation and verification of the world extreme wind gust record: 113.3 m s–1 on Barrow Island, Australia, during passage of tropical cyclone Olivia" (PDF). Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Journal.
^ "World record wind gust". World Meteorological Association. 5 November 2015. Archived from the original on December 18, 2023. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
^ "The story of the world record wind". Mount Washington Observatory. Retrieved 26 January 2010.
^ "Massive Okla. tornado had windspeed up to 200 mph". CBS News. 20 May 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
^ Lyza, Anthony W.; Flournoy, Matthew D.; Alford, A. Addison (19 March 2024). "Comparison of Tornado Damage Characteristics to Low-Altitude WSR-88D Radar Observations and Implications for Tornado Intensity Estimation". Monthly Weather Review. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Oklahoma via the American Meteorological Society. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-23-0242.1. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
^ "Historical Tornadoes". National Weather Service.
^ a b "Highest surface wind speed-Tropical Cyclone Olivia sets world record". World Record Academy. 26 January 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
^ Wurman, Joshua (2007). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19.
^ "5400mph winds discovered hurtling around planet outside solar system". warwick.ac.uk. Retrieved 2020-08-08.
^ Koen, Joshua. "Make and Use an Anemometer to measure Wind Speed". www.ciese.org. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
^ Chris Woodford. Ultrasonic anemometers. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/anemometers.html
^ Kapartis, Savvas (1999) "Anemometer employing standing wave normal to fluid flow and travelling wave normal to standing wave" U.S. patent 5,877,416
^ "Wind and Structures". Korea Science (in Korean). Retrieved 2018-04-18.
^ NBC 2005 Structural Commentaries – Part 4 of Div. B, Comm. I
^ ASCE 7-05 commentary Figure C6-4, ASCE 7-10 C26.5-1
External links
Media related to Wind speed at Wikimedia Commons
Authority control databases: National
Germany
Israel
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The Rossby waves are themselves a different wind speed from what we experience in the lower troposphere.Local weather conditions play a key role in influencing wind speed, as the formation of hurricanes, monsoons and cyclones as freak weather conditions can drastically affect the flow velocity of the wind.[citation needed]","title":"Factors affecting wind speed"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Big_Wind_Anemometer.JPG"}],"text":"The original anemometer that measured The Big Wind in 1934 at Mount Washington Observatory","title":"Highest speed"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tornadoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado"},{"link_name":"Cyclone Olivia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone_Olivia"},{"link_name":"automatic weather station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_weather_station"},{"link_name":"Barrow Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrow_Island_(Western_Australia)"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"wind gust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_gust"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-courtney-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"mesovortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesovortex"},{"link_name":"eyewall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyewall"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-courtney-6"},{"link_name":"Mount Washington (New Hampshire)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Washington_(New_Hampshire)"},{"link_name":"hot-wire anemometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot-wire_anemometry"},{"link_name":"National Weather Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Weather_Service"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Non-tornadic","text":"The fastest wind speed not related to tornadoes ever recorded was during the passage of Tropical Cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996: an automatic weather station on Barrow Island, Australia, registered a maximum wind gust of 113.3 m/s (408 km/h; 253 mph; 220.2 kn; 372 ft/s)[6][7] The wind gust was evaluated by the WMO Evaluation Panel who found that the anemometer was mechanically sound and the gust was within statistical probability and ratified the measurement in 2010. The anemometer was mounted 10 m above ground level (and thus 64 m above sea level). During the cyclone, several extreme gusts of greater than 83 m/s (300 km/h; 190 mph; 161 kn; 270 ft/s) were recorded, with a maximum 5-minute mean speed of 49 m/s (180 km/h; 110 mph; 95 kn; 160 ft/s) the extreme gust factor was in the order of 2.27–2.75 times the mean wind speed. The pattern and scales of the gusts suggest that a mesovortex was embedded in the already strong eyewall of the cyclone.[6]Currently, the second-highest surface wind speed ever officially recorded is 103.266 m/s (371.76 km/h; 231.00 mph; 200.733 kn; 338.80 ft/s) at the Mount Washington (New Hampshire) Observatory 1,917 m (6,288 ft) above sea level in the US on 12 April 1934, using a hot-wire anemometer. The anemometer, specifically designed for use on Mount Washington was later tested by the US National Weather Bureau and confirmed to be accurate.[8]","title":"Highest speed"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tornadoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado"},{"link_name":"Doppler on Wheels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_on_Wheels"},{"link_name":"doppler radars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_radar"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"RaXPol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RaXPol"},{"link_name":"University of Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"2013 El Reno tornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_El_Reno_tornado"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2024RadarPaper-10"},{"link_name":"1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_Bridge_Creek%E2%80%93Moore_tornado"},{"link_name":"Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldrecordacademy-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Doppler weather radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_radar#Velocity"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldrecordacademy-12"},{"link_name":"exoplanets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoplanet"},{"link_name":"HD 189733b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_189733_b"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Tornadic","text":"Wind speeds within certain atmospheric phenomena (such as tornadoes) may greatly exceed these values but have never been accurately measured. Directly measuring these tornadic winds is rarely done as the violent wind would destroy the instruments. A method of estimating speed is to use Doppler on Wheels or mobile doppler radars to measure the wind speeds remotely.[9] Using this method, a mobile radar (RaXPol) owned and operated by the University of Oklahoma recorded winds up to 150 metres per second (340 mph; 540 km/h) inside the 2013 El Reno tornado, marking the fastest winds ever observed by radar in history.[10] In 1999, a mobile radar measured winds up to 135 m/s (490 km/h; 300 mph; 262 kn; 440 ft/s) during the 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado in Oklahoma on 3 May 1999,[11] although another figure of 142 m/s (510 km/h; 320 mph; 276 kn; 470 ft/s) has also been quoted for the same tornado.[12] Yet another number used by the Center for Severe Weather Research for that measurement is 135 ± 9 m/s (486 ± 32 km/h; 302 ± 20 mph; 262 ± 17 kn; 443 ± 30 ft/s).[13] However, speeds measured by Doppler weather radar are not considered official records.[12]Wind speeds can be much higher on exoplanets. Scientists at the University of Warwick in 2015 determined that HD 189733b had winds of 2,400 m/s (8,600 km/h; 4,700 kn). In a press release, the University announced that the methods used from measuring HD 189733b's wind speeds could be used to measure wind speeds on Earth-like exoplanets.[14]","title":"Highest speed"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anemometer-Animation.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FT742-DM_Acoustic_resonance_wind_sensor.jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"ultrasonic transducers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_transducers"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Pitot tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitot_tube"}],"text":"Modern day anemometer used to capture wind speed.FT742-DM acoustic resonance wind sensor, one of the instruments now used to measure wind speed at Mount Washington ObservatoryAn anemometer is one of the tools used to measure wind speed.[15] A device consisting of a vertical pillar and three or four concave cups, the anemometer captures the horizontal movement of air particles (wind speed).Unlike traditional cup and vane anemometers, ultrasonic wind sensors have no moving parts and are therefore used to measure wind speed in applications that require maintenance-free performance, such as on the top of wind turbines. As the name suggests, ultrasonic wind sensors measure the wind speed using high-frequency sound. An ultrasonic anemometer has two or three pairs of sound transmitters and receivers. Stand it in the wind and each transmitter constantly beams high-frequency sound to its respective receiver. Electronic circuits inside measure the time it takes for the sound to make its journey from each transmitter to the corresponding receiver. Depending on how the wind blows, it will affect some of the sound beams more than the others, slowing it down or speeding it up very slightly. The circuits measure the difference in speeds of the beams and use that to calculate how fast the wind is blowing.[16]Acoustic resonance wind sensors are a variant of the ultrasonic sensor. Instead of using time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic waves within a small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their wind speed measurement. Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave's property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction.[17]Another tool used to measure wind velocity includes a GPS combined with pitot tube.[citation needed] A fluid flow velocity tool, the Pitot tube is primarily used to determine the air velocity of an aircraft.","title":"Measurement"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anemometer_on_stage_set.JPG"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"wind pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_pressure"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Anemometer on an outdoor stage set, to measure wind speedWind speed is a common factor in the design of structures and buildings around the world. It is often the governing factor in the required lateral strength of a structure's design.In the United States, the wind speed used in design is often referred to as a \"3-second gust\" which is the highest sustained gust over a 3-second period having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50 (ASCE 7-05, updated to ASCE 7-16).[18] This design wind speed is accepted by most building codes in the United States and often governs the lateral design of buildings and structures.In Canada, reference wind pressures are used in design and are based on the \"mean hourly\" wind speed having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50. The reference wind pressure \n \n \n \n q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q}\n \n is calculated using the following equation: \n \n \n \n q\n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n p\n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle q={\\frac {1}{2}}pv^{2}}\n \n where \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n is the air density and \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}\n \n is wind speed.[19]Historically, wind speeds have been reported with a variety of averaging times (such as fastest mile, 3-second gust, 1-minute and mean hourly) which designers may have to take into account. To convert wind speeds from one averaging time to another, the Durst Curve was developed which defines the relation between probable maximum wind speed averaged over t seconds, Vt, and mean wind speed over one hour V3600.[20]","title":"Design of structures"}] | [{"image_text":"An anemometer is commonly used to measure wind speed.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Weather_Station_at_Feilding_Waste_Water_Treatment_Plant.JPG/240px-Weather_Station_at_Feilding_Waste_Water_Treatment_Plant.JPG"},{"image_text":"Global distribution of wind speed at 10m above ground averaged over the years 1981–2010 from the CHELSA-BIOCLIM+ data set[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Wind_wiki.png/220px-Wind_wiki.png"},{"image_text":"The original anemometer that measured The Big Wind in 1934 at Mount Washington Observatory","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/The_Big_Wind_Anemometer.JPG/170px-The_Big_Wind_Anemometer.JPG"},{"image_text":"Modern day anemometer used to capture wind speed.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Anemometer-Animation.gif/220px-Anemometer-Animation.gif"},{"image_text":"FT742-DM acoustic resonance wind sensor, one of the instruments now used to measure wind speed at Mount Washington Observatory","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FT742-DM_Acoustic_resonance_wind_sensor.jpg/220px-FT742-DM_Acoustic_resonance_wind_sensor.jpg"},{"image_text":"Anemometer on an outdoor stage set, to measure wind speed","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Anemometer_on_stage_set.JPG/220px-Anemometer_on_stage_set.JPG"}] | [{"title":"American Society of Civil Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineers"},{"title":"Beaufort scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_scale"},{"title":"Fujita scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujita_scale"},{"title":"Enhanced Fujita Scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Fujita_Scale"},{"title":"International Building Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Building_Code"},{"title":"ICAO recommendations – International System of Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization#Use_of_the_International_System_of_Units"},{"title":"Knot (unit)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knot_(unit)"},{"title":"Prevailing wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevailing_wind"},{"title":"Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffir%E2%80%93Simpson_Hurricane_Scale"},{"title":"TORRO scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TORRO_scale"},{"title":"Wind direction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_direction"}] | [{"reference":"Hogan, C. Michael (2010). \"Abiotic factor\". In Emily Monosson; C. Cleveland (eds.). Encyclopedia of Earth. Washington D.C.: National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from the original on 2013-06-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130608071757/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Abiotic_factor?topic=49461","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Earth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_for_Science_and_the_Environment","url_text":"National Council for Science and the Environment"},{"url":"http://www.eoearth.org/article/Abiotic_factor?topic=49461","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Documentation and verification of the world extreme wind gust record: 113.3 m s–1 on Barrow Island, Australia, during passage of tropical cyclone Olivia\" (PDF). Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Journal.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bom.gov.au/amoj/docs/2012/courtney_hres.pdf","url_text":"\"Documentation and verification of the world extreme wind gust record: 113.3 m s–1 on Barrow Island, Australia, during passage of tropical cyclone Olivia\""}]},{"reference":"\"World record wind gust\". World Meteorological Association. 5 November 2015. Archived from the original on December 18, 2023. Retrieved 12 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231218171508/https://public-old.wmo.int/en/media/news/new-world-record-wind-gust","url_text":"\"World record wind gust\""},{"url":"https://public-old.wmo.int/en/media/news/new-world-record-wind-gust","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The story of the world record wind\". Mount Washington Observatory. Retrieved 26 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mountwashington.org/about/visitor/recordwind.php","url_text":"\"The story of the world record wind\""}]},{"reference":"\"Massive Okla. tornado had windspeed up to 200 mph\". CBS News. 20 May 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cbsnews.com/news/massive-okla-tornado-had-windspeed-up-to-200-mph/","url_text":"\"Massive Okla. tornado had windspeed up to 200 mph\""}]},{"reference":"Lyza, Anthony W.; Flournoy, Matthew D.; Alford, A. Addison (19 March 2024). \"Comparison of Tornado Damage Characteristics to Low-Altitude WSR-88D Radar Observations and Implications for Tornado Intensity Estimation\". Monthly Weather Review. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Oklahoma via the American Meteorological Society. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-23-0242.1. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windlass | Windlass | ["1 Uses","2 Differential windlass","3 Spanish windlass","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Weightlifting device using pulleys
For the tool used to raise paddle gear on canal locks, see Lock (water transport) § Windlass ("lock key"). For the specific ship's windlass, see Anchor windlass.
Turnbridge windlass lifting road bridge over Huddersfield Broad Canal
Differential windlass
The windlass /ˈwɪndləs/ is an apparatus for moving heavy weights. Typically, a windlass consists of a horizontal cylinder (barrel), which is rotated by the turn of a crank or belt. A winch is affixed to one or both ends, and a cable or rope is wound around the winch, pulling a weight attached to the opposite end. The Greek scientist Archimedes was the inventor of the windlass. A surviving medieval windlass, dated to 1360-1400 is in the Church of St Mary and All Saints, Chesterfield. The oldest depiction of a windlass for raising water can be found in the Book of Agriculture published in 1313 by the Chinese official Wang Zhen of the Yuan Dynasty (fl. 1290–1333).
Uses
Vitruvius, a military engineer writing about 28 BC, defined a machine as "a combination of timber fastened together, chiefly efficacious in moving great weights." About a century later, Hero of Alexandria summarized the practice of his day by naming the "five simple machines" for "moving a given weight by a given force" as the lever, windlass, screw for power, wedge, and tackle block (pulley). Until nearly the end of the nineteenth century it was held that these "five mechanical powers" were the building blocks from which all more complex assemblages were constructed.'
During the Middle Ages the windlass was used to raise materials for the construction of buildings such as in Chesterfield's crooked spire church.
A windlass cocking mechanism on crossbows was used as early as 1215 in England, and most European crossbows had one by the Late Middle Ages.
Windlasses are sometimes used on boats to raise the anchor as an alternative to a vertical capstan (see anchor windlass).
The handle used to open locks on the UK's inland waterways is called a windlass.
Windlass can be used to raise water from a well. The oldest description of a well windlass, a rotating wooden rod installed across the mouth of a well, is found in Isidore of Seville's (c. 560–636) Origenes (XX, 15, 1–3).
Windlass have also been used in gold mining. A windlass would be constructed above a shaft which allowed heavy buckets to be hauled up to the surface. This process would be used until the shaft got below 40 metres deep when the windlass would be replaced by a 'whip' or a 'whim'.
Differential windlass
See also: Differential pulley
Comparison of a differential pulley or chain hoist (left) and a differential windlass or Chinese windlass (right). The rope of the windlass is depicted as spirals for clarity, but is more likely helices with axes perpendicular to the image.
In a differential windlass, also called a Chinese windlass, there are two coaxial drums of different radii r and r′. The rope is wound onto one drum while it unwinds from the other, with a movable pulley hanging in the bight between the drums. Since each turn of the crank raises the pulley and attached weight by only π(r − r′), very large mechanical advantages can be obtained.
Spanish windlass
2 Spanish Windlasses on a bunch of sticks, in the starting position and tightened.A Spanish windlass is a device for tightening a rope or cable by twisting it using a stick as a lever. The rope or cable is looped around two points so that it is fixed at either end. The stick is inserted into the loop and twisted, tightening the rope and pulling the two points toward each other. It is commonly used to move a heavy object such as a pipe or a post a short distance. It can be an effective device for pulling cars or cattle out of mud. A Spanish windlass is sometimes used to tighten a tourniquet or a straitjacket. A Spanish windlass trap can be used to kill small game. An 1898 report to the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations about an American vessel captured by a Spanish gunboat described the Spanish windlass as a torture device. One of the captives' wrists were tied together. The captor then twisted a stick in the rope until it tightened and caused the man's wrists to swell.
See also
Differential pulley
Hoist (device)
References
^ Sarton, George (1959). A History of Science. Vol. 2. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. p. 123. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ "BBC - A History of the World - Object : Medieval Builders' Windlass". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2 June 2024.
^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 4, Physics and Physical Technology. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ Hartenberg, Richard; Danavit, Jacques (1964). "Kinematic Synthesis of linkages". McGraw-Hill.
^ "Medieval Builders' Windlass". BBC. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
^ "Engineering the Medieval Achievement-The Crossbow". MIT. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
^ Oleson, John Peter (1984), Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-lifting Devices. The History of a Technology, Dordrecht: D. Reidel, p. 56, ISBN 90-277-1693-5
^ "Albert Goldfields Mining Heritage" (PDF). Outback NSW. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
^ "Searching for Gold". Kidcyber. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
^ "Chinese". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) (registration required)
^ Morris, Christopher, ed. (1992), Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology, Gulf Professional Publishing, p. 416, ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1
^ Knight, Edward H. (1884), The Practical Dictionary of Mechanics, Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co "Chinese-windlass, a differential windlass in which the cord winds off one part of the barrel and on to the other."
^ Jordan-Bychkov, Terry G. (2006). "Does the Border Matter: Cattle Ranching and the Forty-ninth parallel". In Evans, Sterling (ed.). The Borderlands of the American and Canadian West. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803218260.
^ Davis, Cushman K. (1897). Report of the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Windlasses.
Look up windlass in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Spanish windlass
Authority control databases
NARA | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lock (water transport) § Windlass (\"lock key\")","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)#Windlass_(%22lock_key%22)"},{"link_name":"Anchor windlass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchor_windlass"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turnbridge_Liftbridge_RLH.jpg"},{"link_name":"Turnbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnbridge"},{"link_name":"Huddersfield Broad Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huddersfield_Broad_Canal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:L-differentialwinde.png"},{"link_name":"/ˈwɪndləs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"winch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winch"},{"link_name":"Archimedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Church of St Mary and All Saints, Chesterfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St_Mary_and_All_Saints,_Chesterfield"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Wang Zhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(inventor)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"For the tool used to raise paddle gear on canal locks, see Lock (water transport) § Windlass (\"lock key\"). For the specific ship's windlass, see Anchor windlass.Turnbridge windlass lifting road bridge over Huddersfield Broad CanalDifferential windlassThe windlass /ˈwɪndləs/ is an apparatus for moving heavy weights. Typically, a windlass consists of a horizontal cylinder (barrel), which is rotated by the turn of a crank or belt. A winch is affixed to one or both ends, and a cable or rope is wound around the winch, pulling a weight attached to the opposite end. The Greek scientist Archimedes was the inventor of the windlass.[1] A surviving medieval windlass, dated to 1360-1400 is in the Church of St Mary and All Saints, Chesterfield.[2] The oldest depiction of a windlass for raising water can be found in the Book of Agriculture published in 1313 by the Chinese official Wang Zhen of the Yuan Dynasty (fl. 1290–1333).[3]","title":"Windlass"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vitruvius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius"},{"link_name":"Hero of Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria"},{"link_name":"simple machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machine"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Chesterfield's crooked spire church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St_Mary_and_All_Saints,_Chesterfield"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"crossbows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbow"},{"link_name":"Late Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"anchor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchor"},{"link_name":"capstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capstan_(nautical)"},{"link_name":"anchor windlass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchor_windlass"},{"link_name":"locks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)"},{"link_name":"inland waterways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canals_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"well","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_well"},{"link_name":"well","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_well"},{"link_name":"Isidore of Seville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"gold mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_mining"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"'whim'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whim_(mining)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Vitruvius, a military engineer writing about 28 BC, defined a machine as \"a combination of timber fastened together, chiefly efficacious in moving great weights.\" About a century later, Hero of Alexandria summarized the practice of his day by naming the \"five simple machines\" for \"moving a given weight by a given force\" as the lever, windlass, screw for power, wedge, and tackle block (pulley). Until nearly the end of the nineteenth century it was held that these \"five mechanical powers\" were the building blocks from which all more complex assemblages were constructed.' [4]\nDuring the Middle Ages the windlass was used to raise materials for the construction of buildings such as in Chesterfield's crooked spire church.[5]\nA windlass cocking mechanism on crossbows was used as early as 1215 in England, and most European crossbows had one by the Late Middle Ages.[6]\nWindlasses are sometimes used on boats to raise the anchor as an alternative to a vertical capstan (see anchor windlass).\nThe handle used to open locks on the UK's inland waterways is called a windlass.\nWindlass can be used to raise water from a well. The oldest description of a well windlass, a rotating wooden rod installed across the mouth of a well, is found in Isidore of Seville's (c. 560–636) Origenes (XX, 15, 1–3).[7]\nWindlass have also been used in gold mining. A windlass would be constructed above a shaft which allowed heavy buckets to be hauled up to the surface.[8] This process would be used until the shaft got below 40 metres deep when the windlass would be replaced by a 'whip' or a 'whim'.[9]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Differential pulley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_pulley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comparison_differential_pulley_windlass.svg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chinese_windlass_OED-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morris-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Knight-12"},{"link_name":"movable pulley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_pulley"},{"link_name":"bight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bight_(knot)"},{"link_name":"mechanical advantages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_advantage"}],"text":"See also: Differential pulleyComparison of a differential pulley or chain hoist (left) and a differential windlass or Chinese windlass (right). The rope of the windlass is depicted as spirals for clarity, but is more likely helices with axes perpendicular to the image.In a differential windlass, also called a Chinese windlass,[10][11][12] there are two coaxial drums of different radii r and r′. The rope is wound onto one drum while it unwinds from the other, with a movable pulley hanging in the bight between the drums. Since each turn of the crank raises the pulley and attached weight by only π(r − r′), very large mechanical advantages can be obtained.","title":"Differential windlass"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpanishWindlass2stick.jpg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-torture-13"},{"link_name":"tourniquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourniquet"},{"link_name":"straitjacket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straitjacket"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-senate-14"}],"text":"2 Spanish Windlasses on a bunch of sticks, in the starting position and tightened.A Spanish windlass is a device for tightening a rope or cable by twisting it using a stick as a lever. The rope or cable is looped around two points so that it is fixed at either end. The stick is inserted into the loop and twisted, tightening the rope and pulling the two points toward each other. It is commonly used to move a heavy object such as a pipe or a post a short distance. It can be an effective device for pulling cars or cattle out of mud.[13] A Spanish windlass is sometimes used to tighten a tourniquet or a straitjacket. A Spanish windlass trap can be used to kill small game. An 1898 report to the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations about an American vessel captured by a Spanish gunboat described the Spanish windlass as a torture device.[14] One of the captives' wrists were tied together. The captor then twisted a stick in the rope until it tightened and caused the man's wrists to swell.","title":"Spanish windlass"}] | [{"image_text":"Turnbridge windlass lifting road bridge over Huddersfield Broad Canal","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Turnbridge_Liftbridge_RLH.jpg/220px-Turnbridge_Liftbridge_RLH.jpg"},{"image_text":"Differential windlass","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/L-differentialwinde.png/200px-L-differentialwinde.png"},{"image_text":"Comparison of a differential pulley or chain hoist (left) and a differential windlass or Chinese windlass (right). The rope of the windlass is depicted as spirals for clarity, but is more likely helices with axes perpendicular to the image.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Comparison_differential_pulley_windlass.svg/220px-Comparison_differential_pulley_windlass.svg.png"},{"image_text":"2 Spanish Windlasses on a bunch of sticks, in the starting position and tightened.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/SpanishWindlass2stick.jpg/220px-SpanishWindlass2stick.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Differential pulley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_pulley"},{"title":"Hoist (device)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoist_(device)"}] | [{"reference":"Sarton, George (1959). A History of Science. Vol. 2. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. p. 123.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Sarton","url_text":"Sarton, George"}]},{"reference":"\"BBC - A History of the World - Object : Medieval Builders' Windlass\". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/pB9o-yDFQPm4ZiMXxjZfQA","url_text":"\"BBC - A History of the World - Object : Medieval Builders' Windlass\""}]},{"reference":"Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 4, Physics and Physical Technology. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Needham","url_text":"Needham, Joseph"}]},{"reference":"Hartenberg, Richard; Danavit, Jacques (1964). \"Kinematic Synthesis of linkages\". McGraw-Hill.","urls":[{"url":"http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=kmoddl;cc=kmoddl;view=toc;subview=short;idno=kmod013","url_text":"\"Kinematic Synthesis of linkages\""}]},{"reference":"\"Medieval Builders' Windlass\". BBC. Retrieved September 11, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/pB9o-yDFQPm4ZiMXxjZfQA","url_text":"\"Medieval Builders' Windlass\""}]},{"reference":"\"Engineering the Medieval Achievement-The Crossbow\". MIT. Retrieved September 11, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/21h.416/www/militarytechnology/crossbow.html","url_text":"\"Engineering the Medieval Achievement-The Crossbow\""}]},{"reference":"Oleson, John Peter (1984), Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-lifting Devices. The History of a Technology, Dordrecht: D. Reidel, p. 56, ISBN 90-277-1693-5","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson","url_text":"Oleson, John Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-277-1693-5","url_text":"90-277-1693-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Albert Goldfields Mining Heritage\" (PDF). Outback NSW. Retrieved September 11, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://outbacknsw.com.au/mining%20brief%20history.pdf","url_text":"\"Albert Goldfields Mining Heritage\""}]},{"reference":"\"Searching for Gold\". Kidcyber. Retrieved September 11, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/goldsearch.htm","url_text":"\"Searching for Gold\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chinese\". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Chinese","url_text":"\"Chinese\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary","url_text":"Oxford English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"}]},{"reference":"Morris, Christopher, ed. (1992), Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology, Gulf Professional Publishing, p. 416, ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-200400-1","url_text":"978-0-12-200400-1"}]},{"reference":"Knight, Edward H. (1884), The Practical Dictionary of Mechanics, Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassell,_Petter,_Galpin_%26_Co","url_text":"Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co"}]},{"reference":"Jordan-Bychkov, Terry G. (2006). \"Does the Border Matter: Cattle Ranching and the Forty-ninth parallel\". In Evans, Sterling (ed.). The Borderlands of the American and Canadian West. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803218260.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/borderlandsofame00ster","url_text":"The Borderlands of the American and Canadian West"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803218260","url_text":"9780803218260"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Cushman K. (1897). Report of the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/pB9o-yDFQPm4ZiMXxjZfQA","external_links_name":"\"BBC - A History of the World - Object : Medieval Builders' Windlass\""},{"Link":"http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=kmoddl;cc=kmoddl;view=toc;subview=short;idno=kmod013","external_links_name":"\"Kinematic Synthesis of linkages\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/pB9o-yDFQPm4ZiMXxjZfQA","external_links_name":"\"Medieval Builders' Windlass\""},{"Link":"http://web.mit.edu/21h.416/www/militarytechnology/crossbow.html","external_links_name":"\"Engineering the Medieval Achievement-The Crossbow\""},{"Link":"http://outbacknsw.com.au/mining%20brief%20history.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Albert Goldfields Mining Heritage\""},{"Link":"http://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/goldsearch.htm","external_links_name":"\"Searching for Gold\""},{"Link":"https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Chinese","external_links_name":"\"Chinese\""},{"Link":"https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary","external_links_name":"participating institution membership"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/borderlandsofame00ster","external_links_name":"The Borderlands of the American and Canadian West"},{"Link":"http://www.inquiry.net/OUTDOOR/skills/b-p/windlass.htm","external_links_name":"Spanish windlass"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10675303","external_links_name":"NARA"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-degree | Directed graph | ["1 Definition","2 Types of directed graphs","2.1 Subclasses","2.2 Digraphs with supplementary properties","3 Basic terminology","4 Indegree and outdegree","5 Degree sequence","6 Directed graph connectivity","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 External links"] | Graph with oriented edges
A simple directed graph
In mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a directed graph (or digraph) is a graph that is made up of a set of vertices connected by directed edges, often called arcs.
Definition
In formal terms, a directed graph is an ordered pair G = (V, A) where
V is a set whose elements are called vertices, nodes, or points;
A is a set of ordered pairs of vertices, called arcs, directed edges (sometimes simply edges with the corresponding set named E instead of A), arrows, or directed lines.
It differs from an ordinary or undirected graph, in that the latter is defined in terms of unordered pairs of vertices, which are usually called edges, links or lines.
The aforementioned definition does not allow a directed graph to have multiple arrows with the same source and target nodes, but some authors consider a broader definition that allows directed graphs to have such multiple arcs (namely, they allow the arc set to be a multiset). Sometimes these entities are called directed multigraphs (or multidigraphs).
On the other hand, the aforementioned definition allows a directed graph to have loops (that is, arcs that directly connect nodes with themselves), but some authors consider a narrower definition that does not allow directed graphs to have loops.
Directed graphs without loops may be called simple directed graphs, while directed graphs with loops may be called loop-digraphs (see section Types of directed graph).
Types of directed graphs
See also: Graph (discrete mathematics) § Types of graphs
Subclasses
A simple directed acyclic graph
A tournament on 4 vertices
Symmetric directed graphs are directed graphs where all edges appear twice, one in each direction (that is, for every arrow that belongs to the digraph, the corresponding inverse arrow also belongs to it). (Such an edge is sometimes called "bidirected" and such graphs are sometimes called "bidirected", but this conflicts with the meaning for bidirected graphs.)
Simple directed graphs are directed graphs that have no loops (arrows that directly connect vertices to themselves) and no multiple arrows with same source and target nodes. As already introduced, in case of multiple arrows the entity is usually addressed as directed multigraph. Some authors describe digraphs with loops as loop-digraphs.
Complete directed graphs are simple directed graphs where each pair of vertices is joined by a symmetric pair of directed arcs (it is equivalent to an undirected complete graph with the edges replaced by pairs of inverse arcs). It follows that a complete digraph is symmetric.
Semicomplete multipartite digraphs are simple digraphs in which the vertex set is partitioned into sets such that for every pair of vertices x and y in different sets, there is an arc between x and y. There can be one arc between x and y or two arcs in opposite directions.
Semicomplete digraphs are simple digraphs where there is an arc between each pair of vertices. Every semicomplete digraph is a semicomplete multipartite digraph in a trivial way, with each vertex constituting a set of the partition.
Quasi-transitive digraphs are simple digraphs where for every triple x, y, z of distinct vertices with arcs from x to y and from y to z, there is an arc between x and z. There can be just one arc between x and z or two arcs in opposite directions. A semicomplete digraph is a quasi-transitive digraph. There are extensions of quasi-transitive digraphs called k-quasi-transitive digraphs.
Oriented graphs are directed graphs having no opposite pairs of directed edges (i.e. at most one of (x, y) and (y, x) may be arrows of the graph). It follows that a directed graph is an oriented graph if and only if it has no 2-cycle. (This is not the only meaning of "oriented graph"; see Orientation (graph theory).)
Tournaments are oriented graphs obtained by choosing a direction for each edge in undirected complete graphs. A tournament is a semicomplete digraph.
A directed graph is acyclic if it has no directed cycles. The usual name for such a digraph is directed acyclic graph (DAG).
Multitrees are DAGs in which there are no two distinct directed paths from the same starting vertex to the same ending vertex.
Oriented trees or polytrees are DAGs formed by orienting the edges of trees (connected, acyclic undirected graphs).
Rooted trees are oriented trees in which all edges of the underlying undirected tree are directed either away from or towards the root (they are called, respectively, arborescences or out-trees, and in-trees.
Digraphs with supplementary properties
Weighted directed graphs (also known as directed networks) are (simple) directed graphs with weights assigned to their arrows, similarly to weighted graphs (which are also known as undirected networks or weighted networks).
Flow networks are weighted directed graphs where two nodes are distinguished, a source and a sink.
Rooted directed graphs (also known as flow graphs) are digraphs in which a vertex has been distinguished as the root.
Control-flow graphs are rooted digraphs used in computer science as a representation of the paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution.
Signal-flow graphs are directed graphs in which nodes represent system variables and branches (edges, arcs, or arrows) represent functional connections between pairs of nodes.
Flow graphs are digraphs associated with a set of linear algebraic or differential equations.
State diagrams are directed multigraphs that represent finite state machines.
Commutative diagrams are digraphs used in category theory, where the vertices represent (mathematical) objects and the arrows represent morphisms, with the property that all directed paths with the same start and endpoints lead to the same result by composition.
In the theory of Lie groups, a quiver Q is a directed graph serving as the domain of, and thus characterizing the shape of, a representation V defined as a functor, specifically an object of the functor category FinVctKF(Q) where F(Q) is the free category on Q consisting of paths in Q and FinVctK is the category of finite-dimensional vector spaces over a field K. Representations of a quiver label its vertices with vector spaces and its edges (and hence paths) compatibly with linear transformations between them, and transform via natural transformations.
Basic terminology
Oriented graph with corresponding incidence matrix
An arc (x, y) is considered to be directed from x to y; y is called the head and x is called the tail of the arc; y is said to be a direct successor of x and x is said to be a direct predecessor of y. If a path leads from x to y, then y is said to be a successor of x and reachable from x, and x is said to be a predecessor of y. The arc (y, x) is called the reversed arc of (x, y).
The adjacency matrix of a multidigraph with loops is the integer-valued matrix with rows and columns corresponding to the vertices, where a nondiagonal entry aij is the number of arcs from vertex i to vertex j, and the diagonal entry aii is the number of loops at vertex i. The adjacency matrix of a directed graph is a logical matrix, and is
unique up to permutation of rows and columns.
Another matrix representation for a directed graph is its incidence matrix.
See direction for more definitions.
Indegree and outdegree
A directed graph with vertices labeled (indegree, outdegree)
For a vertex, the number of head ends adjacent to a vertex is called the indegree of the vertex and the number of tail ends adjacent to a vertex is its outdegree (called branching factor in trees).
Let G = (V, E) and v ∈ V. The indegree of v is denoted deg−(v) and its outdegree is denoted deg+(v).
A vertex with deg−(v) = 0 is called a source, as it is the origin of each of its outcoming arcs. Similarly, a vertex with deg+(v) = 0 is called a sink, since it is the end of each of its incoming arcs.
The degree sum formula states that, for a directed graph,
∑
v
∈
V
deg
−
(
v
)
=
∑
v
∈
V
deg
+
(
v
)
=
|
E
|
.
{\displaystyle \sum _{v\in V}\deg ^{-}(v)=\sum _{v\in V}\deg ^{+}(v)=|E|.}
If for every vertex v ∈ V, deg+(v) = deg−(v), the graph is called a balanced directed graph.
Degree sequence
The degree sequence of a directed graph is the list of its indegree and outdegree pairs; for the above example we have degree sequence ((2, 0), (2, 2), (0, 2), (1, 1)). The degree sequence is a directed graph invariant so isomorphic directed graphs have the same degree sequence. However, the degree sequence does not, in general, uniquely identify a directed graph; in some cases, non-isomorphic digraphs have the same degree sequence.
The directed graph realization problem is the problem of finding a directed graph with the degree sequence a given sequence of positive integer pairs. (Trailing pairs of zeros may be ignored since they are trivially realized by adding an appropriate number of isolated vertices to the directed graph.) A sequence which is the degree sequence of some directed graph, i.e. for which the directed graph realization problem has a solution, is called a directed graphic or directed graphical sequence. This problem can either be solved by the Kleitman–Wang algorithm or by the Fulkerson–Chen–Anstee theorem.
Directed graph connectivity
Main article: Connectivity (graph theory)
A directed graph is weakly connected (or just connected) if the undirected underlying graph obtained by replacing all directed edges of the graph with undirected edges is a connected graph.
A directed graph is strongly connected or strong if it contains a directed path from x to y (and from y to x) for every pair of vertices (x, y). The strong components are the maximal strongly connected subgraphs.
A connected rooted graph (or flow graph) is one where there exists a directed path to every vertex from a distinguished root vertex.
See also
Binary relation
Coates graph
Directed Graph Markup Language
DRAKON flowchart
Flow chart
Globular set
Glossary of graph theory
Graph Style Sheets
Graph theory
Graph (abstract data type)
Network theory
Orientation
Preorder
Topological sorting
Transpose graph
Vertical constraint graph
Notes
^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2000). Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 1.Diestel (2005), Section 1.10. Bondy & Murty (1976), Section 10.
^ a b c Chartrand, Gary (1977). Introductory Graph Theory. Courier Corporation. ISBN 9780486247755. Archived from the original on 2023-02-04. Retrieved 2020-10-02.
^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 7 by Yeo.
^ a b Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 2 by Bang-Jensen and Havet.
^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 8 by Galeana-Sanchez and Hernandez-Cruz.
^ Diestel (2005), Section 1.10.
^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 3 by Gutin.
^ Satyanarayana, Bhavanari; Prasad, Kuncham Syam, Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., p. 460, ISBN 978-81-203-3842-5; Brualdi, Richard A. (2006), Combinatorial Matrix Classes, Encyclopedia of Mathematics and Its Applications, vol. 108, Cambridge University Press, p. 51, ISBN 978-0-521-86565-4.
^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2000) p. 19 in the 2007 edition; p. 20 in the 2nd edition (2009).
References
Bang-Jensen, Jørgen; Gutin, Gregory (2000), Digraphs: Theory, Algorithms and Applications, Springer, ISBN 1-85233-268-9(the corrected 1st edition of 2007 is now freely available on the authors' site; the 2nd edition appeared in 2009 ISBN 1-84800-997-6).
Bang-Jensen, Jørgen; Gutin, Gregory (2018), Classes of Directed Graphs, Springer, ISBN 978-3319718408.
Bondy, John Adrian; Murty, U. S. R. (1976), Graph Theory with Applications, North-Holland, ISBN 0-444-19451-7.
Diestel, Reinhard (2005), Graph Theory (3rd ed.), Springer, ISBN 3-540-26182-6 (the electronic 3rd edition is freely available on author's site).
Harary, Frank; Norman, Robert Z.; Cartwright, Dorwin (1965), Structural Models: An Introduction to the Theory of Directed Graphs, New York: Wiley.
Number of directed graphs (or directed graphs) with n nodes from On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Directed graphs.
Authority control databases: National
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Israel
United States
Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Directed_graph_no_background.svg"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)"},{"link_name":"vertices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"edges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(graph_theory)"}],"text":"A simple directed graphIn mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a directed graph (or digraph) is a graph that is made up of a set of vertices connected by directed edges, often called arcs.","title":"Directed graph"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Element_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"vertices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"ordered pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_pair"},{"link_name":"undirected graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undirected_graph"},{"link_name":"unordered pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unordered_pair"},{"link_name":"multiset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset"},{"link_name":"directed multigraphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_multigraph"},{"link_name":"loops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chartrand-2"},{"link_name":"Types of directed graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Types_of_directed_graphs"}],"text":"In formal terms, a directed graph is an ordered pair G = (V, A) where[1]V is a set whose elements are called vertices, nodes, or points;\nA is a set of ordered pairs of vertices, called arcs, directed edges (sometimes simply edges with the corresponding set named E instead of A), arrows, or directed lines.It differs from an ordinary or undirected graph, in that the latter is defined in terms of unordered pairs of vertices, which are usually called edges, links or lines.The aforementioned definition does not allow a directed graph to have multiple arrows with the same source and target nodes, but some authors consider a broader definition that allows directed graphs to have such multiple arcs (namely, they allow the arc set to be a multiset). Sometimes these entities are called directed multigraphs (or multidigraphs).\nOn the other hand, the aforementioned definition allows a directed graph to have loops (that is, arcs that directly connect nodes with themselves), but some authors consider a narrower definition that does not allow directed graphs to have loops.[2]\nDirected graphs without loops may be called simple directed graphs, while directed graphs with loops may be called loop-digraphs (see section Types of directed graph).","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Graph (discrete mathematics) § Types of graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)#Types_of_graphs"}],"text":"See also: Graph (discrete mathematics) § Types of graphs","title":"Types of directed graphs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Directed_acyclic_graph_2.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4-tournament.svg"},{"link_name":"bidirected graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidirected_graph"},{"link_name":"loops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"directed multigraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_multigraph"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chartrand-2"},{"link_name":"complete graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_graph"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bang-Jensen_2018-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Oriented graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriented_graph"},{"link_name":"2-cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_cycle"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Orientation (graph theory)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientation_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"Tournaments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournament_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"complete graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_graph"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bang-Jensen_2018-4"},{"link_name":"directed cycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_cycle"},{"link_name":"directed acyclic graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_acyclic_graph"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Multitrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitree"},{"link_name":"Oriented trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriented_tree"},{"link_name":"Rooted trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooted_tree"}],"sub_title":"Subclasses","text":"A simple directed acyclic graphA tournament on 4 verticesSymmetric directed graphs are directed graphs where all edges appear twice, one in each direction (that is, for every arrow that belongs to the digraph, the corresponding inverse arrow also belongs to it). (Such an edge is sometimes called \"bidirected\" and such graphs are sometimes called \"bidirected\", but this conflicts with the meaning for bidirected graphs.)\nSimple directed graphs are directed graphs that have no loops (arrows that directly connect vertices to themselves) and no multiple arrows with same source and target nodes. As already introduced, in case of multiple arrows the entity is usually addressed as directed multigraph. Some authors describe digraphs with loops as loop-digraphs.[2]\nComplete directed graphs are simple directed graphs where each pair of vertices is joined by a symmetric pair of directed arcs (it is equivalent to an undirected complete graph with the edges replaced by pairs of inverse arcs). It follows that a complete digraph is symmetric.\nSemicomplete multipartite digraphs are simple digraphs in which the vertex set is partitioned into sets such that for every pair of vertices x and y in different sets, there is an arc between x and y. There can be one arc between x and y or two arcs in opposite directions.[3]\nSemicomplete digraphs are simple digraphs where there is an arc between each pair of vertices. Every semicomplete digraph is a semicomplete multipartite digraph in a trivial way, with each vertex constituting a set of the partition.[4]\nQuasi-transitive digraphs are simple digraphs where for every triple x, y, z of distinct vertices with arcs from x to y and from y to z, there is an arc between x and z. There can be just one arc between x and z or two arcs in opposite directions. A semicomplete digraph is a quasi-transitive digraph. There are extensions of quasi-transitive digraphs called k-quasi-transitive digraphs.[5]\nOriented graphs are directed graphs having no opposite pairs of directed edges (i.e. at most one of (x, y) and (y, x) may be arrows of the graph). It follows that a directed graph is an oriented graph if and only if it has no 2-cycle.[6] (This is not the only meaning of \"oriented graph\"; see Orientation (graph theory).)\nTournaments are oriented graphs obtained by choosing a direction for each edge in undirected complete graphs. A tournament is a semicomplete digraph.[4]\nA directed graph is acyclic if it has no directed cycles. The usual name for such a digraph is directed acyclic graph (DAG).[7]\nMultitrees are DAGs in which there are no two distinct directed paths from the same starting vertex to the same ending vertex.\nOriented trees or polytrees are DAGs formed by orienting the edges of trees (connected, acyclic undirected graphs).\nRooted trees are oriented trees in which all edges of the underlying undirected tree are directed either away from or towards the root (they are called, respectively, arborescences or out-trees, and in-trees.","title":"Types of directed graphs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"weighted graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_graph"},{"link_name":"weighted networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_network"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chartrand-2"},{"link_name":"Flow networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_network"},{"link_name":"Rooted directed graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooted_graph"},{"link_name":"Control-flow graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control-flow_graph"},{"link_name":"Signal-flow graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-flow_graph"},{"link_name":"Flow graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_graph_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"State diagrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram"},{"link_name":"directed multigraphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_multigraph"},{"link_name":"finite state machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_state_machine"},{"link_name":"Commutative diagrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_diagram"},{"link_name":"category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"Lie groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_group"},{"link_name":"quiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiver_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"functor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functor"},{"link_name":"functor category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functor_category"},{"link_name":"free category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_category"},{"link_name":"vector spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"linear transformations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map"},{"link_name":"natural transformations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_transformation"}],"sub_title":"Digraphs with supplementary properties","text":"Weighted directed graphs (also known as directed networks) are (simple) directed graphs with weights assigned to their arrows, similarly to weighted graphs (which are also known as undirected networks or weighted networks).[2]\nFlow networks are weighted directed graphs where two nodes are distinguished, a source and a sink.\nRooted directed graphs (also known as flow graphs) are digraphs in which a vertex has been distinguished as the root.\nControl-flow graphs are rooted digraphs used in computer science as a representation of the paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution.\nSignal-flow graphs are directed graphs in which nodes represent system variables and branches (edges, arcs, or arrows) represent functional connections between pairs of nodes.\nFlow graphs are digraphs associated with a set of linear algebraic or differential equations.\nState diagrams are directed multigraphs that represent finite state machines.\nCommutative diagrams are digraphs used in category theory, where the vertices represent (mathematical) objects and the arrows represent morphisms, with the property that all directed paths with the same start and endpoints lead to the same result by composition.\nIn the theory of Lie groups, a quiver Q is a directed graph serving as the domain of, and thus characterizing the shape of, a representation V defined as a functor, specifically an object of the functor category FinVctKF(Q) where F(Q) is the free category on Q consisting of paths in Q and FinVctK is the category of finite-dimensional vector spaces over a field K. Representations of a quiver label its vertices with vector spaces and its edges (and hence paths) compatibly with linear transformations between them, and transform via natural transformations.","title":"Types of directed graphs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Incidence_matrix_-_directed_graph.svg"},{"link_name":"path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"adjacency matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency_matrix"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"logical matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_matrix"},{"link_name":"incidence matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_matrix"},{"link_name":"direction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_graph_theory#direction"}],"text":"Oriented graph with corresponding incidence matrixAn arc (x, y) is considered to be directed from x to y; y is called the head and x is called the tail of the arc; y is said to be a direct successor of x and x is said to be a direct predecessor of y. If a path leads from x to y, then y is said to be a successor of x and reachable from x, and x is said to be a predecessor of y. The arc (y, x) is called the reversed arc of (x, y).The adjacency matrix of a multidigraph with loops is the integer-valued matrix with rows and columns corresponding to the vertices, where a nondiagonal entry aij is the number of arcs from vertex i to vertex j, and the diagonal entry aii is the number of loops at vertex i. The adjacency matrix of a directed graph is a logical matrix, and is\nunique up to permutation of rows and columns.Another matrix representation for a directed graph is its incidence matrix.See direction for more definitions.","title":"Basic terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DirectedDegrees.svg"},{"link_name":"branching factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branching_factor"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"A directed graph with vertices labeled (indegree, outdegree)For a vertex, the number of head ends adjacent to a vertex is called the indegree of the vertex and the number of tail ends adjacent to a vertex is its outdegree (called branching factor in trees).Let G = (V, E) and v ∈ V. The indegree of v is denoted deg−(v) and its outdegree is denoted deg+(v).A vertex with deg−(v) = 0 is called a source, as it is the origin of each of its outcoming arcs. Similarly, a vertex with deg+(v) = 0 is called a sink, since it is the end of each of its incoming arcs.The degree sum formula states that, for a directed graph,∑\n \n v\n ∈\n V\n \n \n \n deg\n \n −\n \n \n \n (\n v\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n v\n ∈\n V\n \n \n \n deg\n \n +\n \n \n \n (\n v\n )\n =\n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{v\\in V}\\deg ^{-}(v)=\\sum _{v\\in V}\\deg ^{+}(v)=|E|.}If for every vertex v ∈ V, deg+(v) = deg−(v), the graph is called a balanced directed graph.[8]","title":"Indegree and outdegree"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"directed graph realization problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digraph_realization_problem"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"Kleitman–Wang algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleitman%E2%80%93Wang_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Fulkerson–Chen–Anstee theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulkerson%E2%80%93Chen%E2%80%93Anstee_theorem"}],"text":"The degree sequence of a directed graph is the list of its indegree and outdegree pairs; for the above example we have degree sequence ((2, 0), (2, 2), (0, 2), (1, 1)). The degree sequence is a directed graph invariant so isomorphic directed graphs have the same degree sequence. However, the degree sequence does not, in general, uniquely identify a directed graph; in some cases, non-isomorphic digraphs have the same degree sequence.The directed graph realization problem is the problem of finding a directed graph with the degree sequence a given sequence of positive integer pairs. (Trailing pairs of zeros may be ignored since they are trivially realized by adding an appropriate number of isolated vertices to the directed graph.) A sequence which is the degree sequence of some directed graph, i.e. for which the directed graph realization problem has a solution, is called a directed graphic or directed graphical sequence. This problem can either be solved by the Kleitman–Wang algorithm or by the Fulkerson–Chen–Anstee theorem.","title":"Degree sequence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"connected graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivity_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"strongly connected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongly_connected"},{"link_name":"rooted graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooted_graph"}],"text":"A directed graph is weakly connected (or just connected[9]) if the undirected underlying graph obtained by replacing all directed edges of the graph with undirected edges is a connected graph.A directed graph is strongly connected or strong if it contains a directed path from x to y (and from y to x) for every pair of vertices (x, y). The strong components are the maximal strongly connected subgraphs.A connected rooted graph (or flow graph) is one where there exists a directed path to every vertex from a distinguished root vertex.","title":"Directed graph connectivity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2000)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBang-JensenGutin2000"},{"link_name":"Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBang-JensenGutin2018"},{"link_name":"Diestel (2005)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDiestel2005"},{"link_name":"Bondy & Murty (1976)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBondyMurty1976"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Chartrand_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Chartrand_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Chartrand_2-2"},{"link_name":"Introductory Graph Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=rYuToT7vHbMC&q=Introductory%20Graph%20Theory&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780486247755","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486247755"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20230204155556/https://books.google.com/books?id=rYuToT7vHbMC&q=Introductory%20Graph%20Theory&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBang-JensenGutin2018"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Bang-Jensen_2018_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Bang-Jensen_2018_4-1"},{"link_name":"Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBang-JensenGutin2018"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBang-JensenGutin2018"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Diestel (2005)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDiestel2005"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBang-JensenGutin2018"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-81-203-3842-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-203-3842-5"},{"link_name":"Combinatorial Matrix Classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/combinatorialmat0000brua/page/51"},{"link_name":"51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/combinatorialmat0000brua/page/51"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-86565-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86565-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2000)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBang-JensenGutin2000"}],"text":"^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2000). Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 1.Diestel (2005), Section 1.10. Bondy & Murty (1976), Section 10.\n\n^ a b c Chartrand, Gary (1977). Introductory Graph Theory. Courier Corporation. ISBN 9780486247755. Archived from the original on 2023-02-04. Retrieved 2020-10-02.\n\n^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 7 by Yeo.\n\n^ a b Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 2 by Bang-Jensen and Havet.\n\n^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 8 by Galeana-Sanchez and Hernandez-Cruz.\n\n^ Diestel (2005), Section 1.10.\n\n^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2018), Chapter 3 by Gutin.\n\n^ Satyanarayana, Bhavanari; Prasad, Kuncham Syam, Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., p. 460, ISBN 978-81-203-3842-5; Brualdi, Richard A. (2006), Combinatorial Matrix Classes, Encyclopedia of Mathematics and Its Applications, vol. 108, Cambridge University Press, p. 51, ISBN 978-0-521-86565-4.\n\n^ Bang-Jensen & Gutin (2000) p. 19 in the 2007 edition; p. 20 in the 2nd edition (2009).","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"A simple directed graph","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Directed_graph_no_background.svg/170px-Directed_graph_no_background.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A simple directed acyclic graph","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Directed_acyclic_graph_2.svg/140px-Directed_acyclic_graph_2.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A tournament on 4 vertices","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/4-tournament.svg/90px-4-tournament.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Oriented graph with corresponding incidence matrix","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Incidence_matrix_-_directed_graph.svg/220px-Incidence_matrix_-_directed_graph.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A directed graph with vertices labeled (indegree, outdegree)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/DirectedDegrees.svg/220px-DirectedDegrees.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Binary relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"title":"Coates graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coates_graph"},{"title":"Directed Graph Markup Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DGML"},{"title":"DRAKON flowchart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRAKON"},{"title":"Flow chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_chart"},{"title":"Globular set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globular_set"},{"title":"Glossary of graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_graph_theory"},{"title":"Graph Style Sheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_Style_Sheets"},{"title":"Graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"title":"Graph (abstract data type)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(abstract_data_type)"},{"title":"Network theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_theory"},{"title":"Orientation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientation_(graph_theory)"},{"title":"Preorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preorder"},{"title":"Topological sorting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_sorting"},{"title":"Transpose graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose_graph"},{"title":"Vertical constraint graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_constraint_graph"}] | [{"reference":"Chartrand, Gary (1977). Introductory Graph Theory. Courier Corporation. ISBN 9780486247755. Archived from the original on 2023-02-04. Retrieved 2020-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rYuToT7vHbMC&q=Introductory%20Graph%20Theory&pg=PP1","url_text":"Introductory Graph Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486247755","url_text":"9780486247755"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230204155556/https://books.google.com/books?id=rYuToT7vHbMC&q=Introductory%20Graph%20Theory&pg=PP1","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Satyanarayana, Bhavanari; Prasad, Kuncham Syam, Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., p. 460, ISBN 978-81-203-3842-5","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-203-3842-5","url_text":"978-81-203-3842-5"}]},{"reference":"Brualdi, Richard A. (2006), Combinatorial Matrix Classes, Encyclopedia of Mathematics and Its Applications, vol. 108, Cambridge University Press, p. 51, ISBN 978-0-521-86565-4","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/combinatorialmat0000brua/page/51","url_text":"Combinatorial Matrix Classes"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/combinatorialmat0000brua/page/51","url_text":"51"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86565-4","url_text":"978-0-521-86565-4"}]},{"reference":"Bang-Jensen, Jørgen; Gutin, Gregory (2000), Digraphs: Theory, Algorithms and Applications, Springer, ISBN 1-85233-268-9","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cs.rhul.ac.uk/books/dbook/","url_text":"Digraphs: Theory, Algorithms and Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media","url_text":"Springer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85233-268-9","url_text":"1-85233-268-9"}]},{"reference":"Bang-Jensen, Jørgen; Gutin, Gregory (2018), Classes of Directed Graphs, Springer, ISBN 978-3319718408","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_International_Publishing_AG","url_text":"Springer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319718408","url_text":"978-3319718408"}]},{"reference":"Bondy, John Adrian; Murty, U. S. R. (1976), Graph Theory with Applications, North-Holland, ISBN 0-444-19451-7","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adrian_Bondy","url_text":"Bondy, John Adrian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U._S._R._Murty","url_text":"Murty, U. S. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scientist_(magazine) | The Scientist (magazine) | ["1 Overview","2 History","3 Top 10 Innovations Survey","4 The Scientist online","4.1 Website","4.2 Social media","5 Awards","6 References","7 External links"] | Professional life science magazine
This article is about the scientific journal. For other uses, see Scientist (disambiguation).
This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Scientist is a professional magazine intended for life scientists. The Scientist covers recently published research papers, current research, techniques, and other columns and reports of interest to its readers. The magazine is published monthly and is available in print and digital formats.
Overview
The main purpose of the magazine is to provide print and online coverage of the latest developments in life sciences research, technology, careers, and business. Subject matters covered by the magazine include groundbreaking research, industry innovations, careers, financial topics, the economics of science, scientific ethics, profiles of scientists, lab tools, scientific publishing, techniques, product spotlight, and guides.
History
The Scientist was founded in 1986 by American businessman Eugene Garfield as part of his academic publishing service Institute for Scientific Information. The publishing house was sold two years later to JPT Publishing, but Eugene Garfield eventually bought back The Scientist a few month later.
In 2009, the magazine had a round of layoffs, and its owner, the London-based Science Navigation Group, merged The Scientist with the website Faculty of 1000 for peer review and evaluation of articles in biology and medical journals. The Scientist moved from Philadelphia to New York in 2010.
In October 2011, the Science Navigation Group announced it was closing the magazine, but the LabX Media Group subsequently announced it would purchase and continue publishing it. The Group officially acquired the magazine at the end of October 2011.
Top 10 Innovations Survey
Since 2008, The Scientist has conferred awards for the top innovations in science and technology: Nominations are submitted; entries are reviewed by a panel of judges; and the winners are announced annually in the December edition of the magazine.
The Scientist online
Website
The Scientist offers a website that complements the print version by offering live science news and multimedia features, attracting roughly 1.2 million unique page views each month, according to Google Analytics.
Social media
In 2011, The Scientist launched a Facebook page, to deliver its content in the social media realm. The page now has more than 2 million page likes.
Since then, The Scientist has launched special interest Facebook pages to share the latest research developments in different life science topics. In December 2018, it was announced that some pages would be renamed and refocused for a more cohesive community.
Awards
The Scientist has won many awards, including:
2018 ASBPE Awards of Excellence, Top Ten Award, Magazine of the Year
2016 ASBPE Awards of Excellence, Bronze - Web News Section & another in Infographics
2011 Gold and Silver 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Science Magazine, Full Issue
2011 Bronze 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Single Science Article
2011 Silver 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business News Coverage
2011 ASBPE Awards of Excellence, Magazine of the Year
Gold 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Science Website in the years 2009, 2010
ASBPE Awards of Excellence Magazine of the year, circulation of less than 80,000 in the years 2008, and 2009
Gold 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Single Science Article in the years 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011
2007 Nomination as one of the Top 10 Business-to-Business Magazines
2007 Gold for Best Publication Redesign
2007 Silver for Best Individual/Company Profile for Ishani Ganguli's "A Complementary Pathway"
Gold 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Science Magazine in the years 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010
References
^ Grant, Richard P. (January 18, 2010). "Sarah Greene to head up The Scientist". F1000. Faculty of 1000. Retrieved September 16, 2011.
^ "About Us". The Scientist Magazine®. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
^ Eugene Garfield delivered an essay about the foundation of The Scientist in one of his "Essays of an Information Scientist", see http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/essays/v9p249y1986.pdf
^ a b Brainard, Curtis (October 7, 2011). "The Scientist Closes". Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
^ Curtis Brainard (October 7, 2011). "The Scientist Closes". The Observatory. Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved October 20, 2011.
^ a b "LabX Acquires The Scientist Magazine". Lab Manager Magazine. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ "Intent to Purchase The Scientist Announced". Marketwire. October 14, 2011. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
^ Curtis Brainard (October 18, 2011). "The Scientist Lives". The Observatory. Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
^ "Top 10 Innovations".
^ "The Scientist". Facebook.
^ "The Scientist Announces Merged Facebook Pages for Improved User Experience". Retrieved 22 July 2019.
^ "Magazine Issue - July 2010 - The Scientist Magazine".
^ "Magazine Issue - June 2010 - The Scientist Magazine".
^ "Brain, Interrupted - The Scientist Magazine".
^ "Where's the Super Food? - The Scientist Magazine".
^ "Opening a Can of Worms - The Scientist Magazine".
External links
Official website | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scientist (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"professional magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_magazine"},{"link_name":"life scientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_scientists"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GrantR-1"}],"text":"This article is about the scientific journal. For other uses, see Scientist (disambiguation).The Scientist is a professional magazine intended for life scientists. The Scientist covers recently published research papers, current research, techniques, and other columns and reports of interest to its readers. 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The Scientist moved from Philadelphia to New York in 2010.[4]In October 2011, the Science Navigation Group announced it was closing the magazine,[5] but the LabX Media Group subsequently announced it would purchase and continue publishing it.[6][7][8] The Group officially acquired the magazine at the end of October 2011.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Since 2008, The Scientist has conferred awards for the top innovations in science and technology: Nominations are submitted; entries are reviewed by a panel of judges; and the winners are announced annually in the December edition of the magazine.[9]","title":"Top 10 Innovations Survey"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"The Scientist online"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Website","text":"The Scientist offers a website that complements the print version by offering live science news and multimedia features, attracting roughly 1.2 million unique page views each month, according to Google Analytics.[citation needed]","title":"The Scientist online"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Social media","text":"In 2011, The Scientist launched a Facebook page, to deliver its content in the social media realm. The page now has more than 2 million page likes.[10]Since then, The Scientist has launched special interest Facebook pages to share the latest research developments in different life science topics. In December 2018, it was announced that some pages would be renamed and refocused for a more cohesive community.[11]","title":"The Scientist online"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"The Scientist has won many awards, including:2018 ASBPE Awards of Excellence, Top Ten Award, Magazine of the Year\n2016 ASBPE Awards of Excellence, Bronze - Web News Section & another in Infographics\n2011 Gold and Silver 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Science Magazine, Full Issue[12][13]\n2011 Bronze 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Single Science Article[14]\n2011 Silver 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business News Coverage\n2011 ASBPE Awards of Excellence, Magazine of the Year\nGold 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Science Website in the years 2009, 2010\nASBPE Awards of Excellence Magazine of the year, circulation of less than 80,000 in the years 2008, and 2009\nGold 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Single Science Article in the years 2008, 2009, 2010,[15] 2011[16]\n2007 Nomination as one of the Top 10 Business-to-Business Magazines\n2007 Gold for Best Publication Redesign\n2007 Silver for Best Individual/Company Profile for Ishani Ganguli's \"A Complementary Pathway\"\nGold 'Eddie' Award for Best Business-to-Business Science Magazine in the years 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010","title":"Awards"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Grant, Richard P. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_(UK) | The Sunday Times | ["1 History","1.1 Founding and early history (1821–1915)","1.2 The Kemsley years (1915–1959)","1.3 The Thomson years (1959–1981)","1.4 The Murdoch years (1981–present)","2 Online presence","3 Related publications","3.1 The Sunday Times Travel Magazine","4 Notable stories","5 Controversies","5.1 Phone hacking scandal","5.2 Errors","5.3 Allegations of antisemitism","6 Other editions","6.1 Irish edition","6.2 Scottish edition","7 Editors","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"] | British newspaper, founded 1821
For other uses, see The Sunday Times (disambiguation).
The Sunday TimesThe Sunday Times cover (13 July 2014)TypeSunday newspaperFormatBroadsheetOwner(s)News UKFounder(s)Henry WhiteEditorBen TaylorFounded18 February 1821; 203 years ago (1821-02-18) (as The New Observer)Political alignmentConservativeHeadquartersThe News Building, 1 London Bridge Place, London, SE1 9GFCirculation647,622 (as of March 2020)Sister newspapersThe TimesISSN0956-1382Websitethesundaytimes.co.uk
The Sunday Times is a British Sunday newspaper whose circulation makes it the largest in Britain's quality press market category. It was founded in 1821 as The New Observer. It is published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of News UK (formerly News International), which is owned by News Corp. Times Newspapers also publishes The Times. The two papers, founded separately and independently, have been under the same ownership since 1966. They were bought by News International in 1981.
In March 2020, The Sunday Times had a circulation of 647,622, exceeding that of its main rivals, The Sunday Telegraph and The Observer, combined. While some other national newspapers moved to a tabloid format in the early 2000s, The Sunday Times retained the larger broadsheet format and has said that it intends to continue to do so. As of December 2019, it sold 75% more copies than its sister paper, The Times, which is published from Monday to Saturday.
The paper publishes The Sunday Times Rich List and The Sunday Times Fast Track 100.
History
Plaque at No. 4 Salisbury Court, London, commemorating the first edition of The Sunday Times
Founding and early history (1821–1915)
The paper began publication on 18 February 1821 as The New Observer, but from 21 April its title was changed to the Independent Observer. Its founder, Henry White, chose the name apparently in an attempt to take advantage of the success of The Observer, which had been founded in 1791, although there was no connection between the two papers. On 20 October 1822 it was reborn as The Sunday Times, although it had no relationship with The Times. In January 1823, White sold the paper to Daniel Whittle Harvey, a radical politician.
Under its new owner, The Sunday Times notched up several firsts. A wood engraving it published of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 was the largest illustration to have appeared in a British newspaper. In 1841, it became one of the first papers to serialise a novel: William Harrison Ainsworth's Old St Paul's.
The paper was bought in 1887 by Alice Anne Cornwell, who had made a fortune in mining in Australia and by floating the Midas Mine Company on the London Stock Exchange. She bought the paper to promote her new company, The British and Australasian Mining Investment Company, and as a gift to her lover Phil Robinson. Robinson was installed as editor and the two were later married in 1894.
In 1893 Cornwell sold the paper to Frederick Beer, who already owned The Observer. Beer appointed his wife, Rachel Sassoon Beer, as editor. She was already editor of The Observer – the first woman to run a national newspaper – and continued to edit both titles until 1901.
The Kemsley years (1915–1959)
There was a further change of ownership in 1903, and then in 1915 the paper was bought by William Berry and his brother, Gomer Berry, later ennobled as Lord Camrose and Viscount Kemsley respectively. Under their ownership, The Sunday Times continued its reputation for innovation: on 23 November 1930, it became the first Sunday newspaper to publish a 40-page issue and on 21 January 1940, news replaced advertising on the front page.
In 1943, the Kemsley Newspapers Group was established, with The Sunday Times becoming its flagship paper. At this time, Kemsley was the largest newspaper group in Britain.
On 12 November 1945, Ian Fleming, who later created James Bond, joined the paper as foreign manager (foreign editor) and special writer. The following month, circulation reached 500,000. On 28 September 1958, the paper launched a separate Review section, becoming the first newspaper to publish two sections regularly.
The Thomson years (1959–1981)
The Kemsley group was bought in 1959 by Lord Thomson, and in October 1960 circulation reached one million for the first time. In another first, on 4 February 1962 the editor, Denis Hamilton, launched The Sunday Times Magazine. (At the insistence of newsagents, worried at the impact on sales of standalone magazines, it was initially called the "colour section" and did not take the name The Sunday Times Magazine until 9 August 1964.) The cover picture of the first issue was of Jean Shrimpton wearing a Mary Quant outfit and was taken by David Bailey. The magazine got off to a slow start, but the advertising soon began to pick up, and, over time, other newspapers launched magazines of their own.
In 1963, the Insight investigative team was established under Clive Irving. The "Business" section was launched on 27 September 1964, making The Sunday Times Britain's first regular three-section newspaper. In September 1966, Thomson bought The Times, to form Times Newspapers Ltd (TNL). It was the first time The Sunday Times and The Times had been brought under the same ownership.
Harold Evans, editor from 1967 until 1981, established The Sunday Times as a leading campaigning and investigative newspaper. On 19 May 1968, the paper published its first major campaigning report on the drug thalidomide, which had been reported by the Australian doctor William McBride in The Lancet in 1961 as being associated with birth defects, and been quickly withdrawn. The newspaper published a four-page Insight investigation, titled "The Thalidomide File", in the "Weekly Review" section. A compensation settlement for the UK victims was eventually reached with Distillers Company (now part of Diageo), which had distributed the drug in the UK.
TNL was plagued by a series of industrial disputes at its plant at Gray's Inn Road in London, with the print unions resisting attempts to replace the old-fashioned hot-metal and labour-intensive Linotype method with technology that would allow the papers to be composed digitally. Thomson offered to invest millions of pounds to buy out obstructive practices and overmanning, but the unions rejected every proposal. As a result, publication of The Sunday Times and other titles in the group was suspended in November 1978. It did not resume until November 1979.
Although journalists at The Times had been on full pay during the suspension, they went on strike demanding more money after production was resumed. Kenneth Thomson, the head of the company, felt betrayed and decided to sell. Evans tried to organise a management buyout of The Sunday Times, but Thomson decided instead to sell to Rupert Murdoch, who he thought had a better chance of dealing with the trade unions.
The Murdoch years (1981–present)
Rupert Murdoch's News International acquired the group in February 1981. Murdoch, an Australian who in 1985 became a naturalised American citizen, already owned The Sun and the News of the World, but the Conservative government decided not to refer the deal to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission, citing a clause in the Fair Trading Act that exempted uneconomic businesses from referral. The Thomson Corporation had threatened to close the papers down if they were not taken over by someone else within an allotted time, and it was feared that any legal delay to Murdoch's takeover might lead to the two titles' demise. In return, Murdoch provided legally binding guarantees to preserve the titles' editorial independence.
Evans was appointed editor of The Times in February 1981 and was replaced at The Sunday Times by Frank Giles. In 1983, the newspaper bought the serialisation rights to publish the faked Hitler Diaries, thinking them to be genuine after they were authenticated by the own newspaper's own independent director, Hugh Trevor-Roper, the historian and author of The Last Days of Hitler.
Under Andrew Neil, editor from 1983 until 1994, The Sunday Times took a strongly Thatcherite slant that contrasted with the traditional paternalistic conservatism expounded by Peregrine Worsthorne at the rival Sunday Telegraph. It also built on its reputation for investigations. Its scoops included the revelation in 1986 that Israel had manufactured more than 100 nuclear warheads and the publication in 1992 of extracts from Andrew Morton's book, Diana: Her True Story in Her Own Words. In the early 1990s, the paper courted controversy with a series of articles in which it rejected the role of HIV in causing AIDS.
In January 1986, after the announcement of a strike by print workers, production of The Sunday Times, along with other newspapers in the group, was shifted to a new plant in Wapping, and the strikers were dismissed. The plant, which allowed journalists to input copy directly, was activated with the help of the Electrical, Electronic, Telecommunications and Plumbing Union (EETPU). The print unions posted pickets and organised demonstrations outside the new plant to try to dissuade journalists and others from working there, in what became known as the Wapping dispute. The demonstrations sometimes turned violent. The protest ended in failure in February 1987.
During Neil's editorship, a number of new sections were added: the annual "The Sunday Times Rich List" and the "Funday Times", in 1989 (the latter stopped appearing in print and was relaunched as a standalone website in March 2006, but was later closed); "Style & Travel", "News Review" and "Arts" in 1990; and "Culture" in 1992. In September 1994, "Style" and "Travel" became two separate sections.
During Neil's time as editor, The Sunday Times backed a campaign to prove that HIV was not a cause of AIDS. In 1990, The Sunday Times serialized a book by an American conservative who rejected the scientific consensus on the causes of AIDS and argued that AIDS could not spread to heterosexuals. Articles and editorials in The Sunday Times cast doubt on the scientific consensus, described HIV as a "politically correct virus" about which there was a "conspiracy of silence", disputed that AIDS was spreading in Africa, claimed that tests for HIV were invalid, described the HIV/AIDS treatment drug AZT as harmful, and characterized the WHO as an "Empire-building AIDS ". The pseudoscientific coverage of HIV/AIDS in The Sunday Times led the scientific journal Nature to monitor the newspaper's coverage and to publish letters rebutting Sunday Times articles which The Sunday Times refused to publish. In response to this, The Sunday Times published an article headlined "AIDS – why we won't be silenced", which claimed that Nature engaged in censorship and "sinister intent". In his 1996 book, Full Disclosure, Neil wrote that the HIV/AIDS denialism "deserved publication to encourage debate". That same year, he wrote that The Sunday Times had been vindicated in its coverage, "The Sunday Times was one of a handful of newspapers, perhaps the most prominent, which argued that heterosexual Aids was a myth. The figures are now in and this newspaper stands totally vindicated ... The history of Aids is one of the great scandals of our time. I do not blame doctors and the Aids lobby for warning that everybody might be at risk in the early days, when ignorance was rife and reliable evidence scant." He criticized the "AIDS establishment" and said "Aids had become an industry, a job-creation scheme for the caring classes."
John Witherow, who became editor at the end of 1994 (after several months as acting editor), continued the newspaper's expansion. A website was launched in 1996 and new print sections added: "Home" in 2001, and "Driving" in 2002, which in 2006 was renamed "InGear". (It reverted to the name "Driving" from 7 October 2012, to coincide with the launch of a new standalone website, Sunday Times Driving.) Technology coverage was expanded in 2000 with the weekly colour magazine "Doors", and in 2003 "The Month", an editorial section presented as an interactive CD-ROM. Magazine partworks were regular additions, among them "1000 Makers of Music", published over six weeks in 1997.
John Witherow oversaw a rise in circulation to 1.3 million and reconfirmed The Sunday Times's reputation for publishing hard-hitting news stories – such as the cash for questions scandal in 1994 and the cash for honours scandal in 2006, and revelations of corruption at FIFA in 2010. The newspaper's foreign coverage has been especially strong, and its reporters, Marie Colvin, Jon Swain, Hala Jaber, Mark Franchetti and Christina Lamb have dominated the Foreign Reporter of the Year category at the British Press Awards since 2000. Colvin, who worked for the paper from 1985, was killed in February 2012 by Syrian forces while covering the siege of Homs during that country's civil war.
In common with other newspapers, The Sunday Times has been hit by a fall in circulation, which has declined from a peak of 1.3 million to just over 710,000. It has a number of digital-only subscribers, which numbered 99,017 by January 2019.
Edition number 9,813 of The Sunday Times, published on 7 October 2012
During January 2013, Martin Ivens became 'acting' editor of The Sunday Times in succession to John Witherow, who became the 'acting' editor of The Times at the same time. The independent directors rejected a permanent position for Ivens as editor to avoid any possible merger of The Sunday Times and daily Times titles.
Online presence
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The Sunday Times has its own website. It previously shared an online presence with The Times, but in May 2010 they both launched their own sites to reflect their distinct brand identities. Since July 2010, the sites are charging for access.
An iPad edition was launched in December 2010, and an Android version in August 2011. Since July 2012, the digital version of the paper has been available on Apple's Newsstand platform, allowing automated downloading of the news section. With over 500 MB of content every week, it is the biggest newspaper app in the world.
The Sunday Times iPad app was named newspaper app of the year at the 2011 Newspaper Awards and has twice been ranked best newspaper or magazine app in the world by iMonitor. Various subscription packages exist, giving access to both the print and digital versions of the paper.
On 2 October 2012, The Sunday Times launched Sunday Times Driving, a separate classified advertising site for premium vehicles that also includes editorial content from the newspaper as well as specially commissioned articles. It can be accessed without cost.
Related publications
The Sunday Times Travel Magazine
This 164-page monthly magazine was sold separately from the newspaper and was Britain's best-selling travel magazine. The first issue of The Sunday Times Travel Magazine was in 2003, and it included news, features and insider guides.
Notable stories
Some of the more notable or controversial stories published in The Sunday Times include:
Thalidomide, a drug prescribed to pregnant women to treat morning sickness, was withdrawn in 1961 following reports that it was linked to a number of birth defects. The Sunday Times spent many years campaigning for compensation for the victims, providing case studies and evidence of the side-effects. In 1968, the Distillers Company agreed to a multimillion-pound compensation scheme for the victims.
The paper sponsored Francis Chichester's single-handed circumnavigation of the world under sail in 1966–67, and the Sunday Times Golden Globe Race in 1968–69.
The Insight team ran an investigation into Kim Philby, the Soviet double agent, that ran on 1 October 1967 under the headline "Philby: I spied for Russia from 1933".
Insight carried out a major investigation in 1972 into Bloody Sunday in Northern Ireland.
The newspaper published the faked Hitler Diaries (1983), believing them to be genuine after they were authenticated by historian Hugh Trevor-Roper.
Israeli nuclear weapons: using information from Mordechai Vanunu, The Sunday Times in 1986 revealed that Israel had manufactured more than 100 nuclear warheads.
On 12 July 1987 The Sunday Times began serialisation of the book Spycatcher, the memoirs of an MI5 agent, which had been banned in Britain. The paper successfully challenged subsequent legal action by the British government, winning its case at the European Court of Human Rights in 1991.
The paper ran a story claiming Queen Elizabeth II, who generally maintains a strictly impartial role politically, was upset with the style of Margaret Thatcher's leadership.
In 1990, in what became known as the Arms-to-Iraq affair, the paper revealed how Matrix Churchill and other British firms were supplying arms to Saddam Hussein's Iraq.
In 1992, the paper published extracts from Andrew Morton's book Diana: Her True Story in Her Own Words, which revealed for the first time the disastrous state of her marriage to Prince Charles.
In its "cash for questions" investigation in 1994, Graham Riddick, MP for Colne Valley and David Tredinnick, MP for Bosworth, accepted cheques for £1,000 each from an Insight journalist posing as a businessman in return for tabling a parliamentary question. The investigation followed information that some MPs were taking one-off payments to table questions.
Under the headline, "KGB: Michael Foot was our agent", The Sunday Times ran an article on 19 February 1995 that claimed the Soviet intelligence services regarded Foot, a former leader of the Labour Party, as an "agent of influence", codenamed "Agent Boot", and that he had been in the pay of the KGB for many years. The article was based on the serialisation of the memoirs of Oleg Gordievsky, a former high-ranking KGB officer who defected from the Soviet Union to Britain in 1985. Crucially, the newspaper used material from the original manuscript of the book which had not been included in the published version. Foot successfully sued for libel, winning "substantial" damages.
In 1997–98, the paper ran a series of exclusive stories based on revelations from Richard Tomlinson, a former MI6 spy, about life inside MI6 and secret MI6 operations around the world.
During the siege of the United Nations compound in East Timor in 1999, the paper's foreign reporter, Marie Colvin, was one of only three journalists (all women) who remained to the end with the 1,500 people trapped there. She reported their plight both in The Sunday Times and in interviews on radio and television and was widely credited with saving their lives.
In 2003, The Sunday Times published confidential Whitehall documents revealing the names of more than 300 people who had declined New Year's, Queen's Birthday and Dissolution honours (i.e. knighthoods, OBEs, etc.)
In 2006, in an investigation that became known as "cash for honours", The Sunday Times revealed how several prominent figures nominated for life peerages by the then prime minister, Tony Blair, had loaned large amounts of money to the Labour Party at the suggestion of Lord Levy, a Labour Party fundraiser.
In mid-2009, the newspaper ran a series of articles revealing how politicians were abusing the expenses system.
Between 2004 and 2010, the newspaper ran an award-winning investigation by Brian Deer which revealed that research by Andrew Wakefield into the MMR vaccine was fraudulent. The investigation led to Wakefield being banned from medicine, and the retraction of his research from The Lancet.
In March 2010, undercover reporters from The Sunday Times Insight team filmed members of parliament agreeing to work for a fictitious lobbying firm for fees of £3,000–£5,000 a day. One of those implicated, Stephen Byers, described himself as "sort of like a cab for hire".
In October 2010, an investigation by the newspaper exposed corruption within FIFA after a member of the association's committee which grants the World Cup guaranteed his vote to an undercover reporter after requesting £500,000 for a "personal project".
In 2011, the paper broke what became known as the cash for influence scandal: it revealed that Adrian Severin, Ernst Strasser, Pablo Zalba Bidegain and Zoran Thaler tried to influence EU legislation in exchange for promised money. Both Strasser and Thaler resigned in March 2011.
In March 2012, the paper filmed Peter Cruddas, the co-treasurer of the Conservative Party, offering access to David Cameron, the prime minister, in return for donations of £250,000. Cruddas resigned several hours later. Cameron said: "What happened was completely unacceptable. This is not the way we raise money in the Conservative Party."
In January 2013, the seven-times Tour de France winner Lance Armstrong confessed to having used performance-enhancing drugs during each of his Tour victories. The confession ended years of denials about allegations of cheating during most of the cyclist's professional career. The Sunday Times chief sports writer David Walsh had spent over a decade investigating Armstrong, his team and the systematic doping rife in the sport. The newspaper was forced to pay Armstrong £300,000 in damages in 2006 after he sued it for libel. Following Armstrong's lifelong ban (and subsequent televised confession) The Sunday Times said it would sue him to recover the damages, plus interest and costs, for the original proceedings which it called "baseless and fraudulent".
In June 2014, the Insight team at The Sunday Times published a front-page story "Plot to buy the World Cup" that detailed how Qatar used secret slush funds to make dozens of payments totalling more than $5m to senior officials at FIFA to ensure the country won enough votes to secure hosting rights to the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The revelation prompted calls for Qatar to be stripped of hosting the World Cup. The reporting by Jonathan Calvert and Heidi Blake won numerous awards, including the Paul Foot Award. It also formed the basis for the book by Calvert and Blake, published by Simon & Schuster, The Ugly Game.
In June 2015, The Sunday Times ran a lead front article titled "British spies betrayed to Russians and Chinese". The article was controversial because it contained numerous unlikely and unsubstantiated claims. Shortly after publication parts of the online version of the article were changed quietly by the newspaper. The article appeared to be an attempt to smear the American whistleblower Edward Snowden, thus fuelling further doubt as to its independent editorship.
A 2016 Sunday Times investigation into the unsolved Whiston murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller in 1980 led to the unearthing of new evidence, which led Merseyside Police to re-open the 40-year-old case. Subsequently, in 2019 police attempted to re-try the original suspect acquitted in 1981 under double jeopardy legislation, but were not permitted to do so by the Director of Public Prosecutions, causing police to campaign for a change in the double jeopardy law.
In August 2019, The Sunday Times received the leaked Operation Yellowhammer file about preparations for a "no deal" Brexit.
In April 2020, an investigation by The Sunday Times' Insight team revealed Prime Minister Boris Johnson had skipped five COBR meetings in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. The investigation suggested that the British government underestimated the threat of the virus and failed to adequately prepare, and scrutinised Johnson's leadership during the crisis. It became the most read story in the history of The Times. This, and subsequent investigations into the government's pandemic response, formed the basis of the 2021 book Failures of State.
Controversies
Phone hacking scandal
In July 2011, The Sunday Times was implicated in the wider News International phone hacking scandal, which primarily involved the News of the World, a Murdoch tabloid newspaper published in the UK from 1843 to 2011. Former British prime minister Gordon Brown accused The Sunday Times of employing "known criminals" to impersonate him and obtain his private financial records. Brown's bank reported that an investigator employed by The Sunday Times repeatedly impersonated Brown to gain access to his bank account records. The Sunday Times vigorously denied these accusations and said that the story was in the public interest and that it had followed the Press Complaints Commission code on using subterfuge.
Errors
Over two years in the early 1990s, The Sunday Times published a series of articles rejecting the role of HIV in causing AIDS, calling the African AIDS epidemic a myth. In response, the scientific journal Nature described the paper's coverage of HIV/AIDS as "seriously mistaken, and probably disastrous". Nature argued that the newspaper had "so consistently misrepresented the role of HIV in the causation of AIDS that Nature plans to monitor its future treatment of the issue."
In January 2010, The Sunday Times published an article by Jonathan Leake, alleging that a figure in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was based on an "unsubstantiated claim". The story attracted worldwide attention. However, a scientist quoted in the same article later stated that the newspaper story was wrong and that quotes of him had been used in a misleading way. Following an official complaint to the Press Complaints Commission, The Sunday Times retracted the story and apologised.
In September 2012, Jonathan Leake published an article in The Sunday Times under the headline "Only 100 adult cod in North Sea". This figure was later shown by a BBC article to be wildly incorrect. The newspaper published a correction, apologising for an over simplification in the headline, which had referred to a fall in the number of fully mature cod over the age of 13, thereby indicating this is the breeding age of cod. In fact, as the newspaper subsequently pointed out, cod can start breeding between the ages of four and six, in which case there are many more mature cod in the North Sea.
Allegations of antisemitism
In 1992, the paper agreed to pay David Irving, an author widely criticised for Holocaust denial, the sum of £75,000 to authenticate the Goebbels diaries and edit them for serialisation. The deal was quickly cancelled after drawing strong international criticism.
In January 2013, The Sunday Times published a Gerald Scarfe caricature depicting Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu cementing a wall with blood and Palestinians trapped between the bricks. The cartoon sparked an outcry, compounded by the fact that its publication coincided with International Holocaust Remembrance Day, and was condemned by the Anti-Defamation League. After Rupert Murdoch tweeted that he considered it a "grotesque, offensive cartoon" and that Scarfe had "never reflected the opinions of The Sunday Times" the newspaper issued an apology. Journalist Ian Burrell, writing in The Independent, described the apology as an "indication of the power of the Israel lobby in challenging critical media coverage of its politicians" and one that questions Rupert Murdoch's assertion that he does not "interfere in the editorial content of his papers".
In July 2017, Kevin Myers wrote a column in The Sunday Times saying "I note that two of the best-paid women presenters in the BBC – Claudia Winkleman and Vanessa Felt, with whose, no doubt, sterling work I am tragically unacquainted – are Jewish. Good for them". He continued "Jews are not generally noted for their insistence on selling their talent for the lowest possible price, which is the most useful measure there is of inveterate, lost-with-all-hands stupidity. I wonder, who are their agents? If they’re the same ones that negotiated the pay for the women on the lower scales, then maybe the latter have found their true value in the marketplace". After the column The Sunday Times fired Myers. The Campaign Against Antisemitism criticized The Sunday Times for allowing Myers to write the column despite his past comments about Jews.
Other editions
Irish edition
The Republic of Ireland edition of The Sunday Times was launched on a small scale in 1993 with just two staff: Alan Ruddock and John Burns (who started as financial correspondent for the newspaper and is at present acting associate editor). It used the slogan "The English just don't get it". It is now the third biggest-selling newspaper in Ireland measured in terms of full-price cover sales (Source: ABC January–June 2012). Circulation had grown steadily to over 127,000 in the two decades before 2012, but has declined since and currently stands at 60,352 (January to June 2018).
The paper is heavily editionalised, with extensive Irish coverage of politics, general news, business, personal finance, sport, culture and lifestyle. The office employs 25 people. The paper also has a number of well-known freelance columnists including Brenda Power, Liam Fay, Matt Cooper, Damien Kiberd, Jill Kerby and Stephen Price. However, it ended collaboration with Kevin Myers after he had published a controversial column. The Irish edition has had four editors since it was set up: Alan Ruddock from 1993 until 1996, Rory Godson from 1996 until 2000, Fiona McHugh from 2000 to 2005, and from 2005 until 2020 Frank Fitzgibbon. John Burns has been acting editor of the Irish edition from 2020.
Scottish edition
For more than 20 years the paper has published a separate Scottish edition, which has been edited since January 2012 by Jason Allardyce. While most of the articles that run in the English edition appear in the Scottish edition, its staff also produces about a dozen Scottish news stories, including a front-page article, most weeks. The edition also contains a weekly "Scottish Focus" feature and Scottish commentary, and covers Scottish sport in addition to providing Scottish television schedules. The Scottish issue is the biggest-selling 'quality newspaper' in the market, outselling both Scotland on Sunday and the Sunday Herald.
Editors
1821: Henry White
1822: Daniel Whittle Harvey
1828: Thomas Gaspey
1854: William Carpenter
1856: E. T. Smith
1858: Henry M. Barnett
1864: Joseph Knight and Ashby Sterry (acting editors)
1874: Joseph Hatton
1881: H. W. Oliphant
1887: Phil Robinson
1890: Arthur William à Beckett
1893: Rachel Beer
1901: Leonard Rees
1932: William W. Hadley
1950: Harry Hodson
1961: Denis Hamilton
1967: Harold Evans
1981: Frank Giles
1983: Andrew Neil
1995: John Witherow
2013: Martin Ivens
2020: Emma Tucker
2023: Ben Taylor
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Sunday Times.
Journalism portal
London portal
Mrs Mills Solves all Your Problems
The Sunday Times Motorshow Live
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^ a b "Sunday Times accused of antisemitism over column on BBC pay". the Guardian. 30 July 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2023.
^ a b O’Loughlin, Ed (30 July 2017). "Sunday Times of London Fires Writer Over Article Called Anti-Semitic". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 January 2023.
^ John Waters (1 October 1996). "Jesuit's press edict continued a grain of truth". The Irish Times. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
^ "The Irish Times - Data". Audit Bureau of Circulations.
^ Slattery, Laura. "'The Irish Times' had combined daily circulation of 77,988 in second half of 2017". The Irish Times.
^ "Columnist fired over 'anti-Semitic' Sunday Times article". BBC News. 30 July 2017. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
^ "PROFILE: Rory Godson, Powerscourt – A PR 'novice' with an international outlook". PR Week. 21 November 2003.
^ "Irish daily to use IoS team". Press Gazette. 26 June 2013.
^ Paul, Mark (22 October 2020). "Frank Fitzgibbon stepping down as Sunday Times editor". The Irish Times.
^ Maher, Bron (3 February 2023). "News UK proposes merger of Scottish Times and Sunday Times into seven-day operation". Press Gazette. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
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MusicBrainz label | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Sunday Times (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"quality press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_press"},{"link_name":"News UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_UK"},{"link_name":"News Corp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_Corp"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"The Sunday Telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Telegraph"},{"link_name":"The Observer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observer"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"tabloid format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabloid_(newspaper_format)"},{"link_name":"broadsheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadsheet"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"The Sunday Times Rich List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Times_Rich_List"},{"link_name":"The Sunday Times Fast Track 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Times_Fast_Track_100"}],"text":"For other uses, see The Sunday Times (disambiguation).The Sunday Times is a British Sunday newspaper whose circulation makes it the largest in Britain's quality press market category. It was founded in 1821 as The New Observer. It is published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of News UK (formerly News International), which is owned by News Corp. Times Newspapers also publishes The Times. The two papers, founded separately and independently, have been under the same ownership since 1966. They were bought by News International in 1981.In March 2020, The Sunday Times had a circulation of 647,622, exceeding that of its main rivals, The Sunday Telegraph and The Observer, combined.[4][5] While some other national newspapers moved to a tabloid format in the early 2000s, The Sunday Times retained the larger broadsheet format and has said that it intends to continue to do so. As of December 2019, it sold 75% more copies than its sister paper, The Times, which is published from Monday to Saturday.[6]The paper publishes The Sunday Times Rich List and The Sunday Times Fast Track 100.","title":"The Sunday Times"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sunday_Times_plaque_London_1822.jpg"}],"text":"Plaque at No. 4 Salisbury Court, London, commemorating the first edition of The Sunday Times","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Observer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observer"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Daniel Whittle Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Whittle_Harvey"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Queen Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"William Harrison Ainsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harrison_Ainsworth"},{"link_name":"Old St Paul's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_St_Paul%27s_(novel)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Alice Anne Cornwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Anne_Cornwell"},{"link_name":"Phil Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Stewart_Robinson"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Rachel Sassoon Beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Beer"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Founding and early history (1821–1915)","text":"The paper began publication on 18 February 1821 as The New Observer, but from 21 April its title was changed to the Independent Observer. Its founder, Henry White, chose the name apparently in an attempt to take advantage of the success of The Observer, which had been founded in 1791, although there was no connection between the two papers. On 20 October 1822 it was reborn as The Sunday Times, although it had no relationship with The Times.[7] In January 1823, White sold the paper to Daniel Whittle Harvey, a radical politician.[citation needed]Under its new owner, The Sunday Times notched up several firsts. A wood engraving it published of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838 was the largest illustration to have appeared in a British newspaper.[8] In 1841, it became one of the first papers to serialise a novel: William Harrison Ainsworth's Old St Paul's.[9]The paper was bought in 1887 by Alice Anne Cornwell, who had made a fortune in mining in Australia and by floating the Midas Mine Company on the London Stock Exchange. She bought the paper to promote her new company, The British and Australasian Mining Investment Company, and as a gift to her lover Phil Robinson. Robinson was installed as editor and the two were later married in 1894.[10]In 1893 Cornwell sold the paper to Frederick Beer, who already owned The Observer. Beer appointed his wife, Rachel Sassoon Beer, as editor. She was already editor of The Observer – the first woman to run a national newspaper – and continued to edit both titles until 1901.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Berry,_1st_Viscount_Camrose"},{"link_name":"Viscount Kemsley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscount_Kemsley"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ian Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Fleming"},{"link_name":"James Bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bond"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"The Kemsley years (1915–1959)","text":"There was a further change of ownership in 1903, and then in 1915 the paper was bought by William Berry and his brother, Gomer Berry, later ennobled as Lord Camrose and Viscount Kemsley respectively. Under their ownership, The Sunday Times continued its reputation for innovation: on 23 November 1930, it became the first Sunday newspaper to publish a 40-page issue and on 21 January 1940, news replaced advertising on the front page.[12]In 1943, the Kemsley Newspapers Group was established, with The Sunday Times becoming its flagship paper. At this time, Kemsley was the largest newspaper group in Britain.[citation needed]On 12 November 1945, Ian Fleming, who later created James Bond, joined the paper as foreign manager (foreign editor) and special writer. The following month, circulation reached 500,000.[13] On 28 September 1958, the paper launched a separate Review section, becoming the first newspaper to publish two sections regularly.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lord Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Thomson_of_Fleet"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"The Sunday Times Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_Magazine"},{"link_name":"Jean Shrimpton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Shrimpton"},{"link_name":"Mary Quant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Quant"},{"link_name":"David Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bailey"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Insight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight_(Sunday_Times)"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"Times Newspapers Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_UK"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Harold Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Evans"},{"link_name":"thalidomide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalidomide"},{"link_name":"William McBride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_McBride_(doctor)"},{"link_name":"The Lancet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet"},{"link_name":"Insight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight"},{"link_name":"Distillers Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillers_Company"},{"link_name":"Diageo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diageo"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Linotype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linotype_machine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Thomson"},{"link_name":"Rupert Murdoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"The Thomson years (1959–1981)","text":"The Kemsley group was bought in 1959 by Lord Thomson, and in October 1960 circulation reached one million for the first time.[15] In another first, on 4 February 1962 the editor, Denis Hamilton, launched The Sunday Times Magazine. (At the insistence of newsagents, worried at the impact on sales of standalone magazines, it was initially called the \"colour section\" and did not take the name The Sunday Times Magazine until 9 August 1964.) The cover picture of the first issue was of Jean Shrimpton wearing a Mary Quant outfit and was taken by David Bailey. The magazine got off to a slow start, but the advertising soon began to pick up, and, over time, other newspapers launched magazines of their own.[citation needed]In 1963, the Insight investigative team was established under Clive Irving. The \"Business\" section was launched on 27 September 1964, making The Sunday Times Britain's first regular three-section newspaper. In September 1966, Thomson bought The Times, to form Times Newspapers Ltd (TNL). It was the first time The Sunday Times and The Times had been brought under the same ownership.[citation needed]Harold Evans, editor from 1967 until 1981, established The Sunday Times as a leading campaigning and investigative newspaper. On 19 May 1968, the paper published its first major campaigning report on the drug thalidomide, which had been reported by the Australian doctor William McBride in The Lancet in 1961 as being associated with birth defects, and been quickly withdrawn. The newspaper published a four-page Insight investigation, titled \"The Thalidomide File\", in the \"Weekly Review\" section. A compensation settlement for the UK victims was eventually reached with Distillers Company (now part of Diageo), which had distributed the drug in the UK.[citation needed]TNL was plagued by a series of industrial disputes at its plant at Gray's Inn Road in London, with the print unions resisting attempts to replace the old-fashioned hot-metal and labour-intensive Linotype method with technology that would allow the papers to be composed digitally. Thomson offered to invest millions of pounds to buy out obstructive practices and overmanning, but the unions rejected every proposal. As a result, publication of The Sunday Times and other titles in the group was suspended in November 1978. It did not resume until November 1979.[citation needed]Although journalists at The Times had been on full pay during the suspension, they went on strike demanding more money after production was resumed. Kenneth Thomson, the head of the company, felt betrayed and decided to sell. Evans tried to organise a management buyout of The Sunday Times, but Thomson decided instead to sell to Rupert Murdoch, who he thought had a better chance of dealing with the trade unions.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rupert Murdoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch"},{"link_name":"News International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_UK"},{"link_name":"naturalised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalised"},{"link_name":"The Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sun_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"News of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"Monopolies and Mergers Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopolies_and_Mergers_Commission"},{"link_name":"Fair Trading Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Trading_Act_1973"},{"link_name":"The Thomson Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Thomson_Corporation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"Frank Giles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Giles"},{"link_name":"Hitler Diaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler_Diaries"},{"link_name":"Hugh Trevor-Roper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris_1986-16"},{"link_name":"Andrew Neil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Neil"},{"link_name":"Thatcherite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thatcherite"},{"link_name":"Peregrine Worsthorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrine_Worsthorne"},{"link_name":"Sunday Telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Telegraph"},{"link_name":"nuclear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Andrew Morton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Morton_(writer)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_strike"},{"link_name":"Electrical, Electronic, Telecommunications and Plumbing Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical,_Electronic,_Telecommunications_and_Plumbing_Union"},{"link_name":"Wapping dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wapping_dispute"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Sunday Times Rich List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Times_Rich_List"},{"link_name":"Funday Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funday_Times"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Summerskill-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"pseudoscientific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscientific"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"John Witherow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Witherow"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"cash for questions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_for_questions"},{"link_name":"cash for honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_for_honours"},{"link_name":"corruption at FIFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_FIFA_corruption_case"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Sunday_Times_Insight_team-24"},{"link_name":"Marie Colvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Colvin"},{"link_name":"Jon Swain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Swain"},{"link_name":"Hala Jaber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hala_Jaber"},{"link_name":"Mark Franchetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Franchetti"},{"link_name":"Christina Lamb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Lamb"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"siege of Homs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Homs"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Sunday_Times_7Oct2012.jpg"},{"link_name":"Martin Ivens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Ivens"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rushton-27"}],"sub_title":"The Murdoch years (1981–present)","text":"Rupert Murdoch's News International acquired the group in February 1981. Murdoch, an Australian who in 1985 became a naturalised American citizen, already owned The Sun and the News of the World, but the Conservative government decided not to refer the deal to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission, citing a clause in the Fair Trading Act that exempted uneconomic businesses from referral. The Thomson Corporation had threatened to close the papers down if they were not taken over by someone else within an allotted time, and it was feared that any legal delay to Murdoch's takeover might lead to the two titles' demise. In return, Murdoch provided legally binding guarantees to preserve the titles' editorial independence.[citation needed]Evans was appointed editor of The Times in February 1981 and was replaced at The Sunday Times by Frank Giles. In 1983, the newspaper bought the serialisation rights to publish the faked Hitler Diaries, thinking them to be genuine after they were authenticated by the own newspaper's own independent director, Hugh Trevor-Roper, the historian and author of The Last Days of Hitler.[16]Under Andrew Neil, editor from 1983 until 1994, The Sunday Times took a strongly Thatcherite slant that contrasted with the traditional paternalistic conservatism expounded by Peregrine Worsthorne at the rival Sunday Telegraph. It also built on its reputation for investigations. Its scoops included the revelation in 1986 that Israel had manufactured more than 100 nuclear warheads[17] and the publication in 1992 of extracts from Andrew Morton's book, Diana: Her True Story in Her Own Words. In the early 1990s, the paper courted controversy with a series of articles in which it rejected the role of HIV in causing AIDS.[citation needed]In January 1986, after the announcement of a strike by print workers, production of The Sunday Times, along with other newspapers in the group, was shifted to a new plant in Wapping, and the strikers were dismissed. The plant, which allowed journalists to input copy directly, was activated with the help of the Electrical, Electronic, Telecommunications and Plumbing Union (EETPU). The print unions posted pickets and organised demonstrations outside the new plant to try to dissuade journalists and others from working there, in what became known as the Wapping dispute. The demonstrations sometimes turned violent. The protest ended in failure in February 1987.[citation needed]During Neil's editorship, a number of new sections were added: the annual \"The Sunday Times Rich List\" and the \"Funday Times\", in 1989 (the latter stopped appearing in print and was relaunched as a standalone website in March 2006, but was later closed); \"Style & Travel\", \"News Review\" and \"Arts\" in 1990; and \"Culture\" in 1992. In September 1994, \"Style\" and \"Travel\" became two separate sections.[citation needed]During Neil's time as editor, The Sunday Times backed a campaign to prove that HIV was not a cause of AIDS.[18][19][20][21] In 1990, The Sunday Times serialized a book by an American conservative who rejected the scientific consensus on the causes of AIDS and argued that AIDS could not spread to heterosexuals.[20] Articles and editorials in The Sunday Times cast doubt on the scientific consensus, described HIV as a \"politically correct virus\" about which there was a \"conspiracy of silence\", disputed that AIDS was spreading in Africa, claimed that tests for HIV were invalid, described the HIV/AIDS treatment drug AZT as harmful, and characterized the WHO as an \"Empire-building AIDS [organisation]\".[20] The pseudoscientific coverage of HIV/AIDS in The Sunday Times led the scientific journal Nature to monitor the newspaper's coverage and to publish letters rebutting Sunday Times articles which The Sunday Times refused to publish.[20] In response to this, The Sunday Times published an article headlined \"AIDS – why we won't be silenced\", which claimed that Nature engaged in censorship and \"sinister intent\".[20] In his 1996 book, Full Disclosure, Neil wrote that the HIV/AIDS denialism \"deserved publication to encourage debate\".[20] That same year, he wrote that The Sunday Times had been vindicated in its coverage, \"The Sunday Times was one of a handful of newspapers, perhaps the most prominent, which argued that heterosexual Aids was a myth. The figures are now in and this newspaper stands totally vindicated ... The history of Aids is one of the great scandals of our time. I do not blame doctors and the Aids lobby for warning that everybody might be at risk in the early days, when ignorance was rife and reliable evidence scant.\" He criticized the \"AIDS establishment\" and said \"Aids had become an industry, a job-creation scheme for the caring classes.\"[22]John Witherow, who became editor at the end of 1994 (after several months as acting editor), continued the newspaper's expansion. A website was launched in 1996 and new print sections added: \"Home\" in 2001, and \"Driving\" in 2002, which in 2006 was renamed \"InGear\". (It reverted to the name \"Driving\" from 7 October 2012, to coincide with the launch of a new standalone website, Sunday Times Driving.) Technology coverage was expanded in 2000 with the weekly colour magazine \"Doors\", and in 2003 \"The Month\", an editorial section presented as an interactive CD-ROM. Magazine partworks were regular additions, among them \"1000 Makers of Music\", published over six weeks in 1997.[citation needed]John Witherow oversaw a rise in circulation to 1.3 million[23] and reconfirmed The Sunday Times's reputation for publishing hard-hitting news stories – such as the cash for questions scandal in 1994 and the cash for honours scandal in 2006, and revelations of corruption at FIFA in 2010.[24] The newspaper's foreign coverage has been especially strong, and its reporters, Marie Colvin, Jon Swain, Hala Jaber, Mark Franchetti and Christina Lamb have dominated the Foreign Reporter of the Year category at the British Press Awards since 2000.[citation needed] Colvin, who worked for the paper from 1985, was killed in February 2012 by Syrian forces while covering the siege of Homs during that country's civil war.[25]In common with other newspapers, The Sunday Times has been hit by a fall in circulation, which has declined from a peak of 1.3 million to just over 710,000. It has a number of digital-only subscribers, which numbered 99,017 by January 2019.[26]Edition number 9,813 of The Sunday Times, published on 7 October 2012During January 2013, Martin Ivens became 'acting' editor of The Sunday Times in succession to John Witherow, who became the 'acting' editor of The Times at the same time. The independent directors rejected a permanent position for Ivens as editor to avoid any possible merger of The Sunday Times and daily Times titles.[27]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The Sunday Times has its own website. It previously shared an online presence with The Times, but in May 2010 they both launched their own sites to reflect their distinct brand identities. Since July 2010, the sites are charging for access.An iPad edition was launched in December 2010, and an Android version in August 2011. Since July 2012, the digital version of the paper has been available on Apple's Newsstand platform, allowing automated downloading of the news section. With over 500 MB of content every week, it is the biggest newspaper app in the world.[citation needed]The Sunday Times iPad app was named newspaper app of the year at the 2011 Newspaper Awards and has twice been ranked best newspaper or magazine app in the world by iMonitor.[citation needed] Various subscription packages exist, giving access to both the print and digital versions of the paper.On 2 October 2012, The Sunday Times launched Sunday Times Driving, a separate classified advertising site for premium vehicles that also includes editorial content from the newspaper as well as specially commissioned articles. It can be accessed without cost.","title":"Online presence"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"The Sunday Times Travel Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_Travel_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"The Sunday Times Travel Magazine","text":"This 164-page monthly magazine was sold separately from the newspaper and was Britain's best-selling travel magazine.[28] The first issue of The Sunday Times Travel Magazine was in 2003,[29][30] and it included news, features and insider guides.","title":"Related publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Thalidomide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalidomide"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Francis Chichester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Chichester"},{"link_name":"Sunday Times Golden Globe Race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Times_Golden_Globe_Race"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Kim Philby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Philby"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Bloody Sunday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Sunday_(1972)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Hitler Diaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler_Diaries"},{"link_name":"Hugh Trevor-Roper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris_1986-16"},{"link_name":"Mordechai Vanunu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordechai_Vanunu"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Spycatcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spycatcher"},{"link_name":"MI5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MI5"},{"link_name":"European Court of Human Rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Queen Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II"},{"link_name":"Margaret Thatcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Arms-to-Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms-to-Iraq"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Andrew Morton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Morton_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Prince Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Charles"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cash for questions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash-for-questions_affair#Riddick_and_Treddinick"},{"link_name":"Graham Riddick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Riddick"},{"link_name":"David Tredinnick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Tredinnick_(politician)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Michael Foot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Foot"},{"link_name":"Oleg Gordievsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleg_Gordievsky"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Richard Tomlinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Tomlinson"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"East Timor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Timor"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"New Year's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Year%27s_Honours"},{"link_name":"Queen's Birthday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_Honours"},{"link_name":"Dissolution honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_honours"},{"link_name":"OBEs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBE"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cash for honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_for_honours"},{"link_name":"Tony Blair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair"},{"link_name":"Lord Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Levy,_Baron_Levy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Brian Deer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Deer"},{"link_name":"Andrew Wakefield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield"},{"link_name":"MMR vaccine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMR_vaccine"},{"link_name":"The Lancet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"members of parliament agreeing to work for a fictitious lobbying firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_cash_for_influence_scandal"},{"link_name":"Stephen Byers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Byers"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"corruption within FIFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_and_2022_FIFA_World_Cup_bids#Controversy"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Sunday_Times_Insight_team-24"},{"link_name":"cash for influence scandal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_cash_for_influence_scandal"},{"link_name":"Adrian Severin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Severin"},{"link_name":"Ernst Strasser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Strasser"},{"link_name":"Zoran Thaler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoran_Thaler"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Peter Cruddas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Cruddas"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Tour de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_de_France"},{"link_name":"Lance Armstrong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance_Armstrong"},{"link_name":"David Walsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Walsh_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"doping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_in_sport"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Qatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar"},{"link_name":"FIFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA"},{"link_name":"2022 FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Paul Foot Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Foot_Award"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Simon & Schuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Edward Snowden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Snowden"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Whiston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiston,_Merseyside"},{"link_name":"murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murders_of_John_Greenwood_and_Gary_Miller"},{"link_name":"Merseyside Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merseyside_Police"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"double jeopardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_jeopardy"},{"link_name":"Director of Public Prosecutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_of_Public_Prosecutions"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Operation Yellowhammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Yellowhammer"},{"link_name":"Brexit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Boris Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson"},{"link_name":"COBR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBR"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"government's pandemic response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_government_response_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Failures of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failures_of_State"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"text":"Some of the more notable or controversial stories published in The Sunday Times include:[31]Thalidomide, a drug prescribed to pregnant women to treat morning sickness, was withdrawn in 1961 following reports that it was linked to a number of birth defects. The Sunday Times spent many years campaigning for compensation for the victims, providing case studies and evidence of the side-effects. In 1968, the Distillers Company agreed to a multimillion-pound compensation scheme for the victims.[citation needed]\nThe paper sponsored Francis Chichester's single-handed circumnavigation of the world under sail in 1966–67, and the Sunday Times Golden Globe Race in 1968–69.[citation needed]\nThe Insight team ran an investigation into Kim Philby, the Soviet double agent, that ran on 1 October 1967 under the headline \"Philby: I spied for Russia from 1933\".[citation needed]\nInsight carried out a major investigation in 1972 into Bloody Sunday in Northern Ireland.[citation needed]\nThe newspaper published the faked Hitler Diaries (1983), believing them to be genuine after they were authenticated by historian Hugh Trevor-Roper.[16]\nIsraeli nuclear weapons: using information from Mordechai Vanunu, The Sunday Times in 1986 revealed that Israel had manufactured more than 100 nuclear warheads.[citation needed]\nOn 12 July 1987 The Sunday Times began serialisation of the book Spycatcher, the memoirs of an MI5 agent, which had been banned in Britain. The paper successfully challenged subsequent legal action by the British government, winning its case at the European Court of Human Rights in 1991.[32]\nThe paper ran a story claiming Queen Elizabeth II, who generally maintains a strictly impartial role politically, was upset with the style of Margaret Thatcher's leadership.[33]\nIn 1990, in what became known as the Arms-to-Iraq affair, the paper revealed how Matrix Churchill and other British firms were supplying arms to Saddam Hussein's Iraq.[citation needed]\nIn 1992, the paper published extracts from Andrew Morton's book Diana: Her True Story in Her Own Words, which revealed for the first time the disastrous state of her marriage to Prince Charles.[citation needed]\nIn its \"cash for questions\" investigation in 1994, Graham Riddick, MP for Colne Valley and David Tredinnick, MP for Bosworth, accepted cheques for £1,000 each from an Insight journalist posing as a businessman in return for tabling a parliamentary question. The investigation followed information that some MPs were taking one-off payments to table questions.[34]\nUnder the headline, \"KGB: Michael Foot was our agent\", The Sunday Times ran an article on 19 February 1995 that claimed the Soviet intelligence services regarded Foot, a former leader of the Labour Party, as an \"agent of influence\", codenamed \"Agent Boot\", and that he had been in the pay of the KGB for many years. The article was based on the serialisation of the memoirs of Oleg Gordievsky, a former high-ranking KGB officer who defected from the Soviet Union to Britain in 1985. Crucially, the newspaper used material from the original manuscript of the book which had not been included in the published version. Foot successfully sued for libel, winning \"substantial\" damages.[35]\nIn 1997–98, the paper ran a series of exclusive stories based on revelations from Richard Tomlinson, a former MI6 spy, about life inside MI6 and secret MI6 operations around the world.[citation needed]\nDuring the siege of the United Nations compound in East Timor in 1999, the paper's foreign reporter, Marie Colvin, was one of only three journalists (all women) who remained to the end with the 1,500 people trapped there. She reported their plight both in The Sunday Times and in interviews on radio and television and was widely credited with saving their lives.[36]\nIn 2003, The Sunday Times published confidential Whitehall documents revealing the names of more than 300 people who had declined New Year's, Queen's Birthday and Dissolution honours (i.e. knighthoods, OBEs, etc.)[citation needed]\nIn 2006, in an investigation that became known as \"cash for honours\", The Sunday Times revealed how several prominent figures nominated for life peerages by the then prime minister, Tony Blair, had loaned large amounts of money to the Labour Party at the suggestion of Lord Levy, a Labour Party fundraiser.[citation needed]\nIn mid-2009, the newspaper ran a series of articles revealing how politicians were abusing the expenses system.[37]\nBetween 2004 and 2010, the newspaper ran an award-winning investigation by Brian Deer which revealed that research by Andrew Wakefield into the MMR vaccine was fraudulent. The investigation led to Wakefield being banned from medicine, and the retraction of his research from The Lancet.[citation needed]\nIn March 2010, undercover reporters from The Sunday Times Insight team filmed members of parliament agreeing to work for a fictitious lobbying firm for fees of £3,000–£5,000 a day. One of those implicated, Stephen Byers, described himself as \"sort of like a cab for hire\".[38]\nIn October 2010, an investigation by the newspaper exposed corruption within FIFA after a member of the association's committee which grants the World Cup guaranteed his vote to an undercover reporter after requesting £500,000 for a \"personal project\".[24]\nIn 2011, the paper broke what became known as the cash for influence scandal: it revealed that Adrian Severin, Ernst Strasser, Pablo Zalba Bidegain and Zoran Thaler tried to influence EU legislation in exchange for promised money. Both Strasser and Thaler resigned in March 2011.[39]\nIn March 2012, the paper filmed Peter Cruddas, the co-treasurer of the Conservative Party, offering access to David Cameron, the prime minister, in return for donations of £250,000. Cruddas resigned several hours later. Cameron said: \"What happened was completely unacceptable. This is not the way we raise money in the Conservative Party.\"[40]\nIn January 2013, the seven-times Tour de France winner Lance Armstrong confessed to having used performance-enhancing drugs during each of his Tour victories. The confession ended years of denials about allegations of cheating during most of the cyclist's professional career. The Sunday Times chief sports writer David Walsh had spent over a decade investigating Armstrong, his team and the systematic doping rife in the sport. The newspaper was forced to pay Armstrong £300,000 in damages in 2006 after he sued it for libel. Following Armstrong's lifelong ban (and subsequent televised confession) The Sunday Times said it would sue him to recover the damages, plus interest and costs, for the original proceedings which it called \"baseless and fraudulent\".[41]\nIn June 2014, the Insight team at The Sunday Times published a front-page story \"Plot to buy the World Cup\" that detailed how Qatar used secret slush funds to make dozens of payments totalling more than $5m to senior officials at FIFA to ensure the country won enough votes to secure hosting rights to the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[42] The revelation prompted calls for Qatar to be stripped of hosting the World Cup.[43] The reporting by Jonathan Calvert and Heidi Blake won numerous awards, including the Paul Foot Award.[44] It also formed the basis for the book by Calvert and Blake, published by Simon & Schuster, The Ugly Game.[45]\nIn June 2015, The Sunday Times ran a lead front article titled \"British spies betrayed to Russians and Chinese\". The article was controversial because it contained numerous unlikely and unsubstantiated claims. Shortly after publication parts of the online version of the article were changed quietly by the newspaper. The article appeared to be an attempt to smear the American whistleblower Edward Snowden, thus fuelling further doubt as to its independent editorship.[46][47][48]\nA 2016 Sunday Times investigation into the unsolved Whiston murders of John Greenwood and Gary Miller in 1980 led to the unearthing of new evidence, which led Merseyside Police to re-open the 40-year-old case.[49][50] Subsequently, in 2019 police attempted to re-try the original suspect acquitted in 1981 under double jeopardy legislation, but were not permitted to do so by the Director of Public Prosecutions, causing police to campaign for a change in the double jeopardy law.[51][52]\nIn August 2019, The Sunday Times received the leaked Operation Yellowhammer file about preparations for a \"no deal\" Brexit.[53]\nIn April 2020, an investigation by The Sunday Times' Insight team revealed Prime Minister Boris Johnson had skipped five COBR meetings in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom.[54] The investigation suggested that the British government underestimated the threat of the virus and failed to adequately prepare, and scrutinised Johnson's leadership during the crisis. It became the most read story in the history of The Times.[55] This, and subsequent investigations into the government's pandemic response, formed the basis of the 2021 book Failures of State.[56]","title":"Notable stories"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"News International phone hacking scandal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_International_phone_hacking_scandal"},{"link_name":"News of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"Gordon Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Brown"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-brown-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-brown-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-brown-59"},{"link_name":"Press Complaints Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_Complaints_Commission"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Phone hacking scandal","text":"In July 2011, The Sunday Times was implicated in the wider News International phone hacking scandal, which primarily involved the News of the World, a Murdoch tabloid newspaper published in the UK from 1843 to 2011. Former British prime minister Gordon Brown accused The Sunday Times of employing \"known criminals\" to impersonate him and obtain his private financial records.[57][58] Brown's bank reported that an investigator employed by The Sunday Times repeatedly impersonated Brown to gain access to his bank account records.[59] The Sunday Times vigorously denied these accusations and said that the story was in the public interest and that it had followed the Press Complaints Commission code on using subterfuge.[citation needed]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rejecting the role","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism"},{"link_name":"African AIDS epidemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"IPCC Fourth Assessment Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PressComplaint-62"},{"link_name":"Press Complaints Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_Complaints_Commission"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PressComplaint-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"sub_title":"Errors","text":"Over two years in the early 1990s, The Sunday Times published a series of articles rejecting the role of HIV in causing AIDS, calling the African AIDS epidemic a myth. In response, the scientific journal Nature described the paper's coverage of HIV/AIDS as \"seriously mistaken, and probably disastrous\".[60] Nature argued that the newspaper had \"so consistently misrepresented the role of HIV in the causation of AIDS that Nature plans to monitor its future treatment of the issue.\"[61]In January 2010, The Sunday Times published an article by Jonathan Leake, alleging that a figure in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was based on an \"unsubstantiated claim\". The story attracted worldwide attention. However, a scientist quoted in the same article later stated that the newspaper story was wrong and that quotes of him had been used in a misleading way.[62] Following an official complaint to the Press Complaints Commission,[62] The Sunday Times retracted the story and apologised.[63][64]In September 2012, Jonathan Leake published an article in The Sunday Times under the headline \"Only 100 adult cod in North Sea\".[65] This figure was later shown by a BBC article to be wildly incorrect.[66] The newspaper published a correction, apologising for an over simplification in the headline, which had referred to a fall in the number of fully mature cod over the age of 13, thereby indicating this is the breeding age of cod. In fact, as the newspaper subsequently pointed out, cod can start breeding between the ages of four and six, in which case there are many more mature cod in the North Sea.[67]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Irving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Irving"},{"link_name":"Holocaust denial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_denial"},{"link_name":"Goebbels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goebbels_Diaries"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-68"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Gerald Scarfe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Scarfe"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Netanyahu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu"},{"link_name":"International Holocaust Remembrance Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day"},{"link_name":"Anti-Defamation League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Claudia Winkleman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia_Winkleman"},{"link_name":"Vanessa Felt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_Feltz"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theguardian.com-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O%E2%80%99Loughlin-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O%E2%80%99Loughlin-74"},{"link_name":"Campaign Against Antisemitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_Against_Antisemitism"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theguardian.com-73"}],"sub_title":"Allegations of antisemitism","text":"In 1992, the paper agreed to pay David Irving, an author widely criticised for Holocaust denial, the sum of £75,000 to authenticate the Goebbels diaries and edit them for serialisation.[68] The deal was quickly cancelled after drawing strong international criticism.[citation needed]In January 2013, The Sunday Times published a Gerald Scarfe caricature depicting Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu cementing a wall with blood and Palestinians trapped between the bricks. The cartoon sparked an outcry, compounded by the fact that its publication coincided with International Holocaust Remembrance Day, and was condemned by the Anti-Defamation League.[69] After Rupert Murdoch tweeted that he considered it a \"grotesque, offensive cartoon\" and that Scarfe had \"never reflected the opinions of The Sunday Times\"[70] the newspaper issued an apology.[71] Journalist Ian Burrell, writing in The Independent, described the apology as an \"indication of the power of the Israel lobby in challenging critical media coverage of its politicians\" and one that questions Rupert Murdoch's assertion that he does not \"interfere in the editorial content of his papers\".[72]In July 2017, Kevin Myers wrote a column in The Sunday Times saying \"I note that two of the best-paid women presenters in the BBC – Claudia Winkleman and Vanessa Felt, with whose, no doubt, sterling work I am tragically unacquainted – are Jewish. Good for them\". He continued \"Jews are not generally noted for their insistence on selling their talent for the lowest possible price, which is the most useful measure there is of inveterate, lost-with-all-hands stupidity. I wonder, who are their agents? If they’re the same ones that negotiated the pay for the women on the lower scales, then maybe the latter have found their true value in the marketplace\".[73][74] After the column The Sunday Times fired Myers.[74] The Campaign Against Antisemitism criticized The Sunday Times for allowing Myers to write the column despite his past comments about Jews.[73]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other editions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Republic of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Alan Ruddock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Ruddock_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"John Burns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Burns_(journalist)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"full citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Brenda Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Power"},{"link_name":"Liam Fay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liam_Fay&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Matt Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Cooper_(Irish_journalist)"},{"link_name":"Damien Kiberd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damien_Kiberd"},{"link_name":"Stephen Price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Price_(journalist)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kevin Myers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Myers"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC300717-78"},{"link_name":"Rory Godson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rory_Godson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Fiona McHugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiona_McHugh"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Frank Fitzgibbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Fitzgibbon"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Irish edition","text":"The Republic of Ireland edition of The Sunday Times was launched on a small scale in 1993 with just two staff: Alan Ruddock and John Burns (who started as financial correspondent for the newspaper and is at present acting associate editor). It used the slogan \"The English just don't get it\".[75] It is now the third biggest-selling newspaper in Ireland measured in terms of full-price cover sales (Source: ABC January–June 2012).[full citation needed] Circulation had grown steadily to over 127,000 in the two decades before 2012, but has declined since and currently stands at 60,352 (January to June 2018).[76][77]The paper is heavily editionalised, with extensive Irish coverage of politics, general news, business, personal finance, sport, culture and lifestyle. The office employs 25 people. The paper also has a number of well-known freelance columnists including Brenda Power, Liam Fay, Matt Cooper, Damien Kiberd, Jill Kerby and Stephen Price. However, it ended collaboration with Kevin Myers after he had published a controversial column.[78] The Irish edition has had four editors since it was set up: Alan Ruddock from 1993 until 1996, Rory Godson from 1996 until 2000,[79] Fiona McHugh[80] from 2000 to 2005, and from 2005 until 2020 Frank Fitzgibbon.[81] John Burns has been acting editor of the Irish edition from 2020.[citation needed]","title":"Other editions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jason Allardyce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jason_Allardyce&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"Scotland on Sunday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland_on_Sunday"},{"link_name":"Sunday Herald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Herald"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Scottish edition","text":"For more than 20 years the paper has published a separate Scottish edition, which has been edited since January 2012 by Jason Allardyce. While most of the articles that run in the English edition appear in the Scottish edition, its staff also produces about a dozen Scottish news stories, including a front-page article, most weeks.[82] The edition also contains a weekly \"Scottish Focus\" feature and Scottish commentary, and covers Scottish sport in addition to providing Scottish television schedules. The Scottish issue is the biggest-selling 'quality newspaper' in the market, outselling both Scotland on Sunday and the Sunday Herald.[citation needed]","title":"Other editions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Daniel Whittle Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Whittle_Harvey"},{"link_name":"Thomas Gaspey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Gaspey"},{"link_name":"E. T. Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Tyrrel_Smith"},{"link_name":"Joseph Hatton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Hatton"},{"link_name":"Phil Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Stewart_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Arthur William à Beckett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_William_%C3%A0_Beckett"},{"link_name":"Rachel Beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Beer"},{"link_name":"Leonard Rees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Rees"},{"link_name":"Harry Hodson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Hodson"},{"link_name":"Denis Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"Harold Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Evans"},{"link_name":"Frank Giles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Giles"},{"link_name":"Andrew Neil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Neil"},{"link_name":"John Witherow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Witherow"},{"link_name":"Martin Ivens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Ivens"},{"link_name":"Emma Tucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Tucker"}],"text":"1821: Henry White\n1822: Daniel Whittle Harvey\n1828: Thomas Gaspey\n1854: William Carpenter\n1856: E. T. Smith\n1858: Henry M. Barnett\n1864: Joseph Knight and Ashby Sterry (acting editors)\n1874: Joseph Hatton\n1881: H. W. Oliphant\n1887: Phil Robinson\n1890: Arthur William à Beckett\n1893: Rachel Beer\n1901: Leonard Rees\n1932: William W. Hadley\n1950: Harry Hodson\n1961: Denis Hamilton\n1967: Harold Evans\n1981: Frank Giles\n1983: Andrew Neil\n1995: John Witherow\n2013: Martin Ivens\n2020: Emma Tucker\n2023: Ben Taylor","title":"Editors"}] | [{"image_text":"Plaque at No. 4 Salisbury Court, London, commemorating the first edition of The Sunday Times","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Sunday_Times_plaque_London_1822.jpg/220px-Sunday_Times_plaque_London_1822.jpg"},{"image_text":"Edition number 9,813 of The Sunday Times, published on 7 October 2012","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/04/The_Sunday_Times_7Oct2012.jpg/220px-The_Sunday_Times_7Oct2012.jpg"}] | [{"title":"The Sunday Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:The_Sunday_Times"},{"title":"Journalism portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Journalism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clock_Tower_-_Palace_of_Westminster,_London_-_May_2007_icon.png"},{"title":"London portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:London"},{"title":"Mrs Mills Solves all Your Problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs_Mills_Solves_all_Your_Problems"},{"title":"The Sunday Times Motorshow Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_International_Motor_Show"}] | [{"reference":"Turvill, William (19 January 2023). \"Ben Taylor named as new editor of The Sunday Times\". Press Gazette. Retrieved 11 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://pressgazette.co.uk/publishers/nationals/ben-taylor-named-as-new-editor-of-the-sunday-times/","url_text":"\"Ben Taylor named as new editor of The Sunday Times\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_Gazette","url_text":"Press Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"General Election 2015 explained: Newspapers\". The Independent. 28 April 2015. Retrieved 9 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/generalelection/general-election-2015-explained-newspapers-10211039.html","url_text":"\"General Election 2015 explained: Newspapers\""}]},{"reference":"Tobitt, Charlotte; Majid, Aisha (25 January 2023). \"National press ABCs: December distribution dive for freesheets Standard and City AM\". Press Gazette. Retrieved 14 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://pressgazette.co.uk/media-audience-and-business-data/media_metrics/most-popular-newspapers-uk-abc-monthly-circulation-figures-2/","url_text":"\"National press ABCs: December distribution dive for freesheets Standard and City AM\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Observer – Data – ABC\". Abc.org.uk.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.org.uk/product/2895","url_text":"\"The Observer – Data – ABC\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Sunday Telegraph – Data – ABC\". Abc.org.uk.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.org.uk/product/2324","url_text":"\"The Sunday Telegraph – Data – ABC\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Times – Data – ABC\". Abc.org.uk.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.org.uk/product/2896","url_text":"\"The Times – Data – ABC\""}]},{"reference":"Pritchard, Stephen (1 January 2006). \"Unravelling the DNA inside Britain's oldest Sunday paper\". The Observer. UK. Retrieved 17 August 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://observer.guardian.co.uk/theobserver/story/0,,1674998,00.html","url_text":"\"Unravelling the DNA inside Britain's oldest Sunday paper\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observer","url_text":"The Observer"}]},{"reference":"Hobson, Harold; Knightley, Phillip; Russell, Leonard (1972). The Pearl of Days. Hamish Hamilton. p. 22. ISBN 0-241-02266-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Hobson","url_text":"Hobson, Harold"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip_Knightley","url_text":"Knightley, Phillip"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Russell_(journalist)","url_text":"Russell, Leonard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamish_Hamilton","url_text":"Hamish Hamilton"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-02266-5","url_text":"0-241-02266-5"}]},{"reference":"Hobson, Harold; Knightley, Phillip; Russell, Leonard (1972). The Pearl of Days. Hamish Hamilton. p. 39. ISBN 0-241-02266-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-02266-5","url_text":"0-241-02266-5"}]},{"reference":"Hobson, Harold; Knightley, Phillip; Russell, Leonard (1972). The Pearl of Days. Hamish Hamilton. p. 52. ISBN 0-241-02266-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-02266-5","url_text":"0-241-02266-5"}]},{"reference":"Hobson, Harold; Knightley, Phillip; Russell, Leonard (1972). The Pearl of Days. Hamish Hamilton. p. 226. ISBN 0-241-02266-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-02266-5","url_text":"0-241-02266-5"}]},{"reference":"Hobson, Harold; Knightley, Phillip; Russell, Leonard (1972). The Pearl of Days. Hamish Hamilton. p. 227. ISBN 0-241-02266-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-02266-5","url_text":"0-241-02266-5"}]},{"reference":"Hobson, Harold; Knightley, Phillip; Russell, Leonard (1972). The Pearl of Days. Hamish Hamilton. p. 298. ISBN 0-241-02266-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-02266-5","url_text":"0-241-02266-5"}]},{"reference":"Hobson, Harold; Knightley, Phillip; Russell, Leonard (1972). The Pearl of Days. Hamish Hamilton. p. 339. ISBN 0-241-02266-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-02266-5","url_text":"0-241-02266-5"}]},{"reference":"Harris, Robert (1986). Selling Hitler: The Extraordinary Story of the Con Job of the Century – The Faking of the Hitler 'Diaries'. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 9780394553368.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sellinghitler00harr","url_text":"Selling Hitler: The Extraordinary Story of the Con Job of the Century – The Faking of the Hitler 'Diaries'"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394553368","url_text":"9780394553368"}]},{"reference":"\"Vanunu: Israel's nuclear telltale\". BBC News. 20 April 2004. Retrieved 16 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3640613.stm","url_text":"\"Vanunu: Israel's nuclear telltale\""}]},{"reference":"Summerskill, Ben (28 July 2002). \"Paper tiger\". The Observer. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161221085721/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2002/jul/28/sundaytimes.comment","url_text":"\"Paper tiger\""},{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/media/2002/jul/28/sundaytimes.comment","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ball, Philip (2 October 2006). \"When it's time to speak out\". News@nature. doi:10.1038/news061002-12. ISSN 1744-7933. S2CID 177131624.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews061002-12","url_text":"10.1038/news061002-12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1744-7933","url_text":"1744-7933"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:177131624","url_text":"177131624"}]},{"reference":"McKnight, David (2009). \"The Sunday Times and Andrew Neil\". Journalism Studies. 10 (6): 754–768. doi:10.1080/14616700903119891. S2CID 141612792.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14616700903119891","url_text":"10.1080/14616700903119891"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141612792","url_text":"141612792"}]},{"reference":"Franklin, Bob (ed.). Social Policy, the Media and Misrepresentation. Routledge. p. 72.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Neil, Andrew (1996). \"The great Aids myth is finally laid to rest\". The Sunday Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Neil","url_text":"Neil, Andrew"}]},{"reference":"\"42. John Witherow\". The Guardian. London. 9 July 2007. Retrieved 16 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/jul/09/mediatop1002007.mondaymediasection39","url_text":"\"42. John Witherow\""}]},{"reference":"The Sunday Times Insight team (17 October 2010). \"World Cup votes for sale\". The Sunday Times. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131203064942/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/National/article421312.ece","url_text":"\"World Cup votes for sale\""},{"url":"http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/uk_news/National/article421312.ece","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"A tribute to Marie Colvin\". The Sunday Times. 22 February 2012. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131203063431/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article876149.ece","url_text":"\"A tribute to Marie Colvin\""},{"url":"http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article876149.ece","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Sunday Times tablet edition - Data\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tales_of_Alvin_Maker | The Tales of Alvin Maker | ["1 Overview","2 Works","2.1 Books","2.2 Short works","2.3 Other works","3 Characters","3.1 Alvin Miller","3.2 Alternate history characters","3.3 Mentioned characters","3.4 The Unmaker","4 Themes","4.1 Mormonism","4.2 Race","4.3 Conflict","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Novel series by Orson Scott Card
Book one in The Tales of Alvin Maker series, Seventh Son (1987)
The Tales of Alvin Maker is a series of six alternate history fantasy novels written by American novelist Orson Scott Card, published from 1987 to 2003, with one more planned. They explore the experiences of a young man, Alvin Miller, who realizes he has incredible powers for creating and shaping things around him.
Overview
The stories take place on the American frontier in the early 19th century, a fantasy setting based on early American folklore and superstition in a world in which folk magic actually works and manifests differently by race. Many Caucasian characters have a limited supernatural ability, or “knack,” to do some task nearly perfectly, Native Americans manifest nature magic, and people of African ancestry can work voodoo.
The stories involve a number of historical events and figures but are as a creation of alternate history. The primary divergence is the survival of Oliver Cromwell from the illness that killed him in reality since a physician secretly has a magical healing knack (Cromwell considered such knacks evil witchcraft). The Colonial United States is divided in the books into a number of separate nations, including a smaller United States, whose capital is Philadelphia and largest city is a Dutch-settled but increasingly-English-speaking New Amsterdam. The series displays much stronger Native American influence in its culture and society between New England and Virginia that extends westwards to Ohio. (New England is a colony of a Republican England in which the English Restoration never occurred thanks to Cromwell’s survival.) A monarchy on the southern portion of the Eastern Seaboard (the real-world Carolinas, Georgia, etc.), known as the "Crown Colonies," was founded by the House of Stuart in exile. An autonomous region, known as "Apalachee," is centered on the Appalachian Mountains. Canada remains controlled by France, and Florida and Nueva Barcelona (the real-world Louisiana) are colonized by Spain. The real-world Mexico is an indigenous empire but faces the prospect of war from the United States and from European powers. In addition, many historical figures are presented as caricatures or bear only superficial resemblance to their historical life.
Some historical figures are also accorded knacks, such as Benjamin Franklin (appearing only briefly but being repeatedly mentioned), who is said to have been a Maker, and Napoleon, who has the abilities to make others adore and obey him and to see others' great ambitions.
Famous Native American figures include Tecumseh, who is called "Ta Kumsaw" in the books, and his brother Tensquatawa is also featured, as "Tenskwa Tawa." The characters in the book display features that are similar to those of both real-life famous Native Americans. The famous Battle of Tippecanoe in which both brothers were involved occurs in the second book, Red Prophet, but its outcome is different from the historic one.
Works
Books
Seventh Son (1987) - Locus Award winner, 1988; Hugo and World Fantasy Awards nominee, 1988
Red Prophet (1988) - Nebula Award nominee, 1988; Locus Award winner, 1989; Hugo Award nominee, 1989
Prentice Alvin (1989) - Nebula Award nominee, 1989; Locus Award winner, 1990; Hugo Award nominee, 1990
Alvin Journeyman (1995) - Locus Award winner, 1996
Heartfire (1998) - Locus Award nominee, 1999
The Crystal City (2003)
Master Alvin (in progress)
Short works
"Hatrack River" - Novelette, published in Asimovs Magazine (Aug, 1986)
"Prentice Alvin and the No-Good Plow" - poem, published in Maps in a Mirror (1990)
"Grinning Man" - short story, published in Legends (1998)
"The Yazoo Queen" - short story, published in Legends II (2003)
"Alvin and the Apple Tree" - short story, published in Dead Man's Hand (2014)
"Naysayers" - short story, published in National Review (November 19, 2015 issue)
Other works
Red Prophet: The Tales Of Alvin Maker - a comic book series
Alvin Maker Game - a MMORPG - that was in development in 2005, but never published
Characters
Alvin Miller
Alvin Miller, the seventh son of a seventh son, discovers that his knack far surpasses that of everyone else. He can change both living and nonliving matter simply by force of will and so has the title "Maker." This power comes at a cost, however, since Alvin feels a great responsibility to use his power for good, and there are also forces that actively seek his death.
Alvin must discover how to use his abilities, apply them for good, and struggle to survive. Along the way, he is helped by a number of people who have knacks that are not as strong, but they see in Alvin a way to use their wisdom and abilities to contribute to a greater good. Some people try to misguide him or exploit his abilities for their own purposes.
Alvin Miller is Card's reimagining of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement.
Alternate history characters
William Blake (as the major character Taleswapper)
William Henry Harrison
Andrew Jackson
Napoleon Bonaparte
Marquis de La Fayette
Daniel Webster
Denmark Vesey
John Adams
Abraham Lincoln
Honoré de Balzac
John James Audubon
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Tecumseh (as Ta Kumsaw)
Tensquatawa (as Lolla-Wossiky/Tenskwa Tawa)
Stephen F. Austin
James Bowie
Mentioned characters
These are characters who are mentioned but do not appear.
Oliver Cromwell: His survival from the illness that killed him in reality because his physician, unknown to Cromwell, had a magical “knack” for healing and so the monarchy was not restored, which drastically altered the subsequent history of both Great Britain and British North America. That is the key divergence point of this alternative history.
Benjamin Franklin: He is described as a "wizard" and also as a possible "maker" himself (he appears briefly in Seventh Son as "Old Ben").
George Washington: He is escribed as "Lord Potomac," who served under the British crown but surrendered his army and was subsequently beheaded for treason in the series's alternate version of the American Revolution.
Thomas Jefferson: He serves as the first President of the United States in this timeline.
John Quincy Adams: He serves as Governor of Massachusetts during the events of Heartfire.
The Unmaker
The Unmaker is a supernatural force that breaks apart matter and aims to destroy and consume everything and everyone. Essentially, the Unmaker is entropy as a conscious and destructive entity. Aside from opposing all life, the Unmaker is the particular nemesis of Alvin Miller, who is a Maker of exceptional power and prodigious creativity and enriches life by constructing both objects and social bridges. That threatens and thwarts the Unmaker, which repeatedly attempts to do away with Alvin, at first by inducing accidents at Alvin's childhood, especially by drowning since eroding water has a natural affinity to it, and later by influencing people to challenge and repudiate him.
To make something is to oppose the Unmaker, but a point often made is that is futile. By natural law, the Unmaker can tear down faster than any man can build. On the other hand, making cares nothing about natural law. As Taleswapper reveals to a seven-year-old Alvin, the creation of what is known as the Crystal City could defeat and even destroy the Unmaker. That becomes Alvin's mission in life.
The Unmaker is usually undetectable to most people, but Alvin can detect its attention as a shimmering around his field of vision. It manifests when it needs to tempt people into war and destruction and then takes the most effective shape. A priest would see an avenging angel, a slave-owner would see a great overseer, etc. It does not appear to those who destroy willingly since they serve its cause already.
Themes
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Mormonism
Alvin has some characteristics similar to Joseph Smith, the founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Card is a member of this denomination, which is known informally as Mormons. Some of the events in Seventh Son are similar to stories about Smith's childhood. Alvin has visions of creating a Crystal City, which is similar to the church settlement of Nauvoo, Illinois. Alvin has had premonitions that he may die after building the Crystal City, which suggests the Smith's death in Carthage, Illinois. Alvin was also the name of Smith's eldest brother.
Race
Race also plays a large part in the stories, particularly in how culture shapes the abilities that people of different groups develop. "Whites" have knacks or cultivated skills that appear to be derived from the folklore and traditions of Colonial America and Western Europe. "Reds" align themselves with the rhythms of nature but also use blood to perform some of their magic. "Blacks" channel their skills into creating objects of power like in the practices of voodoo.
Conflict
A recurring theme of the books is the conflict between creators and destroyers. Alvin is a Maker and confronts the Unmaker.
See also
Novels portal
List of works by Orson Scott Card
Orson Scott Card
References
^ a b c "1988 Award Winners & Nominees". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
^ a b c "1989 Award Winners & Nominees". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
^ a b "1990 Award Winners & Nominees". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
^ "1996 Award Winners & Nominees". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
^ "1999 Award Winners & Nominees". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.
^ "Orson Scott Card interview - the extended version - New Zealand Listener". New Zealand Listener. 2013-10-30. Archived from the original on 2016-10-22.
^ ibid-11962 (2021-07-07). "Orson Scott Card has begun working on Master Alvin, the seventh and final book in The Tales of Alvin Maker series". r/ender. Retrieved 2021-11-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "National Review Online". National Review. 19 November 2015.
^ "Hatrack River - eGenesis to Develop Alvin's World as a Multi-player Online Game".
^ Collings, Michael R. (1992). Card, Orson Scott (ed.). "Penetrating the Heart of Mormonism". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 25 (1): 178–180. ISSN 0012-2157. JSTOR 45236584.
^ Porschet, Alma (1994-01-01). "Orson Scott Card: Without Joseph Smith and Mormonism There Would Be No Seventh Son, No Red Prophet, No Alvin Maker". English Master's Theses.
^ Cracroft, Richard H. (1996). "Rendering the Ineffable Effable: Treating Joseph Smith's First Vision in Imaginative Literature". Brigham Young University Studies. 36 (2): 93–116. ISSN 0007-0106. JSTOR 43041991.
External links
The official Orson Scott Card website
vteWorks by Orson Scott CardEnder's Game seriesBooksEnder Series
Ender's Game (1985)
Speaker for the Dead (1986)
Xenocide (1991)
Children of the Mind (1996)
Ender in Exile (2008)
Shadow Saga
Ender's Shadow (1999)
Shadow of the Hegemon (2001)
Shadow Puppets (2002)
Shadow of the Giant (2005)
Shadows in Flight (2012)
The Last Shadow (2021)
Formic Wars
Earth Unaware (2012)
Earth Afire (2013)
Earth Awakens (2014)
The Swarm (2016)
The Hive (2019)
The Queens (TBA)
First Meetings (2002)
A War of Gifts: An Ender Story (2007)
Children of the Fleet (2017)
Short stories
"Ender's Game" (1977)
"Gloriously Bright" (1991)
"Investment Counselor"
"The Polish Boy"
"Teacher's Pest"
"Mazer in Prison"
"Pretty Boy"
"Cheater"
"A Young Man with Prospects"
"The Gold Bug"
"Ender's Stocking"
"Ender's Homecoming"
"Ender in Flight"
"Renegat"
"Governor Wiggin"
"Messenger"
Other media
Comics
Film
Characters
Ender Wiggin
Formics
Jane
The Tales of Alvin MakerBooks
Seventh Son (1987)
Red Prophet (1988)
Prentice Alvin (1989)
Alvin Journeyman (1995)
Heartfire (1998)
The Crystal City (2003)
Other media
"Prentice Alvin and the No-Good Plow" (poem, 1989)
Red Prophet: The Tales of Alvin Maker (comic book, 2006)
The Worthing seriesBooks
Capitol (1979)
Hot Sleep (1979)
The Worthing Chronicle (1983)
The Worthing Saga (1990)
Other worksHomecoming Saga
The Memory of Earth (1992)
The Call of Earth (1992)
The Ships of Earth (1994)
Earthfall (1995)
Earthborn (1995)
Women of Genesis
Sarah (2000)
Rebekah (2001)
Rachel and Leah (2004)
The Wives of Israel (TBA)
Mithermages series
Sandmagic (1979)
Stonefather (2008)
The Lost Gate (2011)
The Gate Thief (2013)
Gatefather (2015)
Mayflower series
Lovelock (1994)
Rasputin (TBA)
The Empire duet
Empire (2006)
Hidden Empire (2009)
The Pathfinder series
Pathfinder (2010)
Ruins (2012)
Visitors (2014)
Standalone novels
A Planet Called Treason (1979)
Songmaster (1980)
Hart's Hope (1983)
Saints (1984)
Wyrms (1987)
Treason (1988)
The Abyss (1989)
Lost Boys (1992)
Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus (1996)
Treasure Box (1996)
Stone Tables (1997)
Homebody (1998)
Enchantment (1999)
Magic Street (2005)
Invasive Procedures (2007)
Bully and the Beast (TBA)
Story collections
Unaccompanied Sonata and Other Stories (1980)
Cardography (1987)
The Folk of the Fringe (1989)
Maps in a Mirror (1990)
Keeper of Dreams (2008)
Other works
Listen, Mom and Dad (1977)
Ainge (1981)
Saintspeak (1981)
Eye for Eye (1987)
Loom (1990)
The Secret of Monkey Island (1990)
The Dig (1995)
NeoHunter (1996)
Magic Mirror (1999)
Robota (2003)
An Open Book (2004)
Ultimate Iron Man (2005)
Advent Rising (2005)
InterGalactic Medicine Show (2005)
Hamlet's Father (2011)
Firefall (2014) | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SeventhSon(1stEd).jpg"},{"link_name":"alternate history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternate_history_(fiction)"},{"link_name":"fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy"},{"link_name":"Orson Scott Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orson_Scott_Card"}],"text":"Book one in The Tales of Alvin Maker series, Seventh Son (1987)The Tales of Alvin Maker is a series of six alternate history fantasy novels written by American novelist Orson Scott Card, published from 1987 to 2003, with one more planned. They explore the experiences of a young man, Alvin Miller, who realizes he has incredible powers for creating and shaping things around him.","title":"The Tales of Alvin Maker"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"frontier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontier"},{"link_name":"folklore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore"},{"link_name":"superstition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition"},{"link_name":"Caucasian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_race"},{"link_name":"supernatural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural"},{"link_name":"Native Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"African","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_diaspora"},{"link_name":"voodoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Vodun"},{"link_name":"alternate history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternate_history"},{"link_name":"Oliver Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"witchcraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witchcraft"},{"link_name":"Colonial United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_United_States"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"New Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England"},{"link_name":"Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia"},{"link_name":"Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio"},{"link_name":"Republican England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England"},{"link_name":"English Restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Restoration"},{"link_name":"Eastern Seaboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Carolinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolinas"},{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)"},{"link_name":"House of Stuart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Stuart"},{"link_name":"Appalachian Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"caricatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caricatures"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Napoleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon"},{"link_name":"Tecumseh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh"},{"link_name":"Tensquatawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensquatawa"},{"link_name":"Battle of Tippecanoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tippecanoe"},{"link_name":"Red Prophet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Prophet"}],"text":"The stories take place on the American frontier in the early 19th century, a fantasy setting based on early American folklore and superstition in a world in which folk magic actually works and manifests differently by race. Many Caucasian characters have a limited supernatural ability, or “knack,” to do some task nearly perfectly, Native Americans manifest nature magic, and people of African ancestry can work voodoo.The stories involve a number of historical events and figures but are as a creation of alternate history. The primary divergence is the survival of Oliver Cromwell from the illness that killed him in reality since a physician secretly has a magical healing knack (Cromwell considered such knacks evil witchcraft). The Colonial United States is divided in the books into a number of separate nations, including a smaller United States, whose capital is Philadelphia and largest city is a Dutch-settled but increasingly-English-speaking New Amsterdam. The series displays much stronger Native American influence in its culture and society between New England and Virginia that extends westwards to Ohio. (New England is a colony of a Republican England in which the English Restoration never occurred thanks to Cromwell’s survival.) A monarchy on the southern portion of the Eastern Seaboard (the real-world Carolinas, Georgia, etc.), known as the \"Crown Colonies,\" was founded by the House of Stuart in exile. An autonomous region, known as \"Apalachee,\" is centered on the Appalachian Mountains. Canada remains controlled by France, and Florida and Nueva Barcelona (the real-world Louisiana) are colonized by Spain. The real-world Mexico is an indigenous empire but faces the prospect of war from the United States and from European powers. In addition, many historical figures are presented as caricatures or bear only superficial resemblance to their historical life.Some historical figures are also accorded knacks, such as Benjamin Franklin (appearing only briefly but being repeatedly mentioned), who is said to have been a Maker, and Napoleon, who has the abilities to make others adore and obey him and to see others' great ambitions.Famous Native American figures include Tecumseh, who is called \"Ta Kumsaw\" in the books, and his brother Tensquatawa is also featured, as \"Tenskwa Tawa.\" The characters in the book display features that are similar to those of both real-life famous Native Americans. The famous Battle of Tippecanoe in which both brothers were involved occurs in the second book, Red Prophet, but its outcome is different from the historic one.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Seventh Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_Son_(novel)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1988-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1988-1"},{"link_name":"Red Prophet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Prophet"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1988-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1989-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1989-2"},{"link_name":"Prentice Alvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Alvin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1989-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1990-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1990-3"},{"link_name":"Alvin Journeyman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Journeyman"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1996-4"},{"link_name":"Heartfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartfire"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWE-1999-5"},{"link_name":"The Crystal City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crystal_City"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"Seventh Son (1987) - Locus Award winner, 1988;[1] Hugo and World Fantasy Awards nominee, 1988[1]\nRed Prophet (1988) - Nebula Award nominee, 1988;[1] Locus Award winner, 1989;[2] Hugo Award nominee, 1989[2]\nPrentice Alvin (1989) - Nebula Award nominee, 1989;[2] Locus Award winner, 1990;[3] Hugo Award nominee, 1990[3]\nAlvin Journeyman (1995) - Locus Award winner, 1996[4]\nHeartfire (1998) - Locus Award nominee, 1999[5]\nThe Crystal City (2003)\nMaster Alvin (in progress)[6][7]","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Prentice Alvin and the No-Good Plow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Alvin_and_the_No-Good_Plow"},{"link_name":"Maps in a Mirror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maps_in_a_Mirror"},{"link_name":"Legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legends_(book)"},{"link_name":"Legends II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legends_II_(book)"},{"link_name":"National Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Review"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Short works","text":"\"Hatrack River\" - Novelette, published in Asimovs Magazine (Aug, 1986)\n\"Prentice Alvin and the No-Good Plow\" - poem, published in Maps in a Mirror (1990)\n\"Grinning Man\" - short story, published in Legends (1998)\n\"The Yazoo Queen\" - short story, published in Legends II (2003)\n\"Alvin and the Apple Tree\" - short story, published in Dead Man's Hand (2014)\n\"Naysayers\" - short story, published in National Review (November 19, 2015 issue)[8]","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Red Prophet: The Tales Of Alvin Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Prophet:_The_Tales_Of_Alvin_Maker"},{"link_name":"MMORPG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMORPG"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Hatrack-9"}],"sub_title":"Other works","text":"Red Prophet: The Tales Of Alvin Maker - a comic book series\nAlvin Maker Game - a MMORPG - that was in development in 2005, but never published[9]","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"seventh son of a seventh son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_son_of_a_seventh_son"},{"link_name":"Joseph Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith"},{"link_name":"Latter Day Saint movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Alvin Miller","text":"Alvin Miller, the seventh son of a seventh son, discovers that his knack far surpasses that of everyone else. He can change both living and nonliving matter simply by force of will and so has the title \"Maker.\" This power comes at a cost, however, since Alvin feels a great responsibility to use his power for good, and there are also forces that actively seek his death.Alvin must discover how to use his abilities, apply them for good, and struggle to survive. Along the way, he is helped by a number of people who have knacks that are not as strong, but they see in Alvin a way to use their wisdom and abilities to contribute to a greater good. Some people try to misguide him or exploit his abilities for their own purposes.Alvin Miller is Card's reimagining of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement.[10][11][12]","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake"},{"link_name":"William Henry Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison"},{"link_name":"Andrew Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Napoleon Bonaparte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte"},{"link_name":"Marquis de La Fayette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_de_La_Fayette"},{"link_name":"Daniel Webster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Webster"},{"link_name":"Denmark Vesey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_Vesey"},{"link_name":"John Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams"},{"link_name":"Abraham Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"Honoré de Balzac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac"},{"link_name":"John James Audubon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Audubon"},{"link_name":"Ralph Waldo Emerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson"},{"link_name":"Tecumseh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh"},{"link_name":"Tensquatawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensquatawa"},{"link_name":"Stephen F. Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_F._Austin"},{"link_name":"James Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bowie"}],"sub_title":"Alternate history characters","text":"William Blake (as the major character Taleswapper)\nWilliam Henry Harrison\nAndrew Jackson\nNapoleon Bonaparte\nMarquis de La Fayette\nDaniel Webster\nDenmark Vesey\nJohn Adams\nAbraham Lincoln\nHonoré de Balzac\nJohn James Audubon\nRalph Waldo Emerson\nTecumseh (as Ta Kumsaw)\nTensquatawa (as Lolla-Wossiky/Tenskwa Tawa)\nStephen F. Austin\nJames Bowie","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oliver Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Kings"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"beheaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decapitation"},{"link_name":"treason","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treason"},{"link_name":"American Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Thomas Jefferson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson"},{"link_name":"President of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"John Quincy Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams"},{"link_name":"Governor of Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts"}],"sub_title":"Mentioned characters","text":"These are characters who are mentioned but do not appear.Oliver Cromwell: His survival from the illness that killed him in reality because his physician, unknown to Cromwell, had a magical “knack” for healing and so the monarchy was not restored, which drastically altered the subsequent history of both Great Britain and British North America. That is the key divergence point of this alternative history.\nBenjamin Franklin: He is described as a \"wizard\" and also as a possible \"maker\" himself (he appears briefly in Seventh Son as \"Old Ben\").\nGeorge Washington: He is escribed as \"Lord Potomac,\" who served under the British crown but surrendered his army and was subsequently beheaded for treason in the series's alternate version of the American Revolution.\nThomas Jefferson: He serves as the first President of the United States in this timeline.\nJohn Quincy Adams: He serves as Governor of Massachusetts during the events of Heartfire.","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy"}],"sub_title":"The Unmaker","text":"The Unmaker is a supernatural force that breaks apart matter and aims to destroy and consume everything and everyone. Essentially, the Unmaker is entropy as a conscious and destructive entity. Aside from opposing all life, the Unmaker is the particular nemesis of Alvin Miller, who is a Maker of exceptional power and prodigious creativity and enriches life by constructing both objects and social bridges. That threatens and thwarts the Unmaker, which repeatedly attempts to do away with Alvin, at first by inducing accidents at Alvin's childhood, especially by drowning since eroding water has a natural affinity to it, and later by influencing people to challenge and repudiate him.To make something is to oppose the Unmaker, but a point often made is that is futile. By natural law, the Unmaker can tear down faster than any man can build. On the other hand, making cares nothing about natural law. As Taleswapper reveals to a seven-year-old Alvin, the creation of what is known as the Crystal City could defeat and even destroy the Unmaker. That becomes Alvin's mission in life.The Unmaker is usually undetectable to most people, but Alvin can detect its attention as a shimmering around his field of vision. It manifests when it needs to tempt people into war and destruction and then takes the most effective shape. A priest would see an avenging angel, a slave-owner would see a great overseer, etc. It does not appear to those who destroy willingly since they serve its cause already.","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joseph Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith"},{"link_name":"the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints"},{"link_name":"Mormons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormons"},{"link_name":"Nauvoo, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauvoo,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Smith's death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Joseph_Smith"},{"link_name":"Carthage, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"eldest brother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Smith_(brother_of_Joseph_Smith)"}],"sub_title":"Mormonism","text":"Alvin has some characteristics similar to Joseph Smith, the founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Card is a member of this denomination, which is known informally as Mormons. Some of the events in Seventh Son are similar to stories about Smith's childhood. Alvin has visions of creating a Crystal City, which is similar to the church settlement of Nauvoo, Illinois. Alvin has had premonitions that he may die after building the Crystal City, which suggests the Smith's death in Carthage, Illinois. Alvin was also the name of Smith's eldest brother.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)"},{"link_name":"Whites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_race"},{"link_name":"Colonial America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_America"},{"link_name":"Western Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe"},{"link_name":"Reds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature"},{"link_name":"blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood"},{"link_name":"Blacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Americans"},{"link_name":"voodoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Vodou"}],"sub_title":"Race","text":"Race also plays a large part in the stories, particularly in how culture shapes the abilities that people of different groups develop. \"Whites\" have knacks or cultivated skills that appear to be derived from the folklore and traditions of Colonial America and Western Europe. \"Reds\" align themselves with the rhythms of nature but also use blood to perform some of their magic. \"Blacks\" channel their skills into creating objects of power like in the practices of voodoo.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Conflict","text":"A recurring theme of the books is the conflict between creators and destroyers. Alvin is a Maker and confronts the Unmaker.","title":"Themes"}] | [{"image_text":"Book one in The Tales of Alvin Maker series, Seventh Son (1987)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9d/SeventhSon%281stEd%29.jpg/160px-SeventhSon%281stEd%29.jpg"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Book_collection.jpg"},{"title":"Novels portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Novels"},{"title":"List of works by Orson Scott Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_by_Orson_Scott_Card"},{"title":"Orson Scott Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orson_Scott_Card"}] | [{"reference":"\"1988 Award Winners & Nominees\". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1988","url_text":"\"1988 Award Winners & Nominees\""}]},{"reference":"\"1989 Award Winners & Nominees\". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1989","url_text":"\"1989 Award Winners & Nominees\""}]},{"reference":"\"1990 Award Winners & Nominees\". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1990","url_text":"\"1990 Award Winners & Nominees\""}]},{"reference":"\"1996 Award Winners & Nominees\". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1996","url_text":"\"1996 Award Winners & Nominees\""}]},{"reference":"\"1999 Award Winners & Nominees\". Worlds Without End. Retrieved 2009-07-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1999","url_text":"\"1999 Award Winners & Nominees\""}]},{"reference":"\"Orson Scott Card interview - the extended version - New Zealand Listener\". New Zealand Listener. 2013-10-30. Archived from the original on 2016-10-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161022060746/http://www.listener.co.nz/culture/books/orson-scott-card-interview-the-extended-version/","url_text":"\"Orson Scott Card interview - the extended version - New Zealand Listener\""},{"url":"http://www.listener.co.nz/culture/books/orson-scott-card-interview-the-extended-version/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"ibid-11962 (2021-07-07). \"Orson Scott Card has begun working on Master Alvin, the seventh and final book in The Tales of Alvin Maker series\". r/ender. Retrieved 2021-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reddit.com/r/ender/comments/ofqw0w/orson_scott_card_has_begun_working_on_master/","url_text":"\"Orson Scott Card has begun working on Master Alvin, the seventh and final book in The Tales of Alvin Maker series\""}]},{"reference":"\"National Review Online\". National Review. 19 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nationalreview.com/nrd/articles/426281/naysayers","url_text":"\"National Review Online\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Review","url_text":"National Review"}]},{"reference":"\"Hatrack River - eGenesis to Develop Alvin's World as a Multi-player Online Game\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hatrack.com/news-reviews/news/2005-01-05.shtml","url_text":"\"Hatrack River - eGenesis to Develop Alvin's World as a Multi-player Online Game\""}]},{"reference":"Collings, Michael R. (1992). Card, Orson Scott (ed.). \"Penetrating the Heart of Mormonism\". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 25 (1): 178–180. ISSN 0012-2157. JSTOR 45236584.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/45236584","url_text":"\"Penetrating the Heart of Mormonism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0012-2157","url_text":"0012-2157"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/45236584","url_text":"45236584"}]},{"reference":"Porschet, Alma (1994-01-01). \"Orson Scott Card: Without Joseph Smith and Mormonism There Would Be No Seventh Son, No Red Prophet, No Alvin Maker\". English Master's Theses.","urls":[{"url":"https://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/eng_theses/102","url_text":"\"Orson Scott Card: Without Joseph Smith and Mormonism There Would Be No Seventh Son, No Red Prophet, No Alvin Maker\""}]},{"reference":"Cracroft, Richard H. (1996). \"Rendering the Ineffable Effable: Treating Joseph Smith's First Vision in Imaginative Literature\". Brigham Young University Studies. 36 (2): 93–116. ISSN 0007-0106. JSTOR 43041991.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/43041991","url_text":"\"Rendering the Ineffable Effable: Treating Joseph Smith's First Vision in Imaginative Literature\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0007-0106","url_text":"0007-0106"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/43041991","url_text":"43041991"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Tales_of_Alvin_Maker&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve it"},{"Link":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1988","external_links_name":"\"1988 Award Winners & Nominees\""},{"Link":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1989","external_links_name":"\"1989 Award Winners & Nominees\""},{"Link":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1990","external_links_name":"\"1990 Award Winners & Nominees\""},{"Link":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1996","external_links_name":"\"1996 Award Winners & Nominees\""},{"Link":"http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1999","external_links_name":"\"1999 Award Winners & Nominees\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161022060746/http://www.listener.co.nz/culture/books/orson-scott-card-interview-the-extended-version/","external_links_name":"\"Orson Scott Card interview - the extended version - New Zealand Listener\""},{"Link":"http://www.listener.co.nz/culture/books/orson-scott-card-interview-the-extended-version/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.reddit.com/r/ender/comments/ofqw0w/orson_scott_card_has_begun_working_on_master/","external_links_name":"\"Orson Scott Card has begun working on Master Alvin, the seventh and final book in The Tales of Alvin Maker series\""},{"Link":"https://www.nationalreview.com/nrd/articles/426281/naysayers","external_links_name":"\"National Review Online\""},{"Link":"http://www.hatrack.com/news-reviews/news/2005-01-05.shtml","external_links_name":"\"Hatrack River - eGenesis to Develop Alvin's World as a Multi-player Online Game\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/45236584","external_links_name":"\"Penetrating the Heart of Mormonism\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0012-2157","external_links_name":"0012-2157"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/45236584","external_links_name":"45236584"},{"Link":"https://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/eng_theses/102","external_links_name":"\"Orson Scott Card: Without Joseph Smith and Mormonism There Would Be No Seventh Son, No Red Prophet, No Alvin Maker\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/43041991","external_links_name":"\"Rendering the Ineffable Effable: Treating Joseph Smith's First Vision in Imaginative Literature\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0007-0106","external_links_name":"0007-0106"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/43041991","external_links_name":"43041991"},{"Link":"http://www.hatrack.com/","external_links_name":"The official Orson Scott Card website"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wolverine_(2013_film) | The Wolverine (film) | ["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Development","3.1 Pre-production","3.2 Filming","3.3 Post-production","4 Music","5 Release","5.1 Theatrical","5.2 Marketing","5.3 Home media","6 Reception","6.1 Box office","6.2 Critical response","6.3 Legacy","6.4 Accolades","7 Sequel","8 Notes","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"] | 2013 film by James Mangold
"Wolverine (film)" redirects here. For the 2009 film, see X-Men Origins: Wolverine. For other uses, see Wolverine (disambiguation).
The WolverineTheatrical release posterDirected byJames MangoldScreenplay by
Mark Bomback
Scott Frank
Based onWolverineby Chris ClaremontFrank MillerProduced by
Lauren Shuler Donner
Hutch Parker
Starring
Hugh Jackman
Hiroyuki Sanada
Tao Okamoto
Rila Fukushima
Famke Janssen
Will Yun Lee
Svetlana Khodchenkova
CinematographyRoss EmeryEdited byMichael McCuskerMusic byMarco BeltramiProductioncompanies
20th Century Fox
Marvel Entertainment
Donners' Company
TSG Entertainment
Distributed by20th Century FoxRelease date
July 26, 2013 (2013-07-26) (United States)
Running time126 minutesCountries
United States
United Kingdom
Languages
English
Japanese
Budget$100–132 millionBox office$414.8 million
The Wolverine is a 2013 superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Wolverine. It is the sixth installment in the X-Men film series, the second installment in the trilogy of Wolverine films after X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009), and a spin-off/sequel to X-Men: The Last Stand (2006). Directed by James Mangold from a screenplay written by Scott Frank and Mark Bomback, based on the 1982 limited series Wolverine by Chris Claremont and Frank Miller, it stars Hugh Jackman as Logan / Wolverine, alongside Rila Fukushima, Tao Okamoto, Hiroyuki Sanada, Famke Janssen, and Will Yun Lee. Following the events of X-Men: The Last Stand, Logan travels to Japan, where he engages an old acquaintance in a struggle that has lasting consequences. Stripped of his healing powers, Wolverine must battle deadly samurai while struggling with guilt over Jean Grey's death.
The film's development began in 2009 after the release of X-Men Origins: Wolverine. Christopher McQuarrie was hired to write a screenplay for The Wolverine in August 2009. In October 2010, Darren Aronofsky was hired to direct the film. The project was delayed following Aronofsky's departure and the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in March 2011. In June 2011, Mangold was brought on board to replace Aronofsky. Bomback was then hired to rewrite the screenplay in September 2011. The supporting characters were cast in July 2012 with principal photography beginning at the end of the month around New South Wales before moving to Tokyo in August 2012 and back to New South Wales in October 2012. The film was converted to 3D in post-production.
The Wolverine was released by 20th Century Fox in various international markets on July 24, 2013, and in the United States two days later. It received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its action sequences, production design, Jackman's performance, and thematic profundity, though criticism was directed towards the climax. The film earned $414 million worldwide, making it the fifth-highest-grossing film in the series.
An unrated extended cut of the film referred to as the "Unleashed Extended Edition" was released on Blu-ray, featuring more blood and violence, extended action scenes, as well as additional footage during moments of character interaction. A third film titled Logan was released on March 3, 2017.
Plot
In August 1945, Logan is held in a Japanese POW camp near Nagasaki. During the city's atomic bombing, Logan saves an officer named Ichirō Yashida by shielding him from the blast.
In the present day, Logan lives as a hermit in the Yukon, tormented by hallucinations of Jean Grey, whom he was forced to kill to save the world. He is located by Yukio, a mutant with the ability to foresee people's deaths, on behalf of Ichirō, now the CEO of a technology zaibatsu. Ichirō, who is dying of cancer, wants Logan to accompany Yukio to Japan so that he may repay his life debt. In Tokyo, Logan meets Ichirō's son Shingen and granddaughter Mariko. There, Ichirō offers to transfer Logan's healing abilities into his own body, thus saving Ichirō's life and alleviating Logan of his near-immortality, which Logan views as a curse. Believing he is acting in his friend's best interests, Logan refuses and prepares to leave the following day. That night, Ichirō's physician Dr. Green poisons Logan while he sleeps, but Logan dismisses it as a dream.
The next morning, Yukio informs Logan that Ichirō has died. At the funeral, the Yakuza attempts to kidnap Mariko, but Logan and Mariko escape together into the urban sprawl of Tokyo. Logan is shot, and his wounds do not heal as quickly as they should. After fighting off more Yakuza on a bullet train, Logan and Mariko hide in a local love hotel. Meanwhile, Ichirō's bodyguard Harada meets with Dr. Green, who, after demonstrating her mutant powers on him, demands he find Logan and Mariko. Logan and Mariko travel to Ichirō's house in Nagasaki, and the two slowly fall in love. Meanwhile, Yukio has a vision of Logan dying and goes to warn him. Before Yukio arrives, Mariko is captured by the Yakuza. After interrogating one of the kidnappers, Logan and Yukio confront Mariko's fiancé, corrupt Minister of Justice Noburo Mori. Mori confesses that he conspired with Shingen to have the Yakuza kidnap Mariko because Ichirō left control of the company to Mariko and not Shingen.
Mariko is brought before Shingen at Ichirō's estate when ninjas led by Harada attack and whisk her away. Logan and Yukio arrive later and, using Ichirō's X-ray machine, discover a robotic parasite attached to Logan's heart, suppressing his healing ability. Logan cuts himself open and extracts the device. During the operation, Shingen attacks, but Yukio holds him off long enough for Logan to recover and kill him. Logan follows Mariko's trail to the village of Ichirō's birth, where Harada's ninjas capture him. Logan is placed in a machine by Dr. Green, who reveals her plans to extract his healing factor and introduces him to the Silver Samurai, an electromechanical suit of Japanese armor with energized katanas made of adamantium. Mariko escapes from Harada, who believes he is acting in Mariko's interests, and manages to free Logan from the machine. Harada sees the error of his ways and is killed by the Silver Samurai while helping Logan escape.
Meanwhile, Yukio arrives and kills Dr. Green. As Logan fights the Silver Samurai, the Silver Samurai severs Logan's adamantium claws and begins to extract his healing abilities, revealing himself to be Ichirō, who had faked his death. Ichirō regains his youth, but Mariko intervenes and stabs Ichirō with Logan's severed claws. Logan regenerates his bone claws and kills Ichirō. Logan collapses and has one final hallucination of Jean, in which he decides to finally let her go. Mariko becomes CEO of Yashida Industries and bids Logan farewell as he prepares to leave Japan. Yukio vows to stay by Logan's side as his bodyguard, and they depart to places unknown.
In a mid-credits scene, Logan returns to the United States two years later and is approached at the airport by Charles Xavier and Erik Lehnsherr, who warn him of a weapon humans are creating that would bring the end to the mutant race.
Cast
Hugh Jackman as Logan: A mutant, whose prodigious healing abilities and adamantium infused skeleton combine to make him virtually immortal.
Tao Okamoto as Mariko: Ichirō's granddaughter, whose life becomes threatened as a result of her grandfather's will.
Rila Fukushima as Yukio: A mutant who has precognitive abilities and one of the deadliest assassins in Ichirō's clan.
Hiroyuki Sanada as Shingen: Ichirō's son as well as Mariko's father and corporate rival, who is proficient in kendo.
Svetlana Khodchenkova as Viper: A mutant working for Yashida who can expel toxins from her mouth.
Brian Tee as Noburo: A corrupt minister of justice, who is engaged to Mariko.
Haruhiko Yamanouchi as Ichirō Yashida: Shingen's father, Mariko's grandfather and the founder of Yashida Industries, a powerful technology zaibatsu. Yashida is based on the comic characters Silver Samurai and Ogun.
Ken Yamamura portrays a young Yashida in the film's opening scene during the atomic bombing of Nagasaki.
Will Yun Lee as Harada: A former lover of Mariko and head of the Black Ninja Clan, sworn to protect the Yashida family.
Famke Janssen as Jean Grey: A mutant, former member and former medical doctor of the X-Men who was killed by Logan.
Archive audio of Lynn Collins from X-Men Origins: Wolverine is used to represent her character Kayla Silverfox during a dream being had by Logan, while Patrick Stewart and Ian McKellen reprise their roles as Charles Xavier / Professor X and Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto in cameo appearances during the mid-credits scene. Halle Berry appears as Storm in a still image.
Development
"There are so many areas of that Japanese story, I love the idea of this kind of anarchic character, the outsider, being in this world—I can see it aesthetically, too—full of honor and tradition and customs and someone who's really anti-all of that, and trying to negotiate his way. The idea of the samurai, too—and the tradition there. It's really great. In the comic book, he gets his ass kicked by a couple of samurai—not even mutants. He's shocked by that at first".
—Hugh Jackman
In September 2007, Gavin Hood, director of X-Men Origins: Wolverine, speculated that there would be a sequel, which would be set in Japan. During one of the post-credits scenes of the film, Logan / Wolverine is seen drinking at a bar in Japan. Such a location was the subject of Chris Claremont and Frank Miller's 1982 limited series on the character, which was not in the first film as Hugh Jackman felt "what we need to do is establish who is and find out how he became Wolverine". Jackman stated the Claremont-Miller series is his favorite Wolverine story. Of the Japanese arc, Jackman also stated, "I won't lie to you, I have been talking to writers... I'm a big fan of the Japanese saga in the comic book". During filming of X-Men Origins: Wolverine, Jackman assured Kevin Durand that he would come back as Fred J. Dukes / The Blob in the sequel, with his character now being the sumo wrestling champion of Japan when Wolverine visits Tokyo, but these plans never panned out as Durand reflected in 2024. Before X-Men Origins: Wolverine's release, Lauren Shuler Donner approached Simon Beaufoy to write the script, but he did not feel confident enough to commit. By May 4, 2009, Jackman's company Seed Productions was preparing several projects, including a sequel to X-Men Origins: Wolverine to be set in Japan, but neither Jackman nor Seed has a production credit on the completed 2013 sequel. On May 5, 2009, just days after the opening weekend of X-Men Origins: Wolverine, the sequel was officially confirmed.
Christopher McQuarrie, who went uncredited for his work on X-Men, was hired to write the screenplay for the Wolverine sequel in August 2009. According to Shuler-Donner, the sequel would focus on the relationship between Wolverine and Mariko, the daughter of a Japanese crime lord, and what happens to him in Japan. Wolverine would have a different fighting style due to Mariko's father having "this stick-like weapon. There'll be samurai, ninja, katana blades, different forms of martial arts—mano-a-mano, extreme fighting". She continued: "We want to make it authentic so I think it's very likely we'll be shooting in Japan. I think it's likely the characters will speak English rather than Japanese with subtitles". In January 2010, at the People's Choice Awards, Jackman stated that the film would start shooting sometime in 2011, and in March 2010, McQuarrie declared that the screenplay was finished for production to start in January the following year. Sources indicated Darren Aronofsky was in negotiations to direct the film after Bryan Singer turned down the offer.
Pre-production
"If you have a hero who can't be hurt, there's only one way to create stakes or jeopardy, and that's to put people he cares about in harm's way. And, not unlike the amnesia thing, that can get tired really fast... I think there's so much to mine in Logan without robbing him of self-knowledge. What I wanted to present to the audience was, what is it like to feel a prisoner in a life you cannot escape? You accumulate pain and loss, and keep that with you as you keep on going".
—James Mangold
In October 2010, Jackman confirmed that Aronofsky would direct the film. Jackman commented that with Aronofsky directing, Wolverine 2 will not be "usual" stating, "This is, hopefully for me, going to be out of the box. It's going to be the best one, I hope... Well, I would say that, but I really do feel that, and I feel this is going to be very different. This is Wolverine. This is not Popeye. He's kind of dark... But, you know, this is a change of pace. Chris McQuarrie, who wrote The Usual Suspects, has written the script, so that'll give you a good clue. going to make it fantastic. There's going to be some meat on the bones. There will be something to think about as you leave the theater, for sure". The film was scheduled to begin principal photography in March 2011 in New York City before the production moves to Japan for the bulk of shooting.
While Jackman in 2008 had characterized the film as "a sequel to Origins", Aronofsky in November 2010 said the film, now titled The Wolverine, was a "one-off" rather than a sequel. Also in November, Fox Filmed Entertainment sent out a press release stating that they have signed Aronofsky and his production company Protozoa Pictures to a new two-year, overall deal. Under the deal, Protozoa would develop and produce films for both 20th Century Fox and Fox Searchlight Pictures. Aronofsky's debut picture under the pact would have been The Wolverine.
In March 2011, Aronofsky bowed out of directing the film, saying in a statement, "As I talked more about the film with my collaborators at Fox, it became clear that the production of The Wolverine would keep me out of the country for almost a year... I was not comfortable being away from my family for that length of time. I am sad that I won't be able to see the project through, as it is a terrific script and I was very much looking forward to working with my friend, Hugh Jackman, again". Fox also decided to be "in no rush" to start the production due to the damage incurred in Japan by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. Despite this, Jackman said the project was moving ahead. "It's too early to call on Japan, I'm not sure where they're at. So now we're finding another director, but Fox is very anxious to make the movie and we're moving ahead full steam to find another director".
Director James Mangold at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con
In May 2011, Fox had a list of eight candidates to replace Aronofsky, including directors José Padilha, Doug Liman, Antoine Fuqua, Mark Romanek, Justin Lin, Gavin O'Connor, James Mangold and Gary Shore. Shawn Levy, who eventually directed Jackman as Wolverine in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Deadpool & Wolverine, was approached by Jackman to direct The Wolverine while filming Real Steel, but Levy declined because he wanted to do original films and knew that it would be Jackman's fifth time playing Wolverine. In June 2011, Fox entered negotiations with Mangold and intended to start principal photography in fall 2011. In July 2011, Jackman said he planned to begin filming in October and that he would fight the Silver Samurai.
In August 2011, The Vancouver Sun reported that filming would take place from November 11, 2011 to March 1, 2012 at the Canadian Motion Picture Park in Burnaby, British Columbia. Almost immediately, filming was postponed to spring 2012 so Jackman could work on Les Misérables. In September, Mark Bomback was hired to rewrite McQuarrie's script. At one point, Bomback tried to work Rogue into the script, but he rejected it for being "goofy" and "problematic". In February 2012, a July 26, 2013, release date was set, and in April, filming was set to begin in August 2012 in Australia, which would serve as the primary location due to financial and tax incentives.
In July 2012, actors Hiroyuki Sanada, Hal Yamanouchi, Tao Okamoto and Rila Fukushima had been cast as Shingen, Ichirō, Mariko and Yukio, respectively. Additionally, Will Yun Lee was cast as Harada, and Brian Tee as Noburo Mori. By July 2012, Deadline Hollywood said Jessica Biel would play Viper. However, at the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con International, Biel said her role in the film was "not a done deal", explaining, "People keep talking about this. I don't know anything about it. It's a little bit too soon for that kind of an announcement". A few days later, negotiations between Biel and 20th Century Fox had broken down. Later in July, Fox had begun talks with Svetlana Khodchenkova to take over the role. Somewhat unusually for action movies, The Wolverine features four female lead roles and "passes the Bechdel Test early and often", according to Vulture. Mangold noted that he wrote his heroines so that "they all have missions. They all have jobs to do other than be the object of affection", intent of avoiding the "worn out" trope of the woman in jeopardy. Jackman and Mangold were hoping to make the film R rated, but the studio rejected it.
In terms of his character, Jackman views Wolverine as "the ultimate outsider" and that "the great battle, I always thought with Wolverine, is the battle within himself". Regarding Logan's struggle with extreme longevity, Jackman said, "He realizes everyone he loves dies, and his whole life is full of pain. So it's better that he just escapes. He can't die really. He just wants to get away from everything". Jackman stated that he ate six meals a day in preparation for the role. Jackman contacted Dwayne Johnson for some tips on bulking up for the film, suggesting that he gain a pound a week by eating 6,000 calories a day for six months which consisted of "an awful lot of chicken, steak and brown rice".
In August 2012, Guillermo del Toro revealed he had been interested in directing the film, as the Japanese arc was his favorite Wolverine story. After meeting with Jim Gianopulos and Jackman, del Toro passed, deciding he did not wish to spend two to three years of his life working on the movie.
Filming
Crew of The Wolverine working on the film set in Surry Hills, Sydney
On a production budget of $120 million, principal photography began on July 30, 2012. Shuler Donner had to be absent through most of the production due to breast cancer, with her treatment ending just before post-production begun. Some of the earliest scenes were shot at the Bonna Point Reserve in Kurnell, New South Wales, which doubled as a Japanese prisoner-of-war camp. Filming there ended on August 2, 2012, with production scheduled to continue around Sydney followed by a few weeks in Japan before wrapping up in mid-November. On August 3, 2012, production moved to Picton, which doubled as a town in Canada's Yukon region. Mangold would say that the lack of the Japanese film commission was why the film wasn't entirely in Japan.
On August 25, 2012, Mangold said that production moved to Tokyo and began shooting. On September 4, 2012, filming took place outside Fukuyama Station in Fukuyama, Hiroshima. Filming in Tomonoura, a port in the Ichichi ward of Fukuyama, concluded on September 11, 2012.
On October 8, 2012, production returned to Sydney with filming on Erskine Street near Cockle Bay. The following week, the film shot in Parramatta, which doubled as a Japanese city. Also in October, Mangold revealed that the film follows the events of X-Men: The Last Stand, saying, "Where this film sits in the universe of the films is after them all. Jean Grey is gone, most of the X-Men are disbanded or gone, so there's a tremendous sense of isolation for ". He elaborated that his decision to have The Wolverine take place after The Last Stand without making it a direct sequel to that film stemmed from the simplicity of setting the story after the huge amount of adventures Wolverine has endured throughout the film series the possibility of choosing a perfect moment for Logan to be stripped of both his heroic duties and his sense of purpose like a rōnin due to several of his fellow X-Men dying in the third X-Men film, allowing him to live in a "separate" world that doesn't necessarily need to tie-in with the next film to allow for more creative freedom, and finding himself in an existential crisis due to his immortality, which Mangold felt that it sounded in accordance to the themes of the original arc by Claremont and Miller. Mangold later stated that in the fight scenes, "there's an urgency and a kind of intensity and hand to hand physicality that I hope is a little different than everything else out there". On October 25, 2012 production relocated to Sydney Olympic Park in western Sydney. The set was made into a Japanese village draped in snow with filming beginning on November 1, 2012. On November 10, 2012, filming took place on a back street in Surry Hills. The set, constructed on Brisbane St., was transformed to look like a Japanese street with Japanese signage and vehicles scattered throughout. Principal photography concluded on November 21, 2012.
Reshoots took place in Montréal, including the credits scene where Magneto and Professor X warn Wolverine of a new threat. Said scene was contributed by Bryan Singer and Simon Kinberg, writers of X-Men: Days of Future Past, as a way to "reintroduce Patrick Stewart into the universe" and set up their film. Mangold stated that while production of The Wolverine started before Days of Future Past and thus the film was mostly focused on being a self-contained story, he was able to collaborate with Singer to "make things groove together".
Post-production
Original plate (top), animation pass (center), and the completed shot (bottom) of the Silver Samurai
In October 2012, it was reported that The Wolverine would be converted to 3D, making it the first 3D release for one of 20th Century Fox's Marvel films. Visual effects for the film were completed by Weta Digital, Rising Sun Pictures (RSP), Iloura, and Shade VFX.
In order to recreate the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, RSP studied natural phenomena such as volcanoes, instead of relying on archived footage of atomic blasts, and recreated the effects digitally. They also replaced the Sydney cityscape on the horizon with views of Nagasaki. The walking bear featured in the Yukon scenes was created with computer graphics by Weta Digital, while Make-Up Effects Group built a 12-foot-tall animatronic bear, that was used for shots of the creature dying after it had been hit by poisoned arrows fired by hunters.
For a fight scene taking place on top of a speeding bullet train, the actors and stunt performers filmed on wires above a set piece surrounded by a greenscreen. The moving background, filmed on an elevated freeway in Tokyo, was added later. Weta Digital visual effects supervisor Martin Hill said the team adopted a "Google Street View method", explaining "But instead of having a big panoramic cam on top of a van, we built a rig that had eight 45-degree angle Red Epic that gave us massive resolution driving down all the massive lanes of the freeway. We let a bit of air out of the tires of the van and kept a constant 60 kilometers an hour. So if we shot at 48 fps we just needed to speed up the footage by 10 times to give us the 300 kilometers an hour required".
The Silver Samurai, rendered by Weta Digital, was based on a model that had been 3D printed and chrome painted using electrolysis. Stunt performer Shane Rangi, wearing a motion capture suit, stood on stilts while filming as the Silver Samurai. Rangi's performance was then used to animate the digital character. Hill said the main challenge was creating the Silver Samurai's highly reflective surface, "He's pretty much chrome. We were worried that he was going to look incredibly digital and that it was going to be very hard to make him look solid and real and not just like a mirrored surface".
The original assembly cut of the film ran around two hours and 35 minutes. The mid-credit scene was written by Simon Kinberg and shot by the X-Men: Days of Future Past crew, though Mangold directed the scene.
Music
Main article: The Wolverine (soundtrack)
In September 2012, Marco Beltrami, who previously scored James Mangold's film 3:10 to Yuma (2007), announced that he had signed on to score The Wolverine. Following Mangold's noir and Spaghetti Western inspirations for the film, Beltrami explained, "I think I do every movie as a western whether it is or not, so there's definitely some of the spaghetti western influence on my music throughout the score, and I guess throughout a lot of my work. I wouldn't say there was a particular movie that influenced me more than something else. There was nothing that I was trying to mimic or anything." On associating sounds with the film's primary location, Beltrami said, "I think the last thing that Jim and I wanted to do was Japanese music associated with Japanese places. There's a reference; I do use Japanese instruments, not really in a traditional way." The score was performed by an 85-piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Newman Scoring Stage located at 20th Century Fox Studios. The album was released by Sony Classical Records on July 23, 2013.
Release
Theatrical
The Wolverine was released on July 3, 2013, in various international markets, and in the United States two days later. The film was titled Wolverine: Immortal in Brazil and Spanish-language markets. The film premiered in Japan on September 13, 2013, under the title Wolverine: Samurai (ウルヴァリン: SAMURAI, Uruvarin Samurai).
Marketing
Hugh Jackman promoting the film at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con
On October 29, 2012, director James Mangold and actor Jackman hosted a live chat from the set of the film. The chat took place on the official website and the official YouTube account of the film.
The first American trailer and international trailer of The Wolverine were released on March 27, 2013. Empire magazine said "This is all very encouraging stuff from director James Mangold, a man who's obviously not afraid of tweaking the original source material to serve his own ends." The trailer was later attached to G.I. Joe: Retaliation. The second American trailer was then released on April 18, 2013, and was screened at CinemaCon in Las Vegas.
The third American trailer was released on May 21, 2013, and then on June 13, 2013, the second international trailer was released.
On July 20, 2013, 20th Century Fox presented The Wolverine along with Dawn of the Planet of the Apes and X-Men: Days of Future Past to the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con with Jackman and Mangold in attendance to present new footage of the film.
20th Century Fox partnered with automotive company Audi to promote the film with their sports car Audi R8 and their motorcycle Ducati. Other partners included sugar-free chewing-gum brand 5 and casual dining restaurant company Red Robin.
Home media
The Wolverine was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and Blu-ray 3D on December 3, 2013. The Blu-ray set features an exclusive unrated extended cut of the film referred to as the "Unleashed Extended Edition". This version of the film was screened for the first time at 20th Century Fox Studios on November 19, 2013. It contains 12 extra minutes, primarily including an extended battle with Harada's ninjas during the start of the film's third act as well as additional footage during moments of character interaction. The BBFC gives its running time as 132 minutes and 22 seconds, only six minutes longer.
Reception
Box office
Along with the improvements in critical reception, The Wolverine outgrossed Origins in total box office, though earned less domestically. The film closed in US theaters on December 5, 2013, grossing $132,556,852 in North America (as opposed to $179,883,157 for the earlier film) and $282,271,394 in other territories (as opposed to the earlier film's $193,179,707), for a worldwide total of $414,828,246. The film earned $139.6 million on its worldwide opening weekend. When compared to the rest of the X-Men film franchise, The Wolverine has garnered somewhat mixed results in terms of box office success. While its domestic gross is greater than the production budget, it is still lower than the other five films of the franchise, with its domestic box office total being roughly $45.1 million less than the franchise's average. However, its overseas total currently exceeds the franchise's average by roughly $75.7 million and is significantly more than any of the other X-Men films. With a worldwide total of roughly $414.8 million, The Wolverine was at that time the third-highest-grossing film.
In North America, the film opened at the top of the box office on its opening day, with $20.7 million, with $4 million coming from Thursday late-night showings. It held on to the number one spot through its first weekend, with $53,113,752, which was the lowest opening of the series until 2019's Dark Phoenix was released.
Outside North America, the film topped the box office on its opening weekend with $86.5 million from 100 countries. The film achieved the highest opening of the franchise, passing X-Men: The Last Stand's $76.2 million opening.
Critical response
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 71% approval rating with an average rating of 6.3/10 based on 262 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Although its final act succumbs to the usual cartoonish antics, The Wolverine is one superhero movie that manages to stay true to the comics while keeping casual viewers entertained." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 61 out of 100, based on reviews from 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−", on a scale from A+ to F.
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it a grade of "B+", praising Jackman's performance as "strong, solid entertainment" and "a serious, sometimes dark and deliberately paced story." Christy Lemire, writing for the website of Roger Ebert, said that the film "features some breathtakingly suspenseful action sequences, exquisite production and costume design and colorful characters, some of whom register more powerfully than others." Variety film critic Peter Debruge called the film "an entertaining and surprisingly existential digression from his usual X-Men exploits. Though Wolvie comes across a bit world-weary and battle-worn by now, Jackman is in top form, taking the opportunity to test the character's physical and emotional extremes. Fans might've preferred bigger action or more effects, but Mangold does them one better, recovering the soul of a character whose near-immortality made him tiresome." James Buchanan of TV Guide.com gave it 3 out of 4 stars, calling it "A rare comic-to-film adaptation that doesn't sacrifice substance for the sake of thrilling action." Scott Collura of IGN praised the film giving it an 8.5 out of 10 and stated, "The Wolverine is a stand alone adventure for the classic character that reminds us that there's more to this genre than universe-building and crossovers. ... story paints a deep and compelling portrait of Logan, a haunted character that Jackman still finds new ways to play all these years later." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt that despite the film's final act "sink into CGI shit", Jackman's performance "still has the juice" and Mangold's directing "shows style and snap."
Henry Barnes of The Guardian gave the film a negative review, giving it 2 out of 5 stars and stating, "Hugh Jackman's sixth time out in the claws and hair combo is looking increasingly wearied, as the backstory gets more complicated and the action gets duller and flatter." Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News offered a similar view, saying "Hugh Jackman has the role of the mutant superhero down pat, but the rest of the film is the same old slice and dice."
A common critique towards the film were aspects of the final act, particular in regard to the climactic fight with Silver Samurai and the Viper character. When promoting Logan, Mangold acknowledged the criticism, remarking that while The Wolverine was meant as a small scale, more intimate film, the studio wanted "big, CG action" to stay afloat with the other big blockbusters that came out that year such as Thor: The Dark World (2013) and Man of Steel (2013).
Legacy
Following the release of The Wolverine 20th Century Fox had begun negotiations with both Jackman and Mangold to return for another Wolverine movie. Mangold was scheduled to write the treatment, with Lauren Shuler Donner returning to produce. On March 20, 2014, Fox announced that the sequel would be released March 3, 2017.
In retrospective reviews, several film critics such as Matthew Razak from Flixter, Alex Wench from Inverse (website), and Matthew Mosley from Collider have stated that The Wolverine is the most underrated superhero movie of all time, while also noting its later influence and similarities with Logan. Wench from Inverse (website) wrote "what they ended up getting is a film that stands as one of the most contemplative superhero movies ever made. The film digs deep into the mind of Wolverine, giving Jackman the chance to put his investment in the character on full display. In that way, The Wolverine ends up being the perfect lead-in to 2017's Logan, a film that not only sees Mangold and Jackman working together again but also revisiting and perfecting everything they did and didn't do right in their previous collaboration."
In a ranking of the X-Men film series, Darren Franich from Entertainment Weekly ranked the film in second place, writing "a deceptively small-scale crime thriller with a propulsive B-movie sensibility and a mournful sincerity that makes other blockbusters look plastic by comparison. Further adding "I know a lot of people view this film as a stepping-stone oddity to Logan, but I think The Wolverine's accomplishment is more sneakily profound. A philosophical divide, maybe, but one to ponder: In Logan, Wolverine accepts death; in The Wolverine, Logan figures out how to live."
Accolades
List of awards and nominations
Year
Award / Film Festival
Category
Recipients
Result
Ref.
2013
Hollywood Film Awards
Hollywood Movie Award
James Mangold
Nominated
2014
People's Choice Awards
Favorite Action Movie
The Wolverine
Nominated
Favorite Movie Actor
Hugh Jackman (also for Prisoners)
Nominated
Screen Actors Guild Awards
Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture
The Wolverine
Nominated
Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite Male Buttkicker
Hugh Jackman
Nominated
Saturn Awards
Best Comic-To-Film Motion Picture
The Wolverine
Nominated
Sequel
Main article: Logan (film)
By October 2013, 20th Century Fox had begun negotiations with both Jackman and Mangold to return for a previously untitled installment. Mangold was scheduled to write the treatment, with Lauren Shuler Donner returning to produce. On March 20, 2014, Fox announced that the sequel would be released March 3, 2017. David James Kelly was hired to write the script, and Jackman was set to reprise his role as Wolverine. By the following month, screenwriter Michael Green was attached to the film. Mangold tweeted that filming would start in early 2016. Patrick Stewart said in August 2015 that he will reprise his role as Charles Xavier. Liev Schreiber, who portrayed Victor Creed in X-Men Origins: Wolverine, said in February 2016 that he was in talks to reprise his role in the sequel. By April 2016, Boyd Holbrook had been cast as head of security for a global enterprise set against Wolverine, and Richard E. Grant as a "mad scientist type". Simon Kinberg that month said the film will be set in the future. Toward the end of the month, Stephen Merchant was cast as Caliban. In May 2016, Eriq La Salle and Elise Neal were cast in unspecified roles. In May, Kinberg said filming had started and that he planned it to be an R-rated movie. Shiori Kutsuna was later cast as a younger version of Yukio in Deadpool 2, replacing Rila Fukushima.
Notes
^ Sources differ regarding the country or countries of origin of The Wolverine. Some indicate that the United States is the sole country of origin, while others list it as a co-production of the United States and Great Britain.
^ As depicted in the 2006 film X-Men: The Last Stand
^ Later depicted in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past
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^ Box office update: 'The Wolverine' claws its way to a $21 million Friday Entertainment Weekly, Retrieved July 28, 2013
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^ a b Weekend Report: 'Wolverine' Bleeds, But Still Easily Leads Box Office Mojo, Retrieved July 29, 2013
^ Subers, Ray (August 25, 2013). "Weekend Report: 'Butler' Repeats, Newcomers All Open Below $10 Million". Boc Office Mojo. Retrieved August 25, 2013.
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^ Lemire, Christy. "The Wolverine Movie Review & Film Summary (2013)". Roger Ebert. Retrieved August 2, 2013.
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^ "James Mangold interview: How Logan bucks the superhero trend". February 26, 2017.
^ a b "James Mangold, Hugh Jackman Sinking Claws Into Another 'The Wolverine' Film". Deadline Hollywood. November 5, 2013. Retrieved November 5, 2013.
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^ Patten, Dominic (April 8, 2016). "'Wolverine 3' Sets 'Narcos' Boyd Holbrook As Chief Villain". Deadline Hollywood.
^ Kit, Borys (April 26, 2016). "'Wolverine 3' Finds Its Mad Scientist (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter.
^ Eisenberg, Eric (April 12, 2016). "When Will Wolverine 3 Be Set? Here's What We Know". Cinemablend.com.
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Further reading
Gray, Simon. "Rapturous Action". American Cinematographer. Vol. 94, No. 8. August 2013. ISSN 0002-7928. Hollywood: California. ASC Holding Corp. Pages 56–65. Behind-the-scenes article on The Wolverine focusing on the film's camera work, lighting, etc. 9 pages, 17 color photos.
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For the 2009 film, see X-Men Origins: Wolverine. For other uses, see Wolverine (disambiguation).The Wolverine is a 2013 superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Wolverine. It is the sixth installment in the X-Men film series, the second installment in the trilogy of Wolverine films after X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009), and a spin-off/sequel to X-Men: The Last Stand (2006). Directed by James Mangold from a screenplay written by Scott Frank and Mark Bomback, based on the 1982 limited series Wolverine by Chris Claremont and Frank Miller, it stars Hugh Jackman as Logan / Wolverine, alongside Rila Fukushima, Tao Okamoto, Hiroyuki Sanada, Famke Janssen, and Will Yun Lee. Following the events of X-Men: The Last Stand, Logan travels to Japan, where he engages an old acquaintance in a struggle that has lasting consequences. Stripped of his healing powers, Wolverine must battle deadly samurai while struggling with guilt over Jean Grey's death.The film's development began in 2009 after the release of X-Men Origins: Wolverine. Christopher McQuarrie was hired to write a screenplay for The Wolverine in August 2009. In October 2010, Darren Aronofsky was hired to direct the film. The project was delayed following Aronofsky's departure and the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in March 2011. In June 2011, Mangold was brought on board to replace Aronofsky. Bomback was then hired to rewrite the screenplay in September 2011. The supporting characters were cast in July 2012 with principal photography beginning at the end of the month around New South Wales before moving to Tokyo in August 2012 and back to New South Wales in October 2012. The film was converted to 3D in post-production.The Wolverine was released by 20th Century Fox in various international markets on July 24, 2013, and in the United States two days later. It received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its action sequences, production design, Jackman's performance, and thematic profundity, though criticism was directed towards the climax. The film earned $414 million worldwide, making it the fifth-highest-grossing film in the series.An unrated extended cut of the film referred to as the \"Unleashed Extended Edition\" was released on Blu-ray, featuring more blood and violence, extended action scenes, as well as additional footage during moments of character interaction.[11] A third film titled Logan was released on March 3, 2017.","title":"The Wolverine (film)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Logan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logan_(film_series_character)"},{"link_name":"POW camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POW_camp"},{"link_name":"Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"city's atomic bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"Ichirō Yashida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichiro_Yashida"},{"link_name":"Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon"},{"link_name":"Jean Grey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Grey"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Yukio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukio_(comics)"},{"link_name":"mutant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutant_(Marvel_Comics)"},{"link_name":"zaibatsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaibatsu"},{"link_name":"Shingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingen_Yashida"},{"link_name":"Mariko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariko_Yashida"},{"link_name":"Dr. Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viper_(Madame_Hydra)"},{"link_name":"Yakuza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza"},{"link_name":"bullet train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinkansen"},{"link_name":"love hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_hotel"},{"link_name":"Harada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenuichio_Harada"},{"link_name":"Silver Samurai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Samurai"},{"link_name":"Japanese armor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_armor"},{"link_name":"katanas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katana"},{"link_name":"adamantium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamantium"},{"link_name":"Charles Xavier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Xavier_(film_series_character)"},{"link_name":"Erik Lehnsherr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneto_(film_series_character)"},{"link_name":"weapon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentinel_(comics)"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"In August 1945, Logan is held in a Japanese POW camp near Nagasaki. During the city's atomic bombing, Logan saves an officer named Ichirō Yashida by shielding him from the blast.In the present day, Logan lives as a hermit in the Yukon, tormented by hallucinations of Jean Grey, whom he was forced to kill to save the world.[b] He is located by Yukio, a mutant with the ability to foresee people's deaths, on behalf of Ichirō, now the CEO of a technology zaibatsu. Ichirō, who is dying of cancer, wants Logan to accompany Yukio to Japan so that he may repay his life debt. In Tokyo, Logan meets Ichirō's son Shingen and granddaughter Mariko. There, Ichirō offers to transfer Logan's healing abilities into his own body, thus saving Ichirō's life and alleviating Logan of his near-immortality, which Logan views as a curse. Believing he is acting in his friend's best interests, Logan refuses and prepares to leave the following day. That night, Ichirō's physician Dr. Green poisons Logan while he sleeps, but Logan dismisses it as a dream.The next morning, Yukio informs Logan that Ichirō has died. At the funeral, the Yakuza attempts to kidnap Mariko, but Logan and Mariko escape together into the urban sprawl of Tokyo. Logan is shot, and his wounds do not heal as quickly as they should. After fighting off more Yakuza on a bullet train, Logan and Mariko hide in a local love hotel. Meanwhile, Ichirō's bodyguard Harada meets with Dr. Green, who, after demonstrating her mutant powers on him, demands he find Logan and Mariko. Logan and Mariko travel to Ichirō's house in Nagasaki, and the two slowly fall in love. Meanwhile, Yukio has a vision of Logan dying and goes to warn him. Before Yukio arrives, Mariko is captured by the Yakuza. After interrogating one of the kidnappers, Logan and Yukio confront Mariko's fiancé, corrupt Minister of Justice Noburo Mori. Mori confesses that he conspired with Shingen to have the Yakuza kidnap Mariko because Ichirō left control of the company to Mariko and not Shingen.Mariko is brought before Shingen at Ichirō's estate when ninjas led by Harada attack and whisk her away. Logan and Yukio arrive later and, using Ichirō's X-ray machine, discover a robotic parasite attached to Logan's heart, suppressing his healing ability. Logan cuts himself open and extracts the device. During the operation, Shingen attacks, but Yukio holds him off long enough for Logan to recover and kill him. Logan follows Mariko's trail to the village of Ichirō's birth, where Harada's ninjas capture him. Logan is placed in a machine by Dr. Green, who reveals her plans to extract his healing factor and introduces him to the Silver Samurai, an electromechanical suit of Japanese armor with energized katanas made of adamantium. Mariko escapes from Harada, who believes he is acting in Mariko's interests, and manages to free Logan from the machine. Harada sees the error of his ways and is killed by the Silver Samurai while helping Logan escape.Meanwhile, Yukio arrives and kills Dr. Green. As Logan fights the Silver Samurai, the Silver Samurai severs Logan's adamantium claws and begins to extract his healing abilities, revealing himself to be Ichirō, who had faked his death. Ichirō regains his youth, but Mariko intervenes and stabs Ichirō with Logan's severed claws. Logan regenerates his bone claws and kills Ichirō. Logan collapses and has one final hallucination of Jean, in which he decides to finally let her go. Mariko becomes CEO of Yashida Industries and bids Logan farewell as he prepares to leave Japan. Yukio vows to stay by Logan's side as his bodyguard, and they depart to places unknown.In a mid-credits scene, Logan returns to the United States two years later and is approached at the airport by Charles Xavier and Erik Lehnsherr, who warn him of a weapon humans are creating that would bring the end to the mutant race.[c]","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hugh Jackman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Jackman"},{"link_name":"Logan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logan_(film_series_character)"},{"link_name":"mutant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutant_(Marvel_Comics)"},{"link_name":"adamantium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamantium"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vilkomerson-17"},{"link_name":"Tao Okamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Okamoto"},{"link_name":"Mariko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariko_Yashida"},{"link_name":"will","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_and_testament"},{"link_name":"Rila Fukushima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rila_Fukushima"},{"link_name":"Yukio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukio_(comics)"},{"link_name":"precognitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognitive"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sanada-18"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoare-20"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Trumbore-21"},{"link_name":"Hiroyuki Sanada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroyuki_Sanada"},{"link_name":"Shingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingen_Yashida"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall-22"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sanada-18"},{"link_name":"kendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendo"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Svetlana Khodchenkova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetlana_Khodchenkova"},{"link_name":"Viper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viper_(Madame_Hydra)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ewpics-24"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Khodchenkova-25"},{"link_name":"Brian Tee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Tee"},{"link_name":"minister of justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_Justice_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee-26"},{"link_name":"Haruhiko Yamanouchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haruhiko_Yamanouchi"},{"link_name":"Ichirō Yashida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichiro_Yashida"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall-22"},{"link_name":"zaibatsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaibatsu"},{"link_name":"Silver Samurai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Samurai"},{"link_name":"Ogun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogun_(comics)"},{"link_name":"Ken Yamamura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Yamamura"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sanada-18"},{"link_name":"Will Yun Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Yun_Lee"},{"link_name":"Harada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenuichio_Harada"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TotalFilm-27"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee-26"},{"link_name":"Famke Janssen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famke_Janssen"},{"link_name":"Jean Grey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Grey_(film_series_character)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Janssen-28"},{"link_name":"Lynn Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Collins"},{"link_name":"X-Men Origins: Wolverine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men_Origins:_Wolverine"},{"link_name":"Kayla Silverfox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Fox_(comics)#Film"},{"link_name":"Patrick Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Stewart"},{"link_name":"Ian McKellen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_McKellen"},{"link_name":"Charles Xavier / Professor X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Xavier_(film_series_character)"},{"link_name":"Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneto_(film_series_character)"},{"link_name":"cameo appearances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo_appearance"},{"link_name":"Halle Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halle_Berry"},{"link_name":"Storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_(Marvel_Comics)"}],"text":"Hugh Jackman as Logan: A mutant, whose prodigious healing abilities and adamantium infused skeleton combine to make him virtually immortal.[14]\nTao Okamoto as Mariko: Ichirō's granddaughter, whose life becomes threatened as a result of her grandfather's will.\nRila Fukushima as Yukio: A mutant who has precognitive abilities and one of the deadliest assassins in Ichirō's clan.[15][16][17][18]\nHiroyuki Sanada as Shingen: Ichirō's son[19] as well as Mariko's father and corporate rival,[15] who is proficient in kendo.[20]\nSvetlana Khodchenkova as Viper: A mutant working for Yashida who can expel toxins from her mouth.[21][22]\nBrian Tee as Noburo: A corrupt minister of justice, who is engaged to Mariko.[23]\nHaruhiko Yamanouchi as Ichirō Yashida: Shingen's father,[19] Mariko's grandfather and the founder of Yashida Industries, a powerful technology zaibatsu. Yashida is based on the comic characters Silver Samurai and Ogun.\nKen Yamamura portrays a young Yashida in the film's opening scene during the atomic bombing of Nagasaki.[15]\nWill Yun Lee as Harada: A former lover of Mariko and head of the Black Ninja Clan, sworn to protect the Yashida family.[24][23]\nFamke Janssen as Jean Grey: A mutant, former member and former medical doctor of the X-Men who was killed by Logan.[25]Archive audio of Lynn Collins from X-Men Origins: Wolverine is used to represent her character Kayla Silverfox during a dream being had by Logan, while Patrick Stewart and Ian McKellen reprise their roles as Charles Xavier / Professor X and Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto in cameo appearances during the mid-credits scene. Halle Berry appears as Storm in a still image.","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seijas-29"},{"link_name":"Gavin Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Hood"},{"link_name":"X-Men Origins: Wolverine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men_Origins:_Wolverine"},{"link_name":"sequel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequel"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Douglas-30"},{"link_name":"Logan / Wolverine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logan_(film_series_character)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Chris Claremont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Claremont"},{"link_name":"Frank Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Miller_(comics)"},{"link_name":"1982 limited series on the character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolverine_(comic_book)"},{"link_name":"Hugh Jackman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Jackman"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marshall-31"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schnieder-32"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN-33"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seijas-29"},{"link_name":"Kevin Durand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Durand"},{"link_name":"Fred J. Dukes / The Blob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blob_(Marvel_Comics)"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Lauren Shuler Donner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren_Shuler_Donner"},{"link_name":"Simon Beaufoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Beaufoy"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-35"},{"link_name":"Seed Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_Productions"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fleming-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Serpe-37"},{"link_name":"Christopher McQuarrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_McQuarrie"},{"link_name":"X-Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men_(film)"},{"link_name":"screenplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screenplay"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kit-38"},{"link_name":"Mariko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariko_Yashida"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-De_Semlyen2-39"},{"link_name":"People's Choice Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Choice_Awards"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marnell-40"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Friedman-41"},{"link_name":"Darren Aronofsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darren_Aronofsky"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-superherohype-42"},{"link_name":"Bryan Singer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_Singer"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"\"There are so many areas of that Japanese story, I love the idea of this kind of anarchic character, the outsider, being in this world—I can see it aesthetically, too—full of honor and tradition and customs and someone who's really anti-all of that, and trying to negotiate his way. The idea of the samurai, too—and the tradition there. It's really great. In the comic book, he gets his ass kicked by a couple of samurai—not even mutants. He's shocked by that at first\".\n\n\n—Hugh Jackman[26]In September 2007, Gavin Hood, director of X-Men Origins: Wolverine, speculated that there would be a sequel, which would be set in Japan.[27] During one of the post-credits scenes of the film, Logan / Wolverine is seen drinking at a bar in Japan.[citation needed] Such a location was the subject of Chris Claremont and Frank Miller's 1982 limited series on the character, which was not in the first film as Hugh Jackman felt \"what we need to do is establish who [Logan] is and find out how he became Wolverine\".[28][29] Jackman stated the Claremont-Miller series is his favorite Wolverine story.[30] Of the Japanese arc, Jackman also stated, \"I won't lie to you, I have been talking to writers... I'm a big fan of the Japanese saga in the comic book\".[26] During filming of X-Men Origins: Wolverine, Jackman assured Kevin Durand that he would come back as Fred J. Dukes / The Blob in the sequel, with his character now being the sumo wrestling champion of Japan when Wolverine visits Tokyo, but these plans never panned out as Durand reflected in 2024.[31] Before X-Men Origins: Wolverine's release, Lauren Shuler Donner approached Simon Beaufoy to write the script, but he did not feel confident enough to commit.[32] By May 4, 2009, Jackman's company Seed Productions was preparing several projects, including a sequel to X-Men Origins: Wolverine to be set in Japan,[33] but neither Jackman nor Seed has a production credit on the completed 2013 sequel. On May 5, 2009, just days after the opening weekend of X-Men Origins: Wolverine, the sequel was officially confirmed.[34]Christopher McQuarrie, who went uncredited for his work on X-Men, was hired to write the screenplay for the Wolverine sequel in August 2009.[35] According to Shuler-Donner, the sequel would focus on the relationship between Wolverine and Mariko, the daughter of a Japanese crime lord, and what happens to him in Japan. Wolverine would have a different fighting style due to Mariko's father having \"this stick-like weapon. There'll be samurai, ninja, katana blades, different forms of martial arts—mano-a-mano, extreme fighting\". She continued: \"We want to make it authentic so I think it's very likely we'll be shooting in Japan. I think it's likely the characters will speak English rather than Japanese with subtitles\".[36] In January 2010, at the People's Choice Awards, Jackman stated that the film would start shooting sometime in 2011,[37] and in March 2010, McQuarrie declared that the screenplay was finished for production to start in January the following year.[38] Sources indicated Darren Aronofsky was in negotiations to direct the film[39] after Bryan Singer turned down the offer.[40]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lovece-44"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vulture-45"},{"link_name":"Popeye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popeye"},{"link_name":"The Usual Suspects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Usual_Suspects"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vulture-45"},{"link_name":"principal photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_photography"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fleming2-46"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sanchez-47"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcweeny-48"},{"link_name":"Fox Filmed Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_Corporation_(1980%E2%80%932013)#Studios"},{"link_name":"20th Century Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Century_Studios"},{"link_name":"Fox Searchlight Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Searchlight_Pictures"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fleming3-49"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McClintock-50"},{"link_name":"2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottenberg-51"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Douglas2-52"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_Mangold_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg"},{"link_name":"San Diego Comic-Con","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con"},{"link_name":"José Padilha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Padilha"},{"link_name":"Doug Liman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Liman"},{"link_name":"Antoine Fuqua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Fuqua"},{"link_name":"Mark Romanek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Romanek"},{"link_name":"Justin Lin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Lin"},{"link_name":"Gavin O'Connor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_O%27Connor_(director)"},{"link_name":"James Mangold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Mangold"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abrams-53"},{"link_name":"Shawn Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawn_Levy"},{"link_name":"Marvel Cinematic Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel_Cinematic_Universe"},{"link_name":"Deadpool & Wolverine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadpool_%26_Wolverine"},{"link_name":"Real Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Steel"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fleming4-55"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Young-56"},{"link_name":"The Vancouver Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vancouver_Sun"},{"link_name":"Burnaby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnaby"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wigler2-57"},{"link_name":"Les Misérables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_(2012_film)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fleming5-58"},{"link_name":"Mark Bomback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Bomback"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sneider-59"},{"link_name":"Rogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue_(comics)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creativescreenwriting-60"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wigler-61"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-George-62"},{"link_name":"Hiroyuki Sanada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroyuki_Sanada"},{"link_name":"Hal Yamanouchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Yamanouchi"},{"link_name":"Tao Okamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Okamoto"},{"link_name":"Rila Fukushima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rila_Fukushima"},{"link_name":"Mariko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariko_Yashida"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sanada-18"},{"link_name":"Will Yun Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Yun_Lee"},{"link_name":"Harada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenuichio_Harada"},{"link_name":"Brian Tee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Tee"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee-26"},{"link_name":"Deadline Hollywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood"},{"link_name":"Jessica Biel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Biel"},{"link_name":"Viper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viper_(Madame_Hydra)"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Biel-63"},{"link_name":"San Diego Comic-Con International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con_International"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Biel2-64"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Biel3-65"},{"link_name":"Svetlana Khodchenkova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetlana_Khodchenkova"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Khodchenkova-25"},{"link_name":"Bechdel Test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bechdel_Test"},{"link_name":"Vulture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"woman in jeopardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damsel_in_distress"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"R rated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_rating_(Motion_Picture_Association)"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ewpics-24"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vulture-45"},{"link_name":"Dwayne Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwayne_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Guillermo del Toro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillermo_del_Toro"},{"link_name":"Jim Gianopulos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Gianopulos"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GDT-69"}],"sub_title":"Pre-production","text":"\"If you have a hero who can't be hurt, there's only one way to create stakes or jeopardy, and that's to put people he cares about in harm's way. And, not unlike the amnesia thing, that can get tired really fast... I think there's so much to mine in Logan without robbing him of self-knowledge. What I wanted to present to the audience was, what is it like to feel a prisoner in a life you cannot escape? You accumulate pain and loss, and keep that with you as you keep on going\".\n\n\n—James Mangold[41]In October 2010, Jackman confirmed that Aronofsky would direct the film.[42] Jackman commented that with Aronofsky directing, Wolverine 2 will not be \"usual\" stating, \"This is, hopefully for me, going to be out of the box. It's going to be the best one, I hope... Well, I would say that, but I really do feel that, and I feel this is going to be very different. This is Wolverine. This is not Popeye. He's kind of dark... But, you know, this is a change of pace. Chris McQuarrie, who wrote The Usual Suspects, has written the script, so that'll give you a good clue. [Aronofsky's] going to make it fantastic. There's going to be some meat on the bones. There will be something to think about as you leave the theater, for sure\".[42] The film was scheduled to begin principal photography in March 2011 in New York City before the production moves to Japan for the bulk of shooting.[43]While Jackman in 2008 had characterized the film as \"a sequel to Origins\",[44] Aronofsky in November 2010 said the film, now titled The Wolverine, was a \"one-off\" rather than a sequel.[45] Also in November, Fox Filmed Entertainment sent out a press release stating that they have signed Aronofsky and his production company Protozoa Pictures to a new two-year, overall deal. Under the deal, Protozoa would develop and produce films for both 20th Century Fox and Fox Searchlight Pictures. Aronofsky's debut picture under the pact would have been The Wolverine.[46]In March 2011, Aronofsky bowed out of directing the film, saying in a statement, \"As I talked more about the film with my collaborators at Fox, it became clear that the production of The Wolverine would keep me out of the country for almost a year... I was not comfortable being away from my family for that length of time. I am sad that I won't be able to see the project through, as it is a terrific script and I was very much looking forward to working with my friend, Hugh Jackman, again\".[47] Fox also decided to be \"in no rush\" to start the production due to the damage incurred in Japan by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.[48] Despite this, Jackman said the project was moving ahead. \"It's too early to call on Japan, I'm not sure where they're at. So now we're finding another director, but Fox is very anxious to make the movie and we're moving ahead full steam to find another director\".[49]Director James Mangold at the 2013 San Diego Comic-ConIn May 2011, Fox had a list of eight candidates to replace Aronofsky, including directors José Padilha, Doug Liman, Antoine Fuqua, Mark Romanek, Justin Lin, Gavin O'Connor, James Mangold and Gary Shore.[50] Shawn Levy, who eventually directed Jackman as Wolverine in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Deadpool & Wolverine, was approached by Jackman to direct The Wolverine while filming Real Steel, but Levy declined because he wanted to do original films and knew that it would be Jackman's fifth time playing Wolverine.[51] In June 2011, Fox entered negotiations with Mangold and intended to start principal photography in fall 2011.[52] In July 2011, Jackman said he planned to begin filming in October and that he would fight the Silver Samurai.[53]In August 2011, The Vancouver Sun reported that filming would take place from November 11, 2011 to March 1, 2012 at the Canadian Motion Picture Park in Burnaby, British Columbia.[54] Almost immediately, filming was postponed to spring 2012 so Jackman could work on Les Misérables.[55] In September, Mark Bomback was hired to rewrite McQuarrie's script.[56] At one point, Bomback tried to work Rogue into the script, but he rejected it for being \"goofy\" and \"problematic\".[57] In February 2012, a July 26, 2013, release date was set,[58] and in April, filming was set to begin in August 2012 in Australia, which would serve as the primary location due to financial and tax incentives.[59]In July 2012, actors Hiroyuki Sanada, Hal Yamanouchi, Tao Okamoto and Rila Fukushima had been cast as Shingen, Ichirō, Mariko and Yukio, respectively.[15] Additionally, Will Yun Lee was cast as Harada, and Brian Tee as Noburo Mori.[23] By July 2012, Deadline Hollywood said Jessica Biel would play Viper.[60] However, at the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con International, Biel said her role in the film was \"not a done deal\", explaining, \"People keep talking about this. I don't know anything about it. It's a little bit too soon for that kind of an announcement\".[61] A few days later, negotiations between Biel and 20th Century Fox had broken down.[62] Later in July, Fox had begun talks with Svetlana Khodchenkova to take over the role.[22] Somewhat unusually for action movies, The Wolverine features four female lead roles and \"passes the Bechdel Test early and often\", according to Vulture. Mangold noted that he wrote his heroines so that \"they all have missions. They all have jobs to do other than be the object of affection\", intent of avoiding the \"worn out\" trope of the woman in jeopardy.[63] Jackman and Mangold were hoping to make the film R rated, but the studio rejected it.[64]In terms of his character, Jackman views Wolverine as \"the ultimate outsider\" and that \"the great battle, I always thought with Wolverine, is the battle within himself\".[65] Regarding Logan's struggle with extreme longevity, Jackman said, \"He realizes everyone he loves dies, and his whole life is full of pain. So it's better that he just escapes. He can't die really. He just wants to get away from everything\".[21] Jackman stated that he ate six meals a day in preparation for the role.[42] Jackman contacted Dwayne Johnson for some tips on bulking up for the film, suggesting that he gain a pound a week by eating 6,000 calories a day for six months which consisted of \"an awful lot of chicken, steak and brown rice\".In August 2012, Guillermo del Toro revealed he had been interested in directing the film, as the Japanese arc was his favorite Wolverine story. After meeting with Jim Gianopulos and Jackman, del Toro passed, deciding he did not wish to spend two to three years of his life working on the movie.[66]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Wolverine_Crew.jpg"},{"link_name":"Surry Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surry_Hills,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thewrap-budget-9"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph-70"},{"link_name":"breast cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_cancer"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Kurnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurnell,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph-70"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theleader-73"},{"link_name":"Picton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picton,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-illawarramercury-74"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-japanfilming-76"},{"link_name":"Fukuyama Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuyama_Station"},{"link_name":"Fukuyama, Hiroshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuyama,_Hiroshima"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-io9-77"},{"link_name":"Tomonoura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomonoura"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tomonoura-78"},{"link_name":"Cockle Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockle_Bay_(Sydney)"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph2-79"},{"link_name":"Parramatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parramatta"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heraldsun-80"},{"link_name":"X-Men: The Last Stand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men:_The_Last_Stand"},{"link_name":"Jean Grey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Grey_(film_character)"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hewitt-81"},{"link_name":"rōnin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%8Dnin"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ewpics-24"},{"link_name":"Sydney Olympic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Olympic_Park,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph3-83"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph4-84"},{"link_name":"Surry Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surry_Hills,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph5-85"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-coventrytelegraph2-86"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Bryan Singer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_Singer"},{"link_name":"Simon Kinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kinberg"},{"link_name":"X-Men: Days of Future Past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men:_Days_of_Future_Past"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"}],"sub_title":"Filming","text":"Crew of The Wolverine working on the film set in Surry Hills, SydneyOn a production budget of $120 million,[8] principal photography began on July 30, 2012.[67] Shuler Donner had to be absent through most of the production due to breast cancer, with her treatment ending just before post-production begun.[68][69] Some of the earliest scenes were shot at the Bonna Point Reserve in Kurnell, New South Wales, which doubled as a Japanese prisoner-of-war camp.[67] Filming there ended on August 2, 2012, with production scheduled to continue around Sydney followed by a few weeks in Japan before wrapping up in mid-November.[70] On August 3, 2012, production moved to Picton, which doubled as a town in Canada's Yukon region.[71] Mangold would say that the lack of the Japanese film commission was why the film wasn't entirely in Japan.[72]On August 25, 2012, Mangold said that production moved to Tokyo and began shooting.[73] On September 4, 2012, filming took place outside Fukuyama Station in Fukuyama, Hiroshima.[74] Filming in Tomonoura, a port in the Ichichi ward of Fukuyama, concluded on September 11, 2012.[75]On October 8, 2012, production returned to Sydney with filming on Erskine Street near Cockle Bay.[76] The following week, the film shot in Parramatta, which doubled as a Japanese city.[77] Also in October, Mangold revealed that the film follows the events of X-Men: The Last Stand, saying, \"Where this film sits in the universe of the films is after them all. Jean Grey is gone, most of the X-Men are disbanded or gone, so there's a tremendous sense of isolation for [Wolverine]\".[78] He elaborated that his decision to have The Wolverine take place after The Last Stand without making it a direct sequel to that film stemmed from the simplicity of setting the story after the huge amount of adventures Wolverine has endured throughout the film series the possibility of choosing a perfect moment for Logan to be stripped of both his heroic duties and his sense of purpose like a rōnin due to several of his fellow X-Men dying in the third X-Men film, allowing him to live in a \"separate\" world that doesn't necessarily need to tie-in with the next film to allow for more creative freedom, and finding himself in an existential crisis due to his immortality, which Mangold felt that it sounded in accordance to the themes of the original arc by Claremont and Miller.[79] Mangold later stated that in the fight scenes, \"there's an urgency and a kind of intensity and hand to hand physicality that I hope is a little different than everything else out there\".[21] On October 25, 2012 production relocated to Sydney Olympic Park in western Sydney.[80] The set was made into a Japanese village draped in snow with filming beginning on November 1, 2012.[81] On November 10, 2012, filming took place on a back street in Surry Hills. The set, constructed on Brisbane St., was transformed to look like a Japanese street with Japanese signage and vehicles scattered throughout.[82] Principal photography concluded on November 21, 2012.[83]Reshoots took place in Montréal, including the credits scene where Magneto and Professor X warn Wolverine of a new threat.[84] Said scene was contributed by Bryan Singer and Simon Kinberg, writers of X-Men: Days of Future Past, as a way to \"reintroduce Patrick Stewart into the universe\" and set up their film.[85] Mangold stated that while production of The Wolverine started before Days of Future Past and thus the film was mostly focused on being a self-contained story, he was able to collaborate with Singer to \"make things groove together\".[86]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silver_Samurai_-_The_Wolverine.jpg"},{"link_name":"3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_film"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3D-90"},{"link_name":"Weta Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weta_Digital"},{"link_name":"Rising Sun Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rising_Sun_Pictures"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"animatronic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animatronic"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fxguide-92"},{"link_name":"greenscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenscreen"},{"link_name":"Martin Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hill_(visual_effects_artist)"},{"link_name":"Google Street View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Street_View"},{"link_name":"Red Epic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Epic"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fxguide-92"},{"link_name":"3D printed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing"},{"link_name":"Shane Rangi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_Rangi"},{"link_name":"motion capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_capture"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fxguide-92"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Simon Kinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kinberg"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"sub_title":"Post-production","text":"Original plate (top), animation pass (center), and the completed shot (bottom) of the Silver SamuraiIn October 2012, it was reported that The Wolverine would be converted to 3D, making it the first 3D release for one of 20th Century Fox's Marvel films.[87] Visual effects for the film were completed by Weta Digital, Rising Sun Pictures (RSP), Iloura, and Shade VFX.[88]In order to recreate the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, RSP studied natural phenomena such as volcanoes, instead of relying on archived footage of atomic blasts, and recreated the effects digitally. They also replaced the Sydney cityscape on the horizon with views of Nagasaki. The walking bear featured in the Yukon scenes was created with computer graphics by Weta Digital, while Make-Up Effects Group built a 12-foot-tall animatronic bear, that was used for shots of the creature dying after it had been hit by poisoned arrows fired by hunters.[89]For a fight scene taking place on top of a speeding bullet train, the actors and stunt performers filmed on wires above a set piece surrounded by a greenscreen. The moving background, filmed on an elevated freeway in Tokyo, was added later. Weta Digital visual effects supervisor Martin Hill said the team adopted a \"Google Street View method\", explaining \"But instead of having a big panoramic cam on top of a van, we built a rig that had eight 45-degree angle Red Epic [cameras] that gave us massive resolution driving down all the massive lanes of the freeway. We let a bit of air out of the tires of the van and kept a constant 60 kilometers an hour. So if we shot at 48 fps we just needed to speed up the footage by 10 times to give us the 300 kilometers an hour required\".[89]The Silver Samurai, rendered by Weta Digital, was based on a model that had been 3D printed and chrome painted using electrolysis. Stunt performer Shane Rangi, wearing a motion capture suit, stood on stilts while filming as the Silver Samurai. Rangi's performance was then used to animate the digital character. Hill said the main challenge was creating the Silver Samurai's highly reflective surface, \"He's pretty much chrome. We were worried that he was going to look incredibly digital and that it was going to be very hard to make him look solid and real and not just like a mirrored surface\".[89]The original assembly cut of the film ran around two hours and 35 minutes.[90] The mid-credit scene was written by Simon Kinberg and shot by the X-Men: Days of Future Past crew, though Mangold directed the scene.[91]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marco Beltrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Beltrami"},{"link_name":"3:10 to Yuma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3:10_to_Yuma_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"score","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_score"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beltrami-95"},{"link_name":"noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_noir"},{"link_name":"Spaghetti Western","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaghetti_Western"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Hollywood Studio Symphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood_Studio_Symphony"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Sony Classical Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Classical_Records"}],"text":"In September 2012, Marco Beltrami, who previously scored James Mangold's film 3:10 to Yuma (2007), announced that he had signed on to score The Wolverine.[92] Following Mangold's noir and Spaghetti Western inspirations for the film, Beltrami explained, \"I think I do every movie as a western whether it is or not, so there's definitely some of the spaghetti western influence on my music throughout the score, and I guess throughout a lot of my work. I wouldn't say there was a particular movie that influenced me more than something else. There was nothing that I was trying to mimic or anything.\"[93] On associating sounds with the film's primary location, Beltrami said, \"I think the last thing that Jim [Mangold] and I wanted to do was Japanese music associated with Japanese places. There's a reference; I do use Japanese instruments, [but] not really in a traditional way.\"[94] The score was performed by an 85-piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Newman Scoring Stage located at 20th Century Fox Studios.[95] The album was released by Sony Classical Records on July 23, 2013.","title":"Music"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ComingSoon2-99"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"sub_title":"Theatrical","text":"The Wolverine was released on July 3, 2013, in various international markets, and in the United States two days later.[96] The film was titled Wolverine: Immortal in Brazil and Spanish-language markets.[97][98] The film premiered in Japan on September 13, 2013, under the title Wolverine: Samurai (ウルヴァリン: SAMURAI, Uruvarin Samurai).[99]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hugh_Jackman_by_Gage_Skidmore_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hugh Jackman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Jackman"},{"link_name":"San Diego Comic-Con","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con"},{"link_name":"YouTube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"G.I. Joe: Retaliation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.I._Joe:_Retaliation"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"CinemaCon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CinemaCon"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"Dawn of the Planet of the Apes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn_of_the_Planet_of_the_Apes"},{"link_name":"San Diego Comic-Con","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Audi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi"},{"link_name":"Audi R8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_R8_(road_car)"},{"link_name":"Ducati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducati"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_(gum)"},{"link_name":"Red Robin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Robin"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"}],"sub_title":"Marketing","text":"Hugh Jackman promoting the film at the 2013 San Diego Comic-ConOn October 29, 2012, director James Mangold and actor Jackman hosted a live chat from the set of the film. The chat took place on the official website and the official YouTube account of the film.[100]The first American trailer and international trailer of The Wolverine were released on March 27, 2013.[101] Empire magazine said \"This is all very encouraging stuff from director James Mangold, a man who's obviously not afraid of tweaking the original source material to serve his own ends.\"[102] The trailer was later attached to G.I. Joe: Retaliation.[103] The second American trailer was then released on April 18, 2013, and was screened at CinemaCon in Las Vegas.[104]The third American trailer was released on May 21, 2013,[105] and then on June 13, 2013, the second international trailer was released.[106]On July 20, 2013, 20th Century Fox presented The Wolverine along with Dawn of the Planet of the Apes and X-Men: Days of Future Past to the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con with Jackman and Mangold in attendance to present new footage of the film.[107]20th Century Fox partnered with automotive company Audi to promote the film with their sports car Audi R8 and their motorcycle Ducati.[108] Other partners included sugar-free chewing-gum brand 5 and casual dining restaurant company Red Robin.[109]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD-Video"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"unrated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_picture_rating_system"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gilchrist-12"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"}],"sub_title":"Home media","text":"The Wolverine was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and Blu-ray 3D on December 3, 2013.[110] The Blu-ray set features an exclusive unrated extended cut of the film referred to as the \"Unleashed Extended Edition\".[111] This version of the film was screened for the first time at 20th Century Fox Studios on November 19, 2013.[11] It contains 12 extra minutes,[112] primarily including an extended battle with Harada's ninjas during the start of the film's third act as well as additional footage during moments of character interaction.[113] The BBFC gives its running time as 132 minutes and 22 seconds, only six minutes longer.[114]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BOM-11"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mojo-weekend-122"},{"link_name":"X-Men: The Last Stand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men:_The_Last_Stand"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mojo-weekend-122"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"}],"sub_title":"Box office","text":"Along with the improvements in critical reception, The Wolverine outgrossed Origins in total box office, though earned less domestically. The film closed in US theaters on December 5, 2013, grossing $132,556,852 in North America (as opposed to $179,883,157 for the earlier film) and $282,271,394 in other territories (as opposed to the earlier film's $193,179,707), for a worldwide total of $414,828,246.[10] The film earned $139.6 million on its worldwide opening weekend.[115] When compared to the rest of the X-Men film franchise, The Wolverine has garnered somewhat mixed results in terms of box office success. While its domestic gross is greater than the production budget, it is still lower than the other five films of the franchise, with its domestic box office total being roughly $45.1 million less than the franchise's average. However, its overseas total currently exceeds the franchise's average by roughly $75.7 million and is significantly more than any of the other X-Men films. With a worldwide total of roughly $414.8 million, The Wolverine was at that time the third-highest-grossing film.[116]In North America, the film opened at the top of the box office on its opening day, with $20.7 million, with $4 million coming from Thursday late-night showings.[117][118] It held on to the number one spot through its first weekend, with $53,113,752, which was the lowest opening of the series until 2019's Dark Phoenix was released.[119]Outside North America, the film topped the box office on its opening weekend with $86.5 million from 100 countries. The film achieved the highest opening of the franchise, passing X-Men: The Last Stand's $76.2 million opening.[119][120]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"review aggregator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_aggregator"},{"link_name":"Rotten Tomatoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"CinemaScore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CinemaScore"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"Richard Roeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Roeper"},{"link_name":"Chicago Sun-Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Roger Ebert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Ebert"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"TV Guide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_Guide"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"Peter Travers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Travers"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"New York Daily News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Daily_News"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"Thor: The Dark World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thor:_The_Dark_World"},{"link_name":"Man of Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_of_Steel_(film)"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"}],"sub_title":"Critical response","text":"The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 71% approval rating with an average rating of 6.3/10 based on 262 reviews. The website's consensus reads, \"Although its final act succumbs to the usual cartoonish antics, The Wolverine is one superhero movie that manages to stay true to the comics while keeping casual viewers entertained.\"[121] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 61 out of 100, based on reviews from 46 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".[122] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A−\", on a scale from A+ to F.[123]Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it a grade of \"B+\", praising Jackman's performance as \"strong, solid entertainment\" and \"a serious, sometimes dark and deliberately paced story.\"[124] Christy Lemire, writing for the website of Roger Ebert, said that the film \"features some breathtakingly suspenseful action sequences, exquisite production and costume design and colorful characters, some of whom register more powerfully than others.\"[125] Variety film critic Peter Debruge called the film \"an entertaining and surprisingly existential digression from his usual X-Men exploits. Though Wolvie comes across a bit world-weary and battle-worn by now, Jackman is in top form, taking the opportunity to test the character's physical and emotional extremes. Fans might've preferred bigger action or more effects, but Mangold does them one better, recovering the soul of a character whose near-immortality made him tiresome.\"[126] James Buchanan of TV Guide.com gave it 3 out of 4 stars, calling it \"A rare comic-to-film adaptation that doesn't sacrifice substance for the sake of thrilling action.\"[127] Scott Collura of IGN praised the film giving it an 8.5 out of 10[128] and stated, \"The Wolverine is a stand alone adventure for the classic character that reminds us that there's more to this genre than universe-building and crossovers. ... [The] story paints a deep and compelling portrait of Logan, a haunted character that Jackman still finds new ways to play all these years later.\"[129] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt that despite the film's final act \"sink[ing] into CGI shit\", Jackman's performance \"still has the juice\" and Mangold's directing \"shows style and snap.\"[130]Henry Barnes of The Guardian gave the film a negative review, giving it 2 out of 5 stars and stating, \"Hugh Jackman's sixth time out in the claws and hair combo is looking increasingly wearied, as the backstory gets more complicated and the action gets duller and flatter.\"[131] Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News offered a similar view, saying \"Hugh Jackman has the role of the mutant superhero down pat, but the rest of the film is the same old slice and dice.\"[132]A common critique towards the film were aspects of the final act, particular in regard to the climactic fight with Silver Samurai and the Viper character. When promoting Logan, Mangold acknowledged the criticism, remarking that while The Wolverine was meant as a small scale, more intimate film, the studio wanted \"big, CG action\" to stay afloat with the other big blockbusters that came out that year such as Thor: The Dark World (2013) and Man of Steel (2013).[133]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deadline.com-137"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ComingSoon.net-138"},{"link_name":"Inverse (website)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_(website)"},{"link_name":"Collider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collider_(website)"},{"link_name":"Logan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logan_(film)"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"Inverse (website)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_(website)"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"X-Men film series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men_film_series"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"}],"sub_title":"Legacy","text":"Following the release of The Wolverine 20th Century Fox had begun negotiations with both Jackman and Mangold to return for another Wolverine movie. Mangold was scheduled to write the treatment, with Lauren Shuler Donner returning to produce.[134] On March 20, 2014, Fox announced that the sequel would be released March 3, 2017.[135]In retrospective reviews, several film critics such as Matthew Razak from Flixter, Alex Wench from Inverse (website), and Matthew Mosley from Collider have stated that The Wolverine is the most underrated superhero movie of all time, while also noting its later influence and similarities with Logan.[136][137][138] Wench from Inverse (website) wrote \"what they ended up getting is a film that stands as one of the most contemplative superhero movies ever made. The film digs deep into the mind of Wolverine, giving Jackman the chance to put his investment in the character on full display. In that way, The Wolverine ends up being the perfect lead-in to 2017's Logan, a film that not only sees Mangold and Jackman working together again but also revisiting and perfecting everything they did and didn't do right in their previous collaboration.\"[139]In a ranking of the X-Men film series, Darren Franich from Entertainment Weekly ranked the film in second place, writing \"a deceptively small-scale crime thriller with a propulsive B-movie sensibility and a mournful sincerity that makes other blockbusters look plastic by comparison. Further adding \"I know a lot of people view this film as a stepping-stone oddity to Logan, but I think The Wolverine's accomplishment is more sneakily profound. A philosophical divide, maybe, but one to ponder: In Logan, Wolverine accepts death; in The Wolverine, Logan figures out how to live.\"[140]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Accolades","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deadline.com-137"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ComingSoon.net-138"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"Michael Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Green_(writer)"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"Liev Schreiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liev_Schreiber"},{"link_name":"Victor Creed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabretooth_(comics)"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"Boyd Holbrook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyd_Holbrook"},{"link_name":"head of security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Pierce"},{"link_name":"Richard E. Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_E._Grant"},{"link_name":"mad scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zander_Rice"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"Simon Kinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kinberg"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"Stephen Merchant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Merchant"},{"link_name":"Caliban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliban_(Marvel_Comics)"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merchant-Cast-157"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"Eriq La Salle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eriq_La_Salle"},{"link_name":"Elise Neal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elise_Neal"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"Shiori Kutsuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiori_Kutsuna"},{"link_name":"Yukio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukio_(comics)"},{"link_name":"Deadpool 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadpool_2"},{"link_name":"Rila Fukushima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rila_Fukushima"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kutsuna-162"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yukio-163"}],"text":"By October 2013, 20th Century Fox had begun negotiations with both Jackman and Mangold to return for a previously untitled installment. Mangold was scheduled to write the treatment, with Lauren Shuler Donner returning to produce.[134] On March 20, 2014, Fox announced that the sequel would be released March 3, 2017.[135] David James Kelly was hired to write the script, and Jackman was set to reprise his role as Wolverine.[146] By the following month, screenwriter Michael Green was attached to the film.[147] Mangold tweeted that filming would start in early 2016.[148] Patrick Stewart said in August 2015 that he will reprise his role as Charles Xavier.[149] Liev Schreiber, who portrayed Victor Creed in X-Men Origins: Wolverine, said in February 2016 that he was in talks to reprise his role in the sequel.[150] By April 2016, Boyd Holbrook had been cast as head of security for a global enterprise set against Wolverine, and Richard E. Grant as a \"mad scientist type\".[151][152] Simon Kinberg that month said the film will be set in the future.[153] Toward the end of the month, Stephen Merchant was cast as Caliban.[154][155] In May 2016, Eriq La Salle and Elise Neal were cast in unspecified roles.[156][157] In May, Kinberg said filming had started and that he planned it to be an R-rated movie.[158] Shiori Kutsuna was later cast as a younger version of Yukio in Deadpool 2, replacing Rila Fukushima.[159][160]","title":"Sequel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AFI-Ctry-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BFI-exp-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lum-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"X-Men: The Last Stand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men:_The_Last_Stand"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"X-Men: Days of Future Past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men:_Days_of_Future_Past"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"^ Sources differ regarding the country or countries of origin of The Wolverine. Some indicate that the United States is the sole country of origin,[2][3][4] while others list it as a co-production of the United States and Great Britain.[5][6]\n\n^ As depicted in the 2006 film X-Men: The Last Stand\n\n^ Later depicted in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past[12][13]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Cinematographer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Cinematographer"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0002-7928","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0002-7928"}],"text":"Gray, Simon. \"Rapturous Action\". American Cinematographer. Vol. 94, No. 8. August 2013. ISSN 0002-7928. Hollywood: California. ASC Holding Corp. Pages 56–65. Behind-the-scenes article on The Wolverine focusing on the film's camera work, lighting, etc. 9 pages, 17 color photos.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Director James Mangold at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/James_Mangold_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg/220px-James_Mangold_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg"},{"image_text":"Crew of The Wolverine working on the film set in Surry Hills, Sydney","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/The_Wolverine_Crew.jpg/220px-The_Wolverine_Crew.jpg"},{"image_text":"Original plate (top), animation pass (center), and the completed shot (bottom) of the Silver Samurai","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/23/Silver_Samurai_-_The_Wolverine.jpg/220px-Silver_Samurai_-_The_Wolverine.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hugh Jackman promoting the film at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Hugh_Jackman_by_Gage_Skidmore_2.jpg/250px-Hugh_Jackman_by_Gage_Skidmore_2.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"The Wolverine\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_bush | The bush | ["1 Usage by country","1.1 The Australian bush","1.2 New Zealand","1.3 South Africa","1.4 Alaska and Canada","2 Related terms","3 See also","4 References"] | Refers to natural undeveloped areas in Australia and New Zealand
The Australian bush
"The bush" is a term mostly used in the English vernacular of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand where it is largely synonymous with hinterland or backwoods respectively, referring to a natural undeveloped area. The fauna and flora contained within this area may be mostly indigenous to the region, although exotic species will often also be present.
The expression has been in use in Australia from the earliest years of British settlement. The Sydney Gazette reported in 1804 that: "One of the ringleaders was apprehended and two others escaped into the bush." (Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, 10 June 1804, page 4).
The term is also widely used in Canada to refer to the large, forested portion of the country. The same usage applies in the US state of Alaska.
Usage by country
The Australian bush
Frederick McCubbin's 1889 painting Down on His Luck shows a swagman camping in the bush. McCubbin and other members of the Heidelberg School art movement depicted the bush in many of their paintings, contributing to its mythological status within Australian culture.
The concept of "the bush" has become iconic in Australia. In reference to the landscape, "bush" refers to any sparsely-inhabited region, regardless of vegetation. "The bush" in this sense was something that was uniquely Australian and very different from the green European landscapes familiar to many new immigrants. The term "Outback" is also used, but usually in association with the more arid inland areas of Australia. "The bush" also refers to any populated region outside of the major metropolitan areas, including mining and agricultural areas. Consequently, it is not unusual to have a mining town in the desert such as Port Hedland (population 14,000) referred to as "the bush".
Indigenous Australians lived a nomadic life in remote areas of the bush for thousands of years, and during that time developed ways of utilising natural resources for survival, mainly with bush tucker and the spiritual healing of bush medicine. For more than a century after the first British settlement in 1788 onwards, land was granted or sold to settlers, resulting in many generally small but permanent human settlements in vast tracts of bush. Closer settlement in Australia has often resulted in fragmentation of the bush, and bushfires, an ever-present hazard in many areas in summer months, have also increased with increasing suburbanisation of the Australian population.
Bush poets such as Henry Lawson (1867–1922) and Banjo Paterson (1864–1942) revered the bush as a source of national ideals, as did contemporaneous painters in the Heidelberg School such as Tom Roberts (1856–1931), Arthur Streeton (1867–1943) and Frederick McCubbin (1855–1917). Romanticising the bush in this way through folklore was a big step forward for 19th-century Australians in developing a distinct self-identity.
Australians and New Zealanders attach the term "bush" to any number of other entities or activities to describe their rural, country or folk nature through terms such as "bush telegraph", an informal human network through which news is passed on; "bush carpenter", a rough-and-ready builder; "to go bush", to escape from your usual haunts; "bush cricket", "bush music" (Australian folk music); "bush doof"; and bushrangers, 19th-century criminals mainly in the eastern colonies who hid in the bush to escape from authorities.
New Zealand
See also: Forest parks of New Zealand and Deforestation in New Zealand
New Zealand's bush is variable in appearance, but generally the term connotes densely forested areas, like this one around Lake Gunn in Fiordland.
In New Zealand, Bush primarily refers to areas of native trees rather than exotic forests, however, the word is also used in the Australian sense of anywhere outside urban areas, encompassing grasslands as well as forests.
Areas with bush (i.e. native forest) are found in both the North Island and the South Island, some of it bordering towns and cities, but the majority of bush is found in large national parks. Examples of predominantly bush clad areas are Whanganui National Park, on Taranaki volcano, on which the bush extends in a uniformly circular shape to the surrounding farmland, and Fiordland in the South Island. Much of Stewart Island/Rakiura is bush-covered. In the North Island, the largest areas of bush cover the main ranges stretching north-northeast from Wellington towards East Cape, notably including the Urewera Ranges, and the catchment of the Whanganui River. Significant stands remain in Northland and the ranges running south from the Coromandel Peninsula towards Ruapehu, and isolated remnants cap various volcanoes in Taranaki, the Waikato, the Bay of Plenty and the Hauraki Gulf.
From the word comes many phrases including:
bush-bash – to make one's way through the forest, rather than on a track or trail (cf. American English "bushwhack", "bushwack", or "bush-whack").
bush shirt – a woolen shirt or Swanndri, often worn by forest workers.
bush lawyer – the name of a number of native climbing plants or a layman who expounds on legal matters.
bush walk – short day walks (hikes) in the bush
going bush – to live in the bush for an extended period of time, which may include "living off the land" by means of hunting or fishing.
bushman – Used in the 19th century for New Zealand loggers. The term still stands for someone that lives in the bush as a means of preferable lifestyle.
South Africa
In South Africa, the term (Afrikaans: die bos) has specific connotations of rural areas which are not open veldt. Generally, it refers to areas in the north of the country that would be called savanna. "Going to The Bush" (Bos toe Gaan) often refers to going to a game park or game reserve. Areas most commonly referred to as The Bush are the Mpumalanga and Limpopo Lowveld, The Limpopo River Valley, northern KwaZulu-Natal or any other similar area of wilderness.
Alaska and Canada
Main article: The Bush (Alaska)
The Bush in Alaska is generally described as any community not "on the road system", making it accessible only by more elaborate transportation. Usage is similar in Canada; it is called la brousse or colloquially le bois in Canadian French. In Canada, "the bush" refers to large expanses of forest and swampland which sprawl undeveloped, as well as any forested area.
Related terms
Icons of the Australian bush: bracken, corrugated iron, eucalyptus leaves, banksia, bramble, felt hat, billy, stockwhip and elastic-side boots
The term "to go bush" has several similar meanings all connected with the supposed wildness of the bush. It can mean to revert to a feral nature (or to "go native"), and it can also mean to deliberately leave normal surroundings and live rough, with connotations of cutting off communication with the outside world – often as a means of evading capture or questioning by the police. The term bushwhacker is used in Australia and New Zealand to mean someone who spends his or her time in the bush.
The verb to bushwhack has two meanings. One is to cut through heavy brush and other vegetation to pass through tangled country: "We had to do quite a bit of bushwhacking today to clear the new trail." The other meaning is to hide in such areas and then attack unsuspecting passers-by: "We were bushwhacked by the bandits as we passed through their territory and they took all of our money and supplies."
The Bushwhackers were also a New Zealand professional wrestling tag team that was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2015.
In New Zealand, "The Bush" is a nickname for the Wairarapa Bush provincial rugby team. The team was formed by an amalgamation of two earlier teams, Wairarapa and Bush. The latter team had represented an area on the boundaries of the Wairarapa and Hawke's Bay which was in former times known as Bush due to its dense vegetation cover.
In the United States, minor league baseball, which is typically played in smaller cities, is sometimes derisively called "bush league baseball".
In Australia,"Sydney or the bush" equates with such terms as "Hollywood or bust" to mean staking total success or failure on one high-risk event. This usage appears in several Peanuts cartoons, causing Charlie Brown much confusion.
See also
Backcountry
Black stump
Bush flying
Bush mechanic
Bushcraft
Bushland
Deserts of Australia
Old-growth forest
Wilderness
References
^
Australian Government, Culture Portal (11 December 2007). "The Australian Bush". Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2009. The bush has an iconic status in Australian life and features strongly in any debate about national identity
^ Schaffer, Kay (1989). Women and the Bush: Australian National Identity and Representations of the Feminine (Vol. 3, No. 1 ed.). Wayne State University Press. p. 7.
^ "GroceryChoice useless for those in the bush: Tuckey". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 28 August 2008.
^ Harvey, Nick; Caton, Brian (2010). "Human Impact on the Australian Coast.". Coastal Management in Australia. University of Adelaide Press. p. 138. JSTOR 10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x5j.10.
^ "Australian painters". Commonwealth of Australia. 23 November 2007. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2012.
^ Phillips, Jock (2007). "Story: the New Zealand bush: what is the bush?". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
^ Jock Phillips (17 September 2009). "The New Zealand bush – What is the bush? (The bush: dense native forest)". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand.
^ Orsman, H. W. (1999). The Dictionary of New Zealand English. Auckland: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-558347-7.
^ John McDonald (29 November 2002). "Sydney or the bush". Archived from the original on 7 September 2003.
^ Chris Baker (6 June 2006). "CONTEMPORARY AUSTRALIA 5. Sydney or the Bush?" (PDF). Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
^ Charles M. Schulz (29 August 2012). "Peanuts". | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Australian_bush.jpg"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"hinterland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterland"},{"link_name":"backwoods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/backwoods"}],"text":"The Australian bush\"The bush\" is a term mostly used in the English vernacular of South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand where it is largely synonymous with hinterland or backwoods respectively, referring to a natural undeveloped area. 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McCubbin and other members of the Heidelberg School art movement depicted the bush in many of their paintings, contributing to its mythological status within Australian culture.The concept of \"the bush\" has become iconic in Australia.[vague][1] In reference to the landscape, \"bush\" refers to any sparsely-inhabited region, regardless of vegetation. \"The bush\" in this sense was something that was uniquely Australian[2] and very different from the green European landscapes familiar to many new immigrants. The term \"Outback\" is also used, but usually in association with the more arid inland areas of Australia. \"The bush\" also refers to any populated region outside of the major metropolitan areas, including mining and agricultural areas. Consequently, it is not unusual to have a mining town in the desert such as Port Hedland (population 14,000) referred to as \"the bush\".[3]Indigenous Australians lived a nomadic life[citation needed] in remote areas of the bush for thousands of years, and during that time developed ways of utilising natural resources for survival, mainly with bush tucker and the spiritual healing of bush medicine. For more than a century after the first British settlement in 1788 onwards, land was granted or sold to settlers, resulting in many generally small but permanent human settlements in vast tracts of bush. Closer settlement in Australia has often resulted in fragmentation of the bush,[4] and bushfires, an ever-present hazard in many areas in summer months, have also increased with increasing suburbanisation of the Australian population.Bush poets such as Henry Lawson (1867–1922) and Banjo Paterson (1864–1942) revered the bush as a source of national ideals, as did contemporaneous painters in the Heidelberg School such as Tom Roberts (1856–1931), Arthur Streeton (1867–1943) and Frederick McCubbin (1855–1917).[5] Romanticising the bush in this way through folklore was a big step forward for 19th-century Australians in developing a distinct self-identity.[citation needed]Australians and New Zealanders attach the term \"bush\" to any number of other entities or activities to describe their rural, country or folk nature through terms such as \"bush telegraph\", an informal human network through which news is passed on; \"bush carpenter\", a rough-and-ready builder; \"to go bush\", to escape from your usual haunts;[6] \"bush cricket\", \"bush music\" (Australian folk music); \"bush doof\"; and bushrangers, 19th-century criminals mainly in the eastern colonies who hid in the bush to escape from authorities.","title":"Usage by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Forest parks of New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_parks_of_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Deforestation in New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_in_New_Zealand"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LakeGunnBush.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lake Gunn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Gunn"},{"link_name":"Fiordland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiordland"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jock_Phillips-7"},{"link_name":"North Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Island"},{"link_name":"South Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Island"},{"link_name":"Whanganui National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whanganui_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Taranaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranaki"},{"link_name":"Fiordland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiordland"},{"link_name":"Stewart Island/Rakiura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_Island/Rakiura"},{"link_name":"North Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Island"},{"link_name":"Wellington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington"},{"link_name":"East Cape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Cape"},{"link_name":"Urewera Ranges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te_Urewera"},{"link_name":"Whanganui River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whanganui_River"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Swanndri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swanndri"},{"link_name":"bush lawyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_lawyer_(plant)"},{"link_name":"hikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiking"}],"sub_title":"New Zealand","text":"See also: Forest parks of New Zealand and Deforestation in New ZealandNew Zealand's bush is variable in appearance, but generally the term connotes densely forested areas, like this one around Lake Gunn in Fiordland.In New Zealand, Bush primarily refers to areas of native trees rather than exotic forests, however, the word is also used in the Australian sense of anywhere outside urban areas, encompassing grasslands as well as forests.[7]Areas with bush (i.e. native forest) are found in both the North Island and the South Island, some of it bordering towns and cities, but the majority of bush is found in large national parks. Examples of predominantly bush clad areas are Whanganui National Park, on Taranaki volcano, on which the bush extends in a uniformly circular shape to the surrounding farmland, and Fiordland in the South Island. Much of Stewart Island/Rakiura is bush-covered. In the North Island, the largest areas of bush cover the main ranges stretching north-northeast from Wellington towards East Cape, notably including the Urewera Ranges, and the catchment of the Whanganui River. Significant stands remain in Northland and the ranges running south from the Coromandel Peninsula towards Ruapehu, and isolated remnants cap various volcanoes in Taranaki, the Waikato, the Bay of Plenty and the Hauraki Gulf.From the word comes many phrases including:[8]bush-bash – to make one's way through the forest, rather than on a track or trail (cf. American English \"bushwhack[ing]\", \"bushwack[ing]\", or \"bush-whack[ing]\").\nbush shirt – a woolen shirt or Swanndri, often worn by forest workers.\nbush lawyer – the name of a number of native climbing plants or a layman who expounds on legal matters.\nbush walk – short day walks (hikes) in the bush\ngoing bush – to live in the bush for an extended period of time, which may include \"living off the land\" by means of hunting or fishing.\nbushman – Used in the 19th century for New Zealand loggers. The term still stands for someone that lives in the bush as a means of preferable lifestyle.","title":"Usage by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Afrikaans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaans_language"},{"link_name":"veldt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veld"},{"link_name":"savanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna"},{"link_name":"Mpumalanga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpumalanga"},{"link_name":"Limpopo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpopo"},{"link_name":"Lowveld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowveld"},{"link_name":"Limpopo River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpopo_River"},{"link_name":"KwaZulu-Natal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KwaZulu-Natal"}],"sub_title":"South Africa","text":"In South Africa, the term (Afrikaans: die bos) has specific connotations of rural areas which are not open veldt. Generally, it refers to areas in the north of the country that would be called savanna. \"Going to The Bush\" (Bos toe Gaan) often refers to going to a game park or game reserve. Areas most commonly referred to as The Bush are the Mpumalanga and Limpopo Lowveld, The Limpopo River Valley, northern KwaZulu-Natal or any other similar area of wilderness.","title":"Usage by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canadian French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_French"}],"sub_title":"Alaska and Canada","text":"The Bush in Alaska is generally described as any community not \"on the road system\", making it accessible only by more elaborate transportation. Usage is similar in Canada; it is called la brousse or colloquially le bois in Canadian French. In Canada, \"the bush\" refers to large expanses of forest and swampland which sprawl undeveloped, as well as any forested area.","title":"Usage by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bush_icons.JPG"},{"link_name":"bracken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracken"},{"link_name":"corrugated iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrugated_iron"},{"link_name":"eucalyptus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus"},{"link_name":"banksia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banksia"},{"link_name":"bramble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramble"},{"link_name":"billy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billycan"},{"link_name":"stockwhip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockwhip"},{"link_name":"The Bushwhackers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bushwhackers"},{"link_name":"WWE Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWE_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Wairarapa Bush provincial rugby team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wairarapa_Bush_Rugby_Football_Union"},{"link_name":"Wairarapa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wairarapa"},{"link_name":"Hawke's Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawke%27s_Bay"},{"link_name":"minor league baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_league_baseball"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Peanuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanuts"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Icons of the Australian bush: bracken, corrugated iron, eucalyptus leaves, banksia, bramble, felt hat, billy, stockwhip and elastic-side bootsThe term \"to go bush\" has several similar meanings all connected with the supposed wildness of the bush. It can mean to revert to a feral nature (or to \"go native\"), and it can also mean to deliberately leave normal surroundings and live rough, with connotations of cutting off communication with the outside world – often as a means of evading capture or questioning by the police. The term bushwhacker is used in Australia and New Zealand to mean someone who spends his or her time in the bush.The verb to bushwhack has two meanings. One is to cut through heavy brush and other vegetation to pass through tangled country: \"We had to do quite a bit of bushwhacking today to clear the new trail.\" The other meaning is to hide in such areas and then attack unsuspecting passers-by: \"We were bushwhacked by the bandits as we passed through their territory and they took all of our money and supplies.\"The Bushwhackers were also a New Zealand professional wrestling tag team that was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2015.In New Zealand, \"The Bush\" is a nickname for the Wairarapa Bush provincial rugby team. The team was formed by an amalgamation of two earlier teams, Wairarapa and Bush. The latter team had represented an area on the boundaries of the Wairarapa and Hawke's Bay which was in former times known as Bush due to its dense vegetation cover.In the United States, minor league baseball, which is typically played in smaller cities, is sometimes derisively called \"bush league baseball\".In Australia,\"Sydney or the bush\" equates with such terms as \"Hollywood or bust\" to mean staking total success or failure on one high-risk event.[9][10] This usage appears in several Peanuts cartoons, causing Charlie Brown much confusion.[11]","title":"Related terms"}] | [{"image_text":"The Australian bush","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Australian_bush.jpg/280px-Australian_bush.jpg"},{"image_text":"Frederick McCubbin's 1889 painting Down on His Luck shows a swagman camping in the bush. McCubbin and other members of the Heidelberg School art movement depicted the bush in many of their paintings, contributing to its mythological status within Australian culture.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Down_on_his_luck_Frederick_McCubbin.jpg/220px-Down_on_his_luck_Frederick_McCubbin.jpg"},{"image_text":"New Zealand's bush is variable in appearance, but generally the term connotes densely forested areas, like this one around Lake Gunn in Fiordland.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/LakeGunnBush.jpg/170px-LakeGunnBush.jpg"},{"image_text":"Icons of the Australian bush: bracken, corrugated iron, eucalyptus leaves, banksia, bramble, felt hat, billy, stockwhip and elastic-side boots","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Bush_icons.JPG/170px-Bush_icons.JPG"}] | [{"title":"Backcountry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry"},{"title":"Black stump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_stump"},{"title":"Bush flying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_flying"},{"title":"Bush mechanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bush_mechanic"},{"title":"Bushcraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushcraft"},{"title":"Bushland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushland"},{"title":"Deserts of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deserts_of_Australia"},{"title":"Old-growth forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old-growth_forest"},{"title":"Wilderness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness"}] | [{"reference":"Australian Government, Culture Portal (11 December 2007). \"The Australian Bush\". Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2009. The bush has an iconic status in Australian life and features strongly in any debate about national identity","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120227101247/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-bush","url_text":"\"The Australian Bush\""},{"url":"http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-bush","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Schaffer, Kay (1989). Women and the Bush: Australian National Identity and Representations of the Feminine (Vol. 3, No. 1 ed.). Wayne State University Press. p. 7.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"GroceryChoice useless for those in the bush: Tuckey\". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 28 August 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-08-28/grocerychoice-useless-for-those-in-the-bush-tuckey/492284","url_text":"\"GroceryChoice useless for those in the bush: Tuckey\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Australian Broadcasting Corporation"}]},{"reference":"Harvey, Nick; Caton, Brian (2010). \"Human Impact on the Australian Coast.\". Coastal Management in Australia. University of Adelaide Press. p. 138. JSTOR 10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x5j.10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x5j.10","url_text":"Coastal Management in Australia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x5j.10","url_text":"10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x5j.10"}]},{"reference":"\"Australian painters\". Commonwealth of Australia. 23 November 2007. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121021091855/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-painters","url_text":"\"Australian painters\""},{"url":"http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-painters","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Phillips, Jock (2007). \"Story: the New Zealand bush: what is the bush?\". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 13 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://teara.govt.nz/en/the-new-zealand-bush/page-1","url_text":"\"Story: the New Zealand bush: what is the bush?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te_Ara:_The_Encyclopedia_of_New_Zealand","url_text":"Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand"}]},{"reference":"Jock Phillips (17 September 2009). \"The New Zealand bush – What is the bush? (The bush: dense native forest)\". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/the-New-Zealand-bush/1","url_text":"\"The New Zealand bush – What is the bush? (The bush: dense native forest)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te_Ara:_The_Encyclopedia_of_New_Zealand","url_text":"Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand"}]},{"reference":"Orsman, H. W. (1999). The Dictionary of New Zealand English. Auckland: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-558347-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-558347-7","url_text":"0-19-558347-7"}]},{"reference":"John McDonald (29 November 2002). \"Sydney or the bush\". Archived from the original on 7 September 2003.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20030907120654/http://www.artnews.com.au/details.php?e=161","url_text":"\"Sydney or the bush\""},{"url":"http://www.artnews.com.au/details.php?e=161","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chris Baker (6 June 2006). \"CONTEMPORARY AUSTRALIA 5. Sydney or the Bush?\" (PDF). Australian Broadcasting Corporation.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.net.au/ra/australia/pdf/sydney_bush.pdf","url_text":"\"CONTEMPORARY AUSTRALIA 5. Sydney or the Bush?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Australian Broadcasting Corporation"}]},{"reference":"Charles M. Schulz (29 August 2012). \"Peanuts\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_M._Schulz","url_text":"Charles M. Schulz"},{"url":"http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/2012/08/29/","url_text":"\"Peanuts\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120227101247/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-bush","external_links_name":"\"The Australian Bush\""},{"Link":"http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-bush","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-08-28/grocerychoice-useless-for-those-in-the-bush-tuckey/492284","external_links_name":"\"GroceryChoice useless for those in the bush: Tuckey\""},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x5j.10","external_links_name":"Coastal Management in Australia"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x5j.10","external_links_name":"10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x5j.10"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121021091855/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-painters","external_links_name":"\"Australian painters\""},{"Link":"http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-painters","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://teara.govt.nz/en/the-new-zealand-bush/page-1","external_links_name":"\"Story: the New Zealand bush: what is the bush?\""},{"Link":"https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/the-New-Zealand-bush/1","external_links_name":"\"The New Zealand bush – What is the bush? (The bush: dense native forest)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20030907120654/http://www.artnews.com.au/details.php?e=161","external_links_name":"\"Sydney or the bush\""},{"Link":"http://www.artnews.com.au/details.php?e=161","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.abc.net.au/ra/australia/pdf/sydney_bush.pdf","external_links_name":"\"CONTEMPORARY AUSTRALIA 5. Sydney or the Bush?\""},{"Link":"http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/2012/08/29/","external_links_name":"\"Peanuts\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_%27n%27_Roll_(play) | Rock 'n' Roll (play) | ["1 Plot summary","2 Original production","3 Prague production","4 Broadway production","5 Other productions","6 Notes","7 Bibliography","8 External links"] | 2006 play by Tom Stoppard
Rock 'n' RollWritten byTom StoppardCharactersJanMaxEleanorEsmeInterrogatorNigelFerdinandYoung EsmeAliceGillianMagdaDeirdrePiperState Security Officer 1StephenMilanState Security Officer 2JaroslavLenkaCandidaDate premiered3 June 2006Place premieredEnglandOriginal languageEnglishSettingPrague, Czechoslovakia and Cambridge, England from 1968 to 1990
Rock 'n' Roll is a play by British playwright Tom Stoppard that premiered at the Royal Court Theatre, London, in 2006.
Plot summary
The play is concerned with the significance of rock and roll in the emergence of the socialist movement in Eastern-Bloc Czechoslovakia between the Prague Spring of 1968 and the Velvet Revolution of 1989. Taking place in Cambridge, England and in Prague, the play contrasts the attitudes of a young Czech PhD student and rock music fan, who becomes appalled by the repressive regime in his home country, with those of his British Marxist professor, who unrepentantly continues to believe in the Soviet ideal.
The play takes place over several decades, from the late 1960s until 1990, ending with a concert given by the Rolling Stones that year in Prague. Recurrent references are made to a glimpse by one of the main characters of the young Syd Barrett performing Golden Hair. Barrett's physical and mental decline also plays a role in the drama (Barrett in fact died during the play's run). The underground Czech group the Plastic People of the Universe are held up by another character as an ideal of resistance to Communism. The poetry of Sappho is another recurrent motif; its pagan sensualism is implicitly compared with the anarchic erotic force of rock music.
One of the characters, a Czech writer, is named Ferdinand as an homage to Václav Havel. Havel wrote three plays with a protagonist named Ferdinand Vaněk, a stand-in for Havel himself. These plays were distributed by samizdat and became a symbol of the resistance. A number of Havel's friends then wrote their own Vaněk plays, with Ferdinand Vaněk as a character. Stoppard continues in that tradition.
This play is one of several works in Stoppard's oeuvre concerned with artistic dissent against the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia: Dogg's Hamlet, Cahoot's Macbeth also addresses this, as do Every Good Boy Deserves Favour and Professional Foul.
Original production
The original production was staged at the Royal Court Theatre and ran from 3 June until 15 July 2006. It then transferred to the Duke of York's Theatre. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn and featured the following cast:
Jan – Rufus Sewell
Max – Brian Cox
Eleanor, Esme – Sinéad Cusack
Interrogator, Nigel – Anthony Calf
Ferdinand – Peter Sullivan
Young Esme, Alice – Alice Eve
Gillian, Magda, Deirdre – Miranda Colchester
Piper, Police Officer 1, Stephen – Edward Hogg
Milan, Police Officer 2, Jaroslav – Martin Chamberlain
Lenka – Nicole Ansari
Candida – Louise Bangay
Taking over from the principal actors mid-run were:
Jan – Dominic West
Max – David Calder
Eleanor, Esme – Emma Fielding
Young Esme/ Alice - Fiona Button
The production closed on 25 February 2007 at the Duke of York's Theatre before an announced transfer to Broadway in the autumn of 2007.
The premiere of the play was attended by first president of the post-Communist Czech Republic and leading figure of the Velvet Revolution, Václav Havel (a friend of Stoppard's) and rock star Mick Jagger, whose band, The Rolling Stones, features in the final scene of the play. Jagger has worked with Stoppard previously, having produced the film Enigma, for which Stoppard wrote the screenplay, and has, along with his production company Jagged Films, "approached" Stoppard "for the movie rights" to the play Rock 'n' Roll.
Prague production
The play premiered in Prague's historic National Theatre (Národní Divadlo) in February 2007. It features opening and closing performances by The Plastic People of the Universe.
Broadway production
A Broadway (New York City) run of the play commenced in previews on 19 October 2007 and opened on 4 November 2007 at the Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre. Several of the original cast members – including Sewell, Cox and Cusack — appeared in the production that is directed by Trevor Nunn. The production had a strictly limited run and closed on 9 March 2008.
Other productions
The San Francisco production, directed by Carey Perloff, opened at the American Conservatory Theater on 17 September 2008. It then moved to Boston's Huntington Theatre Company, who co-produced the production, on 7 November.
The first UK production of the play outside London was at the Library Theatre in Manchester from 13 February to 14 March 2009.
Teatre Lliure of Barcelona presented Rock 'n' Roll, in Catalan and directed by Àlex Rigola, as the opening show for the 2008–2009 season between 18 September and 19 October.
Joy Zinoman, Founding Artistic Director of The Studio Theatre in Washington, DC, will direct the play beginning 22 April 2009.
The Alley Theatre in Houston, Texas produced Rock 'n' Roll beginning 24 April 2009, directed by Alley Theatre Artistic Director Gregory Boyd.
Goodman Theatre of Chicago hosted a production from 2 May through 7 June 2009.
The Canadian premiere was at Dawson College in Montréal Quebec in January 2009 directed by Douglas Buchanan.
The Canadian Stage Company of Toronto, Ontario featured Rock 'n' Roll in their 2009–2010 season between 28 September and 24 October.
ACT Theatre in Seattle produced the play as part of their 2009 Season between 9 October and 8 November 2009.
Park Square Theatre in St. Paul, Minnesota produced Rock 'n' Roll beginning 15 January 2010, directed by Mary M. Finnerty.
A production was staged at The Questors Theatre in Ealing, West London, from 19 December 2009 to 2 January 2010.
The San Jose Stage Company presented a new production of Rock 'n' Roll from 10 February to 7 March 2010.
Horipro presented the first Japan production of the play at the Setagaya public theatre in Setagaya, Tokyo, from 3 to 29 August 2010.
Belmont Abbey College in Belmont, North Carolina will produce Rock 'n' Roll, directed by Simon Donoghue, beginning 24 February 2011.
St. Louis Actors' Studio (stlas.org) Produced Rock 'n' Roll in November 2010
National Theater of Kosovo will also produce Rock 'n' Roll beginning January 2011.
Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Oyuncuları (YUO) started rehearsals in November 2010 for a Turkish production.
The Kavinoky Theatre in Buffalo, New York produced "Rock 'N' Roll" in 2011 from 4 March to 3 April
The Sydney Theatre, Sydney, production by the Melbourne Theatre Company from 11 April 2008 to 17 May 2008
Moscow's production opened 22 September 2011 in RAMT (Russian Academic Youth Theatre)
The Guildford Acting School produced Rock 'N' Roll in 2023 from 25 May to 27 May which featured MA & MFA Acting students in collaboration with BA Theatre Production and MA Stage & Production Management students https://www.gsauk.org/events/39601AJRRLKSVBMNJSKBSJSPPVNLVSKDK/book
Hampstead Theatre produced Rock 'N' Roll in 2023 from 6 December 2023 to 27 January 2024. Nina Raine directed. The cast included Nancy Carroll, Nathaniel Parker, and Jacob Fortune-Lloyd.
Notes
^ Goetz-Stankiewicz, Markéta. The Vaněk Plays, University of British Columbia Press, 1987.
^ "Jagger Set to Team Up with Stoppard", contactmusic.com, accessed 28 April 2007.
^ American Conservatory Theater: Tom Stoppard's Rock 'n' Roll Archived 14 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Error | Huntington Theatre Company". www.huntingtontheatre.org.
^ http://www.librarytheatre.com/whatson/archived.php/7/2009/1163/rock-n-roll
^ "L'obra "Rock'n'Roll" obrirà la temporada del Teatre Lliure". CCMA. 15 September 2008.
^ "The Studio Theatre: Washington, D.C.'s Home for Contemporary Theatre". www.studiotheatre.org. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009.
^ "Alley Theatre Official Website - Whoops!". www.alleytheatre.org.
^ "Error - General | Goodman Theatre". www.goodmantheatre.org.
^ "Rock n Roll".
^ "Canadian Stage's mission is to be the leading contemporary performing arts organization in the country".
^ https://www.acttheatre.org/TicketsPlays/Play.aspx?prod=1836 ACT/Rock 'n' Roll
^ "Park Square Theatre – St. Paul, Minn".
^ "Error". questors.org.uk.
^ "THE STAGE: Rock 'n' Roll by Tom Stoppard". Archived from the original on 6 February 2010.
^ "入力エラー".
^ Belmont Abbey College, Charlotte NC – Academics | Performing Arts – The Performing Arts Season Schedule – Liberal Arts:Catholic Benedictine heritage
^ "РАМТ. Официальный сайт Российского академического Молодежного театра. О театре". ramt.ru.
^ "ROCK 'N' ROLL". Hampstead Theatre. Retrieved 25 February 2024.
^ Theatre, Hampstead (December 2023). "Rock-N-Roll Digital Programme" (PDF). hampsteadtheatre.com.
Bibliography
Eno, Brian, and Mark Edwards. "Czechs and Thugs and Rock’n’Roll". The Times 11 June 2006. Accessed 28 April 2007.
Lawson, Mark. Radio interview with Tom Stoppard. Front Row, BBC Radio 4, 29 May 2006, RealAudio (30 mins.). Accessed 28 April 2007. (Listed on Arts and Drama: Front Row, BBC Radio 4. Accessed 28 April 2007.)
Mastalir, Linda. "Tom Stoppard's Rock 'n' Roll. Radio Prague, Current Affairs. Transcript and audio file of a report on the play broadcast on Radio Prague on 28 June 2006. Accessed 28 April 2007.
External links
Rock 'n' Roll at the Internet Broadway Database
vteTom StoppardList of awards and nominationsStage plays
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead
Enter a Free Man
The Real Inspector Hound
After Magritte
Jumpers
Travesties
Dirty Linen and New-Found-Land
Professional Foul
Every Good Boy Deserves Favour
Night and Day
Dogg's Hamlet, Cahoot's Macbeth
15-Minute Hamlet
Undiscovered Country
On the Razzle
The Real Thing
Rough Crossing
Dalliance
Hapgood
Arcadia
Indian Ink
The Invention of Love
The Coast of Utopia
Rock 'n' Roll
The Hard Problem
Leopoldstadt
Radio plays
Artist Descending a Staircase
The Dog It Was That Died
In the Native State
Darkside
Screenplays
The Romantic Englishwoman
Three Men in a Boat
The Boundary
Despair
Squaring the Circle
Brazil
Empire of the Sun
Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead (also directed)
The Russia House
Billy Bathgate
Poodle Springs
Shakespeare in Love
Enigma
Anna Karenina
Parade's End
Tulip Fever | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tom Stoppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Stoppard"},{"link_name":"Royal Court Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre"}],"text":"Rock 'n' Roll is a play by British playwright Tom Stoppard that premiered at the Royal Court Theatre, London, in 2006.","title":"Rock 'n' Roll (play)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rock and roll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_roll"},{"link_name":"Eastern-Bloc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"Prague Spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague_Spring"},{"link_name":"Velvet Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Marxist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist"},{"link_name":"Soviet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"the Rolling Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones"},{"link_name":"Syd Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syd_Barrett"},{"link_name":"the Plastic People of the Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Plastic_People_of_the_Universe"},{"link_name":"Sappho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappho"},{"link_name":"Václav Havel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand Vaněk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Van%C4%9Bk"},{"link_name":"samizdat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samizdat"},{"link_name":"Vaněk plays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van%C4%9Bk_plays"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Communist Party of Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"Dogg's Hamlet, Cahoot's Macbeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogg%27s_Hamlet,_Cahoot%27s_Macbeth"},{"link_name":"Every Good Boy Deserves Favour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Every_Good_Boy_Deserves_Favour_(play)"},{"link_name":"Professional Foul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_Foul"}],"text":"The play is concerned with the significance of rock and roll in the emergence of the socialist movement in Eastern-Bloc Czechoslovakia between the Prague Spring of 1968 and the Velvet Revolution of 1989. Taking place in Cambridge, England and in Prague, the play contrasts the attitudes of a young Czech PhD student and rock music fan, who becomes appalled by the repressive regime in his home country, with those of his British Marxist professor, who unrepentantly continues to believe in the Soviet ideal.The play takes place over several decades, from the late 1960s until 1990, ending with a concert given by the Rolling Stones that year in Prague. Recurrent references are made to a glimpse by one of the main characters of the young Syd Barrett performing Golden Hair. Barrett's physical and mental decline also plays a role in the drama (Barrett in fact died during the play's run). The underground Czech group the Plastic People of the Universe are held up by another character as an ideal of resistance to Communism. The poetry of Sappho is another recurrent motif; its pagan sensualism is implicitly compared with the anarchic erotic force of rock music.One of the characters, a Czech writer, is named Ferdinand as an homage to Václav Havel. Havel wrote three plays with a protagonist named Ferdinand Vaněk, a stand-in for Havel himself. These plays were distributed by samizdat and became a symbol of the resistance. A number of Havel's friends then wrote their own Vaněk plays, with Ferdinand Vaněk as a character.[1] Stoppard continues in that tradition.This play is one of several works in Stoppard's oeuvre concerned with artistic dissent against the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia: Dogg's Hamlet, Cahoot's Macbeth also addresses this, as do Every Good Boy Deserves Favour and Professional Foul.","title":"Plot summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Court Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Duke of York's Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_York%27s_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Trevor Nunn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Nunn"},{"link_name":"Rufus Sewell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufus_Sewell"},{"link_name":"Brian Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Cox_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Sinéad Cusack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin%C3%A9ad_Cusack"},{"link_name":"Anthony Calf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Calf"},{"link_name":"Peter Sullivan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Sullivan_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Alice Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Eve"},{"link_name":"Edward Hogg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Hogg"},{"link_name":"Dominic West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic_West"},{"link_name":"David Calder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Calder_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Emma Fielding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Fielding"},{"link_name":"Fiona Button","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiona_Button"},{"link_name":"Duke of York's Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_York%27s_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Velvet Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Václav Havel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel"},{"link_name":"rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music"},{"link_name":"Mick Jagger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Jagger"},{"link_name":"The Rolling Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rolling_Stones"},{"link_name":"Enigma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma_(2001_film)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jagger-2"}],"text":"The original production was staged at the Royal Court Theatre and ran from 3 June until 15 July 2006. It then transferred to the Duke of York's Theatre. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn and featured the following cast:Jan – Rufus Sewell\nMax – Brian Cox\nEleanor, Esme – Sinéad Cusack\nInterrogator, Nigel – Anthony Calf\nFerdinand – Peter Sullivan\nYoung Esme, Alice – Alice Eve\nGillian, Magda, Deirdre – Miranda Colchester\nPiper, Police Officer 1, Stephen – Edward Hogg\nMilan, Police Officer 2, Jaroslav – Martin Chamberlain\nLenka – Nicole Ansari\nCandida – Louise BangayTaking over from the principal actors mid-run were:Jan – Dominic West\nMax – David Calder\nEleanor, Esme – Emma Fielding\nYoung Esme/ Alice - Fiona ButtonThe production closed on 25 February 2007 at the Duke of York's Theatre before an announced transfer to Broadway in the autumn of 2007.The premiere of the play was attended by first president of the post-Communist Czech Republic and leading figure of the Velvet Revolution, Václav Havel (a friend of Stoppard's) and rock star Mick Jagger, whose band, The Rolling Stones, features in the final scene of the play. Jagger has worked with Stoppard previously, having produced the film Enigma, for which Stoppard wrote the screenplay, and has, along with his production company Jagged Films, \"approached\" Stoppard \"for the movie rights\" to the play Rock 'n' Roll.[2]","title":"Original production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Theatre_(Prague)"},{"link_name":"The Plastic People of the Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Plastic_People_of_the_Universe"}],"text":"The play premiered in Prague's historic National Theatre (Národní Divadlo) in February 2007. It features opening and closing performances by The Plastic People of the Universe.","title":"Prague production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_B._Jacobs_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Sewell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufus_Sewell"},{"link_name":"Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Cox_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Cusack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin%C3%A9ad_Cusack"},{"link_name":"Trevor Nunn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Nunn"}],"text":"A Broadway (New York City) run of the play commenced in previews on 19 October 2007 and opened on 4 November 2007 at the Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre. Several of the original cast members – including Sewell, Cox and Cusack — appeared in the production that is directed by Trevor Nunn. The production had a strictly limited run and closed on 9 March 2008.","title":"Broadway production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carey Perloff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carey_Perloff"},{"link_name":"American Conservatory Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Conservatory_Theater"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"Huntington Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington_Theatre_Company"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Library Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Teatre Lliure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatre_Lliure"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Goodman Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodman_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Dawson College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawson_College"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"The Canadian Stage Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canadian_Stage_Company"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"ACT Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACT_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"The Questors Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Questors_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Horipro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horipro"},{"link_name":"Setagaya, Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setagaya,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Belmont Abbey College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belmont_Abbey_College"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"National Theater of Kosovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.teatrikombetar.eu"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"RAMT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russisches_Akademisches_Jugendtheater"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"https://www.gsauk.org/events/39601AJRRLKSVBMNJSKBSJSPPVNLVSKDK/book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gsauk.org/events/39601AJRRLKSVBMNJSKBSJSPPVNLVSKDK/book"},{"link_name":"Hampstead Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampstead_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Nina Raine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Raine"},{"link_name":"Nancy Carroll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Carroll_(British_actress)"},{"link_name":"Nathaniel Parker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Parker"},{"link_name":"Jacob Fortune-Lloyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Fortune-Lloyd"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"The San Francisco production, directed by Carey Perloff, opened at the American Conservatory Theater on 17 September 2008.[3] It then moved to Boston's Huntington Theatre Company, who co-produced the production, on 7 November.[4]The first UK production of the play outside London was at the Library Theatre in Manchester from 13 February to 14 March 2009.[5]Teatre Lliure of Barcelona presented Rock 'n' Roll, in Catalan and directed by Àlex Rigola, as the opening show for the 2008–2009 season between 18 September and 19 October.[6]Joy Zinoman, Founding Artistic Director of The Studio Theatre in Washington, DC, will direct the play beginning 22 April 2009.[7]The Alley Theatre in Houston, Texas produced Rock 'n' Roll beginning 24 April 2009, directed by Alley Theatre Artistic Director Gregory Boyd.[8]Goodman Theatre of Chicago hosted a production from 2 May through 7 June 2009.[9]The Canadian premiere was at Dawson College in Montréal Quebec in January 2009 directed by Douglas Buchanan.[10]The Canadian Stage Company of Toronto, Ontario featured Rock 'n' Roll in their 2009–2010 season between 28 September and 24 October.[11]ACT Theatre in Seattle produced the play as part of their 2009 Season between 9 October and 8 November 2009.[12]Park Square Theatre in St. Paul, Minnesota produced Rock 'n' Roll beginning 15 January 2010, directed by Mary M. Finnerty.[13]A production was staged at The Questors Theatre in Ealing, West London, from 19 December 2009 to 2 January 2010.[14]The San Jose Stage Company presented a new production of Rock 'n' Roll from 10 February to 7 March 2010.[15]Horipro presented the first Japan production of the play at the Setagaya public theatre in Setagaya, Tokyo, from 3 to 29 August 2010.[16]Belmont Abbey College in Belmont, North Carolina will produce Rock 'n' Roll, directed by Simon Donoghue, beginning 24 February 2011.[17]St. Louis Actors' Studio (stlas.org) Produced Rock 'n' Roll in November 2010National Theater of Kosovo will also produce Rock 'n' Roll beginning January 2011.Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Oyuncuları (YUO) started rehearsals in November 2010 for a Turkish production.The Kavinoky Theatre in Buffalo, New York produced \"Rock 'N' Roll\" in 2011 from 4 March to 3 AprilThe Sydney Theatre, Sydney, production by the Melbourne Theatre Company from 11 April 2008 to 17 May 2008Moscow's production opened 22 September 2011 in RAMT (Russian Academic Youth Theatre) [18]The Guildford Acting School produced Rock 'N' Roll in 2023 from 25 May to 27 May which featured MA & MFA Acting students in collaboration with BA Theatre Production and MA Stage & Production Management students https://www.gsauk.org/events/39601AJRRLKSVBMNJSKBSJSPPVNLVSKDK/bookHampstead Theatre produced Rock 'N' Roll in 2023 from 6 December 2023 to 27 January 2024.[19] Nina Raine directed. The cast included Nancy Carroll, Nathaniel Parker, and Jacob Fortune-Lloyd.[20]","title":"Other productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Jagger_2-0"},{"link_name":"\"Jagger Set to Team Up with Stoppard\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/jagger%20set%20to%20team%20up%20with%20stoppard_1000015"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"American Conservatory Theater: Tom Stoppard's Rock 'n' Roll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.act-sf.org/089/rocknroll/index.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080914154352/http://www.act-sf.org/089/rocknroll/index.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Error | Huntington Theatre Company\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.huntingtontheatre.org/Error/?aspxerrorpath=/season/production.aspx"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"http://www.librarytheatre.com/whatson/archived.php/7/2009/1163/rock-n-roll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.librarytheatre.com/whatson/archived.php/7/2009/1163/rock-n-roll"},{"link_name":"dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"L'obra \"Rock'n'Roll\" obrirà la temporada del Teatre Lliure\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ccma.cat/324/lobra-rocknroll-obrira-la-temporada-del-teatre-lliure/noticia/313103/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"The Studio Theatre: Washington, D.C.'s Home for Contemporary Theatre\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090107064320/http://www.studiotheatre.org/plays/plays_details.php?plays_id=152"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.studiotheatre.org/plays/plays_details.php?plays_id=152"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Alley Theatre Official Website - Whoops!\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.alleytheatre.org/Alley/Rock_n_Roll_EN.asp?SnID=1944832541"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Error - General | Goodman Theatre\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.goodmantheatre.org/error/alert.aspx?aspxerrorpath=/season/Production.aspx"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Rock n Roll\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//space.dawsoncollege.qc.ca/dawson/detail/rock_n_roll"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"Canadian Stage's mission is to be the leading contemporary performing arts organization in the country\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.canstage.com/rocknroll"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"https://www.acttheatre.org/TicketsPlays/Play.aspx?prod=1836","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.acttheatre.org/TicketsPlays/Play.aspx?prod=1836"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"\"Park Square Theatre – St. Paul, Minn\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.parksquaretheatre.org/plays/2010_rock.php"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"Error\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//questors.org.uk/error.html?aspxerrorpath=/event.aspx"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"\"THE STAGE: Rock 'n' Roll by Tom Stoppard\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100206065325/http://www.thestage.org/season0910/rock_n_roll.php"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.thestage.org/season0910/rock_n_roll.php"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"\"入力エラー\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.horipro.co.jp/usr/ticket/kouen.cgi?Detail=145"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"Belmont Abbey College, Charlotte NC – Academics | Performing Arts – The Performing Arts Season Schedule – Liberal Arts:Catholic Benedictine heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//bac.edu/academics/PerformingArts/abbey-players-theater-schedule.aspx"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"\"РАМТ. Официальный сайт Российского академического Молодежного театра. О театре\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ramt.ru/default.aspx?playId=154&mod=play"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"\"ROCK 'N' ROLL\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.hampsteadtheatre.com/whats-on/2023/rock-n-roll/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"\"Rock-N-Roll Digital Programme\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.hampsteadtheatre.com/assets/ROCK-N-ROLL-PROGRAMME-digital-download.pdf"}],"text":"^ Goetz-Stankiewicz, Markéta. The Vaněk Plays, University of British Columbia Press, 1987.\n\n^ \"Jagger Set to Team Up with Stoppard\", contactmusic.com, accessed 28 April 2007.\n\n^ American Conservatory Theater: Tom Stoppard's Rock 'n' Roll Archived 14 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ \"Error | Huntington Theatre Company\". www.huntingtontheatre.org.\n\n^ http://www.librarytheatre.com/whatson/archived.php/7/2009/1163/rock-n-roll [dead link]\n\n^ \"L'obra \"Rock'n'Roll\" obrirà la temporada del Teatre Lliure\". CCMA. 15 September 2008.\n\n^ \"The Studio Theatre: Washington, D.C.'s Home for Contemporary Theatre\". www.studiotheatre.org. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009.\n\n^ \"Alley Theatre Official Website - Whoops!\". www.alleytheatre.org.\n\n^ \"Error - General | Goodman Theatre\". www.goodmantheatre.org.\n\n^ \"Rock n Roll\".\n\n^ \"Canadian Stage's mission is to be the leading contemporary performing arts organization in the country\".\n\n^ https://www.acttheatre.org/TicketsPlays/Play.aspx?prod=1836 ACT/Rock 'n' Roll\n\n^ \"Park Square Theatre – St. Paul, Minn\".\n\n^ \"Error\". questors.org.uk.\n\n^ \"THE STAGE: Rock 'n' Roll by Tom Stoppard\". Archived from the original on 6 February 2010.\n\n^ \"入力エラー\".\n\n^ Belmont Abbey College, Charlotte NC – Academics | Performing Arts – The Performing Arts Season Schedule – Liberal Arts:Catholic Benedictine heritage\n\n^ \"РАМТ. Официальный сайт Российского академического Молодежного театра. О театре\". ramt.ru.\n\n^ \"ROCK 'N' ROLL\". Hampstead Theatre. Retrieved 25 February 2024.\n\n^ Theatre, Hampstead (December 2023). \"Rock-N-Roll Digital Programme\" (PDF). hampsteadtheatre.com.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Czechs and Thugs and Rock’n’Roll\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,14933-2214726,00.html"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"Lawson, Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Lawson"},{"link_name":"Radio interview with Tom Stoppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/arts/frontrow/ram/programmes/frontrow_20060529.ram"},{"link_name":"Front Row","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_Row_(radio_programme)"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_4"},{"link_name":"RealAudio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealAudio"},{"link_name":"Arts and Drama: Front Row","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/arts/frontrow/editors_pick.shtml"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_4"},{"link_name":"\"Tom Stoppard's Rock 'n' Roll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.radio.cz/en/article/80581"},{"link_name":"Radio Prague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Prague"},{"link_name":"Radio Prague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Prague"}],"text":"Eno, Brian, and Mark Edwards. \"Czechs and Thugs and Rock’n’Roll\". The Times 11 June 2006. Accessed 28 April 2007. [\"Tom Stoppard's new play centres on the pop band whose arrest launched a human-rights movement. He discusses how artists change the world.\"]\nLawson, Mark. Radio interview with Tom Stoppard. Front Row, BBC Radio 4, 29 May 2006, RealAudio (30 mins.). Accessed 28 April 2007. (Listed on Arts and Drama: Front Row, BBC Radio 4. Accessed 28 April 2007.)\nMastalir, Linda. \"Tom Stoppard's Rock 'n' Roll. Radio Prague, Current Affairs. Transcript and audio file of a report on the play broadcast on Radio Prague on 28 June 2006. Accessed 28 April 2007.","title":"Bibliography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Error | Huntington Theatre Company\". www.huntingtontheatre.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huntingtontheatre.org/Error/?aspxerrorpath=/season/production.aspx","url_text":"\"Error | Huntington Theatre Company\""}]},{"reference":"\"L'obra \"Rock'n'Roll\" obrirà la temporada del Teatre Lliure\". CCMA. 15 September 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ccma.cat/324/lobra-rocknroll-obrira-la-temporada-del-teatre-lliure/noticia/313103/","url_text":"\"L'obra \"Rock'n'Roll\" obrirà la temporada del Teatre Lliure\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Studio Theatre: Washington, D.C.'s Home for Contemporary Theatre\". www.studiotheatre.org. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong | King Kong | ["1 Overview","1.1 Conception and creation","1.2 Etymology","1.3 Appearances and abilities","1.4 Ownership rights","1.5 Toho incarnations","2 Appearances","2.1 Film","2.2 Television","3 Cultural impact","4 See also","5 References","5.1 Citations","5.2 General and cited sources","6 External links"] | Fictional monster
This article is about the character. For the film franchise, see King Kong (franchise). For the various films with the same name, see King Kong (1933 film), King Kong (1976 film), and King Kong (2005 film). For other uses, see King Kong (disambiguation).
Fictional character
King KongKing Kong characterKing Kong as featured in promotional material for the original 1933 film.First appearanceKing Kong (1933)Created byMerian C. CooperPortrayed by
Shoichi Hirose (1962)
Haruo Nakajima (1967)
Rick Baker (1976)
Peter Elliott (1986)
Andy Serkis (2005)
Terry Notary (2017)
Toby Kebbell (2017)
Eric Petey (2021)
Allan Henry (2021/2024)
Voiced by
Murray Spivack (1933 vocal effects)
Peter Cullen (1976 vocal effects)
Peter Elliott (1986 vocal effects)
Scott McNeil (Kong: The Animated Series, Kong: King of Atlantis, Kong: Return to the Jungle)
Andy Serkis (2005 vocal effects)
Lee Tockar (Kong: King of the Apes, Tarzan and Jane)
Seth Green (The Lego Batman Movie)
Binomial nomenclature
Megaprimatus Kong (2005)
Tagu Kong (Kong of Skull Island)
Gorilla gigans (Kong Reborn)
Titanus Kong (MonsterVerse)
Apus Giganticus (MonsterVerse)
In-universe informationFull nameKongAliasesThe Eighth Wonder of the WorldThe BeastSpeciesGiant gorilla-like apeWeaponAxeFamily
Little Kong (1933)
Lady Kong (1986)
Baby Kong (1986)
Deceased parents (MonsterVerse)
Suko (MonsterVerse)
Home
Skull Island
Faro Island (King Kong vs. Godzilla)
Mondo Island (The King Kong Show, King Kong Escapes)
Kong Island (Kong: The Animated Series)
Hollow Earth (MonsterVerse, Kong: King of the Apes)
King Kong, also referred to simply as Kong, is a fictional giant monster, or kaiju, resembling a gorilla, who has appeared in various media since 1933. Kong has been dubbed the King of the Beasts and over time it would also be bestowed the title of the Eighth Wonder of the World, a widely recognized expression within the franchise. His first appearance was in the novelization of the 1933 film King Kong from RKO Pictures, with the film premiering a little over two months later.
A sequel quickly followed that same year with The Son of Kong, featuring Little Kong, also known as "Kiko". The Japanese film company Toho later produced King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962), featuring a giant Kong battling Toho's Godzilla, and King Kong Escapes (1967), a film loosely based on Rankin/Bass' The King Kong Show (1966–1969). In 1976, Dino De Laurentiis produced a modern remake of the original film directed by John Guillermin. A sequel, King Kong Lives, followed a decade later featuring a Lady Kong. Another remake of the original, this time set in 1933, was released in 2005 by filmmaker Peter Jackson.
Kong: Skull Island (2017), set in 1973, is part of Warner Bros. Pictures and Legendary Entertainment's MonsterVerse, which began with a reboot of Godzilla in 2014. A sequel, Godzilla vs. Kong, once again pitting the characters against one another, was released in 2021. It was then followed by the film Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire in 2024 which featured more of Kong's kind.
The character is an international pop culture icon, having inspired a number of sequels, remakes, spin-offs, imitators, parodies, cartoons, books, comics, video games, theme park rides, and a stage play. King Kong has also crossed over into other franchises such as Planet of the Apes, and encountered characters from other franchises in crossover media, such as the Toho movie monster Godzilla, pulp characters Doc Savage and Tarzan, and the Justice League. His role in the different narratives varies, ranging from an egregious monster to a tragic antihero.
Overview
King Kong graphics at the Empire State Building. The King Kong character was conceived and created by American filmmaker Merian C. Cooper. In the original film, the character's name is Kong, a name given to him by the inhabitants of the fictional "Skull Island" in the Indian Ocean, where Kong lives along with other oversized animals, such as plesiosaurs, pterosaurs and various dinosaurs. An American film crew, led by Carl Denham, captures Kong and takes him to New York City to be exhibited as the "Eighth Wonder of the World".
Kong escapes and climbs the Empire State Building only to fall from the skyscraper after being attacked by weaponized biplanes. Denham comments, "it wasn't the aeroplanes, it was beauty killed the beast", for he climbs the building in the first place only in an attempt to protect Ann Darrow, an actress originally kidnapped by the natives of the island and offered up to Kong as a sacrifice (in the 1976 remake, her character is named "Dwan").
A pseudo-documentary about Skull Island that appears on the DVD for the 2005 remake (originally seen on the Sci-Fi Channel at the time of its theatrical release) gives Kong's scientific name as Megaprimatus Kong ("Megaprimatus", deriving from the prefix "mega-" and the Latin words "primate" and "primatus", means "big primate" or "big supreme being") and states that his species may be related to Gigantopithecus, though that genus of giant ape is more closely related to orangutans than to gorillas.
Conception and creation
Merian C. Cooper glances up at his creation.
Merian C. Cooper became fascinated by gorillas at the age of 6. In 1899, he was given a book from his uncle called Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa. The book (written in 1861), chronicled the adventures of Paul Du Chaillu in Africa and his various encounters with the natives and wildlife there. Cooper became fascinated with the stories involving the gorillas, in particular, Du Chaillu's depiction of a particular gorilla known for its "extraordinary size", that the natives described as "invincible" and the "King of the African Forest". When Du Chaillu and some natives encountered a gorilla later in the book he described it as a "hellish dream creature" that was "half man, half beast".
As an adult, Cooper became involved in the motion picture industry. While filming The Four Feathers in Africa, he came into contact with a family of baboons. This gave him the idea to make a picture about primates. A year later when he got to RKO, Cooper wanted to film a "terror gorilla picture". As the story was being fleshed out, Cooper decided to make his gorilla giant sized. Cooper stated that the idea of Kong fighting warplanes on top of a building came from him seeing a plane flying over the New York Insurance Building, then the tallest building in the world. He came up with the ending before the rest of the story as he stated, "Without any conscious effort of thought I immediately saw in my mind's eye a giant gorilla on top of the building". Cooper also was influenced by Douglas Burden's accounts of the Komodo dragon, and wanted to pit his terror gorilla against dinosaur-sized versions of these reptiles, stating to Burden: "I also had firmly in mind to giantize both the gorilla and your dragons to make them really huge. However I always believed in personalizing and focusing attention on one main character and from the very beginning I intended to make it the gigantic gorilla, no matter what else I surrounded him with". Around this time, Cooper began to refer to his project as a "giant terror gorilla picture" featuring "a gigantic semi-humanoid gorilla pitted against modern civilization".
When designing King Kong, Cooper wanted him to be a nightmarish gorilla monster. As he described Kong in a 1930 memo: "His hands and feet have the size and strength of steam shovels; his girth is that of a steam boiler. This is a monster with the strength of a hundred men. But more terrifying is the head—a nightmare head with bloodshot eyes and jagged teeth set under a thick mat of hair, a face half-beast half-human". Willis O'Brien created an oil painting depicting the giant gorilla menacing a jungle heroine and hunter for Cooper. However, when it came time for O'Brien and Marcel Delgado to sculpt the animation model, Cooper decided to backpedal on the half-human look for the creature and became adamant that Kong be a gorilla. O'Brien on the other hand, wanted him to be almost human-like to gain audience empathy, and told Delgado to "make that ape almost human". Cooper laughed at the end result, saying that it looked like a cross between a monkey and a man with very long hair. For the second model, O'Brien again asked Delgado to add human features but to tone it down somewhat. The end result (which was rejected) was described as looking like a missing link. Disappointed, Cooper stated, "I want Kong to be the fiercest, most brutal, monstrous damned thing that has ever been seen!" On December 22, 1931, Cooper got the dimensions of a bull gorilla from the American Museum of Natural History telling O'Brien, "Now that's what I want!" When the final model was created, it had the basic look of a gorilla but managed to retain some human-like qualities. For example, Delgado streamlined the body by removing the distinctive paunch and rump of a gorilla. O'Brien would incorporate some characteristics and nuances of an earlier creature he had created in 1915 for the silent short The Dinosaur and the Missing Link into the general look and personality of Kong, even going as far as to refer to the creature as "Kong's ancestor". When it came time to film, Cooper agreed that Kong should walk upright at times (mostly in the New York sequences) in order to appear more intimidating.
Etymology
Merian C. Cooper said he was very fond of strong, hard-sounding words that started with the letter "K". Some of his favorite words were "Komodo", "Kodiak" and "Kodak". When Cooper was envisioning his giant terror gorilla idea, he wanted to capture a real gorilla from the Congo and have it fight a real Komodo dragon on Komodo Island (this scenario would eventually evolve into Kong's battle with the tyrannosaur on Skull Island when the film was produced a few years later at RKO). Cooper's friend Douglas Burden's trip to the island of Komodo and his encounter with the Komodo dragons was a big influence on the Kong story. Cooper was fascinated by Burden's adventures as chronicled in his book Dragon Lizards of Komodo where he referred to the animal as the "King of Komodo". It was this phrase along with "Komodo" and "Kongo" (and his overall love for hard sounding "K"-words) that gave him the idea to name the giant ape "Kong". He loved the name, as it had a "mystery sound" to it.
After Cooper got to RKO, British mystery writer Edgar Wallace was contracted to write the first draft of the screen story. It was simply referred to as "The Beast". RKO executives were unimpressed with the bland title. David O. Selznick suggested Jungle Beast as the film's new title, but Cooper was unimpressed and wanted to name the film after the main character. He stated he liked the "mystery word" aspect of Kong's name and that the film should carry "the name of the leading mysterious, romantic, savage creature of the story" such as with Dracula and Frankenstein. RKO sent a memo to Cooper suggesting the titles Kong: King of Beasts, Kong: The Jungle King, and Kong: The Jungle Beast, which combined his and Selznick's proposed titles. As time went on, Cooper would eventually name the story simply Kong while Ruth Rose was writing the final version of the screenplay. Because David O. Selznick thought that audiences would think that the film, with the one word title of Kong, would be mistaken as a docudrama like Grass and Chang, which were one-word titled films that Cooper had earlier produced, he added the "King" to Kong's name in order to differentiate it.
Appearances and abilities
In his first appearance in King Kong (1933), Kong was a gigantic prehistoric ape. While gorilla-like in appearance, he had a vaguely humanoid look and at times walked upright in an anthropomorphic manner.
Like most simians, Kong possesses semi-human intelligence and great physical strength. Kong's size changes drastically throughout the course of the film. While creator Merian C. Cooper envisioned Kong as being "40 to 50 feet tall", animator Willis O'Brien and his crew built the models and sets scaling Kong to be only 18 feet (5.5 m) tall on Skull Island, and rescaled to be 24 feet (7.3 m) tall in New York.
This did not stop Cooper from playing around with Kong's size as he directed the special effect sequences; by manipulating the sizes of the miniatures and the camera angles, he made Kong appear a lot larger than O'Brien wanted, even as large as 60 feet (18.3 m) in some scenes.
As Cooper said in an interview:
I was a great believer in constantly changing Kong's height to fit the settings and the illusions. He's different in almost every shot; sometimes he's only 18 feet tall and sometimes 60 feet or larger. This broke every rule that O'Bie and his animators had ever worked with, but I felt confident that if the scenes moved with excitement and beauty, the audience would accept any height that fitted into the scene. For example, if Kong had only been 18 feet high on the top of the Empire State Building, he would have been lost, like a little bug; I constantly juggled the heights of trees and dozens of other things. The one essential thing was to make the audience enthralled with the character of Kong so that they wouldn't notice or care that he was 18 feet high or 40 feet, just as long as he fitted the mystery and excitement of the scenes and action.
Concurrently, the Kong bust made for the film was built in scale with a 40-foot (12.2 m) ape, while the full sized hand of Kong was built in scale with a 70-foot (21.3 m) ape. Meanwhile, RKO's promotional materials listed Kong's official height as 50 feet (15.2 m).
In the 1960s, Toho Studios from Japan licensed the character for the films King Kong vs. Godzilla and King Kong Escapes.
In 1975, Italian producer Dino De Laurentiis paid RKO for the remake rights to King Kong. This resulted in King Kong (1976). This Kong was an upright walking anthropomorphic ape, appearing even more human-like than the original. Also like the original, this Kong had semi-human intelligence and vast strength. In the 1976 film, Kong was scaled to be 42 feet (12.8 m) tall on Skull island and rescaled to be 55 feet (16.8 m) tall in New York. Ten years later, Dino De Laurentiis got the approval from Universal to do a sequel called King Kong Lives. This Kong had more or less the same appearance and abilities, but tended to walk on his knuckles more often and was enlarged, scaled to 60 feet (18.3 m).
Universal Studios had planned to do a King Kong remake as far back as 1976. They finally followed through almost 30 years later, with a three-hour film directed by Peter Jackson. Jackson opted to make Kong a gigantic silverback gorilla without any anthropomorphic features. This Kong looked and behaved more like a real gorilla: he had a large herbivore's belly, walked on his knuckles without any upright posture, and even beat his chest with his palms as opposed to clenched fists. In order to ground his Kong in realism, Jackson and the Weta Digital crew gave a name to his fictitious species Megaprimatus Kong and suggested it to have evolved from the Gigantopithecus. Kong was the last of his kind. He was portrayed in the film as being quite old, with graying fur and battle-worn with scars, wounds, and a crooked jaw from his many fights against rival creatures. He is the dominant being on the island, the king of his world. Like his film predecessors, he possesses considerable intelligence and great physical strength and also appears far more nimble and agile. This Kong was scaled to a consistent height of 25 feet (7.6 m) tall on both Skull Island and in New York. Jackson describes his central character:
We assumed that Kong is the last surviving member of his species. He had a mother and a father and maybe brothers and sisters, but they're dead. He's the last of the huge gorillas that live on Skull Island ... when he goes ... there will be no more. He's a very lonely creature, absolutely solitary. It must be one of the loneliest existences you could ever possibly imagine. Every day, he has to battle for his survival against very formidable dinosaurs on the island, and it's not easy for him. He's carrying the scars of many former encounters with dinosaurs. I'm imagining he's probably 100 to 120 years old by the time our story begins. And he has never felt a single bit of empathy for another living creature in his long life; it has been a brutal life that he's lived.
In the 2017 film Kong: Skull Island, Kong is scaled to be 104 feet (31.7 m) tall, making it the second largest and largest American incarnation in the series until the 2021 film Godzilla vs. Kong, in which he became the largest incarnation in the series, standing at 337 feet (102.7 m). Director Jordan Vogt-Roberts stated in regard to Kong's immense stature:
The thing that most interested me was, how big do you need to make , so that when someone lands on this island and doesn't believe in the idea of myth, the idea of wonder – when we live in a world of social and civil unrest, and everything is crumbling around us, and technology and facts are taking over – how big does this creature need to be, so that when you stand on the ground and you look up at it, the only thing that can go through your mind is: "That's a god!"
He also stated that the original 1933 look was the inspiration for the design:
We sort of went back to the 1933 version in the sense that he's a bipedal creature that walks in an upright position, as opposed to the anthropomorphic, anatomically correct silverback gorilla that walks on all fours. Our Kong was intended to say, like, this isn't just a big gorilla or a big monkey. This is something that is its own species. It has its own set of rules, so we can do what we want and we really wanted to pay homage to what came before ... and yet do something completely different, and if anything, our Kong is meant to be a throwback to the '33 version. I don't think there's much similarity at all between our version and Peter 's Kong. That version is very much a scaled-up silverback gorilla, and ours is something that is slightly more exaggerated. A big mandate for us was, "How do we make this feel like a classic movie monster"?
Co-producer Mary Parent also stated that Kong is still young and not fully grown as she explains that "Kong is an adolescent when we meet him in the film; he's still growing into his role as alpha".
Ownership rights
While one of the most famous movie icons in history, King Kong's intellectual property status has been questioned since his creation, featuring in numerous allegations and court battles. The rights to the character have always been split up with no single exclusive rights holder. Different parties have also contested that various aspects are public domain material and therefore ineligible for copyright status.
When Merian C. Cooper created King Kong, he assumed that he owned the character, which he had conceived in 1929, outright. Cooper maintained that he had only licensed the character to RKO for the initial film and sequel, but had otherwise owned his own creation. In 1935, Cooper began to feel something was amiss when he was trying to get a Tarzan vs. King Kong project off the ground for Pioneer Pictures (where he had assumed management of the company). After David O. Selznick suggested the project to Cooper, the flurry of legal activity over using the Kong character that followed—Pioneer had become a completely independent company by this time and access to properties that RKO felt were theirs was no longer automatic—gave Cooper pause as he came to realize that he might not have full control over this product of his own imagination after all.
Years later in 1962, Cooper found out that RKO was licensing the character through John Beck to Toho studios in Japan for a film project called King Kong vs. Godzilla. Cooper had assumed his rights were unassailable and was bitterly opposed to the project. In 1963 he filed a lawsuit to enjoin distribution of the movie against John Beck, as well as Toho and Universal (the film's U.S. copyright holder). Cooper discovered that RKO had also profited from licensed products featuring the King Kong character such as model kits produced by Aurora Plastics Corporation. Cooper's executive assistant, Charles B. FitzSimons, said that these companies should be negotiating through him and Cooper for such licensed products and not RKO. In a letter to Robert Bendick, Cooper stated:
My hassle is about King Kong. I created the character long before I came to RKO and have always believed I retained subsequent picture rights and other rights. I sold to RKO the right to make the one original picture King Kong and also, later, Son of Kong, but that was all.
Cooper and his legal team offered up various documents to bolster the case that Cooper owned King Kong and had only licensed the character to RKO for two films, rather than selling him outright. Many people vouched for Cooper's claims, including David O. Selznick, who had written a letter to Mr. A. Loewenthal of the Famous Artists Syndicate in Chicago in 1932 stating (in regard to Kong), "The rights of this are owned by Mr. Merian C. Cooper". Cooper however lost key documents through the years (he discovered these papers were missing after he returned from his World War II military service) such as a key informal yet binding letter from Mr. Ayelsworth (the then-president of the RKO Studio Corp.) and a formal binding letter from Mr. B. B. Kahane (also a
former president of RKO Studio Corp.) confirming that Cooper had only licensed the rights to the character for the two RKO pictures and nothing more.
Without these letters, it seemed Cooper's rights were relegated to the Lovelace novelization that he had copyrighted (he was able to make a deal for a Bantam Books paperback reprint and a Gold Key comic adaptation of the novel, but that was all that he could do). Cooper's lawyer had received a letter from John Beck's lawyer, Gordon E. Youngman, that stated:
For the sake of the record, I wish to state that I am not in negotiation with you or Mr. Cooper or anyone else to define Mr. Cooper's rights in respect of King Kong. His rights are well defined, and they are non-existent, except for certain limited publication rights.
In a letter addressed to Douglas Burden, Cooper lamented:
It seems my hassle over King Kong is destined to be a protracted one. They'd make me sorry I ever invented the beast, if I weren't so fond of him! Makes me feel like Macbeth: "Bloody instructions which being taught return to plague the inventor".
The rights over the character did not flare up again until 1975, when Universal Studios and Dino De Laurentiis were fighting over who would be able to do a King Kong remake for release the following year. De Laurentiis came up with $200,000 to buy the remake rights from RKO. When Universal got wind of this, they filed a lawsuit against RKO, claiming that they had a verbal agreement from them regarding the remake. During the legal battles that followed, which eventually included RKO countersuing Universal, as well as De Laurentiis filing a lawsuit claiming interference, Colonel Richard Cooper (Merian's son and now head of the Cooper estate) jumped into the fray.
During the battles, Universal discovered that the copyright of the Lovelace novelization had expired without renewal, thus making the King Kong story a public domain one. Universal argued that they should be able to make a movie based on the novel without infringing on anyone's copyright because the characters in the story were in the public domain within the context of the public domain story. Richard Cooper then filed a cross-claim against RKO claiming that, while the publishing rights to the novel had not been renewed, his estate still had control over the plot/story of King Kong.
In a four-day bench trial in Los Angeles, Judge Manuel Real made the final decision and gave his verdict on November 24, 1976, affirming that the King Kong novelization and serialization were indeed in the public domain, and Universal could make its movie as long as it did not infringe on original elements in the 1933 RKO film, which had not passed into the public domain. Universal postponed their plans to film a King Kong movie, called The Legend of King Kong, for at least 18 months, after cutting a deal with Dino De Laurentiis that included a percentage of box office profits from his remake.
However, on December 6, 1976, Judge Real made a subsequent ruling, which held that all the rights in the name, character, and story of King Kong (outside of the original film and its sequel) belonged to Merian C. Cooper's estate. This ruling, which became known as the "Cooper judgment", expressly stated that it would not change the previous ruling that publishing rights of the novel and serialization were in the public domain. It was a huge victory that affirmed the position Merian C. Cooper had maintained for years. Shortly thereafter, Richard Cooper sold all his rights (excluding worldwide book and periodical publishing rights) to Universal in December 1976. In 1980 Judge Real dismissed the claims that were brought forth by RKO and Universal four years earlier and reinstated the Cooper judgement.
In 1982 Universal filed a lawsuit against Nintendo, which had created an impish ape character called Donkey Kong in 1981 and was reaping huge profits over the video game machines. Universal claimed that Nintendo was infringing on its copyright because Donkey Kong was a blatant rip-off of King Kong. During the court battle and subsequent appeal, the courts ruled that Universal did not have exclusive trademark rights to the King Kong character. The courts ruled that trademark was not among the rights Cooper had sold to Universal, indicating that "Cooper plainly did not obtain any trademark rights in his judgment against RKO, since the California district court specifically found that King Kong had no secondary meaning". While they had a majority of the rights, they did not outright own the King Kong name and character. The courts ruling noted that the name, title, and character of Kong no longer signified a single source of origin so exclusive trademark rights were impossible. The courts also pointed out that the Kong rights were held by three parties:
RKO owned the rights to the original film and its sequel.
The Dino De Laurentiis company (DDL) owned the rights to the 1976 remake.
Richard Cooper owned worldwide book and periodical publishing rights.
The judge then ruled that "Universal thus owns only those rights in the King Kong name and character that RKO, Cooper, or DDL do not own".
The court of appeals would also note:
First, Universal knew that it did not have trademark rights to King Kong, yet it proceeded to broadly assert such rights anyway. This amounted to a wanton and reckless disregard of Nintendo's rights.
Second, Universal did not stop after it asserted its rights to Nintendo. It embarked on a deliberate, systematic campaign to coerce all of Nintendo's third party licensees to either stop marketing Donkey Kong products or pay Universal royalties.
Finally, Universal's conduct amounted to an abuse of judicial process, and in that sense caused a longer harm to the public as a whole. Depending on the commercial results, Universal alternatively argued to the courts, first, that King Kong was a part of the public domain, and then second, that King Kong was not part of the public domain, and that Universal possessed exclusive trademark rights in it. Universal's assertions in court were based not on any good faith belief in their truth, but on the mistaken belief that it could use the courts to turn a profit.
Because Universal misrepresented their degree of ownership of King Kong (claiming they had exclusive trademark rights when they knew that they did not) and tried to have it both ways in court regarding the "public domain" claims, the courts ruled that Universal acted in bad faith (see Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.). They were ordered to pay fines and all of Nintendo's legal costs from the lawsuit. That, along with the fact that the courts ruled that there was simply no likelihood of people confusing Donkey Kong with King Kong, caused Universal to lose the case and the subsequent appeal.
Since the court case, Universal still retains the majority of the character rights. In 1986 they opened a King Kong ride called King Kong Encounter at their Universal Studios Tour theme park in Hollywood (which was destroyed in 2008 by a backlot fire), and followed it up with the Kongfrontation ride at their Orlando park in 1990 (which was closed down in 2002 due to maintenance issues). They also finally made a King Kong film of their own, King Kong (2005). In the summer of 2010, Universal opened a new 3D King Kong ride called King Kong: 360 3-D at their Hollywood park, replacing the destroyed King Kong Encounter. In July 2016, Universal opened a new King Kong attraction called Skull Island: Reign of Kong at Islands of Adventure in Orlando. In July 2013, Legendary Pictures made an agreement with Universal to market, co-finance, and distribute Legendary's films for five years starting in 2014 and ending in 2019, the year that Legendary's similar agreement with Warner Bros. Pictures was set to expire. One year later, at the San Diego Comic-Con, Legendary announced (as a product of its partnership with Universal), a King Kong origin story, initially titled Skull Island, with Universal distributing. After the film was retitled Kong: Skull Island, Universal allowed Legendary to move to Warner Bros., so they could do a King Kong and Godzilla crossover film (in the continuity of the 2014 Godzilla movie), since Legendary still had the rights to make more Godzilla movies with Warner Bros. before their contract with Toho expired in 2020.
Richard Cooper, through the Merian C. Cooper Estate, retained publishing rights for the content that Judge Real had ruled on December 6, 1976. In 1990, they licensed a six-issue comic book adaptation of the novelization of the 1933 film to Monster Comics, and commissioned an illustrated novel in 1994 called Anthony Browne's King Kong. In 2013, they became involved with a musical stage play based on the story, called King Kong: The Eighth Wonder of the World which premiered that June in Australia and then on Broadway in November 2018. The production is involved with Global Creatures, the company behind the Walking with Dinosaurs arena show. In 1996, artist/writer Joe DeVito partnered with the Merian C. Cooper estate to write and/or illustrate various publications based on Merian C. Cooper's King Kong property through his company, DeVito ArtWorks, LLC. Through this partnership, DeVito created the prequel/sequel story Skull Island on which DeVito based a pair of original novels relating the origin of King Kong: Kong: King of Skull Island and King Kong of Skull Island. In addition, the Cooper/DeVito collaboration resulted in an origin-themed comic book miniseries with Boom! Studios, an expanded rewrite of the original Lovelace novelization, Merian C. Cooper's King Kong (the original novelization's publishing rights are still in the public domain), and various crossovers with other franchises such as Doc Savage, Tarzan and Planet of the Apes. In 2016, DeVito ArtWorks, through its licensing program, licensed its King Kong property to RocketFizz for use in the marketing of a soft drink called King Kong Cola, and had plans for a live action TV show co-produced between MarVista Entertainment and IM Global. Other products that have been produced through this licensing program include Digital Trading Cards, Board Games, a Virtual Reality Arcade Game, a remake of the original King Kong Glow-In-The-Dark Model Kit, and a video game developed by IguanaBee called Skull Island: Rise of Kong. In April 2016, Joe DeVito sued Legendary Pictures and Warner Bros., producers of the film Kong: Skull Island, for using elements of his Skull Island universe, which he claimed that he created and that the producers had used without his permission. Devito partnered with Dynamite Entertainment to produce comic books and board games based on the property, resulting in the comic book series called King Kong: The Great War published in May 2023. In 2022, DeVito had partnered with Disney to produce a live-action series tentatively called King Kong that explores the origin story of Kong. The series is slated to stream on Disney+. Stephany Folsom is attached to write the series and to be executive produced by James Wan via his production company Atomic Monster.
RKO (whose rights consisted of only the original film and its sequel) signed over the North American, Latin American and Australian distribution rights to its film library to Ted Turner's Turner Entertainment in a period spanning 1986 to 1989. Following a series of mergers and acquisitions, Warner Bros. owns those distribution rights today, with the copyright over the films (including King Kong and The Son of Kong) remaining with RKO Pictures, LLC (various companies distribute the RKO library in other territories). In 1998, Warner Bros. Family Entertainment released the direct-to-video animated musical film The Mighty Kong, which re-tells the plot of the original 1933 film. Nineteen years later, Warners co-produced the film Kong: Skull Island and in 2021 co-produced the film Godzilla vs. Kong, after Legendary Pictures brought the projects over from Universal to build up the MonsterVerse. According to Godzilla Vs. Kong director Adam Wingard, the rights to the character may have also been transferred to Warner Bros.
DDL (whose rights were limited to only their 1976 remake) did a sequel in 1986 called King Kong Lives (but they still needed Universal's permission to do so). Today most of DDL's film library is owned by StudioCanal, which includes the rights to these two films. The domestic (North American) rights to the 1976 King Kong film still remain with the film's original distributor Paramount Pictures, with Trifecta Entertainment & Media handling television rights to the film via their license with Paramount.
Toho incarnations
The two depictions of Kong in the Toho films.
In the 1960s, Japanese studio Toho licensed the character from RKO and produced two films that featured the character, King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962) and King Kong Escapes (1967). Toho's interpretation differed greatly from the original in size and abilities. Among kaiju, King Kong was suggested to be among the most powerful in terms of raw physical force, possessing strength and durability that rivaled that of Godzilla. As one of the few mammal-based kaiju, Kong's most distinctive feature was his intelligence. He demonstrated the ability to learn and adapt to an opponent's fighting style, identify and exploit weaknesses in an enemy, and utilize his environment to stage ambushes and traps.
In King Kong vs. Godzilla, Kong was scaled to be 45 m (148 ft) tall. This version of Kong was given the ability to harvest electricity as a weapon and draw strength from electrical voltage. In King Kong Escapes, Kong was scaled to be 20 m (66 ft) tall. This version was more similar to the original, where he relied on strength and intelligence to fight and survive. Rather than residing on Skull Island, Toho's version of Kong resided on Faro Island in King Kong vs. Godzilla and on Mondo Island in King Kong Escapes.
In 1966, Toho planned to produce Operation Robinson Crusoe: King Kong vs. Ebirah as a co-production with Rankin/Bass Productions, but Ishirō Honda was unavailable at the time to direct the film and, as a result, Rankin/Bass backed out of the project, along with the King Kong license. Toho still proceeded with the production, replacing King Kong with Godzilla at the last minute and shot the film as Ebirah, Horror of the Deep. Elements of King Kong's character remained in the film, reflected in Godzilla's uncharacteristic behavior and attraction to the female character Daiyo. Toho and Rankin/Bass later negotiated their differences and co-produced King Kong Escapes in 1967, loosely based on Rankin/Bass' animated show.
Toho Studios wanted to remake King Kong vs. Godzilla, which was the most successful of the entire Godzilla series of films, in 1991 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the film, as well as to celebrate Godzilla's upcoming 40th anniversary. However, they were unable to obtain the rights to use Kong, and initially intended to use Mechani-Kong as Godzilla's next adversary. It was soon learned that even using a mechanical creature who resembled Kong would be just as problematic legally and financially for them. As a result, the film became Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah, with one last failed attempt made to use Kong in 2004's Godzilla: Final Wars.
Appearances
Main article: King Kong (franchise)
Film
Film
Release date
Director(s)
Story by
Screenwriter(s)
Producer(s)
Distributor(s)
King Kong
March 2, 1933 (1933-03-02)
Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack
Edgar Wallace and Merian C. Cooper
James Creelman and Ruth Rose
Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack
RKO Pictures
Son of Kong
December 22, 1933 (1933-12-22)
Ernest B. Schoedsack
Ruth Rose
Ernest B. Schoedsack
King Kong vs. Godzilla
August 11, 1962 (1962-08-11)
Ishirō Honda (Japan)Thomas Montgomery (U.S.)
Shinichi Sekizawa (Japan)Paul Mason and Bruce Howard (U.S.)
Tomoyuki Tanaka (Japan)John Beck (U.S.)
Toho Co., Ltd. (Japan)Universal International (U.S.)
King Kong Escapes
July 22, 1967 (1967-07-22)
Ishirō Honda
Arthur Rankin Jr.
Takeshi Kimura
Tomoyuki Tanaka and Arthur Rankin Jr.
King Kong
December 17, 1976 (1976-12-17)
John Guillermin
Lorenzo Semple Jr.
Dino De Laurentiis
Paramount Pictures
King Kong Lives
December 19, 1986 (1986-12-19)
Ronald Shusett and Steven Pressfield
Martha Schumacher
De Laurentiis Entertainment Group
King Kong
December 14, 2005 (2005-12-14)
Peter Jackson
Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens and Peter Jackson
Jan Blenkin, Carolynne Cunningham, Fran Walsh and Peter Jackson
Universal Pictures
Kong: Skull Island
March 10, 2017 (2017-03-10)
Jordan Vogt-Roberts
John Gatins
Dan Gilroy, Max Borenstein, and Derek Connolly
Thomas Tull, Jon Jashni, Alex Garcia and Mary Parent
Warner Bros.
Godzilla vs. Kong
March 24, 2021 (2021-03-24)
Adam Wingard
Terry Rossio, Michael Dougherty, and Zach Shields
Eric Pearson and Max Borenstein
Thomas Tull, Jon Jashni, Brian Rogers, Mary Parent, Alex Garcia, and Eric McLeod
Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire
March 29, 2024 (2024-03-29)
Terry Rossio, Adam Wingard, and Simon Barrett
Terry Rossio, Simon Barrett, and Jeremy Slater
Television
Four television shows have been based on King Kong: The King Kong Show (1966), Kong: The Animated Series (2000), Kong: King of the Apes (2016), and Skull Island (2023).
A live-action series exploring the origin story of Kong is in development for Disney+, written by Stephany Folsom and executive produced by James Wan via Atomic Monster.
The character appears in the final episode of season one of the television series Monarch: Legacy of Monsters.
Cultural impact
Main article: King Kong in popular culture
This section may contain irrelevant references to popular culture. Please remove the content or add citations to reliable and independent sources. (October 2018)
The DC Comics character Titano the Super-Ape (here seen climbing the Daily Planet building and confronting Superman) appears to be modeled on King Kong. From Superman #138, art by Curt Swan and Stan Kaye.
King Kong, as well as the series of films featuring him, have been featured many times in popular culture outside of the films themselves, in forms ranging from straight copies to parodies and joke references, and in media from comic books to video games.
The Beatles' 1968 animated film Yellow Submarine includes a scene of the characters opening a door to reveal King Kong abducting a woman from her bed.
The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror III" features a segment called "King Homer" which parodies the plot of the original film, with Homer as Kong and Marge in the Ann Darrow role. It ends with King Homer marrying Marge and eating her father.
The 2005 animated film Chicken Little features a scene parodying King Kong, as Fish out of Water starts stacking magazines thrown in a pile, eventually becoming a model of the Empire State Building and some plane models, as he imitates King Kong in the iconic scene from the original film.
The British comedy TV series The Goodies made an episode called "Kitten Kong", in which a giant cat called Twinkle roams the streets of London, knocking over the British Telecom Tower.
The controversial World War II Dutch resistance fighter Christiaan Lindemans—eventually arrested on suspicion of having betrayed secrets to the Nazis—was nicknamed "King Kong" due to his being exceptionally tall.
Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention recorded an instrumental about "King Kong" in 1967 and featured it on the album Uncle Meat. Zappa went on to make many other versions of the song on albums such as Make a Jazz Noise Here, You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 3, Ahead of Their Time, and Beat the Boots.
The Kinks recorded a song called "King Kong" as the B-side to their 1969 "Plastic Man" single.
In 1972, a 550 cm (18 ft) fiberglass statue of King Kong was erected in Birmingham, England.
The second track of The Jimmy Castor Bunch album Supersound from 1975 is titled "King Kong".
Filk Music artists Ookla the Mok's "Song of Kong", which explores the reasons why King Kong and Godzilla should not be roommates, appears on their 2001 album Smell No Evil.
Daniel Johnston wrote and recorded a song called "King Kong" on his fifth self-released music cassette, Yip/Jump Music in 1983, rereleased on CD and double LP by Homestead Records in 1988. The song is an a cappella narrative of the original movie's story line. Tom Waits recorded a cover version of the song with various sound effects on the 2004 release, The Late Great Daniel Johnston: Discovered Covered.
ABBA recorded "King Kong Song" for their 1974 album Waterloo. Although later singled out by ABBA songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus as one of their weakest tracks, it was released as a single in 1977 to coincide with the 1976 film playing in theaters.
Tenacious D wrote "Kong" to be released as a bonus track for the Japanese version of The Pick of Destiny to accompany the film.
The 1994 Nintendo Game Boy title Donkey Kong features the eponymous character grow to a gargantuan size as the game's final boss.
See also
List of fictional primates
References
Citations
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^ Cullins, Ashley (April 28, 2016). "Legendary, Warner Bros. Sued for Allegedly Stealing 'Kong: Skull Island' Story". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on May 2, 2016. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
^ Johnston, Rich (July 20, 2022). "Dynamite Grabs King Kong of Skull Island License From Boom & Legendary". BleedingCool. Retrieved May 15, 2023.
^ "King Kong: The Great War at The Grand Comics Database".
^ Andreeva, Nellie (August 23, 2022). "'King Kong' Live-Action Series In Works At Disney+ From Stephany Folsom, James Wan's Atomic Monster & Disney Branded TV". Deadline. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
^ Davids, Brian (March 30, 2021). "Why 'Godzilla vs. Kong' Director Adam Wingard Treated Kong Like an '80s Action Hero". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on April 19, 2021. Retrieved April 19, 2021.
^ Pearson, Ben (March 25, 2021). "Adam Wingard Was Hand-Picked to Direct 2005 King Kong Sequel". SlashFilm.com. Archived from the original on March 18, 2022. Retrieved March 17, 2022.
^ Morton 2005, pp. 239, 241.
^ "King Kong Stats Page". Archived from the original on June 29, 2009. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
^ "King Kong". Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved November 14, 2008.
^ "King Kong (2nd Generation)". Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved November 14, 2008.
^ "Lost Project: Operation Robinson Crusoe: King Kong vs. Ebirah". Toho Kingdom. Archived from the original on June 26, 2014. Retrieved October 16, 2014.
^ Ryfle 1998, p. 135.
^ Ito, Richard (March 30, 2021). "When King Kong Accidentally Met Godzilla". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 31, 2021. Retrieved March 31, 2021.
^ "Ryuhei Ktamura & Shogo Tomiyama interview - Godzilla Final Wars premiere - PennyBlood.com". February 3, 2005. Archived from the original on February 3, 2005. Retrieved May 30, 2021.
^ a b c d e "AFI Catalog - King Kong (1933)". American Film Institute. Archived from the original on May 8, 2023. Retrieved May 7, 2023.
^ a b c "King Kong vs. Godzilla (1963)". The Criterion Collection. Archived from the original on May 8, 2023. Retrieved May 7, 2023.
^ a b Ryfle 1998, p. 79.
^ Parlevliet, Mirko (August 25, 2022). "Godzilla vs Kong Sequel Starts Filming". Vital Thrills. Archived from the original on April 19, 2023. Retrieved August 25, 2022.
^ a b "Origins". Writers Guild of America West. Retrieved April 26, 2023.
^ Zorilla, Monica (January 27, 2021). "Netflix Expands its Growing Anime Repertoire with 'Skull Island' and 'Tomb Raider' Adaptations". Variety. Archived from the original on January 27, 2021. Retrieved January 27, 2021.
^ Andreeva, Nellie (August 23, 2022). "'King Kong' Live-Action Series In Works At Disney+ From Stephany Folsom, James Wan's Atomic Monster & Disney Branded TV". Deadline. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
^ Northrup, Ryan (January 12, 2024). "Monarch Season 1 Ending & Surprise Cameo Explained By Creators". Screenrant. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
^ Hinsley, F. H.; Simkins, C. A. G. (1990). British Intelligence in the Second World War: Volume 4, Security and Counter-Intelligence. Cambridge University Press. p. 373.
^ "AllMusic". AllMusic. Archived from the original on June 28, 2015. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
^ Sleeve notes, Waterloo re-issue, Carl Magnus Palm, 2014
General and cited sources
Erb, Cynthia Marie, 1998, Tracking King Kong: A Hollywood Icon in World Culture, Wayne State University Press, ISBN 0-8143-2686-2.
Affeldt, Stefanie (2015). "Exterminating the Brute: Racism and Sexism in 'King Kong'". In Hund, Wulf D.; Mills, Charles W.; Sebastiani, Silvia (eds.). Simianization: Apes, Class, Gender, and Race. Racism Analysis Yearbook 6. Berlin: Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-643-90716-5.
Goldner, Orville; Turner, George E. (1975). The Making of King Kong: The Story Behind a Film Classic. A. S Barnes and Co.
Morton, Ray (2005). King Kong: The History of a Movie Icon. Applause Theater and Cinema Books. ISBN 1557836698.
Ryfle, Steve (1998). Japan's Favorite Mon-Star: The Unauthorized Biography of the Big G. ECW Press. ISBN 1-55022-348-8.
Van Hise, James (1993). Hot Blooded Dinosaur Movies. Pioneer Books.
Vaz, Mark Cotta (2005). Living Dangerously: The Adventures of Merian C. Cooper, Creator of King Kong. Villard. ISBN 1-4000-6276-4.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to King Kong (character).
Wikiquote has quotations related to King Kong.
The 1933 film King Kong at IMDb
Official King Kong (2005) movie website
The 2005 remake King Kong at IMDb
King Kong series listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
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Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"King Kong (franchise)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(franchise)"},{"link_name":"King Kong (1933 film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(1933_film)"},{"link_name":"King Kong (1976 film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(1976_film)"},{"link_name":"King Kong (2005 film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"King Kong (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"kaiju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiju"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"gorilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Eighth Wonder of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"novelization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novelization"},{"link_name":"King Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(1933_film)"},{"link_name":"RKO Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RKO_Pictures"},{"link_name":"The Son of Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_of_Kong"},{"link_name":"Toho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toho"},{"link_name":"King Kong vs. Godzilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_vs._Godzilla"},{"link_name":"Godzilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla"},{"link_name":"King Kong Escapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_Escapes"},{"link_name":"Rankin/Bass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankin/Bass_Animated_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"The King Kong Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_Kong_Show"},{"link_name":"Dino De Laurentiis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino_De_Laurentiis"},{"link_name":"modern remake of the original film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(1976_film)"},{"link_name":"John Guillermin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Guillermin"},{"link_name":"King Kong Lives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_Lives"},{"link_name":"Another remake of the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"Peter Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Kong: Skull Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong:_Skull_Island"},{"link_name":"Warner Bros. Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros._Pictures"},{"link_name":"Legendary Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendary_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"MonsterVerse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MonsterVerse"},{"link_name":"Godzilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(2014_film)"},{"link_name":"Godzilla vs. Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_vs._Kong"},{"link_name":"Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_x_Kong:_The_New_Empire"},{"link_name":"pop culture icon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_in_popular_culture"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Erb-18"},{"link_name":"comics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(comics)"},{"link_name":"stage play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(2013_musical)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Planet of the Apes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_of_the_Apes"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Godzilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla"},{"link_name":"Doc Savage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Doc_Savage_novels#Doc_Savage_novels"},{"link_name":"Tarzan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_vs._Tarzan"},{"link_name":"Justice League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice_League"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster"},{"link_name":"antihero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihero"}],"text":"This article is about the character. For the film franchise, see King Kong (franchise). For the various films with the same name, see King Kong (1933 film), King Kong (1976 film), and King Kong (2005 film). For other uses, see King Kong (disambiguation).Fictional characterKing Kong, also referred to simply as Kong, is a fictional giant monster, or kaiju,[15] resembling a gorilla, who has appeared in various media since 1933. Kong has been dubbed the King of the Beasts[16] and over time it would also be bestowed the title of the Eighth Wonder of the World,[17] a widely recognized expression within the franchise. His first appearance was in the novelization of the 1933 film King Kong from RKO Pictures, with the film premiering a little over two months later.A sequel quickly followed that same year with The Son of Kong, featuring Little Kong, also known as \"Kiko\". The Japanese film company Toho later produced King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962), featuring a giant Kong battling Toho's Godzilla, and King Kong Escapes (1967), a film loosely based on Rankin/Bass' The King Kong Show (1966–1969). In 1976, Dino De Laurentiis produced a modern remake of the original film directed by John Guillermin. A sequel, King Kong Lives, followed a decade later featuring a Lady Kong. Another remake of the original, this time set in 1933, was released in 2005 by filmmaker Peter Jackson.Kong: Skull Island (2017), set in 1973, is part of Warner Bros. Pictures and Legendary Entertainment's MonsterVerse, which began with a reboot of Godzilla in 2014. A sequel, Godzilla vs. Kong, once again pitting the characters against one another, was released in 2021. It was then followed by the film Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire in 2024 which featured more of Kong's kind.The character is an international pop culture icon,[18] having inspired a number of sequels, remakes, spin-offs, imitators, parodies, cartoons, books, comics, video games, theme park rides, and a stage play.[19] King Kong has also crossed over into other franchises such as Planet of the Apes,[20] and encountered characters from other franchises in crossover media, such as the Toho movie monster Godzilla, pulp characters Doc Savage and Tarzan, and the Justice League.[21] His role in the different narratives varies, ranging from an egregious monster to a tragic antihero.","title":"King Kong"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:King_Kong_ESB.JPG"},{"link_name":"Empire State Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Building"},{"link_name":"Merian C. Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merian_C._Cooper"},{"link_name":"Skull Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_Island_(King_Kong)"},{"link_name":"Indian Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean"},{"link_name":"plesiosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plesiosaur"},{"link_name":"pterosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pterosaur"},{"link_name":"dinosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur"},{"link_name":"Carl Denham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Denham"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Eighth Wonder of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Wonder_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"Empire State Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Building"},{"link_name":"biplanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanes"},{"link_name":"pseudo-documentary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-documentary"},{"link_name":"Sci-Fi Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci_Fi_Channel_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"mega-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mega-"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"primate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/primate"},{"link_name":"primatus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/primatus"},{"link_name":"primate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate"},{"link_name":"Gigantopithecus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopithecus"},{"link_name":"orangutans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orangutan"},{"link_name":"gorillas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla"}],"text":"King Kong graphics at the Empire State Building.The King Kong character was conceived and created by American filmmaker Merian C. Cooper. In the original film, the character's name is Kong, a name given to him by the inhabitants of the fictional \"Skull Island\" in the Indian Ocean, where Kong lives along with other oversized animals, such as plesiosaurs, pterosaurs and various dinosaurs. An American film crew, led by Carl Denham, captures Kong and takes him to New York City to be exhibited as the \"Eighth Wonder of the World\".Kong escapes and climbs the Empire State Building only to fall from the skyscraper after being attacked by weaponized biplanes. Denham comments, \"it wasn't the aeroplanes, it was beauty killed the beast\", for he climbs the building in the first place only in an attempt to protect Ann Darrow, an actress originally kidnapped by the natives of the island and offered up to Kong as a sacrifice (in the 1976 remake, her character is named \"Dwan\").A pseudo-documentary about Skull Island that appears on the DVD for the 2005 remake (originally seen on the Sci-Fi Channel at the time of its theatrical release) gives Kong's scientific name as Megaprimatus Kong[22] (\"Megaprimatus\", deriving from the prefix \"mega-\" and the Latin words \"primate\" and \"primatus\", means \"big primate\" or \"big supreme being\") and states that his species may be related to Gigantopithecus, though that genus of giant ape is more closely related to orangutans than to gorillas.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cooper-Kong.jpg"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz200514%E2%80%9315-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Paul Du Chaillu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Du_Chaillu"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz200514%E2%80%9316-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz200510-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz200516-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz200516%E2%80%9317-28"},{"link_name":"The Four Feathers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Feathers_(1929_film)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005167-30"},{"link_name":"RKO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RKO"},{"link_name":"New York Insurance Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Life_Building"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197538-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005186-32"},{"link_name":"Douglas Burden's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Douglas_Burden"},{"link_name":"Komodo dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komodo_dragon"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005194-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005194-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005187-34"},{"link_name":"steam shovels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_shovel"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Hise199356-35"},{"link_name":"Willis O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_O%27Brien"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Marcel Delgado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Delgado"},{"link_name":"animation model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_motion"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197556-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197556-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197556-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197556-38"},{"link_name":"American Museum of Natural History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197556-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197558-39"},{"link_name":"The Dinosaur and the Missing Link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dinosaur_and_the_Missing_Link"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197544-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton200554%E2%80%9355-42"}],"sub_title":"Conception and creation","text":"Merian C. Cooper glances up at his creation.Merian C. Cooper became fascinated by gorillas at the age of 6.[23] In 1899, he was given a book from his uncle called Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa.[24] The book (written in 1861), chronicled the adventures of Paul Du Chaillu in Africa and his various encounters with the natives and wildlife there.[25] Cooper became fascinated with the stories involving the gorillas, in particular, Du Chaillu's depiction of a particular gorilla known for its \"extraordinary size\",[26] that the natives described as \"invincible\" and the \"King of the African Forest\".[27] When Du Chaillu and some natives encountered a gorilla later in the book he described it as a \"hellish dream creature\" that was \"half man, half beast\".[28]As an adult, Cooper became involved in the motion picture industry. While filming The Four Feathers in Africa, he came into contact with a family of baboons.[29] This gave him the idea to make a picture about primates.[30] A year later when he got to RKO, Cooper wanted to film a \"terror gorilla picture\". As the story was being fleshed out, Cooper decided to make his gorilla giant sized. Cooper stated that the idea of Kong fighting warplanes on top of a building came from him seeing a plane flying over the New York Insurance Building, then the tallest building in the world.[31] He came up with the ending before the rest of the story as he stated, \"Without any conscious effort of thought I immediately saw in my mind's eye a giant gorilla on top of the building\".[32] Cooper also was influenced by Douglas Burden's accounts of the Komodo dragon,[33] and wanted to pit his terror gorilla against dinosaur-sized versions of these reptiles, stating to Burden: \"I also had firmly in mind to giantize both the gorilla and your dragons to make them really huge. However I always believed in personalizing and focusing attention on one main character and from the very beginning I intended to make it the gigantic gorilla, no matter what else I surrounded him with\".[33] Around this time, Cooper began to refer to his project as a \"giant terror gorilla picture\" featuring \"a gigantic semi-humanoid gorilla pitted against modern civilization\".[34]When designing King Kong, Cooper wanted him to be a nightmarish gorilla monster. As he described Kong in a 1930 memo: \"His hands and feet have the size and strength of steam shovels; his girth is that of a steam boiler. This is a monster with the strength of a hundred men. But more terrifying is the head—a nightmare head with bloodshot eyes and jagged teeth set under a thick mat of hair, a face half-beast half-human\".[35] Willis O'Brien created an oil painting depicting the giant gorilla menacing a jungle heroine and hunter for Cooper.[36][37] However, when it came time for O'Brien and Marcel Delgado to sculpt the animation model, Cooper decided to backpedal on the half-human look for the creature and became adamant that Kong be a gorilla. O'Brien on the other hand, wanted him to be almost human-like to gain audience empathy, and told Delgado to \"make that ape almost human\".[38] Cooper laughed at the end result, saying that it looked like a cross between a monkey and a man with very long hair.[38] For the second model, O'Brien again asked Delgado to add human features but to tone it down somewhat. The end result (which was rejected) was described as looking like a missing link.[38] Disappointed, Cooper stated, \"I want Kong to be the fiercest, most brutal, monstrous damned thing that has ever been seen!\"[38] On December 22, 1931, Cooper got the dimensions of a bull gorilla from the American Museum of Natural History telling O'Brien, \"Now that's what I want!\"[38] When the final model was created, it had the basic look of a gorilla but managed to retain some human-like qualities. For example, Delgado streamlined the body by removing the distinctive paunch and rump of a gorilla.[39] O'Brien would incorporate some characteristics and nuances of an earlier creature he had created in 1915 for the silent short The Dinosaur and the Missing Link into the general look and personality of Kong, even going as far as to refer to the creature as \"Kong's ancestor\".[40][41] When it came time to film, Cooper agreed that Kong should walk upright at times (mostly in the New York sequences) in order to appear more intimidating.[42]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Komodo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komodo_(island)"},{"link_name":"Kodiak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak_Island"},{"link_name":"Kodak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005193%E2%80%93194-43"},{"link_name":"Komodo dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komodo_dragon"},{"link_name":"Komodo Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komodo_(island)"},{"link_name":"tyrannosaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannosaurus"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005190-44"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005193%E2%80%93194-43"},{"link_name":"sic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton200525-45"},{"link_name":"Edgar Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Wallace"},{"link_name":"David O. Selznick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_O._Selznick"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005220-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005220-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaz2005220-46"},{"link_name":"Ruth Rose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Rose"},{"link_name":"Grass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_(1925_film)"},{"link_name":"Chang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang_(film)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner1975185-47"}],"sub_title":"Etymology","text":"Merian C. Cooper said he was very fond of strong, hard-sounding words that started with the letter \"K\". Some of his favorite words were \"Komodo\", \"Kodiak\" and \"Kodak\".[43] When Cooper was envisioning his giant terror gorilla idea, he wanted to capture a real gorilla from the Congo and have it fight a real Komodo dragon on Komodo Island (this scenario would eventually evolve into Kong's battle with the tyrannosaur on Skull Island when the film was produced a few years later at RKO). Cooper's friend Douglas Burden's trip to the island of Komodo and his encounter with the Komodo dragons was a big influence on the Kong story.[44] Cooper was fascinated by Burden's adventures as chronicled in his book Dragon Lizards of Komodo where he referred to the animal as the \"King of Komodo\".[43] It was this phrase along with \"Komodo\" and \"Kongo\" [sic] (and his overall love for hard sounding \"K\"-words)[45] that gave him the idea to name the giant ape \"Kong\". He loved the name, as it had a \"mystery sound\" to it.After Cooper got to RKO, British mystery writer Edgar Wallace was contracted to write the first draft of the screen story. It was simply referred to as \"The Beast\". RKO executives were unimpressed with the bland title. David O. Selznick suggested Jungle Beast as the film's new title,[46] but Cooper was unimpressed and wanted to name the film after the main character. He stated he liked the \"mystery word\" aspect of Kong's name and that the film should carry \"the name of the leading mysterious, romantic, savage creature of the story\" such as with Dracula and Frankenstein.[46] RKO sent a memo to Cooper suggesting the titles Kong: King of Beasts, Kong: The Jungle King, and Kong: The Jungle Beast, which combined his and Selznick's proposed titles.[46] As time went on, Cooper would eventually name the story simply Kong while Ruth Rose was writing the final version of the screenplay. Because David O. Selznick thought that audiences would think that the film, with the one word title of Kong, would be mistaken as a docudrama like Grass and Chang, which were one-word titled films that Cooper had earlier produced, he added the \"King\" to Kong's name in order to differentiate it.[47]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"King Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(1933_film)"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-48"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton200554%E2%80%9355-42"},{"link_name":"Merian C. Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merian_C._Cooper"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner197537-49"},{"link_name":"Willis O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_O%27Brien"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldnerTurner1975159-50"},{"link_name":"miniatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_effect"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Hise199366-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton200536-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-48"},{"link_name":"Toho Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toho_Studios"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"King Kong vs. Godzilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_vs._Godzilla"},{"link_name":"King Kong Escapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_Escapes"},{"link_name":"Dino De Laurentiis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino_De_Laurentiis"},{"link_name":"King Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(1976_film)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton2005205-54"},{"link_name":"King Kong Lives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_Lives"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton2005264-55"},{"link_name":"Universal Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Studios"},{"link_name":"three-hour film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"Peter Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Weta Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weta_Digital"},{"link_name":"Gigantopithecus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantopithecus"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Kong: Skull Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong:_Skull_Island"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kong-Sized-58"},{"link_name":"Godzilla vs. Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_vs._Kong"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Jordan Vogt-Roberts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Vogt-Roberts"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"sub_title":"Appearances and abilities","text":"In his first appearance in King Kong (1933), Kong was a gigantic prehistoric ape.[48] While gorilla-like in appearance, he had a vaguely humanoid look and at times walked upright in an anthropomorphic manner.[42]Like most simians, Kong possesses semi-human intelligence and great physical strength. Kong's size changes drastically throughout the course of the film. While creator Merian C. Cooper envisioned Kong as being \"40 to 50 feet tall\",[49] animator Willis O'Brien and his crew built the models and sets scaling Kong to be only 18 feet (5.5 m) tall on Skull Island, and rescaled to be 24 feet (7.3 m) tall in New York.[50]This did not stop Cooper from playing around with Kong's size as he directed the special effect sequences; by manipulating the sizes of the miniatures and the camera angles, he made Kong appear a lot larger than O'Brien wanted, even as large as 60 feet (18.3 m) in some scenes.As Cooper said in an interview:I was a great believer in constantly changing Kong's height to fit the settings and the illusions. He's different in almost every shot; sometimes he's only 18 feet tall and sometimes 60 feet or larger. This broke every rule that O'Bie and his animators had ever worked with, but I felt confident that if the scenes moved with excitement and beauty, the audience would accept any height that fitted into the scene. For example, if Kong had only been 18 feet high on the top of the Empire State Building, he would have been lost, like a little bug; I constantly juggled the heights of trees and dozens of other things. The one essential thing was to make the audience enthralled with the character of Kong so that they wouldn't notice or care that he was 18 feet high or 40 feet, just as long as he fitted the mystery and excitement of the scenes and action.[51]Concurrently, the Kong bust made for the film was built in scale with a 40-foot (12.2 m) ape,[52] while the full sized hand of Kong was built in scale with a 70-foot (21.3 m) ape.[53] Meanwhile, RKO's promotional materials listed Kong's official height as 50 feet (15.2 m).[48]In the 1960s, Toho Studios from Japan licensed the character for the films King Kong vs. Godzilla and King Kong Escapes.In 1975, Italian producer Dino De Laurentiis paid RKO for the remake rights to King Kong. This resulted in King Kong (1976). This Kong was an upright walking anthropomorphic ape, appearing even more human-like than the original. Also like the original, this Kong had semi-human intelligence and vast strength. In the 1976 film, Kong was scaled to be 42 feet (12.8 m) tall on Skull island and rescaled to be 55 feet (16.8 m) tall in New York.[54] Ten years later, Dino De Laurentiis got the approval from Universal to do a sequel called King Kong Lives. This Kong had more or less the same appearance and abilities, but tended to walk on his knuckles more often and was enlarged, scaled to 60 feet (18.3 m).[55]Universal Studios had planned to do a King Kong remake as far back as 1976. They finally followed through almost 30 years later, with a three-hour film directed by Peter Jackson. Jackson opted to make Kong a gigantic silverback gorilla without any anthropomorphic features. This Kong looked and behaved more like a real gorilla: he had a large herbivore's belly, walked on his knuckles without any upright posture, and even beat his chest with his palms as opposed to clenched fists. In order to ground his Kong in realism, Jackson and the Weta Digital crew gave a name to his fictitious species Megaprimatus Kong and suggested it to have evolved from the Gigantopithecus. Kong was the last of his kind. He was portrayed in the film as being quite old, with graying fur and battle-worn with scars, wounds, and a crooked jaw from his many fights against rival creatures. He is the dominant being on the island, the king of his world. Like his film predecessors, he possesses considerable intelligence and great physical strength and also appears far more nimble and agile. This Kong was scaled to a consistent height of 25 feet (7.6 m) tall on both Skull Island and in New York.[56] Jackson describes his central character:We assumed that Kong is the last surviving member of his species. He had a mother and a father and maybe brothers and sisters, but they're dead. He's the last of the huge gorillas that live on Skull Island ... when he goes ... there will be no more. He's a very lonely creature, absolutely solitary. It must be one of the loneliest existences you could ever possibly imagine. Every day, he has to battle for his survival against very formidable dinosaurs on the island, and it's not easy for him. He's carrying the scars of many former encounters with dinosaurs. I'm imagining he's probably 100 to 120 years old by the time our story begins. And he has never felt a single bit of empathy for another living creature in his long life; it has been a brutal life that he's lived.[57]In the 2017 film Kong: Skull Island, Kong is scaled to be 104 feet (31.7 m) tall,[58] making it the second largest and largest American incarnation in the series until the 2021 film Godzilla vs. Kong, in which he became the largest incarnation in the series, standing at 337 feet (102.7 m).[59][60] Director Jordan Vogt-Roberts stated in regard to Kong's immense stature:The thing that most interested me was, how big do you need to make [Kong], so that when someone lands on this island and doesn't believe in the idea of myth, the idea of wonder – when we live in a world of social and civil unrest, and everything is crumbling around us, and technology and facts are taking over – how big does this creature need to be, so that when you stand on the ground and you look up at it, the only thing that can go through your mind is: \"That's a god!\"[61]He also stated that the original 1933 look was the inspiration for the design:We sort of went back to the 1933 version in the sense that he's a bipedal creature that walks in an upright position, as opposed to the anthropomorphic, anatomically correct silverback gorilla that walks on all fours. Our Kong was intended to say, like, this isn't just a big gorilla or a big monkey. This is something that is its own species. It has its own set of rules, so we can do what we want and we really wanted to pay homage to what came before ... and yet do something completely different, and if anything, our Kong is meant to be a throwback to the '33 version. I don't think there's much similarity at all between our version and Peter [Jackson]'s Kong. That version is very much a scaled-up silverback gorilla, and ours is something that is slightly more exaggerated. A big mandate for us was, \"How do we make this feel like a classic movie monster\"?[62]Co-producer Mary Parent also stated that Kong is still young and not fully grown as she explains that \"Kong is an adolescent when we meet him in the film; he's still growing into his role as alpha\".[63]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"intellectual property status","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"RKO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RKO"},{"link_name":"Tarzan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarzan"},{"link_name":"Pioneer Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_Pictures"},{"link_name":"David O. 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Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros._Pictures"},{"link_name":"San Diego Comic-Con","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con_International"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"Kong: Skull Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong:_Skull_Island"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"2014 Godzilla movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_(2014_movie)"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Monster Comics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantagraphics_Books"},{"link_name":"King Kong: The Eighth Wonder of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(2013_musical)"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Global Creatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Creatures"},{"link_name":"Walking with Dinosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking_with_Dinosaurs"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Boom! Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boom!_Studios"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Doc Savage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doc_Savage"},{"link_name":"Tarzan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarzan"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forces_of_Geek-91"},{"link_name":"Planet of the Apes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_of_the_Apes"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"IguanaBee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IguanaBee"},{"link_name":"Skull Island: Rise of Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_Island:_Rise_of_Kong"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LicensingMagazine-99"},{"link_name":"Kong: Skull Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong:_Skull_Island"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"Dynamite Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamite_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Disney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Branded_Television"},{"link_name":"Disney+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%2B"},{"link_name":"Stephany Folsom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephany_Folsom"},{"link_name":"James Wan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wan"},{"link_name":"Atomic Monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Monster"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Ted Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Turner"},{"link_name":"Turner Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turner_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Warner Bros.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros."},{"link_name":"Warner Bros. Family Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros._Family_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"The Mighty Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mighty_Kong"},{"link_name":"Kong: Skull Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong:_Skull_Island"},{"link_name":"Godzilla vs. Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_vs._Kong"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"MonsterVerse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MonsterVerse"},{"link_name":"Adam Wingard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Wingard"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"King Kong Lives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_Lives"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton2005239,_241-106"},{"link_name":"StudioCanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StudioCanal"},{"link_name":"King Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(1976)"},{"link_name":"Paramount Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_Pictures"},{"link_name":"Trifecta Entertainment & Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifecta_Entertainment_%26_Media"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Ownership rights","text":"While one of the most famous movie icons in history, King Kong's intellectual property status has been questioned since his creation, featuring in numerous allegations and court battles. The rights to the character have always been split up with no single exclusive rights holder. Different parties have also contested that various aspects are public domain material and therefore ineligible for copyright status.When Merian C. Cooper created King Kong, he assumed that he owned the character, which he had conceived in 1929, outright. Cooper maintained that he had only licensed the character to RKO for the initial film and sequel, but had otherwise owned his own creation. In 1935, Cooper began to feel something was amiss when he was trying to get a Tarzan vs. King Kong project off the ground for Pioneer Pictures (where he had assumed management of the company). After David O. Selznick suggested the project to Cooper, the flurry of legal activity over using the Kong character that followed—Pioneer had become a completely independent company by this time and access to properties that RKO felt were theirs was no longer automatic—gave Cooper pause as he came to realize that he might not have full control over this product of his own imagination after all.[64]Years later in 1962, Cooper found out that RKO was licensing the character through John Beck to Toho studios in Japan for a film project called King Kong vs. Godzilla. Cooper had assumed his rights were unassailable and was bitterly opposed to the project. In 1963 he filed a lawsuit to enjoin distribution of the movie against John Beck, as well as Toho and Universal (the film's U.S. copyright holder).[65] Cooper discovered that RKO had also profited from licensed products featuring the King Kong character such as model kits produced by Aurora Plastics Corporation. Cooper's executive assistant, Charles B. FitzSimons, said that these companies should be negotiating through him and Cooper for such licensed products and not RKO. In a letter to Robert Bendick, Cooper stated:My hassle is about King Kong. I created the character long before I came to RKO and have always believed I retained subsequent picture rights and other rights. I sold to RKO the right to make the one original picture King Kong and also, later, Son of Kong, but that was all.[66]Cooper and his legal team offered up various documents to bolster the case that Cooper owned King Kong and had only licensed the character to RKO for two films, rather than selling him outright. Many people vouched for Cooper's claims, including David O. Selznick, who had written a letter to Mr. A. Loewenthal of the Famous Artists Syndicate in Chicago in 1932 stating (in regard to Kong), \"The rights of this are owned by Mr. Merian C. Cooper\".[66] Cooper however lost key documents through the years (he discovered these papers were missing after he returned from his World War II military service) such as a key informal yet binding letter from Mr. Ayelsworth (the then-president of the RKO Studio Corp.) and a formal binding letter from Mr. B. B. Kahane (also a\nformer president of RKO Studio Corp.) confirming that Cooper had only licensed the rights to the character for the two RKO pictures and nothing more.[67]Without these letters, it seemed Cooper's rights were relegated to the Lovelace novelization that he had copyrighted (he was able to make a deal for a Bantam Books paperback reprint and a Gold Key comic adaptation of the novel, but that was all that he could do). Cooper's lawyer had received a letter from John Beck's lawyer, Gordon E. Youngman, that stated:For the sake of the record, I wish to state that I am not in negotiation with you or Mr. Cooper or anyone else to define Mr. Cooper's rights in respect of King Kong. His rights are well defined, and they are non-existent, except for certain limited publication rights.[68]In a letter addressed to Douglas Burden, Cooper lamented:It seems my hassle over King Kong is destined to be a protracted one. They'd make me sorry I ever invented the beast, if I weren't so fond of him! Makes me feel like Macbeth: \"Bloody instructions which being taught return to plague the inventor\".[68]The rights over the character did not flare up again until 1975, when Universal Studios and Dino De Laurentiis were fighting over who would be able to do a King Kong remake for release the following year. De Laurentiis came up with $200,000 to buy the remake rights from RKO.[69] When Universal got wind of this, they filed a lawsuit against RKO, claiming that they had a verbal agreement from them regarding the remake. During the legal battles that followed, which eventually included RKO countersuing Universal, as well as De Laurentiis filing a lawsuit claiming interference, Colonel Richard Cooper (Merian's son and now head of the Cooper estate) jumped into the fray.[70]During the battles, Universal discovered that the copyright of the Lovelace novelization had expired without renewal, thus making the King Kong story a public domain one. Universal argued that they should be able to make a movie based on the novel without infringing on anyone's copyright because the characters in the story were in the public domain within the context of the public domain story.[71] Richard Cooper then filed a cross-claim against RKO claiming that, while the publishing rights to the novel had not been renewed, his estate still had control over the plot/story of King Kong.[70]In a four-day bench trial in Los Angeles, Judge Manuel Real made the final decision and gave his verdict on November 24, 1976, affirming that the King Kong novelization and serialization were indeed in the public domain, and Universal could make its movie as long as it did not infringe on original elements in the 1933 RKO film,[72] which had not passed into the public domain.[73] Universal postponed their plans to film a King Kong movie, called The Legend of King Kong, for at least 18 months, after cutting a deal with Dino De Laurentiis that included a percentage of box office profits from his remake.[74]However, on December 6, 1976, Judge Real made a subsequent ruling, which held that all the rights in the name, character, and story of King Kong (outside of the original film and its sequel) belonged to Merian C. Cooper's estate. This ruling, which became known as the \"Cooper judgment\", expressly stated that it would not change the previous ruling that publishing rights of the novel and serialization were in the public domain. It was a huge victory that affirmed the position Merian C. Cooper had maintained for years.[72] Shortly thereafter, Richard Cooper sold all his rights (excluding worldwide book and periodical publishing rights) to Universal in December 1976. In 1980 Judge Real dismissed the claims that were brought forth by RKO and Universal four years earlier and reinstated the Cooper judgement.[75]In 1982 Universal filed a lawsuit against Nintendo, which had created an impish ape character called Donkey Kong in 1981 and was reaping huge profits over the video game machines. Universal claimed that Nintendo was infringing on its copyright because Donkey Kong was a blatant rip-off of King Kong.[75] During the court battle and subsequent appeal, the courts ruled that Universal did not have exclusive trademark rights to the King Kong character. The courts ruled that trademark was not among the rights Cooper had sold to Universal, indicating that \"Cooper plainly did not obtain any trademark rights in his judgment against RKO, since the California district court specifically found that King Kong had no secondary meaning\".[73] While they had a majority of the rights, they did not outright own the King Kong name and character.[76] The courts ruling noted that the name, title, and character of Kong no longer signified a single source of origin so exclusive trademark rights were impossible.[77] The courts also pointed out that the Kong rights were held by three parties:RKO owned the rights to the original film and its sequel.\nThe Dino De Laurentiis company (DDL) owned the rights to the 1976 remake.\nRichard Cooper owned worldwide book and periodical publishing rights.[76]The judge then ruled that \"Universal thus owns only those rights in the King Kong name and character that RKO, Cooper, or DDL do not own\".[78]The court of appeals would also note:First, Universal knew that it did not have trademark rights to King Kong, yet it proceeded to broadly assert such rights anyway. This amounted to a wanton and reckless disregard of Nintendo's rights.\nSecond, Universal did not stop after it asserted its rights to Nintendo. It embarked on a deliberate, systematic campaign to coerce all of Nintendo's third party licensees to either stop marketing Donkey Kong products or pay Universal royalties.\n\nFinally, Universal's conduct amounted to an abuse of judicial process, and in that sense caused a longer harm to the public as a whole. Depending on the commercial results, Universal alternatively argued to the courts, first, that King Kong was a part of the public domain, and then second, that King Kong was not part of the public domain, and that Universal possessed exclusive trademark rights in it. Universal's assertions in court were based not on any good faith belief in their truth, but on the mistaken belief that it could use the courts to turn a profit.[79]Because Universal misrepresented their degree of ownership of King Kong (claiming they had exclusive trademark rights when they knew that they did not) and tried to have it both ways in court regarding the \"public domain\" claims, the courts ruled that Universal acted in bad faith (see Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.). They were ordered to pay fines and all of Nintendo's legal costs from the lawsuit. That, along with the fact that the courts ruled that there was simply no likelihood of people confusing Donkey Kong with King Kong,[76] caused Universal to lose the case and the subsequent appeal.Since the court case, Universal still retains the majority of the character rights.[further explanation needed] In 1986 they opened a King Kong ride called King Kong Encounter at their Universal Studios Tour theme park in Hollywood (which was destroyed in 2008 by a backlot fire), and followed it up with the Kongfrontation ride at their Orlando park in 1990 (which was closed down in 2002 due to maintenance issues). They also finally made a King Kong film of their own, King Kong (2005). In the summer of 2010, Universal opened a new 3D King Kong ride called King Kong: 360 3-D at their Hollywood park, replacing the destroyed King Kong Encounter.[80] In July 2016, Universal opened a new King Kong attraction called Skull Island: Reign of Kong at Islands of Adventure in Orlando.[81] In July 2013, Legendary Pictures made an agreement with Universal to market, co-finance, and distribute Legendary's films for five years starting in 2014 and ending in 2019, the year that Legendary's similar agreement with Warner Bros. Pictures was set to expire. One year later, at the San Diego Comic-Con, Legendary announced (as a product of its partnership with Universal), a King Kong origin story, initially titled Skull Island, with Universal distributing.[82] After the film was retitled Kong: Skull Island, Universal allowed Legendary to move to Warner Bros.,[83] so they could do a King Kong and Godzilla crossover film (in the continuity of the 2014 Godzilla movie), since Legendary still had the rights to make more Godzilla movies with Warner Bros. before their contract with Toho expired in 2020.[84][85]Richard Cooper, through the Merian C. Cooper Estate, retained publishing rights for the content that Judge Real had ruled on December 6, 1976. In 1990, they licensed a six-issue comic book adaptation of the novelization of the 1933 film to Monster Comics, and commissioned an illustrated novel in 1994 called Anthony Browne's King Kong. In 2013, they became involved with a musical stage play based on the story, called King Kong: The Eighth Wonder of the World which premiered that June in Australia[86][87] and then on Broadway in November 2018.[88] The production is involved with Global Creatures, the company behind the Walking with Dinosaurs arena show.[89] In 1996, artist/writer Joe DeVito partnered with the Merian C. Cooper estate to write and/or illustrate various publications based on Merian C. Cooper's King Kong property through his company, DeVito ArtWorks, LLC. Through this partnership, DeVito created the prequel/sequel story Skull Island on which DeVito based a pair of original novels relating the origin of King Kong: Kong: King of Skull Island and King Kong of Skull Island. In addition, the Cooper/DeVito collaboration resulted in an origin-themed comic book miniseries with Boom! Studios,[90] an expanded rewrite of the original Lovelace novelization, Merian C. Cooper's King Kong (the original novelization's publishing rights are still in the public domain), and various crossovers with other franchises such as Doc Savage, Tarzan[91] and Planet of the Apes.[92] In 2016, DeVito ArtWorks, through its licensing program, licensed its King Kong property to RocketFizz for use in the marketing of a soft drink called King Kong Cola,[93] and had plans for a live action TV show co-produced between MarVista Entertainment and IM Global.[94] Other products that have been produced through this licensing program include Digital Trading Cards,[95] Board Games,[96] a Virtual Reality Arcade Game,[97] a remake of the original King Kong Glow-In-The-Dark Model Kit,[98] and a video game developed by IguanaBee called Skull Island: Rise of Kong.[99] In April 2016, Joe DeVito sued Legendary Pictures and Warner Bros., producers of the film Kong: Skull Island, for using elements of his Skull Island universe, which he claimed that he created and that the producers had used without his permission.[100] Devito partnered with Dynamite Entertainment to produce comic books and board games based on the property,[101] resulting in the comic book series called King Kong: The Great War published in May 2023.[102] In 2022, DeVito had partnered with Disney to produce a live-action series tentatively called King Kong that explores the origin story of Kong. The series is slated to stream on Disney+. Stephany Folsom is attached to write the series and to be executive produced by James Wan via his production company Atomic Monster.[103]RKO (whose rights consisted of only the original film and its sequel) signed over the North American, Latin American and Australian distribution rights to its film library to Ted Turner's Turner Entertainment in a period spanning 1986 to 1989. Following a series of mergers and acquisitions, Warner Bros. owns those distribution rights today, with the copyright over the films (including King Kong and The Son of Kong) remaining with RKO Pictures, LLC (various companies distribute the RKO library in other territories). In 1998, Warner Bros. Family Entertainment released the direct-to-video animated musical film The Mighty Kong, which re-tells the plot of the original 1933 film. Nineteen years later, Warners co-produced the film Kong: Skull Island and in 2021 co-produced the film Godzilla vs. Kong, after Legendary Pictures brought the projects over from Universal[104] to build up the MonsterVerse. According to Godzilla Vs. Kong director Adam Wingard, the rights to the character may have also been transferred to Warner Bros.[105]DDL (whose rights were limited to only their 1976 remake) did a sequel in 1986 called King Kong Lives (but they still needed Universal's permission to do so).[106] Today most of DDL's film library is owned by StudioCanal, which includes the rights to these two films. The domestic (North American) rights to the 1976 King Kong film still remain with the film's original distributor Paramount Pictures, with Trifecta Entertainment & Media handling television rights to the film via their license with Paramount.[citation needed]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toho_King_Kong.jpg"},{"link_name":"Toho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toho"},{"link_name":"King Kong vs. Godzilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_vs._Godzilla"},{"link_name":"King Kong Escapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_Escapes"},{"link_name":"kaiju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiju"},{"link_name":"Godzilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"Skull Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_Island_(King_Kong)"},{"link_name":"Rankin/Bass Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankin/Bass_Productions"},{"link_name":"Ishirō Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishir%C5%8D_Honda"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Ebirah, Horror of the Deep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebirah,_Horror_of_the_Deep"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyfle1998135-111"},{"link_name":"Rankin/Bass' animated show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_Kong_Show"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla_vs._King_Ghidorah"},{"link_name":"Godzilla: Final Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla:_Final_Wars"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"sub_title":"Toho incarnations","text":"The two depictions of Kong in the Toho films.In the 1960s, Japanese studio Toho licensed the character from RKO and produced two films that featured the character, King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962) and King Kong Escapes (1967). Toho's interpretation differed greatly from the original in size and abilities. Among kaiju, King Kong was suggested to be among the most powerful in terms of raw physical force, possessing strength and durability that rivaled that of Godzilla. As one of the few mammal-based kaiju, Kong's most distinctive feature was his intelligence. He demonstrated the ability to learn and adapt to an opponent's fighting style, identify and exploit weaknesses in an enemy, and utilize his environment to stage ambushes and traps.[107]In King Kong vs. Godzilla, Kong was scaled to be 45 m (148 ft) tall. This version of Kong was given the ability to harvest electricity as a weapon and draw strength from electrical voltage.[108] In King Kong Escapes, Kong was scaled to be 20 m (66 ft) tall. This version was more similar to the original, where he relied on strength and intelligence to fight and survive.[109] Rather than residing on Skull Island, Toho's version of Kong resided on Faro Island in King Kong vs. Godzilla and on Mondo Island in King Kong Escapes.In 1966, Toho planned to produce Operation Robinson Crusoe: King Kong vs. Ebirah as a co-production with Rankin/Bass Productions, but Ishirō Honda was unavailable at the time to direct the film and, as a result, Rankin/Bass backed out of the project, along with the King Kong license.[110] Toho still proceeded with the production, replacing King Kong with Godzilla at the last minute and shot the film as Ebirah, Horror of the Deep. Elements of King Kong's character remained in the film, reflected in Godzilla's uncharacteristic behavior and attraction to the female character Daiyo.[111] Toho and Rankin/Bass later negotiated their differences and co-produced King Kong Escapes in 1967, loosely based on Rankin/Bass' animated show.Toho Studios wanted to remake King Kong vs. Godzilla, which was the most successful of the entire Godzilla series of films, in 1991 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the film, as well as to celebrate Godzilla's upcoming 40th anniversary. However, they were unable to obtain the rights to use Kong, and initially intended to use Mechani-Kong as Godzilla's next adversary.[112] It was soon learned that even using a mechanical creature who resembled Kong would be just as problematic legally and financially for them. As a result, the film became Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah, with one last failed attempt made to use Kong in 2004's Godzilla: Final Wars.[113]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Appearances"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Appearances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The King Kong Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_Kong_Show"},{"link_name":"Kong: The Animated Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong:_The_Animated_Series"},{"link_name":"Kong: King of the Apes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong:_King_of_the_Apes"},{"link_name":"Skull Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_Island_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"Disney+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%2B"},{"link_name":"Stephany Folsom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephany_Folsom"},{"link_name":"James Wan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wan"},{"link_name":"Atomic Monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Monster"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"Monarch: Legacy of Monsters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch:_Legacy_of_Monsters"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"}],"sub_title":"Television","text":"Four television shows have been based on King Kong: The King Kong Show (1966), Kong: The Animated Series (2000), Kong: King of the Apes (2016), and Skull Island (2023).[119]A live-action series exploring the origin story of Kong is in development for Disney+, written by Stephany Folsom and executive produced by James Wan via Atomic Monster.[120]The character appears in the final episode of season one of the television series Monarch: Legacy of Monsters.[121]","title":"Appearances"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titano-Kong.jpg"},{"link_name":"DC Comics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_Comics"},{"link_name":"Titano the Super-Ape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titano"},{"link_name":"Daily Planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Planet"},{"link_name":"Superman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superman"},{"link_name":"The Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"Yellow Submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_Submarine_(1968_film)"},{"link_name":"The Simpsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons"},{"link_name":"Treehouse of Horror III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treehouse_of_Horror_III"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer_Simpson"},{"link_name":"Marge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marge_Simpson"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Chicken Little","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_Little_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Goodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Goodies_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Kitten Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitten_Kong"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"British Telecom Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Telecom_Tower"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Dutch resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_resistance"},{"link_name":"Christiaan Lindemans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Lindemans"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"Frank Zappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Zappa"},{"link_name":"The Mothers of Invention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mothers_of_Invention"},{"link_name":"Uncle Meat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle_Meat"},{"link_name":"Make a Jazz Noise Here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_a_Jazz_Noise_Here"},{"link_name":"You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Can%27t_Do_That_on_Stage_Anymore,_Vol._3"},{"link_name":"Ahead of Their Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahead_of_Their_Time"},{"link_name":"Beat the Boots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_the_Boots"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Kinks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kinks"},{"link_name":"Plastic Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Man_(song)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"statue of King Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_statue"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"The Jimmy Castor Bunch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jimmy_Castor_Bunch"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Filk Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filk_Music"},{"link_name":"Ookla the Mok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ookla_the_Mok_(band)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Daniel Johnston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Johnston"},{"link_name":"music cassette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_cassette"},{"link_name":"Yip/Jump Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yip/Jump_Music"},{"link_name":"CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD"},{"link_name":"LP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP_album"},{"link_name":"Homestead Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestead_Records"},{"link_name":"a cappella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_cappella"},{"link_name":"Tom Waits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Waits"},{"link_name":"The Late Great Daniel Johnston: Discovered Covered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Late_Great_Daniel_Johnston:_Discovered_Covered"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"ABBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABBA"},{"link_name":"King Kong Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_Song"},{"link_name":"Waterloo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterloo_(album)"},{"link_name":"Benny Andersson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Andersson"},{"link_name":"Björn Ulvaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Ulvaeus"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"1976 film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Kong_(1976_film)"},{"link_name":"Tenacious D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenacious_D"},{"link_name":"The Pick of Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pick_of_Destiny"},{"link_name":"film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenacious_D_in_The_Pick_of_Destiny"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The DC Comics character Titano the Super-Ape (here seen climbing the Daily Planet building and confronting Superman) appears to be modeled on King Kong. From Superman #138, art by Curt Swan and Stan Kaye.King Kong, as well as the series of films featuring him, have been featured many times in popular culture outside of the films themselves, in forms ranging from straight copies to parodies and joke references, and in media from comic books to video games.The Beatles' 1968 animated film Yellow Submarine includes a scene of the characters opening a door to reveal King Kong abducting a woman from her bed.The Simpsons episode \"Treehouse of Horror III\" features a segment called \"King Homer\" which parodies the plot of the original film, with Homer as Kong and Marge in the Ann Darrow role. It ends with King Homer marrying Marge and eating her father.[citation needed]The 2005 animated film Chicken Little features a scene parodying King Kong, as Fish out of Water starts stacking magazines thrown in a pile, eventually becoming a model of the Empire State Building and some plane models, as he imitates King Kong in the iconic scene from the original film.[citation needed]The British comedy TV series The Goodies made an episode called \"Kitten Kong\", in which a giant cat called Twinkle roams the streets of London, knocking over the British Telecom Tower.[citation needed]The controversial World War II Dutch resistance fighter Christiaan Lindemans—eventually arrested on suspicion of having betrayed secrets to the Nazis—was nicknamed \"King Kong\" due to his being exceptionally tall.[122]Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention recorded an instrumental about \"King Kong\" in 1967 and featured it on the album Uncle Meat. Zappa went on to make many other versions of the song on albums such as Make a Jazz Noise Here, You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 3, Ahead of Their Time, and Beat the Boots.[citation needed]The Kinks recorded a song called \"King Kong\" as the B-side to their 1969 \"Plastic Man\" single.[citation needed]In 1972, a 550 cm (18 ft) fiberglass statue of King Kong was erected in Birmingham, England.[citation needed]The second track of The Jimmy Castor Bunch album Supersound from 1975 is titled \"King Kong\".[123]Filk Music artists Ookla the Mok's \"Song of Kong\", which explores the reasons why King Kong and Godzilla should not be roommates, appears on their 2001 album Smell No Evil.[citation needed]Daniel Johnston wrote and recorded a song called \"King Kong\" on his fifth self-released music cassette, Yip/Jump Music in 1983, rereleased on CD and double LP by Homestead Records in 1988. The song is an a cappella narrative of the original movie's story line. Tom Waits recorded a cover version of the song with various sound effects on the 2004 release, The Late Great Daniel Johnston: Discovered Covered.[citation needed]ABBA recorded \"King Kong Song\" for their 1974 album Waterloo. Although later singled out by ABBA songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus as one of their weakest tracks,[124] it was released as a single in 1977 to coincide with the 1976 film playing in theaters.Tenacious D wrote \"Kong\" to be released as a bonus track for the Japanese version of The Pick of Destiny to accompany the film.[citation needed]The 1994 Nintendo Game Boy title Donkey Kong features the eponymous character grow to a gargantuan size as the game's final boss.[citation needed]","title":"Cultural impact"}] | [{"image_text":"King Kong graphics at the Empire State Building.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/King_Kong_ESB.JPG/220px-King_Kong_ESB.JPG"},{"image_text":"Merian C. Cooper glances up at his creation.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/Cooper-Kong.jpg/220px-Cooper-Kong.jpg"},{"image_text":"The two depictions of Kong in the Toho films.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7f/Toho_King_Kong.jpg/220px-Toho_King_Kong.jpg"},{"image_text":"The DC Comics character Titano the Super-Ape (here seen climbing the Daily Planet building and confronting Superman) appears to be modeled on King Kong. From Superman #138, art by Curt Swan and Stan Kaye.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ab/Titano-Kong.jpg/200px-Titano-Kong.jpg"}] | [{"title":"List of fictional primates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_primates"}] | [{"reference":"Lambie, Ryan (March 10, 2017). \"The Struggles of King Kong '76\". Den of Geek. Archived from the original on April 3, 2018. 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Japan's Favorite Mon-Star: The Unauthorized Biography of the Big G. ECW Press. ISBN 1-55022-348-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/japansfavoritemo0000ryfl","url_text":"Japan's Favorite Mon-Star: The Unauthorized Biography of the Big G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55022-348-8","url_text":"1-55022-348-8"}]},{"reference":"Van Hise, James (1993). Hot Blooded Dinosaur Movies. Pioneer Books.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Vaz, Mark Cotta (2005). Living Dangerously: The Adventures of Merian C. Cooper, Creator of King Kong. Villard. ISBN 1-4000-6276-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Cotta_Vaz","url_text":"Vaz, Mark Cotta"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/livingdangerousl00vazm","url_text":"Living Dangerously: The Adventures of Merian C. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston_Technology | Kingston Technology | ["1 History","1.1 2000s","2 Awards and recognition","3 Products","4 References","5 External links"] | American multinational computer technology company
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Kingston Technology CorporationSign at top of Fountain Valley headquarters, pictured in 2007Company typePrivateIndustryStorage devicesFounded1987; 37 years ago (1987) in Fountain Valley, California, United StatesFoundersJohn TuDavid SunHeadquartersFountain Valley, California, United StatesArea servedWorldwideKey peopleJohn Tu (President)David Sun (COO)ProductsFlash memory cardsUSB flash drivesDIMMsDigital Audio PlayersSIM cardsSolid-state drivesRevenue US$12.8 billion (2020)Number of employees3,000 (2015)Websitekingston.com
Kingston Technology Corporation is an American multinational computer technology corporation that develops, manufactures, sells and supports flash memory products, other computer-related memory products, as well as the HyperX gaming division (now owned by HP). Headquartered in Fountain Valley, California, United States, Kingston Technology employs more than 3,000 employees worldwide as of Q1 2016. The company has manufacturing and logistics facilities in the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Taiwan, and China.
It is the largest independent producer of DRAM memory modules, owning approximately 68% of the third-party worldwide DRAM module market share in 2017, according to DRAMeXchange. In 2018 the company generated $7.5 billion in revenue and made #53 on the Forbes Lists of "America's Largest Private Companies 2019." Kingston serves an international network of distributors, resellers, retailers and OEM customers on six continents. The company also provides contract manufacturing and supply chain management services for semiconductor manufacturers and system OEMs.
History
Kingston Technology was founded on October 17, 1987, in response to a severe shortage of 1Mbit surface-mount memory chips, Chinese immigrant John Tu designed a new single in-line memory module (SIMM) that used readily available, older-technology through-hole components. In 1990 the company branched out into its first non-memory product line, processor upgrades. By 1992, the firm was ranked #1 by Inc. as the fastest-growing privately held company in America. The company expanded into networking and storage product lines, and introduced DataTraveler and DataPak portable products. In September 1994, Kingston became ISO 9000 certified on its first assessment attempt.
In 1995, Kingston opened a branch office in Munich, Germany to provide technical support and marketing capabilities for its European distributors and customers.
In October 1995, the company joined the "Billion-Dollar Club". After the company's 1995 sales exceeded $1.3 billion, ads ran thanking the employees ("Thanks a Billion!") with each individual employee-name in The Wall Street Journal, The Orange County Register and The Los Angeles Times. Ads also appeared in trade publications and The Wall Street Journal thanking the company's suppliers and distributors.
On August 15, 1996 SoftBank Corporation of Japan acquired 80 percent of Kingston for a total of $1.8 billion. In November of the same year, Kingston and Toshiba co-marketed memory upgrades for Toshiba PCs - the first time that a PC OEM and a memory manufacturer had teamed up to create a co-branded module. In 1999, Tu and Sun eventually bought back the 80 percent of Kingston owned by Softbank for $450 million.
On December 14, 1996 John Tu and David Sun allocated $71.5 million for employee bonuses as a result of the acquisition, averaging $130,000 for each of the company's 550 workers.
Kingston announced a 49% increase in unit sales for its memory module products in calendar year 1996 over calendar year 1995.
In 1996, Kingston opened its European headquarters in London, United Kingdom.
In January 1997, Kingston opened a manufacturing facility/office in Taiwan, a sales office in Japan, and a manufacturing facility and offices in Dublin, Ireland. The company also expanded its American manufacturing capacity by purchasing PC-OEM manufacturing buildings in Fountain Valley, California.
Kingston also introduced ValueRAM, which was a high-quality, low-cost memory designed for system integrators to use in white box systems.
In 1999, Kingston launched Advanced Validation Labs, Inc. (AVL), a sister company that provides memory validation services.
2000s
Kingston began manufacturing removable disk drive storage products in 1989 in their Kingston Storage Products Division. By 2000, it was decided to spin off the product line and become a sister company, StorCase Technology, Inc. StorCase ceased operations in 2006 after selling the designs and rights to manufacture its products to competitor CRU-DataPort.
In June 2000, Kingston announced a new supply chain management model to its memory manufacturing process. Payton Technology Inc. was established to help support this new model.
Forbes listed Kingston as number 141 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S," with revenues of $1.5 billion for 1999.
In March 2001, Kingston announced the formation of the Consumer Markets Division (CMD), a new division focusing on the retail and e-tail channel.
In 2002 Kingston launched a patented memory tester and a new HyperX line of high-performance memory modules, and also patented EPOC chip-stacking technology.
In August of that year, Kingston made a $50 million investment in Elpida and launched a green initiative for module manufacturing.
In 2004, Kingston announced revenues of $1.8B for 2003.
In September, Kingston announced new DataTraveler Elite USB drives, with hardware-based security encryption. In October, Advanced Micro Devices named Kingston "Outstanding Partner" for contributions to the AMD Athlon 64 and Opteron launches. Kingston reported revenues of $2.4B for 2004.
In May, Kingston launched a line of validated ValueRam modules for Intel-based servers.
The company was later granted a U.S. patent on dynamic burn-in tester for server memory.
They also announced a $26M investment in Tera Probe, the newest and largest wafer testing company in the world. They also opened the world's largest memory module manufacturing facility in Shanghai, China.
In 2006, Kingston reported revenues of $3.0B for 2005. In March, Kingston introduced the first fully secure 100% privacy USB drive with 128-bit hardware encryption, and later with 256-bit hardware encryption. The company also launched Fully Buffered Dimms (FBDIMMs), which broke the 16 GB barrier. The company entered the portable media market with KPEX (Kingston Portable Entertainment eXperience).
In 2007, Kingston reported revenues of $3.7B for 2006. Forbes listed Kingston as #83 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S". Inc. ranked Kingston as the #1 Fastest Growing Private Company By Revenue.
In 2008, Kingston reported revenues of $4.5B for 2007.
In August, Inc.com's "Top 100 Inc. 5000 Companies" ranked Kingston #2 in both Gross Dollars of Growth and Overall Revenue.
Forbes lists Kingston as number 79 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S."
In 2009, Kingston reported revenues of $4.0B for 2008. Volume increased 41% in memory units shipped from 2007. iSuppli ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the sixth consecutive year. In August, Inc.com's "Top 100 Inc. 5000 Companies" ranked Kingston #5 in Private Companies by Revenue and number 1 in the computer hardware category. In October, Forbes listed Kingston as number 97 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S."
In 2010, Kingston reported revenues of $4.1B for 2009. iSuppli ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market with 40.3% market share, up from 32.8% in 2008 and 27.5% in 2007. In August, Inc.com's "Top 100 Inc. 5000 Companies" ranked Kingston #6 in Private Companies by Revenue and number 1 in the computer hardware category. In November, Forbes listed Kingston as number 77 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S."
In 2011, Kingston reported revenues of $6.5B for 2010. iSuppli ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market, with 46% market share. Kingston also launched the Wi-Drive line of wireless storage products. Forbes ranked Kingston as the 51st largest private company in the US, up from #77. Inc. ranked Kingston #4 by revenue in the top 100 companies and #1 in computer hardware category. Gartner Research ranked Kingston as the #1 USB drive manufacturer in the world.
In 2012, Kingston celebrated 25 years in the memory business. iSuppli ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the 9th consecutive year. Kingston celebrated 10 years of HyperX gaming memory. Kingston releases HyperX branded SSD drives and releases the first Windows to Go USB drive.
Forbes lists Kingston as #48 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S." Gartner Research ranked Kingston #1 USB manufacturer in the world.
In 2013, Kingston ships its fastest, world's largest-capacity USB 3.0 Flash Drive with DataTraveler HyperX Predator 3.0, available up to 1 TB. Kingston launches the MobileLite Wireless reader line of storage products for smartphones and tablets. iSuppli ranks Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the 10th consecutive year. Gartner Research ranks Kingston the no. 1 USB Flash drive manufacturer in the world for the 6th straight year. Forbes lists Kingston as #94 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S."
In 2014, Kingston HyperX released the FURY memory line for entry-level overclocking and game enthusiasts. HyperX then released its Cloud headset. iSuppli (IHS) ranks Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the 11th consecutive year. HyperX sets DDR3 overclocking world record mark at 4620 MHz, using one 4 GB HyperX Predator 2933 MHz DDR3 module.
Kingston ships M.2 SATA SSDs for new notebook platforms, small-form factor devices and Z97 motherboards. Kingston releases MobileLite Wireless G2, the second generation media streamer for smartphones and tablets. HyperX demos DDR4 memory at PAX Prime, allowing for faster speeds at a lower voltage. Forbes lists Kingston as #69 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S."
In 2015, IHS ranks Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the 12th consecutive year. In January, HyperX reclaimed the top DDR4 overclocking mark in the world at 4351 MHz. HyperX Launches High-Performance PCIe SSD with the highest-end SSD with the fastest speeds in the HyperX lineup. HyperX released the enhanced Cloud II headset with USB sound card audio control box and virtual 7.1 Surround Sound. HyperX creates the world's fastest DDR4 128GB memory kit running at an astoundingly fast 3000 MHz with HyperX Predator modules with ultra-tight timings. Gartner ranks Kingston as the #2 aftermarket PC SSD manufacturer in the world for 2014. Forbes lists Kingston as #54 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S."
In 2016, Kingston Digital, the Flash memory affiliate of Kingston Technology Company, acquired the USB technology and assets of IronKey from Imation Corp. Forbes lists Kingston as #51 on its list of "The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S."
Kingston Technology sold HyperX to HP Inc. in June 2021 for $425 million. The deal only includes computer peripherals branded as HyperX, not memory or storage. Kingston retains ownership of the memory and storage products, which it has rebranded as Kingston FURY.
Awards and recognition
iSuppli (IHS) has ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for 12 consecutive years, the most recent being in June 2015. In 2007, Inc. awarded Kingston Technology's founders with the Inaugural Distinguished Alumni Goldhirsh Award. In September 2006, Kingston received Intel's "Outstanding Supplier Award for Exceptional Support, Quality and Timely Delivery of FB-DIMM Products". In April 2003 Kingston received the "Diverse Supplier Award for Best Overall Performance" from Dell. It was also honored for "Excellence in Fairness" by the Great Place to Work Institute. The company also appeared on Fortune's list of "100 Best Companies to Work For" for five consecutive years (1998–2002). In 2001, it was listed by IndustryWeek as a "Top 5 Global Manufacturing Company". Forbes ranks Kingston as number 51 on its list of America's Largest Private Companies. The HyperX line of products is used by over 20% of professional gamers.
Products
Computer - System Specific memory upgrades, ValueRam for system builders and OEMs
Digital audio players - K-PEX 100, Mini-Secure Digital, Micro-Secure Digital, MMC
Flash memory - Such as Secure Digital, Compact Flash, USB Flash Drives, Solid-state drives and various other form factors
Mobile phones - Mini-Secure Digital, Micro-Secure Digital, MMC
Printer - LaserJet memory, Lexmark printer memory, etc.
Server - Memory for both branded (i.e. IBM, HP, etc.) and white box servers (ValueRAM, Server Premier)
Wireless storage products - Wi-Drive wireless storage and MobileLite Wireless readers
A Kingston USB flash drive with 8 GB capacity
A Kingston CompactFlash card with 1 GB capacity
A pair of Kingston HyperX DDR2 modules
A DDR2 ValueRam DIMM
A 2 NVMe M.2 solid state drive
References
^ a b "2015 annual results". Forbes.
^ "HP Inc. to Acquire HyperX". press.hp.com. Retrieved September 30, 2021.
^ kingston.com
^ "Kingston Technology Company". Forbes. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
^ "From 1987 to Today - The History of Kingston Technology Company". Kingston Technology Company. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
^ "Kingston Technology Celebrates 31 Years Supplying the World with Quality Technology Solutions". www.businesswire.com. October 16, 2018. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
^ Moskowitz, Milton (September 23, 2007). "We Love Our Jobs. Just Ask Us". New York Times. Retrieved April 15, 2008.
^ "Advanced Validation Labs about page".
^ "About StorCase Technology". StorCase. Archived from the original on August 6, 2018.
^ "CRU-DataPort Signs Agreement to Acquire StorCase's Data Express Product Line". Market Wire (Press release). Vancouver, Washington. October 20, 2006. Archived from the original on June 30, 2016.
^ "PAYTON TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION – Shimizu North America". Retrieved July 9, 2020.
^ "Intel-Tested Server DRAM Modules - Kingston Technology". Kingston Technology Company. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
^ "United States Patent Application: 0040230880". appft.uspto.gov. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
^ "HP Inc. Completes Acquisition of HyperX". press.hp.com. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ Kan, Michael (February 24, 2021). "HP Buys PC Gaming Peripheral Maker HyperX From Kingston". PC Magazine. Retrieved May 26, 2021.
^ "Most Used Monitors by Professional Gamers". ProSettings.net. Retrieved December 28, 2016.
External links
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Official website – Kingston
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Transcend Information
Western Digital | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"HP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Inc."},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Fountain Valley, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_Valley,_California"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"DRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_random_access_memory"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OEM"},{"link_name":"contract manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_manufacturing"},{"link_name":"supply chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"}],"text":"Kingston Technology Corporation is an American multinational computer technology corporation that develops, manufactures, sells and supports flash memory products, other computer-related memory products, as well as the HyperX gaming division (now owned by HP).[2] Headquartered in Fountain Valley, California, United States, Kingston Technology employs more than 3,000 employees worldwide as of Q1 2016. The company has manufacturing and logistics facilities in the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Taiwan, and China.It is the largest independent producer of DRAM memory modules, owning approximately 68% of the third-party worldwide DRAM module market share in 2017, according to DRAMeXchange.[3] In 2018 the company generated $7.5 billion in revenue and made #53 on the Forbes Lists of \"America's Largest Private Companies 2019.\"[4] Kingston serves an international network of distributors, resellers, retailers and OEM customers on six continents. The company also provides contract manufacturing and supply chain management services for semiconductor manufacturers and system OEMs.","title":"Kingston Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"John Tu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tu"},{"link_name":"single in-line memory module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_in-line_memory_module"},{"link_name":"through-hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-hole_technology"},{"link_name":"Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inc._(magazine)"},{"link_name":"ISO 9000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9000"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"SoftBank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoftBank"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Dublin, Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin,_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Fountain Valley, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_Valley,_California"},{"link_name":"white box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_box_(computer_hardware)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Kingston Technology was founded on October 17, 1987, in response to a severe shortage of 1Mbit surface-mount memory chips,[5] Chinese immigrant John Tu designed a new single in-line memory module (SIMM) that used readily available, older-technology through-hole components. In 1990 the company branched out into its first non-memory product line, processor upgrades. By 1992, the firm was ranked #1 by Inc. as the fastest-growing privately held company in America. The company expanded into networking and storage product lines, and introduced DataTraveler and DataPak portable products. In September 1994, Kingston became ISO 9000 certified on its first assessment attempt.In 1995, Kingston opened a branch office in Munich, Germany to provide technical support and marketing capabilities for its European distributors and customers.[6]In October 1995, the company joined the \"Billion-Dollar Club\".[clarification needed] After the company's 1995 sales exceeded $1.3 billion, ads ran thanking the employees (\"Thanks a Billion!\") with each individual employee-name in The Wall Street Journal, The Orange County Register and The Los Angeles Times. Ads also appeared in trade publications and The Wall Street Journal thanking the company's suppliers and distributors.On August 15, 1996 SoftBank Corporation of Japan acquired 80 percent of Kingston for a total of $1.8 billion. In November of the same year, Kingston and Toshiba co-marketed memory upgrades for Toshiba PCs - the first time that a PC OEM and a memory manufacturer had teamed up to create a co-branded module. In 1999, Tu and Sun eventually bought back the 80 percent of Kingston owned by Softbank for $450 million.On December 14, 1996 John Tu and David Sun allocated $71.5 million for employee bonuses as a result of the acquisition, averaging $130,000 for each of the company's 550 workers.[7]\nKingston announced a 49% increase in unit sales for its memory module products in calendar year 1996 over calendar year 1995.In 1996, Kingston opened its European headquarters in London, United Kingdom.In January 1997, Kingston opened a manufacturing facility/office in Taiwan, a sales office in Japan, and a manufacturing facility and offices in Dublin, Ireland. The company also expanded its American manufacturing capacity by purchasing PC-OEM manufacturing buildings in Fountain Valley, California.\nKingston also introduced ValueRAM, which was a high-quality, low-cost memory designed for system integrators to use in white box systems.In 1999, Kingston launched Advanced Validation Labs, Inc. (AVL), a sister company that provides memory validation services.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Elpida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elpida_Memory"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"Advanced Micro Devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Micro_Devices"},{"link_name":"Athlon 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon_64"},{"link_name":"Opteron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opteron"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"wafer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"FBDIMMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fully_Buffered_DIMM"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"Inc.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inc._(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Gartner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gartner"},{"link_name":"DDR3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR3_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"SATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_ATA"},{"link_name":"SSDs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive"},{"link_name":"IronKey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IronKey"},{"link_name":"HP Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Inc."},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"2000s","text":"Kingston began manufacturing removable disk drive storage products in 1989 in their Kingston Storage Products Division. By 2000, it was decided to spin off the product line and become a sister company, StorCase Technology, Inc.[9] StorCase ceased operations in 2006 after selling the designs and rights to manufacture its products to competitor CRU-DataPort.[10]In June 2000, Kingston announced a new supply chain management model to its memory manufacturing process. Payton Technology Inc. was established to help support this new model.[11]Forbes listed Kingston as number 141 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S,\" with revenues of $1.5 billion for 1999.In March 2001, Kingston announced the formation of the Consumer Markets Division (CMD), a new division focusing on the retail and e-tail channel.In 2002 Kingston launched a patented memory tester and a new HyperX line of high-performance memory modules, and also patented EPOC chip-stacking technology.\nIn August of that year, Kingston made a $50 million investment in Elpida and launched a green initiative for module manufacturing.In 2004, Kingston announced revenues of $1.8B for 2003.\nIn September, Kingston announced new DataTraveler Elite USB drives, with hardware-based security encryption. In October, Advanced Micro Devices named Kingston \"Outstanding Partner\" for contributions to the AMD Athlon 64 and Opteron launches. Kingston reported revenues of $2.4B for 2004.\nIn May, Kingston launched a line of validated ValueRam modules for Intel-based servers.[12]\nThe company was later granted a U.S. patent on dynamic burn-in tester for server memory.[13]\nThey also announced a $26M investment in Tera Probe, the newest and largest wafer testing company in the world. They also opened the world's largest memory module manufacturing facility in Shanghai, China.\nIn 2006, Kingston reported revenues of $3.0B for 2005. In March, Kingston introduced the first fully secure 100% privacy USB drive with 128-bit hardware encryption, and later with 256-bit hardware encryption. The company also launched Fully Buffered Dimms (FBDIMMs), which broke the 16 GB barrier. The company entered the portable media market with KPEX (Kingston Portable Entertainment eXperience).In 2007, Kingston reported revenues of $3.7B for 2006. Forbes listed Kingston as #83 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S\". Inc. ranked Kingston as the #1 Fastest Growing Private Company By Revenue.In 2008, Kingston reported revenues of $4.5B for 2007.\nIn August, Inc.com's \"Top 100 Inc. 5000 Companies\" ranked Kingston #2 in both Gross Dollars of Growth and Overall Revenue.\nForbes lists Kingston as number 79 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S.\"In 2009, Kingston reported revenues of $4.0B for 2008. Volume increased 41% in memory units shipped from 2007. iSuppli ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the sixth consecutive year. In August, Inc.com's \"Top 100 Inc. 5000 Companies\" ranked Kingston #5 in Private Companies by Revenue and number 1 in the computer hardware category. In October, Forbes listed Kingston as number 97 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S.\"In 2010, Kingston reported revenues of $4.1B for 2009. iSuppli ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market with 40.3% market share, up from 32.8% in 2008 and 27.5% in 2007. In August, Inc.com's \"Top 100 Inc. 5000 Companies\" ranked Kingston #6 in Private Companies by Revenue and number 1 in the computer hardware category. In November, Forbes listed Kingston as number 77 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S.\"In 2011, Kingston reported revenues of $6.5B for 2010. iSuppli ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market, with 46% market share. Kingston also launched the Wi-Drive line of wireless storage products. Forbes ranked Kingston as the 51st largest private company in the US, up from #77. Inc. ranked Kingston #4 by revenue in the top 100 companies and #1 in computer hardware category. Gartner Research ranked Kingston as the #1 USB drive manufacturer in the world.In 2012, Kingston celebrated 25 years in the memory business. iSuppli ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the 9th consecutive year. Kingston celebrated 10 years of HyperX gaming memory. Kingston releases HyperX branded SSD drives and releases the first Windows to Go USB drive.\nForbes lists Kingston as #48 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S.\" Gartner Research ranked Kingston #1 USB manufacturer in the world.In 2013, Kingston ships its fastest, world's largest-capacity USB 3.0 Flash Drive with DataTraveler HyperX Predator 3.0, available up to 1 TB. Kingston launches the MobileLite Wireless reader line of storage products for smartphones and tablets. iSuppli ranks Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the 10th consecutive year. Gartner Research ranks Kingston the no. 1 USB Flash drive manufacturer in the world for the 6th straight year. Forbes lists Kingston as #94 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S.\"In 2014, Kingston HyperX released the FURY memory line for entry-level overclocking and game enthusiasts. HyperX then released its Cloud headset. iSuppli (IHS) ranks Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the 11th consecutive year. HyperX sets DDR3 overclocking world record mark at 4620 MHz, using one 4 GB HyperX Predator 2933 MHz DDR3 module.\nKingston ships M.2 SATA SSDs for new notebook platforms, small-form factor devices and Z97 motherboards. Kingston releases MobileLite Wireless G2, the second generation media streamer for smartphones and tablets. HyperX demos DDR4 memory at PAX Prime, allowing for faster speeds at a lower voltage. Forbes lists Kingston as #69 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S.\"In 2015, IHS ranks Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for the 12th consecutive year. In January, HyperX reclaimed the top DDR4 overclocking mark in the world at 4351 MHz. HyperX Launches High-Performance PCIe SSD with the highest-end SSD with the fastest speeds in the HyperX lineup. HyperX released the enhanced Cloud II headset with USB sound card audio control box and virtual 7.1 Surround Sound. HyperX creates the world's fastest DDR4 128GB memory kit running at an astoundingly fast 3000 MHz with HyperX Predator modules with ultra-tight timings. Gartner ranks Kingston as the #2 aftermarket PC SSD manufacturer in the world for 2014. Forbes lists Kingston as #54 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S.\"In 2016, Kingston Digital, the Flash memory affiliate of Kingston Technology Company, acquired the USB technology and assets of IronKey from Imation Corp. Forbes lists Kingston as #51 on its list of \"The 500 Largest Private Companies in the U.S.\"Kingston Technology sold HyperX to HP Inc. in June 2021[14] for $425 million. The deal only includes computer peripherals branded as HyperX, not memory or storage. Kingston retains ownership of the memory and storage products, which it has rebranded as Kingston FURY.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell"},{"link_name":"Fortune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"IndustryWeek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industryweek"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"iSuppli (IHS) has ranked Kingston as the world's number-one memory module manufacturer for the third-party memory market for 12 consecutive years, the most recent being in June 2015. In 2007, Inc. awarded Kingston Technology's founders with the Inaugural Distinguished Alumni Goldhirsh Award. In September 2006, Kingston received Intel's \"Outstanding Supplier Award for Exceptional Support, Quality and Timely Delivery of FB-DIMM Products\". In April 2003 Kingston received the \"Diverse Supplier Award for Best Overall Performance\" from Dell. It was also honored for \"Excellence in Fairness\" by the Great Place to Work Institute. The company also appeared on Fortune's list of \"100 Best Companies to Work For\" for five consecutive years (1998–2002). In 2001, it was listed by IndustryWeek as a \"Top 5 Global Manufacturing Company\". Forbes ranks Kingston as number 51 on its list of America's Largest Private Companies. The HyperX line of products is used by over 20% of professional gamers.[16]","title":"Awards and recognition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"OEMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"Digital audio players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_player"},{"link_name":"K-PEX 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-PEX_100"},{"link_name":"MMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MultiMediaCard"},{"link_name":"Flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"Secure Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Digital_card"},{"link_name":"Compact Flash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Flash"},{"link_name":"USB Flash Drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_Flash_Drive"},{"link_name":"Solid-state drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive"},{"link_name":"Mobile phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"MMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MultiMediaCard"},{"link_name":"Printer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printer"},{"link_name":"LaserJet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaserJet"},{"link_name":"Lexmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexmark"},{"link_name":"Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Wireless storage products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_storage_products&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kingston_DataTraveler_110_8GB_USB_flash_drive.jpg"},{"link_name":"USB flash drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_flash_drive"},{"link_name":"GB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabyte"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CompactFlash_Kingston_1_GB.jpg"},{"link_name":"CompactFlash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompactFlash"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_pair_of_Kingston_KHX6400D2K2-2G_20131124.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kingston_KVR667D2N5-1G_20120419.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2023_Dysk_SSD_Kingston_NV2_2TB.jpg"},{"link_name":"NVMe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVMe"},{"link_name":"M.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.2"},{"link_name":"solid state drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_state_drive"}],"text":"Computer - System Specific memory upgrades, ValueRam for system builders and OEMs\nDigital audio players - K-PEX 100, Mini-Secure Digital, Micro-Secure Digital, MMC\nFlash memory - Such as Secure Digital, Compact Flash, USB Flash Drives, Solid-state drives and various other form factors\nMobile phones - Mini-Secure Digital, Micro-Secure Digital, MMC\nPrinter - LaserJet memory, Lexmark printer memory, etc.\nServer - Memory for both branded (i.e. IBM, HP, etc.) and white box servers (ValueRAM, Server Premier)\nWireless storage products - Wi-Drive wireless storage and MobileLite Wireless readersA Kingston USB flash drive with 8 GB capacity\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA Kingston CompactFlash card with 1 GB capacity\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA pair of Kingston HyperX DDR2 modules\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA DDR2 ValueRam DIMM\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA 2 NVMe M.2 solid state drive","title":"Products"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"2015 annual results\". Forbes.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/companies/kingston-technology-company/","url_text":"\"2015 annual results\""}]},{"reference":"\"HP Inc. to Acquire HyperX\". press.hp.com. Retrieved September 30, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://press.hp.com/us/en/press-releases/2021/hp-inc-to-acquire-hyperx.html","url_text":"\"HP Inc. to Acquire HyperX\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kingston Technology Company\". Forbes. Retrieved July 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/companies/kingston-technology-company/","url_text":"\"Kingston Technology Company\""}]},{"reference":"\"From 1987 to Today - The History of Kingston Technology Company\". Kingston Technology Company. Retrieved July 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kingston.com/us/company/the-history-of-kingston","url_text":"\"From 1987 to Today - The History of Kingston Technology Company\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kingston Technology Celebrates 31 Years Supplying the World with Quality Technology Solutions\". www.businesswire.com. October 16, 2018. Retrieved July 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20181015005996/en/Kingston-Technology-Celebrates-31-Years-Supplying-World","url_text":"\"Kingston Technology Celebrates 31 Years Supplying the World with Quality Technology Solutions\""}]},{"reference":"Moskowitz, Milton (September 23, 2007). \"We Love Our Jobs. Just Ask Us\". New York Times. Retrieved April 15, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/jobs/23pre.html?scp=11&sq=%93fountain+valley%22&st=nyt","url_text":"\"We Love Our Jobs. Just Ask Us\""}]},{"reference":"\"Advanced Validation Labs about page\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.validationlabs.com/about/about.asp","url_text":"\"Advanced Validation Labs about page\""}]},{"reference":"\"About StorCase Technology\". StorCase. Archived from the original on August 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180806181434/https://www.storcase.com/company/about.asp","url_text":"\"About StorCase Technology\""},{"url":"http://www.storcase.com/company/about.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"CRU-DataPort Signs Agreement to Acquire StorCase's Data Express Product Line\". Market Wire (Press release). Vancouver, Washington. October 20, 2006. Archived from the original on June 30, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160630221629/https://m.marketwired.com/press-release/cru-dataport-signs-agreement-to-acquire-storcases-data-express-product-line-709127.htm","url_text":"\"CRU-DataPort Signs Agreement to Acquire StorCase's Data Express Product Line\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_Wire","url_text":"Market Wire"},{"url":"http://m.marketwired.com/press-release/cru-dataport-signs-agreement-to-acquire-storcases-data-express-product-line-709127.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"PAYTON TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION – Shimizu North America\". Retrieved July 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.shimizu.com/area/payton-technology-corporation/","url_text":"\"PAYTON TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION – Shimizu North America\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel-Tested Server DRAM Modules - Kingston Technology\". Kingston Technology Company. Retrieved July 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kingston.com/us/memory/intel-certifications","url_text":"\"Intel-Tested Server DRAM Modules - Kingston Technology\""}]},{"reference":"\"United States Patent Application: 0040230880\". appft.uspto.gov. Retrieved July 9, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://appft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=2&u=/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html&r=91&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PG01&s1=%22kingston+technology%22&OS=%22kingston+technology%22&RS=%22kingston+technology%22","url_text":"\"United States Patent Application: 0040230880\""}]},{"reference":"\"HP Inc. Completes Acquisition of HyperX\". press.hp.com. Retrieved February 20, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://press.hp.com/us/en/press-releases/2021/hp-inc-completes-acquisition-of-hyperx.html","url_text":"\"HP Inc. Completes Acquisition of HyperX\""}]},{"reference":"Kan, Michael (February 24, 2021). \"HP Buys PC Gaming Peripheral Maker HyperX From Kingston\". PC Magazine. Retrieved May 26, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/news/hp-buys-pc-gaming-peripheral-maker-hyperx-from-kingston","url_text":"\"HP Buys PC Gaming Peripheral Maker HyperX From Kingston\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine","url_text":"PC Magazine"}]},{"reference":"\"Most Used Monitors by Professional Gamers\". ProSettings.net. Retrieved December 28, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://prosettings.net/cs-go-best-monitor-gear-guide/","url_text":"\"Most Used Monitors by Professional Gamers\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Kingston+Technology%22","external_links_name":"\"Kingston Technology\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Kingston+Technology%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Kingston+Technology%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Kingston+Technology%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Kingston+Technology%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Kingston+Technology%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.kingston.com/en","external_links_name":"kingston.com"},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/companies/kingston-technology-company/","external_links_name":"\"2015 annual results\""},{"Link":"https://press.hp.com/us/en/press-releases/2021/hp-inc-to-acquire-hyperx.html","external_links_name":"\"HP Inc. to Acquire HyperX\""},{"Link":"https://www.kingston.com/us/company/marketshare","external_links_name":"kingston.com"},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/companies/kingston-technology-company/","external_links_name":"\"Kingston Technology Company\""},{"Link":"https://www.kingston.com/us/company/the-history-of-kingston","external_links_name":"\"From 1987 to Today - The History of Kingston Technology Company\""},{"Link":"https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20181015005996/en/Kingston-Technology-Celebrates-31-Years-Supplying-World","external_links_name":"\"Kingston Technology Celebrates 31 Years Supplying the World with Quality Technology Solutions\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/jobs/23pre.html?scp=11&sq=%93fountain+valley%22&st=nyt","external_links_name":"\"We Love Our Jobs. Just Ask Us\""},{"Link":"https://www.validationlabs.com/about/about.asp","external_links_name":"\"Advanced Validation Labs about page\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180806181434/https://www.storcase.com/company/about.asp","external_links_name":"\"About StorCase Technology\""},{"Link":"http://www.storcase.com/company/about.asp","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160630221629/https://m.marketwired.com/press-release/cru-dataport-signs-agreement-to-acquire-storcases-data-express-product-line-709127.htm","external_links_name":"\"CRU-DataPort Signs Agreement to Acquire StorCase's Data Express Product Line\""},{"Link":"http://m.marketwired.com/press-release/cru-dataport-signs-agreement-to-acquire-storcases-data-express-product-line-709127.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.shimizu.com/area/payton-technology-corporation/","external_links_name":"\"PAYTON TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION – Shimizu North America\""},{"Link":"https://www.kingston.com/us/memory/intel-certifications","external_links_name":"\"Intel-Tested Server DRAM Modules - Kingston Technology\""},{"Link":"http://appft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=2&u=/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html&r=91&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PG01&s1=%22kingston+technology%22&OS=%22kingston+technology%22&RS=%22kingston+technology%22","external_links_name":"\"United States Patent Application: 0040230880\""},{"Link":"https://press.hp.com/us/en/press-releases/2021/hp-inc-completes-acquisition-of-hyperx.html","external_links_name":"\"HP Inc. Completes Acquisition of HyperX\""},{"Link":"https://www.pcmag.com/news/hp-buys-pc-gaming-peripheral-maker-hyperx-from-kingston","external_links_name":"\"HP Buys PC Gaming Peripheral Maker HyperX From Kingston\""},{"Link":"http://prosettings.net/cs-go-best-monitor-gear-guide/","external_links_name":"\"Most Used Monitors by Professional Gamers\""},{"Link":"https://www.kingston.com/en","external_links_name":"Official website – Kingston"},{"Link":"http://www.bunniestudios.com/blog/?page_id=1022","external_links_name":"On MicroSD problems blog"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region | Klaipėda Region | ["1 Historical overview","2 Timeline","3 Treaty of Versailles","4 Lithuanian takeover","5 Autonomous region within Lithuania","5.1 Election results for the local parliament","5.2 Demographic data","6 German ultimatum","7 Politics","7.1 Governors","7.2 Directorate","8 World War II and after","9 See also","10 References","11 External links"] | Coordinates: 55°27′N 21°24′E / 55.450°N 21.400°E / 55.450; 21.400Area of East Prussia
Klaipėda RegionKlaipėdos kraštas (Lithuanian)Memelland/Memelgebiet (German)1919–1923
Flag
Coat of arms
Historical map of Memelland and the northern part of East Prussia.StatusTerritory under League of Nations protectionCapitalKlaipėdaCommon languagesGermanLow GermanLithuanianGovernmentSpecial territoryPresidents of the Directorate • 1920–1921 Arthur Altenberg• 1921–1923 Wilhelm Steputat• 1923 Erdmann Simoneit
LegislatureSeimelisHistorical eraInterwar period• Treaty of Versailles 10 January 1919• Klaipėda Revolt 10–15 January 1923• Annexed by Lithuania 19 January 1923
Area• Total2,657 km2 (1,026 sq mi)CurrencyPapiermark
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Free State of Prussia
Klaipėda County
Today part ofLithuania
History of Brandenburg and Prussia
Northern March (965 – 983)
Lutician federation (983 – 12th century)
Old Prussians (pre – 13th century)
Margraviate of Brandenburg (1157–1618)
Teutonic Order (1224 – 1525)
Elector of Brandenburg (1356 – 1806)
Duchy of Prussia (1525 – 1618)
Malbork Voivodeship and Prince-Bishopric of Warmia within Royal (Polish) Prussia (Poland 1454/1466 – 1772)
Brandenburg-Prussia (1618 – 1701)
Kingdom of Prussia (1701 – 1918)
Free State of Prussia (1918 – 1947)
Present
Działdowo area (from 1918)
Klaipėda Region (1920–1939, from 1945)
Warmia, Masuria within Recovered Territories (from 1945)
Kaliningrad Oblast (from 1945)
Berlin and Brandenburg (1947–1952, from 1990)
Postage stamps of the Klaipėda Region in use 1920–1925. The upper stamp is French with overprint in German "MEMEL". The other stamps are Lithuanian, one with overprint in Lithuanian and in German, the other without. The latter one was issued especially for postal use in the Klaipėda Region.
The Klaipėda Region (Lithuanian: Klaipėdos kraštas) or Memel Territory (German: Memelland or Memelgebiet) was defined by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles in 1920 and refers to the northernmost part of the German province of East Prussia, when, as Memelland, it was put under the administration of the Entente's Council of Ambassadors. The Memel Territory, together with other areas severed from Germany (the Saar and Danzig), was to remain under the control of the League of Nations until a future date, when the people of these regions would be allowed to vote on whether the land would return to Germany or not. Today, the former Memel Territory is controlled by Lithuania as part of Klaipėda and Tauragė counties.
Historical overview
In 1226, Duke Konrad I of Masovia requested assistance against the Prussians and other Baltic tribes, including the Skalvians who lived along the Neman (Memel) River. In March 1226, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II issued the Golden Bull of Rimini, which provided that the Teutonic Knights would possess lands taken beyond the Masovian border in exchange for securing Masovia. After uprisings of the Baltic Prussian tribes in 1242 through 1274 failed, the Order conquered many remaining western Balts in Lithuania Minor, including the Skalvians, Nadruvians, and Yotvingians. In 1252, the Order constructed Memel Castle where the Dangė river flows into the Neman, at the north end of the Curonian Spit. In 1422, after centuries of conflict, the Order and the Polish–Lithuanian union signed the Treaty of Melno which defined a border between Prussia and Lithuania. Although Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania wanted the border to be coextensive with the Neman River, the treaty border started north of Memelberg and ran southeasterly to the Neman. This border remained until 1918. After the Treaty of Melno was signed, many Lithuanians returned to northeastern Prussia, which became known as Lithuania Minor in the 16th century.
After World War I ended in 1918, the Klaipėda Region was defined as a roughly triangular wedge, with the northern border being the Treaty of Melno border, the southern border following the Neman River, and on the west abutting the Baltic Sea. In 1923, fearing that the western powers would create a free state, Lithuanians took control of the region and, as part of larger regional negotiations, incorporated the region into the State of Lithuania. In March 1939, Lithuania acquiesced to Nazi demands and transferred the Klaipėda Region to Germany. As World War II came to an end in 1945, the Soviet Union incorporated the region into the Lithuanian SSR. Since 1990, the area of the Klaipėda Region has formed part of the independent Republic of Lithuania, as part of Klaipėda and Tauragė counties. The southern border established by the Treaty of Versailles defines the current international boundary between Lithuania and the Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian Federation.
Timeline
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Timeline with changes of control over the territory
pre-1252
Curonian and Scalovian tribes
1252–1525
Livonian Order and Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights (also Monastic State of Prussia)
1525–1657
Duchy of Prussia, a fief of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (with Prussia in personal union with Brandenburg since 1618)
1657–1701
Duchy of Prussia, a sovereign state in personal union with Brandenburg, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire (together also called Brandenburg-Prussia)
1701–1871
Kingdom of Prussia
1871–1918
Kingdom of Prussia, part of the German Empire
1918–1920
Free State of Prussia, part of Weimar Republic
1920–1923
Council of Ambassadors
1923–1939
Republic of Lithuania
1939–1945
Germany
1945–1990
Lithuanian SSR, part of the Soviet Union
1990–present
Republic of Lithuania
Treaty of Versailles
Banknote of emergency money from 1922 issued and used in Memel
The eastern boundaries of Prussia (from 1871, part of the German Empire), having remained unchanged since the Treaty of Melno in 1422, became a matter of discussion following World War I as the newly independent states of Poland and Lithuania emerged. The separatist Act of Tilsit was signed by a few pro-Lithuanian-oriented Prussian Lithuanians in 1918, demanding the unification of Prussian Lithuania with Lithuania proper. It is traditionally viewed by Lithuanians as expressing the desire of Lithuania Minor to unite with Lithuania, but the majority of Prussian Lithuanians did not want to join with Lithuania, and the Prussian Lithuanians did not make up a majority of the population.
The division of Prussia was also promoted by Poland's Roman Dmowski in Versailles who acted on the orders of Józef Piłsudski. The purpose was to give the lower part of the Neman River and its delta, which was located in Germany and called the Memel River, to Lithuania, as this would provide her access to the Baltic Sea, while Lithuania itself should be part of Poland. These ideas were supported by the French prime minister, Georges Clemenceau.
In 1920, according to the Treaty of Versailles, the German area north of the Memel river was given the status of Territoire de Memel under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors, and French troops were sent for protection. The German delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, under the leadership of Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau immediately protested this decision, stating on 9 May 1919:
including those whose mother-tongue is Lithuanian, have never desired a separation from Germany;...they have always proved themselves a loyal constituent part of the German community...moreover, Memel is an entirely German town...which has never in its whole history belonged to Lithuania or to Poland.
To this claim, the Allied Powers responded the following:
The Allied and associated Powers reject the suggestion that the cession of the district of Memel conflicts with the principles of nationality. The district in question has always been Lithuanian; the majority of the populace is Lithuanian in origin and in speech and that fact the city of Memel itself is in large parts German is no justification for maintaining the district under German sovereignty, particulary from the view of the fact that the port of Memel is the only sea outlet for Lithuania
Following the evacuation of German troops from Memel, the French took over the temporary military administration of the region on 15 February 1920, under the leadership of General Dominique Odry. This was supplemented by a civilian one headed by Gabriel Jean Petisné in 1921. The French Administration proved problematic, as they were accused by the Lithuanian population of siding too closely with the pro-German Landes Directorium and then subsequently accused of siding with Polish civilian and military representatives. As a result of this backlash, Odry left his post shortly after coming to Memel and handed the responsibility of the administration over to High Commissioner Gabriel Jean Petisné. During the period of French administration, the idea of an independent state of Memelland grew in popularity among local inhabitants. The organisation Deutsch-Litauischer Heimatbund (German-Lithuanian homeland federation) promoted the idea of a Freistaat Memelland, which later should return to Germany. It had 30,000 members, both ethnic Germans and Lithuanians, or about 21% of the total population.
Lithuanian takeover
Main article: Klaipėda Revolt
On 9 January 1923, three years after the Versailles Treaty had become effective, Lithuania occupied the territory during the Klaipėda Revolt, mainly by militias that had entered the region from Lithuania. At the same time, France had started the Occupation of the Ruhr in Germany, and the French administration in Memel did not take any significant counteractive measures against the rebels. On 19 January, the territory was annexed by Lithuania, and the fait accompli was eventually confirmed by the Council of Ambassadors in 1924.
Autonomous region within Lithuania
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In the Klaipėda Convention, signed by the Council of Ambassadors and Lithuania, the area was granted a separate parliament, two official languages, the capacity to raise its own taxes, charge custom duties, and manage its cultural and religious affairs, and was allowed a separate judicial system, separate citizenship, internal control of agriculture and forestry, as well as a separate social security system. The Council of Ambassadors accepted the resulting arrangement and confirmed the autonomy of the region within the Republic of Lithuania. On 8 May 1924, a further Convention on the Klaipėda region confirmed the annexation, and a resulting autonomy agreement was signed in Paris. In the Lithuanian-German Arbitration and Settlement Agreement (Schieds- und Vergleichsvertrag) of 29 January 1928, the Republic of Lithuania and the Weimar Republic agreed "as a sign of the friendly nature of their relations" to conclude, among other items, a border settlement agreement that included the status of the Memel Territory.
Importantly, the annexation gave Lithuania control of a year-round, ice-free Baltic port. Lithuania made full use of Klaipėda's port, modernizing and adapting it largely for its agricultural exports. The port reconstruction was certainly one of the larger long-term investment projects enacted by the government of Lithuania in the interwar period.
The inhabitants of the area were not given a choice on the ballot as to whether they wanted to be part of the Lithuanian state or part of Germany. Since the pro-German political parties had an overall majority of more than 80% in all elections to the local parliament (see election statistics below) in the interwar period, there can be little doubt that such a referendum would have been in favour of Germany. In fact, the area had been united since the monastic state of the 13th century, and even many Lithuanian-speakers, regarding themselves as East Prussians, declared themselves "Memellanders/Klaipėdiškiai" in the official census (see below for demographic information) and did not want to belong to a Lithuanian national state. According to the Lithuanian point of view, Memellanders were viewed as Germanized Lithuanians who should be re-Lithuanized.
There was also a strong denominational difference since about 95% of the inhabitants of Lithuania Minor were Lutherans while more than 90% of Greater Lithuanians were Catholics. Following the Agreement concerning the Evangelical Church of the Klaipėda Region (German: Abkommen betr. die evangelische Kirche des Memelgebietes) of 23 July 1925, concluded between the Directorate of the Klaipėda Region and the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union, a church of united administration of Lutheran and Reformed congregations, the mostly Lutheran congregations (and a single Reformed one in Klaipėda) in the Klaipėda Region were disentangled from the old-Prussian Ecclesiastical Province of East Prussia and formed the Regional Synodal Federation of the Memel Territory (Landessynodalverband Memelgebiet) since, being ranked an old-Prussian ecclesiastical province of its own. An own consistory in Klaipėda was established in 1927, led by a general superintendent (at first F. Gregor, elected in 1927, succeeded by O. Obereiniger, elected by the regional synod in 1933). The Catholic parishes in the Klaipėda Region used to belong to the Bishopric of Ermland until 1926 and were then disentangled, forming the new Territorial Prelature of Klaipėda under Prelate Justinas Staugaitis.
The government of Lithuania faced considerable opposition from the region's autonomous institutions, among them the Parliament of the Klaipėda Region. As the years passed, claims were becoming more and more vocal about a re-integration into a resurgent Germany. It was only during the latter period that Lithuania then instituted a policy of "Lithuanization". This was met by even more opposition, as religious and regional differences slowly became insurmountable.
After the December 1926 coup d'état, Antanas Smetona came to power. As the status of the Memel Territory was regulated by international treaties, the Memel Territory became an oasis of democracy in Lithuania. Lithuanian intelligentsia often held marriages in Memel/Klaipėda, since Memel Territory was the only place in Lithuania where civil marriage was in use, in the rest of Lithuania only church marriages were legitimized. Thus, Lithuanian opposition to Smetona's regime was also based in Memel Territory.
At the start of the 1930s, certain leaders and members of pro-Nazi organizations in the region were put on trial by Lithuania "for crimes of terrorism". The 1934–5 trial of Neumann and Sass in Kaunas can be presented as the first anti-Nazi trial in Europe. Three members of the organizations were sentenced to death, and their leaders imprisoned. Following political and economic pressure from Germany, most were later released.
Election results for the local parliament
The local parliament had 29 seats, one for every 5,000 inhabitants. Men and women over the age of 23 had the right to vote.
See also the results of the January 1919 elections to the Nationalversammlung.
Year
MemeländischeLandwirtschaftspartei("Agricultural Party")
MemeländischeVolkspartei("People's Party")
SozialdemokratischePartei("Social Democratic Party")
Arbeiterpartei(Worker's Party)
Communist Party
Others
LithuanianPeople's Party
1925
38.1%: 11 seats
36.9%: 11 seats
16.0%: 5 seats
—
—
Others 9.0%: 2 seats
—
1927
33.6%: 10 seats
32.7%: 10 seats
10.1%: 3 seats
—
7.2%: 2 seats
—
13.6%: 4 seats
1930
31.8%: 10 seats
27.6%: 8 seats
13.8%: 4 seats
4.2%: 2 seats
—
—
22.7%: 5 seats
1932
37.1%: 11 seats
27.2%: 8 seats
7.8%: 2 seats
8.2%: 3 seats
—
—
19.7%: 5 seats
Unified German Election List
Greater Lithuania Parties
1935
81.2%: 24 seats
18.8%: 5 seats
1938
87.2%: 25 seats
12.8%: 4 seats
Demographic data
A Lithuanian census carried out in the region in 1925 found its total population was 141,000. Declared language was used to classify the inhabitants, and on this basis 43.5 percent were German, 27.6 percent were Lithuanian, and 25.2 percent were "Klaipėdan" (Memeländisch). Other sources give the interwar ethnic composition as 41.9 percent German, 27.1 percent Memeländisch, and 26.6 percent Lithuanian.
Population
German
Memelandish
Lithuanian
other
Religion
Source
141,645
41.9%
27.1%
26.6%
4.4%
95% Evangelical Christians
141,645 (1930)
45.2%
24.2% (1925)
26.5%
—
Evangelical Lutheran 95%, Roman Catholic (1925)
Overall, Prussian Lithuanians were more rural than Germans; the number of Lithuanian speakers in the city of Klaipėda itself increased over time due to urbanization and migration from villages into cities and later also from remaining Lithuania (in the city of Klaipėda, Lithuanian-speaking people made up 21.5% in 1912, 32.6% in 1925, and 38.7% in 1932*). Foreign citizens might include some Germans who opted for German citizenship instead of Lithuanian (although at the time the German government pressured local Germans to take Lithuanian citizenship so that German presence would remain). There were more Lithuanian speakers in the north of the region (Klaipėdos apskritis and Šilutės apskritis) than in the south (Pagėgių apskritis). Other locals included people of other nationalities who had citizenship in Lithuania, such as Jews.
In the 1930s, a novel by local author Ieva Simonaitytė based on family history illustrated the centuries-old German–Lithuanian relations in the region.
The first trial of the Nazis in Europe, which took place in Kaunas in 1935. The accused claimed that the Klaipėda Region should be part of Germany, not Lithuania, and spread propaganda, prepared for an armed uprising.
The authoritarian regime of A. Smetona enforced a policy of discrimination and Lithuanisation: it sent administrators from Lithuania, and German teachers, officials, and priests were fired from jobs. Local inhabitants—both Germans and Prussian Lithuanians—were not accepted for state service in Memel Territory. People were sent from Kaunas instead.
Until 1938, no governor was appointed from local Prussian Lithuanians. This policy led the Prussian Lithuanian intelligentsia and some local Germans to organise a society in 1934 to oppose Lithuanian rule. This group was soon dismantled.
Election results in Memel Territory were irritating for the authoritarian Smetona regime, and it attempted to "colonise" Memel Territory with Lithuanians. The Lithuanian settlements Jakai and Smeltė were built. The number of newcomers increased: in 1926 the number was 5,000, in 1939–30,000.
Lithuania introduced a hard-line Lithuanisation campaign that led to even deeper antagonism between local Prussian Lithuanians, Memellanders, Germans and newcomers.
German ultimatum
Main article: 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania
President Smetona Avenue was renamed Adolf Hitler Street in 1939
By late 1938, Lithuania had lost control of the situation in the Territory. In the early hours of 23 March 1939, after an oral ultimatum had caused a Lithuanian delegation to travel to Berlin, the Lithuanian Minister of Foreign Affairs Juozas Urbšys and his German counterpart Joachim von Ribbentrop signed the Treaty of the Cession of the Memel Territory to Germany in exchange for a Lithuanian Free Zone for 99 years in the port of Memel, using the facilities erected in previous years.
Hitler had anticipated this aboard a Kriegsmarine naval ship and at dawn sailed into Memel to celebrate the return heim ins Reich of the Memelland. This proved to be the last of a series of bloodless annexations of territories separated from the German or Austrian Empire by the Treaty of Versailles, which had been perceived by many Germans as a humiliation. German forces seized the territory even before the official Lithuanian ratification. The United Kingdom and France, as after the revolt of 1923, took no action. It was under these conditions that the Seimas was forced to approve the treaty, hoping that Germany would not press any other territorial demands upon Lithuania.
Still, the reunion with Germany was welcomed by the majority of the population, both by Germans and by Memelanders.
According to the treaty, the citizens of the Memel Territory were allowed to choose their citizenship: either German or Lithuanian. 303 people or, counting family members, 585, asked for Lithuanian citizenship but only 20 requests were granted. Another term stated that persons who had settled in the Memel Territory during the occupation period from 1923 to 1939 should emigrate. About 8,900 Lithuanians did so. At the same time, Germany expelled about 1,300 local Memel and Lithuanian Jews and about 40 Prussian Lithuanians.
Politics
Governors
High Commissioners
Dominique Joseph Odry, France (15 February 1920 – 1 May 1921)
Gabriel Jean Petisné, France (1 May 1921 – 19 February 1923)
Plenipotentiaries
Jonas Polovinskas-Budrys, Lithuania (acting; 19 February 1923 – 24 February 1923)
Antanas Smetona, Lithuania (24 February 1923 – 27 October 1924)
Governors
Jonas Polovinskas-Budrys (27 October 1924 – 8 November 1925)
Jonas Žilius (8 November 1925 – 1 August 1926)
Karolis Žalkauskas (1 August 1926 – 1 November 1927)
Antanas Merkys (1 November 1927 – 19 May 1932)
Vytautas Jonas Gylys (19 May 1932 – 25 November 1933)
Jonas Navakas (25 November 1933 – 5 February 1935)
Vladas Kurkauskas (5 February 1935 – 15 October 1936)
Jurgis Kubilius (15 October 1936 – 12 December 1938)
Viktoras Gailius (12 December 1938 – 22 March 1939)
Transitional Commissioner for the Integration of Memelland
Erich Koch (23 March 1939 – 30 April 1939)
Directorate
Main article: Directorate of the Klaipėda Region
World War II and after
Adolf Hitler in Memel in March 1939
After Nazi Germany took over the area in 1939, many Lithuanians and their organizations began leaving Memel and the surrounding area. Memel was quickly turned into a fortified naval base by the Germans. After the failure of the German invasion of the USSR the fate of East Prussia and Memel was sealed. By October 1944, the inhabitants of the area, without ethnic distinction, had to make a decision whether to stay or leave. Nearly all of the population was evacuated from the approaching Red Army, but the city itself was defended by the German army during the Battle of Memel until 28 January 1945. After its capture, only six people were found in the city.
At the end of the war, the majority of the inhabitants had fled to the West to settle in Germany. Still, in 1945–46 there were around 35,000 local inhabitants, both Prussian Lithuanians and Germans. The government of the Lithuanian SSR sent agitators into the displaced persons camps to make promises to former inhabitants that they could return and their property would be restored. In the period of 1945–50 about 8,000 persons were repatriated. Bilingual Lithuanian-German returners were viewed as Germans.
The few remaining ethnic Germans were then forcibly expelled, with most opting to flee to what would become West Germany. People who remained in the former Memel territory were dismissed from their jobs. Families of notable local Lithuanians, who had opposed German parties before the war, were deported to Siberia. In 1951, the Lithuanian SSR expelled 3,500 people from the former Memel Territory to East Germany. In 1958, when emigration was allowed, the majority of the surviving population, both Germans and Prussian Lithuanians, emigrated to West Germany; this event was called a repatriation of Germans by the Lithuanian SSR. Today these formerly Lutheran territories are mostly inhabited by Lithuanians who are Catholic and by Orthodox Russians. However, the minority Prussian Lithuanian Protestants historically were concentrated in these regions, and some remain to this day. Only a few thousand are left. Their continued emigration is facilitated by the fact they are considered German citizens by the Federal Republic of Germany. No property restoration was performed by the Republic of Lithuania for owners prior to 1945.
Although maintaining that the Memel Territory in 1939 was re-annexed by Germany and acknowledging that Lithuania itself was occupied in 1940 by the Soviets, Lithuania, after regaining independence on 11 March 1990, did not restore autonomy to the Memel Territory.
See also
Areas annexed by Nazi Germany
Memel Agricultural Party
Klaipėda town
The Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (A.K.A. Litbel)
The Republic of Central Lithuania
The 1922 Republic of Central Lithuania general election
Vilnius, the capital city of Lithuania
References
^ Stahn, Carsten (2008). The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511585937. ISBN 978-0-521-87800-5.
^ Arnašius, Helmut (2002). "Vokiečiai Klaipėdoje". Mokslas Ir Gyvenimas (in Lithuanian). 7–8. Archived from the original on 31 May 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2007. Apie norą susijungti su nuskurdusia Lietuva daugumai lietuvininkų negalėjo būti nė kalbos. Tr.: The majority of Prussian Lithuanians did not even want to talk about unification with poor Lithuania.
^ "Lemtinga situacija susidarė 1919 m. Versalio taikos konferencijoje. Lenkijos atstovas R. Dmovskis ten pareiškė, kad Lietuva nepribrendo valstybingumui, ir reikalavo ją prijungti prie Lenkijos. Dmovskis su prancūzų atstovu Klemanso iškėlė Rytprūsių pasidalijimo klausimą. Jie siūlė Gumbinę su Įsrutimi prijungti prie Lenkijos, Karaliaučių paskelbti laisvu miestu, o likusią dalį atiduoti būsimai marionetinei, nuo Lenkijos priklausomai Lietuvai." English translation: "A fatal situation appeared in 1919 at the Versailles peace conference. The Polish representative Dmowski expressed that Lithuania is not ready for independence, and insisted on attaching Lithuania to Poland. Dmowski and French representative Clemenceau promoted the idea of a partition of East Prussia. They proposed to attach Gumbinnen and Insterburg to Poland, Königsberg should be declared a free city, and the remaining part should be attached to Lithuania which would be controlled by Poland." (in Lithuanian) Nuotrupos iš Mažosios Lietuvos istorijos Retrieved 2007, 12–59; excerpted from Šilas, V., Sambora H. (1990). Mažosios Lietuvos kultūros pėdsakai. Vilnius: Mintis. p. 24. ISBN 5-417-00367-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "dem Entschluß, das Memelgebiet von Deutschland abzutrennen, trug die antideutsche Einstellung des französischen Premiers, Georges Clemenceau, bei, der "die armen versklavten Litauer in Ostpreußen aus dem deutschen Joch" befreien wollte. Litauische Politiker haben diese antideutsche Haltung Clemenceaus später erfolgreich ausgenutzt und Forderungen, die für Litauen günstig waren, gestellt." Translation: "The resolution to separate the Memel Territory from Germany, the anti-German attitude of the French Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau, who wanted to "free the poor enslaved Lithuanians in East Prussia from the German yoke". Lithuanian politicians later successfully took advantage of Clemenceau's anti-German attitude and made claims that were favorable for Lithuania." Vygantas Vareikis Archived 8 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2007, 19–52
^ Stephens, David (January 1936). "The German Problem in Memel". The Slavonic and Eastern European Review. 14 (41): 325. JSTOR 4203122 – via JSTOR.
^ a b Grade, John A. (March 1924). "The Memel Controversy". Foreign Affairs. 2 (3): 412. doi:10.2307/20028310. JSTOR 20028310 – via JSTOR.
^ "Odry, Dominique-Joseph". Das Bundesarchiv.
^ Kalijarvi, Thorsten (April 1936). "The Problem of Memel". The American Journal of International Law. 30 (2): 205. doi:10.2307/2191087. JSTOR 2191087 – via JSTOR.
^ Occupation is admitted by modern Lithuanian historians: "Neue Untersuchungen machen es heute möglich, die tatsächliche Verteilung der Rollen auf die Schützen, die litauische Regierung und die Armee bei der Besetzung des Memegebietes offenzulegen." tr.: "New investigations make it possible today to reveal the actual distribution of roles between the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Lithuanian Government and the Lithuanian Army in the case of the occupation of the Memel territory." Archived 8 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2007, 13–04
^ Seewald, Enrico (2019). "Das Geheimnis um das Woldemaras-Protokoll vom 29. Januar 1928" (PDF). Annaberger Annalen (in German). 27: 112–113.
^ Vareikis, V. (2001). "Memellander/Klaipėdiškiai Identity and German-Lithuanian Relations in Lithuania Minor in the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries". Sociologija. Mintis Ir Veiksmas. 1–2: 54–65. doi:10.15388/SocMintVei.2001.1-2.7233. ISSN 1392-3358.
According to the pre-war Lithuanian view, the Memellanders were Germanised Lithuanians who should be re-Lithuanised.
^ Cf. Ernst Rudolf Huber, Verträge zwischen Staat und Kirche im Deutschen Reich, Breslau: Marcus, 1930, (Abhandlungen aus dem Staats- und Verwaltungsrecht sowie aus dem Völkerrecht, No. 44), p. 82.
^ "Memelgebiet: Übersicht der Wahlen 1919–1935". Gonschior.de (in German).
^ cahoon, ben. "Lithuania".
^ "Memelgebiet: Wahl zur Nationalversammlung 1919". Gonschior.de (in German).
^ a b Piotr Eberhardt; Jan Owsinski (2003). Ethnic groups and population changes in twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: history, data, and analysis. M.E. Sharpe. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-7656-0665-5.
^ "Das Memelgebiet im Überblick". www.gonschior.de.
^ Cahoon, Ben. "Lithuania".
^ "Das Memelgebiet im Überblick". www.gonschior.de (in German). Retrieved 21 December 2022.
^ "Lithuania". www.worldstatesmen.org. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
^ "Museums of Lithuania". www.muziejai.lt.
^ Gliožaitis, Algirdas. "Neumanno-Sasso byla" . Mažosios Lietuvos enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 12 February 2022.
^ "Lrytas.lt naujienos – sužinoti daugiau!". www.lrytas.lt.
^ Pocytė, S. (2003). "Didlietuviai: an example of committee of Lithuanian organizations activities (1934–1939)". Lietuvos istorijos metraštis. 2. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 29 May 2007. The strong lithuanization policy from Lithuanian State gave the inverse effect, reflected by anti-Lithuanian dispositions among Germans and local Lietuvininkai people. The forms of Lithuanization policy were not acceptable for Klaipėda region local Lietuvininkai people. Having no other alternatives, they started to nestle themselves with much more known for them German national identity
^ "Memel – Klaipeda". Archived from the original on 13 January 2007. Retrieved 8 January 2007.
^ In March 1939 the majority of Memellanders greeted the reunion with the Reich with joy.
^ "Nesėkmės Klaipėdos krašte". Retrieved 24 February 2007.
^ "Trys knygos apie lietuvininkų tragediją" (in Lithuanian). Archived from the original on 27 September 2006. Retrieved 31 March 2007.
^ "Dabar jų yra vos keli tūkstančiai." Tr.: Only a few thousand remain.
^ "Kai kurie ir iš nepriklausomos Lietuvos išvažiuoja į Vokietiją, nes čia ne visiems pavyksta atgauti žemę ir sodybas, miestuose ir miesteliuose turėtus gyvenamuosius namus. Vis dar yra net nebandomų sudrausminti piktavalių, kurie lietuvininkams siūlo "grįžti" į "faterliandą"." Tr.: Even some from independent Lithuanians emigrate to Germany, because not for all property is returned. There are still persons who propose for lietuvininks to "return" to "vaterland". The article is written in 1998 and represents situation in these years.
^ Algimantas P. Gureckas, Lithuania's Boundaries and Territorial Claims Between Lithuania and Neighboring States, New York Law School Journal of International and Comparative Law, 1991, Volume 12, Numbers 1 & 2, p. 139-143.
^ Marjorie M. Whiteman, ed., Digest of International Law, Department of State Publication 7737, 1964, Vol.3, p. 315 & 316.
External links
Media related to Memelland at Wikimedia Commons
Joachim Tauber: Das Memelgebiet (1919–1944) in der deutschen und litauischen Historiographie nach 1945 (in German)
Local heritage book Memelland
STATUT DU TERRITOIRE DE MEMEL (in French)
Map of languages in East Prussia in 1900 (larger) (in German)
German translation of the Commission Report to the Council of Ambassadors (in German)
German translation of Vygantas Vareikis' thesis Die Rolle des Schützenbundes Litauens bei der Besetzung des Memelgebietes 1923 (in German)
Hitler in Klaipėda on YouTube
Places adjacent to Klaipėda Region
Baltic Sea
Lithuania
Lithuania
Baltic Sea
Klaipėda Region
Lithuania
Kaliningrad Oblast
Kaliningrad Oblast
Lithuania Kaliningrad Oblast
55°27′N 21°24′E / 55.450°N 21.400°E / 55.450; 21.400
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Israel
United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Klaipeda_stamps1920_23.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"East Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Prussia"},{"link_name":"Entente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Council of Ambassadors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Ambassadors"},{"link_name":"Saar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_the_Saar_Basin"},{"link_name":"Danzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig"},{"link_name":"League of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stahn08-1"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Klaipėda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_County"},{"link_name":"Tauragė","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurag%C4%97_County"}],"text":"Area of East PrussiaPostage stamps of the Klaipėda Region in use 1920–1925. The upper stamp is French with overprint in German \"MEMEL\". The other stamps are Lithuanian, one with overprint in Lithuanian and in German, the other without. The latter one was issued especially for postal use in the Klaipėda Region.The Klaipėda Region (Lithuanian: Klaipėdos kraštas) or Memel Territory (German: Memelland or Memelgebiet) was defined by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles in 1920 and refers to the northernmost part of the German province of East Prussia, when, as Memelland, it was put under the administration of the Entente's Council of Ambassadors. The Memel Territory, together with other areas severed from Germany (the Saar and Danzig), was to remain under the control of the League of Nations until a future date, when the people of these regions would be allowed to vote on whether the land would return to Germany or not.[1] Today, the former Memel Territory is controlled by Lithuania as part of Klaipėda and Tauragė counties.","title":"Klaipėda Region"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Konrad I of Masovia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_I_of_Masovia"},{"link_name":"Prussians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Prussians"},{"link_name":"Baltic tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balts"},{"link_name":"Skalvians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skalvians"},{"link_name":"Neman (Memel) River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neman_River"},{"link_name":"Frederick II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Golden Bull of Rimini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Bull_of_Rimini"},{"link_name":"Teutonic Knights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonic_Order"},{"link_name":"uprisings of the Baltic Prussian tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_uprisings"},{"link_name":"Lithuania Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania_Minor"},{"link_name":"Nadruvians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadruvians"},{"link_name":"Yotvingians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yotvingians"},{"link_name":"Memel Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Castle"},{"link_name":"Curonian Spit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curonian_Spit"},{"link_name":"Polish–Lithuanian union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Horod%C5%82o"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Melno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Melno"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia_(region)"},{"link_name":"Vytautas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vytautas"},{"link_name":"Memelberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Castle"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"State of Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"acquiesced to Nazi demands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939_German_ultimatum_to_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Reich"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian SSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic"},{"link_name":"Republic of Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Klaipėda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_County"},{"link_name":"Tauragė","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurag%C4%97_County"},{"link_name":"Kaliningrad Oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Russian Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Federation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In 1226, Duke Konrad I of Masovia requested assistance against the Prussians and other Baltic tribes, including the Skalvians who lived along the Neman (Memel) River. In March 1226, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II issued the Golden Bull of Rimini, which provided that the Teutonic Knights would possess lands taken beyond the Masovian border in exchange for securing Masovia. After uprisings of the Baltic Prussian tribes in 1242 through 1274 failed, the Order conquered many remaining western Balts in Lithuania Minor, including the Skalvians, Nadruvians, and Yotvingians. In 1252, the Order constructed Memel Castle where the Dangė river flows into the Neman, at the north end of the Curonian Spit. In 1422, after centuries of conflict, the Order and the Polish–Lithuanian union signed the Treaty of Melno which defined a border between Prussia and Lithuania. Although Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania wanted the border to be coextensive with the Neman River, the treaty border started north of Memelberg and ran southeasterly to the Neman. This border remained until 1918. After the Treaty of Melno was signed, many Lithuanians returned to northeastern Prussia, which became known as Lithuania Minor in the 16th century.[citation needed]After World War I ended in 1918, the Klaipėda Region was defined as a roughly triangular wedge, with the northern border being the Treaty of Melno border, the southern border following the Neman River, and on the west abutting the Baltic Sea. In 1923, fearing that the western powers would create a free state, Lithuanians took control of the region and, as part of larger regional negotiations, incorporated the region into the State of Lithuania. In March 1939, Lithuania acquiesced to Nazi demands and transferred the Klaipėda Region to Germany. As World War II came to an end in 1945, the Soviet Union incorporated the region into the Lithuanian SSR. Since 1990, the area of the Klaipėda Region has formed part of the independent Republic of Lithuania, as part of Klaipėda and Tauragė counties. The southern border established by the Treaty of Versailles defines the current international boundary between Lithuania and the Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian Federation.[citation needed]","title":"Historical overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Timeline"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Memel-10mark-1922b.jpg"},{"link_name":"Banknote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banknote"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"Act of Tilsit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Tilsit"},{"link_name":"Prussian Lithuanians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_Lithuanians"},{"link_name":"Prussian Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Lithuania proper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania_proper"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arnasius-2"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Roman Dmowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Dmowski"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dmowski-3"},{"link_name":"Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"Józef Piłsudski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curonian_Lagoon"},{"link_name":"Georges Clemenceau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clemenceau-4"},{"link_name":"Memel river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memel_river"},{"link_name":"Paris Peace Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)"},{"link_name":"Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_von_Brockdorff-Rantzau"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Gabriel Jean Petisné","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jean_Petisn%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Landes Directorium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directorate_of_the_Klaip%C4%97da_Region"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Gabriel Jean Petisné","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jean_Petisn%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Banknote of emergency money from 1922 issued and used in MemelThe eastern boundaries of Prussia (from 1871, part of the German Empire), having remained unchanged since the Treaty of Melno in 1422, became a matter of discussion following World War I as the newly independent states of Poland and Lithuania emerged. The separatist Act of Tilsit was signed by a few pro-Lithuanian-oriented Prussian Lithuanians in 1918, demanding the unification of Prussian Lithuania with Lithuania proper. It is traditionally viewed by Lithuanians as expressing the desire of Lithuania Minor to unite with Lithuania, but the majority of Prussian Lithuanians did not want to join with Lithuania,[2] and the Prussian Lithuanians did not make up a majority of the population.[citation needed]The division of Prussia was also promoted by Poland's Roman Dmowski[3] in Versailles who acted on the orders of Józef Piłsudski. The purpose was to give the lower part of the Neman River and its delta, which was located in Germany and called the Memel River, to Lithuania, as this would provide her access to the Baltic Sea, while Lithuania itself should be part of Poland. These ideas were supported by the French prime minister, Georges Clemenceau.[4]In 1920, according to the Treaty of Versailles, the German area north of the Memel river was given the status of Territoire de Memel under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors, and French troops were sent for protection. The German delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, under the leadership of Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau immediately protested this decision, stating on 9 May 1919:[Memellanders] including those whose mother-tongue is Lithuanian, have never desired a separation from Germany;...they have always proved themselves a loyal constituent part of the German community...moreover, Memel is an entirely German town...which has never in its whole history belonged to Lithuania or to Poland.[5]To this claim, the Allied Powers responded the following:The Allied and associated Powers reject the suggestion that the cession of the district of Memel conflicts with the principles of nationality. The district in question has always been Lithuanian; the majority of the populace is Lithuanian in origin and in speech and that fact the city of Memel itself is in large parts German is no justification for maintaining the district under German sovereignty, particulary from the view of the fact that the port of Memel is the only sea outlet for Lithuania[6]Following the evacuation of German troops from Memel, the French took over the temporary military administration of the region on 15 February 1920, under the leadership of General Dominique Odry.[7][8] This was supplemented by a civilian one headed by Gabriel Jean Petisné in 1921. The French Administration proved problematic, as they were accused by the Lithuanian population of siding too closely with the pro-German Landes Directorium and then subsequently accused of siding with Polish civilian and military representatives.[6] As a result of this backlash, Odry left his post shortly after coming to Memel and handed the responsibility of the administration over to High Commissioner Gabriel Jean Petisné. During the period of French administration, the idea of an independent state of Memelland grew in popularity among local inhabitants. The organisation Deutsch-Litauischer Heimatbund (German-Lithuanian homeland federation) promoted the idea of a Freistaat Memelland, which later should return to Germany. It had 30,000 members, both ethnic Germans and Lithuanians, or about 21% of the total population.[citation needed]","title":"Treaty of Versailles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Klaipėda Revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Revolt"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Occupation of the Ruhr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ruhr"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"On 9 January 1923, three years after the Versailles Treaty had become effective, Lithuania occupied the territory during the Klaipėda Revolt,[9] mainly by militias that had entered the region from Lithuania. At the same time, France had started the Occupation of the Ruhr in Germany, and the French administration in Memel did not take any significant counteractive measures against the rebels. On 19 January, the territory was annexed by Lithuania, and the fait accompli was eventually confirmed by the Council of Ambassadors in 1924.[citation needed]","title":"Lithuanian takeover"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Klaipėda Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Convention"},{"link_name":"Weimar Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"monastic state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastic_State_of_the_Teutonic_Knights"},{"link_name":"East Prussians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Prussia"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vareikis1-11"},{"link_name":"Lutherans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran"},{"link_name":"Catholics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Directorate of the Klaipėda Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directorate_of_the_Klaip%C4%97da_Region"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union"},{"link_name":"church of united administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches"},{"link_name":"Reformed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_church"},{"link_name":"Regional Synodal Federation of the Memel Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regional_Synodal_Federation_of_the_Memel_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"consistory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistory_(Protestantism)"},{"link_name":"general superintendent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintendent_(ecclesiastical)"},{"link_name":"Bishopric of Ermland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Ermland"},{"link_name":"Territorial Prelature of Klaipėda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Territorial_Prelature_of_Klaip%C4%97da"},{"link_name":"Justinas Staugaitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinas_Staugaitis"},{"link_name":"Parliament of the Klaipėda Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Klaip%C4%97da_Region"},{"link_name":"December 1926 coup d'état","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1926_Lithuanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"Antanas Smetona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antanas_Smetona"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"civil marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_marriage"},{"link_name":"marriages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage"},{"link_name":"trial of Neumann and Sass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_of_Neumann_and_Sass"}],"text":"In the Klaipėda Convention, signed by the Council of Ambassadors and Lithuania, the area was granted a separate parliament, two official languages, the capacity to raise its own taxes, charge custom duties, and manage its cultural and religious affairs, and was allowed a separate judicial system, separate citizenship, internal control of agriculture and forestry, as well as a separate social security system. The Council of Ambassadors accepted the resulting arrangement and confirmed the autonomy of the region within the Republic of Lithuania. On 8 May 1924, a further Convention on the Klaipėda region confirmed the annexation, and a resulting autonomy agreement was signed in Paris. In the Lithuanian-German Arbitration and Settlement Agreement (Schieds- und Vergleichsvertrag) of 29 January 1928, the Republic of Lithuania and the Weimar Republic agreed \"as a sign of the friendly nature of their relations\" to conclude, among other items, a border settlement agreement that included the status of the Memel Territory.[10]Importantly, the annexation gave Lithuania control of a year-round, ice-free Baltic port. Lithuania made full use of Klaipėda's port, modernizing and adapting it largely for its agricultural exports. The port reconstruction was certainly one of the larger long-term investment projects enacted by the government of Lithuania in the interwar period.The inhabitants of the area were not given a choice on the ballot as to whether they wanted to be part of the Lithuanian state or part of Germany. Since the pro-German political parties had an overall majority of more than 80% in all elections to the local parliament (see election statistics below) in the interwar period, there can be little doubt that such a referendum would have been in favour of Germany. In fact, the area had been united since the monastic state of the 13th century, and even many Lithuanian-speakers, regarding themselves as East Prussians, declared themselves \"Memellanders/Klaipėdiškiai\" in the official census (see below for demographic information) and did not want to belong to a Lithuanian national state. According to the Lithuanian point of view, Memellanders were viewed as Germanized Lithuanians who should be re-Lithuanized.[11]There was also a strong denominational difference since about 95% of the inhabitants of Lithuania Minor were Lutherans while more than 90% of Greater Lithuanians were Catholics. Following the Agreement concerning the Evangelical Church of the Klaipėda Region (German: Abkommen betr. die evangelische Kirche des Memelgebietes) of 23 July 1925, concluded between the Directorate of the Klaipėda Region and the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union, a church of united administration of Lutheran and Reformed congregations, the mostly Lutheran congregations (and a single Reformed one in Klaipėda) in the Klaipėda Region were disentangled from the old-Prussian Ecclesiastical Province of East Prussia and formed the Regional Synodal Federation of the Memel Territory (Landessynodalverband Memelgebiet) since, being ranked an old-Prussian ecclesiastical province of its own.[12] An own consistory in Klaipėda was established in 1927, led by a general superintendent (at first F. Gregor, elected in 1927, succeeded by O. Obereiniger, elected by the regional synod in 1933). The Catholic parishes in the Klaipėda Region used to belong to the Bishopric of Ermland until 1926 and were then disentangled, forming the new Territorial Prelature of Klaipėda under Prelate Justinas Staugaitis.The government of Lithuania faced considerable opposition from the region's autonomous institutions, among them the Parliament of the Klaipėda Region. As the years passed, claims were becoming more and more vocal about a re-integration into a resurgent Germany. It was only during the latter period that Lithuania then instituted a policy of \"Lithuanization\". This was met by even more opposition, as religious and regional differences slowly became insurmountable.After the December 1926 coup d'état, Antanas Smetona came to power. As the status of the Memel Territory was regulated by international treaties, the Memel Territory became an oasis of democracy [citation needed] in Lithuania. Lithuanian intelligentsia often held marriages in Memel/Klaipėda, since Memel Territory was the only place in Lithuania where civil marriage was in use, in the rest of Lithuania only church marriages were legitimized. Thus, Lithuanian opposition to Smetona's regime was also based in Memel Territory.At the start of the 1930s, certain leaders and members of pro-Nazi organizations in the region were put on trial by Lithuania \"for crimes of terrorism\". The 1934–5 trial of Neumann and Sass in Kaunas can be presented as the first anti-Nazi trial in Europe. Three members of the organizations were sentenced to death, and their leaders imprisoned. Following political and economic pressure from Germany, most were later released.","title":"Autonomous region within Lithuania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Nationalversammlung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_National_Assembly"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Election results for the local parliament","text":"The local parliament had 29 seats, one for every 5,000 inhabitants. Men and women over the age of 23 had the right to vote.[13][14]See also the results of the January 1919 elections to the Nationalversammlung.[15]","title":"Autonomous region within Lithuania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mes-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mes-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews"},{"link_name":"Ieva Simonaitytė","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieva_Simonaityt%C4%97"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trial_of_the_Nazis_of_the_Klaip%C4%97da_Region_%E2%80%93_priest_Theodor_Freiherr_von_Sass,_veterinarian_Ernst_Neumann,_and_others_in_Kaunas,_1935.jpg"},{"link_name":"first trial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_of_Neumann_and_Sass"},{"link_name":"Nazis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism"},{"link_name":"Kaunas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaunas"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Kaunas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaunas"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pocyt%C4%97-24"}],"sub_title":"Demographic data","text":"A Lithuanian census carried out in the region in 1925 found its total population was 141,000.[16] Declared language was used to classify the inhabitants, and on this basis 43.5 percent were German, 27.6 percent were Lithuanian, and 25.2 percent were \"Klaipėdan\" (Memeländisch).[16] Other sources give the interwar ethnic composition as 41.9 percent German, 27.1 percent Memeländisch, and 26.6 percent Lithuanian.[17][18]Overall, Prussian Lithuanians were more rural than Germans; the number of Lithuanian speakers in the city of Klaipėda itself increased over time due to urbanization and migration from villages into cities and later also from remaining Lithuania (in the city of Klaipėda, Lithuanian-speaking people made up 21.5% in 1912, 32.6% in 1925, and 38.7% in 1932*). Foreign citizens might include some Germans who opted for German citizenship instead of Lithuanian (although at the time the German government pressured local Germans to take Lithuanian citizenship so that German presence would remain). There were more Lithuanian speakers in the north of the region (Klaipėdos apskritis and Šilutės apskritis) than in the south (Pagėgių apskritis). Other locals included people of other nationalities who had citizenship in Lithuania, such as Jews.In the 1930s, a novel by local author Ieva Simonaitytė[21] based on family history illustrated the centuries-old German–Lithuanian relations in the region.The first trial of the Nazis in Europe, which took place in Kaunas in 1935. The accused claimed that the Klaipėda Region should be part of Germany, not Lithuania, and spread propaganda, prepared for an armed uprising.[22]The authoritarian regime of A. Smetona enforced a policy of discrimination and Lithuanisation: it sent administrators from Lithuania, and German teachers, officials, and priests were fired from jobs. Local inhabitants—both Germans and Prussian Lithuanians—were not accepted for state service in Memel Territory. People were sent from Kaunas instead.Until 1938, no governor was appointed from local Prussian Lithuanians. This policy led the Prussian Lithuanian intelligentsia and some local Germans to organise a society in 1934 to oppose Lithuanian rule. This group was soon dismantled.[23]Election results in Memel Territory were irritating[citation needed] for the authoritarian Smetona regime, and it attempted to \"colonise\" Memel Territory with Lithuanians. The Lithuanian settlements Jakai and Smeltė were built. The number of newcomers increased: in 1926 the number was 5,000, in 1939–30,000.Lithuania introduced a hard-line Lithuanisation campaign that led to even deeper antagonism between local Prussian Lithuanians, Memellanders, Germans and newcomers.[24]","title":"Autonomous region within Lithuania"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Klaipd%C4%97da_Region_1939.Adolf_Hitler_street.jpg"},{"link_name":"President Smetona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antanas_Smetona"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"Juozas Urbšys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juozas_Urb%C5%A1ys"},{"link_name":"Joachim von Ribbentrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop"},{"link_name":"Kriegsmarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriegsmarine"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"heim ins Reich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heim_ins_Reich"},{"link_name":"Seimas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seimas"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vareikis2-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"President Smetona Avenue was renamed Adolf Hitler Street in 1939By late 1938, Lithuania had lost control of the situation in the Territory. In the early hours of 23 March 1939, after an oral ultimatum had caused a Lithuanian delegation to travel to Berlin, the Lithuanian Minister of Foreign Affairs Juozas Urbšys and his German counterpart Joachim von Ribbentrop signed the Treaty of the Cession of the Memel Territory to Germany in exchange for a Lithuanian Free Zone for 99 years in the port of Memel, using the facilities erected in previous years.Hitler had anticipated this aboard a Kriegsmarine naval ship and at dawn[25] sailed into Memel to celebrate the return heim ins Reich of the Memelland. This proved to be the last of a series of bloodless annexations of territories separated from the German or Austrian Empire by the Treaty of Versailles, which had been perceived by many Germans as a humiliation. German forces seized the territory even before the official Lithuanian ratification. The United Kingdom and France, as after the revolt of 1923, took no action. It was under these conditions that the Seimas was forced to approve the treaty, hoping that Germany would not press any other territorial demands upon Lithuania.Still, the reunion with Germany was welcomed by the majority of the population, both by Germans and by Memelanders.[26]According to the treaty, the citizens of the Memel Territory were allowed to choose their citizenship: either German or Lithuanian. 303 people or, counting family members, 585, asked for Lithuanian citizenship but only 20 requests were granted.[27] Another term stated that persons who had settled in the Memel Territory during the occupation period from 1923 to 1939 should emigrate. About 8,900 Lithuanians did so. At the same time, Germany expelled about 1,300 local Memel and Lithuanian Jews and about 40 Prussian Lithuanians.[citation needed]","title":"German ultimatum"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dominique Joseph Odry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dominique_Joseph_Odry&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gabriel Jean Petisné","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Jean_Petisn%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Jonas Polovinskas-Budrys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonas_Budrys"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Antanas Smetona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antanas_Smetona"},{"link_name":"Jonas Žilius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jonas_%C5%BDilius&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Karolis Žalkauskas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karolis_%C5%BDalkauskas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Antanas Merkys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antanas_Merkys"},{"link_name":"Vytautas Jonas Gylys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vytautas_Jonas_Gylys&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jonas Navakas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jonas_Navakas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vladas Kurkauskas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladas_Kurkauskas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jurgis Kubilius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jurgis_Kubilius&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Viktoras Gailius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viktoras_Gailius&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Erich Koch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Koch"}],"sub_title":"Governors","text":"High CommissionersDominique Joseph Odry, France (15 February 1920 – 1 May 1921)\nGabriel Jean Petisné, France (1 May 1921 – 19 February 1923)PlenipotentiariesJonas Polovinskas-Budrys, Lithuania (acting; 19 February 1923 – 24 February 1923)\nAntanas Smetona, Lithuania (24 February 1923 – 27 October 1924)GovernorsJonas Polovinskas-Budrys (27 October 1924 – 8 November 1925)\nJonas Žilius (8 November 1925 – 1 August 1926)\nKarolis Žalkauskas (1 August 1926 – 1 November 1927)\nAntanas Merkys (1 November 1927 – 19 May 1932)\nVytautas Jonas Gylys (19 May 1932 – 25 November 1933)\nJonas Navakas (25 November 1933 – 5 February 1935)\nVladas Kurkauskas (5 February 1935 – 15 October 1936)\nJurgis Kubilius (15 October 1936 – 12 December 1938)\nViktoras Gailius (12 December 1938 – 22 March 1939)Transitional Commissioner for the Integration of MemellandErich Koch (23 March 1939 – 30 April 1939)","title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Directorate","title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adolf_Hitler_in_Memel.png"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"USSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"East Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Prussia"},{"link_name":"Red Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army"},{"link_name":"Battle of Memel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Memel"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trys_knygos1-28"},{"link_name":"displaced persons camps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displaced_persons_camp"},{"link_name":"expelled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_after_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"West Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany"},{"link_name":"Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian SSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trys_knygos2-29"},{"link_name":"German citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_citizen"},{"link_name":"Federal Republic of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Republic of Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trys_knygos3-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"Adolf Hitler in Memel in March 1939After Nazi Germany took over the area in 1939, many Lithuanians and their organizations began leaving Memel and the surrounding area. Memel was quickly turned into a fortified naval base by the Germans. After the failure of the German invasion of the USSR the fate of East Prussia and Memel was sealed. By October 1944, the inhabitants of the area, without ethnic distinction, had to make a decision whether to stay or leave. Nearly all of the population was evacuated from the approaching Red Army, but the city itself was defended by the German army during the Battle of Memel until 28 January 1945. After its capture, only six people were found in the city.At the end of the war, the majority of the inhabitants had fled to the West to settle in Germany. Still, in 1945–46 there were around 35,000[28] local inhabitants, both Prussian Lithuanians and Germans. The government of the Lithuanian SSR sent agitators into the displaced persons camps to make promises to former inhabitants that they could return and their property would be restored. In the period of 1945–50 about 8,000 persons were repatriated. Bilingual Lithuanian-German returners were viewed as Germans.The few remaining ethnic Germans were then forcibly expelled, with most opting to flee to what would become West Germany. People who remained in the former Memel territory were dismissed from their jobs. Families of notable local Lithuanians, who had opposed German parties before the war, were deported to Siberia. In 1951, the Lithuanian SSR expelled 3,500 people from the former Memel Territory to East Germany. In 1958, when emigration was allowed, the majority of the surviving population, both Germans and Prussian Lithuanians, emigrated to West Germany; this event was called a repatriation of Germans by the Lithuanian SSR. Today these formerly Lutheran territories are mostly inhabited by Lithuanians who are Catholic and by Orthodox Russians. However, the minority Prussian Lithuanian Protestants historically were concentrated in these regions, and some remain to this day. Only a few thousand are left.[29] Their continued emigration is facilitated by the fact they are considered German citizens by the Federal Republic of Germany. No property restoration was performed by the Republic of Lithuania for owners prior to 1945.[30]Although maintaining that the Memel Territory in 1939 was re-annexed by Germany and acknowledging that Lithuania itself was occupied in 1940 by the Soviets, Lithuania, after regaining independence on 11 March 1990, did not restore autonomy to the Memel Territory.[31][32]","title":"World War II and after"}] | [{"image_text":"Postage stamps of the Klaipėda Region in use 1920–1925. The upper stamp is French with overprint in German \"MEMEL\". The other stamps are Lithuanian, one with overprint in Lithuanian and in German, the other without. The latter one was issued especially for postal use in the Klaipėda Region.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Klaipeda_stamps1920_23.jpg/220px-Klaipeda_stamps1920_23.jpg"},{"image_text":"Banknote of emergency money from 1922 issued and used in Memel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Memel-10mark-1922b.jpg/220px-Memel-10mark-1922b.jpg"},{"image_text":"The first trial of the Nazis in Europe, which took place in Kaunas in 1935. The accused claimed that the Klaipėda Region should be part of Germany, not Lithuania, and spread propaganda, prepared for an armed uprising.[22]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Trial_of_the_Nazis_of_the_Klaip%C4%97da_Region_%E2%80%93_priest_Theodor_Freiherr_von_Sass%2C_veterinarian_Ernst_Neumann%2C_and_others_in_Kaunas%2C_1935.jpg/220px-Trial_of_the_Nazis_of_the_Klaip%C4%97da_Region_%E2%80%93_priest_Theodor_Freiherr_von_Sass%2C_veterinarian_Ernst_Neumann%2C_and_others_in_Kaunas%2C_1935.jpg"},{"image_text":"President Smetona Avenue was renamed Adolf Hitler Street in 1939","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8b/Klaipd%C4%97da_Region_1939.Adolf_Hitler_street.jpg/170px-Klaipd%C4%97da_Region_1939.Adolf_Hitler_street.jpg"},{"image_text":"Adolf Hitler in Memel in March 1939","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Adolf_Hitler_in_Memel.png/220px-Adolf_Hitler_in_Memel.png"}] | [{"title":"Areas annexed by Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany"},{"title":"Memel Agricultural Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memel_Agricultural_Party"},{"title":"Klaipėda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da"},{"title":"Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian%E2%80%93Belorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic"},{"title":"Republic of Central Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Central_Lithuania"},{"title":"1922 Republic of Central Lithuania general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922_Republic_of_Central_Lithuania_general_election"},{"title":"Vilnius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius"}] | [{"reference":"Stahn, Carsten (2008). The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511585937. ISBN 978-0-521-87800-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511585937","url_text":"10.1017/CBO9780511585937"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87800-5","url_text":"978-0-521-87800-5"}]},{"reference":"Arnašius, Helmut (2002). \"Vokiečiai Klaipėdoje\". Mokslas Ir Gyvenimas (in Lithuanian). 7–8. Archived from the original on 31 May 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2007. Apie norą susijungti su nuskurdusia Lietuva daugumai lietuvininkų negalėjo būti nė kalbos. Tr.: The majority of Prussian Lithuanians did not even want to talk about unification with poor Lithuania.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080531031428/http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/078/078vok.html","url_text":"\"Vokiečiai Klaipėdoje\""},{"url":"http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/078/078vok.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Šilas, V., Sambora H. (1990). Mažosios Lietuvos kultūros pėdsakai. Vilnius: Mintis. p. 24. ISBN 5-417-00367-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-417-00367-0","url_text":"5-417-00367-0"}]},{"reference":"Stephens, David (January 1936). \"The German Problem in Memel\". The Slavonic and Eastern European Review. 14 (41): 325. JSTOR 4203122 – via JSTOR.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4203122","url_text":"\"The German Problem in Memel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4203122","url_text":"4203122"}]},{"reference":"Grade, John A. (March 1924). \"The Memel Controversy\". Foreign Affairs. 2 (3): 412. doi:10.2307/20028310. JSTOR 20028310 – via JSTOR.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20028310","url_text":"\"The Memel Controversy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20028310","url_text":"10.2307/20028310"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20028310","url_text":"20028310"}]},{"reference":"\"Odry, Dominique-Joseph\". Das Bundesarchiv.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/0000/adr/adrmr/kap1_3/para2_4.html","url_text":"\"Odry, Dominique-Joseph\""}]},{"reference":"Kalijarvi, Thorsten (April 1936). \"The Problem of Memel\". The American Journal of International Law. 30 (2): 205. doi:10.2307/2191087. JSTOR 2191087 – via JSTOR.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2191087","url_text":"\"The Problem of Memel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2191087","url_text":"10.2307/2191087"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2191087","url_text":"2191087"}]},{"reference":"Seewald, Enrico (2019). \"Das Geheimnis um das Woldemaras-Protokoll vom 29. Januar 1928\" [The Secret of the Woldemaras Minutes of 29 January 1928] (PDF). Annaberger Annalen (in German). 27: 112–113.","urls":[{"url":"https://annaberger-annalen.de/jahrbuch/2019/8_Seewald_AA27.pdf","url_text":"\"Das Geheimnis um das Woldemaras-Protokoll vom 29. Januar 1928\""}]},{"reference":"Vareikis, V. (2001). \"Memellander/Klaipėdiškiai Identity and German-Lithuanian Relations in Lithuania Minor in the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries\". Sociologija. Mintis Ir Veiksmas. 1–2: 54–65. doi:10.15388/SocMintVei.2001.1-2.7233. ISSN 1392-3358.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.15388%2FSocMintVei.2001.1-2.7233","url_text":"\"Memellander/Klaipėdiškiai Identity and German-Lithuanian Relations in Lithuania Minor in the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.15388%2FSocMintVei.2001.1-2.7233","url_text":"10.15388/SocMintVei.2001.1-2.7233"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1392-3358","url_text":"1392-3358"}]},{"reference":"\"Memelgebiet: Übersicht der Wahlen 1919–1935\". Gonschior.de (in German).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Memelgebiet/Uebersicht_LTW.html","url_text":"\"Memelgebiet: Übersicht der Wahlen 1919–1935\""}]},{"reference":"cahoon, ben. \"Lithuania\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Lithuania.htm#Memel%20Territory","url_text":"\"Lithuania\""}]},{"reference":"\"Memelgebiet: Wahl zur Nationalversammlung 1919\". Gonschior.de (in German).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Memelgebiet/NV.html","url_text":"\"Memelgebiet: Wahl zur Nationalversammlung 1919\""}]},{"reference":"Piotr Eberhardt; Jan Owsinski (2003). Ethnic groups and population changes in twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: history, data, and analysis. M.E. Sharpe. p. 40. 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Retrieved 21 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Memelgebiet/index.htm","url_text":"\"Das Memelgebiet im Überblick\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lithuania\". www.worldstatesmen.org. Retrieved 21 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Lithuania.htm#Memel%20Territory","url_text":"\"Lithuania\""}]},{"reference":"\"Museums of Lithuania\". www.muziejai.lt.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.muziejai.lt/Muziejus.en.asp?Db_kodas=2777","url_text":"\"Museums of Lithuania\""}]},{"reference":"Gliožaitis, Algirdas. \"Neumanno-Sasso byla\" [The Case of Neumann-Sass]. Mažosios Lietuvos enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 12 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mle.lt/straipsniai/neumanno-sasso-byla","url_text":"\"Neumanno-Sasso byla\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lrytas.lt naujienos – sužinoti daugiau!\". www.lrytas.lt.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lrytas.lt/","url_text":"\"Lrytas.lt naujienos – sužinoti daugiau!\""}]},{"reference":"Pocytė, S. (2003). \"Didlietuviai: an example of committee of Lithuanian organizations activities (1934–1939)\". Lietuvos istorijos metraštis. 2. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 29 May 2007. The strong lithuanization policy from Lithuanian State gave the inverse effect, reflected by anti-Lithuanian dispositions among Germans and local Lietuvininkai people. The forms of Lithuanization policy were not acceptable for Klaipėda region local Lietuvininkai people. Having no other alternatives, they started to nestle themselves with much more known for them German national identity","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927204952/http://www.istorija.lt/lim/pocyte2003en2.html","url_text":"\"Didlietuviai: an example of committee of Lithuanian organizations activities (1934–1939)\""},{"url":"http://www.istorija.lt/lim/pocyte2003en2.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Memel – Klaipeda\". Archived from the original on 13 January 2007. Retrieved 8 January 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070113165006/http://worldatwar.net/nations/other/memel/index.html","url_text":"\"Memel – Klaipeda\""},{"url":"http://worldatwar.net/nations/other/memel/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Nesėkmės Klaipėdos krašte\". Retrieved 24 February 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.voruta.lt/archyvas/82/1188","url_text":"\"Nesėkmės Klaipėdos krašte\""}]},{"reference":"\"Trys knygos apie lietuvininkų tragediją\" (in Lithuanian). Archived from the original on 27 September 2006. Retrieved 31 March 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060927171701/http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/98/3/03knygos.html","url_text":"\"Trys knygos apie lietuvininkų tragediją\""},{"url":"http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/98/3/03knygos.html","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Klaip%C4%97da_Region¶ms=55_27_N_21_24_E_region:LT_type:adm1st","external_links_name":"55°27′N 21°24′E / 55.450°N 21.400°E / 55.450; 21.400"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511585937","external_links_name":"10.1017/CBO9780511585937"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080531031428/http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/078/078vok.html","external_links_name":"\"Vokiečiai Klaipėdoje\""},{"Link":"http://ausis.gf.vu.lt/mg/nr/2002/078/078vok.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.moscovia1.narod.ru/archivas/2002_4/Is_Mazosios_Lietuvos_istorijos.htm","external_links_name":"Nuotrupos iš Mažosios Lietuvos istorijos"},{"Link":"http://jahrbuch.annaberg.de/vareikis.html","external_links_name":"Vygantas Vareikis"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070108045122/http://jahrbuch.annaberg.de/vareikis.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4203122","external_links_name":"\"The German Problem in Memel\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4203122","external_links_name":"4203122"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20028310","external_links_name":"\"The Memel Controversy\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20028310","external_links_name":"10.2307/20028310"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20028310","external_links_name":"20028310"},{"Link":"https://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/0000/adr/adrmr/kap1_3/para2_4.html","external_links_name":"\"Odry, Dominique-Joseph\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2191087","external_links_name":"\"The Problem of Memel\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2191087","external_links_name":"10.2307/2191087"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2191087","external_links_name":"2191087"},{"Link":"http://jahrbuch.annaberg.de/vareikis.html","external_links_name":"Occupation is admitted by modern Lithuanian historians: \"Neue Untersuchungen machen es heute möglich, die tatsächliche Verteilung der Rollen auf die Schützen, die litauische Regierung und die Armee bei der Besetzung des Memegebietes offenzulegen.\" tr.: \"New investigations make it possible today to reveal the actual distribution of roles between the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Lithuanian Government and the Lithuanian Army in the case of the occupation of the Memel territory.\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070108045122/http://jahrbuch.annaberg.de/vareikis.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://annaberger-annalen.de/jahrbuch/2019/8_Seewald_AA27.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Das Geheimnis um das Woldemaras-Protokoll vom 29. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Bachelor | Knight Bachelor | ["1 Criteria","2 Honorifics and post-nominal letters","3 Insignia","4 Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor","5 Equivalence","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 External links"] | Title indicating a knight not part of an order of chivalry
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Knight Bachelor The insignia of a knight bachelor devised in 1926Awarded by Monarch of the United KingdomAwarded forPublic serviceStatusCurrently constitutedSovereignCharles IIIKnight PrincipalSir Gary HickinbottomRibbon bar of the Knight Bachelor Medal
The title of Knight Bachelor is the basic rank granted to a man who has been knighted by the monarch but not inducted as a member of one of the organised orders of chivalry; it is a part of the British honours system. Knights Bachelor are the most ancient sort of British knight (the rank existed during the 13th-century reign of King Henry III), but Knights Bachelor rank below knights of chivalric orders. A man who is knighted is formally addressed as "Sir " or "Sir " and his wife as "Lady ".
The designation "Bachelor" in this context conveys the concept of "junior in rank".
Criteria
Knighthood is usually conferred for public service; amongst its recipients are all male judges of His Majesty's High Court of Justice in England. It is possible to be a Knight Bachelor and a junior member of an order of chivalry without being a knight of that order; this situation has become rather common, especially among those recognized for achievements in entertainment. For instance, Sir Michael Gambon, Sir Mo Farah, Sir Derek Jacobi, Sir Anthony Hopkins, Sir Elton John, Sir Michael Caine, Sir Billy Connolly, Sir Barry Gibb and Sir Ian McKellen are Commanders of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE); Sir Patrick Stewart, Sir Cliff Richard, Sir Tom Jones and Sir Van Morrison are Officers of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE); while Sir Paul McCartney, Sir Richard Starkey (Ringo Starr), and Sir Nick Faldo are Members of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE). None of them would be entitled to use the honorific "Sir" by virtue of their membership of the order alone, but as they are all also Knights Bachelor, they are entitled to preface their names with that title.
Honorifics and post-nominal letters
Knights Bachelor may prefix "Sir" to their forenames, and wives of Knights may prefix "Lady" to their surnames. The award originated in the Middle Ages. There are no post-nominal letters associated with the honour nor can it be awarded to women. (They are appointed Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire instead.)
Insignia
Until 1926, Knights Bachelor had no insignia which they could wear, but in that year King George V issued a warrant authorising the wearing of a badge on all appropriate occasions by Knights Bachelor; this badge is worn on the left side of the coat or outer garment. Measuring 2+3⁄8 inches (60 mm) in length and 1+3⁄8 inches (35 mm) in width, it is described in heraldic terms as follows:
Upon an oval medallion of vermilion, enclosed by a scroll a cross-hilted sword belted and sheathed, pommel upwards, between two spurs, rowels upwards, the whole set about with the sword belt, all gilt.
In 1974, Queen Elizabeth II issued a further warrant authorising the wearing on appropriate occasions of a neck badge, slightly smaller, and in miniature. In 1988, a new certificate of authentication, a knight's only personal documentation, was designed by the College of Arms.
Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor
The Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor was founded for the maintenance and consolidation of the Dignity of Knights Bachelor in 1908, and obtained official recognition from the Sovereign in 1912. The Society keeps records of all Knights Bachelor, in their interest.
Equivalence
There is no female counterpart to Knight Bachelor. The lowest knightly honour that can be conferred upon a woman is Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (DBE), which is one rank higher than Knight Bachelor (being the female equivalent of KBE or Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, which is the next male knightly rank above Knight Bachelor).
Only citizens of Commonwealth realms can be created Knights Bachelor; people of other nationalities are generally made honorary KBEs.
See also
Knight banneret
Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood
British honours system § Knighthood
Lists of knights bachelor
Notes
^ a b "The British Honours System". www.churchill-society-london.org.uk. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
^ Neave, F.G.; Turner, Grange (1930). Mozley & Whiteley's Law Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Butterworth & Co. p. 183.
^
"bachelor". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
^ "Form of address". Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
^ "Knight Bachelor". Forms of address. Debrett's. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
^ "Orders of Chivalry". British Government. Archived from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2007.
^ a b Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage 2019. Debrett's. 2019. ISBN 9781999767006.
^ "Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor". Heraldry of the World. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
^ "Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor". www.iskb.co.uk. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
References
Insignia of knights bachelor—Website of the Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor
The UK Honours System—Website UK Government
Debrett's
External links
Media related to Knights Bachelor at Wikimedia Commons
vteOrders, decorations, and medals of the United KingdomOrdersCurrent
Garter
Thistle
Bath
Merit
St Michael and St George
Royal Victorian
Distinguished Service
British Empire
Imperial Service
Companions of Honour
St John
Royal family orders
George VI
Elizabeth II
Dormant
St Patrick
Crown of India
Star of India
Indian Empire
Indian Merit
British India
Burma
Defunct
Royal Guelphic
Royal family orders
George IV
Victoria & Albert
Edward VII
George V
Other
Royal Victorian Chain
Hereditary peerage
Life peerage
Privy counsellor
Baronet
Knight Bachelor
Aide-de-camp
Currentdecorationsand medalsLevel 1
Victoria Cross
George Cross
Level 2A
Distinguished Service Order
Conspicuous Gallantry Cross
Royal Red Cross (class I)
Level 2B
George Medal
King's Police Medal, for Gallantry
King's Fire Service Medal, for Gallantry
Level 3A
Distinguished Service Cross
Military Cross
Distinguished Flying Cross
Air Force Cross
Royal Red Cross (class II)
Level 3B
Sea Gallantry Medal
King's Gallantry Medal
Royal Victorian Medal
British Empire Medal
King’s Police Medal, for Distinguished Service
King's Fire Service Medal, for Distinguished Service
King's Ambulance Service Medal
King's Volunteer Reserves Medal
Polar Medal
Imperial Service Medal
Overseas Territories Police Medal
Merchant Navy Medal for Meritorious Service
Level 4
Mentioned in Despatches
King's Commendation for Bravery
King's Commendation for Bravery in the Air
King's Commendation for Valuable Service
Other
Badge of Honour
Elizabeth Cross
Obsoletedecorationsand medalsLevel 1
Indian Order of Merit (1st class)
Albert Medal (1st class)
Edward Medal (1st class)
Empire Gallantry Medal
Level 2A
Indian Order of Merit (2nd class)
Distinguished Conduct Medal
Conspicuous Gallantry Medal
Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying)
Level 2B
Albert Medal (2nd class)
Edward Medal (2nd class)
Union of South Africa King's Medal for Bravery, Gold
Level 3A
Order of British India (1st class)
Order of British India (2nd class)
Indian Order of Merit (3rd class)
Title Badge (India) (1st class)
Title Badge (India) (2nd class)
Title Badge (India) (3rd class)
Royal West African Frontier Force Distinguished Conduct Medal
King's African Rifles Distinguished Conduct Medal
Indian Distinguished Service Medal
Distinguished Service Medal
Military Medal
Distinguished Flying Medal
Air Force Medal
Burma Gallantry Medal
Level 3B
Constabulary Medal (Ireland)
Union of South Africa King's Medal for Bravery, Silver
Kaisar-i-Hind Medal (Gold, Silver, Bronze)
Indian Police Medal, for Gallantry
Ceylon Police Medal, for Gallantry
Sierra Leone Police Medal, for Gallantry
Sierra Leone Fire Brigades Medal, for Gallantry
Mauritius Police Medal for Meritorious Service
Colonial Police Medal, for Gallantry
Canada Medal
Queen's Medal for Chiefs
Indian Police Medal, for Meritorious Service
Ceylon Police Medal, for Merit
Sierra Leone Police Medal, for Meritorious Service
Sierra Leone Fire Brigades Medal, for Meritorious Service
Level 4
Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct
Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air
See also
Order of Wear
British campaign medals
Degradation (knighthood)
Revocations
vte Former decorations of AustraliaAustralian Honours Order of Precedence prior to 6 October 1992Orders of chivalryMost HonourableOrder of the Bath
Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB)
Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB/DCB)
Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB)
Most DistinguishedOrder of St Michaeland St George
Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG)
Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG/DCMG)
Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG)
Most Excellent Orderof the British Empire
/ Knight/Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE)
/ Knight/Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE/DBE)
/ Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE)
/ Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE)
/ Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE)
Imperial Service Order
Companion of the Imperial Service Order (ISO)
Order of theCompanions of Honour
Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH)
Miscellaneous
Hereditary peer
Life peer
Baronet
Knight Bachelor
Militarygallantry/braverydecorationsIn the faceof the enemy
Victoria Cross (VC)
Distinguished Service Order (DSO)
Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM)
Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (CGM)
Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (Flying) (CGM)
Military Cross (MC)
Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC)
Military Medal (MM)
Distinguished Flying Medal (DFM)
Mentioned in despatches
Not the faceof the enemy
Air Force Cross (AFC)
Air Force Medal (AFM)
Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct
DistinguishedservicedecorationsIn the faceof the enemy
Distinguished Service Cross (DSC)
Distinguished Service Medal (DSM)
Not the faceof the enemy
King's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (KPM)
King's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (KFSM)
Civil braverydecorations
George Cross (GC)
Albert Medal, First Class (AM)
Albert Medal, First Class (Sea) (AM)
Albert Medal, Second Class (AM)
Albert Medal, Second Class (Sea) (AM)
George Medal (GM)
King's Police Medal for Gallantry (KPM)
King's Fire Service Medal for Gallantry (KFSM)
Sea Gallantry Medal (SGM)
Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM)
Edward Medal (EM)
Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct
Nursing service
Member of the Royal Red Cross (RRC)
Associate of the Royal Red Cross (ARRC)
Meritorious service
/ British Empire Medal (BEM)
King's Commendation for Valuable Service | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"knighted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight"},{"link_name":"orders of chivalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_chivalry"},{"link_name":"British honours system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Churchill_Society-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"King Henry III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England"},{"link_name":"Sir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir"},{"link_name":"Lady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The title of Knight Bachelor is the basic rank granted to a man who has been knighted by the monarch but not inducted as a member of one of the organised orders of chivalry; it is a part of the British honours system.[1] Knights Bachelor are the most ancient sort of British knight[2] (the rank existed during the 13th-century reign of King Henry III), but Knights Bachelor rank below knights of chivalric orders. A man who is knighted is formally addressed as \"Sir [First Name] [Surname]\" or \"Sir [First Name]\" and his wife as \"Lady [Surname]\".The designation \"Bachelor\" in this context conveys the concept of \"junior in rank\".[3]","title":"Knight Bachelor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"His Majesty's High Court of Justice in England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_High_Court_of_Justice_in_England"},{"link_name":"Michael Gambon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Gambon"},{"link_name":"Mo Farah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo_Farah"},{"link_name":"Derek Jacobi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Jacobi"},{"link_name":"Anthony Hopkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hopkins"},{"link_name":"Elton John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_John"},{"link_name":"Michael Caine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Caine"},{"link_name":"Billy Connolly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Connolly"},{"link_name":"Barry Gibb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Gibb"},{"link_name":"Ian McKellen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_McKellen"},{"link_name":"Commanders of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_of_The_Most_Excellent_Order_of_the_British_Emipre"},{"link_name":"Patrick Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Stewart"},{"link_name":"Cliff Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_Richard"},{"link_name":"Tom Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Jones_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Van Morrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Morrison"},{"link_name":"Officers of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Officer_of_the_Most_Excellent_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Paul McCartney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McCartney"},{"link_name":"Ringo Starr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringo_Starr"},{"link_name":"Nick Faldo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Faldo"},{"link_name":"Members of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_The_Most_Excellent_Order_of_the_British_Empire"}],"text":"Knighthood is usually conferred for public service; amongst its recipients are all male judges of His Majesty's High Court of Justice in England. It is possible to be a Knight Bachelor and a junior member of an order of chivalry without being a knight of that order; this situation has become rather common, especially among those recognized for achievements in entertainment. For instance, Sir Michael Gambon, Sir Mo Farah, Sir Derek Jacobi, Sir Anthony Hopkins, Sir Elton John, Sir Michael Caine, Sir Billy Connolly, Sir Barry Gibb and Sir Ian McKellen are Commanders of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE); Sir Patrick Stewart, Sir Cliff Richard, Sir Tom Jones and Sir Van Morrison are Officers of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE); while Sir Paul McCartney, Sir Richard Starkey (Ringo Starr), and Sir Nick Faldo are Members of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE). None of them would be entitled to use the honorific \"Sir\" by virtue of their membership of the order alone, but as they are all also Knights Bachelor, they are entitled to preface their names with that title.","title":"Criteria"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Churchill_Society-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Imperial_Society_Address-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Debretts_Knight_Bachelor-5"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"post-nominal letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-nominal"},{"link_name":"Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dame_Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Honours_Gov_UK-6"}],"text":"Knights Bachelor may prefix \"Sir\" to their forenames, and wives of Knights may prefix \"Lady\" to their surnames.[1][4][5] The award originated in the Middle Ages. There are no post-nominal letters associated with the honour nor can it be awarded to women. (They are appointed Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire instead.)[6]","title":"Honorifics and post-nominal letters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"King George V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_George_V"},{"link_name":"heraldic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraldry"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"vermilion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermilion"},{"link_name":"pommel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilt#Pommel"},{"link_name":"rowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowel"},{"link_name":"Queen Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II"},{"link_name":"College of Arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Arms"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"}],"text":"Until 1926, Knights Bachelor had no insignia which they could wear, but in that year King George V issued a warrant authorising the wearing of a badge on all appropriate occasions by Knights Bachelor; this badge is worn on the left side of the coat or outer garment. Measuring 2+3⁄8 inches (60 mm) in length and 1+3⁄8 inches (35 mm) in width, it is described in heraldic terms as follows:[7]Upon an oval medallion of vermilion, enclosed by a scroll a cross-hilted sword belted and sheathed, pommel upwards, between two spurs, rowels upwards, the whole set about with the sword belt, all gilt.In 1974, Queen Elizabeth II issued a further warrant authorising the wearing on appropriate occasions of a neck badge, slightly smaller, and in miniature. In 1988, a new certificate of authentication, a knight's only personal documentation, was designed by the College of Arms.[7]","title":"Insignia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Society_of_Knights_Bachelor"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor[8] was founded for the maintenance and consolidation of the Dignity of Knights Bachelor in 1908, and obtained official recognition from the Sovereign in 1912. The Society keeps records of all Knights Bachelor, in their interest.","title":"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth realms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_realm"},{"link_name":"honorary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire#Styles_and_honorary_knighthoods"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"There is no female counterpart to Knight Bachelor. The lowest knightly honour that can be conferred upon a woman is Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (DBE), which is one rank higher than Knight Bachelor (being the female equivalent of KBE or Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, which is the next male knightly rank above Knight Bachelor).Only citizens of Commonwealth realms can be created Knights Bachelor; people of other nationalities are generally made honorary KBEs.[9]","title":"Equivalence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Churchill_Society_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Churchill_Society_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"The British Honours System\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.churchill-society-london.org.uk/HnrSystm.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"bachelor\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=bachelor"},{"link_name":"Oxford English Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"participating institution membership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Imperial_Society_Address_4-0"},{"link_name":"\"Form of address\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//iskb.frb.io/society-today/information"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Debretts_Knight_Bachelor_5-0"},{"link_name":"\"Knight Bachelor\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140405124949/http://www.debretts.com/forms-address/titles/knight/knight-bachelor"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.debretts.com/forms-address/titles/knight/knight-bachelor"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Honours_Gov_UK_6-0"},{"link_name":"\"Orders of Chivalry\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070819024713/http://www.honours.gov.uk/honours/chivalry.aspx"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.honours.gov.uk/honours/chivalry.aspx"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_7-1"},{"link_name":"Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage 2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.debretts.com/product/debretts-peerage/"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781999767006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781999767006"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.heraldry-wiki.com/heraldrywiki/wiki/Imperial_Society_of_Knights_Bachelor"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iskb.co.uk/history.htm"}],"text":"^ a b \"The British Honours System\". www.churchill-society-london.org.uk. Retrieved 23 May 2017.\n\n^ Neave, F.G.; Turner, Grange (1930). Mozley & Whiteley's Law Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Butterworth & Co. p. 183.\n\n^ \n\"bachelor\". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)\n\n^ \"Form of address\". Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor. Retrieved 17 April 2014.\n\n^ \"Knight Bachelor\". Forms of address. Debrett's. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.\n\n^ \"Orders of Chivalry\". British Government. Archived from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2007.\n\n^ a b Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage 2019. Debrett's. 2019. ISBN 9781999767006.\n\n^ \"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\". Heraldry of the World. Retrieved 3 February 2021.\n\n^ \"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\". www.iskb.co.uk. Retrieved 23 May 2017.","title":"Notes"}] | [] | [{"title":"Knight banneret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_banneret"},{"title":"Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Chancery_of_the_Orders_of_Knighthood"},{"title":"British honours system § Knighthood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_honours_system#Knighthood"},{"title":"Lists of knights bachelor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_knights_bachelor"}] | [{"reference":"\"The British Honours System\". www.churchill-society-london.org.uk. Retrieved 23 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.churchill-society-london.org.uk/HnrSystm.html","url_text":"\"The British Honours System\""}]},{"reference":"Neave, F.G.; Turner, Grange (1930). Mozley & Whiteley's Law Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Butterworth & Co. p. 183.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"bachelor\". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=bachelor","url_text":"\"bachelor\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary","url_text":"Oxford English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"}]},{"reference":"\"Form of address\". Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor. Retrieved 17 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://iskb.frb.io/society-today/information","url_text":"\"Form of address\""}]},{"reference":"\"Knight Bachelor\". Forms of address. Debrett's. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140405124949/http://www.debretts.com/forms-address/titles/knight/knight-bachelor","url_text":"\"Knight Bachelor\""},{"url":"http://www.debretts.com/forms-address/titles/knight/knight-bachelor","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Orders of Chivalry\". British Government. Archived from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070819024713/http://www.honours.gov.uk/honours/chivalry.aspx","url_text":"\"Orders of Chivalry\""},{"url":"http://www.honours.gov.uk/honours/chivalry.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage 2019. Debrett's. 2019. ISBN 9781999767006.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.debretts.com/product/debretts-peerage/","url_text":"Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage 2019"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781999767006","url_text":"9781999767006"}]},{"reference":"\"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\". Heraldry of the World. Retrieved 3 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.heraldry-wiki.com/heraldrywiki/wiki/Imperial_Society_of_Knights_Bachelor","url_text":"\"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\". www.iskb.co.uk. Retrieved 23 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iskb.co.uk/history.htm","url_text":"\"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Knight+Bachelor%22","external_links_name":"\"Knight Bachelor\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Knight+Bachelor%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Knight+Bachelor%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Knight+Bachelor%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Knight+Bachelor%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Knight+Bachelor%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.churchill-society-london.org.uk/HnrSystm.html","external_links_name":"\"The British Honours System\""},{"Link":"https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=bachelor","external_links_name":"\"bachelor\""},{"Link":"https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary","external_links_name":"participating institution membership"},{"Link":"https://iskb.frb.io/society-today/information","external_links_name":"\"Form of address\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140405124949/http://www.debretts.com/forms-address/titles/knight/knight-bachelor","external_links_name":"\"Knight Bachelor\""},{"Link":"http://www.debretts.com/forms-address/titles/knight/knight-bachelor","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070819024713/http://www.honours.gov.uk/honours/chivalry.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Orders of Chivalry\""},{"Link":"http://www.honours.gov.uk/honours/chivalry.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.debretts.com/product/debretts-peerage/","external_links_name":"Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage 2019"},{"Link":"https://www.heraldry-wiki.com/heraldrywiki/wiki/Imperial_Society_of_Knights_Bachelor","external_links_name":"\"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\""},{"Link":"http://www.iskb.co.uk/history.htm","external_links_name":"\"Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor\""},{"Link":"https://www.iskb.co.uk/insignia","external_links_name":"Insignia of knights bachelor"},{"Link":"http://www.direct.gov.uk/honours","external_links_name":"The UK Honours System"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050711013704/http://www.debretts.co.uk/","external_links_name":"Debrett's"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos | Knossos | ["1 History","1.1 Neolithic period","1.2 Bronze Age","1.3 Classical and Roman period","1.4 Post-Roman history","2 Legends","3 Excavation history","4 Palace complex","4.1 Layout","4.2 Location","4.3 Storage","4.4 Water management","4.5 Ventilation","4.6 Minoan columns","4.7 Frescoes","4.8 Throne Room","5 Notable residents","6 See also","7 Citations","8 General and cited sources","9 External links"] | Coordinates: 35°17′53″N 25°9′47″E / 35.29806°N 25.16306°E / 35.29806; 25.16306Bronze Age archaeological site on the island of Crete
For the modern history of Knossos, see Knossos (modern history).
"Knossos palace" redirects here. For the Minoan Lines ferry, see HSF Knossos Palace.
KnossosΚνωσσόςReconstructed North EntranceMap of CreteLocationHeraklion, Crete, GreeceRegionNorth central coast, 5 km (3.1 mi) southeast of HeraklionCoordinates35°17′53″N 25°9′47″E / 35.29806°N 25.16306°E / 35.29806; 25.16306TypeMinoan palaceAreaTotal inhabited area: 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi).
Palace: 14,000 m2 (150,000 sq ft)HistoryFoundedSettlement around 7000 BC; first palace around 1900 BCAbandonedPalace abandoned Late Minoan IIIC, 1380–1100 BCPeriodsNeolithic to Late Bronze AgeCulturesMinoan, MycenaeanSite notesExcavation dates1900–presentArchaeologistsMinos Kalokairinos, Arthur Evans, David George Hogarth, Duncan Mackenzie, Theodore Fyfe, Christian Doll, Piet de Jong, John Davies EvansConditionRestored and maintained for visitation.Management23rd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical AntiquitiesPublic accessYesWebsite
British School at Athens
Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism
Knossos (pronounced /(kə)ˈnɒsoʊs, -səs/; Ancient Greek: Κνωσσός, romanized: Knōssós, pronounced ; Linear B: 𐀒𐀜𐀰 Ko-no-so) is a Bronze Age archaeological site in Crete. The site was a major center of the Minoan civilization and is known for its association with the Greek myth of Theseus and the minotaur. It is located on the outskirts of Heraklion, and remains a popular tourist destination.
Knossos is dominated by the monumental Palace of Minos. Like other Minoan palaces, this building served as a combination religious and administrative center rather than a royal residence. The earliest parts of the palace were built around 1900 BC in an area that had been used for ritual feasting since the Neolithic. The palace was continually renovated and expanded over the next five centuries until its final destruction around 1350 BC.
The site was first excavated by Minos Kalokairinos in 1877. In 1900, Arthur Evans undertook more extensive excavations which unearthed most of the palace as well as many now-famous artifacts including the Bull-Leaping Fresco, the snake goddess figurines, and numerous Linear B tablets. While Evans is often credited for discovering the Minoan Civilization, his work is controversial in particular for his inaccurate and irreversible reconstructions of architectural remains at the site.
History
Neolithic period
Knossos was settled around 7000 BC during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, making it the oldest known settlement in Crete. The initial settlement was a hamlet of 25–50 people who lived in wattle and daub huts, kept animals, grew crops, and, in the event of tragedy, buried their children under the floor. Remains from this period are concentrated in the area which would later become the central court of the palace, suggesting continuity in ritual activity.
Bowl with fork handles, pottery. Knossos, Early Neolithic, 6500–5800 BC. Also a ladle, and a three-legged vessel from later periods
In the Early Neolithic (6000–5000 BC), a village of 200–600 persons occupied most of the area of the later palace and the slopes to the north and west. Residents lived in one- or two-room square houses of mud-brick walls set on socles of stone, either field stone or recycled stone artifacts. The inner walls were lined with mud-plaster. The roofs were flat, composed of mud over branches. The residents dug hearths at various locations in the center of the main room. This village had an unusual feature: one house under the West Court contained eight rooms and covered 50 m2 (540 sq ft). The walls were at right angles. The door was centered. Large stones were used for support under points of greater stress. The fact that distinct sleeping cubicles for individuals was not the custom suggests storage units of some sort.
The settlement of the Middle Neolithic (5000–4000 BC), housed 500–1000 people in more substantial and presumably more family-private homes. Construction was the same, except the windows and doors were timbered, a fixed, raised hearth occupied the center of the main room, and pilasters and other raised features (cabinets, beds) occupied the perimeter. Under the palace was the Great House, a 100 m2 (1,100 sq ft) area stone house divided into five rooms with meter-thick walls suggesting a second story was present. The presence of the house, which is unlikely to have been a private residence like the others, suggests a communal or public use; i.e., it may have been the predecessor of a palace. In the Late or Final Neolithic (two different but overlapping classification systems, around 4000–3000 BC), the population increased dramatically.
Bronze Age
See also: Minoan civilization, Minoan pottery, and Minoan chronology
Minoan chronology
Timespan
Period
3100–2650 BC
EM I
Prepalatial
2650–2200 BC
EM II
2200–2100 BC
EM III
2100–1925 BC
MM IA
1925–1875 BC
MM IB
Protopalatial
1875–1750 BC
MM II
1750–1700 BC
MM III
Neopalatial
1700–1625 BC
LM IA
1625–1470 BC
LM IB
1470–1420 BC
LM II
Postpalatial
1420–1330 BC
LM IIIA
1330–1200 BC
LM IIIB
1200–1075 BC
LM IIIC
It is believed that the first Cretan palaces were built soon after c. 2000 BC, in the early part of the Middle Minoan period, at Knossos and other sites including Malia, Phaestos and Zakro. These palaces, which were to set the pattern of organisation in Crete and Greece through the second millennium, were a sharp break from the Neolithic village system that had prevailed thus far. The building of the palaces implies greater wealth and a concentration of authority, both political and religious. It is suggested that they followed eastern models such as those at Ugarit on the Syrian coast and Mari on the upper Euphrates.
The early palaces were destroyed during Middle Minoan II, sometime before c. 1700, almost certainly by earthquakes to which Crete is prone. By c. 1650, they had been rebuilt on a grander scale and the period of the second palaces (c. 1650 – c. 1450) marks the height of Minoan prosperity. All the palaces had large central courtyards which may have been used for public ceremonies and spectacles. Living quarters, storage rooms and administrative centres were positioned around the court and there were also working quarters for skilled craftsmen.
The palace of Knossos was by far the largest, covering three acres with its main building alone and five acres when separate out-buildings are considered. It had a monumental staircase leading to state rooms on an upper floor. A ritual cult centre was on the ground floor. The palace stores occupied sixteen rooms, the main feature in these being the pithoi that were large storage jars up to five feet tall. They were mainly used for storage of oil, wool, wine, and grain. Smaller and more valuable objects were stored in lead-lined cists. The palace had bathrooms, toilets, and a drainage system. A theatre was found at Knossos that would have held 400 spectators (an earlier one has been found at Phaestos). The orchestral area was rectangular, unlike later Athenian models, and they were probably used for religious dances.
Building techniques at Knossos were typical. The foundations and lower course were stonework with the whole built on a timber framework of beams and pillars. The main structure was built of large, unbaked bricks. The roof was flat with a thick layer of clay over brushwood. Internal rooms were brightened by light-wells and columns of wood, many fluted, were used to lend both support and dignity. The chambers and corridors were decorated with frescoes showing scenes from everyday life and scenes of processions. Warfare is conspicuously absent. The fashions of the time may be seen in depictions of women in various poses. They had elaborately dressed hair and wore long dresses with flounced skirts and puffed sleeves. Their bodices were tightly drawn in round their waists and their breasts were exposed.
The prosperity of Knossos was primarily based upon the development of native Cretan resources such as oil, wine, and wool. Another factor was the expansion of trade, evidenced by Minoan pottery found in Egypt, Syria, Anatolia, Rhodes, the Cyclades, Sicily, and mainland Greece. There seem to have been strong Minoan connections with Rhodes, Miletus, and Samos. Cretan influence may be seen in the earliest scripts found in Cyprus. The main market for Cretan wares was the Cyclades where there was a demand for pottery, especially the stone vases. It is not known whether the islands were subject to Crete or just trading partners, but there certainly was strong Cretan influence.
Around 1450 BC, the palaces at Malia, Phaestos, and Zakros were destroyed, leaving Knossos as the sole surviving palace on Crete. In this final period, Knossos seems to have been influenced or perhaps ruled by people from the mainland. Greek became the administrative language and the material culture shows parallels with Mycenaean styles, for instance in the architecture of tombs and styles of pottery.
Around 1350 BC, the palace was destroyed and not rebuilt. The building was ravaged by a fire which triggered the collapse of the upper stories. It is not known whether this final destruction was intentional or the result of a natural disaster such as an earthquake. While parts of the palace may have been used for later ceremonies and the town of Knossos saw a resurgence around 1200 BC, the building and its associated institutions were never restored.
Classical and Roman period
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A coin of Knossos, depicting a Labyrinth
After the Bronze Age, the town of Knossos continued to be occupied. By 1000 BC, it had reemerged as one of the most important centers of Crete. The city had two ports, one at Amnisos and another at Heraklion.
According to the ancient geographer Strabo the Knossians colonized the city of Brundisium in Italy. In 343 BC, Knossos was allied with Philip II of Macedon. The city employed a Phocian mercenary named Phalaikos against their enemy, the city of Lyttus. The Lyttians appealed to the Spartans who sent their king Archidamus III against the Knossians. In Hellenistic times Knossos came under Egyptian influence, but despite considerable military efforts during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), the Ptolemies were not able to unify the warring city states. In the third century BC Knossos expanded its power to dominate almost the entire island, but during the Lyttian War in 220 BC it was checked by a coalition led by the Polyrrhenians and the Macedonian king Philip V.
Twenty years later, during the Cretan War (205–200 BC), the Knossians were once more among Philip's opponents and, through Roman and Rhodian aid, this time they managed to liberate Crete from the Macedonian influence. With Roman aid, Knossos became once more the first city of Crete, but, in 67 BC, the Roman Senate chose Gortys as the capital of the newly created province Creta et Cyrene. In 36 BC, Knossos became a Roman colony named Colonia Iulia Nobilis. The colony, which was built using Roman-style architecture, was situated within the vicinity of the palace, but only a small part of it has been excavated.
The identification of Knossos with the Bronze Age site is supported by the Roman coins that were scattered over the fields surrounding the pre-excavation site, then a large mound named Kephala Hill, elevation 85 m (279 ft) from current sea level. Many of them were inscribed with Knosion or Knos on the obverse and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse. The coins came from the Roman settlement of Colonia Julia Nobilis Cnossus, a Roman colony placed just to the north of, and politically including, Kephala. The Romans believed they were the first to colonize Knossos.
Post-Roman history
In 325, Knossos became a diocese, suffragan of the metropolitan see of Gortyna. In Ottoman Crete, the see of Knossos was in Agios Myron, 14 km to the southwest. The bishops of Gortyn continued to call themselves bishops of Knossos until the nineteenth century. The diocese was abolished in 1831.
During the ninth century AD the local population shifted to the new town of Chandax (modern Heraklion). By the thirteenth century, it was called Makruteikhos 'Long Wall'.
In its modern history, the name Knossos is used only for the archaeological site. It was extensively excavated by Arthur Evans in the early 20th century, and Evans' residence at the site served as a military headquarters during World War II. Knossos is now situated in the expanding suburbs of Heraklion.
Legends
Main article: Labyrinth
A labrys from Messara Plain
In Greek mythology, King Minos dwelt in a palace at Knossos. He had Daedalus construct a labyrinth, a very large maze in which to retain his son, the Minotaur. Daedalus also built a dancing floor for Queen Ariadne. The name "Knossos" was subsequently adopted by Arthur Evans.
As far as is currently known, it was William Stillman, the American consul who published Kalokairinos' discoveries, who, seeing the sign of the double axe (labrys) on the massive walls partly uncovered by Kalokairinos, first associated the complex with the labyrinth of legend, calling the ruins "labyrinthine." Evans agreed with Stillman. The myth of the Minotaur tells that Theseus, a prince from Athens, whose father was an ancient Greek king named Aegeus, the basis for the name of the Greek sea (the Aegean Sea), sailed to Crete, where he was forced to fight a terrible creature called the Minotaur. The Minotaur was a half man, half bull, and was kept in the Labyrinth – a building like a maze – by King Minos, the ruler of Crete. The king's daughter, Ariadne, fell in love with Theseus. Before he entered the Labyrinth to fight the Minotaur, Ariadne gave him a ball of thread which he unwound as he went into the Labyrinth so that he could find his way back by following it. Theseus killed the Minotaur, and then he and Ariadne fled from Crete, escaping her angry father.
As it turns out, there probably was an association of the word labyrinth, whatever its etymology, with ancient Crete. The sign of the double axe was used throughout the Mycenaean world as an apotropaic mark: its presence on an object would prevent it from being "killed". Axes were scratched on many of the stones of the palace. It appears in pottery decoration and is a motif of the Shrine of the Double Axes at the palace, as well as of many shrines throughout Crete and the Aegean. And finally, it appears in Linear B on Knossos Tablet Gg702 as da-pu2-ri-to-jo po-ti-ni-ja, which probably represents the Mycenaean Greek, Daburinthoio potniai, "to the mistress of the Labyrinth," recording the distribution of one jar of honey. A credible theory uniting all the evidence has yet to be formulated.
Knossos appears in other later legends and literature. Herodotus wrote that Minos, the legendary king of Knossos, established a thalassocracy (sea empire). Thucydides accepted the tradition and added that Minos cleared the sea of pirates, increased the flow of trade and colonised many Aegean islands. Other literature describes Rhadamanthus as the mythological lawgiver of Crete. Cleinias of Crete attributes to him the tradition of Cretan gymnasia and common meals in Book I of Plato's Laws, and describes the logic of the custom as enabling a constant state of war readiness.
Excavation history
Main article: Knossos (modern history)
The site of Knossos was identified by Minos Kalokairinos, who excavated parts of the West Wing in the winter of 1878-1879. The British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851–1941) and his team began long-term evacuations from 1900 to 1913, and from 1922 to 1930.
Its size far exceeded his original expectations, as did the discovery of two ancient scripts, which he termed Linear A and Linear B, to distinguish their writing from the pictographs also present. From the layering of the palace, Evans developed an archaeological concept of the civilization that used it, which he called Minoan, following the pre-existing custom of labelling all objects from the location Minoan.
Since their discovery, the ruins have been the centre of excavation, tourism, and occupation as a headquarters by governments warring over the control of the eastern Mediterranean in two world wars.
John Davies Evans (no relation to Arthur Evans) undertook further excavations in pits and trenches over the palace, focusing on the Neolithic.
The North Entrance, shown before and after Evans's controversial reconstruction work.
Palace complex
Further information: Minoan palaces
The Palace at Knossos was organized around an open central court, labeled (1) in this map.
The palace at Knossos was continuously renovated and modified throughout its existence. The currently visible palace is an accumulation of features from various periods, alongside modern reconstructions which are often inaccurate. Thus, the palace was never exactly as it appears today.
Layout
The Grandstand Fresco appears to show a ceremony taking place in the Central Court at Knossos.
Like other Minoan palaces, Knossos was arranged around a rectangular central court. This court was twice as long north-south as it was east-west, an orientation that would have maximized sunlight, and positioned important rooms towards the rising sun.
The central court is believed to have been used for rituals and festivals. One of these festivals is believed to be depicted in the Grandstand Fresco. Some scholars have suggested that bull-leaping would have taken place in the courts, though others have argued that the paving would not have been optimal for the animals or the people, and that the restricted access points would have kept the spectacle too far out of public view.
The 6 acres (24,000 m2) of the palace included a theater, a main entrance on each of its four cardinal faces, and extensive storerooms.
Location
View to the east from the northwest corner, in the foreground is the west wall of the Lustral Basin
View to the south, the hill in the background is Gypsades, between it and Knossos is the Vlychia and the South Entrance is on the left
Reception courtyard in the palace of Knossos, the royal family would entertain guests here, members of the court would stand on the tiered platforms in the background
The palace was built on Kephala Hill, 5 km (3.1 mi) south of the coast. The site is located at the confluence of two streams called the Vlychia and the Kairatos, which would have provided drinking water to the ancient inhabitants. Looming over the right bank of the Vlychia, on the opposite shore from Knossos, is Gypsades Hill, on whose eastern side the Minoans quarried their gypsum.
Though it was surrounded by the town of Knossos, this hill was never an acropolis in the Greek sense. It had no steep heights, remained unfortified, and was not very high off the surrounding ground.
The Royal Road is the last vestige of a Minoan road that connected the port to the palace complex. Today a modern road, Leoforos Knosou, built over or replacing the ancient roadway, serves that function and continues south.
Storage
Main article: Minoan pottery
A storage magazine with giant pithoi
The palace had extensive storage magazines which were used for agricultural commodities as well as tableware. Enormous sets of high quality tableware were stored in the palaces, often produced elsewhere in Crete. Pottery at Knossos is prolific, heavily-decorated and uniquely-styled by period. In Minoan chronology, the standard relative chronology is largely based on pottery styles and is thus used to assign dates to layers of the palace.
Water management
The palace had at least three separate water-management systems: one for supply, one for drainage of runoff, and one for drainage of waste water.
Aqueducts brought fresh water to Kephala hill from springs at Archanes, about 10 km away. Springs there are the source of the Kairatos river, in the valley in which Kephala is located. The aqueduct branched to the palace and to the town. Water was distributed at the palace by gravity feed through terracotta pipes to fountains and spigots. The pipes were tapered at one end to make a pressure fit, with rope for sealing. Unlike Mycenae, no hidden springs have been discovered.
Sanitation drainage was through a closed system leading to a sewer apart from the hill. The queen's megaron contained an example of the first known water-flushing system latrine adjoining the bathroom. This toilet was a seat over a drain that was flushed by pouring water from a jug. The bathtub located in the adjoining bathroom similarly had to be filled by someone heating, carrying, and pouring water, and must have been drained by overturning into a floor drain or by bailing. This toilet and bathtub were exceptional structures within the 1,300-room complex.
As the hill was periodically drenched by torrential rains, a runoff system was a necessity. It began with channels in the flat surfaces, which were zigzag and contained catchment basins to control the water velocity. Probably the upper system was open. Manholes provided access to parts that were covered.
Some links to photographs of parts of the water-collection-management system follow.
Runoff system. Sloped channels lead from a catchment basin.
Runoff system. Note the zig-zags and the catchment basin.
Ventilation
Due to its placement on the hill, the palace received sea breezes during the summer. It had porticoes and air shafts.
Minoan columns
The palace also includes the Minoan column, a structure notably different from Greek columns. Unlike the stone columns that are characteristic of Greek architecture, the Minoan column was constructed from the trunk of a cypress tree, which is common to the Mediterranean. While Greek columns are smaller at the top and wider at the bottom to create the illusion of greater height (entasis), the Minoan columns are smaller at the bottom and wider at the top, a result of inverting the cypress trunk to prevent sprouting once in place. The columns at the Palace of Minos were plastered, painted red and mounted on stone bases with round, pillow-like capitals.
Frescoes
Main articles: List of Aegean frescos and Minoan painting
Bull-leaping fresco now in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum, the duplicate shown here is fixed to the wall of the upper throne room
dolphins fresco
The palace at Knossos was a place of high color, as were Greek buildings in the classical period, and as are Greek buildings today. In the EM Period, the walls and pavements were coated with a pale red derived from red ochre. In addition to the background coloring, the walls displayed fresco panel murals, entirely of red. In the subsequent MM Period, with the development of the art, white and black were added, and then blue, green, and yellow. The pigments were derived from natural materials, such as ground hematite. Outdoor panels were painted on fresh stucco with the motif in relief; indoor, on fresh, pure plaster, softer than the plaster with additives ordinarily used on walls.
The decorative motifs were generally bordered scenes: humans, legendary creatures, animals, rocks, vegetation, and marine life. The earliest imitated pottery motifs. Most have been reconstructed from various numbers of flakes fallen to the floor. Evans had various technicians and artists work on the project, some artists, some chemists, and restorers. The symmetry and use of templates made possible a degree of reconstruction beyond what was warranted by only the flakes. For example, if evidence of the use of a certain template existed scantily in one place, the motif could be supplied from the template found somewhere else. Like the contemporary murals in the funerary art of the Egyptians, certain conventions were used that also assisted prediction. For example, male figures are shown with darker or redder skin than female figures.
Some archaeological authors have objected that Evans and his restorers were not discovering the palace and civilization as it was, but were creating a modern artifact based on contemporary art and architecture.
Throne Room
Main article: Throne Room, Knossos
The centerpiece of the "Minoan" palace was the so-called Throne Room or Little Throne Room, dated to LM II. This chamber has an alabaster seat identified by Evans as a "throne" built into the north wall. On three sides of the room are gypsum benches. A sort of tub area is opposite the throne, behind the benches, termed a lustral basin, which means that Evans and his team saw it as a place for ceremonial purification.
The room was accessed from an anteroom through double doors. The anteroom was connected to the central court, which was four steps up through four doors. The anteroom had gypsum benches also, with carbonized remains between two of them thought possibly, to be a wooden throne. Both rooms are located in the ceremonial complex on the west of the central court.
The throne is flanked by the Griffin Fresco, with two griffins couchant (lying down) facing the throne, one on either side. Griffins were important mythological creatures, also appearing on seal rings, which were used to stamp the identities of the bearers into pliable material, such as clay or wax.
The actual use of the room and the throne is unclear.
The two main theories are as follows:
The seat of a priest-king or a queen. This is the older theory, originating with Evans. In that regard Matz speaks of the "heraldic arrangement" of the griffins, meaning that they are more formal and monumental than previous Minoan decorative styles. In this theory, the Mycenaeans would have held court in this room, as they came to power in Knossos at about 1,450. The "lustral basin" and the location of the room in a sanctuary complex cannot be ignored; hence, "priest-king".
A room reserved for the epiphany of a goddess, who would have sat in the throne, either in effigy, or in the person of a priestess, or in imagination only. In that case the griffins would have been purely a symbol of divinity rather than a heraldic motif.
Additional speculation is, since the indentation of the seat seems to be shaped for a woman's buttocks, that the throne was made specifically for a female individual. Also, the extensive use of curved edges and the crescent moon carved at its base both symbolize femininity.
The lustral basin was originally thought to have had a ritual washing use, but the lack of drainage has more recently brought some scholars to doubt this theory. It is now speculated that the tank was used as an aquarium, or possibly a water reservoir.
The throne from which the room was named, not the only throne at Knossos
The throne room prior to reconstruction
Notable residents
Aenesidemus (first century BC), sceptical philosopher
Chersiphron (sixth century BC), architect
Epimenides (sixth century BC), seer and philosopher-poet
Ergoteles of Himera (fifth century BC), expatriate Olympic runner
Metagenes (6th century BC), architect
Minos (mythical), father of the Minotaur
See also
Magasa
Trapeza
Citations
^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 50. However, Davaras 1957, p. 5, an official guide book in use in past years, gives the dimensions of the palace as 150 m (490 ft) square, about 20,000 m2 (220,000 sq ft).
^ Hooker, J. T. (1991). Linear B: An Introduction. Bristol Classical Press. pp. 71, 50. ISBN 978-0-906515-62-4.
^ a b MacDonald 2012, p. 464
^ Düring, Bleda S (2011). The prehistory of Asia Minor: from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 126.
^ McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 12–17.
^ a b c Bury & Meiggs 1975, p. 9
^ a b Bury & Meiggs 1975, p. 10
^ Bury & Meiggs 1975, pp. 11–12
^ Bury & Meiggs 1975, pp. 17–18
^ Wroth, Warwick (1886). Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Crete and the Aegean Islands. Order of the Trustees. pp. xxxiv.
^ Strabo, 6,3,6.
^ Diodorus Siculus, XVI 61,3–4.
^ Polybius, Histories, IV 53–55.
^ Theocharis Detorakis, A History of Crete, Heraklion, 1994.
^ "Crete". UNRV.com. Retrieved 2016-11-24.
^ a b Sweetman, Rebecca J. (10 June 2011). "Roman Knossos: Discovering the City through the Evidence of Rescue Excavations". The Annual of the British School at Athens. 105: 339–379. doi:10.1017/S0068245400000459. S2CID 191885145.
^ Gere 2009, p. 25.
^ Chaniotis, Angelos (1999). From Minoan farmers to Roman traders: sidelights on the economy of ancient Crete. Stuttgart: Steiner. pp. 280–282.
^ a b c Demetrius Kiminas, The Ecumenical Patriarchate, 2009, ISBN 1434458768, p. 122
^ Oliver Rackham and Jennifer Moody (1996). The Making of the Cretan Landscape. Manchester University Press. pp. 94, 104. ISBN 0-7190-3646-1.
^ Homer, Iliad 18.590-2.
^ Evans 1894, p. 281.
^ Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1973). Documents in Mycenaean Greek (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 310, 538, 574.
^ Bury & Meiggs 1975, pp. 11–12
^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 50.
^ Watrous, L. Vance (2021). Minoan Crete: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–26. ISBN 9781108440493.
^ McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 12–17.
^ Preziosi, Donald; Hitchcock, Louise (1999). Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 92–93. ISBN 9780192842084.
^ McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 79.
^ a b Hitchcock, Louise (2012). "Minoan Architecture". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–199. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0014. ISBN 978-0199873609.
^ a b Lupack, Susan (2012). "Crete". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 251–262. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0019. ISBN 978-0199873609.
^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 84–85.
^ Macdonald, Colin F. (2003). "The Palaces of Minos at Knossos". Athena Review. 3 (3). Athena Publications, Inc. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 25 July 2018. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
^ Hall, HR (November 20, 1902). "The Mycenaean Discoveries in Crete". Nature. 67 (1725): 58. Bibcode:1902Natur..67...57H. doi:10.1038/067057a0. S2CID 4005358.
^ Schoep, Ilse (2012). "Crete". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–125. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0008. ISBN 978-0199873609.
^ JPEG image. minoancrete.com, Ian Swindale. Retrieved on 2013-05-12.
^ JPEG image. Dartmouth.edu. Retrieved on 2012-01-02.
^ C. Michael Hogan, Knossos fieldnotes, Modern Antiquarian (2007)
^ Evans 1921, pp. 532–536.
^ Gere 2009, Chapter Four: The Concrete Labyrinth: 1914–1935.
^ Matz, The Art of Crete and Early Greece Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2010, ISBN 1-163-81544-6, uses this term.
^ Peter Warren: Minoan Religion as Ritual Action, Volume 72 of Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, 1988, the University of Michigan
General and cited sources
Begg, D.J. Ian (2004), "An Archaeology of Palatial Mason's Marks on Crete", in Chapin, Ann P. (ed.), ΧΑΡΙΣ: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr, Hesperia Supplement 33, pp. 1–28
Benton, Janetta Rebold and Robert DiYanni.Arts and Culture: An introduction to the Humanities, Volume 1 (Prentice Hall. New Jersey, 1998), 64–70.
Bourbon, F. Lost Civilizations (New York, Barnes and Noble, 1998), 30–35.
Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (Fourth ed.). London: MacMillan Press. ISBN 0-333-15492-4.
Davaras, Costos (1957). Knossos and the Herakleion Museum: Brief Illustrated Archaeological Guide. Translated by Doumas, Alexandra. Athens: Hannibal Publishing House.
Driessen, Jan (1990). An early destruction in the Mycenaean palace at Knossos: a new interpretation of the excavation field-notes of the south-east area of the west wing. Acta archaeologica Lovaniensia, Monographiae, 2. Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit.
Evans, Arthur John (1894). "Primitive Pictographs and Script from Crete and the Peloponnese". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. XIV: 270–372. doi:10.2307/623973. JSTOR 623973. S2CID 163720432.
—— (1901). "Minoan Civilization at the Palace of Knosses" (PDF). Monthly Review.
—— (1906A) . Essai de classification des Époques de la civilization minoenne: résumé d'un discours fait au Congrès d'Archéologie à Athènes (Revised ed.). London: B. Quaritch.
—— (1906B). The prehistoric tombs of Knossos: I. The cemetery of Zapher Papoura, with a comparative note on a chamber-tomb at Milatos. II. The Royal Tomb at Isopata. Archaeologia 59 (1905) pages 391–562. London: B. Quaritch.
—— (1909). Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with Special Reference to the Archives of Knossos. Vol. I: The Hieroglyphic and Primitive Linear Classes: with an account of the discovery of the pre-Phoenician scripts, their place in the Minoan story and their Mediterranean relatives: with plates, tables and figures in the text. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
—— (1912). "The Minoan and Mycenaean Element in Hellenic Life". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 32: 277–287. doi:10.2307/624176. JSTOR 624176. S2CID 163279561.
—— (1914). "The 'Tomb of the Double Axes' and Associated Group, and the Pillar Rooms and Ritual Vessels of the 'Little Palace' at Knossos". Archaeologia. 65: 1–94. doi:10.1017/s0261340900010833.
——. The Palace of Minos (PM): a comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos. London: MacMillan and Co.
—— (1921). PM. Vol. I: The Neolithic and Early and Middle Minoan Ages.
—— (1928A). PM. Vol. II Part I: Fresh lights on origins and external relations: the restoration in town and palace after seismic catastrophe towards close of M. M. III and the beginnings of the New Era.
—— (1928B). PM (PDF). Vol. II Part II: Town-Houses in Knossos of the New Era and restored West Palace Section, with its state approach.
—— (1930). PM. Vol. III: The great transitional age in the northern and eastern sections of the Palace: the most brilliant record of Minoan art and the evidences of an advanced religion.
—— (1935A). PM. Vol. IV Part I: Emergence of outer western enceinte, with new illustrations, artistic and religious, of the Middle Minoan Phase, Chryselephantine "Lady of Sports", "Snake Room" and full story of the cult Late Minoan ceramic evolution and "Palace Style".
—— (1935B). PM. Vol. IV Part II: Camp-stool Fresco, long-robed priests and beneficent genii, Chryselephantine Boy-God and ritual hair-offering, Intaglio Types, M.M. III – L. M. II, late hoards of sealings, deposits of inscribed tablets and the palace stores, Linear Script B and its mainland extension, Closing Palatial Phase, Room of Throne and final catastrophe.
Evans, Joan (1936). PM. Vol. Index to the Palace of Minos.
—— (1952). Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with special reference to the archives of Knossos. Vol. II: The Archives of Knossos: clay tablets inscribed in linear script B: edited from notes, and supplemented by John L. Myres. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Gere, Cathy (2009). Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226289540.
Landenius Enegren, Hedvig. The People of Knossos: prosopographical studies in the Knossos Linear B archives (Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, 2008) (Boreas. Uppsala studies in ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern civilizations, 30).
MacDonald, Colin (2005). Knossos. Lost Cities of the Ancient World. London: Folio Society.
—— (2003). "The Palace of Minos at Knossos". Athena Review. 3 (3). Archived from the original on 2011-05-24. Retrieved 2006-10-08.
MacDonald, Colin (2012). "Knossos". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 529–542. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0040. ISBN 978-0199873609.
MacGillivray, Joseph Alexander (2000). Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth. New York: Hill and Wang (Farrar, Straus and Giroux). ISBN 9780809030354.
Pendlebury, JDS; Evans, Arthur (Forward) (2003) . A handbook to the palace of Minos at Knossos with its dependencies. Oxford; Belle Fourche, SD: Oxford University Press; Kessinger Publishing Company.
Whitelaw, Todd (2000). "Beyond the palace:A century of investigation at Europe's oldest city". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies: 223, 226.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Knossos.
"Knossos Tourist Information Page". Knossos-Palace.
Swindale, Ian. "Minoan Crete website: Knossos Pages".
"The Palace of Knossos". Odyssey: Adventures in Archaeology. odysseyadventures.ca. 2012.
vteMinoan civilizationTopics
Minoan art
Minoan chronology
Minoan pottery
Minoan seals
Minoan palaces
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Art and Architecture
Aegina Treasure
Akrotiri Boxer Fresco
Hagia Triada Sarcophagus
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La Parisienne (fresco)
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Stirrup jar
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Kamares ware
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Knossos board game
Minoan Genius
Minoan frescoes from Tell el-Dab'a
Malia altar stone
Malia Pendant
Minoan Moulds of Palaikastro
Minoan Bull-leaper
Papoura Hill Circular Structure
Vasiliki ware
Wall Paintings of Thera
Writing
Linear A
Linear B
Cretan hieroglyphs
Phaistos disc
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Minoan seals
See also
Arthur Evans
Heraklion Archaeological Museum
Archaeological Museum of Chania
Archaeological Museum of Sitia
vteCretePeople
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Epimenides
Nearchus
Georgios Chortatzis
Vitsentzos Kornaros
Marcus Musurus
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Eleftherios Venizelos
Nikos Kazantzakis
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Pleiades | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Knossos (modern history)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos_(modern_history)"},{"link_name":"HSF Knossos Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSF_Knossos_Palace"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Knossos_-_North_Portico_02.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crete_integrated_map-en.svg"},{"link_name":"Heraklion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"35°17′53″N 25°9′47″E / 35.29806°N 25.16306°E / 35.29806; 25.16306","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Knossos¶ms=35_17_53_N_25_9_47_E_type:landmark_region:GR-M_scale:2000"},{"link_name":"Minoan palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_palaces"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"Late Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"Minoan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_civilization"},{"link_name":"Minos Kalokairinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos_Kalokairinos"},{"link_name":"Arthur Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans"},{"link_name":"David George Hogarth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_George_Hogarth"},{"link_name":"Duncan Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"Theodore Fyfe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Fyfe"},{"link_name":"Christian Doll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Doll"},{"link_name":"Piet de Jong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet_de_Jong_(artist)"},{"link_name":"John Davies Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Davies_Evans"},{"link_name":"British School at Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170815064154/http://www.bsa.ac.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=124"},{"link_name":"Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2369"},{"link_name":"/(kə)ˈnɒsoʊs, -səs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[knɔː.sós]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek"},{"link_name":"Linear B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"archaeological site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_site"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Minoan civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"},{"link_name":"Greek myth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_myth"},{"link_name":"Theseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus"},{"link_name":"minotaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur"},{"link_name":"Heraklion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion"},{"link_name":"Minoan palaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_palaces"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"Minos Kalokairinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos_Kalokairinos"},{"link_name":"Arthur Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans"},{"link_name":"Bull-Leaping Fresco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull-Leaping_Fresco"},{"link_name":"snake goddess figurines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_snake_goddess_figurines"},{"link_name":"Linear B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B"}],"text":"Bronze Age archaeological site on the island of CreteFor the modern history of Knossos, see Knossos (modern history).\"Knossos palace\" redirects here. For the Minoan Lines ferry, see HSF Knossos Palace.KnossosΚνωσσόςReconstructed North EntranceMap of CreteLocationHeraklion, Crete, GreeceRegionNorth central coast, 5 km (3.1 mi) southeast of HeraklionCoordinates35°17′53″N 25°9′47″E / 35.29806°N 25.16306°E / 35.29806; 25.16306TypeMinoan palaceAreaTotal inhabited area: 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi).\nPalace: 14,000 m2 (150,000 sq ft)[1]HistoryFoundedSettlement around 7000 BC; first palace around 1900 BCAbandonedPalace abandoned Late Minoan IIIC, 1380–1100 BCPeriodsNeolithic to Late Bronze AgeCulturesMinoan, MycenaeanSite notesExcavation dates1900–presentArchaeologistsMinos Kalokairinos, Arthur Evans, David George Hogarth, Duncan Mackenzie, Theodore Fyfe, Christian Doll, Piet de Jong, John Davies EvansConditionRestored and maintained for visitation.Management23rd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical AntiquitiesPublic accessYesWebsite\nBritish School at Athens\n\nHellenic Ministry of Culture and TourismKnossos (pronounced /(kə)ˈnɒsoʊs, -səs/; Ancient Greek: Κνωσσός, romanized: Knōssós, pronounced [knɔː.sós]; Linear B: 𐀒𐀜𐀰 Ko-no-so[2]) is a Bronze Age archaeological site in Crete. The site was a major center of the Minoan civilization and is known for its association with the Greek myth of Theseus and the minotaur. It is located on the outskirts of Heraklion, and remains a popular tourist destination.Knossos is dominated by the monumental Palace of Minos. Like other Minoan palaces, this building served as a combination religious and administrative center rather than a royal residence. The earliest parts of the palace were built around 1900 BC in an area that had been used for ritual feasting since the Neolithic. The palace was continually renovated and expanded over the next five centuries until its final destruction around 1350 BC.The site was first excavated by Minos Kalokairinos in 1877. In 1900, Arthur Evans undertook more extensive excavations which unearthed most of the palace as well as many now-famous artifacts including the Bull-Leaping Fresco, the snake goddess figurines, and numerous Linear B tablets. While Evans is often credited for discovering the Minoan Civilization, his work is controversial in particular for his inaccurate and irreversible reconstructions of architectural remains at the site.","title":"Knossos"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pre-Pottery Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic"},{"link_name":"wattle and daub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wattle_and_daub"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McD12-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neolithic_pottery,_AMH,_079001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Early Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Neolithic"},{"link_name":"socles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socle_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Middle Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Neolithic"},{"link_name":"pilasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilaster"},{"link_name":"Late","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Neolithic"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Neolithic period","text":"Knossos was settled around 7000 BC during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, making it the oldest known settlement in Crete. The initial settlement was a hamlet of 25–50 people who lived in wattle and daub huts, kept animals, grew crops, and, in the event of tragedy, buried their children under the floor. Remains from this period are concentrated in the area which would later become the central court of the palace, suggesting continuity in ritual activity.[3][4][5]Bowl with fork handles, pottery. Knossos, Early Neolithic, 6500–5800 BC. Also a ladle, and a three-legged vessel from later periodsIn the Early Neolithic (6000–5000 BC), a village of 200–600 persons occupied most of the area of the later palace and the slopes to the north and west. Residents lived in one- or two-room square houses of mud-brick walls set on socles of stone, either field stone or recycled stone artifacts. The inner walls were lined with mud-plaster. The roofs were flat, composed of mud over branches. The residents dug hearths at various locations in the center of the main room. This village had an unusual feature: one house under the West Court contained eight rooms and covered 50 m2 (540 sq ft). The walls were at right angles. The door was centered. Large stones were used for support under points of greater stress. The fact that distinct sleeping cubicles for individuals was not the custom suggests storage units of some sort.[citation needed]The settlement of the Middle Neolithic (5000–4000 BC), housed 500–1000 people in more substantial and presumably more family-private homes. Construction was the same, except the windows and doors were timbered, a fixed, raised hearth occupied the center of the main room, and pilasters and other raised features (cabinets, beds) occupied the perimeter. Under the palace was the Great House, a 100 m2 (1,100 sq ft) area stone house divided into five rooms with meter-thick walls suggesting a second story was present. The presence of the house, which is unlikely to have been a private residence like the others, suggests a communal or public use; i.e., it may have been the predecessor of a palace. In the Late or Final Neolithic (two different but overlapping classification systems, around 4000–3000 BC), the population increased dramatically.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minoan civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"},{"link_name":"Minoan pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_pottery"},{"link_name":"Minoan chronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_chronology"},{"link_name":"Malia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malia_(archaeological_site)"},{"link_name":"Phaestos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaistos"},{"link_name":"Zakro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakros"},{"link_name":"Ugarit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugarit"},{"link_name":"Mari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mari,_Syria"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM9-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM9-6"},{"link_name":"pithoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pithos"},{"link_name":"cists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cist"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM9-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM10-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM10-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM12-8"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BM17-9"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McD12-3"}],"sub_title":"Bronze Age","text":"See also: Minoan civilization, Minoan pottery, and Minoan chronologyIt is believed that the first Cretan palaces were built soon after c. 2000 BC, in the early part of the Middle Minoan period, at Knossos and other sites including Malia, Phaestos and Zakro. These palaces, which were to set the pattern of organisation in Crete and Greece through the second millennium, were a sharp break from the Neolithic village system that had prevailed thus far. The building of the palaces implies greater wealth and a concentration of authority, both political and religious. It is suggested that they followed eastern models such as those at Ugarit on the Syrian coast and Mari on the upper Euphrates.[6]The early palaces were destroyed during Middle Minoan II, sometime before c. 1700, almost certainly by earthquakes to which Crete is prone. By c. 1650, they had been rebuilt on a grander scale and the period of the second palaces (c. 1650 – c. 1450) marks the height of Minoan prosperity. All the palaces had large central courtyards which may have been used for public ceremonies and spectacles. Living quarters, storage rooms and administrative centres were positioned around the court and there were also working quarters for skilled craftsmen.[6]The palace of Knossos was by far the largest, covering three acres with its main building alone and five acres when separate out-buildings are considered. It had a monumental staircase leading to state rooms on an upper floor. A ritual cult centre was on the ground floor. The palace stores occupied sixteen rooms, the main feature in these being the pithoi that were large storage jars up to five feet tall. They were mainly used for storage of oil, wool, wine, and grain. Smaller and more valuable objects were stored in lead-lined cists. The palace had bathrooms, toilets, and a drainage system.[6] A theatre was found at Knossos that would have held 400 spectators (an earlier one has been found at Phaestos). The orchestral area was rectangular, unlike later Athenian models, and they were probably used for religious dances.[7]Building techniques at Knossos were typical. The foundations and lower course were stonework with the whole built on a timber framework of beams and pillars. The main structure was built of large, unbaked bricks. The roof was flat with a thick layer of clay over brushwood. Internal rooms were brightened by light-wells and columns of wood, many fluted, were used to lend both support and dignity. The chambers and corridors were decorated with frescoes showing scenes from everyday life and scenes of processions. Warfare is conspicuously absent. The fashions of the time may be seen in depictions of women in various poses. They had elaborately dressed hair and wore long dresses with flounced skirts and puffed sleeves. Their bodices were tightly drawn in round their waists and their breasts were exposed.[7]The prosperity of Knossos was primarily based upon the development of native Cretan resources such as oil, wine, and wool. Another factor was the expansion of trade, evidenced by Minoan pottery found in Egypt, Syria, Anatolia, Rhodes, the Cyclades, Sicily, and mainland Greece. There seem to have been strong Minoan connections with Rhodes, Miletus, and Samos. Cretan influence may be seen in the earliest scripts found in Cyprus. The main market for Cretan wares was the Cyclades where there was a demand for pottery, especially the stone vases. It is not known whether the islands were subject to Crete or just trading partners, but there certainly was strong Cretan influence.[8]Around 1450 BC, the palaces at Malia, Phaestos, and Zakros were destroyed, leaving Knossos as the sole surviving palace on Crete. In this final period, Knossos seems to have been influenced or perhaps ruled by people from the mainland. Greek became the administrative language and the material culture shows parallels with Mycenaean styles, for instance in the architecture of tombs and styles of pottery.[9]Around 1350 BC, the palace was destroyed and not rebuilt. The building was ravaged by a fire which triggered the collapse of the upper stories. It is not known whether this final destruction was intentional or the result of a natural disaster such as an earthquake. While parts of the palace may have been used for later ceremonies and the town of Knossos saw a resurgence around 1200 BC, the building and its associated institutions were never restored.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monnaie_-_Drachme,_Argent,_Cnossos,_Cr%C3%A8te_-_btv1b8570697m_(2_of_2).jpg"},{"link_name":"Labyrinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labyrinth"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Amnisos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnisos"},{"link_name":"Heraklion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion"},{"link_name":"Strabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo"},{"link_name":"Brundisium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brindisi"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Philip II of Macedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon"},{"link_name":"Phocian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phocis"},{"link_name":"Phalaikos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalaikos"},{"link_name":"Lyttus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyttus"},{"link_name":"Spartans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta"},{"link_name":"Archidamus III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archidamus_III"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Chremonidean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chremonidean_War"},{"link_name":"Ptolemies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Lyttian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyttian_War"},{"link_name":"Polyrrhenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyrrhenia"},{"link_name":"Macedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedon"},{"link_name":"Philip V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Cretan War (205–200 BC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_War_(205%E2%80%93200_BC)"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Rhodian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodes"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Gortys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortys"},{"link_name":"Creta et Cyrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete_and_Cyrenaica"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unrv2-15"},{"link_name":"Roman colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_(Rome)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sweetman2011-16"},{"link_name":"Roman-style architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sweetman2011-16"},{"link_name":"Kephala Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kephala"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Classical and Roman period","text":"A coin of Knossos, depicting a Labyrinth[10]After the Bronze Age, the town of Knossos continued to be occupied. By 1000 BC, it had reemerged as one of the most important centers of Crete. The city had two ports, one at Amnisos and another at Heraklion.According to the ancient geographer Strabo the Knossians colonized the city of Brundisium in Italy.[11] In 343 BC, Knossos was allied with Philip II of Macedon. The city employed a Phocian mercenary named Phalaikos against their enemy, the city of Lyttus. The Lyttians appealed to the Spartans who sent their king Archidamus III against the Knossians.[12] In Hellenistic times Knossos came under Egyptian influence, but despite considerable military efforts during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), the Ptolemies were not able to unify the warring city states. In the third century BC Knossos expanded its power to dominate almost the entire island, but during the Lyttian War in 220 BC it was checked by a coalition led by the Polyrrhenians and the Macedonian king Philip V.[13]Twenty years later, during the Cretan War (205–200 BC), the Knossians were once more among Philip's opponents and, through Roman and Rhodian aid, this time they managed to liberate Crete from the Macedonian influence.[14] With Roman aid, Knossos became once more the first city of Crete, but, in 67 BC, the Roman Senate chose Gortys as the capital of the newly created province Creta et Cyrene.[15] In 36 BC, Knossos became a Roman colony named Colonia Iulia Nobilis.[16] The colony, which was built using Roman-style architecture,[16] was situated within the vicinity of the palace, but only a small part of it has been excavated.The identification of Knossos with the Bronze Age site is supported by the Roman coins that were scattered over the fields surrounding the pre-excavation site, then a large mound named Kephala Hill, elevation 85 m (279 ft) from current sea level. Many of them were inscribed with Knosion or Knos on the obverse and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse.[17] The coins came from the Roman settlement of Colonia Julia Nobilis Cnossus, a Roman colony placed just to the north of, and politically including, Kephala. The Romans believed they were the first to colonize Knossos.[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diocese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese"},{"link_name":"metropolitan see","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_see"},{"link_name":"Gortyna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyna"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pat-19"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Crete"},{"link_name":"Agios Myron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agios_Myron"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pat-19"},{"link_name":"Gortyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyn"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pat-19"},{"link_name":"Heraklion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion"},{"link_name":"In its modern history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos_(modern_history)"},{"link_name":"Arthur Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"}],"sub_title":"Post-Roman history","text":"In 325, Knossos became a diocese, suffragan of the metropolitan see of Gortyna.[19] In Ottoman Crete, the see of Knossos was in Agios Myron, 14 km to the southwest.[19] The bishops of Gortyn continued to call themselves bishops of Knossos until the nineteenth century.[20] The diocese was abolished in 1831.[19]During the ninth century AD the local population shifted to the new town of Chandax (modern Heraklion). By the thirteenth century, it was called Makruteikhos 'Long Wall'.In its modern history, the name Knossos is used only for the archaeological site. It was extensively excavated by Arthur Evans in the early 20th century, and Evans' residence at the site served as a military headquarters during World War II. Knossos is now situated in the expanding suburbs of Heraklion.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bronze_Ax_Messara_Crete.jpg"},{"link_name":"labrys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labrys"},{"link_name":"Messara Plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messara_Plain"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"Daedalus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus"},{"link_name":"labyrinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labyrinth"},{"link_name":"Minotaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur"},{"link_name":"Ariadne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariadne"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"labrys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labrys"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Theseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus"},{"link_name":"Aegeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegeus"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece"},{"link_name":"apotropaic mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotropaic_mark"},{"link_name":"Aegean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Linear B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Herodotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"thalassocracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalassocracy"},{"link_name":"Thucydides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Rhadamanthus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhadamanthus"},{"link_name":"Cleinias of Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleinias_of_Crete&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"gymnasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)"},{"link_name":"Plato's Laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s_Laws"}],"text":"A labrys from Messara PlainIn Greek mythology, King Minos dwelt in a palace at Knossos. He had Daedalus construct a labyrinth, a very large maze in which to retain his son, the Minotaur. Daedalus also built a dancing floor for Queen Ariadne.[21] The name \"Knossos\" was subsequently adopted by Arthur Evans.As far as is currently known, it was William Stillman, the American consul who published Kalokairinos' discoveries, who, seeing the sign of the double axe (labrys) on the massive walls partly uncovered by Kalokairinos, first associated the complex with the labyrinth of legend, calling the ruins \"labyrinthine.\"[22] Evans agreed with Stillman. The myth of the Minotaur tells that Theseus, a prince from Athens, whose father was an ancient Greek king named Aegeus, the basis for the name of the Greek sea (the Aegean Sea), sailed to Crete, where he was forced to fight a terrible creature called the Minotaur. The Minotaur was a half man, half bull, and was kept in the Labyrinth – a building like a maze – by King Minos, the ruler of Crete. The king's daughter, Ariadne, fell in love with Theseus. Before he entered the Labyrinth to fight the Minotaur, Ariadne gave him a ball of thread which he unwound as he went into the Labyrinth so that he could find his way back by following it. Theseus killed the Minotaur, and then he and Ariadne fled from Crete, escaping her angry father.As it turns out, there probably was an association of the word labyrinth, whatever its etymology, with ancient Crete. The sign of the double axe was used throughout the Mycenaean world as an apotropaic mark: its presence on an object would prevent it from being \"killed\". Axes were scratched on many of the stones of the palace. It appears in pottery decoration and is a motif of the Shrine of the Double Axes at the palace, as well as of many shrines throughout Crete and the Aegean. And finally, it appears in Linear B on Knossos Tablet Gg702 as da-pu2-ri-to-jo po-ti-ni-ja, which probably represents the Mycenaean Greek, Daburinthoio potniai, \"to the mistress of the Labyrinth,\" recording the distribution of one jar of honey.[23] A credible theory uniting all the evidence has yet to be formulated.Knossos appears in other later legends and literature. Herodotus wrote that Minos, the legendary king of Knossos, established a thalassocracy (sea empire). Thucydides accepted the tradition and added that Minos cleared the sea of pirates, increased the flow of trade and colonised many Aegean islands.[24] Other literature describes Rhadamanthus as the mythological lawgiver of Crete. Cleinias of Crete attributes to him the tradition of Cretan gymnasia and common meals in Book I of Plato's Laws, and describes the logic of the custom as enabling a constant state of war readiness.","title":"Legends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minos Kalokairinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos_Kalokairinos"},{"link_name":"Arthur Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Linear A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_A"},{"link_name":"Linear B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B"},{"link_name":"pictographs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictograph"},{"link_name":"John Davies Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Davies_Evans"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KnossosNorthEntranceCropped.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armon_Knossos_P1060093.JPG"}],"text":"The site of Knossos was identified by Minos Kalokairinos, who excavated parts of the West Wing in the winter of 1878-1879. The British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851–1941) and his team began long-term evacuations from 1900 to 1913, and from 1922 to 1930.[25][26]Its size far exceeded his original expectations, as did the discovery of two ancient scripts, which he termed Linear A and Linear B, to distinguish their writing from the pictographs also present. From the layering of the palace, Evans developed an archaeological concept of the civilization that used it, which he called Minoan, following the pre-existing custom of labelling all objects from the location Minoan.Since their discovery, the ruins have been the centre of excavation, tourism, and occupation as a headquarters by governments warring over the control of the eastern Mediterranean in two world wars.John Davies Evans (no relation to Arthur Evans) undertook further excavations in pits and trenches over the palace, focusing on the Neolithic.[27]The North Entrance, shown before and after Evans's controversial reconstruction work.","title":"Excavation history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minoan palaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_palaces"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Knossos_Map-T_Just_the_map.jpg"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prezhitchLB-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"Further information: Minoan palacesThe Palace at Knossos was organized around an open central court, labeled (1) in this map.The palace at Knossos was continuously renovated and modified throughout its existence. The currently visible palace is an accumulation of features from various periods, alongside modern reconstructions which are often inaccurate. Thus, the palace was never exactly as it appears today.[28][29]","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wall_painting_of_grandstand_or_sacred_grove_and_shrine_from_Knossos_(north_end_of_central_court)_-_London_BM_-_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HitchcockHandbook-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LupackHandbook-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"bull-leaping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull-leaping"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HitchcockHandbook-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LupackHandbook-31"}],"sub_title":"Layout","text":"The Grandstand Fresco appears to show a ceremony taking place in the Central Court at Knossos.Like other Minoan palaces, Knossos was arranged around a rectangular central court. This court was twice as long north-south as it was east-west, an orientation that would have maximized sunlight, and positioned important rooms towards the rising sun.[30][31][32][33]The central court is believed to have been used for rituals and festivals. One of these festivals is believed to be depicted in the Grandstand Fresco. Some scholars have suggested that bull-leaping would have taken place in the courts, though others have argued that the paving would not have been optimal for the animals or the people, and that the restricted access points would have kept the spectacle too far out of public view.[30][31]The 6 acres (24,000 m2) of the palace included a theater, a main entrance on each of its four cardinal faces, and extensive storerooms.","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armon_Knossos_P1060104.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Knossos_-_03.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KnossosCourt.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kephala Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kephala"},{"link_name":"Kairatos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kairatos"},{"link_name":"acropolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Location","text":"View to the east from the northwest corner, in the foreground is the west wall of the Lustral BasinView to the south, the hill in the background is Gypsades, between it and Knossos is the Vlychia and the South Entrance is on the leftReception courtyard in the palace of Knossos, the royal family would entertain guests here, members of the court would stand on the tiered platforms in the backgroundThe palace was built on Kephala Hill, 5 km (3.1 mi) south of the coast. The site is located at the confluence of two streams called the Vlychia and the Kairatos, which would have provided drinking water to the ancient inhabitants. Looming over the right bank of the Vlychia, on the opposite shore from Knossos, is Gypsades Hill, on whose eastern side the Minoans quarried their gypsum.Though it was surrounded by the town of Knossos, this hill was never an acropolis in the Greek sense. It had no steep heights, remained unfortified, and was not very high off the surrounding ground.[34]The Royal Road is the last vestige of a Minoan road that connected the port to the palace complex. Today a modern road, Leoforos Knosou, built over or replacing the ancient roadway, serves that function and continues south.","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pithoi_in_Knossos.jpg"},{"link_name":"pithoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pithos"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchoepHandbook-35"},{"link_name":"Minoan chronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_chronology"},{"link_name":"relative chronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_chronology"}],"sub_title":"Storage","text":"A storage magazine with giant pithoiThe palace had extensive storage magazines which were used for agricultural commodities as well as tableware. Enormous sets of high quality tableware were stored in the palaces, often produced elsewhere in Crete.[35] Pottery at Knossos is prolific, heavily-decorated and uniquely-styled by period. In Minoan chronology, the standard relative chronology is largely based on pottery styles and is thus used to assign dates to layers of the palace.","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aqueducts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)"},{"link_name":"springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)"},{"link_name":"Archanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archanes"},{"link_name":"Kairatos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnisos"},{"link_name":"terracotta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracotta"},{"link_name":"Mycenae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenae"},{"link_name":"sewer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_sewer"},{"link_name":"megaron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaron"},{"link_name":"latrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrine"},{"link_name":"floor drain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_drain"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Water management","text":"The palace had at least three separate water-management systems: one for supply, one for drainage of runoff, and one for drainage of waste water.Aqueducts brought fresh water to Kephala hill from springs at Archanes, about 10 km away. Springs there are the source of the Kairatos river, in the valley in which Kephala is located. The aqueduct branched to the palace and to the town. Water was distributed at the palace by gravity feed through terracotta pipes to fountains and spigots. The pipes were tapered at one end to make a pressure fit, with rope for sealing. Unlike Mycenae, no hidden springs have been discovered.Sanitation drainage was through a closed system leading to a sewer apart from the hill. The queen's megaron contained an example of the first known water-flushing system latrine adjoining the bathroom. This toilet was a seat over a drain that was flushed by pouring water from a jug. The bathtub located in the adjoining bathroom similarly had to be filled by someone heating, carrying, and pouring water, and must have been drained by overturning into a floor drain or by bailing. This toilet and bathtub were exceptional structures within the 1,300-room complex.As the hill was periodically drenched by torrential rains, a runoff system was a necessity. It began with channels in the flat surfaces, which were zigzag and contained catchment basins to control the water velocity. Probably the upper system was open. Manholes provided access to parts that were covered.Some links to photographs of parts of the water-collection-management system follow.Runoff system.[36] Sloped channels lead from a catchment basin.\nRunoff system.[37] Note the zig-zags and the catchment basin.","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"porticoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portico"}],"sub_title":"Ventilation","text":"Due to its placement on the hill, the palace received sea breezes during the summer. It had porticoes and air shafts.","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"columns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column"},{"link_name":"cypress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypress"},{"link_name":"entasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entasis"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"capitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)"}],"sub_title":"Minoan columns","text":"The palace also includes the Minoan column, a structure notably different from Greek columns. Unlike the stone columns that are characteristic of Greek architecture, the Minoan column was constructed from the trunk of a cypress tree, which is common to the Mediterranean. While Greek columns are smaller at the top and wider at the bottom to create the illusion of greater height (entasis), the Minoan columns are smaller at the bottom and wider at the top, a result of inverting the cypress trunk to prevent sprouting once in place.[38] The columns at the Palace of Minos were plastered, painted red and mounted on stone bases with round, pillow-like capitals.","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armon_Knossos_P1060030.JPG"},{"link_name":"Heraklion Archaeological Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion_Archaeological_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Delfiny_w_Knossos.jpg"},{"link_name":"fresco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco"},{"link_name":"murals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mural"},{"link_name":"hematite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematite"},{"link_name":"stucco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stucco"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"humans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human"},{"link_name":"legendary creatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendary_creature"},{"link_name":"animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Frescoes","text":"Bull-leaping fresco now in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum, the duplicate shown here is fixed to the wall of the upper throne roomdolphins frescoThe palace at Knossos was a place of high color, as were Greek buildings in the classical period, and as are Greek buildings today. In the EM Period, the walls and pavements were coated with a pale red derived from red ochre. In addition to the background coloring, the walls displayed fresco panel murals, entirely of red. In the subsequent MM Period, with the development of the art, white and black were added, and then blue, green, and yellow. The pigments were derived from natural materials, such as ground hematite. Outdoor panels were painted on fresh stucco with the motif in relief; indoor, on fresh, pure plaster, softer than the plaster with additives ordinarily used on walls.[39]The decorative motifs were generally bordered scenes: humans, legendary creatures, animals, rocks, vegetation, and marine life. The earliest imitated pottery motifs. Most have been reconstructed from various numbers of flakes fallen to the floor. Evans had various technicians and artists work on the project, some artists, some chemists, and restorers. The symmetry and use of templates made possible a degree of reconstruction beyond what was warranted by only the flakes. For example, if evidence of the use of a certain template existed scantily in one place, the motif could be supplied from the template found somewhere else. Like the contemporary murals in the funerary art of the Egyptians, certain conventions were used that also assisted prediction. For example, male figures are shown with darker or redder skin than female figures.Some archaeological authors have objected that Evans and his restorers were not discovering the palace and civilization as it was, but were creating a modern artifact based on contemporary art and architecture.[40]","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Throne Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne_room"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"LM II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_chronology"},{"link_name":"alabaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabaster"},{"link_name":"throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne"},{"link_name":"gypsum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsum"},{"link_name":"griffins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griffins"},{"link_name":"seal rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_(device)"},{"link_name":"heraldic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraldry"},{"link_name":"Mycenaeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"effigy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effigy"},{"link_name":"divinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divinity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Throne_Hall_Knossos.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Knossos_Thronsaal_(1900).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86._Knossos._Crete._Greece._%D0%98%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8C_2013_-_panoramio.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Throne Room","text":"The centerpiece of the \"Minoan\" palace was the so-called Throne Room or Little Throne Room,[41] dated to LM II. This chamber has an alabaster seat identified by Evans as a \"throne\" built into the north wall. On three sides of the room are gypsum benches. A sort of tub area is opposite the throne, behind the benches, termed a lustral basin, which means that Evans and his team saw it as a place for ceremonial purification.The room was accessed from an anteroom through double doors. The anteroom was connected to the central court, which was four steps up through four doors. The anteroom had gypsum benches also, with carbonized remains between two of them thought possibly, to be a wooden throne. Both rooms are located in the ceremonial complex on the west of the central court.The throne is flanked by the Griffin Fresco, with two griffins couchant (lying down) facing the throne, one on either side. Griffins were important mythological creatures, also appearing on seal rings, which were used to stamp the identities of the bearers into pliable material, such as clay or wax.The actual use of the room and the throne is unclear.The two main theories are as follows:The seat of a priest-king or a queen. This is the older theory, originating with Evans. In that regard Matz speaks of the \"heraldic arrangement\" of the griffins, meaning that they are more formal and monumental than previous Minoan decorative styles. In this theory, the Mycenaeans would have held court in this room, as they came to power in Knossos at about 1,450. The \"lustral basin\" and the location of the room in a sanctuary complex cannot be ignored; hence, \"priest-king\".\nA room reserved for the epiphany of a goddess,[42] who would have sat in the throne, either in effigy, or in the person of a priestess, or in imagination only. In that case the griffins would have been purely a symbol of divinity rather than a heraldic motif.Additional speculation is, since the indentation of the seat seems to be shaped for a woman's buttocks, that the throne was made specifically for a female individual. Also, the extensive use of curved edges and the crescent moon carved at its base both symbolize femininity.The lustral basin was originally thought to have had a ritual washing use, but the lack of drainage has more recently brought some scholars to doubt this theory. It is now speculated that the tank was used as an aquarium, or possibly a water reservoir.The throne from which the room was named, not the only throne at Knossos\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe throne room prior to reconstruction","title":"Palace complex"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aenesidemus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aenesidemus"},{"link_name":"Chersiphron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chersiphron"},{"link_name":"Epimenides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epimenides"},{"link_name":"Ergoteles of Himera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergoteles_of_Himera"},{"link_name":"Metagenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metagenes"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"}],"text":"Aenesidemus (first century BC), sceptical philosopher\nChersiphron (sixth century BC), architect\nEpimenides (sixth century BC), seer and philosopher-poet\nErgoteles of Himera (fifth century BC), expatriate Olympic runner\nMetagenes (6th century BC), architect\nMinos (mythical), father of the Minotaur","title":"Notable residents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Davaras 1957","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDavaras1957"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-906515-62-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906515-62-4"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-McD12_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-McD12_3-1"},{"link_name":"MacDonald 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMacDonald2012"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BM9_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BM9_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BM9_6-2"},{"link_name":"Bury & Meiggs 1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBuryMeiggs1975"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BM10_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BM10_7-1"},{"link_name":"Bury & Meiggs 1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBuryMeiggs1975"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BM12_8-0"},{"link_name":"Bury & Meiggs 1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBuryMeiggs1975"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BM17_9-0"},{"link_name":"Bury & Meiggs 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(2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 50. However, Davaras 1957, p. 5, an official guide book in use in past years, gives the dimensions of the palace as 150 m (490 ft) square, about 20,000 m2 (220,000 sq ft).\n\n^ Hooker, J. T. (1991). Linear B: An Introduction. Bristol Classical Press. pp. 71, 50. ISBN 978-0-906515-62-4.\n\n^ a b MacDonald 2012, p. 464\n\n^ Düring, Bleda S (2011). The prehistory of Asia Minor: from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 126.\n\n^ McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 12–17.\n\n^ a b c Bury & Meiggs 1975, p. 9\n\n^ a b Bury & Meiggs 1975, p. 10\n\n^ Bury & Meiggs 1975, pp. 11–12\n\n^ Bury & Meiggs 1975, pp. 17–18\n\n^ Wroth, Warwick (1886). Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Crete and the Aegean Islands. Order of the Trustees. pp. xxxiv.\n\n^ Strabo, 6,3,6.\n\n^ Diodorus Siculus, XVI 61,3–4.\n\n^ Polybius, Histories, IV 53–55.\n\n^ Theocharis Detorakis, A History of Crete, Heraklion, 1994.\n\n^ \"Crete\". UNRV.com. Retrieved 2016-11-24.\n\n^ a b Sweetman, Rebecca J. (10 June 2011). \"Roman Knossos: Discovering the City through the Evidence of Rescue Excavations\". The Annual of the British School at Athens. 105: 339–379. doi:10.1017/S0068245400000459. S2CID 191885145.\n\n^ Gere 2009, p. 25.\n\n^ Chaniotis, Angelos (1999). From Minoan farmers to Roman traders: sidelights on the economy of ancient Crete. Stuttgart: Steiner. pp. 280–282.\n\n^ a b c Demetrius Kiminas, The Ecumenical Patriarchate, 2009, ISBN 1434458768, p. 122\n\n^ Oliver Rackham and Jennifer Moody (1996). The Making of the Cretan Landscape. Manchester University Press. pp. 94, 104. ISBN 0-7190-3646-1.\n\n^ Homer, Iliad 18.590-2.\n\n^ Evans 1894, p. 281.\n\n^ Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1973). Documents in Mycenaean Greek (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 310, 538, 574.\n\n^ Bury & Meiggs 1975, pp. 11–12\n\n^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 50.\n\n^ Watrous, L. Vance (2021). Minoan Crete: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–26. ISBN 9781108440493.\n\n^ McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 12–17.\n\n^ Preziosi, Donald; Hitchcock, Louise (1999). Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 92–93. ISBN 9780192842084.\n\n^ McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 79.\n\n^ a b Hitchcock, Louise (2012). \"Minoan Architecture\". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–199. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0014. ISBN 978-0199873609.\n\n^ a b Lupack, Susan (2012). \"Crete\". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 251–262. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0019. ISBN 978-0199873609.\n\n^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 84–85.\n\n^ Macdonald, Colin F. (2003). \"The Palaces of Minos at Knossos\". Athena Review. 3 (3). Athena Publications, Inc. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 25 July 2018. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)\n\n^ Hall, HR (November 20, 1902). \"The Mycenaean Discoveries in Crete\". Nature. 67 (1725): 58. Bibcode:1902Natur..67...57H. doi:10.1038/067057a0. S2CID 4005358.\n\n^ Schoep, Ilse (2012). \"Crete\". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–125. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0008. ISBN 978-0199873609.\n\n^ JPEG image. minoancrete.com, Ian Swindale. Retrieved on 2013-05-12.\n\n^ JPEG image. Dartmouth.edu. Retrieved on 2012-01-02.\n\n^ C. Michael Hogan, Knossos fieldnotes, Modern Antiquarian (2007)\n\n^ Evans 1921, pp. 532–536.\n\n^ Gere 2009, Chapter Four: The Concrete Labyrinth: 1914–1935.\n\n^ Matz, The Art of Crete and Early Greece Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2010, ISBN 1-163-81544-6, uses this term.\n\n^ Peter Warren: Minoan Religion as Ritual Action, Volume 72 of Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, 1988, the University of Michigan","title":"Citations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bury, J. 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Ian (2004), \"An Archaeology of Palatial Mason's Marks on Crete\", in Chapin, Ann P. (ed.), ΧΑΡΙΣ: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr, Hesperia Supplement 33, pp. 1–28\nBenton, Janetta Rebold and Robert DiYanni.Arts and Culture: An introduction to the Humanities, Volume 1 (Prentice Hall. New Jersey, 1998), 64–70.\nBourbon, F. Lost Civilizations (New York, Barnes and Noble, 1998), 30–35.\nBury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (Fourth ed.). London: MacMillan Press. ISBN 0-333-15492-4.\nDavaras, Costos (1957). Knossos and the Herakleion Museum: Brief Illustrated Archaeological Guide. Translated by Doumas, Alexandra. Athens: Hannibal Publishing House.\nDriessen, Jan (1990). An early destruction in the Mycenaean palace at Knossos: a new interpretation of the excavation field-notes of the south-east area of the west wing. Acta archaeologica Lovaniensia, Monographiae, 2. Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit.\nEvans, Arthur John (1894). \"Primitive Pictographs and Script from Crete and the Peloponnese\". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. XIV: 270–372. doi:10.2307/623973. JSTOR 623973. S2CID 163720432.\n—— (1901). \"Minoan Civilization at the Palace of Knosses\" (PDF). Monthly Review.\n—— (1906A) [1905]. Essai de classification des Époques de la civilization minoenne: résumé d'un discours fait au Congrès d'Archéologie à Athènes (Revised ed.). London: B. Quaritch.\n—— (1906B). The prehistoric tombs of Knossos: I. The cemetery of Zapher Papoura, with a comparative note on a chamber-tomb at Milatos. II. The Royal Tomb at Isopata. Archaeologia 59 (1905) pages 391–562. London: B. Quaritch.\n—— (1909). Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with Special Reference to the Archives of Knossos. Vol. I: The Hieroglyphic and Primitive Linear Classes: with an account of the discovery of the pre-Phoenician scripts, their place in the Minoan story and their Mediterranean relatives: with plates, tables and figures in the text. Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n—— (1912). \"The Minoan and Mycenaean Element in Hellenic Life\". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 32: 277–287. doi:10.2307/624176. JSTOR 624176. S2CID 163279561.\n—— (1914). \"The 'Tomb of the Double Axes' and Associated Group, and the Pillar Rooms and Ritual Vessels of the 'Little Palace' at Knossos\". Archaeologia. 65: 1–94. doi:10.1017/s0261340900010833.\n——. The Palace of Minos (PM): a comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos. London: MacMillan and Co.\n—— (1921). PM. Vol. I: The Neolithic and Early and Middle Minoan Ages.\n—— (1928A). PM. Vol. II Part I: Fresh lights on origins and external relations: the restoration in town and palace after seismic catastrophe towards close of M. M. III and the beginnings of the New Era.\n—— (1928B). PM (PDF). Vol. II Part II: Town-Houses in Knossos of the New Era and restored West Palace Section, with its state approach.\n—— (1930). PM. Vol. III: The great transitional age in the northern and eastern sections of the Palace: the most brilliant record of Minoan art and the evidences of an advanced religion.\n—— (1935A). PM. Vol. IV Part I: Emergence of outer western enceinte, with new illustrations, artistic and religious, of the Middle Minoan Phase, Chryselephantine \"Lady of Sports\", \"Snake Room\" and full story of the cult Late Minoan ceramic evolution and \"Palace Style\".\n—— (1935B). PM. Vol. IV Part II: Camp-stool Fresco, long-robed priests and beneficent genii, Chryselephantine Boy-God and ritual hair-offering, Intaglio Types, M.M. III – L. M. II, late hoards of sealings, deposits of inscribed tablets and the palace stores, Linear Script B and its mainland extension, Closing Palatial Phase, Room of Throne and final catastrophe.\nEvans, Joan (1936). PM. Vol. Index to the Palace of Minos.\n—— (1952). Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with special reference to the archives of Knossos. Vol. II: The Archives of Knossos: clay tablets inscribed in linear script B: edited from notes, and supplemented by John L. Myres. Oxford: Clarendon Press.\nGere, Cathy (2009). Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226289540.\nLandenius Enegren, Hedvig. The People of Knossos: prosopographical studies in the Knossos Linear B archives (Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, 2008) (Boreas. Uppsala studies in ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern civilizations, 30).\nMacDonald, Colin (2005). Knossos. Lost Cities of the Ancient World. London: Folio Society.\n—— (2003). \"The Palace of Minos at Knossos\". Athena Review. 3 (3). Archived from the original on 2011-05-24. Retrieved 2006-10-08.\nMacDonald, Colin (2012). \"Knossos\". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 529–542. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0040. ISBN 978-0199873609.\nMacGillivray, Joseph Alexander (2000). Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth. New York: Hill and Wang (Farrar, Straus and Giroux). ISBN 9780809030354.\nPendlebury, JDS; Evans, Arthur (Forward) (2003) [1954]. A handbook to the palace of Minos at Knossos with its dependencies. Oxford; Belle Fourche, SD: Oxford University Press; Kessinger Publishing Company.\nWhitelaw, Todd (2000). \"Beyond the palace:A century of investigation at Europe's oldest city\". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies: 223, 226.","title":"General and cited sources"}] | [{"image_text":"Bowl with fork handles, pottery. Knossos, Early Neolithic, 6500–5800 BC. Also a ladle, and a three-legged vessel from later periods","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Neolithic_pottery%2C_AMH%2C_079001.jpg/220px-Neolithic_pottery%2C_AMH%2C_079001.jpg"},{"image_text":"A coin of Knossos, depicting a Labyrinth[10]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Monnaie_-_Drachme%2C_Argent%2C_Cnossos%2C_Cr%C3%A8te_-_btv1b8570697m_%282_of_2%29.jpg/220px-Monnaie_-_Drachme%2C_Argent%2C_Cnossos%2C_Cr%C3%A8te_-_btv1b8570697m_%282_of_2%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A labrys from Messara Plain","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bronze_Ax_Messara_Crete.jpg/220px-Bronze_Ax_Messara_Crete.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Palace at Knossos was organized around an open central court, labeled (1) in this map.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Knossos_Map-T_Just_the_map.jpg/225px-Knossos_Map-T_Just_the_map.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Grandstand Fresco appears to show a ceremony taking place in the Central Court at Knossos.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Wall_painting_of_grandstand_or_sacred_grove_and_shrine_from_Knossos_%28north_end_of_central_court%29_-_London_BM_-_02.jpg/250px-Wall_painting_of_grandstand_or_sacred_grove_and_shrine_from_Knossos_%28north_end_of_central_court%29_-_London_BM_-_02.jpg"},{"image_text":"View to the east from the northwest corner, in the foreground is the west wall of the Lustral Basin","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Armon_Knossos_P1060104.JPG/220px-Armon_Knossos_P1060104.JPG"},{"image_text":"View to the south, the hill in the background is Gypsades, between it and Knossos is the Vlychia and the South Entrance is on the left","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Knossos_-_03.jpg/220px-Knossos_-_03.jpg"},{"image_text":"Reception courtyard in the palace of Knossos, the royal family would entertain guests here, members of the court would stand on the tiered platforms in the background","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/KnossosCourt.jpg/220px-KnossosCourt.jpg"},{"image_text":"A storage magazine with giant pithoi","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Pithoi_in_Knossos.jpg/220px-Pithoi_in_Knossos.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bull-leaping fresco now in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum, the duplicate shown here is fixed to the wall of the upper throne room","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Armon_Knossos_P1060030.JPG/220px-Armon_Knossos_P1060030.JPG"},{"image_text":"dolphins fresco","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Delfiny_w_Knossos.jpg/220px-Delfiny_w_Knossos.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Magasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magasa,_Crete"},{"title":"Trapeza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapeza,_Crete"}] | [{"reference":"McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 50.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hooker, J. T. (1991). Linear B: An Introduction. Bristol Classical Press. pp. 71, 50. ISBN 978-0-906515-62-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906515-62-4","url_text":"978-0-906515-62-4"}]},{"reference":"Düring, Bleda S (2011). The prehistory of Asia Minor: from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 126.","urls":[]},{"reference":"McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 12–17.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Wroth, Warwick (1886). Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Crete and the Aegean Islands. Order of the Trustees. pp. xxxiv.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warwick_Wroth","url_text":"Wroth, Warwick"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cataloguegreekc00wrotgoog","url_text":"Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Crete and the Aegean Islands"}]},{"reference":"\"Crete\". UNRV.com. Retrieved 2016-11-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.unrv.com/provinces/crete.php","url_text":"\"Crete\""}]},{"reference":"Sweetman, Rebecca J. (10 June 2011). \"Roman Knossos: Discovering the City through the Evidence of Rescue Excavations\". The Annual of the British School at Athens. 105: 339–379. doi:10.1017/S0068245400000459. S2CID 191885145.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068245400000459","url_text":"10.1017/S0068245400000459"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191885145","url_text":"191885145"}]},{"reference":"Chaniotis, Angelos (1999). From Minoan farmers to Roman traders: sidelights on the economy of ancient Crete. Stuttgart: Steiner. pp. 280–282.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Oliver Rackham and Jennifer Moody (1996). The Making of the Cretan Landscape. Manchester University Press. pp. 94, 104. ISBN 0-7190-3646-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-3646-1","url_text":"0-7190-3646-1"}]},{"reference":"Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1973). Documents in Mycenaean Greek (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 310, 538, 574.","urls":[]},{"reference":"McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 50.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Watrous, L. Vance (2021). Minoan Crete: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–26. ISBN 9781108440493.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108440493","url_text":"9781108440493"}]},{"reference":"McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 12–17.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Preziosi, Donald; Hitchcock, Louise (1999). Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 92–93. ISBN 9780192842084.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192842084","url_text":"9780192842084"}]},{"reference":"McEnroe, John C (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: constructing identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 79.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hitchcock, Louise (2012). \"Minoan Architecture\". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–199. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0014. ISBN 978-0199873609.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199873609.013.0014","url_text":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199873609","url_text":"978-0199873609"}]},{"reference":"Lupack, Susan (2012). \"Crete\". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 251–262. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0019. ISBN 978-0199873609.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199873609.013.0019","url_text":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0019"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199873609","url_text":"978-0199873609"}]},{"reference":"McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 84–85.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Macdonald, Colin F. (2003). \"The Palaces of Minos at Knossos\". Athena Review. 3 (3). Athena Publications, Inc. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 25 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110524083709/http://www.athenapub.com/11knoss.htm","url_text":"\"The Palaces of Minos at Knossos\""},{"url":"http://www.athenapub.com/11knoss.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hall, HR (November 20, 1902). \"The Mycenaean Discoveries in Crete\". Nature. 67 (1725): 58. Bibcode:1902Natur..67...57H. doi:10.1038/067057a0. S2CID 4005358.","urls":[{"url":"https://zenodo.org/record/1429412","url_text":"\"The Mycenaean Discoveries in Crete\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1902Natur..67...57H","url_text":"1902Natur..67...57H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F067057a0","url_text":"10.1038/067057a0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4005358","url_text":"4005358"}]},{"reference":"Schoep, Ilse (2012). \"Crete\". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–125. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0008. ISBN 978-0199873609.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199873609.013.0008","url_text":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0008"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199873609","url_text":"978-0199873609"}]},{"reference":"Begg, D.J. Ian (2004), \"An Archaeology of Palatial Mason's Marks on Crete\", in Chapin, Ann P. (ed.), ΧΑΡΙΣ: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr, Hesperia Supplement 33, pp. 1–28","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (Fourth ed.). London: MacMillan Press. ISBN 0-333-15492-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Bury","url_text":"Bury, J. B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Meiggs","url_text":"Meiggs, Russell"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-15492-4","url_text":"0-333-15492-4"}]},{"reference":"Davaras, Costos (1957). Knossos and the Herakleion Museum: Brief Illustrated Archaeological Guide. Translated by Doumas, Alexandra. Athens: Hannibal Publishing House.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Driessen, Jan (1990). An early destruction in the Mycenaean palace at Knossos: a new interpretation of the excavation field-notes of the south-east area of the west wing. Acta archaeologica Lovaniensia, Monographiae, 2. Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Evans, Arthur John (1894). \"Primitive Pictographs and Script from Crete and the Peloponnese\". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. XIV: 270–372. doi:10.2307/623973. JSTOR 623973. S2CID 163720432.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UlQrAAAAYAAJ&q=knossos+labyrinth&pg=PA281","url_text":"\"Primitive Pictographs and Script from Crete and the Peloponnese\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F623973","url_text":"10.2307/623973"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/623973","url_text":"623973"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163720432","url_text":"163720432"}]},{"reference":"—— (1901). \"Minoan Civilization at the Palace of Knosses\" (PDF). Monthly Review.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cas.umt.edu/anthropology/courses/anth254/documents/MinoanCivilizationatthePalaceofKnossos.pdf","url_text":"\"Minoan Civilization at the Palace of Knosses\""}]},{"reference":"—— (1906A) [1905]. Essai de classification des Époques de la civilization minoenne: résumé d'un discours fait au Congrès d'Archéologie à Athènes (Revised ed.). London: B. Quaritch.","urls":[{"url":"http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/evans1906/0012/scroll?sid=7b9027ba7304524bcf4eb79a86a9d3e3","url_text":"Essai de classification des Époques de la civilization minoenne: résumé d'un discours fait au Congrès d'Archéologie à Athènes"}]},{"reference":"—— (1906B). The prehistoric tombs of Knossos: I. The cemetery of Zapher Papoura, with a comparative note on a chamber-tomb at Milatos. II. The Royal Tomb at Isopata. Archaeologia 59 (1905) pages 391–562. London: B. Quaritch.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/prehistorictombs00evan#page/n3/mode/2up","url_text":"The prehistoric tombs of Knossos: I. The cemetery of Zapher Papoura, with a comparative note on a chamber-tomb at Milatos. II. The Royal Tomb at Isopata"}]},{"reference":"—— (1909). Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with Special Reference to the Archives of Knossos. Vol. I: The Hieroglyphic and Primitive Linear Classes: with an account of the discovery of the pre-Phoenician scripts, their place in the Minoan story and their Mediterranean relatives: with plates, tables and figures in the text. Oxford: Clarendon Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/scriptaminoawrit01evanuoft#page/n5/mode/2up","url_text":"Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with Special Reference to the Archives of Knossos"}]},{"reference":"—— (1912). \"The Minoan and Mycenaean Element in Hellenic Life\". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 32: 277–287. doi:10.2307/624176. JSTOR 624176. S2CID 163279561.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/journalofhelleni32sociuoft#page/276/mode/2up/search/Minoan","url_text":"\"The Minoan and Mycenaean Element in Hellenic Life\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F624176","url_text":"10.2307/624176"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/624176","url_text":"624176"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163279561","url_text":"163279561"}]},{"reference":"—— (1914). \"The 'Tomb of the Double Axes' and Associated Group, and the Pillar Rooms and Ritual Vessels of the 'Little Palace' at Knossos\". Archaeologia. 65: 1–94. doi:10.1017/s0261340900010833.","urls":[{"url":"http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/evans1914/0021?sid=4d5171c9f3498b7399864c2eb2aac0e8","url_text":"\"The 'Tomb of the Double Axes' and Associated Group, and the Pillar Rooms and Ritual Vessels of the 'Little Palace' at Knossos\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0261340900010833","url_text":"10.1017/s0261340900010833"}]},{"reference":"——. The Palace of Minos (PM): a comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos. London: MacMillan and Co.","urls":[]},{"reference":"—— (1921). PM. Vol. I: The Neolithic and Early and Middle Minoan Ages.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/palaceofminoscom01evanuoft","url_text":"PM"}]},{"reference":"—— (1928A). PM. Vol. II Part I: Fresh lights on origins and external relations: the restoration in town and palace after seismic catastrophe towards close of M. M. III and the beginnings of the New Era.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57699","url_text":"PM"}]},{"reference":"—— (1928B). PM (PDF). Vol. II Part II: Town-Houses in Knossos of the New Era and restored West Palace Section, with its state approach.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/download/in.gov.ignca.6669/6669.pdf","url_text":"PM"}]},{"reference":"—— (1930). PM. Vol. III: The great transitional age in the northern and eastern sections of the Palace: the most brilliant record of Minoan art and the evidences of an advanced religion.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/palaceofminoscom03evan","url_text":"PM"}]},{"reference":"—— (1935A). PM. Vol. IV Part I: Emergence of outer western enceinte, with new illustrations, artistic and religious, of the Middle Minoan Phase, Chryselephantine \"Lady of Sports\", \"Snake Room\" and full story of the cult Late Minoan ceramic evolution and \"Palace Style\".","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cu31924081667812","url_text":"PM"}]},{"reference":"—— (1935B). PM. Vol. IV Part II: Camp-stool Fresco, long-robed priests and beneficent genii, Chryselephantine Boy-God and ritual hair-offering, Intaglio Types, M.M. III – L. M. II, late hoards of sealings, deposits of inscribed tablets and the palace stores, Linear Script B and its mainland extension, Closing Palatial Phase, Room of Throne and final catastrophe.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.211059","url_text":"PM"}]},{"reference":"Evans, Joan (1936). PM. Vol. Index to the Palace of Minos.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cu31924081667846","url_text":"PM"}]},{"reference":"—— (1952). Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with special reference to the archives of Knossos. Vol. II: The Archives of Knossos: clay tablets inscribed in linear script B: edited from notes, and supplemented by John L. Myres. Oxford: Clarendon Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/scriptaminoawrit02evanuoft#page/n7/mode/2up","url_text":"Scripta Minoa: The Written Documents of Minoan Crete: with special reference to the archives of Knossos"}]},{"reference":"Gere, Cathy (2009). Knossos and the Prophets of Modernism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226289540.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226289540","url_text":"978-0226289540"}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, Colin (2005). Knossos. Lost Cities of the Ancient World. London: Folio Society.","urls":[]},{"reference":"—— (2003). \"The Palace of Minos at Knossos\". Athena Review. 3 (3). Archived from the original on 2011-05-24. Retrieved 2006-10-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110524083709/http://www.athenapub.com/11knoss.htm","url_text":"\"The Palace of Minos at Knossos\""},{"url":"http://www.athenapub.com/11knoss.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, Colin (2012). \"Knossos\". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 529–542. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0040. ISBN 978-0199873609.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199873609.013.0040","url_text":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0040"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199873609","url_text":"978-0199873609"}]},{"reference":"MacGillivray, Joseph Alexander (2000). Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth. New York: Hill and Wang (Farrar, Straus and Giroux). ISBN 9780809030354.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/minotaursirarthu00macg","url_text":"Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780809030354","url_text":"9780809030354"}]},{"reference":"Pendlebury, JDS; Evans, Arthur (Forward) (2003) [1954]. A handbook to the palace of Minos at Knossos with its dependencies. Oxford; Belle Fourche, SD: Oxford University Press; Kessinger Publishing Company.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Whitelaw, Todd (2000). \"Beyond the palace:A century of investigation at Europe's oldest city\". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies: 223, 226.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/2461462","url_text":"\"Beyond the palace:A century of investigation at Europe's oldest city\""}]},{"reference":"\"Knossos Tourist Information Page\". Knossos-Palace.","urls":[{"url":"https://knossos-palace.gr/","url_text":"\"Knossos Tourist Information Page\""}]},{"reference":"Swindale, Ian. \"Minoan Crete website: Knossos Pages\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.minoancrete.com/knossos.htm","url_text":"\"Minoan Crete website: Knossos Pages\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Palace of Knossos\". Odyssey: Adventures in Archaeology. odysseyadventures.ca. 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.odysseyadventures.ca/articles/knossos/articleKnossos01.html","url_text":"\"The Palace of Knossos\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Knossos¶ms=35_17_53_N_25_9_47_E_type:landmark_region:GR-M_scale:2000","external_links_name":"35°17′53″N 25°9′47″E / 35.29806°N 25.16306°E / 35.29806; 25.16306"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Knossos¶ms=35_17_53_N_25_9_47_E_type:landmark_region:GR-M_scale:2000","external_links_name":"35°17′53″N 25°9′47″E / 35.29806°N 25.16306°E / 35.29806; 25.16306"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170815064154/http://www.bsa.ac.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=124","external_links_name":"British School at Athens"},{"Link":"http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2369","external_links_name":"Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/cataloguegreekc00wrotgoog","external_links_name":"Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Crete and the Aegean Islands"},{"Link":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D53","external_links_name":"IV 53–55"},{"Link":"http://www.unrv.com/provinces/crete.php","external_links_name":"\"Crete\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068245400000459","external_links_name":"10.1017/S0068245400000459"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191885145","external_links_name":"191885145"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199873609.013.0014","external_links_name":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0014"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199873609.013.0019","external_links_name":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0019"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110524083709/http://www.athenapub.com/11knoss.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Palaces of Minos at Knossos\""},{"Link":"http://www.athenapub.com/11knoss.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://zenodo.org/record/1429412","external_links_name":"\"The Mycenaean Discoveries in Crete\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1902Natur..67...57H","external_links_name":"1902Natur..67...57H"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F067057a0","external_links_name":"10.1038/067057a0"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4005358","external_links_name":"4005358"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199873609.013.0008","external_links_name":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0008"},{"Link":"http://www.minoancrete.com/knossos13b.jpg","external_links_name":"JPEG image"},{"Link":"http://www.dartmouth.edu/~classics/greece2003/updates/week1_2/0401Knossos8Web.jpg","external_links_name":"JPEG image"},{"Link":"http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10854/knossos.html#fieldnotes","external_links_name":"Knossos fieldnotes"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UlQrAAAAYAAJ&q=knossos+labyrinth&pg=PA281","external_links_name":"\"Primitive Pictographs and Script from Crete and the Peloponnese\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F623973","external_links_name":"10.2307/623973"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/623973","external_links_name":"623973"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163720432","external_links_name":"163720432"},{"Link":"http://www.cas.umt.edu/anthropology/courses/anth254/documents/MinoanCivilizationatthePalaceofKnossos.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minoan Civilization at the Palace of Knosses\""},{"Link":"http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/evans1906/0012/scroll?sid=7b9027ba7304524bcf4eb79a86a9d3e3","external_links_name":"Essai de classification des Époques de la civilization minoenne: résumé d'un discours fait au Congrès d'Archéologie à Athènes"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/prehistorictombs00evan#page/n3/mode/2up","external_links_name":"The prehistoric tombs of Knossos: I. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_based_system | Knowledge-based systems | ["1 Components","2 Aspects and development of early systems","2.1 Knowledge-based vs. expert systems","2.2 Rule-based systems","2.3 Meta-reasoning","2.4 Widening of application","2.5 Advances driven by enhanced architecture","2.6 Advances in automated reasoning","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"] | Computer program that uses a knowledge base and reasoning to solve problems
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For the academic journal, see Knowledge-Based Systems (journal).
A knowledge-based system (KBS) is a computer program that reasons and uses a knowledge base to solve complex problems. Knowledge-based systems were the focus of early artificial intelligence researchers in the 1980s. The term can refer to a broad range of systems. However, all knowledge-based systems have two defining components: an attempt to represent knowledge explicitly, called a knowledge base, and a reasoning system that allows them to derive new knowledge, known as an inference engine.
Components
The knowledge base contains domain-specific facts and rules about a problem domain (rather than knowledge implicitly embedded in procedural code, as in a conventional computer program). In addition, the knowledge may be structured by means of a subsumption ontology, frames, conceptual graph, or logical assertions.
The inference engine uses general-purpose reasoning methods to infer new knowledge and to solve problems in the problem domain. Most commonly, it employs forward chaining or backward chaining. Other approaches include the use of automated theorem proving, logic programming, blackboard systems, and term rewriting systems such as Constraint Handling Rules (CHR). These more formal approaches are covered in detail in the Wikipedia article on knowledge representation and reasoning.
Aspects and development of early systems
Knowledge-based vs. expert systems
See also: Expert system
The term "knowledge-based system" was often used interchangeably with "expert system", possibly because almost all of the earliest knowledge-based systems were designed for expert tasks. However, these terms tell us about different aspects of a system:
expert: describes only the task the system is designed for – its purpose is to aid replace a human expert in a task typically requiring specialised knowledge
knowledge-based: refers only to the system's architecture – it represents knowledge explicitly, rather than as procedural code
Today, virtually all expert systems are knowledge-based, whereas knowledge-based system architecture is used in a wide range of types of system designed for a variety of tasks.
Rule-based systems
Main article: Rule-based system
The first knowledge-based systems were primarily rule-based expert systems. These represented facts about the world as simple assertions in a flat database and used domain-specific rules to reason about these assertions, and then to add to them. One of the most famous of these early systems was Mycin, a program for medical diagnosis.
Representing knowledge explicitly via rules had several advantages:
Acquisition and maintenance. Using rules meant that domain experts could often define and maintain the rules themselves rather than via a programmer.
Explanation. Representing knowledge explicitly allowed systems to reason about how they came to a conclusion and use this information to explain results to users. For example, to follow the chain of inferences that led to a diagnosis and use these facts to explain the diagnosis.
Reasoning. Decoupling the knowledge from the processing of that knowledge enabled general purpose inference engines to be developed. These systems could develop conclusions that followed from a data set that the initial developers may not have even been aware of.
Meta-reasoning
Later architectures for knowledge-based reasoning, such as the BB1 blackboard architecture (a blackboard system), allowed the reasoning process itself to be affected by new inferences, providing meta-level reasoning. BB1 allowed the problem-solving process itself to be monitored. Different kinds of problem-solving (e.g., top-down, bottom-up, and opportunistic problem-solving) could be selectively mixed based on the current state of problem solving. Essentially, the problem-solver was being used both to solve a domain-level problem along with its own control problem, which could depend on the former.
Other examples of knowledge-based system architectures supporting meta-level reasoning are MRS and SOAR.
Widening of application
In the 1980s and 1990s, in addition to expert systems, other applications of knowledge-based systems included real-time process control, intelligent tutoring systems, and problem-solvers for specific domains such as protein structure analysis, construction-site layout, and computer system fault diagnosis.
Advances driven by enhanced architecture
As knowledge-based systems became more complex, the techniques used to represent the knowledge base became more sophisticated and included logic, term-rewriting systems, conceptual graphs, and frames.
Frames, for example, are a way representing world knowledge using techniques that can be seen as analogous to object-oriented programming, specifically classes and subclasses, hierarchies and relations between classes, and behavior of objects. With the knowledge base more structured, reasoning could now occur not only by independent rules and logical inference, but also based on interactions within the knowledge base itself. For example, procedures stored as daemons on objects could fire and could replicate the chaining behavior of rules.
Advances in automated reasoning
Another advancement in the 1990s was the development of special purpose automated reasoning systems called classifiers. Rather than statically declare the subsumption relations in a knowledge-base, a classifier allows the developer to simply declare facts about the world and let the classifier deduce the relations. In this way a classifier also can play the role of an inference engine.
The most recent advancement of knowledge-based systems was to adopt the technologies, especially a kind of logic called description logic, for the development of systems that use the internet. The internet often has to deal with complex, unstructured data that cannot be relied on to fit a specific data model. The technology of knowledge-based systems, and especially the ability to classify objects on demand, is ideal for such systems. The model for these kinds of knowledge-based internet systems is known as the Semantic Web.
See also
Knowledge representation and reasoning
Knowledge modeling
Knowledge engine
Information retrieval
Reasoning system
Case-based reasoning
Conceptual graph
Neural networks
References
^ Smith, Reid (May 8, 1985). "Knowledge-Based Systems Concepts, Techniques, Examples" (PDF). reidgsmith.com. Schlumberger-Doll Research. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
^ Sowa, John F. (2000). Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations (1st ed.). Pacific Grove: Brooks / Cole. ISBN 978-0-534-94965-5.
^ Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Donald Waterman; Douglas Lenat (1983). Building Expert Systems. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-10686-8.
^ Hayes-Roth, Barbara; Department, Stanford University Computer Science (1984). BB1: an Architecture for Blackboard Systems that Control, Explain, and Learn about Their Own Behavior. Department of Computer Science, Stanford University.
^ Genesereth, Michael R. "1983 - An Overview of Meta-Level Architecture". AAAI-83 Proceedings: 6.
^ Larsson, Jan Eric; Hayes-Roth, Barbara (1998). "Guardian: An Intelligent Autonomous Agent for Medical Monitoring and Diagnosis". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 13 (1). Retrieved 2012-08-11.
^ Clancey, William (1987). Knowledge-Based Tutoring: The GUIDON Program. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
^ Hayes-Roth, Barbara; Buchanan, Bruce G.; Lichtarge, Olivier; Hewitt, Mike; Altman, Russ B.; Brinkley, James F.; Cornelius, Craig; Duncan, Bruce S.; Jardetzky, Oleg (1986). PROTEAN: Deriving Protein Structure from Constraints. AAAI. pp. 904–909. Retrieved 2012-08-11.
^ Robert Engelmore; et al., eds. (1988). Blackboard Systems. Addison-Wesley Pub (Sd).
^ Bennett, James S. (1981). DART: An Expert System for Computer Fault Diagnosis. IJCAI.
^ Mettrey, William (1987). "An Assessment of Tools for Building Large Knowledge- BasedSystems". AI Magazine. 8 (4). Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
^ MacGregor, Robert (June 1991). "Using a description classifier to enhance knowledge representation". IEEE Expert. 6 (3): 41–46. doi:10.1109/64.87683. S2CID 29575443.
^ Berners-Lee, Tim; James Hendler; Ora Lassila (May 17, 2001). "The Semantic Web A new form of Web content that is meaningful to computers will unleash a revolution of new possibilities". Scientific American. 284: 34–43. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0501-34. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013.
Further reading
Rajendra, Akerkar; Sajja, Priti (2009). Knowledge-Based Systems. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 9780763776473.
vteKnowledge representation and reasoning
Backward chaining
Case-based reasoning
Commonsense reasoning
Forward chaining
Model-based reasoning
Inference engines
Proof assistants
Knowledge engineering
Expert systems
CLIPS
Connectionist expert systems
Expert systems for mortgages
Legal expert systems
Reasoning systems
Theorem provers
Constraint solvers
Deductive classifiers
Logic programs
Procedural reasoning systems
Rule engines
Ontology languages
Attempto Controlled English
CycL
F-logic
FO(.)
Knowledge Interchange Format
Web Ontology Language
Theorem provers
CARINE
E
Nqthm
Otter
Paradox
Prover9
SPASS
TPS
Z3
Constraint satisfaction
Constraint programming
Constraint logic programming
Local consistency
SMT solvers
Automated planning
Motion planning
Multi-agent planning
Partial-order planning
Preference-based planning
Reactive planning
State space planning
Authority control databases: National
Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Knowledge-Based Systems (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge-Based_Systems_(journal)"},{"link_name":"computer program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program"},{"link_name":"reasons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_reasoning"},{"link_name":"knowledge base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_base"},{"link_name":"solve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving"},{"link_name":"complex problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_systems"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"knowledge base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_base"},{"link_name":"reasoning system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning_system"},{"link_name":"inference engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference_engine"}],"text":"For the academic journal, see Knowledge-Based Systems (journal).A knowledge-based system (KBS) is a computer program that reasons and uses a knowledge base to solve complex problems. 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In addition, the knowledge may be structured by means of a subsumption ontology, frames, conceptual graph, or logical assertions.[2]The inference engine uses general-purpose reasoning methods to infer new knowledge and to solve problems in the problem domain. Most commonly, it employs forward chaining or backward chaining. Other approaches include the use of automated theorem proving, logic programming, blackboard systems, and term rewriting systems such as Constraint Handling Rules (CHR). 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Essentially, the problem-solver was being used both to solve a domain-level problem along with its own control problem, which could depend on the former.Other examples of knowledge-based system architectures supporting meta-level reasoning are MRS[5] and SOAR.","title":"Aspects and development of early systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Widening of application","text":"In the 1980s and 1990s, in addition to expert systems, other applications of knowledge-based systems included real-time process control,[6] intelligent tutoring systems,[7] and problem-solvers for specific domains such as protein structure analysis,[8] construction-site layout,[9] and computer system fault diagnosis.[10]","title":"Aspects and development of early systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"frames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_(artificial_intelligence)"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"daemons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daemon_(computing)"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Advances driven by enhanced architecture","text":"As knowledge-based systems became more complex, the techniques used to represent the knowledge base became more sophisticated and included logic, term-rewriting systems, conceptual graphs, and frames.Frames, for example, are a way representing world knowledge using techniques that can be seen as analogous to object-oriented programming, specifically classes and subclasses, hierarchies and relations between classes, and behavior[clarification needed] of objects. With the knowledge base more structured, reasoning could now occur not only by independent rules and logical inference, but also based on interactions within the knowledge base itself. For example, procedures stored as daemons on[clarification needed] objects could fire and could replicate the chaining behavior of rules.[11]","title":"Aspects and development of early systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"classifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_classifier"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"as of?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"description logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Description_logic"},{"link_name":"unstructured data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstructured_data"},{"link_name":"Semantic Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_Web"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Advances in automated reasoning","text":"Another advancement in the 1990s was the development of special purpose automated reasoning systems called classifiers. Rather than statically declare the subsumption relations in a knowledge-base, a classifier allows the developer to simply declare facts about the world and let the classifier deduce the relations. In this way a classifier also can play the role of an inference engine.[12]The most recent[as of?] advancement of knowledge-based systems was to adopt the technologies, especially a kind of logic called description logic, for the development of systems that use the internet. The internet often has to deal with complex, unstructured data that cannot be relied on to fit a specific data model. The technology of knowledge-based systems, and especially the ability to classify objects on demand, is ideal for such systems. The model for these kinds of knowledge-based internet systems is known as the Semantic Web.[13]","title":"Aspects and development of early systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780763776473","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780763776473"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Automated_reasoning"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Automated_reasoning&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Automated_reasoning"},{"link_name":"Knowledge representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning"},{"link_name":"reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_reasoning"},{"link_name":"Backward chaining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_chaining"},{"link_name":"Case-based 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English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attempto_Controlled_English"},{"link_name":"CycL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CycL"},{"link_name":"F-logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-logic"},{"link_name":"FO(.)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FO(.)"},{"link_name":"Knowledge Interchange Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_Interchange_Format"},{"link_name":"Web Ontology Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language"},{"link_name":"CARINE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CARINE"},{"link_name":"E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_(theorem_prover)"},{"link_name":"Nqthm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nqthm"},{"link_name":"Otter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otter_(theorem_prover)"},{"link_name":"Paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox_(theorem_prover)"},{"link_name":"Prover9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prover9"},{"link_name":"SPASS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPASS"},{"link_name":"TPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem_Proving_System"},{"link_name":"Z3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_Theorem_Prover"},{"link_name":"Constraint satisfaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint_satisfaction"},{"link_name":"Constraint programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint_programming"},{"link_name":"Constraint logic programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint_logic_programming"},{"link_name":"Local consistency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_consistency"},{"link_name":"SMT solvers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisfiability_modulo_theories"},{"link_name":"Automated planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Motion planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_planning"},{"link_name":"Multi-agent planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-agent_planning"},{"link_name":"Partial-order planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial-order_planning"},{"link_name":"Preference-based planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference-based_planning"},{"link_name":"Reactive planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_planning"},{"link_name":"State space planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_space_planning"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1412694#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph211949&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"Rajendra, Akerkar; Sajja, Priti (2009). Knowledge-Based Systems. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 9780763776473.vteKnowledge representation and reasoning\nBackward chaining\nCase-based reasoning\nCommonsense reasoning\nForward chaining\nModel-based reasoning\nInference engines\nProof assistants\nKnowledge engineering\nExpert systems\nCLIPS\nConnectionist expert systems\nExpert systems for mortgages\nLegal expert systems\nReasoning systems\nTheorem provers\nConstraint solvers\nDeductive classifiers\nLogic programs\nProcedural reasoning systems\nRule engines\nOntology languages\nAttempto Controlled English\nCycL\nF-logic\nFO(.)\nKnowledge Interchange Format\nWeb Ontology Language\nTheorem provers\nCARINE\nE\nNqthm\nOtter\nParadox\nProver9\nSPASS\nTPS\nZ3\nConstraint satisfaction\nConstraint programming\nConstraint logic programming\nLocal consistency\nSMT solvers\nAutomated planning\nMotion planning\nMulti-agent planning\nPartial-order planning\nPreference-based planning\nReactive planning\nState space planningAuthority control databases: National \nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | [{"title":"Knowledge representation and reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning"},{"title":"Knowledge modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_modeling"},{"title":"Knowledge engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_engine"},{"title":"Information retrieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval"},{"title":"Reasoning system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning_system"},{"title":"Case-based reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case-based_reasoning"},{"title":"Conceptual graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_graph"},{"title":"Neural networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networks"}] | [{"reference":"Smith, Reid (May 8, 1985). \"Knowledge-Based Systems Concepts, Techniques, Examples\" (PDF). reidgsmith.com. Schlumberger-Doll Research. Retrieved 9 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.reidgsmith.com/Knowledge-Based_Systems_-_Concepts_Techniques_Examples_08-May-1985.pdf","url_text":"\"Knowledge-Based Systems Concepts, Techniques, Examples\""}]},{"reference":"Sowa, John F. (2000). Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations (1st ed.). Pacific Grove: Brooks / Cole. ISBN 978-0-534-94965-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/knowledgereprese00sowa_0","url_text":"Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-94965-5","url_text":"978-0-534-94965-5"}]},{"reference":"Hayes-Roth, Frederick; Donald Waterman; Douglas Lenat (1983). Building Expert Systems. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-10686-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/buildingexpertsy00temd","url_text":"Building Expert Systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-10686-8","url_text":"0-201-10686-8"}]},{"reference":"Hayes-Roth, Barbara; Department, Stanford University Computer Science (1984). BB1: an Architecture for Blackboard Systems that Control, Explain, and Learn about Their Own Behavior. Department of Computer Science, Stanford University.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Hayes-Roth","url_text":"Hayes-Roth, Barbara"},{"url":"https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=892336","url_text":"BB1: an Architecture for Blackboard Systems that Control, Explain, and Learn about Their Own Behavior"}]},{"reference":"Genesereth, Michael R. \"1983 - An Overview of Meta-Level Architecture\". AAAI-83 Proceedings: 6.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Larsson, Jan Eric; Hayes-Roth, Barbara (1998). \"Guardian: An Intelligent Autonomous Agent for Medical Monitoring and Diagnosis\". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 13 (1). Retrieved 2012-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Hayes-Roth","url_text":"Hayes-Roth, Barbara"},{"url":"http://dblp.uni-trier.de/rec/bibtex/journals/expert/LarssonH98","url_text":"\"Guardian: An Intelligent Autonomous Agent for Medical Monitoring and Diagnosis\""}]},{"reference":"Clancey, William (1987). Knowledge-Based Tutoring: The GUIDON Program. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hayes-Roth, Barbara; Buchanan, Bruce G.; Lichtarge, Olivier; Hewitt, Mike; Altman, Russ B.; Brinkley, James F.; Cornelius, Craig; Duncan, Bruce S.; Jardetzky, Oleg (1986). PROTEAN: Deriving Protein Structure from Constraints. AAAI. pp. 904–909. Retrieved 2012-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Hayes-Roth","url_text":"Hayes-Roth, Barbara"},{"url":"http://dblp.uni-trier.de/rec/bibtex/conf/aaai/Hayes-RothBLHABCDJ86","url_text":"PROTEAN: Deriving Protein Structure from Constraints"}]},{"reference":"Robert Engelmore; et al., eds. (1988). Blackboard Systems. Addison-Wesley Pub (Sd).","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bennett, James S. (1981). DART: An Expert System for Computer Fault Diagnosis. IJCAI.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mettrey, William (1987). \"An Assessment of Tools for Building Large Knowledge- BasedSystems\". AI Magazine. 8 (4). Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 2013-11-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131110022104/http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewArticle/625","url_text":"\"An Assessment of Tools for Building Large Knowledge- BasedSystems\""},{"url":"http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewArticle/625","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"MacGregor, Robert (June 1991). \"Using a description classifier to enhance knowledge representation\". IEEE Expert. 6 (3): 41–46. doi:10.1109/64.87683. S2CID 29575443.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F64.87683","url_text":"10.1109/64.87683"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29575443","url_text":"29575443"}]},{"reference":"Berners-Lee, Tim; James Hendler; Ora Lassila (May 17, 2001). \"The Semantic Web A new form of Web content that is meaningful to computers will unleash a revolution of new possibilities\". Scientific American. 284: 34–43. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0501-34. Archived from the original on April 24, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130424071228/http://www.cs.umd.edu/~golbeck/LBSC690/SemanticWeb.html","url_text":"\"The Semantic Web A new form of Web content that is meaningful to computers will unleash a revolution of new possibilities\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0501-34","url_text":"10.1038/scientificamerican0501-34"},{"url":"http://www.cs.umd.edu/~golbeck/LBSC690/SemanticWeb.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Rajendra, Akerkar; Sajja, Priti (2009). Knowledge-Based Systems. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cozy_Bear | Cozy Bear | ["1 Methods and technical capability","2 Attacks","2.1 Office Monkeys (2014)","2.2 Pentagon (August 2015)","2.3 Democratic National Committee (2016)","2.4 US think tanks and NGOs (2016)","2.5 Norwegian government (2017)","2.6 Dutch ministries (2017)","2.7 Operation Ghost","2.8 COVID-19 vaccine data (2020)","2.9 SUNBURST malware supply chain attack (2020)","2.10 Republican National Committee (2021)","2.11 Microsoft (2022–24)","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"] | Russian hacker group
"Office Monkeys" redirects here. For the 2003 British hidden camera television programme, see Office Monkey.
This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (December 2020)
Cozy BearFormationc. 2008TypeAdvanced persistent threatPurposeCyberespionage, cyberwarfareRegion RussiaMethodsSpearphishing, malwareOfficial language RussianLeaderWriaseParent organizationeither FSB or SVRAffiliationsFancy BearFormerly calledAPT29, CozyCar, CozyDuke, Dark Halo, The Dukes, Grizzly Steppe (when combined with Fancy Bear), NOBELIUM, Office Monkeys, StellarParticle, UNC2452, YTTRIUM
Cozy Bear, classified by the United States federal government as advanced persistent threat APT29, is a Russian hacker group believed to be associated with one or more intelligence agencies of Russia. The Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service (AIVD) deduced from security camera footage that it is led by the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR), a view shared by the United States. Cybersecurity firm CrowdStrike also previously suggested that it may be associated with either the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) or SVR. The group has been given various nicknames by other cybersecurity firms, including CozyCar, CozyDuke (by F-Secure), Dark Halo, The Dukes (by Volexity), Midnight Blizzard (by Microsoft), NOBELIUM, Office Monkeys, StellarParticle, UNC2452, and YTTRIUM.
On 20 December 2020, it was reported that Cozy Bear was responsible for a cyber attack on U.S. sovereign national data, believed to be at the direction of the Russian government.
Methods and technical capability
Diagram outlining Cozy Bear and Fancy Bear's process of using of malware to penetrate targets
Kaspersky Lab determined that the earliest samples of the MiniDuke malware attributed to the group date from 2008. The original code was written in assembly language. Symantec believes that Cozy Bear had been compromising diplomatic organizations and governments since at least 2010.
The CozyDuke malware utilises a backdoor and a dropper. The malware exfiltrates data to a command and control server. Attackers may tailor the malware to the environment. The backdoor components of Cozy Bear's malware are updated over time with modifications to cryptography, trojan functionality, and anti-detection. The speed at which Cozy Bear develops and deploys its components is reminiscent of the toolset of Fancy Bear, which also uses the tools CHOPSTICK and CORESHELL.
Cozy Bear's CozyDuke malware toolset is structurally and functionally similar to second stage components used in early Miniduke, Cosmicduke, and OnionDuke operations. A second stage module of the CozyDuke malware, Show.dll, appears to have been built onto the same platform as OnionDuke, suggesting that the authors are working together or are the same people. The campaigns and the malware toolsets they use are referred to as the Dukes, including Cosmicduke, Cozyduke, and Miniduke. CozyDuke is connected to the MiniDuke and CosmicDuke campaigns, as well as to the OnionDuke cyberespionage campaign. Each threat group tracks their targets and use toolsets that were likely created and updated by Russian speakers. Following exposure of the MiniDuke in 2013, updates to the malware were written in C/C++ and it was packed with a new obfuscator.
Cozy Bear is suspected of being behind the 'HAMMERTOSS' remote access tool which uses commonly visited websites like Twitter and GitHub to relay command data.
Seaduke is a highly configurable, low-profile Trojan only used for a small set of high-value targets. Typically, Seaduke is installed on systems already infected with the much more widely distributed CozyDuke.
Attacks
Cozy Bear appears to have different projects, with different user groups. The focus of its project "Nemesis Gemina" is military, government, energy, diplomatic and telecom sectors. Evidence suggests that Cozy Bear's targets have included commercial entities and government organizations in Germany, Uzbekistan, South Korea and the US, including the US State Department and the White House in 2014.
Office Monkeys (2014)
In March 2014, a Washington, D.C.-based private research institute was found to have CozyDuke (Trojan.Cozer) on their network. Cozy Bear then started an email campaign attempting to lure victims into clicking on a flash video of office monkeys that would also include malicious executables. By July the group had compromised government networks and directed CozyDuke-infected systems to install Miniduke onto a compromised network.
In the summer of 2014, digital agents of the Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service infiltrated Cozy Bear. They found that these Russian hackers were targeting the US Democratic Party, State Department and White House. Their evidence influenced the FBI's decision to open an investigation.
Pentagon (August 2015)
In August 2015, Cozy Bear was linked to a spear-phishing cyber-attack against the Pentagon email system, causing the shut down of the entire Joint Staff unclassified email system and Internet access during the investigation.
Democratic National Committee (2016)
Main article: Democratic National Committee cyber attacks
In June 2016, Cozy Bear was implicated alongside the hacker group Fancy Bear in the Democratic National Committee cyber attacks. While the two groups were both present in the Democratic National Committee's servers at the same time, each appeared to be unaware of the other, independently stealing the same passwords and otherwise duplicating each other's efforts. A CrowdStrike forensic team determined that while Cozy Bear had been on the DNC's network for over a year, Fancy Bear had only been there a few weeks. Cozy Bear's more sophisticated tradecraft and interest in traditional long-term espionage suggest that the group originates from a separate Russian intelligence agency.
US think tanks and NGOs (2016)
After the 2016 United States presidential election, Cozy Bear was linked to a series of coordinated and well-planned spear phishing campaigns against U.S.-based think tanks and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
Norwegian government (2017)
On 3 February 2017, the Norwegian Police Security Service (PST) reported that attempts had been made to spearphish the email accounts of nine individuals in the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Labour Party. The acts were attributed to Cozy Bear, whose targets included the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, PST section chief Arne Christian Haugstøyl, and an unnamed colleague. Prime Minister Erna Solberg called the acts "a serious attack on our democratic institutions." The attacks were reportedly conducted in January 2017.
Dutch ministries (2017)
In February 2017, it was revealed that Cozy Bear and Fancy Bear had made several attempts to hack into Dutch ministries, including the Ministry of General Affairs, over the previous six months. Rob Bertholee, head of the AIVD, said on EenVandaag that the hackers were Russian and had tried to gain access to secret government documents.
In a briefing to parliament, Dutch Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations Ronald Plasterk announced that votes for the Dutch general election in March 2017 would be counted by hand.
Operation Ghost
Suspicions that Cozy Bear had ceased operations were dispelled in 2019 by the discovery of three new malware families attributed to Cozy Bear: PolyglotDuke, RegDuke and FatDuke. This shows that Cozy Bear did not cease operations, but rather had developed new tools that were harder to detect. Target compromises using these newly uncovered packages are collectively referred to as Operation Ghost.
COVID-19 vaccine data (2020)
In July 2020 Cozy Bear was accused by the NSA, NCSC and the CSE of trying to steal data on vaccines and treatments for COVID-19 being developed in the UK, US, and Canada.
SUNBURST malware supply chain attack (2020)
Main article: 2020 United States federal government data breach
On 8 December 2020, U.S. cybersecurity firm FireEye disclosed that a collection of their proprietary cybersecurity research tools had been stolen, possibly by "a nation with top-tier offensive capabilities." On 13 December 2020, FireEye announced that investigations into the circumstances of that intellectual property theft revealed "a global intrusion campaign ... supply chain attack trojanizing SolarWinds Orion business software updates in order to distribute malware we call SUNBURST.... This campaign may have begun as early as Spring 2020 and... is the work of a highly skilled actor significant operational security."
Shortly thereafter, SolarWinds confirmed that multiple versions of their Orion platform products had been compromised, probably by a foreign nation state. The impact of the attack prompted the U.S. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) to issue a rare emergency directive. Approximately 18,000 SolarWinds clients were exposed to SUNBURST, including several U.S. federal agencies. Washington Post sources identified Cozy Bear as the group responsible for the attack.
According to Microsoft, the hackers then stole signing certificates that allowed them to impersonate any of a target’s existing users and accounts through the Security Assertion Markup Language. Typically abbreviated as SAML, the XML-based language provides a way for identity providers to exchange authentication and authorization data with service providers.
Republican National Committee (2021)
In July 2021, Cozy Bear breached systems of the Republican National Committee. Officials said they believed the attack to have been conducted through Synnex. The cyberattack came amid larger fallout over the ransomware attack spread through compromised Kaseya VSA software.
Microsoft (2022–24)
On 24 August 2022, Microsoft revealed a customer was compromised by a Cozy Bear attack that had very high resilience on an Active Directory Federated Services server and dubbed this attack method "MagicWeb", an attack which "manipulates the user authentication certificates used for authentication".
In January 2024, Microsoft reported having recently discovered and ended a breach beginning the previous November of the email accounts of their senior leadership and other employees in the legal and cybersecurity teams using a "password spray", a form of brute-force attack. This hack conducted by Midnight Blizzard appears to have aimed to find what the company knew about the hacking operation.
See also
2016 United States election interference by Russia
The Plot to Hack America
Vulkan files leak
References
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^ "Cyberattacks Linked to Russian Intelligence Gathering" (Press Release). F-Secure. 17 September 2015. Archived from the original on 7 January 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
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^ a b c Kaspersky Lab's Global Research & Analysis Team (3 July 2014). "Miniduke is back: Nemesis Gemina and the Botgen Studio". Securelist. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
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^ "HAMMERTOSS: Stealthy Tactics Define a Russian Cyber Threat Group". FireEye. 9 July 2015. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
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^ "PowerDuke: Widespread Post-Election Spear Phishing Campaigns Targeting Think Tanks and NGOs". Volexity. November 9, 2016. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2016.
^ Stanglin, Doug (February 3, 2017). "Norway: Russian hackers hit spy agency, defense, Labour party". USA Today. Archived from the original on April 5, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
^ "Norge utsatt for et omfattende hackerangrep". NRK. February 3, 2017. Archived from the original on February 5, 2017. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
^ Modderkolk, Huib (February 4, 2017). "Russen faalden bij hackpogingen ambtenaren op Nederlandse ministeries". De Volkskrant (in Dutch). Archived from the original on February 4, 2017. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
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^ "Operation Ghost: The Dukes aren't back – they never left". ESET Research. October 17, 2019. Archived from the original on March 11, 2020. Retrieved February 8, 2020.
^ "NSA Teams with NCSC, CSE, DHS CISA to Expose Russian Intelligence Services Targeting COVID". National Security Agency Central Security Service. Archived from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
^ "CSE Statement on Threat Activity Targeting COVID-19 Vaccine Development – Thursday, July 16, 2020". cse-cst.gc.ca. Communications Security Establishment. 14 July 2020. Archived from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
^ James, William (16 July 2020). "Russia trying to hack and steal COVID-19 vaccine data, says Britain". Reuters UK. Archived from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
^ "UK and allies expose Russian attacks on coronavirus vaccine development". National Cyber Security Centre. 16 July 2020. Archived from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
^ Sanger, David E.; Perlroth, Nicole (December 8, 2020). "FireEye, a Top Cybersecurity Firm, Says It Was Hacked by a Nation-State". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 15, 2020. Retrieved December 15, 2020.
^ agencies, Guardian staff and (December 9, 2020). "US cybersecurity firm FireEye says it was hacked by foreign government". the Guardian. Archived from the original on December 16, 2020. Retrieved December 15, 2020.
^ "Highly Evasive Attacker Leverages SolarWinds Supply Chain to Compromise Multiple Global Victims With SUNBURST Backdoor". FireEye. Archived from the original on 2020-12-15. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
^ "Security Advisory | SolarWinds". www.solarwinds.com. Archived from the original on 2020-12-15. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
^ "cyber.dhs.gov - Emergency Directive 21-01". cyber.dhs.gov. 13 December 2020. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
^ "cyber.dhs.gov - Cybersecurity Directives". cyber.dhs.gov. 18 May 2022. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
^ Cimpanu, Catalin. "SEC filings: SolarWinds says 18,000 customers were impacted by recent hack". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 2020-12-15. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
^ Nakashima, Ellen; Timberg, Craig. "Russian government hackers are behind a broad espionage campaign that has compromised U.S. agencies, including Treasury and Commerce". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 2020-12-13. Retrieved 2020-12-14.
^ "Important steps for customers to protect themselves from recent nation-state cyberattacks". 14 December 2020. Archived from the original on 20 December 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
^ Goodin, Dan; Timberg. "~18,000 organizations downloaded backdoor planted by Cozy Bear hackers". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 2020-12-16. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
^ a b c Turton, William; Jacobs, Jennifer (6 July 2021). "Russia 'Cozy Bear' Breached GOP as Ransomware Attack Hit". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 6 July 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
^ Campbell, Ian Carlos (6 July 2021). "Russian hackers reportedly attacked GOP computer systems". The Verge. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
^ "MagicWeb: NOBELIUM's post-compromise trick to authenticate as anyone". Microsoft Security Blog. Microsoft. 24 August 2022. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
^ Franceschi-Bicchierai, Lorenzo (19 January 2024). "Hackers breached Microsoft to find out what Microsoft knows about them". Techcrunch. Archived from the original on 20 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
External links
Russian government employees charged in hacking campaigns
vteHacking in the 2010s
← 2000s
Timeline
2020s →
Major incidents2010
Operation Aurora (publication of 2009 events)
Australian cyberattacks
Operation Olympic Games
Operation ShadowNet
Operation Payback
2011
Canadian government
DigiNotar
DNSChanger
HBGary Federal
Operation AntiSec
PlayStation network outage
RSA SecurID compromise
2012
LinkedIn hack
Stratfor email leak
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2013
South Korea cyberattack
Snapchat hack
Cyberterrorism attack of June 25
2013 Yahoo! data breach
Singapore cyberattacks
2014
Anthem medical data breach
Operation Tovar
2014 celebrity nude photo leak
2014 JPMorgan Chase data breach
2014 Sony Pictures hack
Russian hacker password theft
2014 Yahoo! data breach
2015
Office of Personnel Management data breach
Hacking Team
Ashley Madison data breach
VTech data breach
Ukrainian Power Grid Cyberattack
SWIFT banking hack
2016
Bangladesh Bank robbery
Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center ransomware incident
Commission on Elections data breach
Democratic National Committee cyber attacks
Vietnam Airport Hacks
DCCC cyber attacks
Indian Bank data breaches
Surkov leaks
Dyn cyberattack
Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. elections
2016 Bitfinex hack
2017
SHAttered
2017 Macron e-mail leaks
WannaCry ransomware attack
Westminster data breach
Petya and NotPetya
2017 Ukraine ransomware attacks
Vault7 data breach
Equifax data breach
Deloitte breach
Disqus breach
2018
Trustico
Atlanta cyberattack
SingHealth data breach
2019
Sri Lanka cyberattack
Baltimore ransomware attack
Bulgarian revenue agency hack
WhatsApp snooping scandal
Jeff Bezos phone hacking incident
Hacktivism
Anonymous
associated events
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OurMine
PayPal 14
RedHack
Teamp0ison
TDO
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Ukrainian Cyber Alliance
Advancedpersistent threats
Bangladesh Black Hat Hackers
Bureau 121
Charming Kitten
Cozy Bear
Dark Basin
DarkMatter
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Equation Group
Fancy Bear
GOSSIPGIRL (confederation)
Guccifer 2.0
Hacking Team
Helix Kitten
Iranian Cyber Army
Lazarus Group (BlueNorOff) (AndAriel)
NSO Group
Numbered Panda
PLA Unit 61398
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PLATINUM
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Individuals
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Major vulnerabilitiespublicly disclosed
Evercookie (2010)
iSeeYou (2013)
Heartbleed (2014)
Shellshock (2014)
POODLE (2014)
Rootpipe (2014)
Row hammer (2014)
SS7 vulnerabilities (2014)
WinShock (2014)
JASBUG (2015)
Stagefright (2015)
DROWN (2016)
Badlock (2016)
Dirty COW (2016)
Cloudbleed (2017)
Broadcom Wi-Fi (2017)
EternalBlue (2017)
DoublePulsar (2017)
Silent Bob is Silent (2017)
KRACK (2017)
ROCA vulnerability (2017)
BlueBorne (2017)
Meltdown (2018)
Spectre (2018)
EFAIL (2018)
Exactis (2018)
Speculative Store Bypass (2018)
Lazy FP state restore (2018)
TLBleed (2018)
SigSpoof (2018)
Foreshadow (2018)
Dragonblood (2019)
Microarchitectural Data Sampling (2019)
BlueKeep (2019)
Kr00k (2019)
Malware2010
Bad Rabbit
Black Energy 2
SpyEye
Stuxnet
2011
Coreflood
Alureon
Duqu
Kelihos
Metulji botnet
Stars
2012
Carna
Dexter
FBI
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2013
CryptoLocker
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2014
Brambul
Black Energy 3
Carbanak
Careto
DarkHotel
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FinFisher
Gameover ZeuS
Regin
2015
Dridex
Hidden Tear
Rombertik
TeslaCrypt
2016
Hitler
Jigsaw
KeRanger
Necurs
MEMZ
Mirai
Pegasus
Petya and NotPetya
X-Agent
2017
BrickerBot
Kirk
LogicLocker
Rensenware
Triton
WannaCry
XafeCopy
2018
VPNFilter
2019
Grum
Joanap
NetTraveler
R2D2
Tinba
Titanium
ZeroAccess botnet
vteRussian interference in the 2016 United States electionsEvents
DNC cyber attacks
GRU
Fancy Bear
Guccifer 2.0
SVR RF
Cozy Bear
DCCC cyber attacks
Leaks
DNC email leak
Podesta emails
WikiLeaks
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Pizzagate conspiracy theory
Social media
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Timelines
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July 2016 – election day
Transition
Jan–Jun 2017
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Timelines related to Donald Trump and Russian interference in United States elections
Post-electionevents
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Assessing Russian Activities and Intentions in Recent US Elections
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Legal teams
list of charges
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Reactions
Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act
Nunes memo
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Related
Active measures
Russian disinformation
Cyberwarfare by Russia
Russian web brigades
Propaganda in Russia
Russian espionage in the United States
The Plot to Hack America (2016)
Trump: The Kremlin Candidate? (2017)
Cyberwar: How Russian Hackers and Trolls Helped Elect a President (2018)
Russian Roulette (2018)
Intelligence and Security Committee report
Russian interference in British politics
2016 Brexit referendum
2017 Macron e-mail leaks
Russian interference in European politics | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Office Monkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_Monkey"},{"link_name":"advanced persistent threat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_persistent_threat"},{"link_name":"hacker group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_group"},{"link_name":"intelligence agencies of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_agencies_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"General Intelligence and Security Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Intelligence_and_Security_Service"},{"link_name":"Foreign Intelligence Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Service_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-volkskrant-5"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CRS1-4"},{"link_name":"CrowdStrike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CrowdStrike"},{"link_name":"Federal Security Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Security_Service"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsb-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"F-Secure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-Secure"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-weise-24-9"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"\"Office Monkeys\" redirects here. For the 2003 British hidden camera television programme, see Office Monkey.Cozy Bear, classified by the United States federal government as advanced persistent threat APT29, is a Russian hacker group believed to be associated with one or more intelligence agencies of Russia. The Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service (AIVD) deduced from security camera footage that it is led by the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR),[5] a view shared by the United States.[4] Cybersecurity firm CrowdStrike also previously suggested that it may be associated with either the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) or SVR.[2] The group has been given various nicknames by other cybersecurity firms, including CozyCar,[6] CozyDuke[7][8] (by F-Secure), Dark Halo, The Dukes (by Volexity), Midnight Blizzard[9] (by Microsoft), NOBELIUM, Office Monkeys, StellarParticle, UNC2452, and YTTRIUM.On 20 December 2020, it was reported that Cozy Bear was responsible for a cyber attack on U.S. sovereign national data, believed to be at the direction of the Russian government.[10]","title":"Cozy Bear"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:APT28_APT29_Techniques_-_Spearphising.png"},{"link_name":"Fancy Bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fancy_Bear"},{"link_name":"Kaspersky Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaspersky_Lab"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Threat-1"},{"link_name":"assembly language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Securelist2-11"},{"link_name":"Symantec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NortonLifeLock"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Symantec-12"},{"link_name":"backdoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)"},{"link_name":"dropper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropper_(malware)"},{"link_name":"command and control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_control_(malware)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Threat-1"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"tools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_tool"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Securelist-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Securelist-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Symantec-12"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Threat-1"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"obfuscator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obfuscation_(software)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Securelist2-11"},{"link_name":"remote access tool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_administration_software#RAT_trojan_horses"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"relay command data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_control_(malware)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Trojan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Symantec-12"}],"text":"Diagram outlining Cozy Bear and Fancy Bear's process of using of malware to penetrate targetsKaspersky Lab determined that the earliest samples of the MiniDuke malware attributed to the group date from 2008.[1] The original code was written in assembly language.[11] Symantec believes that Cozy Bear had been compromising diplomatic organizations and governments since at least 2010.[12]The CozyDuke malware utilises a backdoor and a dropper. The malware exfiltrates data to a command and control server. Attackers may tailor the malware to the environment.[1] The backdoor components of Cozy Bear's malware are updated over time with modifications to cryptography, trojan functionality, and anti-detection. The speed at which Cozy Bear develops and deploys its components is reminiscent of the toolset of Fancy Bear, which also uses the tools CHOPSTICK and CORESHELL.[13]Cozy Bear's CozyDuke malware toolset is structurally and functionally similar to second stage components used in early Miniduke, Cosmicduke, and OnionDuke operations. A second stage module of the CozyDuke malware, Show.dll, appears to have been built onto the same platform as OnionDuke, suggesting that the authors are working together or are the same people.[13] The campaigns and the malware toolsets they use are referred to as the Dukes, including Cosmicduke, Cozyduke, and Miniduke.[12] CozyDuke is connected to the MiniDuke and CosmicDuke campaigns, as well as to the OnionDuke cyberespionage campaign. Each threat group tracks their targets and use toolsets that were likely created and updated by Russian speakers.[1] Following exposure of the MiniDuke in 2013, updates to the malware were written in C/C++ and it was packed with a new obfuscator.[11]Cozy Bear is suspected of being behind the 'HAMMERTOSS' remote access tool which uses commonly visited websites like Twitter and GitHub to relay command data.[14]Seaduke is a highly configurable, low-profile Trojan only used for a small set of high-value targets. Typically, Seaduke is installed on systems already infected with the much more widely distributed CozyDuke.[12]","title":"Methods and technical capability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Securelist2-11"},{"link_name":"US State Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_State_Department"},{"link_name":"White House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Securelist-13"}],"text":"Cozy Bear appears to have different projects, with different user groups. The focus of its project \"Nemesis Gemina\" is military, government, energy, diplomatic and telecom sectors.[11] Evidence suggests that Cozy Bear's targets have included commercial entities and government organizations in Germany, Uzbekistan, South Korea and the US, including the US State Department and the White House in 2014.[13]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Threat-1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Symantec-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Symantec-12"},{"link_name":"General Intelligence and Security Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Intelligence_and_Security_Service"},{"link_name":"FBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-volkskrant-5"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Noack_1/26/2018-15"}],"sub_title":"Office Monkeys (2014)","text":"In March 2014, a Washington, D.C.-based private research institute was found to have CozyDuke (Trojan.Cozer) on their network. Cozy Bear then started an email campaign attempting to lure victims into clicking on a flash video of office monkeys that would also include malicious executables.[1][12] By July the group had compromised government networks and directed CozyDuke-infected systems to install Miniduke onto a compromised network.[12]In the summer of 2014, digital agents of the Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service infiltrated Cozy Bear. They found that these Russian hackers were targeting the US Democratic Party, State Department and White House. Their evidence influenced the FBI's decision to open an investigation.[5][15]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spear-phishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spear-phishing"},{"link_name":"cyber-attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber-attack"},{"link_name":"Pentagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pentagon"},{"link_name":"email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Pentagon (August 2015)","text":"In August 2015, Cozy Bear was linked to a spear-phishing cyber-attack against the Pentagon email system, causing the shut down of the entire Joint Staff unclassified email system and Internet access during the investigation.[16][17]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fancy Bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fancy_Bear"},{"link_name":"Democratic National Committee cyber attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee_cyber_attacks"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsb-2"},{"link_name":"Democratic National Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Economist-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Esq-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Economist-18"}],"sub_title":"Democratic National Committee (2016)","text":"In June 2016, Cozy Bear was implicated alongside the hacker group Fancy Bear in the Democratic National Committee cyber attacks.[2] While the two groups were both present in the Democratic National Committee's servers at the same time, each appeared to be unaware of the other, independently stealing the same passwords and otherwise duplicating each other's efforts.[18] A CrowdStrike forensic team determined that while Cozy Bear had been on the DNC's network for over a year, Fancy Bear had only been there a few weeks.[19] Cozy Bear's more sophisticated tradecraft and interest in traditional long-term espionage suggest that the group originates from a separate Russian intelligence agency.[18]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2016 United States presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"US think tanks and NGOs (2016)","text":"After the 2016 United States presidential election, Cozy Bear was linked to a series of coordinated and well-planned spear phishing campaigns against U.S.-based think tanks and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).[20]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norwegian Police Security Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Police_Security_Service"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Foreign Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Radiation_Protection_Authority"},{"link_name":"Erna Solberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erna_Solberg"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Norwegian government (2017)","text":"On 3 February 2017, the Norwegian Police Security Service (PST) reported that attempts had been made to spearphish the email accounts of nine individuals in the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Labour Party. The acts were attributed to Cozy Bear, whose targets included the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, PST section chief Arne Christian Haugstøyl, and an unnamed colleague. Prime Minister Erna Solberg called the acts \"a serious attack on our democratic institutions.\"[21] The attacks were reportedly conducted in January 2017.[22]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ministry of General Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_General_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Rob Bertholee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Bertholee"},{"link_name":"EenVandaag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EenVandaag"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Ronald Plasterk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Plasterk"},{"link_name":"Dutch general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_general_election,_2017"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Dutch ministries (2017)","text":"In February 2017, it was revealed that Cozy Bear and Fancy Bear had made several attempts to hack into Dutch ministries, including the Ministry of General Affairs, over the previous six months. Rob Bertholee, head of the AIVD, said on EenVandaag that the hackers were Russian and had tried to gain access to secret government documents.[23]In a briefing to parliament, Dutch Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations Ronald Plasterk announced that votes for the Dutch general election in March 2017 would be counted by hand.[24]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Operation Ghost","text":"Suspicions that Cozy Bear had ceased operations were dispelled in 2019 by the discovery of three new malware families attributed to Cozy Bear: PolyglotDuke, RegDuke and FatDuke. This shows that Cozy Bear did not cease operations, but rather had developed new tools that were harder to detect. Target compromises using these newly uncovered packages are collectively referred to as Operation Ghost.[25]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"NCSC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cyber_Security_Centre_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"CSE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_Security_Establishment"},{"link_name":"vaccines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19_vaccine"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CRS1-4"}],"sub_title":"COVID-19 vaccine data (2020)","text":"In July 2020 Cozy Bear was accused by the NSA, NCSC and the CSE of trying to steal data on vaccines and treatments for COVID-19 being developed in the UK, US, and Canada.[26][27][28][29][4]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FireEye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FireEye"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-2020-12-08-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"intellectual property theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property_theft"},{"link_name":"SolarWinds Orion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SolarWinds"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"promotional source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:RS#Questionable_sources"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"U.S. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybersecurity_and_Infrastructure_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"several U.S. federal agencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_federal_government_data_breach"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CRS1-4"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Security Assertion Markup Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_Assertion_Markup_Language"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"SUNBURST malware supply chain attack (2020)","text":"On 8 December 2020, U.S. cybersecurity firm FireEye disclosed that a collection of their proprietary cybersecurity research tools had been stolen, possibly by \"a nation with top-tier offensive capabilities.\"[30][31] On 13 December 2020, FireEye announced that investigations into the circumstances of that intellectual property theft revealed \"a global intrusion campaign ... [utilizing a] supply chain attack trojanizing SolarWinds Orion business software updates in order to distribute malware we call SUNBURST.... This campaign may have begun as early as Spring 2020 and... is the work of a highly skilled actor [utilizing] significant operational security.\"[32][promotional source?]Shortly thereafter, SolarWinds confirmed that multiple versions of their Orion platform products had been compromised, probably by a foreign nation state.[33] The impact of the attack prompted the U.S. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) to issue a rare emergency directive.[34][35] Approximately 18,000 SolarWinds clients were exposed to SUNBURST, including several U.S. federal agencies.[36] Washington Post sources identified Cozy Bear as the group responsible for the attack.[37][4]According to Microsoft,[38] the hackers then stole signing certificates that allowed them to impersonate any of a target’s existing users and accounts through the Security Assertion Markup Language. Typically abbreviated as SAML, the XML-based language provides a way for identity providers to exchange authentication and authorization data with service providers.[39]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Republican National Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_National_Committee"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RNC-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Synnex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synnex"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RNC-40"},{"link_name":"ransomware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransomware"},{"link_name":"compromised Kaseya VSA software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaseya_VSA_ransomware_attack"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RNC-40"}],"sub_title":"Republican National Committee (2021)","text":"In July 2021, Cozy Bear breached systems of the Republican National Committee.[40][41] Officials said they believed the attack to have been conducted through Synnex.[40] The cyberattack came amid larger fallout over the ransomware attack spread through compromised Kaseya VSA software.[40]","title":"Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Active Directory Federated Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_Directory_Federated_Services"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"brute-force attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Microsoft (2022–24)","text":"On 24 August 2022, Microsoft revealed a customer was compromised by a Cozy Bear attack that had very high resilience on an Active Directory Federated Services server and dubbed this attack method \"MagicWeb\", an attack which \"manipulates the user authentication certificates used for authentication\".[42]In January 2024, Microsoft reported having recently discovered and ended a breach beginning the previous November of the email accounts of their senior leadership and other employees in the legal and cybersecurity teams using a \"password spray\", a form of brute-force attack. This hack conducted by Midnight Blizzard appears to have aimed to find what the company knew about the hacking operation.[43]","title":"Attacks"}] | [{"image_text":"Diagram outlining Cozy Bear and Fancy Bear's process of using of malware to penetrate targets","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/APT28_APT29_Techniques_-_Spearphising.png/220px-APT28_APT29_Techniques_-_Spearphising.png"}] | [{"title":"2016 United States election interference by Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_election_interference_by_Russia"},{"title":"The Plot to Hack America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Plot_to_Hack_America"},{"title":"Vulkan files leak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkan_files_leak"}] | [{"reference":"\"MiniDuke relation 'CozyDuke' Targets White House\". Threat Intelligence Times. 27 April 2015. Archived from the original on 11 June 2018. 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left\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200311005008/https://www.welivesecurity.com/2019/10/17/operation-ghost-dukes-never-left/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201211185159/https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/press-room/Article/2275378/nsa-teams-with-ncsc-cse-dhs-cisa-to-expose-russian-intelligence-services-target/","external_links_name":"\"NSA Teams with NCSC, CSE, DHS CISA to Expose Russian Intelligence Services Targeting COVID\""},{"Link":"https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/press-room/Article/2275378/nsa-teams-with-ncsc-cse-dhs-cisa-to-expose-russian-intelligence-services-target/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://cse-cst.gc.ca/en/media/2020-07-16","external_links_name":"\"CSE Statement on Threat Activity Targeting COVID-19 Vaccine Development – Thursday, July 16, 2020\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200716200441/https://cse-cst.gc.ca/en/media/2020-07-16","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-health-coronavirus-cyber/russia-trying-to-hack-and-steal-covid-19-vaccine-data-says-britain-idUKKCN24H232","external_links_name":"\"Russia trying to hack and steal COVID-19 vaccine data, says Britain\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200717064946/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-health-coronavirus-cyber/russia-trying-to-hack-and-steal-covid-19-vaccine-data-says-britain-idUKKCN24H232","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/news/uk-and-allies-expose-russian-attacks-on-coronavirus-vaccine-development","external_links_name":"\"UK and allies expose Russian attacks on coronavirus vaccine development\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200716165540/https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/news/uk-and-allies-expose-russian-attacks-on-coronavirus-vaccine-development","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/08/technology/fireeye-hacked-russians.html","external_links_name":"\"FireEye, a Top Cybersecurity Firm, Says It Was Hacked by a Nation-State\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201215184304/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/08/technology/fireeye-hacked-russians.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/dec/08/fireeye-hack-cybersecurity-theft","external_links_name":"\"US cybersecurity firm FireEye says it was hacked by foreign 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SolarWinds\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201215101523/https://www.solarwinds.com/securityadvisory","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://cyber.dhs.gov/ed/21-01/","external_links_name":"\"cyber.dhs.gov - Emergency Directive 21-01\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201215153142/https://cyber.dhs.gov/ed/21-01/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://cyber.dhs.gov/directives/","external_links_name":"\"cyber.dhs.gov - Cybersecurity Directives\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201215143405/https://cyber.dhs.gov/directives/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/sec-filings-solarwinds-says-18000-customers-are-impacted-by-recent-hack/","external_links_name":"\"SEC filings: SolarWinds says 18,000 customers were impacted by recent hack\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201215101510/https://www.zdnet.com/article/sec-filings-solarwinds-says-18000-customers-are-impacted-by-recent-hack/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/russian-government-spies-are-behind-a-broad-hacking-campaign-that-has-breached-us-agencies-and-a-top-cyber-firm/2020/12/13/d5a53b88-3d7d-11eb-9453-fc36ba051781_story.html","external_links_name":"\"Russian government hackers are behind a broad espionage campaign that has compromised U.S. agencies, including Treasury and Commerce\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286","external_links_name":"0190-8286"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201213220635/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/russian-government-spies-are-behind-a-broad-hacking-campaign-that-has-breached-us-agencies-and-a-top-cyber-firm/2020/12/13/d5a53b88-3d7d-11eb-9453-fc36ba051781_story.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://blogs.microsoft.com/on-the-issues/2020/12/13/customers-protect-nation-state-cyberattacks/","external_links_name":"\"Important steps for customers to protect themselves from recent nation-state cyberattacks\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201220053325/https://blogs.microsoft.com/on-the-issues/2020/12/13/customers-protect-nation-state-cyberattacks/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2020/12/18000-organizations-downloaded-backdoor-planted-by-cozy-bear-hackers/","external_links_name":"\"~18,000 organizations downloaded backdoor planted by Cozy Bear hackers\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201216194610/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2020/12/18000-organizations-downloaded-backdoor-planted-by-cozy-bear-hackers/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-07-06/russian-state-hackers-breached-republican-national-committee","external_links_name":"\"Russia 'Cozy Bear' Breached GOP as Ransomware Attack Hit\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210706235320/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-07-06/russian-state-hackers-breached-republican-national-committee","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2021/7/6/22565779/rnc-breach-russian-hackers-cozy-bear","external_links_name":"\"Russian hackers reportedly attacked GOP computer systems\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210707000012/https://www.theverge.com/2021/7/6/22565779/rnc-breach-russian-hackers-cozy-bear","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.microsoft.com/security/blog/2022/08/24/magicweb-nobeliums-post-compromise-trick-to-authenticate-as-anyone/","external_links_name":"\"MagicWeb: NOBELIUM's post-compromise trick to authenticate as anyone\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220826003234/https://www.microsoft.com/security/blog/2022/08/24/magicweb-nobeliums-post-compromise-trick-to-authenticate-as-anyone/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2024/01/19/hackers-breached-microsoft-to-find-out-what-microsoft-knows-about-them/","external_links_name":"\"Hackers breached Microsoft to find out what Microsoft knows about them\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20240120085213/https://techcrunch.com/2024/01/19/hackers-breached-microsoft-to-find-out-what-microsoft-knows-about-them/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/russian-government-employees-charged-in-hacking-campaigns-032421","external_links_name":"Russian government employees charged in hacking campaigns"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankshaft | Crankshaft | ["1 Design","1.1 Bearings","1.2 Piston stroke","1.3 Cross-plane and flat-plane configurations","1.4 Engine balance","1.5 Flying arms","1.6 Counter-rotating crankshafts","2 Construction","2.1 Forged crankshafts","2.2 Cast crankshafts","2.3 Machined crankshafts","3 History","3.1 China","3.2 Europe","3.3 Western Asia","4 See also","5 References","6 Sources","7 External links"] | Mechanism for converting reciprocating motion to rotation
For other uses, see Crankshaft (disambiguation).
Crankshaft (red), pistons (gray), cylinders (blue) and flywheel (black)
A crankshaft is a mechanical component used in a piston engine to convert the reciprocating motion into rotational motion. The crankshaft is a rotating shaft containing one or more crankpins, that are driven by the pistons via the connecting rods.
The crankpins are also called rod bearing journals, and they rotate within the "big end" of the connecting rods.
Most modern crankshafts are located in the engine block. They are made from steel or cast iron, using either a forging, casting or machining process.
Design
Crankshaft, pistons and connecting rods for a typical internal combustion engine
Marine engine crankshafts from 1942
The crankshaft is located within the engine block and held in place via main bearings which allow the crankshaft to rotate within the block. The up-down motion of each piston is transferred to the crankshaft via connecting rods. A flywheel is often attached to one end of the crankshaft, in order to smoothen the power delivery and reduce vibration.
A crankshaft is subjected to enormous stresses, in some cases more than 8.6 tonnes (19,000 pounds) per cylinder. Crankshafts for single-cylinder engines are usually a simpler design than for engines with multiple cylinders.
Bearings
Main article: Main bearing
The crankshaft is able to rotate in the engine block due to the 'main bearings'. Since the crankshaft is subject to large horizontal and torsional forces from each cylinder, these main bearings are located at various points along the crankshaft, rather than just one at each end. The number of main bearings is determined based on the overall load factor and the maximum engine speed. Crankshafts in diesel engines often use a main bearing between every cylinder and at both ends of the crankshaft, due to the high forces of combustion present.
Flexing of the crankshaft was a factor in V8 engines replacing straight-eight engines in the 1950s; the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher engine speeds (RPM).
Piston stroke
The distance between the axis of the crankpins and the axis of the crankshaft determines the stroke length of the engine.
Most modern car engines are classified as "over square" or short-stroke, wherein the stroke is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore. A common way to increase the low-RPM torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes known as "stroking" the engine. Historically, the trade-off for a long-stroke engine was a lower rev limit and increased vibration at high RPM, due to the increased piston velocity.
Cross-plane and flat-plane configurations
When designing an engine, the crankshaft configuration is closely related to the engine's firing order.
Most production V8 engines (such as the Ford Modular engine and the General Motors LS engine) use a cross-plane crank whereby the crank throws are spaced 90 degrees apart. However, some high-performance V8 engines (such as the Ferrari 488) instead use a flat-plane crank, whereby the throws are spaced 180° apart, which essentially results in two inline-four engines sharing a common crankcase. Flat-plane engines are usually able to operate at higher RPM, however they have higher second-order vibrations, so they are better suited to racing car engines.
Engine balance
For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating mass of the piston, conrods and crankshaft, in order to improve the engine balance. These counterweights are typically cast as part of the crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces.
Flying arms
Flying arm (the boomerang-shaped link between first and second crankpins) on a crankshaft)
In some engines, the crankshaft contains direct links between adjacent crank pins, without the usual intermediate main bearing. These links are called flying arms.: 16, 41 This arrangement is sometimes used in V6 and V8 engines, in order to maintain an even firing interval while using different V angles, and to reduce the number of main bearings required. The downside of flying arms is that the rigidity of the crankshaft is reduced, which can cause problems at high RPM or high power outputs.
Counter-rotating crankshafts
In most engines, each connecting rod is attached a single crankshaft, which results in the angle of the connecting rod varying as the piston moves through its stroke. This variation in angle pushes the pistons against the cylinder wall, which causes friction between the piston and cylinder wall. To prevent this, some early engines – such as the 1900–1904 Lanchester Engine Company flat-twin engines – connected each piston to two crankshafts that are rotating in opposite directions. This arrangement cancels out the lateral forces and reduces the requirement for counterweights. This design is rarely used, however a similar principle applies to balance shafts, which are occasionally used.
Construction
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Forged crankshafts
Forged crankshaft
Crankshafts can be created from a steel bar using roll forging. Today, manufacturers tend to favour the use of forged crankshafts due to their lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent damping. With forged crankshafts, vanadium micro-alloyed steels are mainly used as these steels can be air-cooled after reaching high strengths without additional heat treatment, except for the surface hardening of the bearing surfaces. The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than high alloy steels. Carbon steels also require additional heat treatment to reach the desired properties.
Cast crankshafts
Another construction method is to cast the crankshaft from ductile. Cast iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production engines where the loads are lower.
Machined crankshafts
Crankshafts can also be machined from billet, often a bar of high quality vacuum remelted steel. Though the fiber flow (local inhomogeneities of the material's chemical composition generated during casting) does not follow the shape of the crankshaft (which is undesirable), this is usually not a problem since higher quality steels, which normally are difficult to forge, can be used. Per unit, these crankshafts tend to be very expensive due to the large amount of material that must be removed with lathes and milling machines, the high material cost, and the additional heat treatment required. However, since no expensive tooling is needed, this production method allows small production runs without high up-front costs.
History
China
See also: Science and technology of the Han dynasty
Querns are a form of hand-operated crank.
The earliest hand-operated cranks appeared in China during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). They were used for silk-reeling, hemp-spinning, for the agricultural winnowing fan, in the water-powered flour-sifter, for hydraulic-powered metallurgic bellows, and in the well windlass. The rotary winnowing fan greatly increased the efficiency of separating grain from husks and stalks. However, the potential of the crank of converting circular motion into reciprocal motion never seems to have been fully realized in China, and the crank was typically absent from such machines until the turn of the 20th century.
Europe
See also: List of Roman watermills, Medieval technology, and Renaissance technology
Roman crank handle, c. 250 AD
A crank in the form of an eccentrically-mounted handle of the rotary handmill appeared in 5th-century BC Celtiberian Spain and ultimately spread across the Roman Empire. A Roman iron crank dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The crank-operated Roman mill is dated to the late 2nd century.
Hierapolis sawmill in Asia Minor (3rd century), a machine that combines a crank with a connecting rod.
Evidence for the crank combined with a connecting rod appears in the Hierapolis mill, dating to the 3rd century; they are also found in stone sawmills in Roman Syria and Ephesus dating to the 6th century. The pediment of the Hierapolis mill shows a waterwheel fed by a mill race powering via a gear train two frame saws which cut blocks by the way of some kind of connecting rods and cranks. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically-attested sawmills worked without a gear train. Water-powered marble saws in Germany were mentioned by the late 4th century poet Ausonius; about the same time, these mill types seem also to be indicated by Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia.
A rotary grindstone operated by a crank handle is shown in the Carolingian manuscript Utrecht Psalter; the pen drawing of around 830 goes back to a late antique original. Cranks used to turn wheels are also depicted or described in various works dating from the tenth to thirteenth centuries.
The first depictions of the compound crank in the carpenter's brace appear between 1420 and 1430 in northern European artwork. The rapid adoption of the compound crank can be traced in the works of an unknown German engineer writing on the state of military technology during the Hussite Wars: first, the connecting-rod, applied to cranks, reappeared; second, double-compound cranks also began to be equipped with connecting-rods; and third, the flywheel was employed for these cranks to get them over the 'dead-spot'. The concept was much improved by the Italian engineer and writer Roberto Valturio in 1463, who devised a boat with five sets, where the parallel cranks are all joined to a single power source by one connecting-rod, an idea also taken up by his compatriot Italian painter Francesco di Giorgio.
The crank had become common in Europe by the early 15th century, as seen in the works of the military engineer Konrad Kyeser (1366–after 1405). Devices depicted in Kyeser's Bellifortis include cranked windlasses for spanning siege crossbows, cranked chain of buckets for water-lifting and cranks fitted to a wheel of bells. Kyeser also equipped the Archimedes' screws for water-raising with a crank handle, an innovation which subsequently replaced the ancient practice of working the pipe by treading.
Pisanello painted a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods.
15th century paddle-wheel boat
The 15th century also saw the introduction of cranked rack-and-pinion devices, called cranequins, which were fitted to the crossbow's stock as a means of exerting even more force while spanning the missile weapon. In the textile industry, cranked reels for winding skeins of yarn were introduced.
The Italian physician Guido da Vigevano (c. 1280 – c. 1349−1349), planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels, identified as an early crankshaft prototype by Lynn Townsend White. The Luttrell Psalter, dating to around 1340, describes a grindstone which was rotated by two cranks, one at each end of its axle; the geared hand-mill, operated either with one or two cranks, appeared later in the 15th century.
1661 water pump by Georg Andreas Böckler
Around 1480, the early medieval rotary grindstone was improved with a treadle and crank mechanism. Cranks mounted on push-carts first appear in a German engraving of 1589. Crankshafts were also described by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and a Dutch farmer and windmill owner by the name Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest in 1592. His wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmill's circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597.
From the 16th century onwards, evidence of cranks and connecting rods integrated into machine design becomes abundant in the technological treatises of the period: Agostino Ramelli's The Diverse and Artifactitious Machines of 1588 depicts eighteen examples, a number that rises in the Theatrum Machinarum Novum by Georg Andreas Böckler to 45 different machines. Cranks were formerly common on some machines in the early 20th century; for example almost all phonographs before the 1930s were powered by clockwork motors wound with cranks. Reciprocating piston engines use cranks to convert the linear piston motion into rotational motion. Internal combustion engines of early 20th century automobiles were usually started with hand cranks, before electric starters came into general use.
Western Asia
The non-manual crank appears in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their 9th-century Book of Ingenious Devices. These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of a crankshaft. The automatic crank described by the Banū Mūsā would not have allowed a full rotation, however, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crankshaft.
Bicycle crankset
Brace (tool)
Cam (mechanism)
Cam engine
Camshaft
Crank (mechanism)
Crankcase
Crankshaft torsional vibration
List of auto parts
Piston motion equations
Tunnel crankshaft
Scotch yoke
Swashplate
References
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^ "Definition of CRANKSHAFT". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
^ "Crankshaft: Parts, Function, Types, Diagram & More". The Engineers Post. 27 May 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
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^ "How Does A Flywheel Work? Explained In Simple Words". Car From Japan. 13 June 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
^ "How to Build Racing Engines: Crankshafts Guide". www.musclecardiy.com. 5 April 2015. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
^ "Flat-Plane Cranks, Part 2 — Calculating Crankshaft Secondary Forces". EngineLabs. 20 January 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
^ Bosch, Robert (2004). Automotive Handbook. Robert Bosch. p. 465. ISBN 978-0-8376-1243-0. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
^ "A Brief History Of The Straight-Eight Engine – Carole Nash". Carole Nash UK. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
^ "All you need to know about stroker engines and kits". TorqueCars. 22 December 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
^ "What's the best firing order?". EngineLabs. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
^ "Crankshaft Design Evolution". enginehistory.org. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
^ "Flat Plane Crankshafts vs. Crossplane Crankshafts". OnAllCylinders. 15 January 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
^ "Ferrari 488 Spider debuts in Frankfurt, is faster than Lamborghini's new drop-top in every way". Autoweek. 15 September 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
^ "2016 Ferrari 488 Spider: Losing the Roof Doesn't Compromise the Magic". Road & Track. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
^ "Difference Between Cross-Plane and Flat-Plane Cranks". MotorTrend. 15 June 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
^ "How The Flat-Plane Crank Turns Muscle Cars Into Exotics". CarBuzz. 8 April 2016. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
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^ Nunney, Malcolm J. (2007). Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (4th ed.). Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-8037-0.
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^ Andersson BS (1991), Company's perspective in vehicle tribology. In: 18th Leeds-Lyon Symposium (eds D Dowson, CM Taylor and MGodet), Lyon, France, 3–6 September 1991, New York: Elsevier, pp. 503–506
^ a b Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 159
^ a b Lucas 2005, p. 5, fn. 9
^ Needham 1986, pp. 118–119
^ Bautista Paz, Emilio; Ceccarelli, Marco; Otero, Javier Echávarri; Sanz, José Luis Muñoz (2010). A Brief Illustrated History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer (published May 12, 2010). p. 19. ISBN 978-9048125111.
^ Du Bois, George (2014). Understanding China: Dangerous Resentments. Trafford on Demand. ISBN 978-1490745077.
^ White 1962, p. 104: Yet a student of the Chinese technology of the early twentieth century remarks that even a generation ago the Chinese had not 'reached that stage where continuous rotary motion is substituted for reciprocating motion in technical contrivances such as the drill, lathe, saw, etc. To take this step familiarity with the crank is necessary. The crank in its simple rudimentary form we find in the Chinese windlass, which use of the device, however, has apparently not given the impulse to change reciprocating into circular motion in other contrivances'. In China the crank was known, but remained dormant for at least nineteen centuries, its explosive potential for applied mechanics being unrecognized and unexploited.
^ Frankel 2003, pp. 17–19
^ Schiöler 2009, pp. 113f.
^ Laur-Belart 1988, pp. 51–52, 56, fig. 42
^ Volpert 1997, pp. 195, 199
^ a b c d Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 161: Because of the findings at Ephesus and Gerasa the invention of the crank and connecting rod system has had to be redated from the 13th to the 6th c; now the Hierapolis relief takes it back another three centuries, which confirms that water-powered stone saw mills were indeed in use when Ausonius wrote his Mosella.
^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 139–141
^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 149–153
^ Mangartz 2010, pp. 579f.
^ Wilson 2002, p. 16
^ Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 156, fn. 74
^ a b White 1962, p. 110
^ Hägermann & Schneider 1997, pp. 425f.
^ Needham 1986, pp. 112–113.
^ White 1962, p. 112
^ a b White 1962, p. 113
^ White 1962, p. 114
^ Needham 1986, p. 113.
^ a b c d White 1962, p. 111
^ White 1962, pp. 105, 111, 168
^ Hall 1979, pp. 74f.
^ Hall 1979, p. 80
^ Townsend White, Lynn (1978). Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays. University of California Press. p. 335. ISBN 9780520035669.
^ White 1962, p. 167
^ Ahmad Y Hassan. The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine.
^ White 1962, p. 172
^ A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Serjeant (1990), The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature, Cambridge University Press, p. 266, ISBN 0-521-32763-6{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Banu Musa (1979), The book of ingenious devices (Kitāb al-ḥiyal), Springer Publishing, pp. 23–4, ISBN 90-277-0833-9
Sources
Frankel, Rafael (2003), "The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution", American Journal of Archaeology, 107 (1): 1–21, doi:10.3764/aja.107.1.1, S2CID 192167193
Hägermann, Dieter; Schneider, Helmuth (1997), Propyläen Technikgeschichte. Landbau und Handwerk, 750 v. Chr. bis 1000 n. Chr. (2nd ed.), Berlin, ISBN 3-549-05632-X{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Hall, Bert S. (1979), The Technological Illustrations of the So-Called "Anonymous of the Hussite Wars". Codex Latinus Monacensis 197, Part 1, Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, ISBN 3-920153-93-6
Laur-Belart, Rudolf (1988), Führer durch Augusta Raurica (5th ed.), Augst{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture, 46 (1): 1–30, doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026, S2CID 109564224
Mangartz, Fritz (2010), Die byzantinische Steinsäge von Ephesos. Baubefund, Rekonstruktion, Architekturteile, Monographs of the RGZM, vol. 86, Mainz: Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, ISBN 978-3-88467-149-8
Needham, Joseph (1986), Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology: Part 2, Mechanical Engineering, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-05803-1
Nunney, Malcolm J. (2007), Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (4th ed.), Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-7506-8037-0
Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 20: 138–163, doi:10.1017/S1047759400005341, S2CID 161937987
Schiöler, Thorkild (2009), "Die Kurbelwelle von Augst und die römische Steinsägemühle", Helvetia Archaeologica, vol. 40, no. 159/160, pp. 113–124
Volpert, Hans-Peter (1997), "Eine römische Kurbelmühle aus Aschheim, Lkr. München", Bericht der Bayerischen Bodendenkmalpflege, 38: 193–199, ISBN 3-7749-2903-3
White, Lynn Jr. (1962), Medieval Technology and Social Change, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press
Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 92, pp. 1–32
External links
Interactive crank animation https://www.desmos.com/calculator/8l2kvyivqo
D & T Mechanisms – Interactive Tools for Teachers (applets) https://web.archive.org/web/20140714155346/http://www.content.networcs.net/tft/mechanisms.htm
Grewe, Klaus (2009). "Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.−16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul". In Bachmann, Martin (ed.). Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien (PDF). Byzas (in German). Vol. 9. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları/Zero Prod. Ltd. pp. 429–454. ISBN 978-975-807-223-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-11.
vteInternal combustion enginePart of the Automobile seriesEngine block and rotating assembly
Balance shaft
Block heater
Bore
Connecting rod
Crankcase
Crankcase ventilation system (PCV valve)
Crankpin
Crankshaft
Core plug (freeze plug)
Cylinder (bank, layout)
Displacement
Flywheel
Firing order
Stroke
Main bearing
Piston
Piston ring
Starter ring gear
Valvetrain and Cylinder head
Flathead layout
Overhead camshaft layout
Overhead valve (pushrod) layout
Tappet / lifter
Camshaft
Chest
Combustion chamber
Compression ratio
Head gasket
Rocker arm
Timing belt
Valve
Forced induction
Blowoff valve
Boost controller
Intercooler
Supercharger
Turbocharger
Fuel system
Diesel engine
Petrol engine
Carburetor
Fuel filter
Fuel injection
Fuel pump
Fuel tank
Ignition
Magneto
Compression ignition
Coil-on-plug
Distributor
Glow plug
Ignition coil
Spark plug
Spark plug wires
Engine management
Engine control unit (ECU)
Electrical system
Alternator
Battery
Dynamo
Starter motor
Intake system
Airbox
Air filter
Idle air control actuator
Inlet manifold
MAP sensor
MAF sensor
Throttle
Throttle position sensor
Exhaust system
Catalytic converter
Diesel particulate filter
EGT sensor
Exhaust manifold
Muffler
Oxygen sensor
Cooling system
Air cooling
Water cooling
Electric fan
Radiator
Thermostat
Viscous fan (fan clutch)
Lubrication
Oil
Oil filter
Oil pump
Sump (Wet sump, Dry sump)
Other
Knocking / pinging
Power band
Redline
Stratified charge
Top dead centre
Portal
Category
vteSteam enginesOperating cycle
Atmospheric
Watt
Cornish
Compound
Uniflow
ValvesValves
Slide
D slide
Piston
Drop
Corliss
Poppet
Sleeve
Bash
Valve gear
Gab
Stephenson link
Joy
Walschaerts
Allan
Baker
Corliss
Lentz
Caprotti
Gresley conjugated
Southern
Mechanisms
Beam
Cataract
Centrifugal governor
Connecting rod
Crank
Crankshaft
Tusi couple hypocycloidal straight line mechanism
Link chain
Parallel motion
Plate chain
Rotative beam
Sun and planet gear
Watt's linkage
BoilersSimple boilers
Haystack
Wagon
Egg-ended
Box
Flued
Cornish
Lancashire
Fire-tube boilers
Locomotive
Scotch
Launch
Water-tube boilers
Babcock & Wilcox
Field-tube
Sentinel
Stirling
Thimble tube
Three-drum
Yarrow
Boiler feed
Feedwater heater
Feedwater pump
Injector
Cylinder
Locomotive
Oscillating
Single- and double-acting
Condenser
Condensing steam locomotive
Jet
Kirchweger
Watt's separate
"Pickle-pot"
Surface
Other
Blowback
Crosshead
Cutoff
Expansion valve
Hydrolock
Piston
Reciprocating engine
Return connecting rod engine
Six-column beam engine
Steeple engine
Safety valve
Steeple compound engine
Stroke
Working fluid
HistoryPrecursors
Savery Engine (1698)
Newcomen engine
Newcomen Memorial Engine (1725)
Fairbottom Bobs (1760)
Elsecar Engine (1795)
Watt engineBeam
Kinneil Engine (1768)
Old Bess (1777)
Chacewater Mine engine (1778)
Smethwick Engine (1779)
Resolution (1781)
Rotative beam
Soho Manufactory engine (1782)
Bradley Works engine (1783)
Whitbread Engine (1785)
National Museum of Scotland engine (1786)
Lap Engine (1788)
High-pressure
Richard Trevithick
Puffing Devil (1801)
London Steam Carriage (1803)
"Coalbrookdale Locomotive" (1803)
"Pen-y-Darren" locomotive (1804)
Compound
Woolf's compound engine (1803)
Murray
Murray's Hypocycloidal Engine (1805)
Salamanca (1812)
High-speed
Porter-Allen (1862)
Ljungström (1908)
See also
Glossary of steam locomotive components
History of steam road vehicles
Cugnot's fardier à vapeur (1769)
Murdoch's model steam carriage (1784)
Lean's Engine Reporter
List of steam technology patents
Modern steam
Stationary steam engine
Timeline of steam power
Water-returning engine
Authority control databases: National
Germany
Israel
United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Crankshaft (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankshaft_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cshaft.gif"},{"link_name":"piston engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_engine"},{"link_name":"reciprocating motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_motion"},{"link_name":"rotational motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_motion"},{"link_name":"shaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaft_(mechanical_engineering)"},{"link_name":"crankpins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankpin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Howacarworks.com-1"},{"link_name":"pistons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston"},{"link_name":"connecting rods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecting_rod"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"engine block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_block"},{"link_name":"steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel"},{"link_name":"cast iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron"},{"link_name":"forging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forging"},{"link_name":"casting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)"},{"link_name":"machining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machining"}],"text":"For other uses, see Crankshaft (disambiguation).Crankshaft (red), pistons (gray), cylinders (blue) and flywheel (black)A crankshaft is a mechanical component used in a piston engine to convert the reciprocating motion into rotational motion. The crankshaft is a rotating shaft containing one or more crankpins,[1] that are driven by the pistons via the connecting rods.[2]The crankpins are also called rod bearing journals, and they rotate within the \"big end\" of the connecting rods.Most modern crankshafts are located in the engine block. They are made from steel or cast iron, using either a forging, casting or machining process.","title":"Crankshaft"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cad_crank.jpg"},{"link_name":"pistons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston#Internal_combustion_engines"},{"link_name":"connecting rods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecting_rod"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marine_Crankshafts_8b03602r.jpg"},{"link_name":"engine block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_block"},{"link_name":"main bearings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_bearing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"connecting rods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecting_rods"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"flywheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheel"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"single-cylinder engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-cylinder_engine"}],"text":"Crankshaft, pistons and connecting rods for a typical internal combustion engineMarine engine crankshafts from 1942The crankshaft is located within the engine block and held in place via main bearings which allow the crankshaft to rotate within the block.[3] The up-down motion of each piston is transferred to the crankshaft via connecting rods.[4] A flywheel is often attached to one end of the crankshaft, in order to smoothen the power delivery and reduce vibration.[5]A crankshaft is subjected to enormous stresses, in some cases more than 8.6 tonnes (19,000 pounds) per cylinder.[6] Crankshafts for single-cylinder engines are usually a simpler design than for engines with multiple cylinders.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"torsional forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"V8 engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V8_engine"},{"link_name":"straight-eight engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight-eight_engine"},{"link_name":"compression ratios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratio"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Bearings","text":"The crankshaft is able to rotate in the engine block due to the 'main bearings'. Since the crankshaft is subject to large horizontal and torsional forces from each cylinder, these main bearings are located at various points along the crankshaft, rather than just one at each end.[7] The number of main bearings is determined based on the overall load factor and the maximum engine speed. Crankshafts in diesel engines often use a main bearing between every cylinder and at both ends of the crankshaft, due to the high forces of combustion present.[8]Flexing of the crankshaft was a factor in V8 engines replacing straight-eight engines in the 1950s; the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher engine speeds (RPM).[9]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stroke length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke_(engine)#Stroke_length"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Howacarworks.com-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cylinder bore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_bore"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Piston stroke","text":"The distance between the axis of the crankpins and the axis of the crankshaft determines the stroke length of the engine.[1]Most modern car engines are classified as \"over square\" or short-stroke,[citation needed] wherein the stroke is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore. A common way to increase the low-RPM torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes known as \"stroking\" the engine. Historically, the trade-off for a long-stroke engine was a lower rev limit and increased vibration at high RPM, due to the increased piston velocity.[10]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"firing order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firing_order"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Ford Modular engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Modular_engine"},{"link_name":"General Motors LS engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LS_based_GM_small-block_engine"},{"link_name":"cross-plane crank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossplane"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Ferrari 488","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrari_488"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"flat-plane crank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat-plane_crank"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Cross-plane and flat-plane configurations","text":"When designing an engine, the crankshaft configuration is closely related to the engine's firing order.[11][12]Most production V8 engines (such as the Ford Modular engine and the General Motors LS engine) use a cross-plane crank whereby the crank throws are spaced 90 degrees apart.[13] However, some high-performance V8 engines (such as the Ferrari 488)[14][15] instead use a flat-plane crank, whereby the throws are spaced 180° apart, which essentially results in two inline-four engines sharing a common crankcase. Flat-plane engines are usually able to operate at higher RPM, however they have higher second-order vibrations,[16] so they are better suited to racing car engines.[17]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"counterweights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterweight"},{"link_name":"engine balance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_balance"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Engine balance","text":"For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating mass of the piston, conrods and crankshaft, in order to improve the engine balance.[18][19] These counterweights are typically cast as part of the crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces.[citation needed]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crankshaft_jap_grayscale.jpg"},{"link_name":"crankpins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankpin"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nunney-20"},{"link_name":"V6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V6_engine"},{"link_name":"V8 engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V8_engine"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Flying arms","text":"Flying arm (the boomerang-shaped link between first and second crankpins) on a crankshaft)In some engines, the crankshaft contains direct links between adjacent crank pins, without the usual intermediate main bearing. These links are called flying arms.[20]: 16, 41 This arrangement is sometimes used in V6 and V8 engines, in order to maintain an even firing interval while using different V angles, and to reduce the number of main bearings required. The downside of flying arms is that the rigidity of the crankshaft is reduced, which can cause problems at high RPM or high power outputs.[21]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Lanchester Engine Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanchester_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"balance shafts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_shaft"}],"sub_title":"Counter-rotating crankshafts","text":"In most engines, each connecting rod is attached a single crankshaft, which results in the angle of the connecting rod varying as the piston moves through its stroke. This variation in angle pushes the pistons against the cylinder wall, which causes friction between the piston and cylinder wall.[22] To prevent this, some early engines – such as the 1900–1904 Lanchester Engine Company flat-twin engines – connected each piston to two crankshafts that are rotating in opposite directions. This arrangement cancels out the lateral forces and reduces the requirement for counterweights. This design is rarely used, however a similar principle applies to balance shafts, which are occasionally used.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPH_Kurbelwelle.jpg"},{"link_name":"roll forging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forging#Roll_forging"},{"link_name":"vanadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium#Applications"}],"sub_title":"Forged crankshafts","text":"Forged crankshaftCrankshafts can be created from a steel bar using roll forging. Today, manufacturers tend to favour the use of forged crankshafts due to their lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent damping. With forged crankshafts, vanadium micro-alloyed steels are mainly used as these steels can be air-cooled after reaching high strengths without additional heat treatment, except for the surface hardening of the bearing surfaces. The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than high alloy steels. Carbon steels also require additional heat treatment to reach the desired properties.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)"}],"sub_title":"Cast crankshafts","text":"Another construction method is to cast the crankshaft from ductile. Cast iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production engines where the loads are lower.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"machined","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machining"},{"link_name":"billet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billet_(manufacturing)"},{"link_name":"vacuum remelted steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting"}],"sub_title":"Machined crankshafts","text":"Crankshafts can also be machined from billet, often a bar of high quality vacuum remelted steel. Though the fiber flow (local inhomogeneities of the material's chemical composition generated during casting) does not follow the shape of the crankshaft (which is undesirable), this is usually not a problem since higher quality steels, which normally are difficult to forge, can be used. Per unit, these crankshafts tend to be very expensive due to the large amount of material that must be removed with lathes and milling machines, the high material cost, and the additional heat treatment required. However, since no expensive tooling is needed, this production method allows small production runs without high up-front costs.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Science and technology of the Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Han_dynasty"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11,_Tibetexpedition,_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg"},{"link_name":"Querns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quern-stone"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ritti,_Grewe,_Kessener_2007,_159-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lucas_2005,_5,_fn._9-24"},{"link_name":"cranks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)"},{"link_name":"Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty"},{"link_name":"winnowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnowing"},{"link_name":"bellows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellows"},{"link_name":"windlass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windlass"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_118-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"China","text":"See also: Science and technology of the Han dynastyQuerns are a form of hand-operated crank.[23][24]The earliest hand-operated cranks appeared in China during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). They were used for silk-reeling, hemp-spinning, for the agricultural winnowing fan, in the water-powered flour-sifter, for hydraulic-powered metallurgic bellows, and in the well windlass.[25] The rotary winnowing fan greatly increased the efficiency of separating grain from husks and stalks.[26][27] However, the potential of the crank of converting circular motion into reciprocal motion never seems to have been fully realized in China, and the crank was typically absent from such machines until the turn of the 20th century.[28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Roman watermills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_watermills"},{"link_name":"Medieval technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_technology"},{"link_name":"Renaissance technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_crank_handle,_Augusta_Raurica,_Switzerland._Pic_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"handmill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quern-stone"},{"link_name":"Celtiberian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtiberians"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ritti,_Grewe,_Kessener_2007,_159-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lucas_2005,_5,_fn._9-24"},{"link_name":"Augusta Raurica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusta_Raurica"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schi%C3%B6ler_2009,_113-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:R%C3%B6mische_S%C3%A4gem%C3%BChle.svg"},{"link_name":"Hierapolis sawmill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierapolis_sawmill"},{"link_name":"Asia Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minor"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ritti,_Grewe,_Kessener_2007,_161-33"},{"link_name":"Hierapolis mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierapolis_mill"},{"link_name":"sawmills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawmill"},{"link_name":"Roman Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Syria"},{"link_name":"Ephesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephesus"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ritti,_Grewe,_Kessener_2007,_161-33"},{"link_name":"pediment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediment"},{"link_name":"waterwheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterwheel"},{"link_name":"mill race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mill_race"},{"link_name":"gear train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear_train"},{"link_name":"frame saws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_saw"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"marble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Ausonius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausonius"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ritti,_Grewe,_Kessener_2007,_161-33"},{"link_name":"Gregory of Nyssa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa"},{"link_name":"Anatolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ritti,_Grewe,_Kessener_2007,_161-33"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"grindstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grindstone_(tool)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_110-39"},{"link_name":"Carolingian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Utrecht Psalter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_Psalter"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_110-39"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"brace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brace_(tool)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_112-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_113-43"},{"link_name":"Roberto Valturio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Valturio"},{"link_name":"Francesco di Giorgio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_di_Giorgio"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_114-44"},{"link_name":"Konrad Kyeser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Kyeser"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_113-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_111-46"},{"link_name":"Bellifortis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellifortis"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_111-46"},{"link_name":"Archimedes' screws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Pisanello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisanello"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_113-43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anonymous_of_the_Hussite_Wars._Clm_197,_Part_1,_Folio_17v_Supra.jpg"},{"link_name":"crossbow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbow"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"reels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reel"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_111-46"},{"link_name":"Guido da Vigevano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido_da_Vigevano"},{"link_name":"paddle boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddle_steamer#History"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Lynn Townsend White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Townsend_White"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Luttrell Psalter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luttrell_Psalter"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Jr._1962,_111-46"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_tg_0006690_Mechanik_%5E_Wasserf%C3%B6rderung_%5E_Pumpe.jpg"},{"link_name":"Georg Andreas Böckler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Andreas_B%C3%B6ckler"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crank-52"},{"link_name":"Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis_Corneliszoon_van_Uitgeest"},{"link_name":"sawmill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawmill"},{"link_name":"patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent"},{"link_name":"Agostino Ramelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Ramelli"},{"link_name":"Georg Andreas Böckler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Andreas_B%C3%B6ckler"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"phonographs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph"},{"link_name":"clockwork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clockwork"},{"link_name":"Internal combustion engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine"},{"link_name":"automobiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile"},{"link_name":"electric starters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_self_starter"}],"sub_title":"Europe","text":"See also: List of Roman watermills, Medieval technology, and Renaissance technologyRoman crank handle, c. 250 ADA crank in the form of an eccentrically-mounted handle of the rotary handmill appeared in 5th-century BC Celtiberian Spain and ultimately spread across the Roman Empire.[29][23][24] A Roman iron crank dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland.[30][31] The crank-operated Roman mill is dated to the late 2nd century.[32]Hierapolis sawmill in Asia Minor (3rd century), a machine that combines a crank with a connecting rod.[33]Evidence for the crank combined with a connecting rod appears in the Hierapolis mill, dating to the 3rd century; they are also found in stone sawmills in Roman Syria and Ephesus dating to the 6th century.[33] The pediment of the Hierapolis mill shows a waterwheel fed by a mill race powering via a gear train two frame saws which cut blocks by the way of some kind of connecting rods and cranks.[34] The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically-attested sawmills worked without a gear train.[35][36] Water-powered marble saws in Germany were mentioned by the late 4th century poet Ausonius;[33] about the same time, these mill types seem also to be indicated by Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia.[37][33][38]A rotary grindstone[39] operated by a crank handle is shown in the Carolingian manuscript Utrecht Psalter; the pen drawing of around 830 goes back to a late antique original.[40] Cranks used to turn wheels are also depicted or described in various works dating from the tenth to thirteenth centuries.[39][41]The first depictions of the compound crank in the carpenter's brace appear between 1420 and 1430 in northern European artwork.[42] The rapid adoption of the compound crank can be traced in the works of an unknown German engineer writing on the state of military technology during the Hussite Wars: first, the connecting-rod, applied to cranks, reappeared; second, double-compound cranks also began to be equipped with connecting-rods; and third, the flywheel was employed for these cranks to get them over the 'dead-spot'.[43] The concept was much improved by the Italian engineer and writer Roberto Valturio in 1463, who devised a boat with five sets, where the parallel cranks are all joined to a single power source by one connecting-rod, an idea also taken up by his compatriot Italian painter Francesco di Giorgio.[44]The crank had become common in Europe by the early 15th century, as seen in the works of the military engineer Konrad Kyeser (1366–after 1405).[45][46] Devices depicted in Kyeser's Bellifortis include cranked windlasses for spanning siege crossbows, cranked chain of buckets for water-lifting and cranks fitted to a wheel of bells.[46] Kyeser also equipped the Archimedes' screws for water-raising with a crank handle, an innovation which subsequently replaced the ancient practice of working the pipe by treading.[47]Pisanello painted a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods.[43]15th century paddle-wheel boatThe 15th century also saw the introduction of cranked rack-and-pinion devices, called cranequins, which were fitted to the crossbow's stock as a means of exerting even more force while spanning the missile weapon.[48] In the textile industry, cranked reels for winding skeins of yarn were introduced.[46]The Italian physician Guido da Vigevano (c. 1280 – c. 1349−1349), planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels,[49] identified as an early crankshaft prototype by Lynn Townsend White.[50] The Luttrell Psalter, dating to around 1340, describes a grindstone which was rotated by two cranks, one at each end of its axle; the geared hand-mill, operated either with one or two cranks, appeared later in the 15th century.[46]1661 water pump by Georg Andreas BöcklerAround 1480, the early medieval rotary grindstone was improved with a treadle and crank mechanism. Cranks mounted on push-carts first appear in a German engraving of 1589.[51] Crankshafts were also described by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)[52] and a Dutch farmer and windmill owner by the name Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest in 1592. His wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmill's circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597.From the 16th century onwards, evidence of cranks and connecting rods integrated into machine design becomes abundant in the technological treatises of the period: Agostino Ramelli's The Diverse and Artifactitious Machines of 1588 depicts eighteen examples, a number that rises in the Theatrum Machinarum Novum by Georg Andreas Böckler to 45 different machines.[53] Cranks were formerly common on some machines in the early 20th century; for example almost all phonographs before the 1930s were powered by clockwork motors wound with cranks. Reciprocating piston engines use cranks to convert the linear piston motion into rotational motion. Internal combustion engines of early 20th century automobiles were usually started with hand cranks, before electric starters came into general use.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Banū Mūsā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81"},{"link_name":"Book of Ingenious Devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Ingenious_Devices"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hill1979-55"}],"sub_title":"Western Asia","text":"The non-manual crank appears in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their 9th-century Book of Ingenious Devices.[54] These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of a crankshaft. The automatic crank described by the Banū Mūsā would not have allowed a full rotation, however, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.[55]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Journal of Archaeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.3764/aja.107.1.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.3764%2Faja.107.1.1"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"192167193","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192167193"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-549-05632-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-549-05632-X"},{"link_name":"citation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-920153-93-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-920153-93-6"},{"link_name":"citation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1353/tech.2005.0026","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2005.0026"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"109564224","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109564224"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-88467-149-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88467-149-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-05803-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-05803-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7506-8037-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8037-0"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S1047759400005341","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759400005341"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"161937987","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161937987"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-7749-2903-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7749-2903-3"},{"link_name":"White, Lynn Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Townsend_White_Jr."},{"link_name":"Wilson, Andrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_(classical_archaeologist)"},{"link_name":"The Journal of Roman Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Roman_Studies"}],"text":"Frankel, Rafael (2003), \"The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution\", American Journal of Archaeology, 107 (1): 1–21, doi:10.3764/aja.107.1.1, S2CID 192167193\nHägermann, Dieter; Schneider, Helmuth (1997), Propyläen Technikgeschichte. Landbau und Handwerk, 750 v. Chr. bis 1000 n. Chr. (2nd ed.), Berlin, ISBN 3-549-05632-X{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nHall, Bert S. (1979), The Technological Illustrations of the So-Called \"Anonymous of the Hussite Wars\". Codex Latinus Monacensis 197, Part 1, Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, ISBN 3-920153-93-6\nLaur-Belart, Rudolf (1988), Führer durch Augusta Raurica (5th ed.), Augst{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nLucas, Adam Robert (2005), \"Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe\", Technology and Culture, 46 (1): 1–30, doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026, S2CID 109564224\nMangartz, Fritz (2010), Die byzantinische Steinsäge von Ephesos. Baubefund, Rekonstruktion, Architekturteile, Monographs of the RGZM, vol. 86, Mainz: Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, ISBN 978-3-88467-149-8\nNeedham, Joseph (1986), Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology: Part 2, Mechanical Engineering, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-05803-1\nNunney, Malcolm J. (2007), Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (4th ed.), Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-7506-8037-0\nRitti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), \"A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications\", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 20: 138–163, doi:10.1017/S1047759400005341, S2CID 161937987\nSchiöler, Thorkild (2009), \"Die Kurbelwelle von Augst und die römische Steinsägemühle\", Helvetia Archaeologica, vol. 40, no. 159/160, pp. 113–124\nVolpert, Hans-Peter (1997), \"Eine römische Kurbelmühle aus Aschheim, Lkr. München\", Bericht der Bayerischen Bodendenkmalpflege, 38: 193–199, ISBN 3-7749-2903-3\nWhite, Lynn Jr. (1962), Medieval Technology and Social Change, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press\nWilson, Andrew (2002), \"Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy\", The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 92, pp. 1–32","title":"Sources"}] | [{"image_text":"Crankshaft (red), pistons (gray), cylinders (blue) and flywheel (black)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Cshaft.gif/260px-Cshaft.gif"},{"image_text":"Crankshaft, pistons and connecting rods for a typical internal combustion engine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cad_crank.jpg/220px-Cad_crank.jpg"},{"image_text":"Marine engine crankshafts from 1942","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Marine_Crankshafts_8b03602r.jpg/220px-Marine_Crankshafts_8b03602r.jpg"},{"image_text":"Flying arm (the boomerang-shaped link between first and second crankpins) on a crankshaft)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Crankshaft_jap_grayscale.jpg/220px-Crankshaft_jap_grayscale.jpg"},{"image_text":"Forged crankshaft","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/IPH_Kurbelwelle.jpg/180px-IPH_Kurbelwelle.jpg"},{"image_text":"Querns are a form of hand-operated crank.[23][24]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg"},{"image_text":"Roman crank handle, c. 250 AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Roman_crank_handle%2C_Augusta_Raurica%2C_Switzerland._Pic_01.jpg/220px-Roman_crank_handle%2C_Augusta_Raurica%2C_Switzerland._Pic_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hierapolis sawmill in Asia Minor (3rd century), a machine that combines a crank with a connecting rod.[33]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/R%C3%B6mische_S%C3%A4gem%C3%BChle.svg/220px-R%C3%B6mische_S%C3%A4gem%C3%BChle.svg.png"},{"image_text":"15th century paddle-wheel boat","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Anonymous_of_the_Hussite_Wars._Clm_197%2C_Part_1%2C_Folio_17v_Supra.jpg/180px-Anonymous_of_the_Hussite_Wars._Clm_197%2C_Part_1%2C_Folio_17v_Supra.jpg"},{"image_text":"1661 water pump by Georg Andreas Böckler","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Fotothek_df_tg_0006690_Mechanik_%5E_Wasserf%C3%B6rderung_%5E_Pumpe.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_tg_0006690_Mechanik_%5E_Wasserf%C3%B6rderung_%5E_Pumpe.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Crankshaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Crankshaft"},{"title":"Bicycle crankset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankset"},{"title":"Brace (tool)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brace_(tool)"},{"title":"Cam (mechanism)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)"},{"title":"Cam engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam_engine"},{"title":"Camshaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camshaft"},{"title":"Crank (mechanism)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)"},{"title":"Crankcase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankcase"},{"title":"Crankshaft torsional vibration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsional_vibration#Crankshaft_torsional_vibration"},{"title":"List of auto parts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_auto_parts"},{"title":"Piston motion equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston_motion_equations"},{"title":"Tunnel crankshaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_crankshaft"},{"title":"Scotch yoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch_yoke"},{"title":"Swashplate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swashplate"}] | [{"reference":"\"How the crankshaft works – All the details\". How a Car Works. Retrieved 27 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.howacarworks.com/crankshaft","url_text":"\"How the crankshaft works – All the details\""}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of CRANKSHAFT\". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/crankshaft","url_text":"\"Definition of CRANKSHAFT\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster_Dictionary","url_text":"Merriam-Webster Dictionary"}]},{"reference":"\"Crankshaft: Parts, Function, Types, Diagram & More\". The Engineers Post. 27 May 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theengineerspost.com/crankshaft-parts-and-function/","url_text":"\"Crankshaft: Parts, Function, Types, Diagram & More\""}]},{"reference":"McCune, R. C.; Weber, G. A. (1 January 2001). \"Automotive Engine materials\". Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology. Elsevier. pp. 426–434. Bibcode:2001emst.book..426M. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043152-6/00086-3. ISBN 9780080431529. Retrieved 1 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080431526000863","url_text":"\"Automotive Engine materials\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001emst.book..426M","url_text":"2001emst.book..426M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-043152-6%2F00086-3","url_text":"10.1016/B0-08-043152-6/00086-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080431529","url_text":"9780080431529"}]},{"reference":"\"How Does A Flywheel Work? Explained In Simple Words\". Car From Japan. 13 June 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://carfromjapan.com/article/industry-knowledge/how-does-a-flywheel-work/","url_text":"\"How Does A Flywheel Work? Explained In Simple Words\""}]},{"reference":"\"How to Build Racing Engines: Crankshafts Guide\". www.musclecardiy.com. 5 April 2015. Retrieved 27 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.musclecardiy.com/performance/how-to-build-racing-engines-crankshafts-guide/","url_text":"\"How to Build Racing Engines: Crankshafts Guide\""}]},{"reference":"\"Flat-Plane Cranks, Part 2 — Calculating Crankshaft Secondary Forces\". EngineLabs. 20 January 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.enginelabs.com/tech-stories/flat-plane-cranks-part-2-calculating-crankshaft-secondary-forces/","url_text":"\"Flat-Plane Cranks, Part 2 — Calculating Crankshaft Secondary Forces\""}]},{"reference":"Bosch, Robert (2004). Automotive Handbook. Robert Bosch. p. 465. ISBN 978-0-8376-1243-0. Retrieved 28 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_t1oPwAACAAJ","url_text":"Automotive Handbook"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8376-1243-0","url_text":"978-0-8376-1243-0"}]},{"reference":"\"A Brief History Of The Straight-Eight Engine – Carole Nash\". Carole Nash UK. Retrieved 28 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.carolenash.com/news/classic-car-news/detail/a-brief-history-of-the-straight-eight-engine","url_text":"\"A Brief History Of The Straight-Eight Engine – Carole Nash\""}]},{"reference":"\"All you need to know about stroker engines and kits\". TorqueCars. 22 December 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.torquecars.com/tuning/stroker-engines.php","url_text":"\"All you need to know about stroker engines and kits\""}]},{"reference":"\"What's the best firing order?\". EngineLabs. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.enginelabs.com/engine-tech/engine/firing-order-swaps-whats-best-for-your-engine/","url_text":"\"What's the best firing order?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Crankshaft Design Evolution\". enginehistory.org. Retrieved 30 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://enginehistory.org/members/articles/CrankDesignEvol.shtml","url_text":"\"Crankshaft Design Evolution\""}]},{"reference":"\"Flat Plane Crankshafts vs. Crossplane Crankshafts\". OnAllCylinders. 15 January 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.onallcylinders.com/2015/01/15/cross-plane-vs-flat-plane-crankshafts/","url_text":"\"Flat Plane Crankshafts vs. Crossplane Crankshafts\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ferrari 488 Spider debuts in Frankfurt, is faster than Lamborghini's new drop-top in every way\". Autoweek. 15 September 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.autoweek.com/news/auto-shows/a1876761/ferrari-488-spider-drops-its-top-frankfurt-motor-show/","url_text":"\"Ferrari 488 Spider debuts in Frankfurt, is faster than Lamborghini's new drop-top in every way\""}]},{"reference":"\"2016 Ferrari 488 Spider: Losing the Roof Doesn't Compromise the Magic\". Road & Track. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.roadandtrack.com/new-cars/first-drives/reviews/a27051/the-ferrari-488-spider-is-not-compromised-is-really-great/","url_text":"\"2016 Ferrari 488 Spider: Losing the Roof Doesn't Compromise the Magic\""}]},{"reference":"\"Difference Between Cross-Plane and Flat-Plane Cranks\". MotorTrend. 15 June 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.motortrend.com/how-to/difference-between-cross-plane-and-flat-plane-cranks/","url_text":"\"Difference Between Cross-Plane and Flat-Plane Cranks\""}]},{"reference":"\"How The Flat-Plane Crank Turns Muscle Cars Into Exotics\". CarBuzz. 8 April 2016. Retrieved 30 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://carbuzz.com/news/carbuzz-explains-how-the-flat-plane-crank-turns-muscle-cars-into-exotics","url_text":"\"How The Flat-Plane Crank Turns Muscle Cars Into Exotics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Crankshaft Balance Factors\". Ohio Crankshaft. Retrieved 31 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://ohiocrank.com/crankshaft-balance-factors/","url_text":"\"Crankshaft Balance Factors\""}]},{"reference":"\"Finding Balance (Part 1): The Basics of Crankshaft Balancing\". OnAllCylinders. 17 March 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.onallcylinders.com/2016/03/17/the-basics-of-crankshaft-balancing/","url_text":"\"Finding Balance (Part 1): The Basics of Crankshaft Balancing\""}]},{"reference":"Nunney, Malcolm J. (2007). Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (4th ed.). Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-8037-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8037-0","url_text":"978-0-7506-8037-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Crankshaft guide – Flat vs Cross plane & lightened crankshafts\". TorqueCars. 30 June 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.torquecars.com/tuning/crankshafts.php","url_text":"\"Crankshaft guide – Flat vs Cross plane & lightened crankshafts\""}]},{"reference":"Andersson BS (1991), Company's perspective in vehicle tribology. In: 18th Leeds-Lyon Symposium (eds D Dowson, CM Taylor and MGodet), Lyon, France, 3–6 September 1991, New York: Elsevier, pp. 503–506","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bautista Paz, Emilio; Ceccarelli, Marco; Otero, Javier Echávarri; Sanz, José Luis Muñoz (2010). A Brief Illustrated History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer (published May 12, 2010). p. 19. ISBN 978-9048125111.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9048125111","url_text":"978-9048125111"}]},{"reference":"Du Bois, George (2014). Understanding China: Dangerous Resentments. Trafford on Demand. ISBN 978-1490745077.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1490745077","url_text":"978-1490745077"}]},{"reference":"Townsend White, Lynn (1978). Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays. University of California Press. p. 335. ISBN 9780520035669.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/medievalreligion00whit","url_text":"Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520035669","url_text":"9780520035669"}]},{"reference":"A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Serjeant (1990), The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature, Cambridge University Press, p. 266, ISBN 0-521-32763-6","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32763-6","url_text":"0-521-32763-6"}]},{"reference":"Banu Musa (1979), The book of ingenious devices (Kitāb al-ḥiyal), Springer Publishing, pp. 23–4, ISBN 90-277-0833-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-277-0833-9","url_text":"90-277-0833-9"}]},{"reference":"Frankel, Rafael (2003), \"The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution\", American Journal of Archaeology, 107 (1): 1–21, doi:10.3764/aja.107.1.1, S2CID 192167193","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology","url_text":"American Journal of Archaeology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3764%2Faja.107.1.1","url_text":"10.3764/aja.107.1.1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192167193","url_text":"192167193"}]},{"reference":"Hägermann, Dieter; Schneider, Helmuth (1997), Propyläen Technikgeschichte. Landbau und Handwerk, 750 v. Chr. bis 1000 n. Chr. (2nd ed.), Berlin, ISBN 3-549-05632-X","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-549-05632-X","url_text":"3-549-05632-X"}]},{"reference":"Hall, Bert S. (1979), The Technological Illustrations of the So-Called \"Anonymous of the Hussite Wars\". Codex Latinus Monacensis 197, Part 1, Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, ISBN 3-920153-93-6","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-920153-93-6","url_text":"3-920153-93-6"}]},{"reference":"Laur-Belart, Rudolf (1988), Führer durch Augusta Raurica (5th ed.), Augst","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), \"Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe\", Technology and Culture, 46 (1): 1–30, doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026, S2CID 109564224","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2005.0026","url_text":"10.1353/tech.2005.0026"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109564224","url_text":"109564224"}]},{"reference":"Mangartz, Fritz (2010), Die byzantinische Steinsäge von Ephesos. Baubefund, Rekonstruktion, Architekturteile, Monographs of the RGZM, vol. 86, Mainz: Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, ISBN 978-3-88467-149-8","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88467-149-8","url_text":"978-3-88467-149-8"}]},{"reference":"Needham, Joseph (1986), Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology: Part 2, Mechanical Engineering, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-05803-1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-05803-1","url_text":"0-521-05803-1"}]},{"reference":"Nunney, Malcolm J. (2007), Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (4th ed.), Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-7506-8037-0","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8037-0","url_text":"978-0-7506-8037-0"}]},{"reference":"Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), \"A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications\", Journal of Roman Archaeology, 20: 138–163, doi:10.1017/S1047759400005341, S2CID 161937987","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759400005341","url_text":"10.1017/S1047759400005341"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161937987","url_text":"161937987"}]},{"reference":"Schiöler, Thorkild (2009), \"Die Kurbelwelle von Augst und die römische Steinsägemühle\", Helvetia Archaeologica, vol. 40, no. 159/160, pp. 113–124","urls":[]},{"reference":"Volpert, Hans-Peter (1997), \"Eine römische Kurbelmühle aus Aschheim, Lkr. München\", Bericht der Bayerischen Bodendenkmalpflege, 38: 193–199, ISBN 3-7749-2903-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7749-2903-3","url_text":"3-7749-2903-3"}]},{"reference":"White, Lynn Jr. (1962), Medieval Technology and Social Change, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Townsend_White_Jr.","url_text":"White, Lynn Jr."}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Andrew (2002), \"Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy\", The Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 92, pp. 1–32","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_(classical_archaeologist)","url_text":"Wilson, Andrew"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Roman_Studies","url_text":"The Journal of Roman Studies"}]},{"reference":"Grewe, Klaus (2009). \"Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.−16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul\". In Bachmann, Martin (ed.). Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien (PDF). Byzas (in German). Vol. 9. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları/Zero Prod. Ltd. pp. 429–454. ISBN 978-975-807-223-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110511200049/http://www.freundeskreis-roemerkanal.de/Text/BAUTECHNIK%20IM%20ANTIKEN%20UND.pdf","url_text":"Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-807-223-1","url_text":"978-975-807-223-1"},{"url":"http://www.freundeskreis-roemerkanal.de/Text/BAUTECHNIK%20IM%20ANTIKEN%20UND.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.howacarworks.com/crankshaft","external_links_name":"\"How the crankshaft works – All the details\""},{"Link":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/crankshaft","external_links_name":"\"Definition of CRANKSHAFT\""},{"Link":"https://www.theengineerspost.com/crankshaft-parts-and-function/","external_links_name":"\"Crankshaft: Parts, Function, Types, Diagram & More\""},{"Link":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080431526000863","external_links_name":"\"Automotive Engine materials\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001emst.book..426M","external_links_name":"2001emst.book..426M"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-043152-6%2F00086-3","external_links_name":"10.1016/B0-08-043152-6/00086-3"},{"Link":"https://carfromjapan.com/article/industry-knowledge/how-does-a-flywheel-work/","external_links_name":"\"How Does A Flywheel Work? Explained In Simple Words\""},{"Link":"https://www.musclecardiy.com/performance/how-to-build-racing-engines-crankshafts-guide/","external_links_name":"\"How to Build Racing Engines: Crankshafts Guide\""},{"Link":"https://www.enginelabs.com/tech-stories/flat-plane-cranks-part-2-calculating-crankshaft-secondary-forces/","external_links_name":"\"Flat-Plane Cranks, Part 2 — Calculating Crankshaft Secondary Forces\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_t1oPwAACAAJ","external_links_name":"Automotive Handbook"},{"Link":"https://www.carolenash.com/news/classic-car-news/detail/a-brief-history-of-the-straight-eight-engine","external_links_name":"\"A Brief History Of The Straight-Eight Engine – Carole Nash\""},{"Link":"https://www.torquecars.com/tuning/stroker-engines.php","external_links_name":"\"All you need to know about stroker engines and kits\""},{"Link":"https://www.enginelabs.com/engine-tech/engine/firing-order-swaps-whats-best-for-your-engine/","external_links_name":"\"What's the best firing order?\""},{"Link":"http://enginehistory.org/members/articles/CrankDesignEvol.shtml","external_links_name":"\"Crankshaft Design Evolution\""},{"Link":"https://www.onallcylinders.com/2015/01/15/cross-plane-vs-flat-plane-crankshafts/","external_links_name":"\"Flat Plane Crankshafts vs. Crossplane Crankshafts\""},{"Link":"https://www.autoweek.com/news/auto-shows/a1876761/ferrari-488-spider-drops-its-top-frankfurt-motor-show/","external_links_name":"\"Ferrari 488 Spider debuts in Frankfurt, is faster than Lamborghini's new drop-top in every way\""},{"Link":"https://www.roadandtrack.com/new-cars/first-drives/reviews/a27051/the-ferrari-488-spider-is-not-compromised-is-really-great/","external_links_name":"\"2016 Ferrari 488 Spider: Losing the Roof Doesn't Compromise the Magic\""},{"Link":"https://www.motortrend.com/how-to/difference-between-cross-plane-and-flat-plane-cranks/","external_links_name":"\"Difference Between Cross-Plane and Flat-Plane Cranks\""},{"Link":"https://carbuzz.com/news/carbuzz-explains-how-the-flat-plane-crank-turns-muscle-cars-into-exotics","external_links_name":"\"How The Flat-Plane Crank Turns Muscle Cars Into Exotics\""},{"Link":"http://ohiocrank.com/crankshaft-balance-factors/","external_links_name":"\"Crankshaft Balance Factors\""},{"Link":"https://www.onallcylinders.com/2016/03/17/the-basics-of-crankshaft-balancing/","external_links_name":"\"Finding Balance (Part 1): The Basics of Crankshaft Balancing\""},{"Link":"https://www.torquecars.com/tuning/crankshafts.php","external_links_name":"\"Crankshaft guide – Flat vs Cross plane & lightened crankshafts\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/medievalreligion00whit","external_links_name":"Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays"},{"Link":"http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%203.htm","external_links_name":"The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3764%2Faja.107.1.1","external_links_name":"10.3764/aja.107.1.1"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192167193","external_links_name":"192167193"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2005.0026","external_links_name":"10.1353/tech.2005.0026"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109564224","external_links_name":"109564224"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759400005341","external_links_name":"10.1017/S1047759400005341"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161937987","external_links_name":"161937987"},{"Link":"https://www.desmos.com/calculator/8l2kvyivqo","external_links_name":"https://www.desmos.com/calculator/8l2kvyivqo"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140714155346/http://www.content.networcs.net/tft/mechanisms.htm","external_links_name":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140714155346/http://www.content.networcs.net/tft/mechanisms.htm"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110511200049/http://www.freundeskreis-roemerkanal.de/Text/BAUTECHNIK%20IM%20ANTIKEN%20UND.pdf","external_links_name":"Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien"},{"Link":"http://www.freundeskreis-roemerkanal.de/Text/BAUTECHNIK%20IM%20ANTIKEN%20UND.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4166202-7","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007531268405171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85033760","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray_XMS | Cray XMS | ["1 References"] | 1990 minisupercomputer
The Cray XMS was a vector processor minisupercomputer sold by Cray Research from 1990 to 1991. The XMS was originally designed by Supertek Computers Inc. as the Supertek S-1, intended to be a low-cost air-cooled clone of the Cray X-MP with a CMOS re-implementation of the X-MP processor architecture, and a VMEbus-based Input/Output Subsystem (IOS). The XMS could run Cray's UNICOS operating system. Supertek were acquired by Cray Research in 1990, and the S-1 was rebadged XMS by Cray. Its processor had a 55 ns clock period (18.2 MHz clock frequency) and 16 megawords (128 MB) of memory.
The CRAY XMS system was the first CRI computer system to be supported by removable disk drives.
Serial 5011, on display, was used for marketing purposes in the Eastern Region. It traveled for over 80,000 miles during its short working life and appeared at many trade shows.
The XMS was a short-lived model, and was superseded by the Cray Y-MP EL, which was under development by Supertek (as the Supertek S-2 and briefly as the Cray YMS) at the time of the Cray acquisition.
Though powerful for its time, the CRAY XMS only had half the processing power of Microsoft's original Xbox gaming console.
References
Fred Gannett's Cray FAQ
Chippewa Falls Museum of Industry & Technology: Cray Computer Systems
Cray in Deal To Acquire Supertek, New York Times
vteCray computersCray Research
Cray-1
Cray X-MP
Cray-2
Cray Y-MP
Cray XMS
Cray Y-MP EL
Cray C90
Cray EL90
Cray T3D
Cray J90
Cray T90
Cray T3E
Cray SV1
Cray Computer Corp.
Cray-3
Cray-3/SSS
Cray-4
Cray Research Superservers
Cray APP
Cray S-MP
Cray CS6400
Cray Inc.
Cray SX-6
Cray MTA-2
Cray Red Storm
Cray X1
Cray XT3
Cray XD1
Cray XT4
Cray XMT
Cray XT5
Cray CX1
Cray XT6
Cray XE6
Cray CX1000
Cray XK6
Cray XK7
Cray XC30
Cray XC40
Cray XC50
Urika-XA
Urika-GD
This supercomputer-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vector processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_processor"},{"link_name":"minisupercomputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minisupercomputer"},{"link_name":"Cray Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray_Research"},{"link_name":"Supertek Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supertek_Computers"},{"link_name":"Cray X-MP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray_X-MP"},{"link_name":"CMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS"},{"link_name":"VMEbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMEbus"},{"link_name":"UNICOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNICOS"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"clock period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_period"},{"link_name":"Cray Y-MP EL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray_Y-MP_EL"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Xbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_(console)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The Cray XMS was a vector processor minisupercomputer sold by Cray Research from 1990 to 1991. The XMS was originally designed by Supertek Computers Inc. as the Supertek S-1, intended to be a low-cost air-cooled clone of the Cray X-MP with a CMOS re-implementation of the X-MP processor architecture, and a VMEbus-based Input/Output Subsystem (IOS). The XMS could run Cray's UNICOS operating system. Supertek were acquired by Cray Research in 1990, and the S-1 was rebadged XMS by Cray. Its processor had a 55 ns clock period (18.2 MHz clock frequency) and 16 megawords (128 MB) of memory.The CRAY XMS system was the first CRI computer system to be supported by removable disk drives.Serial 5011, on display, was used for marketing purposes in the Eastern Region. It traveled for over 80,000 miles during its short working life and appeared at many trade shows.The XMS was a short-lived model, and was superseded by the Cray Y-MP EL, which was under development by Supertek (as the Supertek S-2 and briefly as the Cray YMS) at the time of the Cray acquisition.Though powerful for its time, the CRAY XMS only had half the processing power of Microsoft's original Xbox gaming console.[citation needed]","title":"Cray XMS"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071217225200/http://www.spikynorman.dsl.pipex.com/craywwwstuff/Cfaqp1.html","external_links_name":"Fred Gannett's Cray FAQ"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070304053743/http://people.uwec.edu/AKGUNE/CFMIT/web/computer.html","external_links_name":"Chippewa Falls Museum of Industry & Technology: Cray Computer Systems"},{"Link":"https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE1DC133EF933A05750C0A966958260","external_links_name":"Cray in Deal To Acquire Supertek, New York Times"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cray_XMS&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_MuVo | Creative MuVo | ["1 Models","2 See also","3 External links"] | Range of digital audio players produced by Creative Technology
This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Creative MuVo" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Creative MuVo (in some markets, formerly Creative NOMAD MuVo) is a range of digital audio players produced by Creative Technology Limited, launched in 2002. Most models in the MuVo range use flash memory for storing data; the only exceptions being the MuVo² and MuVo² FM models, which use microdrives.
The distinguishing feature of the range, beginning with the original MuVo and carried on to newer models, is that the players are split into two unequal parts. The smaller part functions as the audio player, bearing all the controls, inputs and outputs, internal microphone, and a male USB-A plug. The larger part has a female USB-A receptacle, and holds one AAA battery: this provides power to the player. The player/flash drive section is a USB mass storage device, therefore it requires no drivers on most operating systems. Data files, as well as audio files, can be stored on the flash memory, therefore the player can also be used as a USB flash drive. However, players like the MuVo², MuVo² FM, MuVo² XT, MuVo Slim, and the MuVo Vidz are an exception. The MuVo N200 looks like a typical MuVo player, but the two unequal parts are merged and inseparable. Many, but not all, models also include an internal microphone, allowing the device to be used as a low-quality audio recorder. The MuVo line was discontinued in 2009.
MuVo TX FM 512 MB
Models
Main article: Creative MuVo player models
Most models share a similar shape and design, except for the players listed above.
See also
Creative Technology Limited
Creative NOMAD
Creative ZEN
External links
Creative Labs - MuVo Players
vteCreative TechnologySound Blaster-brandDSPs
Yamaha OPL2
Ensoniq ES1370
Ensoniq ES-5506 OTTO
E-mu 20K
Sound Blaster
Pro
16
AWE32
AWE64
AudioPCI
Live!
Audigy
X-Fi
Ensoniq
Soundscape S-2000
SoundscapeDB
Soundscape Elite
Soundscape OPUS
AudioPCI
Software
EAX
OpenAL
A3D
Divisions and brandsDivisions
Cambridge SoundWorks
Ensoniq
Sensaura
ZiiLABS
Brands
Creative MuVo
Creative NOMAD
Creative Zen
Sound Blaster
SoundFont | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital audio players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_player"},{"link_name":"Creative Technology Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Technology_Limited"},{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"microdrives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microdrive"},{"link_name":"battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"USB mass storage device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_mass_storage_device"},{"link_name":"drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"USB flash drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_flash_drive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Creative_muvo_TX_FM_512mb.jpg"}],"text":"The Creative MuVo (in some markets, formerly Creative NOMAD MuVo) is a range of digital audio players produced by Creative Technology Limited, launched in 2002. Most models in the MuVo range use flash memory for storing data; the only exceptions being the MuVo² and MuVo² FM models, which use microdrives.The distinguishing feature of the range, beginning with the original MuVo and carried on to newer models, is that the players are split into two unequal parts. The smaller part functions as the audio player, bearing all the controls, inputs and outputs, internal microphone, and a male USB-A plug. The larger part has a female USB-A receptacle, and holds one AAA battery: this provides power to the player. The player/flash drive section is a USB mass storage device, therefore it requires no drivers on most operating systems. Data files, as well as audio files, can be stored on the flash memory, therefore the player can also be used as a USB flash drive. However, players like the MuVo², MuVo² FM, MuVo² XT, MuVo Slim, and the MuVo Vidz are an exception. The MuVo N200 looks like a typical MuVo player, but the two unequal parts are merged and inseparable. Many, but not all, models also include an internal microphone, allowing the device to be used as a low-quality audio recorder. The MuVo line was discontinued in 2009.MuVo TX FM 512 MB","title":"Creative MuVo"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Most models share a similar shape and design, except for the players listed above.","title":"Models"}] | [{"image_text":"MuVo TX FM 512 MB","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Creative_muvo_TX_FM_512mb.jpg/235px-Creative_muvo_TX_FM_512mb.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Creative Technology Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Technology_Limited"},{"title":"Creative NOMAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_NOMAD"},{"title":"Creative ZEN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_ZEN"}] | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Creative+MuVo%22","external_links_name":"\"Creative MuVo\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Creative+MuVo%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Creative+MuVo%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Creative+MuVo%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Creative+MuVo%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Creative+MuVo%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060902061150/http://www.creative.com/products/welcome.asp?category=213&subcategory=215&","external_links_name":"Creative Labs - MuVo Players"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_wildcat | Cretan wildcat | ["1 Taxonomic history","2 See also","3 References"] | Cat hybrid or subspecies
Cretan wildcat
Taxidermied Felis Silvestris Cretensis in the Natural History Museum of Mount Diktis, Vidianis Monastery, Lassithi plateau, Crete, Greece.
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Carnivora
Suborder:
Feliformia
Family:
Felidae
Subfamily:
Felinae
Genus:
Felis
Species:
F. silvestris
Subspecies:
F. s. silvestris
Trinomial name
Felis silvestris silvestrisT. Haltenorth, 1953
Synonyms
Felis ocreata agrius Bate, 1906
Felis agrius (Miller, 1912)
Felis silvestris cretensis Haltenorth, 1953
Felis lybica cretensis
The Cretan wildcat is a member of the genus Felis that inhabits the Greek island of Crete. Its taxonomic status is unclear at present, as some biologists consider it probably introduced, or a European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris), or a hybrid between European wildcat and domestic cat (F. catus). It was previously considered a separate subspecies of wildcat as Felis silvestris cretensis.
Crete has been isolated from the continent for about 6 million years. Palaeontological data indicate that the island was colonised during the Pleistocene by those mammalian taxa that were able to swim across the sea. Crete's Pleistocene endemic mammalian fauna comprised rodents and herbivores, but remains of predators were not found. Pleistocene mammals died out before the Holocene.
More than 9,000 animal bones were excavated at the archaeological site Kavousi Kastro in eastern Crete in the late 1980s that date to the Late Geometric period at about 8th century BC. These faunal remains also included one cat that was identified as domestic cat.
Fragments of a domestic cat were also found at the archaeological site Gortyn dating to the 6th to 7th century AD.
In October 2017, Greek news sites circulated reports that a sheep farmer captured a wild cat after laying traps for a predator that attacked young sheep of his herd. The reports were accompanied by photographs and video footage of the captured animal.
Taxonomic history
The Cretan wildcat was originally described as a separate subspecies, Felis ocreata agrius, of wildcat by Bate in 1906. This was contested by Pocock in 1907, who said the skin was that of a feral domestic cat, but Miller in 1912 considered it a full species as Felis agrius, while Schwarz in 1930 followed Miss Bate's opinion. Pocock in 1951 examined the type specimen and again declared it a feral cat.
However, in 1953 the name Felis silvestris cretensis was proposed by Theodor Haltenorth for a separate specimen, a skin collected at the same time as the F. agrius specimen, describing the second skin as resembling the skin of an African wildcat but with the bushy tail of a European wildcat. Later researchers sometimes considered it a subspecies of the African wildcat as Felis lybica cretensis.
In the 1980s, Colin Groves measured and assessed zoological specimens of cats that originated in the Mediterranean islands. He concluded that the two cat skins from Crete differed from true wildcat specimens and therefore considered them feral cats. This view was provisionally followed by the IUCN Cat Specialist Group's major 2017 taxonomic review.
See also
Corsican wildcat
Sardinian wildcat
References
^ a b Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z.; Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 11): 17−20.
^ Wozencraft, C. W. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D. E.; Reader, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 536. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0.
^ Isaakidou, V. (2005). Bones from the Labyrinth: Faunal evidence for management and consumption of animals at Neolithic and Bronze Age Knossos, Crete. Doctoral dissertation. London: University of London.
^ Klippel, W. E.; Snyder, L. M. (1991). "Dark-Age Fauna from Kavousi, Crete: The Vertebrates from the 1987 and 1988 Excavations". Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. 60 (2): 179–186. doi:10.2307/148086. JSTOR 148086.
^ Wilkens, B. (2003). "Hunting and breeding in ancient Crete". Zooarchaeology in Greece: Recent Advances. 9: 85–90. JSTOR 40960335.
^ "Πιάστηκε Φουρόγατος στον Ομαλό; - Συναγερμός στους επιστήμονες (φωτο)".
^ "Αυτός είναι ο 'μυθικός' φουρόγατος που εντοπίστηκε στα Λευκά Όρη". 18 October 2017. Archived from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
^ Χανιώτικα Νέα (18 October 2017). "Φουρόγατος στα Λευκά Όρη;". Archived from the original on 2021-12-21 – via YouTube.
^ Sarantos Nikos (18 October 2017). "Δείτε τον εξαφανισμένο Αγριόγατο - Φουρόγατο της Κρήτης, που προσπαθεί να δραπετεύσει." Archived from the original on 2021-12-21 – via YouTube.
^ Bate, D. (1906). Proc. Zool. Soc. London. II: 317. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Pocock, R. I. (1951). "Felis catus". Catalogue of the genus Felis. London: British Museum (Natural History). p. 10.
^ Miller (1912). Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe. p. 470.
^ Haltenorth, T. (1953). "Felis silvestris cretensis nom. nov.". Die Wildkatzen der Alten Welt: Eine Übersicht über die Gattung Felis . Leipzig: Geest und Portig. pp. 29−31.
^ Gippoliti, Spartaco; Amori, Giovanni (2004). "Mediterranean Island mammals: Are they a priority for biodiversity conservation?". Biogeographia – the Journal of Integrative Biogeography. 25. doi:10.21426/B6110135.
^ Gippoliti, S.; Amori, G. (2006). "Ancient introductions of mammals in the Mediterranean Basin and their implications for conservation". Mammal Review. 36 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2006.00081.x.
^ Groves, C.P. (1989). "Feral mammals of the Mediterranean islands: documents of early domestication". In Clutton-Brock, J. (ed.). The Walking Larder: Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation (2015 ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 46–58. ISBN 9781317598381.
vteExtant Carnivora species
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Infraclass: Eutheria
Superorder: Laurasiatheria
Suborder FeliformiaNandiniidaeNandinia
African palm civet (N. binotata)
Herpestidae(Mongooses)Atilax
Marsh mongoose (A. paludinosus)
Bdeogale
Bushy-tailed mongoose (B. crassicauda)
Jackson's mongoose (B. jacksoni)
Black-footed mongoose (B. nigripes)
Crossarchus
Alexander's kusimanse (C. alexandri)
Angolan kusimanse (C. ansorgei)
Common kusimanse (C. obscurus)
Flat-headed kusimanse (C. platycephalus)
Cynictis
Yellow mongoose (C. penicillata)
Dologale
Pousargues's mongoose (D. dybowskii)
Helogale
Ethiopian dwarf mongoose (H. hirtula)
Common dwarf mongoose (H. parvula)
Herpestes
Angolan slender mongoose (H. flavescens)
Egyptian mongoose (H. ichneumon)
Somalian slender mongoose (H. ochracea)
Cape gray mongoose (H. pulverulenta)
Common slender mongoose (H. sanguinea)
Ichneumia
White-tailed mongoose (I. albicauda)
Liberiictus
Liberian mongoose (L. kuhni)
Mungos
Gambian mongoose (M. gambianus)
Banded mongoose (M. mungo)
Paracynictis
Selous's mongoose (P. selousi)
Rhynchogale
Meller's mongoose (R. melleri)
Suricata
Meerkat (S. suricatta)
Urva
Small Indian mongoose (U. auropunctata)
Short-tailed mongoose (U. brachyura)
Indian grey mongoose (U. edwardsii)
Indian brown mongoose (U. fusca)
Javan mongoose (U. javanica)
Collared mongoose (U. semitorquata)
Ruddy mongoose (U. smithii)
Crab-eating mongoose (U. urva)
Stripe-necked mongoose (U. vitticolla)
Xenogale
Long-nosed mongoose (X. naso)
Hyaenidae(Hyenas)Crocuta
Spotted hyena (C. crocuta)
Hyaena
Striped hyena (H. hyaena)
Parahyaena
Brown hyena (P. brunnea)
Proteles
Aardwolf (P. cristata)
FelidaeLarge family listed belowViverridaeLarge family listed belowEupleridaeSmall family listed belowFamily FelidaeFelinaeAcinonyx
Cheetah (A. jubatus)
Caracal
African golden cat (C. aurata)
Caracal (C. caracal)
Catopuma
Bay cat (C. badia)
Asian golden cat (C. temminckii)
Felis
Chinese mountain cat (F. bieti)
Domestic cat (F. catus)
Jungle cat (F. chaus)
African wildcat (F. lybica)
Sand cat (F. margarita)
Black-footed cat (F. nigripes)
European wildcat (F. silvestris)
Herpailurus
Jaguarundi (H. yagouaroundi)
Leopardus
Pampas cat (L. colocola)
Geoffroy's cat (L. geoffroyi)
Kodkod (L. guigna)
Southern tiger cat (L. guttulus)
Andean mountain cat (L. jacobita)
Ocelot (L. pardalis)
Oncilla (L. tigrinus)
Margay (L. wiedii)
Leptailurus
Serval (L. serval)
Lynx
Canada lynx (L. canadensis)
Eurasian lynx (L. lynx)
Iberian lynx (L. pardinus)
Bobcat (L. rufus)
Otocolobus
Pallas's cat (O. manul)
Pardofelis
Marbled cat (P. marmorata)
Prionailurus
Leopard cat (P. bengalensis)
Sunda leopard cat (P. javanensis)
Flat-headed cat (P. planiceps)
Rusty-spotted cat (P. rubiginosus)
Fishing cat (P. viverrinus)
Puma
Cougar (P. concolor)
PantherinaePanthera
Lion (P. leo)
Jaguar (P. onca)
Leopard (P. pardus)
Tiger (P. tigris)
Snow leopard (P. uncia)
Neofelis
Sunda clouded leopard (N. diardi)
Clouded leopard (N. nebulosa)
PrionodontidaePrionodon
Banded linsang (P. linsang)
Spotted linsang (P. pardicolor)
Family ViverridaeParadoxurinaeArctictis
Binturong (A. binturong)
Arctogalidia
Small-toothed palm civet (A. trivirgata)
Macrogalidia
Sulawesi palm civet (M. musschenbroekii)
Paguma
Masked palm civet (P. larvata)
Paradoxurus
Asian palm civet (P. hermaphroditus)
Brown palm civet (P. jerdoni)
Golden palm civet (P. zeylonensis)
HemigalinaeChrotogale
Owston's palm civet (C. owstoni)
Cynogale
Otter civet (C. bennettii)
Diplogale
Hose's palm civet (D. hosei)
Hemigalus
Banded palm civet (H. derbyanus)
ViverrinaeCivettictis
African civet (C. civetta)
Viverra
Malabar large-spotted civet (V. civettina)
Large-spotted civet (V. megaspila)
Malayan civet (V. tangalunga)
Large Indian civet (V. zibetha)
Viverricula
Small Indian civet (V. indica)
GenettinaeGenetta(Genets)
Abyssinian genet (G. abyssinica)
Angolan genet (G. angolensis)
Bourlon's genet (G. bourloni)
Crested servaline genet (G. cristata)
Common genet (G. genetta)
Johnston's genet (G. johnstoni)
Letaba genet (G. letabae)
Rusty-spotted genet (G. maculata)
Pardine genet (G. pardina)
Aquatic genet (G. piscivora)
King genet (G. poensis)
Servaline genet (G. servalina)
Hausa genet (G. thierryi)
Cape genet (G. tigrina)
Giant forest genet (G. victoriae)
South African small-spotted genet (G. felina)
Poiana
Central African oyan (P. richardsonii)
West African oyan (P. leightoni)
Family EupleridaeEuplerinaeCryptoprocta
Fossa (C. ferox)
Eupleres
Eastern falanouc (E. goudotii)
Western falanouc (E. major)
Fossa
Malagasy civet (F. fossana)
GalidiinaeGalidia
Ring-tailed vontsira (G. elegans)
Galidictis
Broad-striped Malagasy mongoose (G. fasciata)
Grandidier's mongoose (G. grandidieri)
Mungotictis
Narrow-striped mongoose (M. decemlineata)
Salanoia
Brown-tailed mongoose (S. concolor)
Durrell's vontsira (S. durrelli)
Suborder Caniformia (cont. below)Ursidae(Bears)Ailuropoda
Giant panda (A. melanoleuca)
Helarctos
Sun bear (H. malayanus)
Melursus
Sloth bear (M. ursinus)
Tremarctos
Spectacled bear (T. ornatus)
Ursus
American black bear (U. americanus)
Brown bear (U. arctos)
Polar bear (U. maritimus)
Asian black bear (U. thibetanus)
Mephitidae(Skunks)Conepatus(Hog-nosedskunks)
Molina's hog-nosed skunk (C. chinga)
Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk (C. humboldtii)
American hog-nosed skunk (C. leuconotus)
Striped hog-nosed skunk (C. semistriatus)
Mephitis
Hooded skunk (M. macroura)
Striped skunk (M. mephitis)
Mydaus
Sunda stink badger (M. javanensis)
Palawan stink badger (M. marchei)
Spilogale(Spotted skunks)
Southern spotted skunk (S. angustifrons)
Western spotted skunk (S. gracilis)
Eastern spotted skunk (S. putorius)
Pygmy spotted skunk (S. pygmaea)
Procyonidae(Raccoons, coatis, olingos)Bassaricyon(Olingos)
Eastern lowland olingo (B. alleni)
Northern olingo (B. gabbii)
Western lowland olingo (B. medius)
Olinguito (B. neblina)
Bassariscus
Ringtail (B. astutus)
Cacomistle (B. sumichrasti)
Nasua(Coatis inclusive)
White-nosed coati (N. narica)
South American coati (N. nasua)
Nasuella(Coatis inclusive)
Eastern mountain coati (N. meridensis)
Western mountain coati (N. olivacea)
Potos
Kinkajou (P. flavus)
Procyon
Crab-eating raccoon (P. cancrivorus)
Raccoon (P. lotor)
Cozumel raccoon (P. pygmaeus)
AiluridaeAilurus
Red panda (A. fulgens)
Suborder Caniformia (cont. above)Otariidae(Eared seals)(includes fur sealsand sea lions)(Pinniped inclusive)Arctocephalus
South American fur seal (A. australis)
Australasian fur seal (A. forsteri)
Galápagos fur seal (A. galapagoensis)
Antarctic fur seal (A. gazella)
Juan Fernández fur seal (A. philippii)
Brown fur seal (A. pusillus)
Guadalupe fur seal (A. townsendi)
Subantarctic fur seal (A. tropicalis)
Callorhinus
Northern fur seal (C. ursinus)
Eumetopias
Steller sea lion (E. jubatus)
Neophoca
Australian sea lion (N. cinerea)
Otaria
South American sea lion (O. flavescens)
Phocarctos
New Zealand sea lion (P. hookeri)
Zalophus
California sea lion (Z. californianus)
Galápagos sea lion (Z. wollebaeki)
Odobenidae(Pinniped inclusive)Odobenus
Walrus (O. rosmarus)
Phocidae(Earless seals)(Pinniped inclusive)Cystophora
Hooded seal (C. cristata)
Erignathus
Bearded seal (E. barbatus)
Halichoerus
Grey seal (H. grypus)
Histriophoca
Ribbon seal (H. fasciata)
Hydrurga
Leopard seal (H. leptonyx)
Leptonychotes
Weddell seal (L. weddellii)
Lobodon
Crabeater seal (L. carcinophagus)
Mirounga(Elephant seals)
Northern elephant seal (M. angustirostris)
Southern elephant seal (M. leonina)
Monachus
Mediterranean monk seal (M. monachus)
Neomonachus
Hawaiian monk seal (N. schauinslandi)
Ommatophoca
Ross seal (O. rossi)
Pagophilus
Harp seal (P. groenlandicus)
Phoca
Spotted seal (P. largha)
Harbor seal (P. vitulina)
Pusa
Caspian seal (P. caspica)
Ringed seal (P. hispida)
Baikal seal (P. sibirica)
CanidaeLarge family listed belowMustelidaeLarge family listed belowFamily CanidaeAtelocynus
Short-eared dog (A. microtis)
Canis
Golden jackal (C. aureus)
Domestic dog (C. familiaris)
Coyote (C. latrans)
African wolf (C. lupaster)
Wolf (C. lupus)
Eastern wolf (C. lycaon)
Red wolf (C. rufus)
Ethiopian wolf (C. simensis)
Cerdocyon
Crab-eating fox (C. thous)
Chrysocyon
Maned wolf (C. brachyurus)
Cuon
Dhole (C. alpinus)
Lupulella
Side-striped jackal (L. adustus)
Black-backed jackal (L. mesomelas)
Lycalopex
Culpeo (L. culpaeus)
Darwin's fox (L. fulvipes)
South American gray fox (L. griseus)
Pampas fox (L. gymnocercus)
Sechuran fox (L. sechurae)
Hoary fox (L. vetulus)
Lycaon
African wild dog (L. pictus)
Nyctereutes
Common raccoon dog (N. procyonoides)
Japanese raccoon dog (N. viverrinus)
Otocyon
Bat-eared fox (O. megalotis)
Speothos
Bush dog (S. venaticus)
Urocyon
Gray fox (U. cinereoargenteus)
Island fox (U. littoralis)
Vulpes (Foxes)
Bengal fox (V. bengalensis)
Blanford's fox (V. cana)
Cape fox (V. chama)
Corsac fox (V. corsac)
Tibetan fox (V. ferrilata)
Arctic fox (V. lagopus)
Kit fox (V. macrotis)
Pale fox (V. pallida)
Rüppell's fox (V. rueppelli)
Swift fox (V. velox)
Red fox (V. vulpes)
Fennec fox (V. zerda)
Family MustelidaeHelictidinae(Ferret-badgers)Melogale
Vietnam ferret-badger (M. cucphuongensis)
Bornean ferret badger (M. everetti)
Chinese ferret-badger (M. moschata)
Javan ferret-badger (M. orientalis)
Burmese ferret-badger (M. personata)
Formosan ferret-badger (M. subaurantiaca)
Guloninae(Martens and wolverines)Eira
Tayra (E. barbara)
Gulo
Wolverine (G. gulo)
Martes(Martens)
American marten (M. americana)
Pacific marten (M. caurina)
Yellow-throated marten (M. flavigula)
Beech marten (M. foina)
Nilgiri marten (M. gwatkinsii)
European pine marten (M. martes)
Japanese marten (M. melampus)
Sable (M. zibellina)
Pekania
Fisher (P. pennanti)
Ictonychinae(African polecats and grisons)Galictis
Lesser grison (G. cuja)
Greater grison (G. vittata)
Ictonyx
Saharan striped polecat (I. libyca)
Striped polecat (I. striatus)
Lyncodon
Patagonian weasel (L. patagonicus)
Poecilogale
African striped weasel (P. albinucha)
Vormela
Marbled polecat (V. peregusna)
Lutrinae(Otters)Aonyx
African clawless otter (A. capensis)
Asian small-clawed otter (A. cinereus)
Congo clawless otter (A. congicus)
Enhydra
Sea otter (E. lutris)
Hydrictis
Spotted-necked otter (H. maculicollis)
Lontra
North American river otter (L. canadensis)
Marine otter (L. felina)
Neotropical otter (L. longicaudis)
Southern river otter (L. provocax)
Lutra
Eurasian otter (L. lutra)
Hairy-nosed otter (L. sumatrana)
Lutrogale
Smooth-coated otter (L. perspicillata)
Pteronura
Giant otter (P. brasiliensis)
Melinae(Eurasian badgers)Arctonyx
Northern hog badger (A. albogularis)
Greater hog badger (A. collaris)
Sumatran hog badger (A. hoevenii)
Meles
Japanese badger (M. anakuma)
Caucasian badger (M. canescens)
Asian badger (M. leucurus)
European badger (M. meles)
MellivorinaeMellivora
Honey badger (M. capensis)
Mustelinae(Weasels and minks)Mustela(Weasels and ferrets)
Sichuan weasel (M. aistoodonnivalis)
Mountain weasel (M. altaica)
Stoat/Beringian ermine (M. erminea)
Steppe polecat (M. eversmannii)
Ferret (M. furo)
Haida ermine (M. haidarum)
Japanese weasel (M. itatsi)
Yellow-bellied weasel (M. kathiah)
European mink (M. lutreola)
Indonesian mountain weasel (M. lutreolina)
Black-footed ferret (M. nigripes)
Least weasel (M. nivalis)
Malayan weasel (M. nudipes)
European polecat (M. putorius)
American ermine (M. richardsonii)
Siberian weasel (M. sibirica)
Back-striped weasel (M. strigidorsa)
Neogale
Amazon weasel (N. africana)
Colombian weasel (N. felipei)
Long-tailed weasel (N. frenata)
American mink (N. vison)
TaxidiinaeTaxidea
American badger (T. taxus)
Taxon identifiersFelis silvestris cretensis
Wikidata: Q1759039
CoL: 5HC2Q
EoL: 1243781
GBIF: 6164688
ITIS: 726330
MSW: 14000063
This felid-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"taxonomic status","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)"},{"link_name":"European wildcat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_wildcat"},{"link_name":"hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)"},{"link_name":"domestic cat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_cat"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CatSG2017-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Palaeontological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology"},{"link_name":"Pleistocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene"},{"link_name":"mammalian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalian"},{"link_name":"taxa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxa"},{"link_name":"endemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic"},{"link_name":"rodents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodents"},{"link_name":"herbivores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivores"},{"link_name":"predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predators"},{"link_name":"Holocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"excavated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)"},{"link_name":"archaeological site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_site"},{"link_name":"Kavousi Kastro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavousi_Kastro"},{"link_name":"Late Geometric period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_art#Late_Geometric_period"},{"link_name":"BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christian_Era"},{"link_name":"faunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Gortyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gortyn"},{"link_name":"AD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The Cretan wildcat is a member of the genus Felis that inhabits the Greek island of Crete. Its taxonomic status is unclear at present, as some biologists consider it probably introduced, or a European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris), or a hybrid between European wildcat and domestic cat (F. catus).[1] It was previously considered a separate subspecies of wildcat as Felis silvestris cretensis.[2]Crete has been isolated from the continent for about 6 million years. Palaeontological data indicate that the island was colonised during the Pleistocene by those mammalian taxa that were able to swim across the sea. Crete's Pleistocene endemic mammalian fauna comprised rodents and herbivores, but remains of predators were not found. Pleistocene mammals died out before the Holocene.[3]\nMore than 9,000 animal bones were excavated at the archaeological site Kavousi Kastro in eastern Crete in the late 1980s that date to the Late Geometric period at about 8th century BC. These faunal remains also included one cat that was identified as domestic cat.[4]\nFragments of a domestic cat were also found at the archaeological site Gortyn dating to the 6th to 7th century AD.[5]In October 2017, Greek news sites circulated reports that a sheep farmer captured a wild cat after laying traps for a predator that attacked young sheep of his herd. The reports were accompanied by photographs and video footage of the captured animal.[6][7][8][9]","title":"Cretan wildcat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pocock1951-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Theodor Haltenorth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Haltenorth"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Colin Groves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Groves"},{"link_name":"zoological specimens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoological_specimen"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_islands"},{"link_name":"feral cats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_cat"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CatSG2017-1"}],"text":"The Cretan wildcat was originally described as a separate subspecies, Felis ocreata agrius, of wildcat by Bate in 1906.[10] This was contested by Pocock in 1907, who said the skin was that of a feral domestic cat, but Miller in 1912 considered it a full species as Felis agrius, while Schwarz in 1930 followed Miss Bate's opinion. Pocock in 1951 examined the type specimen and again declared it a feral cat.[11][12]However, in 1953 the name Felis silvestris cretensis was proposed by Theodor Haltenorth for a separate specimen, a skin collected at the same time as the F. agrius specimen, describing the second skin as resembling the skin of an African wildcat but with the bushy tail of a European wildcat.[13] Later researchers sometimes considered it a subspecies of the African wildcat as Felis lybica cretensis.[14][15]In the 1980s, Colin Groves measured and assessed zoological specimens of cats that originated in the Mediterranean islands. He concluded that the two cat skins from Crete differed from true wildcat specimens and therefore considered them feral cats.[16] This view was provisionally followed by the IUCN Cat Specialist Group's major 2017 taxonomic review.[1]","title":"Taxonomic history"}] | [] | [{"title":"Corsican wildcat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsican_wildcat"},{"title":"Sardinian wildcat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinian_wildcat"}] | [{"reference":"Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z.; Tobe, S. (2017). \"A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group\" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 11): 17−20.","urls":[{"url":"https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/32616/A_revised_Felidae_Taxonomy_CatNews.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y","url_text":"\"A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group\""}]},{"reference":"Wozencraft, C. W. (2005). \"Order Carnivora\". In Wilson, D. E.; Reader, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 536. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000063","url_text":"Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8221-0","url_text":"978-0-8018-8221-0"}]},{"reference":"Isaakidou, V. (2005). Bones from the Labyrinth: Faunal evidence for management and consumption of animals at Neolithic and Bronze Age Knossos, Crete. Doctoral dissertation. London: University of London.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Klippel, W. E.; Snyder, L. M. (1991). \"Dark-Age Fauna from Kavousi, Crete: The Vertebrates from the 1987 and 1988 Excavations\". Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. 60 (2): 179–186. doi:10.2307/148086. JSTOR 148086.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F148086","url_text":"10.2307/148086"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/148086","url_text":"148086"}]},{"reference":"Wilkens, B. (2003). \"Hunting and breeding in ancient Crete\". Zooarchaeology in Greece: Recent Advances. 9: 85–90. JSTOR 40960335.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40960335","url_text":"40960335"}]},{"reference":"\"Πιάστηκε Φουρόγατος στον Ομαλό; - Συναγερμός στους επιστήμονες (φωτο)\".","urls":[{"url":"http://flashnews.gr/post/328999/piasthke-foyrogatos-ston-omalo-synagermos-stoys-episthmones-fwto","url_text":"\"Πιάστηκε Φουρόγατος στον Ομαλό; - Συναγερμός στους επιστήμονες (φωτο)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Αυτός είναι ο 'μυθικός' φουρόγατος που εντοπίστηκε στα Λευκά Όρη\". 18 October 2017. Archived from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180222100827/http://news247.gr/eidiseis/koinonia/aytos-einai-o-mythikos-foyrogatos-poy-entopisthke-sta-leyka-orh.4897553.html","url_text":"\"Αυτός είναι ο 'μυθικός' φουρόγατος που εντοπίστηκε στα Λευκά Όρη\""},{"url":"http://news247.gr/eidiseis/koinonia/aytos-einai-o-mythikos-foyrogatos-poy-entopisthke-sta-leyka-orh.4897553.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Χανιώτικα Νέα (18 October 2017). \"Φουρόγατος στα Λευκά Όρη;\". Archived from the original on 2021-12-21 – via YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rG1-ty-bz-Y","url_text":"\"Φουρόγατος στα Λευκά Όρη;\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/rG1-ty-bz-Y","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sarantos Nikos (18 October 2017). \"Δείτε τον εξαφανισμένο Αγριόγατο - Φουρόγατο της Κρήτης, που προσπαθεί να δραπετεύσει.\" Archived from the original on 2021-12-21 – via YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrksnnLqzMg","url_text":"\"Δείτε τον εξαφανισμένο Αγριόγατο - Φουρόγατο της Κρήτης, που προσπαθεί να δραπετεύσει.\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/WrksnnLqzMg","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bate, D. (1906). Proc. Zool. Soc. London. II: 317.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Pocock, R. I. (1951). \"Felis catus\". Catalogue of the genus Felis. London: British Museum (Natural History). p. 10.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/catalogueofgenus00brit/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater","url_text":"\"Felis catus\""}]},{"reference":"Miller (1912). Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe. p. 470.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AL4yAQAAMAAJ&dq=Felis+agrius+Bate+1906&pg=PR14","url_text":"Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe"}]},{"reference":"Haltenorth, T. (1953). \"Felis silvestris cretensis nom. nov.\". Die Wildkatzen der Alten Welt: Eine Übersicht über die Gattung Felis [The wildcats of the Old World: An overview of the genus Felis]. Leipzig: Geest und Portig. pp. 29−31.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gippoliti, Spartaco; Amori, Giovanni (2004). \"Mediterranean Island mammals: Are they a priority for biodiversity conservation?\". Biogeographia – the Journal of Integrative Biogeography. 25. doi:10.21426/B6110135.","urls":[{"url":"https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7k22334h","url_text":"\"Mediterranean Island mammals: Are they a priority for biodiversity conservation?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.21426%2FB6110135","url_text":"10.21426/B6110135"}]},{"reference":"Gippoliti, S.; Amori, G. (2006). \"Ancient introductions of mammals in the Mediterranean Basin and their implications for conservation\". Mammal Review. 36 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2006.00081.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228048823","url_text":"\"Ancient introductions of mammals in the Mediterranean Basin and their implications for conservation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2907.2006.00081.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1365-2907.2006.00081.x"}]},{"reference":"Groves, C.P. (1989). \"Feral mammals of the Mediterranean islands: documents of early domestication\". In Clutton-Brock, J. (ed.). The Walking Larder: Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation (2015 ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 46–58. ISBN 9781317598381.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HRohBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53","url_text":"\"Feral mammals of the Mediterranean islands: documents of early domestication\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317598381","url_text":"9781317598381"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/32616/A_revised_Felidae_Taxonomy_CatNews.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y","external_links_name":"\"A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group\""},{"Link":"https://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000063","external_links_name":"Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F148086","external_links_name":"10.2307/148086"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/148086","external_links_name":"148086"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40960335","external_links_name":"40960335"},{"Link":"http://flashnews.gr/post/328999/piasthke-foyrogatos-ston-omalo-synagermos-stoys-episthmones-fwto","external_links_name":"\"Πιάστηκε Φουρόγατος στον Ομαλό; - Συναγερμός στους επιστήμονες (φωτο)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180222100827/http://news247.gr/eidiseis/koinonia/aytos-einai-o-mythikos-foyrogatos-poy-entopisthke-sta-leyka-orh.4897553.html","external_links_name":"\"Αυτός είναι ο 'μυθικός' φουρόγατος που εντοπίστηκε στα Λευκά Όρη\""},{"Link":"http://news247.gr/eidiseis/koinonia/aytos-einai-o-mythikos-foyrogatos-poy-entopisthke-sta-leyka-orh.4897553.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rG1-ty-bz-Y","external_links_name":"\"Φουρόγατος στα Λευκά Όρη;\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/rG1-ty-bz-Y","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrksnnLqzMg","external_links_name":"\"Δείτε τον εξαφανισμένο Αγριόγατο - Φουρόγατο της Κρήτης, που προσπαθεί να δραπετεύσει.\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/WrksnnLqzMg","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/catalogueofgenus00brit/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater","external_links_name":"\"Felis catus\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AL4yAQAAMAAJ&dq=Felis+agrius+Bate+1906&pg=PR14","external_links_name":"Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe"},{"Link":"https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7k22334h","external_links_name":"\"Mediterranean Island mammals: Are they a priority for biodiversity conservation?\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.21426%2FB6110135","external_links_name":"10.21426/B6110135"},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228048823","external_links_name":"\"Ancient introductions of mammals in the Mediterranean Basin and their implications for conservation\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2907.2006.00081.x","external_links_name":"10.1111/j.1365-2907.2006.00081.x"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HRohBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53","external_links_name":"\"Feral mammals of the Mediterranean islands: documents of early domestication\""},{"Link":"https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/5HC2Q","external_links_name":"5HC2Q"},{"Link":"https://eol.org/pages/1243781","external_links_name":"1243781"},{"Link":"https://www.gbif.org/species/6164688","external_links_name":"6164688"},{"Link":"https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=726330","external_links_name":"726330"},{"Link":"https://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?s=y&id=14000063","external_links_name":"14000063"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cretan_wildcat&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crippleware | Crippleware | ["1 Computer software","2 Computer hardware","3 Automobiles","4 Digital rights management","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Product with intentionally limited features in favor of a more expensive version
Part of a series onDigital rights management
Technologies
Copy protection
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Crippleware
Development and societal aspects
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Crippleware has been defined in realms of both computer software and hardware. In software, crippleware means that "vital features of the program such as printing or the ability to save files are disabled until the user purchases a registration key". While crippleware allows consumers to see the software before they buy, they are unable to test its complete functionality because of the disabled functions. Hardware crippleware is "a hardware device that has not been designed to its full capability". The functionality of the hardware device is limited to encourage consumers to pay for a more expensive upgraded version. Usually the hardware device considered to be crippleware can be upgraded to better or its full potential by way of a trivial change, such as removing a jumper wire. The manufacturer would most likely release the crippleware as a low-end or economy version of their product.
Computer software
Deliberately limited programs are usually freeware versions of computer programs that lack the most advanced (or even crucial) features of the original program. Limited versions are made available in order to increase the popularity of the full program (by making it more desirable) without giving it away for free. Examples include a word processor that cannot save or print, and unwanted features, for example screencasting and video editing software programs applying a watermark (often a logo) onto the video screen. However, crippleware programs can also differentiate between tiers of paying software customers.
The term "crippleware" is sometimes used to describe software products whose functions have been limited (or "crippled") with the sole purpose of encouraging or requiring the user to pay for those functions (either by paying a one-time fee or an ongoing subscription fee).
The less derogatory term, from a shareware software producer's perspective, is feature-limited. Feature-limited is merely one mechanism for marketing shareware as a damaged good; others are time-limited, usage-limited, capacity-limited, nagware and output-limited. From the producer's standpoint, feature-limited allows customers to try software with no commitment instead of relying on questionable or possibly staged reviews. Try-before-you-buy applications are very prevalent for mobile devices, with the additional damaged good of ad-displays as well as all of the other forms of damaged-good applications.
From an Open Source software providers perspective, there is the model of open core which includes a feature-limited version of the product and an open-core version. The feature-limited version can be used widely; this approach is used by products like MySQL and Eucalyptus.
Computer hardware
This product differentiation strategy has also been used in hardware products:
The Intel 486SX which was a 486DX with the FPU removed or in early versions present but disabled.
AMD disabled defective cores on their quad-core Phenom and Phenom II X4 processor dies to make cheaper triple-core Phenom and Phenom II X3 and dual-core X2 models without the expense of designing new chips. Quad-core dies with one or two faulty cores can be used as triple- or dual-core processors rather than being discarded, increasing yield. Some users have managed to "unlock" these crippled cores, when not faulty.
Casio's fx-82ES scientific calculator uses the same ROM as the fx-991ES (a model with enhanced functionality), and can be made to act as the latter by strategically cutting through the epoxy on the board, and tracing the exposed solder joints using a pencil. This is also the case with the fx-83ES and the fx-85ES.
Apple announcing it would charge $4.99 in order to enable Wi-Fi on some devices in 2007 (fee later reduced to $1.99) and blaming it on GAAP compliance, even though their interpretation of the accounting rules as mandating a fee was contradicted by a former chief accountant of the SEC and by a member of the Financial Accounting Standards Board.
Intel Upgrade Service (2010-2011), which allowed select types of processors to be upgraded via a software activation code, has also been criticized in such terms.
Apple secretly slowed down older iPhones, in a controversy dubbed "batterygate". They settled a consumer fraud lawsuit in 2020 for 113 million dollars.
Automobiles
Tesla limits the range on lower-end versions of the Model S in software, as well as disabling Autopilot functions if those functions weren't purchased.
Some high-end BMW cars in the United Kingdom, Germany, New Zealand, and South Africa have the option to pay a subscription fee for features such as heated seats, advanced cruise control, and automatic beam switching. The components and functionality already exist within the vehicle, but BMW has a software block that prevents them from being used without paying.
Digital rights management
Digital rights management is another example of this product differentiation strategy. Digital files are inherently capable of being copied perfectly in unlimited quantities; digital rights management aims to deter copyright infringement by using hardware or cryptographic techniques to limit copying or playback.
See also
Defective by Design
Dongle
Walled garden (technology)
Planned obsolescence
Shareware
Regional lockout
References
^ "What is crippleware? - A Word Definition From the Webopedia Computer Dictionary". webopedia.com. 30 November 2004. Archived from the original on 15 June 2007. Retrieved 10 May 2007.
^ a b "Crippleware — a definition from The New Hacker's Dictionary". Archived from the original on January 11, 2009.
^ "Crippleware — a definition from Whatis.com". Archived from the original on 2007-07-13. Retrieved 2007-05-10.
^ "Crippleware — a word definition from Webopedia". 30 November 2004. Archived from the original on 15 June 2007. Retrieved 10 May 2007.
^ Brice, Andy. "What type of free trial should I offer for my software?". Archived from the original on 27 December 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
^ Kim, Eddie. "The Best Book On Marketing Your Android App". Archived from the original on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
^ Deneckere, Raymond J.; Preston McAfee, R. (1996-06-01). "Damaged Goods". Journal of Economics & Management Strategy. 5 (2): 149–174. doi:10.1111/j.1430-9134.1996.00149.x. ISSN 1530-9134.
^ matt buchanan (28 March 2008). "AMD Phenom X3 Triple Core Processors Are Crippled Quad Cores in Disguise". Gizmodo. Gawker Media. Archived from the original on 16 September 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Hilbert Hagedoorn. "Phenom II X3 - Enable and unlock the 4th core". Guru3D.com. Archived from the original on 2010-06-29. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
^ "How to upgrade your fx-82es, fx-83es and fx-85es to a fx991es". Archived from the original on 2008-06-13. Retrieved 2008-08-03.
^ "Will Apple charge you to enable hardware you've already paid for?". 2007-01-16. Archived from the original on 2017-03-12. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
^ Paul Miller. "Apple holds 802.11n capabilities hostage". Engadget. AOL. Archived from the original on 2018-06-21. Retrieved 2017-08-26.
^ Kevin C. Tofel (2007-01-16). "Want 802.11n in your Mac to work? For you: only $4.99". gigaom.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-25. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
^ "Is Apple getting ready to charge for 802.11n Mac enabling software?". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 2013-12-25. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
^ "Apple Gets a Bruise by Blaming A $1.99 Fee on Accounting Rules". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2018-01-26. Retrieved 2017-03-13.
^ "Facepalm of the Day: Intel charges customers $50 to unlock CPU features". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 2013-12-25. Retrieved 2013-12-25. this arbitrary software lock is odd in that Intel is offering to remove it for a fee. Basically it seems processors have become so powerful and so cheap, and the failure rates so low, that the only way that Intel can supply the low end demand is through artificially downgrading chips.
^ Cory Doctorow (18 September 2010). "Intel + DRM: a crippled processor that you have to pay extra to unlock". Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
^ Allyn, Bobby (2020-11-18). "Apple Agrees To Pay $113 Million To Settle 'Batterygate' Case Over iPhone Slowdowns". NPR. Archived from the original on 2022-11-08. Retrieved 2022-11-08.
^ "Crippleware: Upgrade fürs Auto". Die ZEIT Online (in German). 2018-06-13. Archived from the original on 2018-06-13.
^ Dinsdale, Ryan (13 July 2022). "Some BMW Car Features Can Only be Unlocked With Microtransactions". IGN. Archived from the original on 16 July 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
^ Andrew M. Odlyzko (July 27, 2003). "Privacy, Economics, and Price Discrimination on the Internet" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-06-10. Retrieved 2010-02-15.
External links
"Antifeatures". Blog entry, wikified list, talk and video by FSF-Board member Benjamin Mako Hill.
Open source means freedom from 'anti-features' Archived 2017-03-20 at the Wayback Machine, Norwegian magazine "Computerworld" reports on Benjamin Mako Hill's talk. (2010-02-08)
"Court order denying motion to dismiss of Melanie Tucker v. Apple Computer Inc. in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, San Jose Division" (2006-12-20)
Want an iPhone? Beware the iHandcuffs New York Times editorial labeling iPhone OS as "crippleware". (2007-01-14)
"Stealth plan puts copy protection into every hard drive" The Register. (2000-12-20)
"Western Digital drive is DRM-crippled for your safety" The Register. (2007-12-07)
"Western Digital's 'crippleware': Some lessons from history" The Register. Follow-up to original article. (2007-12-12)
vteTypes of goods
Anti-rival goods
Capital goods
Club goods
Common goods
Common-pool resource
Complementary goods vs. Substitute goods vs. Independent goods
Composite goods
Credence goods
(Non-)durable goods
(Post-)experience goods
Final goods
Free goods vs. Positional goods
Giffen goods
Global commons
Global public goods
Inferior goods
Information goods
Intangible goods
Intermediate goods
Luxury goods
Merit goods and demerit goods
Neutral goods
Normal goods
Necessity goods
Ordinary goods
Private goods
Household goods
Public goods
(Non-)rivalrous goods and (Non-)excludable goods
Search goods
Superior goods
Used goods
Veblen goods
vteSoftware distributionLicenses
Beerware
Floating licensing
Free and open-source
Free
Open source
Freely redistributable
License-free
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Public domain
Source-available
Compensation models
Adware
Commercial software
Retail software
Crippleware
Crowdfunding
Freemium
Freeware
Pay what you want
Careware
Donationware
Open-core model
Postcardware
Shareware
Nagware
Trialware
Delivery methods
Digital distribution
File sharing
On-premises
Pre-installed
Product bundling
Retail software
Sneakernet
Software as a service
Deceptive and/or illicit
Unwanted software bundling
Malware
Spyware
Trojan horse
Worm
Ransomware
Scareware
Shovelware
Vaporware
list
Software release life cycle
Abandonware
End-of-life
Long-term support
Software maintenance
Software maintainer
Software publisher
Copy protection
Digital rights management
Software protection dongle
License manager
Product activation
Product key
Software copyright
Software license server
Software patent
Torrent poisoning
vteEmbedded systemsGeneral terms
ASIC
Board support package
Bootloader
Consumer electronics
Cross compiler
Embedded database
Embedded hypervisor
Embedded OS
Embedded software
FPGA
IoT
Memory footprint
Microcontroller
Single-board computer
Raspberry Pi
SoC
Firmware and controls
Firmware
Custom firmware
Proprietary firmware
Closed platform
Crippleware
Defective by Design
Hacking of consumer electronics
Homebrew (video games)
iOS jailbreaking
PlayStation 3 Jailbreak
Rooting (Android)
UEFI
Vendor lock-in
Boot loaders
U-Boot
Barebox
Software libraries
uClibc
dietlibc
Embedded GLIBC
lwIP
musl
Programming tools
Almquist shell
BitBake
Buildroot
BusyBox
OpenEmbedded
Stand-alone shell
Toybox
Yocto Project
Operating systems
Linux on embedded systems
Linux for mobile devices
Light-weight Linux distribution
Real-time operating system
Windows IoT
Win CE
Programming languages
Ada
Assembly language
CAPL
Embedded C
Embedded C++
Embedded Java
MISRA C
MicroPython
Lightweight browsers
List of open-source hardware
Open-source robotics | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"registration key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registration_key"},{"link_name":"upgraded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upgrade"},{"link_name":"jumper wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumper_wire"},{"link_name":"economy version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemium"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Crippleware has been defined in realms of both computer software and hardware. In software, crippleware means that \"vital features of the program such as printing or the ability to save files are disabled until the user purchases a registration key\". While crippleware allows consumers to see the software before they buy, they are unable to test its complete functionality because of the disabled functions. Hardware crippleware is \"a hardware device that has not been designed to its full capability\". The functionality of the hardware device is limited to encourage consumers to pay for a more expensive upgraded version. Usually the hardware device considered to be crippleware can be upgraded to better or its full potential by way of a trivial change, such as removing a jumper wire. The manufacturer would most likely release the crippleware as a low-end or economy version of their product.[1]","title":"Crippleware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"freeware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeware"},{"link_name":"computer programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program"},{"link_name":"word processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor"},{"link_name":"screencasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screencasting"},{"link_name":"video editing software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_editing_software"},{"link_name":"watermark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermark"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"crippled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cripple"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hackers_dict-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"shareware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shareware"},{"link_name":"nagware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagware"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Open Source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_software"},{"link_name":"open core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_core"},{"link_name":"MySQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySQL"},{"link_name":"Eucalyptus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus_(software)"}],"text":"Deliberately limited programs are usually freeware versions of computer programs that lack the most advanced (or even crucial) features of the original program. Limited versions are made available in order to increase the popularity of the full program (by making it more desirable) without giving it away for free. Examples include a word processor that cannot save or print, and unwanted features, for example screencasting and video editing software programs applying a watermark (often a logo) onto the video screen. However, crippleware programs can also differentiate between tiers of paying software customers.The term \"crippleware\" is sometimes used to describe software products whose functions have been limited (or \"crippled\") with the sole purpose of encouraging or requiring the user to pay for those functions (either by paying a one-time fee or an ongoing subscription fee).[2][3][4]The less derogatory term, from a shareware software producer's perspective, is feature-limited. Feature-limited is merely one mechanism for marketing shareware as a damaged good; others are time-limited, usage-limited, capacity-limited, nagware and output-limited.[5] From the producer's standpoint, feature-limited allows customers to try software with no commitment instead of relying on questionable or possibly staged reviews. Try-before-you-buy applications are very prevalent for mobile devices, with the additional damaged good of ad-displays as well as all of the other forms of damaged-good applications.[6]From an Open Source software providers perspective, there is the model of open core which includes a feature-limited version of the product and an open-core version. The feature-limited version can be used widely; this approach is used by products like MySQL and Eucalyptus.","title":"Computer software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"product differentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_differentiation"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"486SX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486SX"},{"link_name":"486DX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486DX"},{"link_name":"FPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_unit"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hackers_dict-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"Phenom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Phenom"},{"link_name":"Phenom II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenom_II"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Casio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casio"},{"link_name":"fx-82","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fx-82&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"Wi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.11n"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"GAAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generally_accepted_accounting_principles"},{"link_name":"SEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission"},{"link_name":"Financial Accounting Standards Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Accounting_Standards_Board"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Intel Upgrade Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Upgrade_Service"},{"link_name":"activation code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activation_code"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"This product differentiation strategy has also been used in hardware products:The Intel 486SX which was a 486DX with the FPU removed or in early versions present but disabled.[2][7]\nAMD disabled defective cores on their quad-core Phenom and Phenom II X4 processor dies to make cheaper triple-core Phenom and Phenom II X3 and dual-core X2 models without the expense of designing new chips. Quad-core dies with one or two faulty cores can be used as triple- or dual-core processors rather than being discarded, increasing yield.[8] Some users have managed to \"unlock\" these crippled cores, when not faulty.[9]\nCasio's fx-82ES scientific calculator uses the same ROM as the fx-991ES (a model with enhanced functionality), and can be made to act as the latter by strategically cutting through the epoxy on the board, and tracing the exposed solder joints using a pencil. This is also the case with the fx-83ES and the fx-85ES.[10]\nApple announcing it would charge $4.99 in order to enable Wi-Fi on some devices in 2007[11][12][13] (fee later reduced to $1.99)[14] and blaming it on GAAP compliance, even though their interpretation of the accounting rules as mandating a fee was contradicted by a former chief accountant of the SEC and by a member of the Financial Accounting Standards Board.[15]\nIntel Upgrade Service (2010-2011), which allowed select types of processors to be upgraded via a software activation code, has also been criticized in such terms.[16][17]\nApple secretly slowed down older iPhones, in a controversy dubbed \"batterygate\". They settled a consumer fraud lawsuit in 2020 for 113 million dollars.[18]","title":"Computer hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Model S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Model_S"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"BMW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Tesla limits the range on lower-end versions of the Model S in software, as well as disabling Autopilot functions if those functions weren't purchased.[19]Some high-end BMW cars in the United Kingdom, Germany, New Zealand, and South Africa have the option to pay a subscription fee for features such as heated seats, advanced cruise control, and automatic beam switching. The components and functionality already exist within the vehicle, but BMW has a software block that prevents them from being used without paying.[20]","title":"Automobiles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digital rights management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rights_management"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Digital rights management is another example of this product differentiation strategy.[21] Digital files are inherently capable of being copied perfectly in unlimited quantities; digital rights management aims to deter copyright infringement by using hardware or cryptographic techniques to limit copying or playback.","title":"Digital rights management"}] | [] | [{"title":"Defective by Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defective_by_Design"},{"title":"Dongle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongle"},{"title":"Walled garden (technology)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walled_garden_(technology)"},{"title":"Planned obsolescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescence"},{"title":"Shareware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shareware"},{"title":"Regional lockout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_lockout"}] | [{"reference":"\"What is crippleware? - A Word Definition From the Webopedia Computer Dictionary\". webopedia.com. 30 November 2004. Archived from the original on 15 June 2007. Retrieved 10 May 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/crippleware.html","url_text":"\"What is crippleware? - A Word Definition From the Webopedia Computer Dictionary\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070615050733/http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/crippleware.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Crippleware — a definition from The New Hacker's Dictionary\". Archived from the original on January 11, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090111094411/http://home.att.net/~srschmitt/jargonfile/jargon_file-152.html","url_text":"\"Crippleware — a definition from The New Hacker's Dictionary\""},{"url":"http://home.att.net/~srschmitt/jargonfile/jargon_file-152.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Crippleware — a definition from Whatis.com\". Archived from the original on 2007-07-13. Retrieved 2007-05-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci862925,00.html","url_text":"\"Crippleware — a definition from Whatis.com\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070713214918/http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci862925,00.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Crippleware — a word definition from Webopedia\". 30 November 2004. Archived from the original on 15 June 2007. Retrieved 10 May 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/crippleware.html","url_text":"\"Crippleware — a word definition from Webopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070615050733/http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/crippleware.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Brice, Andy. \"What type of free trial should I offer for my software?\". Archived from the original on 27 December 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://successfulsoftware.net/tag/feature-limited/","url_text":"\"What type of free trial should I offer for my software?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111227111333/http://successfulsoftware.net/tag/feature-limited/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kim, Eddie. \"The Best Book On Marketing Your Android App\". Archived from the original on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111121012509/http://www.marketandroidapps.com/development-2/free-paid-app-versions/","url_text":"\"The Best Book On Marketing Your Android App\""},{"url":"http://www.marketandroidapps.com/development-2/free-paid-app-versions/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Deneckere, Raymond J.; Preston McAfee, R. (1996-06-01). \"Damaged Goods\". Journal of Economics & Management Strategy. 5 (2): 149–174. doi:10.1111/j.1430-9134.1996.00149.x. ISSN 1530-9134.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1430-9134.1996.00149.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1430-9134.1996.00149.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1530-9134","url_text":"1530-9134"}]},{"reference":"matt buchanan (28 March 2008). \"AMD Phenom X3 Triple Core Processors Are Crippled Quad Cores in Disguise\". Gizmodo. Gawker Media. Archived from the original on 16 September 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://gizmodo.com/373185/amd-phenom-x3-triple-core-processors-are-crippled-quad-cores-in-disguise","url_text":"\"AMD Phenom X3 Triple Core Processors Are Crippled Quad Cores in Disguise\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170916102921/http://gizmodo.com/373185/amd-phenom-x3-triple-core-processors-are-crippled-quad-cores-in-disguise","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hilbert Hagedoorn. \"Phenom II X3 - Enable and unlock the 4th core\". Guru3D.com. Archived from the original on 2010-06-29. Retrieved 2010-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.guru3d.com/news/phenom-ii-x3--enable-the-4th-core/","url_text":"\"Phenom II X3 - Enable and unlock the 4th core\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100629123024/http://www.guru3d.com/news/phenom-ii-x3--enable-the-4th-core","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"How to upgrade your fx-82es, fx-83es and fx-85es to a fx991es\". Archived from the original on 2008-06-13. Retrieved 2008-08-03.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=557455","url_text":"\"How to upgrade your fx-82es, fx-83es and fx-85es to a fx991es\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080613131116/http://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=557455","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Will Apple charge you to enable hardware you've already paid for?\". 2007-01-16. Archived from the original on 2017-03-12. Retrieved 2017-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/apple/2007/01/6637/","url_text":"\"Will Apple charge you to enable hardware you've already paid for?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170312163830/https://arstechnica.com/apple/2007/01/6637/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Paul Miller. \"Apple holds 802.11n capabilities hostage\". Engadget. AOL. Archived from the original on 2018-06-21. Retrieved 2017-08-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.engadget.com/2007/01/15/apple-holds-802-11n-capabilities-hostage/","url_text":"\"Apple holds 802.11n capabilities hostage\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180621012247/https://www.engadget.com/2007/01/15/apple-holds-802-11n-capabilities-hostage/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kevin C. Tofel (2007-01-16). \"Want 802.11n in your Mac to work? For you: only $4.99\". gigaom.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-25. Retrieved 2013-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://gigaom.com/2007/01/16/want_80211n_in_/","url_text":"\"Want 802.11n in your Mac to work? For you: only $4.99\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131225223843/http://gigaom.com/2007/01/16/want_80211n_in_/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Is Apple getting ready to charge for 802.11n Mac enabling software?\". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 2013-12-25. Retrieved 2013-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/blog/hardware/is-apple-getting-ready-to-charge-for-802-11n-mac-enabling-software/220","url_text":"\"Is Apple getting ready to charge for 802.11n Mac enabling software?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131225212104/http://www.zdnet.com/blog/hardware/is-apple-getting-ready-to-charge-for-802-11n-mac-enabling-software/220","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Apple Gets a Bruise by Blaming A $1.99 Fee on Accounting Rules\". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2018-01-26. Retrieved 2017-03-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB116925153861582055","url_text":"\"Apple Gets a Bruise by Blaming A $1.99 Fee on Accounting Rules\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180126161612/https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB116925153861582055","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Facepalm of the Day: Intel charges customers $50 to unlock CPU features\". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 2013-12-25. Retrieved 2013-12-25. this arbitrary software lock is odd in that Intel is offering to remove it for a fee. Basically it seems processors have become so powerful and so cheap, and the failure rates so low, that the only way that Intel can supply the low end demand is through artificially downgrading chips.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/blog/hardware/facepalm-of-the-day-intel-charges-customers-50-to-unlock-cpu-features/9742","url_text":"\"Facepalm of the Day: Intel charges customers $50 to unlock CPU features\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZDNet","url_text":"ZDNet"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131225204424/http://www.zdnet.com/blog/hardware/facepalm-of-the-day-intel-charges-customers-50-to-unlock-cpu-features/9742","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cory Doctorow (18 September 2010). \"Intel + DRM: a crippled processor that you have to pay extra to unlock\". Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 25 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cory_Doctorow","url_text":"Cory Doctorow"},{"url":"https://boingboing.net/2010/09/19/intel-drm-a-crippled.html","url_text":"\"Intel + DRM: a crippled processor that you have to pay extra to unlock\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110825134435/http://boingboing.net/2010/09/19/intel-drm-a-crippled.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Allyn, Bobby (2020-11-18). \"Apple Agrees To Pay $113 Million To Settle 'Batterygate' Case Over iPhone Slowdowns\". NPR. Archived from the original on 2022-11-08. Retrieved 2022-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/2020/11/18/936268845/apple-agrees-to-pay-113-million-to-settle-batterygate-case-over-iphone-slowdowns","url_text":"\"Apple Agrees To Pay $113 Million To Settle 'Batterygate' Case Over iPhone Slowdowns\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221108131011/https://www.npr.org/2020/11/18/936268845/apple-agrees-to-pay-113-million-to-settle-batterygate-case-over-iphone-slowdowns","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Crippleware: Upgrade fürs Auto\". Die ZEIT Online (in German). 2018-06-13. Archived from the original on 2018-06-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180613234227/https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2018-06/crippleware-assistenzsystem-autopilot-tesla-model-s/komplettansicht","url_text":"\"Crippleware: Upgrade fürs Auto\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_ZEIT","url_text":"Die ZEIT"},{"url":"https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2018-06/crippleware-assistenzsystem-autopilot-tesla-model-s/komplettansicht","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dinsdale, Ryan (13 July 2022). \"Some BMW Car Features Can Only be Unlocked With Microtransactions\". IGN. Archived from the original on 16 July 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ign.com/articles/bmw-cars-microtransactions","url_text":"\"Some BMW Car Features Can Only be Unlocked With Microtransactions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN","url_text":"IGN"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220716065705/https://www.ign.com/articles/bmw-cars-microtransactions","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Andrew M. Odlyzko (July 27, 2003). \"Privacy, Economics, and Price Discrimination on the Internet\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-06-10. Retrieved 2010-02-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_M._Odlyzko","url_text":"Andrew M. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_Strait | Denmark Strait | ["1 Geography","2 Hydrography","3 Battle of the Denmark Strait","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Coordinates: 67°N 24°W / 67°N 24°W / 67; -24Strait between Greenland and Iceland
Not to be confused with Danish straits, Danish Strait, or Denmark Street.
Denmark StraitGrænlandssundDanmarksstrædet (Danish)Ikerasak (Greenlandic)Denmark Strait separates Iceland from Greenland in the upper left.Denmark StraitLocationBetween Iceland and GreenlandCoordinates67°N 24°W / 67°N 24°W / 67; -24Max. length350 kilometres (220 mi)
Pack ice in the Denmark Strait
The Denmark Strait (Danish: Danmarksstrædet) or Greenland Strait (Icelandic: Grænlandssund , 'Greenland Sound') is an oceanic strait between Greenland to its northwest and Iceland to its southeast. The Norwegian island of Jan Mayen lies northeast of the strait.
Geography
The strait connects the Greenland Sea, an extension of the Arctic Ocean, to the Irminger Sea, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. It stretches 480 kilometres (300 mi) long and 290 kilometres (180 mi) wide at its narrowest, between Straumnes, the northwestern headland of the Westfjords peninsula of Hornstrandir, and Cape Tupinier on Blosseville Coast in East Greenland. The official International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) delineation between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans runs from Straumnes to Cape Nansen, 132 km (82 miles) southwest of Cape Tunipier. From Straumnes to Cape Nansen the distance is 336 km (209 miles).
Hydrography
The narrow depth, where the Greenland–Iceland Rise runs along the bottom of the sea, is 191 metres (625 ft). The cold East Greenland Current passes through the strait and carries icebergs south into the North Atlantic. It hosts important fisheries.
The world's largest known underwater waterfall, known as the Denmark Strait cataract, flows down the western side of the Denmark Strait.
Battle of the Denmark Strait
Main article: Battle of the Denmark Strait
During World War II, the Battle of the Denmark Strait took place on 24 May 1941. The German battleship Bismarck sank the British battlecruiser HMS Hood, which exploded with the loss of all but three of her 1,418 crew; the battleship HMS Prince of Wales was seriously damaged in the engagement. Bismarck was able to enter the Atlantic through the Strait, but damage sustained in the battle—combined with British aircraft search-and-destroy missions—led to her own sinking three days later.
See also
Aquatic sill
GIUK gap
References
^ "About the Expedition : Denmark Strait". www.whoi.edu.
External links
Media related to Denmark Strait at Wikimedia Commons
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Sweden | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Danish straits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_straits"},{"link_name":"Danish Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Strait"},{"link_name":"Denmark Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_Street"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Denmark-Strait-pack-ice.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pack ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pack_ice"},{"link_name":"[ˈkrainˌlan(t)sˌsʏnt]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Icelandic"},{"link_name":"Greenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland"},{"link_name":"Sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_(geography)"},{"link_name":"strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait"},{"link_name":"Greenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland"},{"link_name":"Iceland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland"},{"link_name":"Jan Mayen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Mayen"}],"text":"Strait between Greenland and IcelandNot to be confused with Danish straits, Danish Strait, or Denmark Street.Pack ice in the Denmark StraitThe Denmark Strait (Danish: Danmarksstrædet) or Greenland Strait (Icelandic: Grænlandssund [ˈkrainˌlan(t)sˌsʏnt], 'Greenland Sound') is an oceanic strait between Greenland to its northwest and Iceland to its southeast. The Norwegian island of Jan Mayen lies northeast of the strait.","title":"Denmark Strait"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greenland Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland_Sea"},{"link_name":"Irminger Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irminger_Sea"},{"link_name":"headland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headland"},{"link_name":"Westfjords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westfjords"},{"link_name":"peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Hornstrandir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornstrandir"},{"link_name":"Cape Tupinier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cape_Tupinier&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"East Greenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunu"},{"link_name":"International Hydrographic Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Hydrographic_Organization"},{"link_name":"Cape Nansen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Nansen"}],"text":"The strait connects the Greenland Sea, an extension of the Arctic Ocean, to the Irminger Sea, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. 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From Straumnes to Cape Nansen the distance is 336 km (209 miles).","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greenland–Iceland Rise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greenland%E2%80%93Iceland_Rise&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"East Greenland Current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Greenland_Current"},{"link_name":"icebergs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceberg"},{"link_name":"fisheries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisheries"},{"link_name":"Denmark Strait cataract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_Strait_cataract"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The narrow depth, where the Greenland–Iceland Rise runs along the bottom of the sea, is 191 metres (625 ft). The cold East Greenland Current passes through the strait and carries icebergs south into the North Atlantic. It hosts important fisheries.The world's largest known underwater waterfall, known as the Denmark Strait cataract, flows down the western side of the Denmark Strait.[1]","title":"Hydrography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of the Denmark Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Denmark_Strait"},{"link_name":"German battleship Bismarck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_battleship_Bismarck"},{"link_name":"HMS Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Hood"},{"link_name":"HMS Prince of Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Prince_of_Wales_(53)"}],"text":"During World War II, the Battle of the Denmark Strait took place on 24 May 1941. The German battleship Bismarck sank the British battlecruiser HMS Hood, which exploded with the loss of all but three of her 1,418 crew; the battleship HMS Prince of Wales was seriously damaged in the engagement. Bismarck was able to enter the Atlantic through the Strait, but damage sustained in the battle—combined with British aircraft search-and-destroy missions—led to her own sinking three days later.","title":"Battle of the Denmark Strait"}] | [{"image_text":"Pack ice in the Denmark Strait","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Denmark-Strait-pack-ice.jpg/220px-Denmark-Strait-pack-ice.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Aquatic sill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_sill"},{"title":"GIUK gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIUK_gap"}] | [{"reference":"\"About the Expedition : Denmark Strait\". www.whoi.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whoi.edu/denmarkstrait/about-the-expedition","url_text":"\"About the Expedition : Denmark Strait\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Denmark_Strait¶ms=67_N_24_W_region:GL_type:waterbody_scale:8000000","external_links_name":"67°N 24°W / 67°N 24°W / 67; -24"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Denmark_Strait¶ms=67_N_24_W_region:GL_type:waterbody_scale:8000000","external_links_name":"67°N 24°W / 67°N 24°W / 67; -24"},{"Link":"https://www.whoi.edu/denmarkstrait/about-the-expedition","external_links_name":"\"About the Expedition : Denmark Strait\""},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/7629152140003511100006","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4503933-1","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://libris.kb.se/fcrts7cz3z0dm8j","external_links_name":"Sweden"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_and_Industries_Association | Design and Industries Association | ["1 20th century","2 DIA Today","3 Membership","4 How to Choose the Right Association","5 References","6 External links"] | This article is in list format but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this article, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (August 2018)
The Design and Industries Association is a United Kingdom charity whose object is to engage with all those who share a common interest in the contribution that design can make to the delivery of goods and services that are sustainable and enhance the quality of life for communities and the individual."
20th century
Shortly before the Great War there was a growing awareness, among British designers, of the extent to which German industrial design had taken the ideals of the Arts and Crafts movement (that had originated with William Morris and others in Britain in the late 19th century) and had successfully moved these into the age of mass, mechanised, production. The German Deutscher Werkbund organisation's Cologne exhibition, held before the outbreak of war in 1914, had been visited by many of those designers, architects, retailers and industrialists who were later to found the Design and Industries Association.
In March 1915 an exhibition of German manufactures was held at Goldsmiths' Hall in London. Shortly afterwards a meeting under the chairmanship of Lord Aberconway led to the foundation of the Design and Industries Association (DIA), with the express intention of raising the standard of British industrial design, under the slogan of "Fitness for Purpose".
DIA promoted its ideals through lectures, journals and exhibitions. Exhibitions included:
1920: Household Things - Whitechapel Gallery, London
1942 - 1945: Design Round The Clock - travelling
1953: Register your Choice - Charing Cross Underground Station
The journals published varied through the period and included:
1932: Design In Industry
1933 - 1935: Design for Today
1936: Trends in Everyday Life
In its early years there was considerable tension between the attachment of some members to the principals of the Arts and Crafts movement and the desire to promote the clearly 20th-century outlook of the Modern Movement.
Having been heavily involved with the British government's Utility Scheme in the Second World War, DIA had campaigned for the greater involvement of government in the promotion of good design. Ironically, DIA itself was to be somewhat eclipsed by the foundation of the government funded Council for Industrial Design, now the Design Council, in 1944.
DIA Today
Despite the predominance of the Design Council in the latter half of the 20th century, DIA continues its work today as an independent body, organising competitions, events and offering bursaries. In 1978 DIA, together with The Royal College of Art, The Faculty of Royal Designers for Industry and The Royal Academy of Engineering established the Sir Misha Black Awards to recognise excellence and innovation in design education.
Membership
DIA office bearers and members have included some of the most notable 20th-century British designers and manufacturers:
Lord Aberconway
Wenman Joseph Bassett-Lowke
Sir Misha Black
Cecil Brewer
Noel Carrington
Serge Ivan Chermayeff
Harold Curwen
Nanna Ditzel
Ambrose Heal
Charles Holden
Minnie McLeish
Harry Peach
Nikolaus Pevsner
Frank Pick
Jack Pritchard
Sir (Sydney) Gordon Russell
George Wilson-Crowe
Sir Lawrence Weaver
Hamilton T Smith
How to Choose the Right Association
Community – If the individuals engages in a community that is considered active then it can enhance the value of membership.
Relevance – Consider the association’s relevance with oneself, this will ensure that it’s aligned with your personal interest with the design industry.
Cost vs Value – Make sure to determine the fees against the benefits. This will ensure that the investment is worth it.
Research – Doing research on the association’s reputation can influences one’s decision.
References
"Design and Industries Association." A Dictionary of Modern Design. Oxford University Press, 2004, 2005. Answers.com 13 Oct. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/design-and-industries-association
"Nothing Need Be Ugly", The first 70 years of the Design & Industries Association. Plumber, Raymond. DIA London 1985
^ a b Rebels Against Commercial Ugliness, Peyton Skipworth, Apollo Magazine, Jan 2008
^ From Solving Problems to Selling Product, Andrew Jackson, University of Brighton
^ "Misha Black". University of Brighton Design Archives. University of Brighton. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
^ Kirkham, Pat (May 1986). Harry Peach, Dryad and the D.I.A. The Design Council. ISBN 978-0850721775.
External links
The Design and Industries Association Archived 2021-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_engineer | Broadcast engineering | ["1 Duties","2 Titles","3 Qualifications","3.1 Knowledge","4 Digital engineering","5 Organizations","5.1 Brazil","5.2 Canada","5.3 Germany","5.4 India","5.5 Iran","5.6 Japan","5.7 Mexico","5.8 People's Republic of China (PRC)","5.9 People's Republic of China – Hong Kong","5.10 Philippines","5.11 Republic of China – Taiwan","5.12 South Africa","5.13 South Korea","5.14 Turkey","5.15 United States","5.16 Uruguay","6 Notable publications","7 See also","8 References"] | Field of engineering dealing with radio and television broadcasting
"Radio engineering" redirects here. Not to be confused with Radio-frequency engineering.
Broadcast engineeringOccupationNamesBroadcast engineer
Broadcast design engineer
Broadcast systems engineer
Broadcast IT engineer
Broadcast IT systems engineer
Broadcast network engineer
Broadcast maintenance engineer
Video broadcast engineer
TV studio broadcast engineer
Outside broadcast engineer
Remote broadcast engineerOccupation typeprofessionDescriptionCompetenciesTechnical knowledge, Management skills, ProfessionalismEducation requiredsee professional requirementsFields ofemploymentRadio, television, militaryRelated jobsTechnologist, RF engineer, engineering technician, Technical operator
Broadcast engineering or radio engineering is the field of electrical engineering, and now to some extent computer engineering and information technology, which deals with radio and television broadcasting. Audio engineering and RF engineering are also essential parts of broadcast engineering, being their own subsets of electrical engineering.
Broadcast engineering involves both the studio and transmitter aspects (the entire airchain), as well as remote broadcasts. Every station has a broadcast engineer, though one may now serve an entire station group in a city. In small media markets the engineer may work on a contract basis for one or more stations as needed.
Duties
Modern duties of a broadcast engineer include maintaining broadcast automation systems for the studio and automatic transmission systems for the transmitter plant. There are also important duties regarding radio towers, which must be maintained with proper lighting and painting. Occasionally a station's engineer must deal with complaints of RF interference, particularly after a station has made changes to its transmission facilities.
Titles
Broadcast engineers may have varying titles depending on their level of expertise and field specialty. Some widely used titles include:
Broadcast design engineer
Broadcast Integration Engineer
Broadcast systems engineer
Broadcast IT engineer
Broadcast IT systems engineer
Broadcast network engineer
Broadcast maintenance engineer
Video broadcast engineer
TV studio broadcast engineer
Outside broadcast engineer
Remote broadcast engineer
Qualifications
Broadcast engineers may need to possess some or all of the following degrees, depending on the broadcast technical environment. If one of the formal qualifications is not present, a related degree or equivalent professional experience is desirable.
Degree in electrical engineering
Degree in electronic engineering
Degree in telecommunications engineering
Degree in computer engineering
Degree in management information system
Degree in broadcast technology
Knowledge
Broadcast engineers are generally required to know the following areas, from conventional video broadcast systems to modern Information Technology:
Conventional broadcast
Audio/Video instrumentation measurement
Baseband video – standard / high-definition
Broadcast studio acoustics
Television studios - broadcast video cameras and camera lenses
Production switcher (Video mixer)
Audio mixer
Recording engineer
Broadcast IT
Video compression - DV25, MPEG, DVB or ATSC (or ISDB)
Digital server playout technologies. - VDCP, Louth, Harris, control protocols
Broadcast automation
Disk storage – RAID / NAS / SAN technologies.
Archives – Tape archives or grid storage technologies.
Computer networking
Operating systems – Microsoft Windows / macOS / Linux / RTOS
Post production – video capture and non-linear editing systems (NLEs).
RF
RF satellite uplinking – High-powered amplifiers (HPA)
RF communications satellite downlinking – Band detection, carrier detection and IRD tuning, etc.
RF transmitter maintenance - IOT UHF transmitters, solid-state VHF transmitters, solid-state MF transmitters (AM radio), tube type VHF, and MF transmitters. Antennas, transmission lines, high power filters, digital modulators, towers, tower lighting systems, and backup generators.
Health and safety
Occupational safety and health
Fire suppression systems like FM 200.
Basic structural engineering
RF hazard mitigation
Above mentioned requirements vary from station to station.
Digital engineering
The conversion to digital broadcasting means broadcast engineers must now be well-versed in digital television and digital radio, in addition to analogue principles. New equipment from the transmitter to the radio antenna to the receiver may be encountered by engineers new to the field. Furthermore, modern techniques place a greater demand on an engineer's expertise, such as sharing broadcast towers or radio antennas among different stations (diplexing).
Digital audio and digital video have revolutionized broadcast engineering in many respects. Broadcast studios and control rooms are now already digital in large part, using non-linear editing and digital signal processing for what used to take a great deal of time or money, if it was even possible at all. Mixing consoles for both audio and video are continuing to become more digital in the 2000s, as is the computer storage used to keep digital media libraries. Effects processing and TV graphics can now be realized much more easily and professionally as well.
With the broadcast industry's shift to IP-based production and content delivery technology not only the production technology and workflows are changing, but also the requirements for broadcast engineers, which now include IT and IP-networking knowhow.
Other devices used in broadcast engineering are telephone hybrids, broadcast delays, and dead air alarms. See the Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering for further explanations.
Organizations
Brazil
SET – Sociedade Brasileira de Engenharia de Televisão e Telecomunicações, Brazilian Society of Television and Telecommunications Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Canada
Central Canada Broadcast Engineers (CCBE), Paris, Ontario, Canada
Western Association of Broadcast Engineers (WABE), Calgary, Alberta, Canada
IEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) – Ottawa Section, Canada
Germany
FKTG – Fernseh- und Kinotechnische Gesellschaft e.V., Germany
India
Broadcast Engineering Society – BES (India), New Delhi, India
Iran
Iran Broadcasting University Iran, Tehran (plus two campuses in Qom and Dubai)
Japan
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers - Japan Council
Mexico
Asociación Mexicana de Ingenieros y Técnicos en Radiodifusión A.C. (AMITRA), Delegación Benito Juárez, México
People's Republic of China (PRC)
China Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, China
IEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) – Beijing Section, China
IEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) – Shanghai Section, China
People's Republic of China – Hong Kong
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers-(Hong Kong) Section, 電影電視工程師協會香港分會 Hong Kong
Society of Broadcast Engineers Hong Kong Chapter, 廣播工程師協會香港分會 Hong Kong
Hong Kong Televisioners Association (HKTVA), 香港電視專業人員協會 Hong Kong
Philippines
Society of Broadcast Engineers and Technicians of the Philippines, Inc. (SBETP), Quezon City, Philippines
Republic of China – Taiwan
IEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) – Taipei Section
South Africa
The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), Auckland Park, Johannesburg, South Africa,
South Korea
Korean Broadcast Engineers & Technicians Association (KOBETA), Seoul, South Korea (ROK)
Turkey
Chamber of Electrical Engineers (EMO) (Joint chamber of electrical, electronics and biomedical engineers)
United States
In the United States, many broadcast engineers belong to the Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE). Some may also belong to the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), or to organizations of related fields, such as the Audio Engineering Society or Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) - IEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS).
For public radio, the Association of Public Radio Engineers was created in late May 2006.
Uruguay
ANDEBU – Asociación Nacional de Broadcasters Uruguayos, Montevideo, Uruguay
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (May 2010)
Notable publications
Broadcast Beat
Radio (formerly BE Radio)
Radio World
TV Technology
See also
Television portalElectronics portalEngineering portalTechnology and applied sciences portal
Engineering technician
Technical operator
References
^ "about.com - Broadcast Technician or Sound Engineering Technician: Career Information". Careerplanning.about.com. 2010-11-08. Archived from the original on 2009-01-26. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "U.S. Department of Labor - Bureau of Labor Statistics - Broadcast and Sound Engineering Technicians and Radio Operators". Bls.gov. 2012-03-29. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "Transmission Engineer - TV". skillset. 2012-07-25. Archived from the original on 2007-05-08. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ Interactive TV Web. Broadcast Engineering Basics Archived May 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
^ Tony, Orme (15 July 2016). "Understanding IP Networks". thebroadcastbridge.com. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
^ "Central Canada Broadcast Engineers (CCBE)". Ccbe.ca. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "WABE - The Western Association of Broadcast Engineers". Wabe.ca. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "IEEE Broadcast Technology Society". Ieee.org. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "FKTG – Fernseh- und Kinotechnische Gesellschaft e.V. (Germany)". Fktg.de. Archived from the original on 2013-07-29. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "BES - Broadcast Engineering Society (India)". Besindia.com. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "IRIBU - Iran Broadcasting University (Iran)". IRIBU.ir. Archived from the original on 2011-05-23. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ China Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, China(CSMPTE)
^ IEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) - Beijing Section ) Archived October 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
^ "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers-(Hong Kong) Section (SMPTE-HKG)". Smpte.org.hk. Archived from the original on 2012-02-19. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "Society of Broadcast Engineers Hong Kong Chapter(SBE HK Chapter)". Sbe.org.hk. Archived from the original on 2013-08-15. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "Hong Kong Televisioners Association (HKTVA), Hong Kong". HKTVA. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "SABC – Official Website – South African Broadcasting Corporation".
^ "Hoş Geldiniz". EMO. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "Society of Broadcast Engineers". Sbe.org. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers". Smpte.org. Archived from the original on 2007-03-24. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Archived from the original on 2008-12-07. Retrieved 2008-12-07.
^ Association of Public Radio Engineers home page | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Radio-frequency engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering"},{"link_name":"electrical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"computer engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television"},{"link_name":"broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting"},{"link_name":"Audio engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_engineering"},{"link_name":"RF engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_engineering"},{"link_name":"subsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset"},{"link_name":"studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_studio"},{"link_name":"transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"},{"link_name":"airchain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airchain"},{"link_name":"remote broadcasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_broadcast"},{"link_name":"station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_network"},{"link_name":"engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer"},{"link_name":"media markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_market"},{"link_name":"contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"\"Radio engineering\" redirects here. Not to be confused with Radio-frequency engineering.Broadcast engineering or radio engineering is the field of electrical engineering, and now to some extent computer engineering and information technology, which deals with radio and television broadcasting. Audio engineering and RF engineering are also essential parts of broadcast engineering, being their own subsets of electrical engineering.Broadcast engineering involves both the studio and transmitter aspects (the entire airchain), as well as remote broadcasts. Every station has a broadcast engineer, though one may now serve an entire station group in a city. In small media markets the engineer may work on a contract basis for one or more stations as needed.[1]","title":"Broadcast engineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"broadcast automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_automation"},{"link_name":"automatic transmission systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_transmission_system"},{"link_name":"plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_plant"},{"link_name":"radio towers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_masts_and_towers"},{"link_name":"maintained","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_maintenance"},{"link_name":"lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting"},{"link_name":"painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting"},{"link_name":"complaints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complaint"},{"link_name":"RF interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_interference"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Modern duties of a broadcast engineer include maintaining broadcast automation systems for the studio and automatic transmission systems for the transmitter plant. There are also important duties regarding radio towers, which must be maintained with proper lighting and painting. Occasionally a station's engineer must deal with complaints of RF interference, particularly after a station has made changes to its transmission facilities.[2][3]","title":"Duties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"expertise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert"},{"link_name":"design engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_engineer"},{"link_name":"systems engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering"},{"link_name":"IT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"IT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"systems engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering"},{"link_name":"network engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_engineer"},{"link_name":"maintenance engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maintenance_engineering"},{"link_name":"Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video"},{"link_name":"TV studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_studio"},{"link_name":"Outside broadcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outside_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"Remote broadcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_broadcast"}],"text":"Broadcast engineers may have varying titles depending on their level of expertise and field specialty. Some widely used titles include:Broadcast design engineer\nBroadcast Integration Engineer\nBroadcast systems engineer\nBroadcast IT engineer\nBroadcast IT systems engineer\nBroadcast network engineer\nBroadcast maintenance engineer\nVideo broadcast engineer\nTV studio broadcast engineer\nOutside broadcast engineer\nRemote broadcast engineer","title":"Titles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(education)"},{"link_name":"electrical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"electronic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering"},{"link_name":"telecommunications engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering"},{"link_name":"computer engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering"},{"link_name":"management information system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_system"}],"text":"Broadcast engineers may need to possess some or all of the following degrees, depending on the broadcast technical environment. If one of the formal qualifications is not present, a related degree or equivalent professional experience is desirable.Degree in electrical engineering\nDegree in electronic engineering\nDegree in telecommunications engineering\nDegree in computer engineering\nDegree in management information system\nDegree in broadcast technology","title":"Qualifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"instrumentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation"},{"link_name":"measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement"},{"link_name":"Baseband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseband"},{"link_name":"video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video"},{"link_name":"high-definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-definition_video"},{"link_name":"acoustics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics"},{"link_name":"Television studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_studio"},{"link_name":"video cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camera"},{"link_name":"camera lenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_lens"},{"link_name":"Production switcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_mixer"},{"link_name":"Audio mixer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixing_console"},{"link_name":"Recording engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixing_console"},{"link_name":"Video compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_compression"},{"link_name":"DV25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DV25"},{"link_name":"MPEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG"},{"link_name":"DVB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Video_Broadcasting"},{"link_name":"ATSC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATSC_Standards"},{"link_name":"ISDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISDB"},{"link_name":"playout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playout"},{"link_name":"VDCP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VDCP"},{"link_name":"Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Broadcast automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_automation"},{"link_name":"Disk storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_storage"},{"link_name":"RAID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAID"},{"link_name":"NAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network-attached_storage"},{"link_name":"SAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_area_network"},{"link_name":"Tape archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_archive"},{"link_name":"grid storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_storage"},{"link_name":"Computer networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networking"},{"link_name":"Operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"RTOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Post production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_production"},{"link_name":"video capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_capture"},{"link_name":"non-linear editing systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-linear_editing_system"},{"link_name":"satellite uplinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_uplink"},{"link_name":"communications satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite"},{"link_name":"downlinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downlink"},{"link_name":"carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_wave"},{"link_name":"IRD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_receiver/decoder"},{"link_name":"Occupational safety and health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health"},{"link_name":"Fire suppression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighting"},{"link_name":"FM 200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane"},{"link_name":"structural engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering"},{"link_name":"RF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency"}],"sub_title":"Knowledge","text":"Broadcast engineers are generally required to know the following areas, from conventional video broadcast systems to modern Information Technology:Conventional broadcast\nAudio/Video instrumentation measurement\nBaseband video – standard / high-definition\nBroadcast studio acoustics\nTelevision studios - broadcast video cameras and camera lenses\nProduction switcher (Video mixer)\nAudio mixer\nRecording engineer\nBroadcast IT\nVideo compression - DV25, MPEG, DVB or ATSC (or ISDB)\nDigital server playout technologies. - VDCP, Louth, Harris, control protocols\nBroadcast automation\nDisk storage – RAID / NAS / SAN technologies.\nArchives – Tape archives or grid storage technologies.\nComputer networking\nOperating systems – Microsoft Windows / macOS / Linux / RTOS\nPost production – video capture and non-linear editing systems (NLEs).\nRF\nRF satellite uplinking – High-powered amplifiers (HPA)\nRF communications satellite downlinking – Band detection, carrier detection and IRD tuning, etc.\nRF transmitter maintenance - IOT UHF transmitters, solid-state VHF transmitters, solid-state MF transmitters (AM radio), tube type VHF, and MF transmitters. Antennas, transmission lines, high power filters, digital modulators, towers, tower lighting systems, and backup generators.\nHealth and safety\nOccupational safety and health\nFire suppression systems like FM 200.\nBasic structural engineering\nRF hazard mitigationAbove mentioned requirements vary from station to station.","title":"Qualifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data"},{"link_name":"digital television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_television"},{"link_name":"digital radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_radio"},{"link_name":"analogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal"},{"link_name":"radio antenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_antenna"},{"link_name":"sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharing"},{"link_name":"broadcast towers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_tower"},{"link_name":"radio antennas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_antenna"},{"link_name":"diplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplexing"},{"link_name":"Digital audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio"},{"link_name":"digital video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_video"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio"},{"link_name":"control rooms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_room"},{"link_name":"non-linear editing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-linear_editing"},{"link_name":"digital signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing"},{"link_name":"Mixing consoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixing_console"},{"link_name":"audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction"},{"link_name":"video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video"},{"link_name":"computer storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_storage"},{"link_name":"libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libraries"},{"link_name":"Effects processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insert_(effects_processing)"},{"link_name":"IT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"IP-networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"telephone hybrids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_hybrid"},{"link_name":"broadcast delays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_delay"},{"link_name":"dead air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_air"},{"link_name":"alarms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarm"},{"link_name":"Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering"}],"text":"The conversion to digital broadcasting means broadcast engineers must now be well-versed in digital television and digital radio, in addition to analogue principles. New equipment from the transmitter to the radio antenna to the receiver may be encountered by engineers new to the field. Furthermore, modern techniques place a greater demand on an engineer's expertise, such as sharing broadcast towers or radio antennas among different stations (diplexing).Digital audio and digital video have revolutionized broadcast engineering in many respects.[4] Broadcast studios and control rooms are now already digital in large part, using non-linear editing and digital signal processing for what used to take a great deal of time or money, if it was even possible at all. Mixing consoles for both audio and video are continuing to become more digital in the 2000s, as is the computer storage used to keep digital media libraries. Effects processing and TV graphics can now be realized much more easily and professionally as well.With the broadcast industry's shift to IP-based production and content delivery technology not only the production technology and workflows are changing, but also the requirements for broadcast engineers, which now include IT and IP-networking knowhow.[5]Other devices used in broadcast engineering are telephone hybrids, broadcast delays, and dead air alarms. See the Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering for further explanations.","title":"Digital engineering"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"}],"sub_title":"Brazil","text":"SET – Sociedade Brasileira de Engenharia de Televisão e Telecomunicações, Brazilian Society of Television and Telecommunications Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Calgary, Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"Central Canada Broadcast Engineers (CCBE), Paris, Ontario, Canada[6]\nWestern Association of Broadcast Engineers (WABE), Calgary, Alberta, Canada [7]\nIEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) – Ottawa Section, Canada [8]","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Germany","text":"FKTG – Fernseh- und Kinotechnische Gesellschaft e.V., Germany[9]","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"Broadcast Engineering Society – BES (India), New Delhi, India [10]","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Qom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qom"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Iran","text":"Iran Broadcasting University Iran, Tehran (plus two campuses in Qom and Dubai)[11]","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"}],"sub_title":"Japan","text":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers - Japan Council","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Benito Juárez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez"},{"link_name":"México","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9xico"}],"sub_title":"Mexico","text":"Asociación Mexicana de Ingenieros y Técnicos en Radiodifusión A.C. (AMITRA), Delegación Benito Juárez, México","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Beijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"}],"sub_title":"People's Republic of China (PRC)","text":"China Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, China[12]\nIEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) – Beijing Section, China[13]\nIEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) – Shanghai Section, China","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"People's Republic of China – Hong Kong","text":"Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers-(Hong Kong) Section, 電影電視工程師協會香港分會 Hong Kong[14]\nSociety of Broadcast Engineers Hong Kong Chapter, 廣播工程師協會香港分會 Hong Kong[15]\nHong Kong Televisioners Association (HKTVA), 香港電視專業人員協會 Hong Kong[16]","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Quezon City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quezon_City"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"}],"sub_title":"Philippines","text":"Society of Broadcast Engineers and Technicians of the Philippines, Inc. (SBETP), Quezon City, Philippines","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Taipei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei"}],"sub_title":"Republic of China – Taiwan","text":"IEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS) – Taipei Section","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Auckland Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auckland_Park"}],"sub_title":"South Africa","text":"The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC),[17] Auckland Park, Johannesburg, South Africa,","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Seoul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul"}],"sub_title":"South Korea","text":"Korean Broadcast Engineers & Technicians Association (KOBETA), Seoul, South Korea (ROK)","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chamber of Electrical Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_of_Electrical_Engineers_of_Turkey"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Turkey","text":"Chamber of Electrical Engineers (EMO)[18] (Joint chamber of electrical, electronics and biomedical engineers)","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Society of Broadcast Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Broadcast_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Motion_Picture_and_Television_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Audio Engineering Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Engineering_Society"},{"link_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"IEEE Broadcast Technology Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Broadcast_Technology_Society"},{"link_name":"public radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_radio"},{"link_name":"Association of Public Radio Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Association_of_Public_Radio_Engineers&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"In the United States, many broadcast engineers belong to the Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE).[19] Some may also belong to the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE),[20] or to organizations of related fields, such as the Audio Engineering Society or Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) [21] - IEEE Broadcast Technology Society (BTS).For public radio, the Association of Public Radio Engineers was created in late May 2006.[22]","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ANDEBU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANDEBU"},{"link_name":"Montevideo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montevideo"},{"link_name":"Uruguay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay"}],"sub_title":"Uruguay","text":"ANDEBU – Asociación Nacional de Broadcasters Uruguayos, Montevideo, Uruguay","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Broadcast Beat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.broadcastbeat.com"},{"link_name":"Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"BE Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BE_Radio"},{"link_name":"Radio World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_World"},{"link_name":"TV Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_Technology"}],"text":"Broadcast Beat\nRadio (formerly BE Radio)\nRadio World\nTV Technology","title":"Notable publications"}] | [] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blank_television_set.svg"},{"title":"Television portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Television"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png"},{"title":"Electronics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg"},{"title":"Engineering portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Engineering"},{"title":"Technology and applied sciences portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Technology_and_applied_sciences"},{"title":"Engineering technician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician"},{"title":"Technical operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_operator"}] | [{"reference":"\"about.com - Broadcast Technician or Sound Engineering Technician: Career Information\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vignette_(road_tax) | Vignette (road tax) | ["1 Vignette obligation by country","1.1 European Union","1.2 Austria","1.3 Bulgaria","1.4 Czech Republic","1.5 Germany","1.6 Hungary","1.7 Moldova","1.8 Montenegro","1.9 Romania","1.10 Slovakia","1.11 Slovenia","1.12 Switzerland","1.13 United States of America","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"] | Tax imposed based on time on a road
For other uses, see Vignette (disambiguation).
Vignette is a form of road pricing imposed on vehicles, usually in addition to the compulsory road tax, based on a period of time the vehicle may use the road, instead of road tolls that are based on distance travelled. Vignettes are currently used in several European countries. The term originated in France in the 1950s, although vignettes there were not linked to motorway use and no longer exist; it is now used throughout Central Europe, as well as in Italy (vignetta).
Vignettes are used in Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. In most of these countries a small, coloured sticker is affixed to a vehicle windscreen, but in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and since 2021 in Slovenia these have been superseded by electronic vignettes. In Moldova, vignettes are required for the use of any road, while in Bulgaria and Romania they are required for the use of any road outside urban areas. In the other countries, vignettes are required only for the use of motorways and expressways.
Prices for an annual vignette for passenger cars range from €30 to €150, depending on country. In all countries except Switzerland, short-period vignettes are sold for visiting or transiting vehicles. In Switzerland, visiting foreign motorists must buy an annual vignette to use the country's motorways. Vignettes can usually be obtained at border crossings, gas stations and other outlets. Improperly used or lost vignettes are usually not refunded.
Vignette stickers are usually constructed in such a way that detaching and re-attaching them is impossible without destruction, ensuring that they cannot be used on more than one vehicle. Road traffic is often monitored by roadside cameras, and vignettes are verified by state officials, such as border guards and national police. Hefty cash fines are often charged to travelers using public roads without a valid and properly affixed vignette. Additional tolls are usually levied for passing through certain motorway tunnels and bridges. In Austria a tunnel or bridge subject to a special toll (de:Sondermautstrecke) is in theory free of the vignette obligation, but in practice this is usually a moot point as access to many of them is via motorway only.
Vignette obligation by country
European Union
The Eurovignette Directive introduced in the European Union in 1993 governs road tolls for trucks of minimum 12 metric tonnes. An international agreement, based on Article 8 of the Eurovignette Directive, signed in 1994 by Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands established a common system of vignettes within the Eurovignette framework. Sweden signed a protocol to accede to the agreement in 1997. Germany denounced the agreement in 2017, while Belgium denounced it in 2019.
Austria
Austrian vignette, valid for 10 days, starting on 4 April 2011.
Since 1997, vignettes are required for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on motorways and expressways (prefixed with letters A and S) under federal administration. Vignettes are overseen by the police and toll-sheriff employees of the federal motorway administration. A €240 fine with an additional obligatory payment of a substitute toll are charged to travelers without a valid vignette, and unpaid fines lead to penalties between €300 and €3,000. Furthermore, the vehicle may be confiscated from foreigners to guarantee payment of the penalty.
Additional tolls are charged for certain motorway sections where tollgates and video tolling systems are installed. Several sections require drivers to buy electronic toll cards. Vignettes for vehicles of over 3.5 tonnes were replaced with electronic distance-based highway-toll GO-Boxes on 1 January 2004. Since 2019, electronic vignettes have been made available in addition to the traditional stickers.
Bulgaria
A vignette machine in Bulgaria
Vignettes are required for all (except motorcycles) vehicles driving on all public roads, with the exception of streets in cities, towns and villages. Vignettes are usually valid from the time they are purchased, while some types can be marked to start from a future date. They can be obtained in Bulgaria at most gas stations, at border crossings, or online using a credit card. Cash fines from €150 to €1,500 are charged to drivers without a valid vignette. The vignette sticker was replaced by e-vignette on 1 January 2019, and an e-toll system is to be introduced in August 2019 for vehicles heavier than 3.5 tonnes.
Czech Republic
Vignette affixed on a car's windshield on the R-46 expressway in the Czech Republic.
Vignettes are required for the use of motorways and expressways by all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes. Cash fines for not displaying a valid vignette affixed on a car's windshield range from €80 to €200. Vignettes for heavier vehicles were replaced with electronic toll collection in 2007. By 1 January 2021, the vignette stickers were replaced by digital vignettes.
Germany
Motorways and expressways are a toll-free road network for all lighter vehicles. The Eurovignette system for trucks was abolished in August 2003. A distance-based toll charge was introduced from 1 January 2005 for vehicles of over 12 tonnes, operated by the Toll Collect company.
As of 1 March 2007, all drivers are required to purchase an emission sticker when passing through low-emission zones in several cities and municipalities. Certain "green zones" have completely disallowed entrance to vehicles with higher particle emissions ("yellow" and "red" groups). Travellers passing through these areas without the sticker are charged with a €100 fine.
Hungary
Motorway sign in Hungary. Electronic vignettes are checked by roadside cameras.
Vignettes are required for all vehicles on motorways and expressways. Physical toll stickers were replaced with electronic vignettes and video tolling on 1 January 2008, the only physical item the purchaser receives is a control coupon. Motorway usage entitlement is verified by roadside cameras based on license plate numbers, and drivers of vehicles up to 3.5 tonnes without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €50 and €200.
Moldova
Vignettes are obligatory for personal motor vehicles registered abroad, driving on public roads, and are available for purchase at border customs posts and offices. Foreign drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €125 and €375. Heavier vehicles use existing tax rates, with commercial vehicle drivers paying a single-entry tax and a distance-based charge.
Montenegro
Ecological-tax vignettes were abolished on 31 December 2011. Driving on public roads is generally toll-free, with the exception of passing through certain tunnels and bridges.
Romania
Electronic Vignette Romania 2017
With the exception of motorcycles, vignettes are required for all vehicles driving on all national roads and motorways. Physical vignettes have been replaced with electronic ones since 1 October 2010. They can be obtained at most gas stations, border crossings, or online using a credit card. Drivers without a valid vignette are fined with €100 or more. The fines are dispensed by automatic systems that scan the numberplate of the car when it exits a city.
Slovakia
Vignettes are obligatory for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on Slovak motorways. Drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €100 and €500. Vignettes for heavier vehicles were replaced with distance-based electronic toll collection using the remote-operated toll-box in force since 2010. Special arrangements are to be sought by the motorbike riders.
From 1 January 2016 Slovak vignettes are purchased and checked electronically via eZnamka.sk without a sticker.
Slovenia
Vignettes are required for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on Slovenian motorways as of 1 July 2008. Drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €300 and €800. On 1.4.2018, Slovenia implemented an electronic tolling of vehicles whose maximum permissible weight exceeds 3.5 tonnes.
From 1 December 2021 Slovenian vignettes are purchased and checked electronically via evinjeta.dars.si without a sticker.
Switzerland
All travelers using motorways and expressways are required to purchase an annual vignette. Vignettes can be obtained in and outside of Switzerland in bordering countries at gas stations and labeled points. Use of motorway networks without a valid vignette is an offense against the Public Highways Act, and is punishable with cash fines of CHF 200, in addition to the obligatory purchase of an annual vignette. Heavier vehicles use a distance-based tax rate on all types of roads, called the performance-related heavy vehicle charge .
Switzerland only offers a vignette valid for a year (from December of the preceding year to the January of the following year) at CHF 40 (€41.92). Because of this, its vignette is the most expensive in Europe for transiting and visiting passenger cars. Other countries offer short-term vignettes that make a transit or visit less expensive than in Switzerland.
United States of America
In many states in the USA, a validation sticker, also called "tag", has to be added to the rear license plate.
See also
Road pricing
Road tax
Toll road
Toll roads in Europe
Transport economics
Transport in Europe
References
^ a b c d "Online Vignetten kaufen für Europa - Tolltickets | TollticketsToll & Vignette for Europe buy online | tolltickets GmbHTolltickets | Paquets de péage | Péage via Alexa". TOLLTICKETS. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
^ a b c d "Motorway tolls in Europe 2021 - dalnicni-znamky.com". www.dalnicni-znamky.com. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
^ "Charging of heavy goods vehicles: Eurovignette Directive". Eur-Lex. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
^ "Council Directive 93/89/EEC of 25 October 1993 on the application by Member States of taxes on certain vehicles used for the carriage of goods by road and tolls and charges for the use of certain infrastructures". Official Journal of the European Union. 12 November 1993. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
^ "Agreement on the levying of charges for the use of certain roads by heavy goods vehicles". Government of the Netherlands. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
^ "Protocol concerning the accession of the Kingdom of Sweden to the Agreement on the levying of charges for the use of certain roads by heavy goods vehicles". Government of the Netherlands. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
^ "CC 101 Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999, Art. 4 National languages" (official site). Berne, Switzerland: The federal Council. 1 January 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
^ "БГТОЛ". web.bgtoll.bg. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
^ "Vignettes in Bulgaria - Tax law in bulgaria". www.bulgaria-tax-law.bg. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
^ "Тол-системата тръгва на 16 август 2019 г." (in Bulgarian). capital.bg. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
^ "Czech Motorways > Stickers (< 3.5 t)". www.motorway.cz. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
^ "The German Emissions Sticker: everything you need to know". www.germanemissionssticker.com. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
^ Hungary e-vignette
^ News on road tax in Moldova Archived February 19, 2013, at archive.today
^ Europe travel advice
^ "Electronic vignette in Romania starting with 1st October 2010 - UNTRR". National Union of Road Hauliers from Romania. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
^ Raaflaub, Christian (11 October 2013). "Motorway tax price hike causes controversy". Swissinfo.ch. Archived from the original on 22 May 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2018. It was introduced in 1985 at a cost of CHF30 and this was increased to CHF40 in 1995, a level where it has remained ever since. (...) Other countries which have a motorway tax sticker allow people to buy a cheaper, short-term vignette if they only use their motorways for a short time.
^ Raaflaub, Christian. "Soll die Autobahn-Vignette teurer werden?". SWI swissinfo.ch (in German). Archived from the original on 25 May 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2018. Alle anderen Länder mit Vignettenpflicht bieten die Möglichkeit an, ihre Autobahnen für kurze Zeit zu einem tieferen Preis zu nutzen.
External links
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Vignette Identification
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Vignette
High-occupancy toll lane | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vignette (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vignette_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"road pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_pricing"},{"link_name":"road tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_tax"},{"link_name":"road tolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll_road"},{"link_name":"Central Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Moldova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"windscreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windscreen"},{"link_name":"motorways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlled-access_highway"},{"link_name":"expressways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited-access_road"},{"link_name":"border crossings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_checkpoint"},{"link_name":"gas stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling_station"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cartolleu-1"},{"link_name":"roadside cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_surveillance"},{"link_name":"border guards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_guard"},{"link_name":"travelers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel"},{"link_name":"public roads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vignetteseu-2"},{"link_name":"de:Sondermautstrecke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sondermautstrecke"}],"text":"For other uses, see Vignette (disambiguation).Vignette is a form of road pricing imposed on vehicles, usually in addition to the compulsory road tax, based on a period of time the vehicle may use the road, instead of road tolls that are based on distance travelled. Vignettes are currently used in several European countries. The term originated in France in the 1950s, although vignettes there were not linked to motorway use and no longer exist; it is now used throughout Central Europe, as well as in Italy (vignetta).Vignettes are used in Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. In most of these countries a small, coloured sticker is affixed to a vehicle windscreen, but in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and since 2021 in Slovenia these have been superseded by electronic vignettes. In Moldova, vignettes are required for the use of any road, while in Bulgaria and Romania they are required for the use of any road outside urban areas. In the other countries, vignettes are required only for the use of motorways and expressways.Prices for an annual vignette for passenger cars range from €30 to €150, depending on country. In all countries except Switzerland, short-period vignettes are sold for visiting or transiting vehicles. In Switzerland, visiting foreign motorists must buy an annual vignette to use the country's motorways. Vignettes can usually be obtained at border crossings, gas stations and other outlets. Improperly used or lost vignettes are usually not refunded.[1]Vignette stickers are usually constructed in such a way that detaching and re-attaching them is impossible without destruction, ensuring that they cannot be used on more than one vehicle. Road traffic is often monitored by roadside cameras, and vignettes are verified by state officials, such as border guards and national police. Hefty cash fines are often charged to travelers using public roads without a valid and properly affixed vignette. Additional tolls are usually levied for passing through certain motorway tunnels and bridges.[2] In Austria a tunnel or bridge subject to a special toll (de:Sondermautstrecke) is in theory free of the vignette obligation, but in practice this is usually a moot point as access to many of them is via motorway only.","title":"Vignette (road tax)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truck"},{"link_name":"metric tonnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_tonnes"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DUTCH-5"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NL-7"}],"sub_title":"European Union","text":"The Eurovignette Directive introduced in the European Union in 1993 governs road tolls for trucks of minimum 12 metric tonnes.[3][4] An international agreement, based on Article 8 of the Eurovignette Directive, signed in 1994 by Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands established a common system of vignettes within the Eurovignette framework.[5] Sweden signed a protocol to accede to the agreement in 1997.[6] Germany denounced the agreement in 2017, while Belgium denounced it in 2019.[7]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%96sterreich_Vignette.JPG"},{"link_name":"motorways and expressways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobahns_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"federal administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_administration"},{"link_name":"tollgates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll_road"},{"link_name":"video tolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_tolling"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vignetteseu-2"}],"sub_title":"Austria","text":"Austrian vignette, valid for 10 days, starting on 4 April 2011.Since 1997, vignettes are required for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on motorways and expressways (prefixed with letters A and S) under federal administration. Vignettes are overseen by the police and toll-sheriff employees of the federal motorway administration. A €240 fine with an additional obligatory payment of a substitute toll are charged to travelers without a valid vignette, and unpaid fines lead to penalties between €300 and €3,000. Furthermore, the vehicle may be confiscated from foreigners to guarantee payment of the penalty.Additional tolls are charged for certain motorway sections where tollgates and video tolling systems are installed. Several sections require drivers to buy electronic toll cards. Vignettes for vehicles of over 3.5 tonnes were replaced with electronic distance-based highway-toll GO-Boxes on 1 January 2004.[2] Since 2019, electronic vignettes have been made available in addition to the traditional stickers.","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VinetkaOtomat.jpg"},{"link_name":"public roads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Bulgaria#Roads"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Bulgaria","text":"A vignette machine in BulgariaVignettes are required for all (except motorcycles) vehicles driving on all public roads, with the exception of streets in cities, towns and villages. Vignettes are usually valid from the time they are purchased, while some types can be marked to start from a future date. They can be obtained in Bulgaria at most gas stations, at border crossings, or online using a credit card.[8] Cash fines from €150 to €1,500 are charged to drivers without a valid vignette.[9] The vignette sticker was replaced by e-vignette on 1 January 2019, and an e-toll system is to be introduced in August 2019 for vehicles heavier than 3.5 tonnes.[10]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tlumi%C4%8D_n%C3%A1razu.jpg"},{"link_name":"R-46 expressway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R46_expressway_(Czech_Republic)"},{"link_name":"motorways and expressways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highways_in_the_Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"electronic toll collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Czech Republic","text":"Vignette affixed on a car's windshield on the R-46 expressway in the Czech Republic.Vignettes are required for the use of motorways and expressways by all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes. Cash fines for not displaying a valid vignette affixed on a car's windshield range from €80 to €200. Vignettes for heavier vehicles were replaced with electronic toll collection in 2007. By 1 January 2021, the vignette stickers were replaced by digital vignettes.[11]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Motorways and expressways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_autobahns"},{"link_name":"toll charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LKW-Maut"},{"link_name":"Toll Collect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll_Collect"},{"link_name":"low-emission zones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-emission_zone"},{"link_name":"particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Germany","text":"Motorways and expressways are a toll-free road network for all lighter vehicles. The Eurovignette system for trucks was abolished in August 2003. A distance-based toll charge was introduced from 1 January 2005 for vehicles of over 12 tonnes, operated by the Toll Collect company.As of 1 March 2007, all drivers are required to purchase an emission sticker when passing through low-emission zones in several cities and municipalities. Certain \"green zones\" have completely disallowed entrance to vehicles with higher particle emissions (\"yellow\" and \"red\" groups). Travellers passing through these areas without the sticker are charged with a €100 fine.[12]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:D%C3%ADjas_Aut%C3%B3p%C3%A1lya_t%C3%A1bla.JPG"},{"link_name":"checked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_tolling"},{"link_name":"motorways and expressways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorways_in_Hungary"},{"link_name":"verified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_number_plate_recognition"},{"link_name":"license plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plate"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Hungary","text":"Motorway sign in Hungary. Electronic vignettes are checked by roadside cameras.Vignettes are required for all vehicles on motorways and expressways. Physical toll stickers were replaced with electronic vignettes and video tolling on 1 January 2008, the only physical item the purchaser receives is a control coupon. Motorway usage entitlement is verified by roadside cameras based on license plate numbers, and drivers of vehicles up to 3.5 tonnes without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €50 and €200.[13]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"motor vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehicle"},{"link_name":"public roads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roads_in_Moldova"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Moldova","text":"Vignettes are obligatory for personal motor vehicles registered abroad, driving on public roads, and are available for purchase at border customs posts and offices. Foreign drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €125 and €375. Heavier vehicles use existing tax rates, with commercial vehicle drivers paying a single-entry tax and a distance-based charge.[14]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ecological-tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotax"},{"link_name":"public roads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Montenegro","text":"Ecological-tax vignettes were abolished on 31 December 2011. Driving on public roads is generally toll-free, with the exception of passing through certain tunnels and bridges.[15]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electronic_Vignette_Romania_2017.jpg"},{"link_name":"roads and motorways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roads_in_Romania"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-untrr.ro-16"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vignetteseu-2"}],"sub_title":"Romania","text":"Electronic Vignette Romania 2017With the exception of motorcycles, vignettes are required for all vehicles driving on all national roads and motorways. Physical vignettes have been replaced with electronic ones since 1 October 2010.[16] They can be obtained at most gas stations, border crossings, or online using a credit card. Drivers without a valid vignette are fined with €100 or more. The fines are dispensed by automatic systems that scan the numberplate of the car when it exits a city.[2]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Slovak motorways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highways_in_Slovakia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vignetteseu-2"},{"link_name":"eZnamka.sk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.eznamka.sk"}],"sub_title":"Slovakia","text":"Vignettes are obligatory for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on Slovak motorways. Drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €100 and €500. Vignettes for heavier vehicles were replaced with distance-based electronic toll collection using the remote-operated toll-box in force since 2010. Special arrangements are to be sought by the motorbike riders. [2]From 1 January 2016 Slovak vignettes are purchased and checked electronically via eZnamka.sk without a sticker.","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Slovenian motorways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highways_in_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cartolleu-1"},{"link_name":"evinjeta.dars.si","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//evinjeta.dars.si/selfcare/en"}],"sub_title":"Slovenia","text":"Vignettes are required for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on Slovenian motorways as of 1 July 2008. Drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €300 and €800. On 1.4.2018, Slovenia implemented an electronic tolling of vehicles whose maximum permissible weight exceeds 3.5 tonnes.[1]From 1 December 2021 Slovenian vignettes are purchased and checked electronically via evinjeta.dars.si without a sticker.","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"motorways and expressways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorways_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"CHF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_franc"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cartolleu-1"},{"link_name":"performance-related heavy vehicle charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Performance-related_heavy_vehicle_charge&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwerverkehrsabgabe_(Schweiz)"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redevance_poids_lourds_li%C3%A9e_aux_prestations"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cartolleu-1"}],"sub_title":"Switzerland","text":"All travelers using motorways and expressways are required to purchase an annual vignette. Vignettes can be obtained in and outside of Switzerland in bordering countries at gas stations and labeled points. Use of motorway networks without a valid vignette is an offense against the Public Highways Act, and is punishable with cash fines of CHF 200, in addition to the obligatory purchase of an annual vignette.[1] Heavier vehicles use a distance-based tax rate on all types of roads, called the performance-related heavy vehicle charge [de; fr].Switzerland only offers a vignette valid for a year (from December of the preceding year to the January of the following year) at CHF 40 (€41.92). Because of this, its vignette is the most expensive in Europe for transiting and visiting passenger cars. Other countries offer short-term vignettes that make a transit or visit less expensive than in Switzerland.[17][18][1]","title":"Vignette obligation by country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"license plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_license_plates_of_the_United_States"}],"sub_title":"United States of America","text":"In many states in the USA, a validation sticker, also called \"tag\", has to be added to the rear license plate.","title":"Vignette obligation by country"}] | [{"image_text":"Austrian vignette, valid for 10 days, starting on 4 April 2011.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%C3%96sterreich_Vignette.JPG/199px-%C3%96sterreich_Vignette.JPG"},{"image_text":"A vignette machine in Bulgaria","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/VinetkaOtomat.jpg/150px-VinetkaOtomat.jpg"},{"image_text":"Vignette affixed on a car's windshield on the R-46 expressway in the Czech Republic.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Tlumi%C4%8D_n%C3%A1razu.jpg/240px-Tlumi%C4%8D_n%C3%A1razu.jpg"},{"image_text":"Motorway sign in Hungary. Electronic vignettes are checked by roadside cameras.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/D%C3%ADjas_Aut%C3%B3p%C3%A1lya_t%C3%A1bla.JPG/170px-D%C3%ADjas_Aut%C3%B3p%C3%A1lya_t%C3%A1bla.JPG"},{"image_text":"Electronic Vignette Romania 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Electronic_Vignette_Romania_2017.jpg/220px-Electronic_Vignette_Romania_2017.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Road pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_pricing"},{"title":"Road tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_tax"},{"title":"Toll road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll_road"},{"title":"Toll roads in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll_roads_in_Europe"},{"title":"Transport economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_economics"},{"title":"Transport in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Europe"}] | [{"reference":"\"[:de]Online Vignetten kaufen für Europa - Tolltickets | Tolltickets[:en]Toll & Vignette for Europe buy online | tolltickets GmbH[:fr]Tolltickets | Paquets de péage | Péage via Alexa[:]\". TOLLTICKETS. Retrieved 31 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tolltickets.com/","url_text":"\"[:de]Online Vignetten kaufen für Europa - Tolltickets | Tolltickets[:en]Toll & Vignette for Europe buy online | tolltickets GmbH[:fr]Tolltickets | Paquets de péage | Péage via Alexa[:]\""}]},{"reference":"\"Motorway tolls in Europe 2021 - dalnicni-znamky.com\". www.dalnicni-znamky.com. Retrieved 31 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dalnicni-znamky.com/en/","url_text":"\"Motorway tolls in Europe 2021 - dalnicni-znamky.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Charging of heavy goods vehicles: Eurovignette Directive\". Eur-Lex. Retrieved 26 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3Al24045b","url_text":"\"Charging of heavy goods vehicles: Eurovignette Directive\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eur-Lex","url_text":"Eur-Lex"}]},{"reference":"\"Council Directive 93/89/EEC of 25 October 1993 on the application by Member States of taxes on certain vehicles used for the carriage of goods by road and tolls and charges for the use of certain infrastructures\". Official Journal of the European Union. 12 November 1993. Retrieved 26 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A31993L0089","url_text":"\"Council Directive 93/89/EEC of 25 October 1993 on the application by Member States of taxes on certain vehicles used for the carriage of goods by road and tolls and charges for the use of certain infrastructures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Journal_of_the_European_Union","url_text":"Official Journal of the European Union"}]},{"reference":"\"Agreement on the levying of charges for the use of certain roads by heavy goods vehicles\". Government of the Netherlands. Retrieved 16 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://verdragenbank.overheid.nl/en/Treaty/Details/005378.html","url_text":"\"Agreement on the levying of charges for the use of certain roads by heavy goods vehicles\""}]},{"reference":"\"Protocol concerning the accession of the Kingdom of Sweden to the Agreement on the levying of charges for the use of certain roads by heavy goods vehicles\". Government of the Netherlands. Retrieved 16 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://verdragenbank.overheid.nl/en/Treaty/Details/008091.html","url_text":"\"Protocol concerning the accession of the Kingdom of Sweden to the Agreement on the levying of charges for the use of certain roads by heavy goods vehicles\""}]},{"reference":"\"CC 101 Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999, Art. 4 National languages\" (official site). Berne, Switzerland: The federal Council. 1 January 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.admin.ch/opc/en/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html#a4","url_text":"\"CC 101 Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999, Art. 4 National languages\""}]},{"reference":"\"БГТОЛ\". web.bgtoll.bg. Retrieved 31 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.bgtoll.bg/","url_text":"\"БГТОЛ\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vignettes in Bulgaria - Tax law in bulgaria\". www.bulgaria-tax-law.bg. Retrieved 30 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bulgaria-tax-law.bg/vignettes.html","url_text":"\"Vignettes in Bulgaria - Tax law in bulgaria\""}]},{"reference":"\"Тол-системата тръгва на 16 август 2019 г.\" (in Bulgarian). capital.bg. Retrieved 16 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.capital.bg/politika_i_ikonomika/bulgaria/2018/07/12/3281001_tol-sistemata_trugva_na_16_avgust_2019_g/","url_text":"\"Тол-системата тръгва на 16 август 2019 г.\""}]},{"reference":"\"Czech Motorways > Stickers (< 3.5 t)\". www.motorway.cz. Retrieved 31 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.motorway.cz/stickers","url_text":"\"Czech Motorways > Stickers (< 3.5 t)\""}]},{"reference":"\"The German Emissions Sticker: everything you need to know\". www.germanemissionssticker.com. Retrieved 31 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.germanemissionssticker.com/","url_text":"\"The German Emissions Sticker: everything you need to know\""}]},{"reference":"\"Electronic vignette in Romania starting with 1st October 2010 - UNTRR\". National Union of Road Hauliers from Romania. Retrieved 20 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.untrr.ro/vertical-menu/ro-vignette/electronic-vignette-in-romania-starting-with-1st-october-2010.html","url_text":"\"Electronic vignette in Romania starting with 1st October 2010 - UNTRR\""}]},{"reference":"Raaflaub, Christian (11 October 2013). \"Motorway tax price hike causes controversy\". Swissinfo.ch. Archived from the original on 22 May 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2018. It was introduced in 1985 at a cost of CHF30 and this was increased to CHF40 in 1995, a level where it has remained ever since. (...) Other countries which have a motorway tax sticker allow people to buy a cheaper, short-term vignette if they only use their motorways for a short time.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/road-rage_motorway-tax-price-hike-causes-controversy/37087084","url_text":"\"Motorway tax price hike causes controversy\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20180522013507/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/road-rage_motorway-tax-price-hike-causes-controversy/37087084","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Raaflaub, Christian. \"Soll die Autobahn-Vignette teurer werden?\". SWI swissinfo.ch (in German). Archived from the original on 25 May 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2018. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilhj%C3%A1lmur_Einarsson | Vilhjálmur Einarsson | ["1 References"] | Icelandic athlete (1934–2019)
Olympic medal record
Men's athletics
Representing Iceland
1956 Melbourne
Triple jump
This is an Icelandic name. The last name is patronymic, not a family name; this person is referred to by the given name Vilhjálmur.
Vilhjálmur Einarsson (5 June 1934 – 28 December 2019) was an Icelandic track and field athlete, and triple-jump silver medalist at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia. Vilhjálmur grew up in the East-Icelandic fishing village of Reyðarfjörður and was the son of Einar Stefánsson and Sigríður Vilhjálmsdóttir.
In 1956 Vilhjálmur set a new Olympic Record by jumping 16.26 m in the triple jump, only to be surpassed by Brazil's Adhemar da Silva in the same competition. This was the most unexpected result of the Olympics that year, and his silver medal was Iceland's first ever Olympic medal. In 1958 he took bronze in the triple jump at the European Athletics Championships in Stockholm, Sweden, with 16.00 m. His personal best was 16.70 m set in 1960 in Laugardalsvöllur, Iceland. He was named Icelandic Sportsperson of the Year five times, more times than anyone else.
Vilhjálmur was also a headmaster of three schools: Héraðsskólinn in Laugarvatn, Reykholtsskóli in Reykholt, and Menntaskólinn in Egilsstaðir, where he later worked as a part-time mathematics teacher. He also was a painter, specializing in landscape painting, and his work has been on display in several art galleries in Iceland.
He attended Dartmouth College. His son Einar Vilhjálmsson later represented Iceland in the men's javelin throw at the Summer Olympics (1984, 1988 and 1992).
References
^ "Olympic medals won by Vilhjálmur Einarsson". ABC. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
^ David Wallechinsky, The complete book of the summer Olympics: Athens 2004 edition, Wilmington, Delaware: Sport Media, 2004, ISBN 1-894963-32-6, p. 374.
^ James Crugnale, "Great Moments In Icelandic History: Iceland gets its first Olympic Medal" Archived 2012-04-05 at the Wayback Machine, The Reykjavík Grapevine 15 August 2008.
^ History Archived December 28, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, The National Olympic and Sports Association of Iceland, retrieved 23 June 2010.
^ European Championships: Stockholm 1958, men’s results Archived September 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, Athletix.org.
^ "Handball Champion Icelandic Sportsman of the Year", Iceland Review Online 6 January 2010.
vteIcelandic Sportsperson of the Year
1956: Vilhjálmur Einarsson
1957: Vilhjálmur Einarsson
1958: Vilhjálmur Einarsson
1959: Valbjörn Þorláksson
1960: Vilhjálmur Einarsson
1961: Vilhjálmur Einarsson
1962: Guðmundur Gíslason
1963: Jón Þ. Ólafsson
1964: Sigríður Sigurðardóttir
1965: Valbjörn Þorláksson
1966: Kolbeinn Pálsson
1967: Guðmundur Hermannsson
1968: Geir Hallsteinsson
1969: Guðmundur Gíslason
1970: Erlendur Valdimarsson
1971: Hjalti Einarsson
1972: Guðjón Guðmundsson
1973: Guðni Kjartansson
1974: Ásgeir Sigurvinsson
1975: Jóhannes Eðvaldsson
1976: Hreinn Halldórsson
1977: Hreinn Halldórsson
1978: Skúli Óskarsson
1979: Hreinn Halldórsson
1980: Skúli Óskarsson
1981: Jón Páll Sigmarsson
1982: Óskar Jakobsson
1983: Einar Vilhjálmsson
1984: Ásgeir Sigurvinsson
1985: Einar Vilhjálmsson
1986: Eðvarð Þór Eðvarðsson
1987: Arnór Guðjohnsen
1988: Einar Vilhjálmsson
1989: Alfreð Gíslason
1990: Bjarni Friðriksson
1991: Ragnheiður Runólfsdóttir
1992: Sigurður Einarsson
1993: Sigurbjörn Bárðarson
1994: Magnús Scheving
1995: Jón Arnar Magnússon
1996: Jón Arnar Magnússon
1997: Geir Sveinsson
1998: Örn Arnarson
1999: Örn Arnarson
2000: Vala Flosadóttir
2001: Örn Arnarson
2002: Ólafur Stefánsson
2003: Ólafur Stefánsson
2004: Eiður Guðjohnsen
2005: Eiður Guðjohnsen
2006: Guðjón Valur Sigurðsson
2007: Margrét Lára Viðarsdóttir
2008: Ólafur Stefánsson
2009: Ólafur Stefánsson
2010: Alexander Petersson
2011: Heiðar Helguson
2012: Aron Pálmarsson
2013: Gylfi Sigurðsson
2014: Jón Arnór Stefánsson
2015: Eygló Ósk Gústafsdóttir
2016: Gylfi Sigurðsson
2017: Ólafía Þórunn Kristinsdóttir
2018: Sara Björk Gunnarsdóttir
2019: Júlían J. K. Jóhannsson
2020: Sara Björk Gunnarsdóttir
2021: Ómar Ingi Magnússon
2022: Ómar Ingi Magnússon
2023: Gísli Þorgeir Kristjánsson
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Icelandic name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_name"},{"link_name":"patronymic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronymic"},{"link_name":"family name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surname"},{"link_name":"Icelandic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland"},{"link_name":"track and field athlete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_(sport)"},{"link_name":"triple-jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple-jump"},{"link_name":"1956 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Reyðarfjörður","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rey%C3%B0arfj%C3%B6r%C3%B0ur"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Adhemar da Silva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhemar_da_Silva"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"European Athletics Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958_European_Athletics_Championships"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Laugardalsvöllur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laugardalsv%C3%B6llur"},{"link_name":"Icelandic Sportsperson of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_Sportsperson_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Héraðsskólinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=H%C3%A9ra%C3%B0ssk%C3%B3linn_%C3%A1_Laugarvatni&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Laugarvatn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laugarvatn"},{"link_name":"Reykholtsskóli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reykholtssk%C3%B3li&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Reykholt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reykholt,_Southern_Iceland"},{"link_name":"Menntaskólinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menntask%C3%B3linn_%C3%A1_Egilsst%C3%B6%C3%B0um"},{"link_name":"Egilsstaðir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egilssta%C3%B0ir"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"painter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting"},{"link_name":"landscape painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_painting"},{"link_name":"Dartmouth College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_College"},{"link_name":"Einar Vilhjálmsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einar_Vilhj%C3%A1lmsson"},{"link_name":"javelin throw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javelin_throw"},{"link_name":"Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Olympics"}],"text":"This is an Icelandic name. The last name is patronymic, not a family name; this person is referred to by the given name Vilhjálmur.Vilhjálmur Einarsson (5 June 1934 – 28 December 2019) was an Icelandic track and field athlete, and triple-jump silver medalist at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia.[1] Vilhjálmur grew up in the East-Icelandic fishing village of Reyðarfjörður and was the son of Einar Stefánsson and Sigríður Vilhjálmsdóttir.In 1956 Vilhjálmur set a new Olympic Record by jumping 16.26 m in the triple jump, only to be surpassed by Brazil's Adhemar da Silva in the same competition. This was the most unexpected result of the Olympics that year,[2] and his silver medal was Iceland's first ever Olympic medal.[3][4] In 1958 he took bronze in the triple jump at the European Athletics Championships in Stockholm, Sweden, with 16.00 m.[5] His personal best was 16.70 m set in 1960 in Laugardalsvöllur, Iceland. He was named Icelandic Sportsperson of the Year five times, more times than anyone else.[6]Vilhjálmur was also a headmaster of three schools: Héraðsskólinn in Laugarvatn, Reykholtsskóli in Reykholt, and Menntaskólinn in Egilsstaðir, where he later worked as a part-time mathematics teacher. He also was a painter, specializing in landscape painting, and his work has been on display in several art galleries in Iceland.He attended Dartmouth College. His son Einar Vilhjálmsson later represented Iceland in the men's javelin throw at the Summer Olympics (1984, 1988 and 1992).","title":"Vilhjálmur Einarsson"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Olympic medals won by Vilhjálmur Einarsson\". ABC. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Orbit | Virgin Orbit | ["1 Vehicles","1.1 LauncherOne","1.2 Cosmic Girl","2 Operations and financials","2.1 Bankruptcy and dissolution","3 VOX Space","4 Other projects","4.1 Ventilators","4.2 Launch site in the UK","4.3 Launch site in Brazil","4.4 Launch site in Australia","5 References","6 External links"] | Defunct American aerospace company
Virgin OrbitCompany typePublicTraded asOTC Pink: VORBQIndustryAerospacePredecessorVirgin GalacticFoundedMarch 2, 2017; 7 years ago (2017-03-02)DefunctMay 22, 2023; 12 months ago (2023-05-22)FateChapter 11 bankruptcyHeadquartersLong Beach, California, United StatesKey peopleDan Hart (President and CEO)Brita O'rear (CFO)ProductsLauncherOneServicesOrbital rocket launchTotal equity US$47m (2023)US$4b (2021)OwnersVirgin GroupMubadalaNumber of employees100 (2023)Websitevirginorbit.com
Virgin Orbit was a company within the Virgin Group that provided launch services for small satellites. The company was formed in 2017 as a spin-off of Richard Branson's Virgin Galactic space tourism venture to develop and market the LauncherOne rocket, which had previously been a project under Virgin Galactic. LauncherOne was a two-stage launch vehicle, air-launched from a Boeing 747 carrier aircraft, designed to deliver 300 kg of payload to low Earth orbit.
On December 30, 2021, Virgin Orbit underwent a SPAC merger with NextGen Acquisition Corp, and became a publicly traded company (symbol VORB) at the NASDAQ stock exchange. Upon listing Virgin Orbit was valued at $3.7 billion.
LauncherOne made six flights from 2020 to 2023, resulting in four successes and two failures. After the second failure in January 2023 and amid an inability to secure additional financing, the company laid off staff and suspended operations in March 2023, finalizing Chapter 11 bankruptcy auction on May 22, 2023. Remaining assets were divested for $36 million, less than 1% of the company's valuation upon IPO.
Vehicles
LauncherOne
Main article: LauncherOne
On May 25, 2020, LauncherOne's first launch failed to reach orbit.
On January 17, 2021, LauncherOne became the first Virgin Orbit vehicle to reach orbit, successfully deploying 10 CubeSats into Low Earth Orbit for NASA on its final demonstration mission. LauncherOne was deployed from the left (port) wing of a retrofitted Boeing 747, 33,000 feet (10 kilometers) above the Pacific Ocean. The rocket was dedicated to the memory of the mother of Richard Branson, founder of Virgin - Eve Branson, who died from COVID-19 on January 8, 2021.
On June 30, 2021, LauncherOne successfully delivered its first commercial payload to space.
On January 13, 2022, LauncherOne successfully delivered seven cubesats for three customers into orbit.
On July 2, 2022, LauncherOne flew a successful mission.
On January 9, 2023, LauncherOne failed to orbit despite a nominal drop from the aircraft, with Virgin Orbit citing "an anomaly" with the upper stage. The failed payload included nine satellites from seven different customers. This was Virgin Orbit's first attempted launch from the UK at Spaceport Cornwall; previous launches were from Mojave Air and Space Port.
Cosmic Girl
Main article: Cosmic Girl (aircraft)Cosmic Girl was the name of the modified Boeing 747-400 that Virgin Orbit used to launch its rockets. In 2022, Virgin Orbit announced plans to acquire additional 747s with the ability to transport the rocket and ground support equipment internally.
Operations and financials
Based in Long Beach, California, at its founding in 2017, Virgin Orbit had more than 300 employees led by president Dan Hart, a former vice president of government satellite systems at Boeing. The company from which it was spun off, Virgin Galactic, continued to focus on two other capabilities: human suborbital spaceflight operations and advanced aerospace design, manufacturing, and testing.
In October 2019, Virgin Orbit announced that Matthew Stannard was joining as a pilot on a three-year contract. Stannard had previously served in the Royal Air Force as a test and evaluation pilot notably on Typhoon jets. At that time Orbit was about to start testing its Cosmic Girl launch platform.
A few months prior to going public, Virgin Orbit was owned by Richard Branson's Virgin Group and the Emirati state-owned Mubadala, which had invested about $1 billion in Virgin Orbit through August 2021.
In August 2021 when the SPAC merger was announced, Virgin Orbit estimated it needed $420 million in cash, starting in the second half of 2021, to reach positive cash flow in 2024. When it went public in December 2021, after completing its SPAC merger, the company raised $228 million, less than half than the $483 million it expected to raise. Virgin Orbit held an "opening bell" ceremony at Nasdaq on January 7, 2022, to celebrate going public; it opened at $10 per share.
When the SPAC merger was announced in August 2021, Virgin Orbit aimed to be profitable on an EBITDA-basis by end of Q4 2024. The company said it had about $300 million in active contracts, and expected its rocket launch business to grow to about 18 launches in 2023. The company expected to have about $15 million in revenue in 2021, with an EBITDA loss of $156 million; however, it aimed at further revenue growth, reaching $2.1 billion in revenue by 2026.
The company's third-quarter financial report, issued in November 2022, showed cash on hand of $71.2 million, $30.9 million in revenue, and an adjusted EBITDA loss of $42.9 million for the period. The company's backlog of binding contracts fell by 12%, to $143 million, compared to the end of the prior quarter, and forecast that it would only have three launches in 2022, compared to a forecast of four to six, made earlier in 2022.
Bankruptcy and dissolution
On March 16, 2023, Virgin Orbit announced a pausing of operations and furloughing of nearly its entire staff, while seeking additional funding. Causes for the event are cited as both capital management and technical. Virgin Orbit recorded a loss of US$139.5 million for the first nine months of 2022. Matthew Brown Companies, a Texas and Hawaii based venture capital firm led by Dallas-based Matthew Brown, a businessman, made a $200 million tender for the company but ultimately fell through. Board members had approved golden parachute plans for executives previously. The company declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy on April 4, 2023.
Assets were divested to three major bidders in May 2023: Rocket Lab acquired the company's Long Beach facility, manufacturing and tooling assets for $16 million, Launcher purchased the company's Mojave test site for $3 million, and the Cosmic Girl aircraft was sold to Stratolaunch Systems for $17 million. An additional $3.8 million in assets were sold to Firefly Aerospace on June 15. Virgin Orbit intellectual property is for sale.
VOX Space
VOX Space was a subsidiary of Virgin Orbit that was created in 2020. The company supplied launch services for the US military, sometimes referred to as the "national security launch market". The company used the Virgin Orbit LauncherOne launch vehicle. The president as of July 2022 was Mark Baird, who took over on August 17, 2021.
In April 2020, VOX Space was awarded a US$35 million contract for three launches of 44 cubesats for US Space Force. The first of these launches succeeded on July 2, 2022.
Other projects
Ventilators
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, Virgin Orbit announced it was a partner with the University of California Irvine and the University of Texas at Austin in a new venture to build simplified mechanical ventilators — specifically "bridge ventilators" for partially recovered patients and patients not in intensive care — to address the critical global shortage of ventilators. They were granted an emergency use authorization by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in April 2020.
Launch site in the UK
Virgin Orbit agreed to launch space flights from Spaceport Cornwall in a project partly funded by the UK Space Agency.
Virgin Orbit's first and only UK launch took place on January 9, 2023. The rocket failed to reach orbit.
Launch site in Brazil
In April 2021, the Brazilian Space Agency disclosed the company among those selected to operate orbital launches from the Alcantara Launch Center in Brazil. On June 27, 2022, Virgin Orbit announced a Brazil-based subsidiary, Virgin Orbit Brasil Ltda, which will facilitate launches from the Alcantara Launch Center. The Brazil-based launch center is just two degrees south of the Equator, allowing launches to almost every orbital inclination.
Launch site in Australia
In September 2022, Virgin Orbit signed an agreement with Wagner Corporation to base a 747-400 launch aircraft at Toowoomba Wellcamp Airport in Queensland with a demonstrator launch planned for 2024.
References
^ Fernholz, Tim (June 13, 2017). "Virgin Orbit's newly-minted CEO will use psychology to launch satellites faster than anyone else". Quartz. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
^ Irene Klotz (March 2, 2017). "Virgin Galactic Unveils Spin-Off Virgin Orbit for Small-Satellite Launches". Space.com.
^ "Virgin Orbit lands in Times Square NYC to ring NASDAQ bell". Space.com. January 7, 2022.
^ a b "Branson's Virgin Orbit to go public through a SPAC at $3.7 billion valuation". CNBC. August 23, 2021.
^ Will, Luke (January 10, 2023). "Virgin Orbit's Launcher One Fails to Reach Orbit". Travel Radar. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
^ a b Roulette, Joey (April 4, 2023). "Branson's Virgin Orbit files for bankruptcy". Reuters. Retrieved April 4, 2023.
^ Race, Michael (April 4, 2023). "Virgin Orbit: Richard Branson's rocket firm files for bankruptcy". BBC News. Retrieved April 4, 2023.
^ a b Sheetz, Michael (May 23, 2023). "Virgin Orbit sells assets in bankruptcy auction to Rocket Lab, Stratolaunch and Vast's Launcher". CNBC. Retrieved May 23, 2023.
^ "LauncherOne (L1)".
^ Christian Davenport (January 17, 2021). "Virgin Orbit rocket reaches Earth orbit, adding an entrant to the commercial space race". The Washington Post.
^ Watch this rocket launch from the wing of a jumbo jet - CNN Video, January 18, 2021, retrieved January 19, 2021
^ January 2021, Mike Wall 17 (January 17, 2021). "Virgin Orbit launches 10 satellites to orbit in landmark test flight". Space.com. Retrieved January 21, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "Branson's Virgin rocket takes satellites to orbit". BBC News. January 17, 2021. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
^ SpaceX (July 1, 2021). "Tracking footage of Falcon 9 landing on LZ-1 https://t.co/uCR2ZuDSG7" (Tweet). Archived from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved July 20, 2021 – via Twitter.
^ Foust, Jeff (January 14, 2022). "Virgin Orbit launches seven cubesats on third operational mission". SpaceNews. Retrieved October 4, 2022.
^ Foust, Jeff (July 2, 2022). "Virgin Orbit launches Space Force mission". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved July 2, 2022.
^ Burghardt, Thomas (July 2022). "Virgin Orbit launches seven satellites for US Space Force and NASA". NASASpaceFlight. Archived from the original on July 2, 2022. Retrieved July 2, 2022.
^ Morris, Steven (January 9, 2023). "UK's first orbital rocket mission takes off from Cornwall". the Guardian. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
^ Graham, William (January 9, 2023). "Virgin Orbit fails on first mission from the UK with Start Me Up". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
^ Berger, Eric (January 10, 2023). "The first orbital launch attempt from the UK ends in failure". Ars Technica. Retrieved January 27, 2023.
^ "Virgin jumbo arrives in Cornwall for UK space launch". BBC News. October 11, 2022. Retrieved January 27, 2023.
^ "Branson's Virgin rocket takes satellites to orbit". BBC News. January 17, 2021. Retrieved January 19, 2021.
^ Davenport, Christian (March 2, 2017). "Richard Branson starting a new venture dedicated to launching small satellites into space". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
^ "Virgin Galactic Makes Satellite Launch Service New Company". U.S. News & World Report. Associated Press. March 2, 2017. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
^ "Welcome, Virgin Orbit!". Virgin Galactic. Archived from the original on March 8, 2017. Retrieved March 9, 2017.
^ Virgin Orbit selects RAF pilot as it plans satellite launch program, Ed Adamczyk, SpaceDaily, 2019-10-04
^ "Virgin Orbit raises far less than expected from SPAC merger". December 29, 2021.
^ a b c Sheetz, Michael (March 15, 2023). "Virgin Orbit pauses operations for a week, furloughs nearly entire staff as it seeks funding". CNBC. Retrieved March 16, 2023.
^ Sheetz, Michael (November 7, 2022). "Virgin Orbit raises $25 million from Branson's conglomerate as cash reserve dwindles". CNBC. Retrieved March 16, 2023.
^ Alamalhodaei, Aria (March 17, 2023). "At Virgin Orbit, it never should've come to a staff furlough". TechCrunch. Retrieved March 17, 2023.
^ Tim Fernholz (March 31, 2023). "Exactly who is the investor behind Virgin Orbit's failed $200 million rescue?". Quartz. Retrieved October 6, 2023.
^ Matthew Brown (April 6, 2023). "w/r/t Virgin Orbit". LinkedIn. Retrieved October 26, 2023.
^ "Virgin Orbit raising $200 million from investor Matthew Brown, closing deal as soon as Thursday". CNBC. March 22, 2023.
^ Sheetz, Michael (March 30, 2023). "Virgin Orbit fails to secure funding, will cease operations and lay off nearly entire workforce until further notice". CNBC. Retrieved March 30, 2023.
^ "Virgin Orbit receives $17 million bid from Stratolaunch for carrier plane and related aircraft assets". Space.com. May 19, 2023.
^ Foust, Jeff (June 16, 2023). "Firefly to buy remaining Virgin Orbit assets". SpaceNews. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
^ Eric Berger (April 12, 2024). "Rocket Report: Delta IV's grand finale; Angara flies another dummy payload". Ars Technica. Retrieved April 26, 2024.
^ a b Erwin, Sandra (April 10, 2019). "Virgin Orbit's VOX Space wins $35 million U.S. Space Force launch contract". SpaceNews. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
^ "Mark Baird named president of VOX Space". SpaceNews. August 17, 2021. Retrieved July 13, 2022.
^ Kanayama, Lee (April 10, 2020). "LauncherOne Cryo Captive Carry test on Cosmic Girl - wins smallsat missions". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved January 19, 2021.
^ Clark, Stephen. "Virgin Orbit's first night launch a success; UK mission next – Spaceflight Now". Retrieved July 13, 2022.
^ "Virgin Orbit designs new ventilator as part of Virgin Group's efforts to combat coronavirus," March, 2020, Space.com, retrieved April 2, 2020
^ "Branson's Virgin Orbit to begin coronavirus ventilator mass production," March 30, 2020, NBC News, retrieved April 2, 2020.
^ Darrell Etherington, "Virgin Orbit's ventilators gain FDA authorization, deliveries to hospitals will start within days," April 23, 2020, TechCrunch. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
^ "Virgin Orbit one step closer to launches from Spaceport Cornwall". Virgin Orbit.
^ "U.K. Government to fund spaceport improvements for Virgin Orbit". Space News. November 6, 2019.
^ "UK space launch: Historic Cornwall rocket mission set to blast off". BBC News. January 9, 2023.
^ "UK space launch: Historic Cornwall rocket launch ends in failure". BBC News. January 9, 2023.
^ "Virgin Orbit Selected to Bring Orbital Launch Capabilities to Brazil". Virgin Orbit. April 28, 2021.
^ "Virgin Orbit Formally Establishes New Brazilian Subsidiary and Receives Operator's License for Launch Operations in Alcântara". www.businesswire.com. June 27, 2022. Retrieved July 13, 2022.
^ "Toowoomba Airport to become 747 rocket launch site". Australian Aviation. September 20, 2022.
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Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Virgin Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Group"},{"link_name":"launch services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_service_provider"},{"link_name":"small satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_satellite"},{"link_name":"Richard Branson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Branson"},{"link_name":"Virgin Galactic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Galactic"},{"link_name":"LauncherOne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LauncherOne"},{"link_name":"air-launched","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-launch-to-orbit"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Space-2017-2"},{"link_name":"SPAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special-purpose_acquisition_company"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spac-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-8"}],"text":"Virgin Orbit was a company within the Virgin Group that provided launch services for small satellites. The company was formed in 2017 as a spin-off of Richard Branson's Virgin Galactic space tourism venture to develop and market the LauncherOne rocket, which had previously been a project under Virgin Galactic. LauncherOne was a two-stage launch vehicle, air-launched from a Boeing 747 carrier aircraft, designed to deliver 300 kg of payload to low Earth orbit.[2]On December 30, 2021, Virgin Orbit underwent a SPAC merger with NextGen Acquisition Corp, and became a publicly traded company (symbol VORB) at the NASDAQ stock exchange.[3] Upon listing Virgin Orbit was valued at $3.7 billion.[4]LauncherOne made six flights from 2020 to 2023, resulting in four successes and two failures. After the second failure in January 2023 and amid an inability to secure additional financing,[5] the company laid off staff and suspended operations in March 2023, finalizing Chapter 11 bankruptcy auction on May 22, 2023.[6][7] Remaining assets were divested for $36 million, less than 1% of the company's valuation upon IPO.[8]","title":"Virgin Orbit"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Vehicles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"CubeSats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat"},{"link_name":"Low Earth Orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_Orbit"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davenport-10"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Richard Branson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Branson"},{"link_name":"Eve Branson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Branson"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"payload","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payload"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spacenews02072022-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"nine satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceport_Cornwall#launches"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Spaceport Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceport_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Mojave Air and Space Port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojave_Air_and_Space_Port"}],"sub_title":"LauncherOne","text":"On May 25, 2020, LauncherOne's first launch failed to reach orbit.[9]On January 17, 2021, LauncherOne became the first Virgin Orbit vehicle to reach orbit, successfully deploying 10 CubeSats into Low Earth Orbit for NASA on its final demonstration mission.[10] LauncherOne was deployed from the left (port) wing of a retrofitted Boeing 747, 33,000 feet (10 kilometers) above the Pacific Ocean.[11] The rocket was dedicated to the memory of the mother of Richard Branson, founder of Virgin - Eve Branson, who died from COVID-19 on January 8, 2021.[12][13]On June 30, 2021, LauncherOne successfully delivered its first commercial payload to space.[14]On January 13, 2022, LauncherOne successfully delivered seven cubesats for three customers into orbit.[15]On July 2, 2022,[16][17] LauncherOne flew a successful mission.On January 9, 2023,[18][19] LauncherOne failed to orbit despite a nominal drop from the aircraft, with Virgin Orbit citing \"an anomaly\" with the upper stage.[20] The failed payload included nine satellites from seven different customers.[21] This was Virgin Orbit's first attempted launch from the UK at Spaceport Cornwall; previous launches were from Mojave Air and Space Port.","title":"Vehicles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boeing 747-400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747-400"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Cosmic Girl","text":"Cosmic Girl was the name of the modified Boeing 747-400 that Virgin Orbit used to launch its rockets.[22] In 2022, Virgin Orbit announced plans to acquire additional 747s with the ability to transport the rocket and ground support equipment internally.[citation needed]","title":"Vehicles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Long Beach, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach,_California"},{"link_name":"vice president","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_president"},{"link_name":"Boeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Virgin Galactic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Galactic"},{"link_name":"human suborbital spaceflight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_spaceflight"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"test and evaluation pilot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_pilot"},{"link_name":"Typhoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurofighter_Typhoon"},{"link_name":"jets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_aircraft"},{"link_name":"Cosmic Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Girl_(aircraft)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2019-10-04_SD-26"},{"link_name":"Mubadala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mubadala_Investment_Company"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-28"},{"link_name":"EBITDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBITDA"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spac-4"},{"link_name":"EBITDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earnings_before_interest,_taxes,_depreciation_and_amortization"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"Based in Long Beach, California, at its founding in 2017, Virgin Orbit had more than 300 employees led by president Dan Hart, a former vice president of government satellite systems at Boeing.[23][24] The company from which it was spun off, Virgin Galactic, continued to focus on two other capabilities: human suborbital spaceflight operations and advanced aerospace design, manufacturing, and testing.[25]In October 2019, Virgin Orbit announced that Matthew Stannard was joining as a pilot on a three-year contract. Stannard had previously served in the Royal Air Force as a test and evaluation pilot notably on Typhoon jets. At that time Orbit was about to start testing its Cosmic Girl launch platform.[26]A few months prior to going public, Virgin Orbit was owned by Richard Branson's Virgin Group and the Emirati state-owned Mubadala, which had invested about $1 billion in Virgin Orbit through August 2021.In August 2021 when the SPAC merger was announced, Virgin Orbit estimated it needed $420 million in cash, starting in the second half of 2021, to reach positive cash flow in 2024. When it went public in December 2021, after completing its SPAC merger, the company raised $228 million, less than half than the $483 million it expected to raise. Virgin Orbit held an \"opening bell\" ceremony at Nasdaq on January 7, 2022, to celebrate going public;[27] it opened at $10 per share.[28]When the SPAC merger was announced in August 2021, Virgin Orbit aimed to be profitable on an EBITDA-basis by end of Q4 2024. The company said it had about $300 million in active contracts, and expected its rocket launch business to grow to about 18 launches in 2023. The company expected to have about $15 million in revenue in 2021, with an EBITDA loss of $156 million; however, it aimed at further revenue growth, reaching $2.1 billion in revenue by 2026.[4]The company's third-quarter financial report, issued in November 2022, showed cash on hand of $71.2 million, $30.9 million in revenue, and an adjusted EBITDA loss of $42.9 million for the period.[28] The company's backlog of binding contracts fell by 12%, to $143 million, compared to the end of the prior quarter, and forecast that it would only have three launches in 2022, compared to a forecast of four to six, made earlier in 2022.[29]","title":"Operations and financials"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"furloughing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furlough"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"golden parachute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_parachute"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-28"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-34"},{"link_name":"Chapter 11 bankruptcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_11_bankruptcy"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"Rocket Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_Lab"},{"link_name":"Long Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach,_California"},{"link_name":"Launcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launcher_(company)"},{"link_name":"Mojave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojave_Air_and_Space_Port"},{"link_name":"Stratolaunch Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratolaunch_Systems"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-8"},{"link_name":"Firefly Aerospace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefly_Aerospace"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Bankruptcy and dissolution","text":"On March 16, 2023, Virgin Orbit announced a pausing of operations and furloughing of nearly its entire staff, while seeking additional funding. Causes for the event are cited as both capital management and technical. Virgin Orbit recorded a loss of US$139.5 million for the first nine months of 2022.[30] Matthew Brown Companies, a Texas and Hawaii based venture capital firm led by Dallas-based Matthew Brown, a businessman,[31][32] made a $200 million tender for the company but ultimately fell through.[33] Board members had approved golden parachute plans for executives previously.[28][34] The company declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy on April 4, 2023.[6]Assets were divested to three major bidders in May 2023: Rocket Lab acquired the company's Long Beach facility, manufacturing and tooling assets for $16 million, Launcher purchased the company's Mojave test site for $3 million, and the Cosmic Girl aircraft was sold to Stratolaunch Systems for $17 million.[35][8] An additional $3.8 million in assets were sold to Firefly Aerospace on June 15.[36] Virgin Orbit intellectual property is for sale.[37]","title":"Operations and financials"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"launch services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_service_provider"},{"link_name":"US military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_military"},{"link_name":"national security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20200410-38"},{"link_name":"LauncherOne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LauncherOne"},{"link_name":"launch vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Mark Baird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Baird"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"cubesats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubesat"},{"link_name":"US Space Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Force"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn20200410-38"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-41"}],"text":"VOX Space was a subsidiary of Virgin Orbit that was created in 2020. The company supplied launch services for the US military, sometimes referred to as the \"national security launch market\".[38] The company used the Virgin Orbit LauncherOne launch vehicle. The president as of July 2022 was Mark Baird, who took over on August 17, 2021.[39]In April 2020, VOX Space was awarded a US$35 million contract for three launches of 44 cubesats for US Space Force. The first of these launches succeeded on July 2, 2022.[38][40][41]","title":"VOX Space"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"University of California Irvine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Irvine"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin"},{"link_name":"mechanical ventilators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_ventilator"},{"link_name":"intensive care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_care"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-orbit_designs-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bransons_nbc-43"},{"link_name":"Food and Drug Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Ventilators","text":"In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, Virgin Orbit announced it was a partner with the University of California Irvine and the University of Texas at Austin in a new venture to build simplified mechanical ventilators — specifically \"bridge ventilators\" for partially recovered patients and patients not in intensive care — to address the critical global shortage of ventilators.[42][43] They were granted an emergency use authorization by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in April 2020.[44]","title":"Other projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spaceport Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceport_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"UK Space Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Space_Agency"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Launch site in the UK","text":"Virgin Orbit agreed to launch space flights from Spaceport Cornwall[45] in a project partly funded by the UK Space Agency.[46]Virgin Orbit's first and only UK launch took place on January 9, 2023.[47] The rocket failed to reach orbit.[48]","title":"Other projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brazilian Space Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Space_Agency"},{"link_name":"Alcantara Launch Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcantara_Launch_Center"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Equator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equator"},{"link_name":"orbital inclination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_inclination"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"Launch site in Brazil","text":"In April 2021, the Brazilian Space Agency disclosed the company among those selected to operate orbital launches from the Alcantara Launch Center in Brazil.[49] On June 27, 2022, Virgin Orbit announced a Brazil-based subsidiary, Virgin Orbit Brasil Ltda, which will facilitate launches from the Alcantara Launch Center. The Brazil-based launch center is just two degrees south of the Equator, allowing launches to almost every orbital inclination.[50]","title":"Other projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wagner Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagners_(Queensland_business)"},{"link_name":"Toowoomba Wellcamp Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toowoomba_Wellcamp_Airport"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Launch site in Australia","text":"In September 2022, Virgin Orbit signed an agreement with Wagner Corporation to base a 747-400 launch aircraft at Toowoomba Wellcamp Airport in Queensland with a demonstrator launch planned for 2024.[51]","title":"Other projects"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Fernholz, Tim (June 13, 2017). \"Virgin Orbit's newly-minted CEO will use psychology to launch satellites faster than anyone else\". Quartz. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Boy | Virtual Boy | ["1 History","1.1 Development","1.2 Release","1.3 Promotion","2 Hardware","2.1 Display","2.2 Controller","2.3 Connectivity","3 Games","4 Reception","5 Legacy","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"] | Video game console by Nintendo
Virtual BoyVirtual Boy with controllerDeveloperNintendo R&D1ManufacturerNintendoTypeVideo game consoleGenerationFifthRelease dateJP: July 21, 1995NA: August 14, 1995Lifespan1 yearDiscontinuedJP: December 22, 1995NA: August 1996Units sold770,000MediaROM cartridgeCPUNEC V810 @ 20 MHzMemory64 KB work PSRAM128 KB graphics DRAM128 KB VRAMDisplay384×224RelatedFamicom 3D SystemNintendo 3DS
The Virtual Boy is a 32-bit tabletop portable video game console developed and manufactured by Nintendo. Released in 1995, it was marketed as the first console capable of displaying stereoscopic 3D graphics. The player uses the console like a head-mounted display, placing the head against the eyepiece to see a red monochrome display. The games use a parallax effect to create the illusion of depth. Sales failed to meet targets, and Nintendo ceased distribution and game development in 1996, having released only 22 games for the system.
Development of the Virtual Boy lasted four years and began under the project name VR32. Nintendo entered a licensing agreement to use a stereoscopic LED eyepiece technology that had been developed since the 1980s by US company Reflection Technology. It also built a factory in China to be used only for Virtual Boy manufacturing. Over the course of development, the console technology was downscaled due to high costs and potential health concerns, and an increasing amount of resources were reallocated to the development of the Nintendo 64, Nintendo's next home console. Lead game designer Shigeru Miyamoto had little involvement with the Virtual Boy software. The Virtual Boy was pushed to market in an unfinished state in 1995 to focus on the Nintendo 64.
The Virtual Boy was panned by critics and was a commercial failure, even after repeated price drops. Its failure has been attributed to its high price, dark display consisting of only red and black, unimpressive stereoscopic effect, poor ergonomics, lack of true portability, and health concerns due to it giving many players headaches, dizziness, nausea and eye pain. Stereoscopic technology in video game consoles reemerged in later years to more success, including Nintendo's 3DS handheld console. As of March 2021, it is Nintendo's lowest-selling standalone console and the only one to have less than one million units sold, seconded by the Wii U's 13.6 million units.
History
Development
Since 1985, a red LED eyepiece display technology called Scanned Linear Array was developed by Massachusetts-based Reflection Technology, Inc. (RTI). The company produced a stereoscopic head-tracking 12-inch display device prototype called Private Eye, featuring a tank game. Seeking funding and partnerships by which to develop it into a commercial technology, RTI demonstrated Private Eye to the consumer electronics market, including Mattel and Hasbro. Sega declined the technology, due to its single-color display and concerns about motion sickness.
Nintendo enthusiastically received the Private Eye, as led by Gunpei Yokoi, the general manager of Nintendo's R&D1 and the inventor of the Game & Watch and Game Boy handheld consoles. He saw this as a unique technology that competitors would find difficult to emulate. Additionally, the resulting game console was intended to enhance Nintendo's reputation as an innovator and to "encourage more creativity" in games.: 514 Codenaming the project "VR32", Nintendo entered into an exclusive agreement with Reflection Technology, Inc. to license the technology for its displays. While Nintendo's Research & Development 3 division (R&D3) was focused on developing the Nintendo 64, the other two engineering units were free to experiment with new product ideas.
Spending four years in development and eventually building a dedicated manufacturing plant in China, Nintendo worked to turn its VR32 vision into an affordable and health-conscious console design. Yokoi retained RTI's choice of red LED because it was the cheapest, and because unlike a backlit LCD, its perfect blackness could achieve a more immersive sense of infinite depth. RTI and Nintendo said a color LCD system would have been prohibitively expensive, retailing for more than US$500 (equivalent to $1,000 in 2023).: 514 A color LCD system was also said to have caused "jumpy images in tests". With ongoing concerns about motion sickness, the risk of developing lazy eye conditions in young children, and Japan's new Product Liability Act of 1995, Nintendo eliminated the head tracking functionality and converted its headmounted goggle design into a stationary, heavy, precision steel-shielded, tabletop form factor conformant to the recommendation of the Schepens Eye Research Institute.: 514
e experimented with a color LCD screen, but the users did not see depth, they just saw double. Color graphics give people the impression that a game is high tech. But just because a game has a beautiful display does not mean that the game is fun to play. ... Red uses less battery and red is easier to recognize. That is why red is used for traffic lights.— Gunpei Yokoi: 514
Several technology demonstrations were used to show the Virtual Boy's capabilities. Driving Demo is one of the more advanced demos; its 30-second clip shows a first-person view of driving by road signs and palm trees. This demo was shown at E3 and CES in 1995. The startup screen of the Virtual Boy prototype was shown at Shoshinkai 1994. A "very confident" projection of "sales in Japan of three million hardware units and 14 million software units as of March 1996" was given to the press. The demo of what would have been a Star Fox game showed an Arwing doing various spins and motions. Cinematic camera angles were a key element, as they are in Star Fox 2. It was shown at E3 and CES in 1995.
As a result of increasing competition for internal resources alongside the flagship Nintendo 64, and little involvement from lead game designer Shigeru Miyamoto, Virtual Boy software was developed without Nintendo's full attention. According to David Sheff's book Game Over, the increasingly reluctant Yokoi never intended for the increasingly downscaled Virtual Boy to be released in its final form. However, Nintendo pushed it to market so that it could focus development resources on its next console, the Nintendo 64.
Release
The New York Times previewed the Virtual Boy on November 13, 1994. The console was officially announced via press release the next day, November 14. Nintendo promised that Virtual Boy would "totally immerse players into their own private universe". Initial press releases and interviews about the system focused on its technological capabilities, avoiding discussion of the actual games that would be released. The system was demonstrated the next day at Nintendo's Shoshinkai 1994 trade show. Nintendo of America showed the Virtual Boy at the Consumer Electronics Show on January 6, 1995.
Even with cost-saving measures in place, Nintendo priced the Virtual Boy at a relatively high US$179.95 (equivalent to $370 in 2023).: 513 Though slightly less expensive and significantly less powerful than a home console, this was considerably more costly than the Game Boy handheld. With seemingly more advanced graphics than Game Boy, the Virtual Boy was not intended to replace the handheld in Nintendo's product line, as use of the Virtual Boy requires a steady surface and completely blocks the player's peripheral vision. Design News described the Virtual Boy as the logical evolution of the View-Master 3D image viewer.
The Virtual Boy was released on July 21, 1995, in Japan and on August 14, 1995, in North America with the launch games Mario's Tennis, Red Alarm, Teleroboxer, and Galactic Pinball. It was not released in PAL markets. In North America, Nintendo shipped Mario's Tennis with every Virtual Boy sold, as a pack-in game. Nintendo had initially projected sales of three million consoles and 14 million games. The system arrived later than other 32-bit systems like PlayStation, 3DO, and Saturn, but at a lower price.
At the system's release, Nintendo of America projected hardware sales of 1.5 million units and software sales numbering 2.5 million by the end of the year. Nintendo had shipped 350,000 units of the Virtual Boy by December 1995, around three and a half months after its North American release. The system is number 5 on GamePro's "Top 10 Worst Selling Consoles of All Time" list in 2007.
The Virtual Boy had a short market timespan following its disappointing sales. The last game officially released for the Virtual Boy was 3D Tetris, released on March 22, 1996. More games were announced for the system at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 1996, but these games were never released. The Virtual Boy was discontinued on December 22, 1995, in Japan and August 1996 in North America without any announcement. In June 1996, Nintendo reported to Famitsu worldwide sales of 770,000 Virtual Boy units, including 140,000 in Japan. Next Generation reported that 13,000 Virtual Boy units were sold in December 1996.
Promotion
Nintendo extensively advertised the Virtual Boy and claimed to have spent US$25 million on early promotional activities. Advertising promoted the system as a paradigm shift from past consoles; some pieces used cavemen to indicate a historical evolution, while others utilized psychedelic imagery. Nintendo targeted an older audience with advertisements for the Virtual Boy, shifting away from the traditional child-focused approach it had employed in the past. Nintendo portrayed the system as a type of virtual reality, as its name indicates. Nintendo also focused on the technological aspects of the new console in its press releases, neglecting to detail specific games.
Challenged by showing three-dimensional gameplay on two-dimensional advertisements, the company partnered with Blockbuster and NBC. A $5 million campaign promoted NBC's late 1995 lineup alongside the Virtual Boy. American viewers were encouraged via television advertisements on NBC to rent the console for $10 at a local Blockbuster. This affordable demonstration provided 750,000 consoles for rent, some in a clamshell Blockbuster case. Upon returning the unit, renters received a coupon for $10 off its purchase from any store. The promotion included 3,000 Blockbuster locations, and sweepstakes with prizes including trips to see the taping of NBC shows. The popular rental system proved harmful to the Virtual Boy's long-term success, allowing gamers to see just how non-immersive the console was. By mid-1996, Blockbuster was selling its Virtual Boy units at $50 each. The marketing campaign overall was commonly thought of as a failure.
Hardware
The CPU is an NEC V810 32-bit RISC chip, making the Virtual Boy Nintendo's first 32-bit system. The Virtual Boy system uses a pair of 1×224 linear arrays (one per eye) and rapidly scans the array across the eye's field of view using flat oscillating mirrors. These mirrors vibrate back and forth at a very high speed, thus the mechanical humming noise from inside the unit. Each Virtual Boy game cartridge has a yes/no option to automatically pause every 15–30 minutes so that the player may take a break before any injuries come to the eyes. One speaker per ear provides the player with stereo audio.
Display
The screens of the Virtual Boy
The Virtual Boy is the first video game console that was supposed to be capable of displaying stereoscopic "3D" graphics, marketed as a form of virtual reality. Whereas most video games use monocular cues to achieve the illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensional screen, the Virtual Boy creates an illusion of depth through the effect known as parallax. Like using a head-mounted display, the user looks into an eyeshade made of neoprene on the front of the machine, and then an eyeglass-style projector allows viewing of the monochromatic red image.
The display consists of two two-bit (four shade) monochrome red screens of 384×224 pixels and a frame rate of approximately 50.27 Hz. It uses an oscillating mirror to transform a single column of 224 red LEDs into a full field of pixels. Nintendo claimed that a color display would have made "jumpy" images and have been too expensive. A color display would have required red, green, and blue LEDs; blue LEDs were then considerably expensive. This, plus the other drawbacks, influenced the decision for monochrome.
Controller
The Virtual Boy controller, and battery pack instead of AC adaptor
The Virtual Boy is meant for the player to be seated at a table, and Nintendo promised but did not release a harness to wear while standing.
The Virtual Boy's heavy emphasis on three-dimensional movement requires the controller to operate along a Z-axis. Its controller is an attempt to implement dual digital D-pads to control elements in the 3D environment. The controller is shaped like an "M", like a Nintendo 64 controller. The player holds onto either side of the controller which has a unique extendable power supply that slides onto the back, housing the system's six AA batteries. The batteries can be substituted with a wall adapter, via a "slide-on" attachment for constant power.
In more traditional two-dimensional games, the two directional pads are interchangeable. For others with a more 3D environment, like Red Alarm, 3D Tetris, or Teleroboxer, each pad controls a different feature. The symmetry of the controller also allows left-handed gamers to reverse the controls, as does the Atari Lynx.
Connectivity
During development, Nintendo promised the ability to link systems for competitive play. A Virtual Boy link cable was being worked on at Nintendo as late as the third quarter of 1996. The system's EXT (extension) port, located on the underside of the system below the controller port, was never officially supported because no "official" multiplayer games were ever published. Two games were intended to use the EXT port for multiplayer play, but the multiplayer features were removed from Waterworld and Faceball was canceled.
Games
Main article: List of Virtual Boy games
Mario's Tennis, the North American pack-in for Virtual Boy, is converted by an emulator to anaglyphic red and blue format, to simulate the Virtual Boy's stereoscopic display on a 2D display. 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
Nintendo initially showcased three launch games and planned two or three per month thereafter. Given the system's short lifespan, only 22 games were actually released. Of them, 19 games were released in the Japanese market, and 14 were released in North America. Third party support was extremely limited compared to previous Nintendo platforms. According to Gunpei Yokoi, Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi had dictated that only a select few third-party developers be shown the Virtual Boy hardware before its formal unveiling, to limit the risk of poor-quality software appearing on the system.
When asked if Virtual Boy games were going to be available for download on the Virtual Console for the Nintendo 3DS, Nintendo of America President Reggie Fils-Aimé said he could not answer, as he was unfamiliar with the platform. He noted that, given his lack of familiarity, he would be hard-pressed to make the case for the inclusion of the games on the Virtual Console.
The hobbyist community at Planet Virtual Boy has developed Virtual Boy software. Two previously unreleased games, Bound High and Niko-Chan Battle (the Japanese version of Faceball) were released.
Reception
Using the Virtual Boy eyepiece
The Virtual Boy garnered negative critical reviews and was a commercial failure. It failed for several reasons including "its high price, the discomfort caused by play and what was widely judged to have been a poorly handled marketing campaign".
Gamers who previewed the system at the Shoshinkai 1994 trade show complained that the Mario demo was not realistic enough, was not in full color, and didn't motion-track the image when players turn their heads. In the lead editorial of Electronic Gaming Monthly following the show, Ed Semrad predicted that the Virtual Boy would have poor launch sales due to the monochrome screen, lack of true portability, unimpressive lineup of games, and the price, which he argued was as low as it could get given the hardware but still too expensive for the experience. Next Generation's editors were also dubious of the Virtual Boy's prospects after the show, and concluded their article on the system by commenting, "But who will buy it? It's not portable, it's awkward to use, it's 100% antisocial (unlike multiplayer SNES/Genesis games), it's too expensive and – most importantly – the 'VR' (i.e. 3D effect) doesn't add to the game at all: it's just a novelty."
Following its release, reviews of the Virtual Boy tended to praise its novelty but questioned its ultimate purpose and longtime viability. The Los Angeles Times described the gameplay as being "at once familiar and strange". The column praised the quality of motion and immersive graphics but considered the hardware tedious to use and non-portable. In a later column, the same reviewer found the system to be somewhat asocial, but held hope for its future. Reviewing the system shortly after its North American launch, Next Generation said, "Unusual and innovative, the Virtual Boy can be seen as a gamble in the same way that the Game Boy was, but it's a lot harder to see the VB succeeding to the same world-conquering extent that the Game Boy did." They elaborated that while the sharp display and unique 3D effect are impressive, aspects such as the monochrome display and potential vision damage to young gamers severely limit the system's appeal. They added that the software library was decent, but failed to capitalize on Nintendo's best-selling franchises because games from The Legend of Zelda and Metroid were absent, the Mario games were not in the same style as the series's most successful installments, and it lacked a system seller to compare with the Game Boy's Tetris.
Though Nintendo had promised a virtual reality experience, the monochrome display limits the Virtual Boy's potential for immersion. Reviewers often considered the three-dimensional features a gimmick, added to games that were essentially two- or even one-dimensional. The Washington Post said that even when a game gives the impression of three-dimensionality, it suffers from "hollow vector graphics". Yokoi, the system's inventor, said the system did best with action and puzzle games, although those types of games provided only minimal immersion. Multiple critics lamented the absence of head-tracking in the Virtual Boy hardware. Critics found that, as a result, players were unable to immerse themselves in the game worlds of Virtual Boy games. Instead, they interacted simply via a controller, in the manner of any traditional two-dimensional game. Boyer said the console "struggles to merge the two distinct media forms of home consoles and virtual reality devices". Though the device employs some basic virtual reality techniques, it does so like the traditional home console with no bodily feedback incorporated into gameplay.
Many reviewers complained of painful and frustrating physiological symptoms when playing the Virtual Boy. Bill Frischling, writing for The Washington Post, experienced "dizziness, nausea and headaches". Reviewers attributed the problems to both the monochromatic display and uncomfortable ergonomics. Several prominent scientists concluded that the long-term side effects could be more serious, and articles published in magazines such as Electronic Engineering Times and CMP Media's TechWeb speculated that using any immersive headset such as the Virtual Boy could cause sickness, flashbacks, and even permanent brain damage. Nintendo, in the years after Virtual Boy's demise, has been frank about its failure. Howard Lincoln, chairman of Nintendo of America, said flatly that the Virtual Boy "just failed".
Legacy
According to Game Over, Nintendo blamed the machine's faults directly on its creator, Gunpei Yokoi. The commercial failure of the Virtual Boy was reportedly a contributing factor to Yokoi's withdrawal from Nintendo, although he had already planned to retire years prior and then finished the successful Game Boy Pocket, which was released shortly before his departure. According to his Nintendo and Koto colleague Yoshihiro Taki, Yokoi had originally decided to retire at age 50 to do as he pleased but had simply delayed it. Nintendo held that Yokoi's departure was "absolutely coincidental" to the market performance of any Nintendo hardware. The New York Times maintained that Yokoi kept a close relationship with Nintendo. After leaving Nintendo, Yokoi founded his own company, Koto, and collaborated with Bandai to create the WonderSwan, a handheld system competing with the Game Boy.
The commercial failure of the Virtual Boy reportedly did little to alter Nintendo's development approach and focus on innovation. The console's focus on peripherals and haptic technology reemerged in later years. The original inventor, Reflection Technology, Inc., was reportedly financially "devastated" by the Virtual Boy's performance, with dwindling operations by 1997.
The Nintendo 3DS console was launched in 2011, as a handheld gaming console with autostereoscopic 3D visuals, without any special glasses. Prior to launch, Shigeru Miyamoto discussed the Virtual Boy. He said it renders wireframe graphics, but its effects are generally used for two-dimensional games with depth-separated planes. He stated that the graphics are not as appealing, and while developing the Nintendo 64, he had ruled out the use of wireframe graphics as too sparse to draw player characters. Finally, he stated that he perceived the Virtual Boy as a novelty that should not have used the Nintendo license so prominently.
In February 2016, Tatsumi Kimishima stated that Nintendo was "looking into" virtual reality but also explained that it would take more time and effort for them to assess the technology, and in a February 2017 interview with Nikkei, he stated that the company was "studying" VR, and would add it to the Nintendo Switch once it is figured out how users can play for long durations without any issues. Nintendo introduced a VR accessory for the Switch as part of Labo, a line of player-assembled cardboard toys leveraging the console's hardware and Joy-Con controllers. In this case, the console is used as a head-mounted display for the headset.
Hobbyists adapted Virtual Boy to other displays. Emulation enabled modern stereoscopic goggles such as Google Cardboard, Samsung Gear VR and Oculus Rift in 2016. In 2018, hobbyist Furrtek released a board that replaces the display circuitry, allowing the Virtual Boy to be played on a VGA monitor or television set. On February 25, 2024, a homebrew Virtual Boy emulator for the Nintendo 3DS was released, named "Red Viper", which made it possible to play the Virtual Boy library using stereoscopic 3D.
Nintendo has referenced the Virtual Boy in other games, such as Tomodachi Life—where a trailer for the life simulation game included a scene of several Mii characters worshipping the Virtual Boy. In Luigi's Mansion 3, Luigi uses a device by Professor E. Gadd known as the "Virtual Boo" to access maps and other information in-game (succeeding the use of devices referencing the Game Boy Color and first-generation Nintendo DS in previous installments). Its menus use a red and black color scheme, while E. Gadd optimistically boasts that the device would "fly off the shelves".
See also
Video games portal1990s portal
Entex Adventure Vision, a 1982 video game console with similar mechanical operation
Famicom 3D System
Nintendo Labo's VR Kit, a peripheral to be used in conjunction with the Nintendo Switch
R-Zone, a 1995 handheld game console released by Tiger Electronics
Sega VR, a 1993 prototype virtual reality add-on for the Sega Genesis
Virtual reality
Virtuality, virtual reality-based arcade games of the 1990s
Notes
^ Virtual Boy (Japanese: バーチャルボーイ, Hepburn: Bācharu Bōi)
References
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^ "Nintendo Pins Hopes on Virtual Boy". Next Generation. No. 3. March 1995. pp. 20–21.
^ Curtiss, Aaron (May 2, 1996). "VALLEY WEEKEND; Nintendo Virtual Boy Measures Up to Billing; as its Library of Titles Slowly Grows, the 3-D System is Becoming More Well-Rounded and Less of a Headache". Los Angeles Times. p. 15. Archived from the original on February 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2020 – via ProQuest.
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^ "Shigeru Miyamoto Talks About Virtual Boy". Iwataasks.nintendo.com. Archived from the original on June 22, 2019. Retrieved July 30, 2011.
^ Takashi Mochizuki (February 2, 2016). "(cont'd) I guess Nintendo isn't planning anything VR in the near future because he said more time and efforts needed to assess technology" (Tweet). Retrieved October 10, 2017 – via Twitter.
^ Dr. Serkan Toto (February 1, 2017). "Just in: Nintendo president Kimishima tells the Nikkei Switch's online service will be priced at 2-3,000 yen ($17.50 – $26.50) *YEARLY*" (Tweet). Retrieved October 10, 2017 – via Twitter.
^ Liszewski, Andrew (May 9, 2016). "Hack Lets You Play Virtual Boy Games Through Google Cardboard". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved September 1, 2020.
^ "VBjin-OVR v3.0 - EmuCR". March 31, 2016. Archived from the original on January 19, 2020. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
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^ "3ds virtual boy emulation gives you 3d without the Headaches". Time extension. Retrieved February 26, 2024.
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^ "Luigi's Latest Parody Nintendo Console Is The Best One Yet". Kotaku. October 16, 2019. Archived from the original on October 31, 2019. Retrieved October 27, 2019.
Further reading
Yokoi, Gunpei; Makino, Takefumi (May 1997). Yokoi Gunpei Game House (横井軍平ゲーム館, Yokoi Gunpei Gēmu-kan). ASCII. ISBN 978-4-89366-696-3.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Virtual Boy.
Official website (archived versions at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine)
Virtual Boy at Curlie
Virtual Boy Hardware Specifications Archived July 8, 2018, at the Wayback Machine at Planet Virtual Boy
Virtual Boy Programming Documentation at Planet Virtual Boy
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(RTI).[3][4] The company produced a stereoscopic head-tracking 12-inch display device prototype called Private Eye, featuring a tank game.[5] Seeking funding and partnerships by which to develop it into a commercial technology, RTI demonstrated Private Eye to the consumer electronics market, including Mattel and Hasbro.[4] Sega declined the technology, due to its single-color display and concerns about motion sickness.[4][6]Nintendo enthusiastically received the Private Eye, as led by Gunpei Yokoi, the general manager of Nintendo's R&D1 and the inventor of the Game & Watch and Game Boy handheld consoles. He saw this as a unique technology that competitors would find difficult to emulate. Additionally, the resulting game console was intended to enhance Nintendo's reputation as an innovator[4][7] and to \"encourage more creativity\" in games.[8]: 514 Codenaming the project \"VR32\",[4] Nintendo entered into an exclusive agreement with Reflection Technology, Inc. to license the technology for its displays.[3] While Nintendo's Research & Development 3 division (R&D3) was focused on developing the Nintendo 64, the other two engineering units were free to experiment with new product ideas.[7]Spending four years in development and eventually building a dedicated manufacturing plant in China,[4] Nintendo worked to turn its VR32 vision into an affordable and health-conscious console design. Yokoi retained RTI's choice of red LED because it was the cheapest,[7] and because unlike a backlit LCD, its perfect blackness could achieve a more immersive sense of infinite depth.[4] RTI and Nintendo said a color LCD system would have been prohibitively expensive,[4][9] retailing for more than US$500 (equivalent to $1,000 in 2023).[8]: 514 A color LCD system was also said to have caused \"jumpy images in tests\".[9] With ongoing concerns about motion sickness, the risk of developing lazy eye conditions in young children, and Japan's new Product Liability Act of 1995, Nintendo eliminated the head tracking functionality and converted its headmounted goggle design into a stationary, heavy, precision steel-shielded, tabletop form factor conformant to the recommendation of the Schepens Eye Research Institute.[4][8]: 514[W]e experimented with a color LCD screen, but the users did not see depth, they just saw double. Color graphics give people the impression that a game is high tech. But just because a game has a beautiful display does not mean that the game is fun to play. ... Red uses less battery and red is easier to recognize. That is why red is used for traffic lights.— Gunpei Yokoi[8]: 514Several technology demonstrations were used to show the Virtual Boy's capabilities. Driving Demo is one of the more advanced demos; its 30-second clip shows a first-person view of driving by road signs and palm trees. This demo was shown at E3 and CES in 1995.[10] The startup screen of the Virtual Boy prototype was shown at Shoshinkai 1994.[11][12] A \"very confident\" projection of \"sales in Japan of three million hardware units and 14 million software units as of March 1996\" was given to the press.[13] The demo of what would have been a Star Fox game showed an Arwing doing various spins and motions.[14] Cinematic camera angles were a key element, as they are in Star Fox 2. It was shown at E3 and CES in 1995.As a result of increasing competition for internal resources alongside the flagship Nintendo 64, and little involvement from lead game designer Shigeru Miyamoto, Virtual Boy software was developed without Nintendo's full attention.[4] According to David Sheff's book Game Over, the increasingly reluctant Yokoi never intended for the increasingly downscaled Virtual Boy to be released in its final form. However, Nintendo pushed it to market so that it could focus development resources on its next console, the Nintendo 64.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_Nintendo_counts-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press1-18"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"Shoshinkai 1994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Space_World#Shoshinkai_1994"},{"link_name":"trade show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_show"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"Nintendo of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_of_America"},{"link_name":"Consumer Electronics Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_Electronics_Show"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press1-18"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unraveling_the_Enigma-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ultimate_History_of_Video_Games-9"},{"link_name":"Design News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_News"},{"link_name":"View-Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View-Master"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_Intro-20"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-launchdate-21"},{"link_name":"launch games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_game"},{"link_name":"Mario's Tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%27s_Tennis"},{"link_name":"Red Alarm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Alarm"},{"link_name":"Teleroboxer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleroboxer"},{"link_name":"Galactic Pinball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_Pinball"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAT-22"},{"link_name":"Mario's Tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%27s_Tennis"},{"link_name":"pack-in game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pack-in_game"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press1-18"},{"link_name":"PlayStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_(console)"},{"link_name":"3DO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer"},{"link_name":"Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Saturn"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian_Super_Mario-10"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_Intro-20"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WSJ-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ty-25"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamepro-26"},{"link_name":"3D Tetris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_Tetris"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Electronic Entertainment Expo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Entertainment_Expo"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamepro-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Famitsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famitsu"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Famitsu_Express-1"},{"link_name":"Next Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Life_in_the_Old_Dogs_Yet-29"}],"sub_title":"Release","text":"The New York Times previewed the Virtual Boy on November 13, 1994.[16] The console was officially announced via press release the next day, November 14. Nintendo promised that Virtual Boy would \"totally immerse players into their own private universe\".[17] Initial press releases and interviews about the system focused on its technological capabilities, avoiding discussion of the actual games that would be released.[7] The system was demonstrated the next day at Nintendo's Shoshinkai 1994 trade show.[7] Nintendo of America showed the Virtual Boy at the Consumer Electronics Show on January 6, 1995.[17]Even with cost-saving measures in place, Nintendo priced the Virtual Boy at a relatively high US$179.95 (equivalent to $370 in 2023).[4][7][8]: 513 Though slightly less expensive and significantly less powerful than a home console, this was considerably more costly than the Game Boy handheld. With seemingly more advanced graphics than Game Boy, the Virtual Boy was not intended to replace the handheld in Nintendo's product line, as use of the Virtual Boy requires a steady surface and completely blocks the player's peripheral vision. Design News described the Virtual Boy as the logical evolution of the View-Master 3D image viewer.[18]The Virtual Boy was released on July 21, 1995, in Japan and on August 14, 1995, in North America[19][failed verification][20] with the launch games Mario's Tennis, Red Alarm, Teleroboxer, and Galactic Pinball.[21] It was not released in PAL markets. In North America, Nintendo shipped Mario's Tennis with every Virtual Boy sold, as a pack-in game.[22] Nintendo had initially projected sales of three million consoles and 14 million games.[17] The system arrived later than other 32-bit systems like PlayStation, 3DO, and Saturn, but at a lower price.[9]At the system's release, Nintendo of America projected hardware sales of 1.5 million units and software sales numbering 2.5 million by the end of the year.[19][23] Nintendo had shipped 350,000 units of the Virtual Boy by December 1995, around three and a half months after its North American release.[24] The system is number 5 on GamePro's \"Top 10 Worst Selling Consoles of All Time\" list in 2007.[25]The Virtual Boy had a short market timespan following its disappointing sales. The last game officially released for the Virtual Boy was 3D Tetris, released on March 22, 1996.[26] More games were announced for the system at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 1996, but these games were never released.[7] The Virtual Boy was discontinued on December 22, 1995, in Japan and August 1996 in North America without any announcement.[7][25][27] In June 1996, Nintendo reported to Famitsu worldwide sales of 770,000 Virtual Boy units, including 140,000 in Japan.[1] Next Generation reported that 13,000 Virtual Boy units were sold in December 1996.[28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"cavemen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caveman"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"Blockbuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockbuster_(retailer)"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GPro83-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_addenda-31"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mediaweek-32"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GPro83-30"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BB-33"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_addenda-31"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EGM86-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tomb_Space-35"}],"sub_title":"Promotion","text":"Nintendo extensively advertised the Virtual Boy and claimed to have spent US$25 million on early promotional activities.[7] Advertising promoted the system as a paradigm shift from past consoles; some pieces used cavemen to indicate a historical evolution, while others utilized psychedelic imagery. Nintendo targeted an older audience with advertisements for the Virtual Boy, shifting away from the traditional child-focused approach it had employed in the past.[7] Nintendo portrayed the system as a type of virtual reality, as its name indicates. Nintendo also focused on the technological aspects of the new console in its press releases, neglecting to detail specific games.[7]Challenged by showing three-dimensional gameplay on two-dimensional advertisements, the company partnered with Blockbuster and NBC.[7][29] A $5 million campaign promoted NBC's late 1995 lineup alongside the Virtual Boy.[30] American viewers were encouraged via television advertisements on NBC to rent the console for $10 at a local Blockbuster. This affordable demonstration[7] provided 750,000 consoles for rent, some in a clamshell Blockbuster case.[31] Upon returning the unit, renters received a coupon for $10 off its purchase from any store.[29][32] The promotion included 3,000 Blockbuster locations, and sweepstakes with prizes including trips to see the taping of NBC shows.[30] The popular rental system proved harmful to the Virtual Boy's long-term success, allowing gamers to see just how non-immersive the console was.[7] By mid-1996, Blockbuster was selling its Virtual Boy units at $50 each.[33] The marketing campaign overall was commonly thought of as a failure.[34]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"NEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC"},{"link_name":"V810","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V850#V810_(obsoleted)"},{"link_name":"RISC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GPro67-4"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian_Super_Mario-10"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Powell-36"}],"text":"The CPU is an NEC V810 32-bit RISC chip,[3] making the Virtual Boy Nintendo's first 32-bit system.[9] The Virtual Boy system uses a pair of 1×224 linear arrays (one per eye) and rapidly scans the array across the eye's field of view using flat oscillating mirrors. These mirrors vibrate back and forth at a very high speed, thus the mechanical humming noise from inside the unit. Each Virtual Boy game cartridge has a yes/no option to automatically pause every 15–30 minutes so that the player may take a break before any injuries come to the eyes. One speaker per ear provides the player with stereo audio.[35]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virtual-Boy-Eyes.jpg"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"monocular cues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocular_cues"},{"link_name":"parallax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax"},{"link_name":"head-mounted display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-mounted_display"},{"link_name":"neoprene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoprene"},{"link_name":"monochromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grayscale"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"frame rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate"},{"link_name":"Hz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian_Super_Mario-10"}],"sub_title":"Display","text":"The screens of the Virtual BoyThe Virtual Boy is the first video game console that was supposed to be capable of displaying stereoscopic \"3D\" graphics, marketed as a form of virtual reality.[36] Whereas most video games use monocular cues to achieve the illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensional screen, the Virtual Boy creates an illusion of depth through the effect known as parallax. Like using a head-mounted display, the user looks into an eyeshade made of neoprene on the front of the machine, and then an eyeglass-style projector allows viewing of the monochromatic red image.The display consists of two two-bit (four shade) monochrome red screens of 384×224 pixels[37] and a frame rate of approximately 50.27 Hz.[38] It uses an oscillating mirror to transform a single column of 224 red LEDs into a full field of pixels. Nintendo claimed that a color display would have made \"jumpy\" images and have been too expensive.[9] A color display would have required red, green, and blue LEDs; blue LEDs were then considerably expensive. This, plus the other drawbacks, influenced the decision for monochrome.","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virtual-Boy-Controller.jpg"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_Nintendo_counts-17"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian_Super_Mario-10"},{"link_name":"D-pads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-pad"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 64 controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_64_controller"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"AA batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AA_batteries"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Red Alarm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Alarm"},{"link_name":"3D Tetris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_Tetris"},{"link_name":"Teleroboxer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleroboxer"},{"link_name":"Atari Lynx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Lynx"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Controller","text":"The Virtual Boy controller, and battery pack instead of AC adaptorThe Virtual Boy is meant for the player to be seated at a table,[16][39] and Nintendo promised but did not release a harness to wear while standing.[9]The Virtual Boy's heavy emphasis on three-dimensional movement requires the controller to operate along a Z-axis. Its controller is an attempt to implement dual digital D-pads to control elements in the 3D environment. The controller is shaped like an \"M\", like a Nintendo 64 controller.[40] The player holds onto either side of the controller which has a unique extendable power supply that slides onto the back, housing the system's six AA batteries. The batteries can be substituted with a wall adapter, via a \"slide-on\" attachment for constant power.In more traditional two-dimensional games, the two directional pads are interchangeable.[41] For others with a more 3D environment, like Red Alarm, 3D Tetris, or Teleroboxer, each pad controls a different feature. The symmetry of the controller also allows left-handed gamers to reverse the controls, as does the Atari Lynx.[42]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian_Super_Mario-10"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EGM86-34"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Connectivity","text":"During development, Nintendo promised the ability to link systems for competitive play.[9] A Virtual Boy link cable was being worked on at Nintendo as late as the third quarter of 1996.[33] The system's EXT (extension) port, located on the underside of the system below the controller port, was never officially supported because no \"official\" multiplayer games were ever published. Two games were intended to use the EXT port for multiplayer play, but the multiplayer features were removed from Waterworld[43] and Faceball was canceled.[44]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mario%27s_Tennis_screenshot.png"},{"link_name":"Mario's Tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%27s_Tennis"},{"link_name":"emulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console_emulator"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3d_glasses_red_cyan.svg"},{"link_name":"3D red cyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaglyph_3D"},{"link_name":"launch games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_game"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian_Super_Mario-10"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Gunpei Yokoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpei_Yokoi"},{"link_name":"Hiroshi Yamauchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_Yamauchi"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Virtual Console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Console"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 3DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_3DS"},{"link_name":"Reggie Fils-Aimé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggie_Fils-Aim%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"Bound High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_High"},{"link_name":"Faceball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faceball"}],"text":"Mario's Tennis, the North American pack-in for Virtual Boy, is converted by an emulator to anaglyphic red and blue format, to simulate the Virtual Boy's stereoscopic display on a 2D display. 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.Nintendo initially showcased three launch games and planned two or three per month thereafter.[9] Given the system's short lifespan, only 22 games were actually released. Of them, 19 games were released in the Japanese market, and 14 were released in North America.[45] Third party support was extremely limited compared to previous Nintendo platforms. According to Gunpei Yokoi, Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi had dictated that only a select few third-party developers be shown the Virtual Boy hardware before its formal unveiling, to limit the risk of poor-quality software appearing on the system.[46]When asked if Virtual Boy games were going to be available for download on the Virtual Console for the Nintendo 3DS, Nintendo of America President Reggie Fils-Aimé said he could not answer, as he was unfamiliar with the platform. He noted that, given his lack of familiarity, he would be hard-pressed to make the case for the inclusion of the games on the Virtual Console.[47]The hobbyist community at Planet Virtual Boy has developed Virtual Boy software.[7] Two previously unreleased games, Bound High and Niko-Chan Battle (the Japanese version of Faceball) were released.","title":"Games"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virtual_Boy_-_Akihabara,_Otaku_Style.jpg"},{"link_name":"commercial failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commercial_failures_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tomb_Space-35"},{"link_name":"Shoshinkai 1994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Space_World#Shoshinkai_1994"},{"link_name":"trade show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_show"},{"link_name":"motion-track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Match_moving"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guardian_Super_Mario-10"},{"link_name":"Electronic Gaming Monthly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Next Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"SNES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNES"},{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"The Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAT-22"},{"link_name":"asocial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asociality"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAT2-52"},{"link_name":"Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"The Legend of Zelda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Legend_of_Zelda"},{"link_name":"Metroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metroid"},{"link_name":"Tetris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris_(Game_Boy)"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen12-53"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen12-53"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPo-54"},{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPo-54"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen12-53"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tomb_Space-35"},{"link_name":"head-tracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Match_moving"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPo-54"},{"link_name":"Electronic Engineering Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Engineering_Times"},{"link_name":"CMP Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMP_Media"},{"link_name":"flashbacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"permanent brain damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_brain_damage"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Howard Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"Nintendo of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_of_America"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"}],"text":"Using the Virtual Boy eyepieceThe Virtual Boy garnered negative critical reviews and was a commercial failure.[48] It failed for several reasons including \"its high price, the discomfort caused by play [...] and what was widely judged to have been a poorly handled marketing campaign\".[34]Gamers who previewed the system at the Shoshinkai 1994 trade show complained that the Mario demo was not realistic enough, was not in full color, and didn't motion-track the image when players turn their heads.[9] In the lead editorial of Electronic Gaming Monthly following the show, Ed Semrad predicted that the Virtual Boy would have poor launch sales due to the monochrome screen, lack of true portability, unimpressive lineup of games, and the price, which he argued was as low as it could get given the hardware but still too expensive for the experience.[49] Next Generation's editors were also dubious of the Virtual Boy's prospects after the show, and concluded their article on the system by commenting, \"But who will buy it? It's not portable, it's awkward to use, it's 100% antisocial (unlike multiplayer SNES/Genesis games), it's too expensive and – most importantly – the 'VR' (i.e. 3D effect) doesn't add to the game at all: it's just a novelty.\"[50]Following its release, reviews of the Virtual Boy tended to praise its novelty but questioned its ultimate purpose and longtime viability. The Los Angeles Times described the gameplay as being \"at once familiar and strange\".[21] The column praised the quality of motion and immersive graphics but considered the hardware tedious to use and non-portable. In a later column, the same reviewer found the system to be somewhat asocial, but held hope for its future.[51] Reviewing the system shortly after its North American launch, Next Generation said, \"Unusual and innovative, the Virtual Boy can be seen as a gamble in the same way that the Game Boy was, but it's a lot harder to see the VB succeeding to the same world-conquering extent that the Game Boy did.\" They elaborated that while the sharp display and unique 3D effect are impressive, aspects such as the monochrome display and potential vision damage to young gamers severely limit the system's appeal. They added that the software library was decent, but failed to capitalize on Nintendo's best-selling franchises because games from The Legend of Zelda and Metroid were absent, the Mario games were not in the same style as the series's most successful installments, and it lacked a system seller to compare with the Game Boy's Tetris.[52]Though Nintendo had promised a virtual reality experience, the monochrome display limits the Virtual Boy's potential for immersion.[7][52] Reviewers often considered the three-dimensional features a gimmick, added to games that were essentially two-[7] or even one-dimensional.[53] The Washington Post said that even when a game gives the impression of three-dimensionality, it suffers from \"hollow vector graphics\".[53] Yokoi, the system's inventor, said the system did best with action and puzzle games,[52] although those types of games provided only minimal immersion. Multiple critics[7][34] lamented the absence of head-tracking in the Virtual Boy hardware. Critics found that, as a result, players were unable to immerse themselves in the game worlds of Virtual Boy games. Instead, they interacted simply via a controller, in the manner of any traditional two-dimensional game. Boyer said the console \"struggles to merge the two distinct media forms of home consoles and virtual reality devices\". Though the device employs some basic virtual reality techniques, it does so like the traditional home console with no bodily feedback incorporated into gameplay.[7]Many reviewers complained of painful and frustrating physiological symptoms when playing the Virtual Boy. Bill Frischling, writing for The Washington Post, experienced \"dizziness, nausea and headaches\".[53] Reviewers attributed the problems to both the monochromatic display and uncomfortable ergonomics. Several prominent scientists concluded that the long-term side effects could be more serious, and articles published in magazines such as Electronic Engineering Times and CMP Media's TechWeb speculated that using any immersive headset such as the Virtual Boy could cause sickness, flashbacks, and even permanent brain damage.[54] Nintendo, in the years after Virtual Boy's demise, has been frank about its failure. Howard Lincoln, chairman of Nintendo of America, said flatly that the Virtual Boy \"just failed\".[7]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Game_Over_by_David_Sheff-16"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-N-Sider_Profiles-56"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nintendo_Magic-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Bandai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandai"},{"link_name":"WonderSwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderSwan"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyer-8"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unraveling_the_Enigma-5"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 3DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_3DS"},{"link_name":"Shigeru Miyamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigeru_Miyamoto"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_64"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Tatsumi Kimishima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatsumi_Kimishima"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Nikkei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nikkei"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Switch"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Labo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Labo"},{"link_name":"Joy-Con","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy-Con"},{"link_name":"Emulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console_emulator"},{"link_name":"Google Cardboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Cardboard"},{"link_name":"Samsung Gear VR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Gear_VR"},{"link_name":"Oculus Rift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oculus_Rift"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VB_GC-64"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VB_Oculus-65"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VB_TV-66"},{"link_name":"homebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebrew_(video_games)"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Tomodachi Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomodachi_Life"},{"link_name":"life simulation game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_simulation_game"},{"link_name":"Mii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mii"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Luigi's Mansion 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi%27s_Mansion_3"},{"link_name":"Luigi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi"},{"link_name":"Professor E. Gadd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor_E._Gadd"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Color"},{"link_name":"Nintendo DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_DS"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"text":"According to Game Over, Nintendo blamed the machine's faults directly on its creator, Gunpei Yokoi.[15] The commercial failure of the Virtual Boy was reportedly a contributing factor to Yokoi's withdrawal from Nintendo, although he had already planned to retire years prior and then finished the successful Game Boy Pocket, which was released shortly before his departure.[55] According to his Nintendo and Koto colleague Yoshihiro Taki, Yokoi had originally decided to retire at age 50 to do as he pleased but had simply delayed it.[56] Nintendo held that Yokoi's departure was \"absolutely coincidental\" to the market performance of any Nintendo hardware.[57] The New York Times maintained that Yokoi kept a close relationship with Nintendo.[58] After leaving Nintendo, Yokoi founded his own company, Koto, and collaborated with Bandai to create the WonderSwan, a handheld system competing with the Game Boy.The commercial failure of the Virtual Boy reportedly did little to alter Nintendo's development approach and focus on innovation.[7] The console's focus on peripherals and haptic technology reemerged in later years.[59] The original inventor, Reflection Technology, Inc., was reportedly financially \"devastated\" by the Virtual Boy's performance, with dwindling operations by 1997.[4]The Nintendo 3DS console was launched in 2011, as a handheld gaming console with autostereoscopic 3D visuals, without any special glasses. Prior to launch, Shigeru Miyamoto discussed the Virtual Boy. He said it renders wireframe graphics, but its effects are generally used for two-dimensional games with depth-separated planes. He stated that the graphics are not as appealing, and while developing the Nintendo 64, he had ruled out the use of wireframe graphics as too sparse to draw player characters. Finally, he stated that he perceived the Virtual Boy as a novelty that should not have used the Nintendo license so prominently.[60]In February 2016, Tatsumi Kimishima stated that Nintendo was \"looking into\" virtual reality but also explained that it would take more time and effort for them to assess the technology,[61] and in a February 2017 interview with Nikkei, he stated that the company was \"studying\" VR, and would add it to the Nintendo Switch once it is figured out how users can play for long durations without any issues.[62] Nintendo introduced a VR accessory for the Switch as part of Labo, a line of player-assembled cardboard toys leveraging the console's hardware and Joy-Con controllers. In this case, the console is used as a head-mounted display for the headset.Hobbyists adapted Virtual Boy to other displays. Emulation enabled modern stereoscopic goggles such as Google Cardboard, Samsung Gear VR and Oculus Rift in 2016.[63][64] In 2018, hobbyist Furrtek released a board that replaces the display circuitry, allowing the Virtual Boy to be played on a VGA monitor or television set.[65] On February 25, 2024, a homebrew Virtual Boy emulator for the Nintendo 3DS was released, named \"Red Viper\", which made it possible to play the Virtual Boy library using stereoscopic 3D.[66]Nintendo has referenced the Virtual Boy in other games, such as Tomodachi Life—where a trailer for the life simulation game included a scene of several Mii characters worshipping the Virtual Boy.[67][68] In Luigi's Mansion 3, Luigi uses a device by Professor E. Gadd known as the \"Virtual Boo\" to access maps and other information in-game (succeeding the use of devices referencing the Game Boy Color and first-generation Nintendo DS in previous installments). Its menus use a red and black color scheme, while E. Gadd optimistically boasts that the device would \"fly off the shelves\".[69]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"}],"text":"^ Virtual Boy (Japanese: バーチャルボーイ, Hepburn: Bācharu Bōi)","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-4-89366-696-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-89366-696-3"}],"text":"Yokoi, Gunpei; Makino, Takefumi (May 1997). Yokoi Gunpei Game House (横井軍平ゲーム館, Yokoi Gunpei Gēmu-kan). ASCII. ISBN 978-4-89366-696-3.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"The screens of the Virtual Boy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Virtual-Boy-Eyes.jpg/220px-Virtual-Boy-Eyes.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Virtual Boy controller, and battery pack instead of AC adaptor","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Virtual-Boy-Controller.jpg/220px-Virtual-Boy-Controller.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mario's Tennis, the North American pack-in for Virtual Boy, is converted by an emulator to anaglyphic red and blue format, to simulate the Virtual Boy's stereoscopic display on a 2D display. 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/89/Mario%27s_Tennis_screenshot.png/220px-Mario%27s_Tennis_screenshot.png"},{"image_text":"Using the Virtual Boy eyepiece","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Virtual_Boy_-_Akihabara%2C_Otaku_Style.jpg/220px-Virtual_Boy_-_Akihabara%2C_Otaku_Style.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Video games portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Video_games"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EC1835_C_cut.jpg"},{"title":"1990s portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:1990s"},{"title":"Entex Adventure Vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entex_Adventure_Vision"},{"title":"Famicom 3D System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famicom_3D_System"},{"title":"Nintendo Labo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Labo"},{"title":"VR Kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Labo#VR_Kit"},{"title":"Nintendo Switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Switch"},{"title":"R-Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-Zone"},{"title":"handheld game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_game_console"},{"title":"Tiger Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger_Electronics"},{"title":"Sega VR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_VR"},{"title":"virtual reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality"},{"title":"Sega Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"title":"Virtual reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality"},{"title":"Virtuality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtuality_(gaming)"}] | [{"reference":"\"Weekly Famitsu Express\". Famitsu. Vol. 11, no. 392. June 21, 1996. Archived from the original on October 15, 2019. Retrieved August 2, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://imgur.com/hXXa6DE","url_text":"\"Weekly Famitsu Express\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famitsu","url_text":"Famitsu"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191015083428/https://imgur.com/hXXa6DE","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"IR Information : Sales Data – Hardware and Software Sales Units\". Nintendo Co., Ltd. Archived from the original on June 21, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/en/finance/hard_soft/index.html","url_text":"\"IR Information : Sales Data – Hardware and Software Sales Units\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170621033554/https://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/en/finance/hard_soft/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"April Brings Virtual Boy\" (PDF). GamePro. No. 67. February 1995. p. 162. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 7, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://retrocdn.net/images/c/c7/GamePro_US_067.pdf","url_text":"\"April Brings Virtual Boy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro","url_text":"GamePro"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181007040143/https://retrocdn.net/images/c/c7/GamePro_US_067.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Edwards, Benj (August 21, 2015). \"Unraveling The Enigma Of Nintendo's Virtual Boy, 20 Years Later\". Fast Company. Archived from the original on July 7, 2018. Retrieved December 21, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fastcompany.com/3050016/unraveling-the-enigma-of-nintendos-virtual-boy-20-years-later","url_text":"\"Unraveling The Enigma Of Nintendo's Virtual Boy, 20 Years Later\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Company","url_text":"Fast Company"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180707231258/https://www.fastcompany.com/3050016/unraveling-the-enigma-of-nintendos-virtual-boy-20-years-later","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Edwards, Benj (May 15, 2024). \"Virtual Boy: The bizarre rise and quick fall of Nintendo's enigmatic red console\". Ars Technica. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_DOS_machine | Virtual DOS machine | ["1 Overview","2 Concurrent DOS 8086 emulation mode","3 DOS-based VDMs","4 OS/2 MVDM","5 Windows NTVDM","5.1 Commands","5.2 Security issue","5.3 Limitations","5.4 Absence in x64 and AArch64 architectures","6 WineVDM","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"] | Subsystem for 32-bit Windows for running 16-bit DOS & Windows programs
Virtual DOS machines (VDM) refer to a technology that allows running 16-bit/32-bit DOS and 16-bit Windows programs when there is already another operating system running and controlling the hardware.
Overview
Virtual DOS machines can operate either exclusively through typical software emulation methods (e.g. dynamic recompilation) or can rely on the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 processor, which allows real mode 8086 software to run in a controlled environment by catching all operations which involve accessing protected hardware and forwarding them to the normal operating system (as exceptions). The operating system can then perform an emulation and resume the execution of the DOS software.
VDMs generally also implement support for running 16- and 32-bit protected mode software (DOS extenders), which has to conform to the DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI).
When a DOS program running inside a VDM needs to access a peripheral, Windows will either allow this directly (rarely), or will present the DOS program with a virtual device driver (VDD) which emulates the hardware using operating system functions. A VDM will systematically have emulations for the Intel 8259A interrupt controllers, the 8254 timer chips, the 8237 DMA controller, etc.
Concurrent DOS 8086 emulation mode
In January 1985 Digital Research together with Intel previewed Concurrent DOS 286 1.0, a version of Concurrent DOS capable of running real mode DOS programs in the 80286's protected mode. The method devised on B-1 stepping processor chips, however, in May 1985 stopped working on the C-1 and subsequent processor steppings shortly before Digital Research was about to release the product. Although with the E-1 stepping Intel started to address the issues in August 1985, so that Digital Research's "8086 emulation mode" worked again utilizing the undocumented LOADALL processor instruction, it was too slow to be practical. Microcode changes for the E-2 stepping improved the speed again. This early implementation can be seen as a predecessor to actual virtual DOS machines.
Eventually, Concurrent DOS 286 was reworked from a potential desktop operating system to become FlexOS 286 for industrial use in 1986. It was also licensed by IBM for their 4680 OS in 1986.
When Intel's 80386 with its virtual 8086 mode became available (as samples since October 1985 and in quantities since June 1986), Digital Research switched to use this to run real mode DOS programs in virtual DOS machines in protected mode under Concurrent DOS 386 1.0 (February 1987) and FlexOS 386 1.0 (June 1987). However, the architecture of these multiuser multitasking
protected mode operating systems was not DOS-based by themselves.
Concurrent DOS 386 was later developed to become Multiuser DOS (since 1991) and REAL/32 (since 1995). FlexOS 386 later became 4690 OS in 1993.
DOS-based VDMs
In contrast to these protected mode operating systems, DOS, by default, is a real-mode operating system, switching to protected mode and virtual 86 mode only on behalf of memory managers and DOS extenders in order to provide access to extended memory or map in memory into the first megabyte, which is accessible to normal DOS programs.
DOS-based VDMs appeared with Microsoft's Windows/386 2.01 in September 1987. DOS-based virtual DOS machines were also present in Windows 3.0, 3.1x and Windows for Workgroups 3.1x running in 386 Enhanced Mode as well as in Windows 95, 98, 98 SE and ME. One of the characteristics of these solutions running on top of DOS is that the memory layout shown inside virtual DOS machines are virtual instances of the DOS system and DOS driver configuration run before the multitasker is loaded, and that requests which cannot be handled in protected mode are passed down into the system domain to be executed by the underlying DOS system.
Similar to Windows 3.x 386 Enhanced Mode in architecture, EMM386 3.xx of Novell DOS 7, Caldera OpenDOS 7.01, DR-DOS 7.02 (and later) also uses DOS-based VDMs to support pre-emptive multitasking of multiple DOS applications, when the EMM386 /MULTI option is used. This component has been under development at Digital Research / Novell since 1991 under the codename "Vladivar" (originally a separate device driver KRNL386.SYS instead of a module of EMM386). While primarily developed for the next major version of DR DOS, released as Novell DOS 7 in 1994, it was also used in the never released DR DOS "Panther" and "Star Trek" project in 1992/1993.
OS/2 MVDM
Multiple virtual DOS machines (MVDM) are used in OS/2 2.0 and later since 1992. OS/2 MVDMs are considerably more powerful than NTVDM. For example, block devices are supported, and various DOS versions can be booted into an OS/2 MVDM. While the OS/2 1.x DOS box was based on DOS 3.0, OS/2 2.x MVDMs emulate DOS 5.0.
Seamless integration of Windows 3.1 and later Win32s applications in OS/2 is a concept looking similar on surface to the seamless integration of XP Mode based on Windows Virtual PC in Windows 7. A redirector in a "guest" VDM or NTVDM allows access on the disks of the OS/2 or NT "host". Applications in a "guest" can use named pipes for communication with their "host".
Due to a technical limitation, DOS and 16-bit Windows applications under OS/2 were unable to see more than 2 GB of hard drive space; this was fixed in ArcaOS 5.0.4.
Windows NTVDM
COMMAND.COM running in the NTVDM of Windows 10
NTVDM is a system component of all IA-32 editions of the Windows NT family since 1993 with the release of Windows NT 3.1. It allows execution of 16-bit Windows and 16-bit / 32-bit DOS applications. The Windows NT 32-bit user-mode executable which forms the basis for a single DOS (or Windows 3.x) environment is called ntvdm.exe.
In order to execute DOS programs, NTVDM loads NTIO.SYS which in turn loads NTDOS.SYS, which executes a modified COMMAND.COM in order to run the application that was passed to NTVDM as command-line argument. The 16-bit real-mode system files are stripped down derivations of their MS-DOS 5.0 equivalents IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS and COMMAND.COM with all hard-wired assumptions on the FAT file system removed and using the invalid opcode 0xC4 0xC4 to bop down into the 32-bit NTVDM to handle the requests. Originally, NTDOS reported a DOS version of 30.00 to programs, but this was soon changed to report a version of 5.00 at INT 21h/AH=30h and 5.50 at INT 21h/AX=3306h to allow more programs to run unmodified. This holds true even in the newest releases of Windows; many additional MS-DOS functions and commands introduced in MS-DOS versions 6.x and in Windows 9x are missing.
16-bit Windows applications by default all run in their own thread within a single NTVDM process. Although NTVDM itself is a 32-bit process and pre-emptively multitasked with respect to the rest of the system, the 16-bit applications within it are cooperatively multitasked with respect to each other. When the "Run in separate memory space" option is checked in the Run box or the application's shortcut file, each 16-bit Windows application gets its own NTVDM process and is therefore pre-emptively multitasked with respect to other processes, including other 16-bit Windows applications. NTVDM emulates BIOS calls and tables as well as the Windows 3.1 kernel and 16-bit API stubs. The 32-bit WoW translation layer thunks 16-bit API routines.
32-bit DOS emulation is present for DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) and 32-bit memory access. This layer converts the necessary extended and expanded memory calls for DOS functions into Windows NT memory calls. wowexec.exe is the emulation layer that emulates 16-bit Windows. Windows 2000 and Windows XP added Sound Blaster 2.0 emulation. 16-bit virtual device drivers and DOS block device drivers (e.g., RAM disks) are not supported. Inter-process communication with other subsystems can take place through OLE, DDE and named pipes.
Since virtual 8086 mode is not available on non-x86-based processors (more specifically, MIPS, DEC Alpha, and PowerPC) NTVDM is instead implemented as a full emulator in these versions of NT, using code licensed from Insignia's SoftPC. Up to Windows NT 3.51, only 80286 emulation is available. With Windows NT 4.0, 486 emulation was added.
NTVDM is not included with 64-bit versions of Windows or ARM32 based versions such as Windows RT or Windows 10 IoT Core. Windows 10 is the final version of Windows to include this component, as Windows 11 dropped support for 32-bit processors.
Commands
The following list of commands is part of the Windows XP MS-DOS subsystem.
APPEND
DEBUG
EDIT
EDLIN
EXE2BIN
FASTOPEN
FORCEDOS
GRAPHICS
LOADFIX
LOADHIGH (LH)
MEM
NLSFUNC
SETVER
SHARE
Security issue
In January 2010, Google security researcher Tavis Ormandy revealed a serious security flaw in Windows NT's VDM implementation that allowed unprivileged users to escalate their privileges to SYSTEM level, noted as applicable to the security of all x86 versions of the Windows NT kernel since 1993. This included all 32-bit versions of Windows NT, 2000, XP, Server 2003, Vista, Server 2008, and Windows 7. Ormandy published a proof-of-concept exploit for the vulnerability. Prior to Microsoft's release of a security patch, the workaround for this issue was to turn off 16-bit application support, which prevented older programs (those written for DOS and Windows 3.1) from running. 64-bit versions of Windows are not affected since the NTVDM subsystem is not included. Once the Microsoft security patches had been applied to the affected operating systems the VDM could be safely reenabled.
Limitations
A limitation exists in the Windows XP 16-bit subsystem (but not in earlier versions of Windows NT) because of the raised per-session limit for GDI objects which causes GDI handles to be shifted to the right by two bits, when converting them from 32 to 16 bits. As a result, the actual handle cannot be larger than 14 bits and consequently 16-bit applications that happen to be served a handle larger than 16384 by the GDI system crash and terminate with an error message.
In general, VDM and similar technologies do not satisfactorily run most older DOS games on today's computers. Emulation is only provided for the most basic peripherals, often implemented incompletely. For example, sound emulation in NTVDM is very limited. NT-family versions of Windows only update the real screen a few times per second when a DOS program writes to it, and they do not emulate higher resolution graphics modes. Because software mostly runs native at the speed of the host CPU, all timing loops will expire prematurely. This either makes a game run much too fast or causes the software not even to notice the emulated hardware peripherals, because it does not wait long enough for an answer.
Absence in x64 and AArch64 architectures
In an x86-64 CPU, virtual 8086 mode is available as a sub-mode only in its legacy mode (for running 16- and 32-bit operating systems), not in the native 64-bit long mode. NTVDM is not supported on x86-64 editions of Windows, including DOS programs, because NTVDM uses VM86 CPU mode instead of the Local Descriptor Table in order to enable 16‑bits segment required for addressing. NTVDM is also unavailable on AArch64 versions of Windows (such as Windows RT), because Microsoft did not release a full emulator for this incompatible instruction set like it did on previous incompatible architectures.
Whilst NTVDM is not supported on x86-64 and AArch64 versions of Windows, they can still be run using virtualization software, such as Windows XP Mode in non-home versions of Windows 7 or VMware Workstation. Other methods include using NTVDMx64, an unofficial port of the emulated implementation of NTVDM from the leaked Windows NT 4.0 source code for non-x86 platforms, or OTVDM (WineVDM), a 16-bit Windows interpreter based on MAME's i386 emulation and the 16-bit portion of the popular Windows compatibility layer, Wine.
WineVDM
A VDM is included in Wine and CrossOver for Linux and Mac OS X, known as WineVDM (also known as OTVDM). It has also been ported to Windows itself, as 64-bit versions of Windows do not include the NTVDM subsystem.
See also
Comparison of platform virtualization software
DESQview 386 (since 1988)
Wine (software)
DOSBox
DOSEMU
Merge (software)
List of Microsoft Windows components
Hypervisor
Windows on Windows (WoW)
Virtual machine (VM)
Notes
^ KRNL386.SYS of DR DOS "Panther" has copyright strings "1991,1992".
^ A disabled VDM could be reenabled by setting the corresponding registry key back to "HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Policies\Microsoft\Windows\AppCompat\VDMDisallowed"=dword:00000000.
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Schulman, Andrew; Brown, Ralf D.; Maxey, David; Michels, Raymond J.; Kyle, Jim (1994) . Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1 (2 ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-63287-X. (xviii+856+vi pages, 3.5-inch floppy) Errata:
^ a b "Concurrent DOS-286 Challenges Unix". BYTE Magazine. 10 (5): 375–377. May 1985. Archived from the original on 2018-09-14. Retrieved 2017-01-23.
^ "Concurrent DOS 68K 1.2 - Developer Kit for Motorola VME/10 - Disk 2". 1986-08-06 . Retrieved 2018-09-13. (NB. This package also includes some header files from Concurrent DOS 286, including STRUCT.H explicitly mentioning LOADALL for "8086 emulation".)
^ a b Deitel, Harvey M.; Kogan, Michael S. (1992). The Design of OS/2. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-54889-5.
^ Foster, Edward (1985-05-13). "Super DOS awaits new 80286 – Concurrent DOS 286 – delayed until Intel upgrades chip – offers Xenix's power and IBM PC compatibility". InfoWorld. 7 (19). InfoWorld Media Group: 17–18. ISSN 0199-6649. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2019-04-03.
^ Foster, Edward (1985-08-26). "Intel shows new 80286 chip – Future of DRI's Concurrent DOS 286 still unclear after processor fixed". InfoWorld. 7 (34). InfoWorld Media Group: 21. ISSN 0199-6649. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2019-04-03.
^ FlexOS Supplement for Intel iAPX 286-based Computers (PDF). 1.3 (1 ed.). Digital Research, Inc. November 1986. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2018-08-14.
^ CBR, ed. (1987-01-15). "Digital Research launches FlexOS 286 Real-Time Manufacturing Operating System". Computer Business Review. Archived from the original on 2013-01-18. Retrieved 2018-09-15.
^ Calvo, Melissa; Forbes, Jim (1986-02-10). "IBM to use a DRI operating system". InfoWorld . Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2011-09-06.
^ "IBM selects Concurrent DOS-286 for PC AT retail system" (PDF). European Review (18). Digital Research: 1. March 1986. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2018-09-15.
^ Weiss, Jiri (1987-02-16). "DRI To Release Multiuser 80386 Operating System". InfoWorld. 9 (7): 1, 8. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2017-01-22.
^ CBR, ed. (1987-06-03). "Digital Research shows off Real-Time FlexOS 386". Computer Business Review. Archived from the original on 2013-06-28. Retrieved 2011-09-06.
^ Necasek, Michal (2011-05-21). "Windows/386 2.01". OS/2 Museum. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2019-04-02.
^ a b c d e Paul, Matthias R. (1997-07-30) . NWDOS-TIPs — Tips & Tricks rund um Novell DOS 7, mit Blick auf undokumentierte Details, Bugs und Workarounds. Release 157 (in German) (3 ed.). Archived from the original on 2016-11-03. Retrieved 2014-09-06. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) (NB. NWDOSTIP.TXT is a comprehensive work on Novell DOS 7 and OpenDOS 7.01, including the description of many undocumented features and internals. It is part of the author's yet larger MPDOSTIP.ZIP collection maintained up to 2001 and distributed on many sites at the time. The provided link points to a HTML-converted older version of the NWDOSTIP.TXT file.) mpdostip.zip
^ a b OpenDOS Developer's Reference Series — OpenDOS Multitasking API Guide — Programmer's Guide. UK: Caldera, Inc. August 1997. Caldera Part No. 200-DOMG-004. Archived from the original on 2017-09-10. Retrieved 2016-11-02.
^ a b Caldera DR-DOS 7.02 User Guide. Caldera, Inc. 1998 . Archived from the original on 2016-11-05. Retrieved 2014-09-06.
^ "OS/2 Workplace Shell Configuration Techniques" (PDF). IBM redbook. 1994. pp. 68–80. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2011-07-05.
^ a b "MS-DOS subsystem commands". Microsoft.
^ "Why can't my DOS and Win-OS/2 sessions see more than 2 GB of free space?". Arca Noae, LLC. Archived from the original on 2021-07-07. Retrieved 2020-09-03.
^ "ArcaOS Release Notes". 2020-08-31 . Archived from the original on 2021-03-16. Retrieved 2020-09-03.
^ "Chapter 27 - Windows Compatibility and Migration". Windows NT 4.0 Resource Kit. Microsoft. 2014-02-20. Retrieved 2017-07-19.
^ Schulman, Jerold (2002-12-04). "How do I troubleshoot MS-DOS programs running on Windows XP?". ITPro Windows. Retrieved 2017-07-19.
^ a b "leecher1337/ntvdmx64". GitHub. Retrieved 2018-11-03. Edward Mendelson's additional documentation
^ "INFO: How Windows handles floating-point calculations". Microsoft Support. 2006-11-21. Archived from the original on 2013-02-24. Retrieved 2017-07-19.
^ "Microsoft Security Bulletin MS10-015 - Important: Vulnerabilities in Windows Kernel Could Allow Elevation of Privilege (977165)". Security TechCenter. Microsoft. 2010-03-17. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
^ Ormandy, Tavis (2010-01-19). "Microsoft Windows NT #GP Trap Handler Allows Users to Switch Kernel Stack". CVE-2010-0232. Full-disclosure. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
^ Farrell, Nick (2010-01-20). "Ancient Windows flaw found after 17 years". The Inquirer. Incisive. Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. Retrieved 2010-01-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ "Microsoft Security Advisory (979682): Vulnerability in Windows Kernel Could Allow Elevation of Privilege". TechNet. Microsoft. 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-01-21.
^ a b The "Win 16 Subsystem has insufficient resources to continue running" problem on Windows XP
^ Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual Combined Volumes: 1, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, 3B, and 3C (PDF) (PDF). Intel. June 2013 . 325462-047US. Retrieved 2013-07-02.
^ Klein, Helge (2008-03-11). "Windows x64 - All the Same Yet Very Different, Part 5: NTVDM, Services, WoW64". Retrieved 2013-07-21.
^ "List of limitations in 64-Bit Windows". Microsoft Corporation. 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2017-07-19.
^ "modify_ldt(2)". Linux Programmer's Manual. Retrieved 2019-07-21.
^ "NTVDMx64 by Leecher1337". www.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2023-03-25.
^ "Winevdm". GitHub. Retrieved 2019-07-21. Edward Mendelson's additional documentation
^ "Otya128/Winevdm". GitHub.
Further reading
Pietrek, Matt (August 1998). "Under The Hood". Microsoft Systems Journal. Archived from the original on 2017-07-13. Retrieved 2020-01-22 – via bytepointer.com.
External links
Virtual DOS Machine Structure
Troubleshooting MS-DOS-based programs in Windows XP
Troubleshooting an MS-DOS application which hangs the NTVDM subsystem in Windows XP and Windows Server 2003
Troubleshooting MS-DOS-based serial communication programs in Windows 2000 and later
NTVDM from ReactOS, the custom standalone variant of NTVDM able to run windowed text mode MS-DOS software in 64 bit Windows NT systems, this NTVDM works by using the following syntax: ntvdm.exe program.exe, like start command in Windows.
MS-DOS Player for Win32-x64, a Microsoft MS-DOS Emulator, runs many command line DOS programs like compilers or other tools, also packaged into one standalone executable file.
vDOS, a DOS emulator designed for the running the more "serious" DOS apps (not games) on 64-bit NT systems (effectively a replacement for NTVDM on modern systems).
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List | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"16-bit Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"}],"text":"Virtual DOS machines (VDM) refer to a technology that allows running 16-bit/32-bit DOS and 16-bit Windows programs when there is already another operating system running and controlling the hardware.","title":"Virtual DOS machine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"software emulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulator"},{"link_name":"dynamic recompilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_recompilation"},{"link_name":"virtual 8086 mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_8086_mode"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"80386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/80386"},{"link_name":"real mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode"},{"link_name":"exceptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exception_handling"},{"link_name":"16-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-bit"},{"link_name":"32-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit"},{"link_name":"protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"},{"link_name":"DOS extenders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_extender"},{"link_name":"DOS Protected Mode Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_Protected_Mode_Interface"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"virtual device driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver#Virtual_device_drivers"},{"link_name":"8259A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8259A"},{"link_name":"interrupt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt"},{"link_name":"8254","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8254"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"}],"text":"Virtual DOS machines can operate either exclusively through typical software emulation methods (e.g. dynamic recompilation) or can rely on the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 processor, which allows real mode 8086 software to run in a controlled environment by catching all operations which involve accessing protected hardware and forwarding them to the normal operating system (as exceptions). The operating system can then perform an emulation and resume the execution of the DOS software.VDMs generally also implement support for running 16- and 32-bit protected mode software (DOS extenders), which has to conform to the DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI).[1]When a DOS program running inside a VDM needs to access a peripheral, Windows will either allow this directly (rarely), or will present the DOS program with a virtual device driver (VDD) which emulates the hardware using operating system functions. A VDM will systematically have emulations for the Intel 8259A interrupt controllers, the 8254 timer chips, the 8237 DMA controller, etc.[1]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digital Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Research"},{"link_name":"Concurrent DOS 286 1.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_DOS_286_1.0"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BYTE_1985_CDOS286-2"},{"link_name":"Concurrent DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_DOS"},{"link_name":"80286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/80286"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BYTE_1985_CDOS286-2"},{"link_name":"LOADALL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/286_LOADALL"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRI_1986_CDOS68K-2-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Deitel_1992-4"},{"link_name":"Microcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Infoworld_1985_Super-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Infoworld_1985_80286-6"},{"link_name":"FlexOS 286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FlexOS_286"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRI_1986_FlexOS286-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CBR_1987_FlexOS-286-8"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"4680 OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4680_OS"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfoWorld_1986_Concurrent-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRI_1986_IBM-10"},{"link_name":"Concurrent DOS 386 1.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_DOS_386_1.0"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weiss_1987-11"},{"link_name":"FlexOS 386 1.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FlexOS_386_1.0"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CBR_1987_FlexOS-12"},{"link_name":"Concurrent DOS 386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_DOS_386"},{"link_name":"Multiuser DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiuser_DOS"},{"link_name":"REAL/32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REAL/32"},{"link_name":"FlexOS 386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FlexOS_386"},{"link_name":"4690 OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4690_OS"}],"text":"In January 1985 Digital Research together with Intel previewed Concurrent DOS 286 1.0,[2] a version of Concurrent DOS capable of running real mode DOS programs in the 80286's protected mode.[2] The method devised on B-1 stepping processor chips, however, in May 1985 stopped working on the C-1 and subsequent processor steppings shortly before Digital Research was about to release the product. Although with the E-1 stepping Intel started to address the issues in August 1985, so that Digital Research's \"8086 emulation mode\" worked again utilizing the undocumented LOADALL processor instruction,[3][4] it was too slow to be practical. Microcode changes for the E-2 stepping improved the speed again.[5][6] This early implementation can be seen as a predecessor to actual virtual DOS machines.Eventually, Concurrent DOS 286 was reworked from a potential desktop operating system to become FlexOS 286 for industrial use in 1986.[7][8] It was also licensed by IBM for their 4680 OS in 1986.[9][10]When Intel's 80386 with its virtual 8086 mode became available (as samples since October 1985 and in quantities since June 1986), Digital Research switched to use this to run real mode DOS programs in virtual DOS machines in protected mode under Concurrent DOS 386 1.0 (February 1987)[11] and FlexOS 386 1.0 (June 1987).[12] However, the architecture of these multiuser multitasking \nprotected mode operating systems was not DOS-based by themselves.Concurrent DOS 386 was later developed to become Multiuser DOS (since 1991) and REAL/32 (since 1995). FlexOS 386 later became 4690 OS in 1993.","title":"Concurrent DOS 8086 emulation mode"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows/386 2.01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows/386_2.01"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Win386_201-13"},{"link_name":"Windows 3.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0"},{"link_name":"3.1x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x"},{"link_name":"Windows for Workgroups 3.1x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_for_Workgroups"},{"link_name":"386 Enhanced Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/386_Enhanced_Mode"},{"link_name":"Windows 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95"},{"link_name":"98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98"},{"link_name":"98 SE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98_SE"},{"link_name":"ME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_ME"},{"link_name":"EMM386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMM386"},{"link_name":"Novell DOS 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell_DOS_7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP-14"},{"link_name":"Caldera OpenDOS 7.01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera_OpenDOS_7.01"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caldera_1997_Multi-15"},{"link_name":"DR-DOS 7.02","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR-DOS_7.02"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caldera_1998_USER-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caldera_1997_Multi-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caldera_1998_USER-16"},{"link_name":"Digital Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Research"},{"link_name":"Novell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_Panther-17"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997_NWDOSTIP-14"},{"link_name":"DR DOS \"Panther\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR_DOS_%22Panther%22"},{"link_name":"Star Trek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek_project"}],"text":"In contrast to these protected mode operating systems, DOS, by default, is a real-mode operating system, switching to protected mode and virtual 86 mode only on behalf of memory managers and DOS extenders in order to provide access to extended memory or map in memory into the first megabyte, which is accessible to normal DOS programs.DOS-based VDMs appeared with Microsoft's Windows/386 2.01 in September 1987.[13] DOS-based virtual DOS machines were also present in Windows 3.0, 3.1x and Windows for Workgroups 3.1x running in 386 Enhanced Mode as well as in Windows 95, 98, 98 SE and ME. One of the characteristics of these solutions running on top of DOS is that the memory layout shown inside virtual DOS machines are virtual instances of the DOS system and DOS driver configuration run before the multitasker is loaded, and that requests which cannot be handled in protected mode are passed down into the system domain to be executed by the underlying DOS system.Similar to Windows 3.x 386 Enhanced Mode in architecture, EMM386 3.xx of Novell DOS 7,[1][14] Caldera OpenDOS 7.01,[14][15] DR-DOS 7.02[16] (and later) also uses DOS-based VDMs to support pre-emptive multitasking of multiple DOS applications, when the EMM386 /MULTI option is used.[14][15][16] This component has been under development at Digital Research / Novell since 1991[nb 1] under the codename \"Vladivar\" (originally a separate device driver KRNL386.SYS[1][14] instead of a module of EMM386). While primarily developed for the next major version of DR DOS, released as Novell DOS 7 in 1994,[1][14] it was also used in the never released DR DOS \"Panther\" and \"Star Trek\" project in 1992/1993.","title":"DOS-based VDMs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OS/2 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2_2.0"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Deitel_1992-4"},{"link_name":"NTVDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#NTVDM"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM_WorkplaceShell-18"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"Windows 3.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x"},{"link_name":"Win32s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win32s"},{"link_name":"XP Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XP_Mode"},{"link_name":"Windows Virtual PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Virtual_PC"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"named pipes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Named_pipes"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_490895-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arca_2020_1-20"},{"link_name":"ArcaOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArcaOS"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arca_2020_2-21"}],"text":"Multiple virtual DOS machines (MVDM) are used in OS/2 2.0 and later since 1992.[1][4] OS/2 MVDMs are considerably more powerful than NTVDM. For example, block devices are supported, and various DOS versions can be booted into an OS/2 MVDM.[17] While the OS/2 1.x DOS box was based on DOS 3.0, OS/2 2.x MVDMs emulate DOS 5.0.[1]Seamless integration of Windows 3.1 and later Win32s applications in OS/2 is a concept looking similar on surface to the seamless integration of XP Mode based on Windows Virtual PC in Windows 7. A redirector in a \"guest\" VDM or NTVDM allows access on the disks of the OS/2 or NT \"host\". Applications in a \"guest\" can use named pipes for communication with their \"host\".[18]Due to a technical limitation, DOS and 16-bit Windows applications under OS/2 were unable to see more than 2 GB of hard drive space;[19] this was fixed in ArcaOS 5.0.4.[20]","title":"OS/2 MVDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Command.com_Win10.png"},{"link_name":"COMMAND.COM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COMMAND.COM"},{"link_name":"Windows 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_10"},{"link_name":"IA-32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IA-32"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"Windows NT 3.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_3.1"},{"link_name":"Windows 3.x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"NTIO.SYS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTIO.SYS"},{"link_name":"NTDOS.SYS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTDOS.SYS"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS 5.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_5.0"},{"link_name":"IO.SYS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IO.SYS"},{"link_name":"MSDOS.SYS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSDOS.SYS"},{"link_name":"COMMAND.COM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COMMAND.COM"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"FAT file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT_file_system"},{"link_name":"invalid opcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_opcode"},{"link_name":"bop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_operation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"Windows 9x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_9x"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_27-22"},{"link_name":"WoW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_on_Windows"},{"link_name":"thunks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunk"},{"link_name":"DOS Protected Mode Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_Protected_Mode_Interface"},{"link_name":"Windows 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2000"},{"link_name":"Windows XP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP"},{"link_name":"Sound Blaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_Blaster"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-itPro_2002-23"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"Inter-process communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-process_communication"},{"link_name":"OLE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_Linking_and_Embedding"},{"link_name":"DDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Data_Exchange"},{"link_name":"named pipes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Named_pipe"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"MIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture"},{"link_name":"DEC Alpha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_Alpha"},{"link_name":"PowerPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC"},{"link_name":"SoftPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoftPC"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NTVDMX64-24"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-1"},{"link_name":"Windows NT 3.51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_3.51"},{"link_name":"Windows NT 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_4.0"},{"link_name":"486","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80486"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2006-25"},{"link_name":"Windows RT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_RT"},{"link_name":"Windows 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_10"},{"link_name":"32-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit_computing"}],"text":"COMMAND.COM running in the NTVDM of Windows 10NTVDM is a system component of all IA-32 editions of the Windows NT family since 1993 with the release of Windows NT 3.1. It allows execution of 16-bit Windows and 16-bit / 32-bit DOS applications. The Windows NT 32-bit user-mode executable which forms the basis for a single DOS (or Windows 3.x) environment is called ntvdm.exe.[1]In order to execute DOS programs, NTVDM loads NTIO.SYS which in turn loads NTDOS.SYS, which executes a modified COMMAND.COM in order to run the application that was passed to NTVDM as command-line argument. The 16-bit real-mode system files are stripped down derivations of their MS-DOS 5.0 equivalents IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS and COMMAND.COM[1] with all hard-wired assumptions on the FAT file system removed and using the invalid opcode 0xC4 0xC4 to bop down into the 32-bit NTVDM to handle the requests.[1] Originally, NTDOS reported a DOS version of 30.00 to programs,[1] but this was soon changed to report a version of 5.00 at INT 21h/AH=30h and 5.50 at INT 21h/AX=3306h to allow more programs to run unmodified.[1] This holds true even in the newest releases of Windows; many additional MS-DOS functions and commands introduced in MS-DOS versions 6.x and in Windows 9x are missing.16-bit Windows applications by default all run in their own thread within a single NTVDM process. Although NTVDM itself is a 32-bit process and pre-emptively multitasked with respect to the rest of the system, the 16-bit applications within it are cooperatively multitasked with respect to each other. When the \"Run in separate memory space\" option is checked in the Run box or the application's shortcut file, each 16-bit Windows application gets its own NTVDM process and is therefore pre-emptively multitasked with respect to other processes, including other 16-bit Windows applications. NTVDM emulates BIOS calls and tables as well as the Windows 3.1 kernel and 16-bit API stubs.[21] The 32-bit WoW translation layer thunks 16-bit API routines.32-bit DOS emulation is present for DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) and 32-bit memory access. This layer converts the necessary extended and expanded memory calls for DOS functions into Windows NT memory calls. wowexec.exe is the emulation layer that emulates 16-bit Windows. Windows 2000 and Windows XP added Sound Blaster 2.0 emulation.[22] 16-bit virtual device drivers and DOS block device drivers (e.g., RAM disks) are not supported. Inter-process communication with other subsystems can take place through OLE, DDE and named pipes.Since virtual 8086 mode is not available on non-x86-based processors (more specifically, MIPS, DEC Alpha, and PowerPC) NTVDM is instead implemented as a full emulator in these versions of NT, using code licensed from Insignia's SoftPC.[23][1] Up to Windows NT 3.51, only 80286 emulation is available. With Windows NT 4.0, 486 emulation was added.[24]NTVDM is not included with 64-bit versions of Windows or ARM32 based versions such as Windows RT or Windows 10 IoT Core. Windows 10 is the final version of Windows to include this component, as Windows 11 dropped support for 32-bit processors.","title":"Windows NTVDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"commands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_490895-19"},{"link_name":"APPEND","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APPEND_(DOS_command)"},{"link_name":"DEBUG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEBUG_(DOS_command)"},{"link_name":"EDIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_Editor"},{"link_name":"EDLIN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edlin"},{"link_name":"EXE2BIN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXE2BIN"},{"link_name":"FASTOPEN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASTOPEN"},{"link_name":"FORCEDOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FORCEDOS&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"GRAPHICS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAPHICS_(DOS_command)"},{"link_name":"LOADFIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LOADFIX_(DOS_command)"},{"link_name":"LOADHIGH (LH)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LOADHIGH_(DOS_command)"},{"link_name":"MEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEM_(DOS_command)"},{"link_name":"NLSFUNC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLSFUNC_(DOS_command)"},{"link_name":"SETVER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VER_(DOS_command)"},{"link_name":"SHARE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHARE_(DOS_command)"}],"sub_title":"Commands","text":"The following list of commands is part of the Windows XP MS-DOS subsystem.[18]APPEND\nDEBUG\nEDIT\nEDLIN\nEXE2BIN\nFASTOPEN\nFORCEDOS\nGRAPHICS\nLOADFIX\nLOADHIGH (LH)\nMEM\nNLSFUNC\nSETVER\nSHARE","title":"Windows NTVDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Tavis Ormandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavis_Ormandy"},{"link_name":"SYSTEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superuser"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_MS10-015-26"},{"link_name":"proof-of-concept exploit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ormandy_2010-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inquirer-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-technet-29"},{"link_name":"[nb 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VDMReg-30"}],"sub_title":"Security issue","text":"In January 2010, Google security researcher Tavis Ormandy revealed a serious security flaw in Windows NT's VDM implementation that allowed unprivileged users to escalate their privileges to SYSTEM level, noted as applicable to the security of all x86 versions of the Windows NT kernel since 1993. This included all 32-bit versions of Windows NT, 2000, XP, Server 2003, Vista, Server 2008, and Windows 7.[25] Ormandy published a proof-of-concept exploit for the vulnerability.[26] Prior to Microsoft's release of a security patch, the workaround for this issue was to turn off 16-bit application support, which prevented older programs (those written for DOS and Windows 3.1) from running. 64-bit versions of Windows are not affected since the NTVDM subsystem is not included.[27][28] Once the Microsoft security patches had been applied to the affected operating systems the VDM could be safely reenabled.[nb 2]","title":"Windows NTVDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-XPVDM_bug-31"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-XPVDM_bug-31"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Limitations","text":"A limitation exists in the Windows XP 16-bit subsystem (but not in earlier versions of Windows NT) because of the raised per-session limit for GDI objects which causes GDI handles to be shifted to the right by two bits, when converting them from 32 to 16 bits.[29] As a result, the actual handle cannot be larger than 14 bits and consequently 16-bit applications that happen to be served a handle larger than 16384 by the GDI system crash and terminate with an error message.[29]In general, VDM and similar technologies do not satisfactorily run most older DOS games on today's computers. Emulation is only provided for the most basic peripherals, often implemented incompletely[citation needed]. For example, sound emulation in NTVDM is very limited. NT-family versions of Windows only update the real screen a few times per second when a DOS program writes to it, and they do not emulate higher resolution graphics modes. Because software mostly runs native at the speed of the host CPU, all timing loops will expire prematurely. This either makes a game run much too fast or causes the software not even to notice the emulated hardware peripherals, because it does not wait long enough for an answer.","title":"Windows NTVDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"x86-64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64"},{"link_name":"virtual 8086 mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_8086_mode"},{"link_name":"long mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel_2013_Arch-Ref-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klein_2008-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2007_Limitations-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-modify_ldt-35"},{"link_name":"AArch64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AArch64"},{"link_name":"Windows RT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_RT"},{"link_name":"virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtualization"},{"link_name":"Windows XP Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP_Mode"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"VMware Workstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMware_Workstation"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Windows NT 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_4.0"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NTVDMX64-24"},{"link_name":"MAME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAME"},{"link_name":"Wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_(software)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Otvdm-37"}],"sub_title":"Absence in x64 and AArch64 architectures","text":"In an x86-64 CPU, virtual 8086 mode is available as a sub-mode only in its legacy mode (for running 16- and 32-bit operating systems), not in the native 64-bit long mode.[30] NTVDM is not supported on x86-64 editions of Windows,[31] including DOS programs,[32] because NTVDM uses VM86 CPU mode instead of the Local Descriptor Table in order to enable 16‑bits segment required for addressing.[33] NTVDM is also unavailable on AArch64 versions of Windows (such as Windows RT), because Microsoft did not release a full emulator for this incompatible instruction set like it did on previous incompatible architectures.Whilst NTVDM is not supported on x86-64 and AArch64 versions of Windows, they can still be run using virtualization software, such as Windows XP Mode in non-home versions of Windows 7 or VMware Workstation. Other methods include using NTVDMx64,[34] an unofficial port of the emulated implementation of NTVDM from the leaked Windows NT 4.0 source code for non-x86 platforms,[23] or OTVDM (WineVDM), a 16-bit Windows interpreter based on MAME's i386 emulation and the 16-bit portion of the popular Windows compatibility layer, Wine.[35]","title":"Windows NTVDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_(software)"},{"link_name":"CrossOver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CrossOver"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"A VDM is included in Wine and CrossOver for Linux and Mac OS X, known as WineVDM (also known as OTVDM). It has also been ported to Windows itself, as 64-bit versions of Windows do not include the NTVDM subsystem.[36]","title":"WineVDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Panther_17-0"},{"link_name":"DR DOS \"Panther\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR_DOS_%22Panther%22"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-VDMReg_30-0"}],"text":"^ KRNL386.SYS of DR DOS \"Panther\" has copyright strings \"1991,1992\".\n\n^ A disabled VDM could be reenabled by setting the corresponding registry key back to \"HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\\SOFTWARE\\Policies\\Microsoft\\Windows\\AppCompat\\VDMDisallowed\"=dword:00000000.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pietrek, Matt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Pietrek"},{"link_name":"\"Under The Hood\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//bytepointer.com/resources/pietrek_ntvdm.htm"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Systems Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Systems_Journal"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170713133231/http://bytepointer.com/resources/pietrek_ntvdm.htm"}],"text":"Pietrek, Matt (August 1998). \"Under The Hood\". Microsoft Systems Journal. Archived from the original on 2017-07-13. Retrieved 2020-01-22 – via bytepointer.com.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"COMMAND.COM running in the NTVDM of Windows 10","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Command.com_Win10.png/220px-Command.com_Win10.png"}] | [{"title":"Comparison of platform virtualization software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_platform_virtualization_software"},{"title":"DESQview 386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DESQview_386"},{"title":"Wine (software)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_(software)"},{"title":"DOSBox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOSBox"},{"title":"DOSEMU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOSEMU"},{"title":"Merge (software)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merge_(software)"},{"title":"List of Microsoft Windows components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Microsoft_Windows_components"},{"title":"Hypervisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"title":"Windows on Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_on_Windows"},{"title":"Virtual machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine"}] | [{"reference":"Schulman, Andrew; Brown, Ralf D.; Maxey, David; Michels, Raymond J.; Kyle, Jim (1994) [November 1993]. Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1 (2 ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-63287-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralf_D._Brown","url_text":"Brown, Ralf D."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/undocumenteddosp00andr_0","url_text":"Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison_Wesley","url_text":"Addison Wesley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-63287-X","url_text":"0-201-63287-X"}]},{"reference":"\"Concurrent DOS-286 Challenges Unix\". BYTE Magazine. 10 (5): 375–377. May 1985. Archived from the original on 2018-09-14. Retrieved 2017-01-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://tech-insider.org/personal-computers/research/1985/05.html","url_text":"\"Concurrent DOS-286 Challenges Unix\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BYTE_Magazine","url_text":"BYTE Magazine"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20180914120059/https://tech-insider.org/personal-computers/research/1985/05.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Concurrent DOS 68K 1.2 - Developer Kit for Motorola VME/10 - Disk 2\". 1986-08-06 [1986-04-08]. Retrieved 2018-09-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cpm.z80.de/download/cdos2.zip","url_text":"\"Concurrent DOS 68K 1.2 - Developer Kit for Motorola VME/10 - Disk 2\""}]},{"reference":"Deitel, Harvey M.; Kogan, Michael S. (1992). The Design of OS/2. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-54889-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/designofos20000deit","url_text":"The Design of OS/2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley","url_text":"Addison-Wesley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-54889-5","url_text":"0-201-54889-5"}]},{"reference":"Foster, Edward (1985-05-13). \"Super DOS awaits new 80286 – Concurrent DOS 286 – delayed until Intel upgrades chip – offers Xenix's power and IBM PC compatibility\". InfoWorld. 7 (19). InfoWorld Media Group: 17–18. ISSN 0199-6649. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2019-04-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2y4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA17","url_text":"\"Super DOS awaits new 80286 – Concurrent DOS 286 – delayed until Intel upgrades chip – offers Xenix's power and IBM PC compatibility\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld_Media_Group","url_text":"InfoWorld Media Group"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0199-6649","url_text":"0199-6649"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20190403192822/https://books.google.ru/books?id=2y4EAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA57&pg=PA17&redir_esc=y%23v=onepage&q&f=false","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Foster, Edward (1985-08-26). \"Intel shows new 80286 chip – Future of DRI's Concurrent DOS 286 still unclear after processor fixed\". InfoWorld. 7 (34). InfoWorld Media Group: 21. ISSN 0199-6649. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. 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Retrieved 2018-08-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/digitalResearch/flexos/FlexOS_Suppliment_For_iAPX286_Computers_Nov86.pdf","url_text":"FlexOS Supplement for Intel iAPX 286-based Computers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Research,_Inc.","url_text":"Digital Research, Inc."},{"url":"https://archive.today/20190403192904/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/digitalResearch/flexos/FlexOS_Suppliment_For_iAPX286_Computers_Nov86.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"CBR, ed. (1987-01-15). \"Digital Research launches FlexOS 286 Real-Time Manufacturing Operating System\". Computer Business Review. Archived from the original on 2013-01-18. Retrieved 2018-09-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cbronline.com/news/digital_research_launches_flexos_286_real_time_manufacturing_operating_system","url_text":"\"Digital Research launches FlexOS 286 Real-Time Manufacturing Operating System\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20130118190950/http://www.cbronline.com/news/digital_research_launches_flexos_286_real_time_manufacturing_operating_system","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Calvo, Melissa; Forbes, Jim (1986-02-10). \"IBM to use a DRI operating system\". InfoWorld . Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2011-09-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oi8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA12","url_text":"\"IBM to use a DRI operating system\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20190403193009/https://books.google.ru/books?id=oi8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA12&redir_esc=y%23v=onepage&q&f=false","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"IBM selects Concurrent DOS-286 for PC AT retail system\" (PDF). European Review (18). Digital Research: 1. March 1986. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-03. 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Retrieved 2019-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.os2museum.com/wp/windows386-2-01/","url_text":"\"Windows/386 2.01\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190403190927/http://www.os2museum.com/wp/windows386-2-01/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Paul, Matthias R. (1997-07-30) [1994-05-01]. NWDOS-TIPs — Tips & Tricks rund um Novell DOS 7, mit Blick auf undokumentierte Details, Bugs und Workarounds. Release 157 (in German) (3 ed.). Archived from the original on 2016-11-03. Retrieved 2014-09-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/nwdostip.htm","url_text":"NWDOS-TIPs — Tips & Tricks rund um Novell DOS 7, mit Blick auf undokumentierte Details, Bugs und Workarounds"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161103164532/http://www.antonis.de/dos/dos-tuts/mpdostip/html/nwdostip.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"OpenDOS Developer's Reference Series — OpenDOS Multitasking API Guide — Programmer's Guide. UK: Caldera, Inc. August 1997. Caldera Part No. 200-DOMG-004. Archived from the original on 2017-09-10. Retrieved 2016-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170910173003/http://www.drdos.net/documentation/multtask/01mtch1.htm","url_text":"OpenDOS Developer's Reference Series — OpenDOS Multitasking API Guide — Programmer's Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera,_Inc.","url_text":"Caldera, Inc."},{"url":"http://www.drdos.net/documentation/multtask/01mtch1.htm#651","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Caldera DR-DOS 7.02 User Guide. Caldera, Inc. 1998 [1993, 1997]. Archived from the original on 2016-11-05. 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Microsoft.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions/windows/it-pro/windows-xp/bb490895(v%3dtechnet.10)","url_text":"\"MS-DOS subsystem commands\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"\"Why can't my DOS and Win-OS/2 sessions see more than 2 GB of free space?\". Arca Noae, LLC. Archived from the original on 2021-07-07. Retrieved 2020-09-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.arcanoae.com/faqwd/why-cant-my-dos-and-win-os-2-sessions-see-more-than-2gb-of-free-space/","url_text":"\"Why can't my DOS and Win-OS/2 sessions see more than 2 GB of free space?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arca_Noae,_LLC","url_text":"Arca Noae, LLC"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210707205348/https://www.arcanoae.com/faqwd/why-cant-my-dos-and-win-os-2-sessions-see-more-than-2gb-of-free-space/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"ArcaOS Release Notes\". 2020-08-31 [2017-05-15]. 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Retrieved 2020-01-22 – via bytepointer.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Pietrek","url_text":"Pietrek, Matt"},{"url":"http://bytepointer.com/resources/pietrek_ntvdm.htm","url_text":"\"Under The Hood\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Systems_Journal","url_text":"Microsoft Systems Journal"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170713133231/http://bytepointer.com/resources/pietrek_ntvdm.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/undocumenteddosp00andr_0","external_links_name":"Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_for_testing | Design for testing | ["1 History","2 Objectives of DFT for microelectronics products","3 Looking forward","4 Diagnostics","5 Scan design","6 Debug using DFT features","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"] | IC design techniques that include testability features
Design for testing or design for testability (DFT) consists of IC design techniques that add testability features to a hardware product design. The added features make it easier to develop and apply manufacturing tests to the designed hardware. The purpose of manufacturing tests is to validate that the product hardware contains no manufacturing defects that could adversely affect the product's correct functioning.
Tests are applied at several steps in the hardware manufacturing flow and, for certain products, may also be used for hardware maintenance in the customer's environment. The tests are generally driven by test programs that execute using automatic test equipment (ATE) or, in the case of system maintenance, inside the assembled system itself. In addition to finding and indicating the presence of defects (i.e., the test fails), tests may be able to log diagnostic information about the nature of the encountered test fails. The diagnostic information can be used to locate the source of the failure.
In other words, the response of vectors (patterns) from a good circuit is compared with the response of vectors (using the same patterns) from a DUT (device under test). If the response is the same or matches, the circuit is good. Otherwise, the circuit is not manufactured as it was intended.
DFT plays an important role in the development of test programs and as an interface for test application and diagnostics. Automatic test pattern generation, or ATPG, is much easier if appropriate DFT rules and suggestions have been implemented.
History
DFT techniques have been used at least since the early days of electric/electronic data processing equipment. Early examples from the 1940s/50s are the switches and instruments that allowed an engineer to "scan" (i.e., selectively probe) the voltage/current at some internal nodes in an analog computer . DFT often is associated with design modifications that provide improved access to internal circuit elements such that the local internal state can be controlled (controllability) and/or observed (observability) more easily. The design modifications can be strictly physical in nature (e.g., adding a physical probe point to a net) and/or add active circuit elements to facilitate controllability/observability (e.g., inserting a multiplexer into a net). While controllability and observability improvements for internal circuit elements definitely are important for test, they are not the only type of DFT. Other guidelines, for example, deal with the electromechanical characteristics of the interface between the product under test and the test equipment. Examples are guidelines for the size, shape, and spacing of probe points, or the suggestion to add a high-impedance state to drivers attached to probed nets such that the risk of damage from back-driving is mitigated.
Over the years the industry has developed and used a large variety of more or less detailed and more or less formal guidelines for desired and/or mandatory DFT circuit modifications. The common understanding of DFT in the context of Electronic Design Automation (EDA) for modern microelectronics is shaped to a large extent by the capabilities of commercial DFT software tools as well as by the expertise and experience of a professional community of DFT engineers researching, developing, and using such tools. Much of the related body of DFT knowledge focuses on digital circuits while DFT for analog/mixed-signal circuits takes somewhat of a backseat.
Objectives of DFT for microelectronics products
DFT affects and depends on the methods used for test development, test application, and diagnostics.
Most tool-supported DFT practiced in the industry today, at least for digital circuits, is predicated on a Structural test paradigm. Structural test makes no direct attempt to determine if the overall functionality of the circuit is correct. Instead, it tries to make sure that the circuit has been assembled correctly from some low-level building blocks as specified in a structural netlist. For example, are all specified logic gates present, operating correctly, and connected correctly? The stipulation is that if the netlist is correct, and structural testing has confirmed the correct assembly of the circuit elements, then the circuit should be functioning correctly.
Note that this is very different from functional testing, which attempts to validate that the circuit under test functions according to its functional specification. This is closely related to functional verification problem of determining if the circuit specified by the netlist meets the functional specifications, assuming it is built correctly.
One benefit of the Structural paradigm is that test generation can focus on testing a limited number of relatively simple circuit elements rather than having to deal with an exponentially exploding multiplicity of functional states and state transitions. While the task of testing a single logic gate at a time sounds simple, there is an obstacle to overcome. For today's highly complex designs, most gates are deeply embedded whereas the test equipment is only connected to the primary Input/outputs (I/Os) and/or some physical test points. The embedded gates, hence, must be manipulated through intervening layers of logic. If the intervening logic contains state elements, then the issue of an exponentially exploding state space and state transition sequencing creates an unsolvable problem for test generation. To simplify test generation, DFT addresses the accessibility problem by removing the need for complicated state transition sequences when trying to control and/or observe what's happening at some internal circuit element.
Depending on the DFT choices made during circuit design/implementation, the generation of Structural tests for complex logic circuits can be more or less automated or self-automated Archived 2013-10-13 at the Wayback Machine. One key objective of DFT methodologies, hence, is to allow designers to make trade-offs between the amount and type of DFT and the cost/benefit (time, effort, quality) of the test generation task.
Another benefit is to diagnose a circuit in case any problem emerges in the future. Its like adding some features or provisions in the design so that device can be tested in case of any fault during its use.
Looking forward
One challenge for the industry is keeping up with the rapid advances in chip technology (I/O count/size/placement/spacing, I/O speed, internal circuit count/speed/power, thermal control, etc.) without being forced to continually upgrade the test equipment. Modern DFT techniques, hence, have to offer options that allow next generation chips and assemblies to be tested on existing test equipment and/or reduce the requirements/cost for new test equipment. As a result, DFT techniques are continually being updated, such as incorporation of compression, in order to make sure that tester application times stay within certain bounds dictated by the cost target for the products under test.
Diagnostics
Especially for advanced semiconductor technologies, it is expected some of the chips on each manufactured wafer contain defects that render them non-functional. The primary objective of testing is to find and separate those non-functional chips from the fully functional ones, meaning that one or more responses captured by the tester from a non-functional chip under test differ from the expected response. The percentage of chips that fail test, hence, should be closely related to the expected functional yield for that chip type. In reality, however, it is not uncommon that all chips of a new chip type arriving at the test floor for the first time fail (so called zero-yield situation). In that case, the chips have to go through a debug process that tries to identify the reason for the zero-yield situation. In other cases, the test fall-out (percentage of test fails) may be higher than expected/acceptable or fluctuate suddenly. Again, the chips have to be subjected to an analysis process to identify the reason for the excessive test fall-out.
In both cases, vital information about the nature of the underlying problem may be hidden in the way the chips fail during test. To facilitate better analysis, additional fail information beyond a simple pass/fail is collected into a fail log. The fail log typically contains information about when (e.g., tester cycle), where (e.g., at what tester channel), and how (e.g., logic value) the test failed. Diagnostics attempt to derive from the fail log at which logical/physical location inside the chip the problem most likely started. By running a large number of failures through the diagnostics process, called volume diagnostics, systematic failures can be identified.
In some cases (e.g., Printed circuit boards, Multi-Chip Modules (MCMs), embedded or stand-alone memories) it may be possible to repair a failing circuit under test. For that purpose diagnostics must quickly find the failing unit and create a work-order for repairing/replacing the failing unit.
DFT approaches can be more or less diagnostics-friendly. The related objectives of DFT are to facilitate/simplify fail data collection and diagnostics to an extent that can enable intelligent failure analysis (FA) sample selection, as well as improve the cost, accuracy, speed, and throughput of diagnostics and FA.
Scan design
The most common method for delivering test data from chip inputs to internal circuits under test (CUTs, for short), and observing their outputs, is called scan-design. In scan-design, registers (flip-flops or latches) in the design are connected in one or more scan chains, which are used to gain access to internal nodes of the chip. Test patterns are shifted in via the scan chain(s), functional clock signals are pulsed to test the circuit during the "capture cycle(s)", and the results are then shifted out to chip output pins and compared against the expected "good machine" results.
Straightforward application of scan techniques can result in large vector sets with corresponding long tester time and memory requirements. Test compression techniques address this problem, by decompressing the scan input on chip and compressing the test output. Large gains are possible since any particular test vector usually only needs to set and/or examine a small fraction of the scan chain bits.
The output of a scan design may be provided in forms such as Serial Vector Format (SVF), to be executed by test equipment.
Debug using DFT features
In addition to being useful for manufacturing "go/no go" testing, scan chains can also be used to "debug" chip designs. In this context, the chip is exercised in normal "functional mode" (for example, a computer or mobile-phone chip might execute assembly language instructions). At any time, the chip clock can be stopped, and the chip re-configured into "test mode". At this point the full internal state can be dumped out, or set to any desired values, by use of the scan chains. Another use of scan to aid debug consists of scanning in an initial state to all memory elements and then go back to functional mode to perform system debug. The advantage is to bring the system to a known state without going through many clock cycles. This use of scan chains, along with the clock control circuits are a related sub-discipline of logic design called "Design for Debug" or "Design for Debuggability".
See also
Automatic test equipment
Automatic test pattern generation
BIST
Design for X
Fault grading
Iddq testing
JTAG
References
IEEE Std 1149.1 (JTAG) Testability Primer A technical presentation on Design-for-Test centered on JTAG and Boundary Scan
VLSI Test Principles and Architectures, by L.T. Wang, C.W. Wu, and X.Q. Wen, Chapter 2, 2006. Elsevier.
Electronic Design Automation For Integrated Circuits Handbook, by Lavagno, Martin and Scheffer, ISBN 0-8493-3096-3 A survey of the field of electronic design automation. This summary was derived (with permission) from Vol I, Chapter 21, Design For Test, by Bernd Koenemann.
^ Ben-Gal I., Herer Y. and Raz T. (2003). "Self-correcting inspection procedure under inspection errors" (PDF). IIE Transactions on Quality and Reliability, 34(6), pp. 529-540. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-13. Retrieved 2014-01-10.
^ "Design for debugging: the unspoken imperative in chip design"
article by Ron Wilson, EDN, 6/21/2007
External links
Boundary-Scan Chain Design
Board Level Design
Design for Testability Guidelines | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IC design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit_design"},{"link_name":"hardware manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_fabrication"},{"link_name":"test programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_testing"},{"link_name":"automatic test equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_test_equipment"},{"link_name":"Automatic test pattern generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_test_pattern_generation"}],"text":"Design for testing or design for testability (DFT) consists of IC design techniques that add testability features to a hardware product design. The added features make it easier to develop and apply manufacturing tests to the designed hardware. 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If the response is the same or matches, the circuit is good. Otherwise, the circuit is not manufactured as it was intended.DFT plays an important role in the development of test programs and as an interface for test application and diagnostics. 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Early examples from the 1940s/50s are the switches and instruments that allowed an engineer to \"scan\" (i.e., selectively probe) the voltage/current at some internal nodes in an analog computer [analog scan]. DFT often is associated with design modifications that provide improved access to internal circuit elements such that the local internal state can be controlled (controllability) and/or observed (observability) more easily. The design modifications can be strictly physical in nature (e.g., adding a physical probe point to a net) and/or add active circuit elements to facilitate controllability/observability (e.g., inserting a multiplexer into a net). While controllability and observability improvements for internal circuit elements definitely are important for test, they are not the only type of DFT. Other guidelines, for example, deal with the electromechanical characteristics of the interface between the product under test and the test equipment. Examples are guidelines for the size, shape, and spacing of probe points, or the suggestion to add a high-impedance state to drivers attached to probed nets such that the risk of damage from back-driving is mitigated.Over the years the industry has developed and used a large variety of more or less detailed and more or less formal guidelines for desired and/or mandatory DFT circuit modifications. The common understanding of DFT in the context of Electronic Design Automation (EDA) for modern microelectronics is shaped to a large extent by the capabilities of commercial DFT software tools as well as by the expertise and experience of a professional community of DFT engineers researching, developing, and using such tools. Much of the related body of DFT knowledge focuses on digital circuits while DFT for analog/mixed-signal circuits takes somewhat of a backseat.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"netlist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netlist"},{"link_name":"logic gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate"},{"link_name":"functional testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance_test"},{"link_name":"functional verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_verification"},{"link_name":"states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"Input/outputs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output"},{"link_name":"state space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_space"},{"link_name":"unsolvable problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory"},{"link_name":"automated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_test_pattern_generation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/SCI_paper.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20131013171945/http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/SCI_paper.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"DFT affects and depends on the methods used for test development, test application, and diagnostics.Most tool-supported DFT practiced in the industry today, at least for digital circuits, is predicated on a Structural test paradigm. Structural test makes no direct attempt to determine if the overall functionality of the circuit is correct. Instead, it tries to make sure that the circuit has been assembled correctly from some low-level building blocks as specified in a structural netlist. For example, are all specified logic gates present, operating correctly, and connected correctly? The stipulation is that if the netlist is correct, and structural testing has confirmed the correct assembly of the circuit elements, then the circuit should be functioning correctly.Note that this is very different from functional testing, which attempts to validate that the circuit under test functions according to its functional specification. This is closely related to functional verification problem of determining if the circuit specified by the netlist meets the functional specifications, assuming it is built correctly.One benefit of the Structural paradigm is that test generation can focus on testing a limited number of relatively simple circuit elements rather than having to deal with an exponentially exploding multiplicity of functional states and state transitions. While the task of testing a single logic gate at a time sounds simple, there is an obstacle to overcome. For today's highly complex designs, most gates are deeply embedded whereas the test equipment is only connected to the primary Input/outputs (I/Os) and/or some physical test points. The embedded gates, hence, must be manipulated through intervening layers of logic. If the intervening logic contains state elements, then the issue of an exponentially exploding state space and state transition sequencing creates an unsolvable problem for test generation. To simplify test generation, DFT addresses the accessibility problem by removing the need for complicated state transition sequences when trying to control and/or observe what's happening at some internal circuit element.\nDepending on the DFT choices made during circuit design/implementation, the generation of Structural tests for complex logic circuits can be more or less automated or self-automated[1][1] Archived 2013-10-13 at the Wayback Machine. One key objective of DFT methodologies, hence, is to allow designers to make trade-offs between the amount and type of DFT and the cost/benefit (time, effort, quality) of the test generation task.Another benefit is to diagnose a circuit in case any problem emerges in the future. Its like adding some features or provisions in the design so that device can be tested in case of any fault during its use.","title":"Objectives of DFT for microelectronics products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rapid advances in chip technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_law"}],"text":"One challenge for the industry is keeping up with the rapid advances in chip technology (I/O count/size/placement/spacing, I/O speed, internal circuit count/speed/power, thermal control, etc.) without being forced to continually upgrade the test equipment. Modern DFT techniques, hence, have to offer options that allow next generation chips and assemblies to be tested on existing test equipment and/or reduce the requirements/cost for new test equipment. As a result, DFT techniques are continually being updated, such as incorporation of compression, in order to make sure that tester application times stay within certain bounds dictated by the cost target for the products under test.","title":"Looking forward"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wafer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"Printed circuit boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"Multi-Chip Modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-Chip_Module"},{"link_name":"memories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_(computers)"}],"text":"Especially for advanced semiconductor technologies, it is expected some of the chips on each manufactured wafer contain defects that render them non-functional. The primary objective of testing is to find and separate those non-functional chips from the fully functional ones, meaning that one or more responses captured by the tester from a non-functional chip under test differ from the expected response. The percentage of chips that fail test, hence, should be closely related to the expected functional yield for that chip type. In reality, however, it is not uncommon that all chips of a new chip type arriving at the test floor for the first time fail (so called zero-yield situation). In that case, the chips have to go through a debug process that tries to identify the reason for the zero-yield situation. In other cases, the test fall-out (percentage of test fails) may be higher than expected/acceptable or fluctuate suddenly. Again, the chips have to be subjected to an analysis process to identify the reason for the excessive test fall-out.In both cases, vital information about the nature of the underlying problem may be hidden in the way the chips fail during test. To facilitate better analysis, additional fail information beyond a simple pass/fail is collected into a fail log. The fail log typically contains information about when (e.g., tester cycle), where (e.g., at what tester channel), and how (e.g., logic value) the test failed. Diagnostics attempt to derive from the fail log at which logical/physical location inside the chip the problem most likely started. By running a large number of failures through the diagnostics process, called volume diagnostics, systematic failures can be identified.In some cases (e.g., Printed circuit boards, Multi-Chip Modules (MCMs), embedded or stand-alone memories) it may be possible to repair a failing circuit under test. For that purpose diagnostics must quickly find the failing unit and create a work-order for repairing/replacing the failing unit.DFT approaches can be more or less diagnostics-friendly. The related objectives of DFT are to facilitate/simplify fail data collection and diagnostics to an extent that can enable intelligent failure analysis (FA) sample selection, as well as improve the cost, accuracy, speed, and throughput of diagnostics and FA.","title":"Diagnostics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"flip-flops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"scan chains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scan_chain"},{"link_name":"clock signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_signal"},{"link_name":"Test compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_compression"},{"link_name":"Serial Vector Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Vector_Format"}],"text":"The most common method for delivering test data from chip inputs to internal circuits under test (CUTs, for short), and observing their outputs, is called scan-design. In scan-design, registers (flip-flops or latches) in the design are connected in one or more scan chains, which are used to gain access to internal nodes of the chip. Test patterns are shifted in via the scan chain(s), functional clock signals are pulsed to test the circuit during the \"capture cycle(s)\", and the results are then shifted out to chip output pins and compared against the expected \"good machine\" results.Straightforward application of scan techniques can result in large vector sets with corresponding long tester time and memory requirements. Test compression techniques address this problem, by decompressing the scan input on chip and compressing the test output. Large gains are possible since any particular test vector usually only needs to set and/or examine a small fraction of the scan chain bits.The output of a scan design may be provided in forms such as Serial Vector Format (SVF), to be executed by test equipment.","title":"Scan design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"In addition to being useful for manufacturing \"go/no go\" testing, scan chains can also be used to \"debug\" chip designs. In this context, the chip is exercised in normal \"functional mode\" (for example, a computer or mobile-phone chip might execute assembly language instructions). At any time, the chip clock can be stopped, and the chip re-configured into \"test mode\". At this point the full internal state can be dumped out, or set to any desired values, by use of the scan chains. Another use of scan to aid debug consists of scanning in an initial state to all memory elements and then go back to functional mode to perform system debug. The advantage is to bring the system to a known state without going through many clock cycles. This use of scan chains, along with the clock control circuits are a related sub-discipline of logic design called \"Design for Debug\" or \"Design for Debuggability\".\n[2]","title":"Debug using DFT features"}] | [] | [{"title":"Automatic test equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_test_equipment"},{"title":"Automatic test pattern generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_test_pattern_generation"},{"title":"BIST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built-in_self-test"},{"title":"Design for X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_for_X"},{"title":"Fault grading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_grading"},{"title":"Iddq testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iddq_testing"},{"title":"JTAG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JTAG"}] | [{"reference":"Ben-Gal I., Herer Y. and Raz T. (2003). \"Self-correcting inspection procedure under inspection errors\" (PDF). IIE Transactions on Quality and Reliability, 34(6), pp. 529-540. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-13. Retrieved 2014-01-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131013171945/http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/SCI_paper.pdf","url_text":"\"Self-correcting inspection procedure under inspection errors\""},{"url":"http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/SCI_paper.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/SCI_paper.pdf","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131013171945/http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/SCI_paper.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://focus.ti.com/lit/an/ssya002c/ssya002c.pdf","external_links_name":"IEEE Std 1149.1 (JTAG) Testability Primer"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131013171945/http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/SCI_paper.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Self-correcting inspection procedure under inspection errors\""},{"Link":"http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/SCI_paper.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.edn.com/article/CA6451246.html?nid=3673","external_links_name":"\"Design for debugging: the unspoken imperative in chip design\""},{"Link":"http://www.corelis.com/education/Tips_DFT_Considerations_Boundary_Scan_Chain.htm","external_links_name":"Boundary-Scan Chain Design"},{"Link":"http://www.corelis.com/education/Tips_DFT_Considerations_Board_Level_Design.htm","external_links_name":"Board Level Design"},{"Link":"https://www.xjtag.com/about-jtag/design-for-test-guidelines/","external_links_name":"Design for Testability Guidelines"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_methods | Design methods | ["1 Background","2 Methods and processes","3 Emergence of design research and design studies","4 Influence on all professional design practice","5 See also","6 References","7 Other sources (not cited above)","8 External links"] | Set of procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing
Design methods are procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing. They offer a number of different kinds of activities that a designer might use within an overall design process. Conventional procedures of design, such as drawing, can be regarded as design methods, but since the 1950s new procedures have been developed that are more usually grouped together under the name of "design methods". What design methods have in common is that they "are attempts to make public the hitherto private thinking of designers; to externalise the design process".
Design methodology is the broader study of method in design: the study of the principles, practices and procedures of designing.
Background
Design methods originated in new approaches to problem solving developed in the mid-20th Century, and also in response to industrialisation and mass-production, which changed the nature of designing. A "Conference on Systematic and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture and Communications", held in London in 1962 is regarded as a key event marking the beginning of what became known within design studies as the "design methods movement", leading to the founding of the Design Research Society and influencing design education and practice. Leading figures in this movement in the UK were J. Christopher Jones at the University of Manchester and L. Bruce Archer at the Royal College of Art.
The movement developed through further conferences on new design methods in the UK and USA in the 1960s. The first books on rational design methods, and on creative methods also appeared in this period.
New approaches to design were developing at the same time in Germany, notably at the Ulm School of Design (Hochschule für Gestaltung–HfG Ulm) (1953–1968) under the leadership of Tomás Maldonado. Design teaching at Ulm integrated design with science (including social sciences) and introduced new fields of study such as cybernetics, systems theory and semiotics into design education. Bruce Archer also taught at Ulm, and another influential teacher was Horst Rittel. In 1963 Rittel moved to the School of Architecture at the University of California, Berkeley, where he helped found the Design Methods Group, a society focused on developing and promoting new methods especially in architecture and planning.
At the end of the 1960s two influential, but quite different works were published: Herbert A. Simon's The Sciences of the Artificial and J. Christopher Jones's Design Methods. Simon proposed the "science of design" as "a body of intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical, teachable doctrine about the design process", whereas Jones catalogued a variety of approaches to design, both rational and creative, within a context of a broad, futures creating, systems view of design.
The 1970s saw some reaction against the rationality of design methods, notably from two of its pioneers, Christopher Alexander and J. Christopher Jones. Fundamental issues were also raised by Rittel, who characterised design and planning problems as wicked problems, un-amenable to the techniques of science and engineering, which deal with "tame" problems. The criticisms turned some in the movement away from rationalised approaches to design problem solving and towards "argumentative", participatory processes in which designers worked in partnership with the problem stakeholders (clients, customers, users, the community). This led to participatory design, user centered design and the role of design thinking as a creative process in problem solving and innovation.
However, interest in systematic and rational design methods continued to develop strongly in engineering design during the 1980s; for example, through the Conference on Engineering Design series of The Design Society and the work of the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure association in Germany, and also in Japan, where the Japanese Society for the Science of Design had been established as early as 1954. Books on systematic engineering design methods were published in Germany and the UK. In the USA the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Design Engineering Division began a stream on design theory and methodology within its annual conferences. The interest in systematic, rational approaches to design has led to design science and design science (methodology) in engineering and computer science.
Methods and processes
The development of design methods has been closely associated with prescriptions for a systematic process of designing. These process models usually comprise a number of phases or stages, beginning with a statement or recognition of a problem or a need for a new design and culminating in a finalised solution proposal. In his 'Systematic Method for Designers' L. Bruce Archer produced a very elaborate, 229 step model of a systematic design process for industrial design, but also a summary model consisting of three phases: Analytical phase (programming and data collection, analysis), Creative phase (synthesis, development), and Executive phase (communication). The UK's Design Council models the creative design process in four phases: Discover (insight into the problem), Define (the area to focus upon), Develop (potential solutions), Deliver (solutions that work). A systematic model for engineering design by Pahl and Beitz has phases of Clarification of the task, Conceptual design, Embodiment design, and Detail design. A less prescriptive approach to designing a basic design process for oneself has been outlined by J. Christopher Jones.
In the engineering design process systematic models tend to be linear, in sequential steps, but acknowledging the necessity of iteration. In architectural design, process models tend to be cyclical and spiral, with iteration as essential to progression towards a final design. In industrial and product design, process models tend to comprise a sequence of stages of divergent and convergent thinking. The Dubberly Design Office has compiled examples of more than 80 design process models, but it is not an exhaustive list.
Within these process models there are numerous design methods that can be applied. In his book of 'Design Methods' J. C. Jones grouped 26 methods according to their purposes within a design process: Methods of exploring design situations (e.g. Stating Objectives, Investigating User Behaviour, Interviewing Users), Methods of searching for ideas (e.g. Brainstorming, Synectics, Morphological Charts), Methods of exploring problem structure (e.g. Interaction Matrix, Functional Innovation, Information Sorting), Methods of evaluation (e.g. Checklists, Ranking and Weighting).
Nigel Cross outlined eight stages in a process of engineering product design, each with an associated method: Identifying Opportunities - User Scenarios; Clarifying Objectives - Objectives Tree; Establishing Functions - Function Analysis; Setting Requirements - Performance Specification; Determining Characteristics - Quality Function Deployment; Generating Alternatives - Morphological Chart; Evaluating Alternatives - Weighted Objectives; Improving Details - Value Engineering.
Many design methods still currently in use originated in the design methods movement of the 1960s and 70s, adapted to modern design practices. Recent developments have seen the introduction of more qualitative techniques, including ethnographic methods such as cultural probes and situated methods.
Emergence of design research and design studies
The design methods movement had a profound influence on the development of academic interest in design and designing and the emergence of design research and design studies. Arising directly from the 1962 Conference on Design Methods, the Design Research Society (DRS) was founded in the UK in 1966. The purpose of the Society is to promote "the study of and research into the process of designing in all its many fields" and is an interdisciplinary group with many professions represented.
In the USA, a similar Design Methods Group (DMG) was also established in 1966 by Horst Rittel and others at the University of California, Berkeley. The DMG held a conference at MIT in 1968 with a focus on environmental design and planning, and that led to the foundation of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA), which held its first conference in 1969. A group interested in design methods and theory in architecture and engineering formed at MIT in the early 1980s, including Donald Schön, who was studying the working practices of architects, engineers and other professionals and developing his theory of reflective practice. In 1984 the National Science Foundation created a Design Theory and Methodology Program to promote methods and process research in engineering design.
Meanwhile in Europe, Vladimir Hubka established the Workshop Design-Konstruction (WDK),which led to a series of International Conferences on Engineering Design (ICED) beginning in 1981 and later became the Design Society.
Academic research journals in design also began publication. DRS initiated Design Studies in 1979, Design Issues appeared in 1984, and Research in Engineering Design in 1989.
Influence on all professional design practice
Several pioneers of design methods developed their work in association with industry. The Ulm school established a significant partnership with the German consumer products company Braun through their designer Dieter Rams. J. Christopher Jones began his approach to systematic design as an ergonomist at the electrical engineering company AEI. L. Bruce Archer developed his systematic approach in projects for medical equipment for the UK National Health Service.
In the USA, designer Henry Dreyfuss had a profound impact on the practice of industrial design by developing systematic processes and promoting the use of anthropometrics, ergonomics and human factors in design, including through his 1955 book 'Designing for People'. Another successful designer, Jay Doblin, was also influential on the theory and practice of design as a systematic process.
Much of current design practice has been influenced and guided by design methods. For example, the influential IDEO consultancy uses design methods extensively in its 'Design Kit' and 'Method Cards'. Increasingly, the intersections of design methods with business and government through the application of design thinking have been championed by numerous consultancies within the design profession. Wide influence has also come through Christopher Alexander's pattern language method, originally developed for architectural and urban design, which has been adopted in software design, interaction design, pedagogical design and other domains.
See also
Design management
Design rationale
Design research
Design science
Design theory
Design thinking
References
^ Jones, J. Christopher (1980). Design Methods. UK: Wiley.
^ Cross, Nigel (1984). Developments in Design Methodology. UK: Wiley. ISBN 978-0471102489.
^ Cross, N. (1993) "A History Of Design Methodology", in de Vries, J., N. Cross and D. P. Grant (eds.), Design Methodology and Relationships with Science, Kluwer Press, The Netherlands. 15–27.
^ Jones, J. C. and D. G. Thornley, (eds) (1963) Conference on Design Methods, Pergamon Press, UK.
^ Gregory, S. A. (ed.) The Design Method. Butterworth, UK.
^ Broadbent, G. and A. Ward (eds) (1969) Design Methods in Architecture, Lund Humphries, UK
^ Moore, G. T. (ed.) (1970) Emerging Methods in Environmental Design and Planning, MIT Press, USA.
^ Asimow, M. (1962) Introduction to Design, Prentice-Hall, USA.
^ Alexander, C. (1964) Notes on the Synthesis of Form, Harvard University Press, USA.
^ Archer, L. B. (1965) Systematic Method for Designers, The Design Council, UK
^ Gordon, W. J. (1961) Synectics, Harper & Row, USA.
^ Osborn, A. F. (1963) Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Thinking, Scribener's Sons, USA.
^ Krampen, M. and G. Hörman (2003) The Ulm School of Design, Ernst & Sohn, Germany. p.85
^ Rith, C. and Dubberly, H. (2007) "Why Horst W J Rittel Matters", Design Issues, 23, 72–91
^ Simon, H. A. (1969) The Sciences of the Artificial, MIT Press, USA.
^ Jones, J. C. (1970) Design Methods: Seeds of Human Futures, Wiley, UK
^ Cross, N. (1984) Developments in Design Methodology, Wiley, UK.
^ Rittel, H. and M. Webber (1973) "Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning", Policy Sciences 4, 155–169
^ "IASDR".
^ Hubka, V. (1982) Principles of Engineering Design, Butterworth Scientific Press, UK.
^ Pahl, G. and W. Beitz (1984) Engineering Design: a systematic approach, Springer/Design Council, UK.
^ Hubka, V., Andreasen, M. M. and Eder, W. E. (1988) Practical Studies in Systematic Design, Butterworth, UK
^ Cross, N. (1989) Engineering Design Methods, Wiley, UK.
^ "Bruce Archer's Design Process Checklist".
^ "The Design Process: What is the Double Diamond?". 2015-03-17.
^ Pahl, G. and W. Beitz (1984) Engineering Design: a systematic approach, Springer/Design Council, UK.
^ Jones, J. Christopher. "design methods for everyone". publicwriting.net. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
^ Dubberly, H. (2004) How do you design: a compendium of models. Dubberly Design Office, San Francisco, USA. http://www.dubberly.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/ddo_designprocess.pdf
^ Jones, J. C. (1970) Design Methods: seeds of human futures. Wiley, UK.
^ Cross, N. (2008) Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design. Wiley, UK.
^ Simonsen, J. et al. (2014) Situated Design Methods. MIT Press, USA.
^ Bayazit, N. (2004) "Investigating Design: A Review of Forty Years of Design Research." Design Issues 20, 1, 16-29.
^ Moore, G. T. (ed.) (1970) Emerging Methods in Environmental Design and Planning. MIT Press, USA.
^ Schön, D. A. (1983)The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-06878-2.
^ Design Studies.
^ "MIT Press Journals".
^ "Research in Engineering Design".
^ Dreyfuss, Henry. Designing for People. Allworth Press; 2003. ISBN 1-58115-312-0
^ https://www.doblin.com/dist/images/uploads/A-Short-Grandiose-Theory-of-Design-J.-Doblin.pdf Archived 2022-08-18 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Design Kit". Archived from the original on 2022-05-23. Retrieved 2018-12-20.
^ "Method Cards".
^ Alexander, Christopher; et al. (1977). A Pattern Language. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-501919-3.
Other sources (not cited above)
Ko, A. J. Design Methods. https://faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html
Koberg, D. and J. Bagnall. (1972) The Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Design. Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann. 2nd edition (1981): The All New Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Reaching Goals.
Krippendorff, K. (2006). The Semantic Turn; A New Foundation for Design. Taylor&Francis, CRC Press, USA. ISBN 978-0415779890
Plowright, P. (2014) Revealing Architectural Design: Methods, Frameworks and Tools. Routledge, UK. ISBN 978-0415639026
Protzen, J-P. and D. J. Harris. (2010) The Universe of Design: Horst Rittel's Theories of Design and Planning. Routledge. ISBN 0415779898
Pugh, S. (1991), Total Design: Integrated Methods for Successful Product Engineering. Addison-Wesley, UK.
Roozenburg, N. and J. Eekels. (1991) Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods. Wiley, UK. ISBN 0471943517
Ulrich, K. and S. Eppinger. (2011) Product Design and Development. McGraw Hill, USA. ISBN 978-0073404776
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Design.
Introductory Lecture on Design Methods by Rhodes Hileman
Abstract: Design Methods
Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 1 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007
Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 2 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007
Double Consciousness: Back to the Future with John Chris Jones. GK VanPatter, John Chris Jones; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2006
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Wiktionary | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones_Design_Methods-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cross_Methodology-2"}],"text":"Design methods are procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing. They offer a number of different kinds of activities that a designer might use within an overall design process. Conventional procedures of design, such as drawing, can be regarded as design methods, but since the 1950s new procedures have been developed that are more usually grouped together under the name of \"design methods\". What design methods have in common is that they \"are attempts to make public the hitherto private thinking of designers; to externalise the design process\".[1]Design methodology is the broader study of method in design: the study of the principles, practices and procedures of designing.[2]","title":"Design methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"problem solving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Design Research Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Research_Society"},{"link_name":"J. Christopher Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Christopher_Jones"},{"link_name":"University of Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manchester"},{"link_name":"L. Bruce Archer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Bruce_Archer"},{"link_name":"Royal College of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_College_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Ulm School of Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulm_School_of_Design"},{"link_name":"Tomás Maldonado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Maldonado"},{"link_name":"cybernetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics"},{"link_name":"systems theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory"},{"link_name":"semiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Bruce Archer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Bruce_Archer"},{"link_name":"Horst Rittel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horst_Rittel"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"Herbert A. Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon"},{"link_name":"J. Christopher Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Christopher_Jones"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Christopher Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Alexander"},{"link_name":"J. Christopher Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Christopher_Jones"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"wicked problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicked_problems"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"participatory design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_design"},{"link_name":"user centered design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_centered_design"},{"link_name":"design thinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_thinking"},{"link_name":"Verein Deutscher Ingenieure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verein_Deutscher_Ingenieure"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"American Society of Mechanical Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers"},{"link_name":"design science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science"},{"link_name":"design science (methodology)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science_(methodology)"}],"text":"Design methods originated in new approaches to problem solving developed in the mid-20th Century, and also in response to industrialisation and mass-production, which changed the nature of designing.[3] A \"Conference on Systematic and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture and Communications\", held in London in 1962[4] is regarded as a key event marking the beginning of what became known within design studies as the \"design methods movement\", leading to the founding of the Design Research Society and influencing design education and practice. Leading figures in this movement in the UK were J. Christopher Jones at the University of Manchester and L. Bruce Archer at the Royal College of Art.The movement developed through further conferences on new design methods in the UK and USA in the 1960s.[5][6][7] The first books on rational design methods,[8][9][10] and on creative methods[11][12] also appeared in this period.New approaches to design were developing at the same time in Germany, notably at the Ulm School of Design (Hochschule für Gestaltung–HfG Ulm) (1953–1968) under the leadership of Tomás Maldonado. Design teaching at Ulm integrated design with science (including social sciences) and introduced new fields of study such as cybernetics, systems theory and semiotics into design education.[13] Bruce Archer also taught at Ulm, and another influential teacher was Horst Rittel.[14] In 1963 Rittel moved to the School of Architecture at the University of California, Berkeley, where he helped found the Design Methods Group, a society focused on developing and promoting new methods especially in architecture and planning.At the end of the 1960s two influential, but quite different works were published: Herbert A. Simon's The Sciences of the Artificial and J. Christopher Jones's Design Methods.[15][16] Simon proposed the \"science of design\" as \"a body of intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical, teachable doctrine about the design process\", whereas Jones catalogued a variety of approaches to design, both rational and creative, within a context of a broad, futures creating, systems view of design.The 1970s saw some reaction against the rationality of design methods, notably from two of its pioneers, Christopher Alexander and J. Christopher Jones.[17] Fundamental issues were also raised by Rittel, who characterised design and planning problems as wicked problems, un-amenable to the techniques of science and engineering, which deal with \"tame\" problems.[18] The criticisms turned some in the movement away from rationalised approaches to design problem solving and towards \"argumentative\", participatory processes in which designers worked in partnership with the problem stakeholders (clients, customers, users, the community). This led to participatory design, user centered design and the role of design thinking as a creative process in problem solving and innovation.However, interest in systematic and rational design methods continued to develop strongly in engineering design during the 1980s; for example, through the Conference on Engineering Design series of The Design Society and the work of the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure association in Germany, and also in Japan, where the Japanese Society for the Science of Design had been established as early as 1954.[19] Books on systematic engineering design methods were published in Germany and the UK.[20][21][22][23] In the USA the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Design Engineering Division began a stream on design theory and methodology within its annual conferences. The interest in systematic, rational approaches to design has led to design science and design science (methodology) in engineering and computer science.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"L. Bruce Archer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Bruce_Archer"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Design Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Council"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"J. Christopher Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Christopher_Jones"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"engineering design process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_design_process"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"J. C. Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Christopher_Jones"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Nigel Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Cross"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"cultural probes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_probe"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"The development of design methods has been closely associated with prescriptions for a systematic process of designing. These process models usually comprise a number of phases or stages, beginning with a statement or recognition of a problem or a need for a new design and culminating in a finalised solution proposal. In his 'Systematic Method for Designers' L. Bruce Archer produced a very elaborate, 229 step model of a systematic design process for industrial design,[24] but also a summary model consisting of three phases: Analytical phase (programming and data collection, analysis), Creative phase (synthesis, development), and Executive phase (communication). The UK's Design Council models the creative design process in four phases: Discover (insight into the problem), Define (the area to focus upon), Develop (potential solutions), Deliver (solutions that work).[25] A systematic model for engineering design by Pahl and Beitz has phases of Clarification of the task, Conceptual design, Embodiment design, and Detail design.[26] A less prescriptive approach to designing a basic design process for oneself has been outlined by J. Christopher Jones.[27]In the engineering design process systematic models tend to be linear, in sequential steps, but acknowledging the necessity of iteration. In architectural design, process models tend to be cyclical and spiral, with iteration as essential to progression towards a final design. In industrial and product design, process models tend to comprise a sequence of stages of divergent and convergent thinking. The Dubberly Design Office has compiled examples of more than 80 design process models,[28] but it is not an exhaustive list.Within these process models there are numerous design methods that can be applied. In his book of 'Design Methods' J. C. Jones grouped 26 methods according to their purposes within a design process: Methods of exploring design situations (e.g. Stating Objectives, Investigating User Behaviour, Interviewing Users), Methods of searching for ideas (e.g. Brainstorming, Synectics, Morphological Charts), Methods of exploring problem structure (e.g. Interaction Matrix, Functional Innovation, Information Sorting), Methods of evaluation (e.g. Checklists, Ranking and Weighting).[29]Nigel Cross outlined eight stages in a process of engineering product design, each with an associated method: Identifying Opportunities - User Scenarios; Clarifying Objectives - Objectives Tree; Establishing Functions - Function Analysis; Setting Requirements - Performance Specification; Determining Characteristics - Quality Function Deployment; Generating Alternatives - Morphological Chart; Evaluating Alternatives - Weighted Objectives; Improving Details - Value Engineering.[30]Many design methods still currently in use originated in the design methods movement of the 1960s and 70s, adapted to modern design practices. Recent developments have seen the introduction of more qualitative techniques, including ethnographic methods such as cultural probes and situated methods.[31]","title":"Methods and processes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"design research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_research"},{"link_name":"design studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_studies"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Design Research Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Research_Society"},{"link_name":"Horst Rittel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horst_Rittel"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"MIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Environmental Design Research Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Design_Research_Association"},{"link_name":"Donald Schön","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Sch%C3%B6n"},{"link_name":"reflective practice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflective_practice"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"National Science Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"The design methods movement had a profound influence on the development of academic interest in design and designing and the emergence of design research and design studies.[32] Arising directly from the 1962 Conference on Design Methods, the Design Research Society (DRS) was founded in the UK in 1966. The purpose of the Society is to promote \"the study of and research into the process of designing in all its many fields\" and is an interdisciplinary group with many professions represented.In the USA, a similar Design Methods Group (DMG) was also established in 1966 by Horst Rittel and others at the University of California, Berkeley. The DMG held a conference at MIT in 1968[33] with a focus on environmental design and planning, and that led to the foundation of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA), which held its first conference in 1969. A group interested in design methods and theory in architecture and engineering formed at MIT in the early 1980s, including Donald Schön, who was studying the working practices of architects, engineers and other professionals and developing his theory of reflective practice.[34] In 1984 the National Science Foundation created a Design Theory and Methodology Program to promote methods and process research in engineering design.Meanwhile in Europe, Vladimir Hubka established the Workshop Design-Konstruction (WDK),which led to a series of International Conferences on Engineering Design (ICED) beginning in 1981 and later became the Design Society.Academic research journals in design also began publication. DRS initiated Design Studies[35] in 1979, Design Issues[36] appeared in 1984, and Research in Engineering Design[37] in 1989.","title":"Emergence of design research and design studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ulm school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulm_School_of_Design"},{"link_name":"Braun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braun_(company)"},{"link_name":"Dieter Rams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieter_Rams"},{"link_name":"J. Christopher Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Christopher_Jones"},{"link_name":"AEI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Electrical_Industries"},{"link_name":"L. Bruce Archer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Bruce_Archer"},{"link_name":"Henry Dreyfuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Dreyfuss"},{"link_name":"anthropometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropometrics"},{"link_name":"ergonomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomics"},{"link_name":"human factors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_factors"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Jay Doblin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Doblin"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"IDEO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDEO"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"design thinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_thinking"},{"link_name":"Christopher Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Alexander"},{"link_name":"pattern language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_language"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"software design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_design_patterns"},{"link_name":"interaction design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_design_pattern"},{"link_name":"pedagogical design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_patterns"}],"text":"Several pioneers of design methods developed their work in association with industry. The Ulm school established a significant partnership with the German consumer products company Braun through their designer Dieter Rams. J. Christopher Jones began his approach to systematic design as an ergonomist at the electrical engineering company AEI. L. Bruce Archer developed his systematic approach in projects for medical equipment for the UK National Health Service.In the USA, designer Henry Dreyfuss had a profound impact on the practice of industrial design by developing systematic processes and promoting the use of anthropometrics, ergonomics and human factors in design, including through his 1955 book 'Designing for People'.[38] Another successful designer, Jay Doblin, was also influential on the theory and practice of design as a systematic process.[39]Much of current design practice has been influenced and guided by design methods. For example, the influential IDEO consultancy uses design methods extensively in its 'Design Kit' and 'Method Cards'.[40][41] Increasingly, the intersections of design methods with business and government through the application of design thinking have been championed by numerous consultancies within the design profession. Wide influence has also come through Christopher Alexander's pattern language method,[42] originally developed for architectural and urban design, which has been adopted in software design, interaction design, pedagogical design and other domains.","title":"Influence on all professional design practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"https://faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0415779890","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415779890"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0415639026","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415639026"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0415779898","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415779898"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0471943517","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471943517"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0073404776","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0073404776"}],"text":"Ko, A. J. Design Methods. https://faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html\nKoberg, D. and J. Bagnall. (1972) The Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Design. Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann. 2nd edition (1981): The All New Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Reaching Goals.\nKrippendorff, K. (2006). The Semantic Turn; A New Foundation for Design. Taylor&Francis, CRC Press, USA. ISBN 978-0415779890\nPlowright, P. (2014) Revealing Architectural Design: Methods, Frameworks and Tools. Routledge, UK. ISBN 978-0415639026\nProtzen, J-P. and D. J. Harris. (2010) The Universe of Design: Horst Rittel's Theories of Design and Planning. Routledge. ISBN 0415779898\nPugh, S. (1991), Total Design: Integrated Methods for Successful Product Engineering. Addison-Wesley, UK.\nRoozenburg, N. and J. Eekels. (1991) Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods. Wiley, UK. ISBN 0471943517\nUlrich, K. and S. Eppinger. (2011) Product Design and Development. McGraw Hill, USA. ISBN 978-0073404776","title":"Other sources (not cited above)"}] | [] | [{"title":"Design management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_management"},{"title":"Design rationale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_rationale"},{"title":"Design research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_research"},{"title":"Design science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science"},{"title":"Design theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_theory"},{"title":"Design thinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_thinking"}] | [{"reference":"Jones, J. Christopher (1980). Design Methods. UK: Wiley.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ilmontanarodelg00castgoog","url_text":"Design Methods"}]},{"reference":"Cross, Nigel (1984). Developments in Design Methodology. UK: Wiley. ISBN 978-0471102489.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471102489","url_text":"978-0471102489"}]},{"reference":"\"IASDR\".","urls":[{"url":"https://iasdr.net/member-societies/","url_text":"\"IASDR\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bruce Archer's Design Process Checklist\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dubberly.com/concept-maps/archers-design-process.html","url_text":"\"Bruce Archer's Design Process Checklist\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Design Process: What is the Double Diamond?\". 2015-03-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/news-opinion/design-process-what-double-diamond","url_text":"\"The Design Process: What is the Double Diamond?\""}]},{"reference":"Jones, J. Christopher. \"design methods for everyone\". publicwriting.net. Retrieved 21 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://publicwriting.net/2.2/designmethodsforeveryone.html","url_text":"\"design methods for everyone\""}]},{"reference":"Design Studies.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.journals.elsevier.com/design-studies","url_text":"Design Studies"}]},{"reference":"\"MIT Press Journals\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mitpressjournals.org/loi/desi","url_text":"\"MIT Press Journals\""}]},{"reference":"\"Research in Engineering Design\".","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/journal/163","url_text":"\"Research in Engineering Design\""}]},{"reference":"\"Design Kit\". Archived from the original on 2022-05-23. Retrieved 2018-12-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220523084621/https://www.designkit.org/resources/1","url_text":"\"Design Kit\""},{"url":"http://www.designkit.org//resources/1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Method Cards\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ideo.com/post/method-cards","url_text":"\"Method Cards\""}]},{"reference":"Alexander, Christopher; et al. (1977). A Pattern Language. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-501919-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/patternlanguage00chri","url_text":"A Pattern Language"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-501919-3","url_text":"978-0-19-501919-3"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/ilmontanarodelg00castgoog","external_links_name":"Design Methods"},{"Link":"https://iasdr.net/member-societies/","external_links_name":"\"IASDR\""},{"Link":"http://www.dubberly.com/concept-maps/archers-design-process.html","external_links_name":"\"Bruce Archer's Design Process Checklist\""},{"Link":"https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/news-opinion/design-process-what-double-diamond","external_links_name":"\"The Design Process: What is the Double Diamond?\""},{"Link":"http://publicwriting.net/2.2/designmethodsforeveryone.html","external_links_name":"\"design methods for everyone\""},{"Link":"http://www.dubberly.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/ddo_designprocess.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.dubberly.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/ddo_designprocess.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.journals.elsevier.com/design-studies","external_links_name":"Design Studies"},{"Link":"https://www.mitpressjournals.org/loi/desi","external_links_name":"\"MIT Press Journals\""},{"Link":"https://link.springer.com/journal/163","external_links_name":"\"Research in Engineering Design\""},{"Link":"https://www.doblin.com/dist/images/uploads/A-Short-Grandiose-Theory-of-Design-J.-Doblin.pdf","external_links_name":"https://www.doblin.com/dist/images/uploads/A-Short-Grandiose-Theory-of-Design-J.-Doblin.pdf"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220818022033/https://doblin.com/dist/images/uploads/A-Short-Grandiose-Theory-of-Design-J.-Doblin.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220523084621/https://www.designkit.org/resources/1","external_links_name":"\"Design Kit\""},{"Link":"http://www.designkit.org//resources/1","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.ideo.com/post/method-cards","external_links_name":"\"Method Cards\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/patternlanguage00chri","external_links_name":"A Pattern Language"},{"Link":"https://faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html","external_links_name":"https://faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html"},{"Link":"http://www.smsys.com/pub/dsgnmeth.pdf","external_links_name":"Introductory Lecture on Design Methods by Rhodes Hileman"},{"Link":"http://degraaff.org/attic/design-methods.html","external_links_name":"Abstract: Design Methods"},{"Link":"http://issuu.com/nextd/docs/conv28","external_links_name":"Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 1 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007"},{"Link":"http://issuu.com/nextd/docs/conv30","external_links_name":"Rethinking Wicked Problems: Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes, Part 2 of 2. J. Conklin, M. Basadur, GK VanPatter; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2007"},{"Link":"http://issuu.com/nextd/docs/conv26","external_links_name":"Double Consciousness: Back to the Future with John Chris Jones. GK VanPatter, John Chris Jones; NextDesign Leadership Institute Journal, 2006"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old-time_radio | Golden Age of Radio | ["1 Origins","2 Growth of radio","2.1 Consumer adoption","2.2 Government regulation","2.3 Broadcast networks","3 Programming","3.1 Live events","3.2 News","3.3 Musical features","3.4 Comedy","3.5 Soap operas","3.6 Children's programming","3.7 Radio plays","3.8 Game shows","4 Broadcast production methods","5 History of professional radio recordings in the United States","5.1 Radio stations","5.2 Armed Forces Radio Service","5.3 Home radio recordings in the United States","6 Recording media","6.1 Electrical transcription discs","6.2 Magnetic wire recording","6.3 Reel-to-reel tape recording","7 Availability of recordings","7.1 Copyright status","8 Legacy","8.1 United States","8.2 Elsewhere","9 Museums","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","13 Further reading","14 External links"] | Era of popular entertainment in the US centered on radio shows
For the album by Josh Ritter, see Golden Age of Radio (album).
Girl listening to vacuum tube radio during the Great Depression. Prior to the emergence of television as the dominant entertainment medium in the 1950s, families gathered to listen to the home radio in the evening.
The Golden Age of Radio, also known as the old-time radio (OTR) era, was an era of radio in the United States where it was the dominant electronic home entertainment medium. It began with the birth of commercial radio broadcasting in the early 1920s and lasted through the 1950s, when television gradually superseded radio as the medium of choice for scripted programming, variety and dramatic shows.
Radio was the first broadcast medium, and during this period people regularly tuned in to their favorite radio programs, and families gathered to listen to the home radio in the evening. According to a 1947 C. E. Hooper survey, 82 out of 100 Americans were found to be radio listeners. A variety of new entertainment formats and genres were created for the new medium, many of which later migrated to television: radio plays, mystery serials, soap operas, quiz shows, talent shows, daytime and evening variety hours, situation comedies, play-by-play sports, children's shows, cooking shows, and more.
In the 1950s, television surpassed radio as the most popular broadcast medium, and commercial radio programming shifted to narrower formats of news, talk, sports and music. Religious broadcasters, listener-supported public radio and college stations provide their own distinctive formats.
Origins
A family listening to the first broadcasts around 1920 with a crystal radio. The crystal radio, a legacy from the pre-broadcast era, could not power a loudspeaker so the family must share earphones
During the first three decades of radio, from 1887 to about 1920, the technology of transmitting sound was undeveloped; the information-carrying ability of radio waves was the same as a telegraph; the radio signal could be either on or off. Radio communication was by wireless telegraphy; at the sending end, an operator tapped on a switch which caused the radio transmitter to produce a series of pulses of radio waves which spelled out text messages in Morse code. At the receiver these sounded like beeps, requiring an operator who knew Morse code to translate them back to text. This type of radio was used exclusively for person-to-person text communication for commercial, diplomatic and military purposes and hobbyists; broadcasting did not exist.
The broadcasts of live drama, comedy, music and news that characterize the Golden Age of Radio had a precedent in the Théâtrophone, commercially introduced in Paris in 1890 and available as late as 1932. It allowed subscribers to eavesdrop on live stage performances and hear news reports by means of a network of telephone lines. The development of radio eliminated the wires and subscription charges from this concept.
Between 1900 and 1920 the first technology for transmitting sound by radio was developed, AM (amplitude modulation), and AM broadcasting sprang up around 1920.
On Christmas Eve 1906, Reginald Fessenden is said to have broadcast the first radio program, consisting of some violin playing and passages from the Bible. While Fessenden's role as an inventor and early radio experimenter is not in dispute, several contemporary radio researchers have questioned whether the Christmas Eve broadcast took place, or whether the date was, in fact, several weeks earlier. The first apparent published reference to the event was made in 1928 by H. P. Davis, Vice President of Westinghouse, in a lecture given at Harvard University. In 1932 Fessenden cited the Christmas Eve 1906 broadcast event in a letter he wrote to Vice President S. M. Kinter of Westinghouse. Fessenden's wife Helen recounts the broadcast in her book Fessenden: Builder of Tomorrows (1940), eight years after Fessenden's death. The issue of whether the 1906 Fessenden broadcast actually happened is discussed in Donna Halper's article "In Search of the Truth About Fessenden" and also in James O'Neal's essays. An annotated argument supporting Fessenden as the world's first radio broadcaster was offered in 2006 by Dr. John S. Belrose, Radioscientist Emeritus at the Communications Research Centre Canada, in his essay "Fessenden's 1906 Christmas Eve broadcast."
It was not until after the Titanic catastrophe in 1912 that radio for mass communication came into vogue, inspired first by the work of amateur ("ham") radio operators. Radio was especially important during World War I as it was vital for air and naval operations. World War I brought about major developments in radio, superseding the Morse code of the wireless telegraph with the vocal communication of the wireless telephone, through advancements in vacuum tube technology and the introduction of the transceiver.
After the war, numerous radio stations were born in the United States and set the standard for later radio programs. The first radio news program was broadcast on August 31, 1920, on the station 8MK in Detroit; owned by The Detroit News, the station covered local election results. This was followed in 1920 with the first commercial radio station in the United States, KDKA, being established in Pittsburgh. The first regular entertainment programs were broadcast in 1922, and on March 10, Variety carried the front-page headline: "Radio Sweeping Country: 1,000,000 Sets in Use." A highlight of this time was the first Rose Bowl being broadcast on January 1, 1923, on the Los Angeles station KHJ.
Growth of radio
Broadcast radio in the United States underwent a period of rapid change through the decade of the 1920s. Technology advances, better regulation, rapid consumer adoption, and the creation of broadcast networks transformed radio from a consumer curiosity into the mass media powerhouse that defined the Golden Age of Radio.
Consumer adoption
Through the decade of the 1920s, the purchase of radios by United States homes continued, and accelerated. The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) released figures in 1925 stating that 19% of United States homes owned a radio. The triode and regenerative circuit made amplified, vacuum tube radios widely available to consumers by the second half of the 1920s. The advantage was obvious: several people at once in a home could now easily listen to their radio at the same time. In 1930, 40% of the nation's households owned a radio, a figure that was much higher in suburban and large metropolitan areas. The superheterodyne receiver and other inventions refined radios even further in the next decade; even as the Great Depression ravaged the country in the 1930s, radio would stay at the center of American life. 83% of American homes would own a radio by 1940.
Government regulation
Although radio was well established with United States consumers by the mid-1920s, regulation of the broadcast medium presented its own challenges. Until 1926, broadcast radio power and frequency use was regulated by the U.S. Department of Commerce, until a legal challenge rendered the agency powerless to do so. Congress responded by enacting the Radio Act of 1927, which included the formation of the Federal Radio Commission (FRC).
One of the FRC's most important early actions was the adoption of General Order 40, which divided stations on the AM band into three power level categories, which became known as Local, Regional, and Clear Channel, and reorganized station assignments. Based on this plan, effective 3:00 a.m. Eastern time on November 11, 1928, most of the country's stations were assigned to new transmitting frequencies.
Broadcast networks
The final element needed to make the Golden Age of Radio possible focused on the question of distribution: the ability for multiple radio stations to simultaneously broadcast the same content, and this would be solved with the concept of a radio network. The earliest radio programs of the 1920s were largely unsponsored; radio stations were a service designed to sell radio receivers. In early 1922, American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) announced the beginning of advertisement-supported broadcasting on its owned stations, and plans for the development of the first radio network using its telephone lines to transmit the content. In July 1926, AT&T abruptly decided to exit the broadcasting field, and signed an agreement to sell its entire network operations to a group headed by RCA, which used the assets to form the National Broadcasting Company. Four radio networks had formed by 1934. These were:
National Broadcasting Company Red Network (NBC Red), launched November 15, 1926. Originally founded as the National Broadcasting Company in late 1926, the company was almost immediately forced to split under antitrust laws to form NBC Red and NBC Blue. When, in 1942, NBC Blue was sold and renamed the Blue Network, this network would go back to calling itself simply the National Broadcasting Company Radio Network (NBC).
National Broadcasting Company Blue Network (NBC Blue); launched January 10, 1927, split from NBC Red. NBC Blue was sold in 1942 and became the Blue Network, and it in turn transferred its assets to a new company, the American Broadcasting Company on June 15, 1945. That network identified itself as the American Broadcasting Company Radio Network (ABC).
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), launched September 18, 1927. After an initially struggling attempt to compete with the NBC networks, CBS gained new momentum when William S. Paley was installed as company president.
Mutual Broadcasting System (Mutual), launched September 29, 1934. Mutual was initially run as a cooperative in which the flagship stations owned the network, not the other way around as was the case with the other three radio networks.
Programming
In the period before and after the advent of the broadcast network, new forms of entertainment needed to be created to fill the time of a station's broadcast day. Many of the formats born in this era continued into the television and digital eras. In the beginning of the Golden Age, network programs were almost exclusively broadcast live, as the national networks prohibited the airing of recorded programs until the late 1940s because of the inferior sound quality of phonograph discs, the only practical recording medium at that time. As a result, network prime-time shows would be performed twice, once for each coast.
Rehearsal for the World War II radio show You Can't Do Business with Hitler with John Flynn and Virginia Moore. This series of programs, broadcast at least once weekly by more than 790 radio stations in the United States, was written and produced by the radio section of the Office of War Information (OWI).
Live events
Coverage of live events included musical concerts and play-by-play sports broadcasts.
News
The capability of the new medium to get information to people created the format of modern radio news: headlines, remote reporting, sidewalk interviews (such as Vox Pop), panel discussions, weather reports, and farm reports. The entry of radio into the realm of news triggered a feud between the radio and newspaper industries in the mid-1930s, eventually culminating in newspapers trumping up exaggerated reports of a mass hysteria from the (entirely fictional) radio presentation of The War of the Worlds, which had been presented as a faux newscast.
Musical features
The sponsored musical feature soon became one of the most popular program formats. Most early radio sponsorship came in the form of selling the naming rights to the program, as evidenced by such programs as The A&P Gypsies, Champion Spark Plug Hour, The Clicquot Club Eskimos, and King Biscuit Time; commercials, as they are known in the modern era, were still relatively uncommon and considered intrusive. During the 1930s and 1940s, the leading orchestras were heard often through big band remotes, and NBC's Monitor continued such remotes well into the 1950s by broadcasting live music from New York City jazz clubs to rural America. Singers such as Harriet Lee and Wendell Hall became popular fixtures on network radio beginning in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Local stations often had staff organists such as Jesse Crawford playing popular tunes.
Classical music programs on the air included The Voice of Firestone and The Bell Telephone Hour. Texaco sponsored the Metropolitan Opera radio broadcasts; the broadcasts, now sponsored by the Toll Brothers, continue to this day around the world, and are one of the few examples of live classical music still broadcast on radio. One of the most notable of all classical music radio programs of the Golden Age of Radio featured the celebrated Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra, which had been created especially for him. At that time, nearly all classical musicians and critics considered Toscanini the greatest living maestro. Popular songwriters such as George Gershwin were also featured on radio. (Gershwin, in addition to frequent appearances as a guest, had his own program in 1934.) The New York Philharmonic also had weekly concerts on radio. There was no dedicated classical music radio station like NPR at that time, so classical music programs had to share the network they were broadcast on with more popular ones, much as in the days of television before the creation of NET and PBS.
Country music also enjoyed popularity. National Barn Dance, begun on Chicago's WLS in 1924, was picked up by NBC Radio in 1933. In 1925, WSM Barn Dance went on the air from Nashville. It was renamed the Grand Ole Opry in 1927 and NBC carried portions from 1944 to 1956. NBC also aired The Red Foley Show from 1951 to 1961, and ABC Radio carried Ozark Jubilee from 1953 to 1961.
Comedy
Radio attracted top comedy talents from vaudeville and Hollywood for many years: Bing Crosby, Abbott and Costello, Fred Allen, Jack Benny, Victor Borge, Fanny Brice, Billie Burke, Bob Burns, Judy Canova, Eddie Cantor, Jimmy Durante, Burns and Allen, Phil Harris, Edgar Bergen, Bob Hope, Groucho Marx, Jean Shepherd, Red Skelton and Ed Wynn. Situational comedies also gained popularity, such as Amos 'n' Andy, Easy Aces, Ethel and Albert, Fibber McGee and Molly, The Goldbergs, The Great Gildersleeve, The Halls of Ivy (which featured screen star Ronald Colman and his wife Benita Hume), Meet Corliss Archer, Meet Millie, and Our Miss Brooks.
Radio comedy ran the gamut from the small town humor of Lum and Abner, Herb Shriner and Minnie Pearl to the dialect characterizations of Mel Blanc and the caustic sarcasm of Henry Morgan. Gags galore were delivered weekly on Stop Me If You've Heard This One and Can You Top This?, panel programs devoted to the art of telling jokes. Quiz shows were lampooned on It Pays to Be Ignorant, and other memorable parodies were presented by such satirists as Spike Jones, Stoopnagle and Budd, Stan Freberg and Bob and Ray. British comedy reached American shores in a major assault when NBC carried The Goon Show in the mid-1950s.
Radio-related World War II propaganda poster
Some shows originated as stage productions: Clifford Goldsmith's play What a Life was reworked into NBC's popular, long-running The Aldrich Family (1939–1953) with the familiar catchphrases "Henry! Henry Aldrich!," followed by Henry's answer, "Coming, Mother!" Moss Hart and George S. Kaufman's Pulitzer Prize-winning Broadway hit, You Can't Take It with You (1936), became a weekly situation comedy heard on Mutual (1944) with Everett Sloane and later on NBC (1951) with Walter Brennan.
Other shows were adapted from comic strips, such as Blondie, Dick Tracy, Gasoline Alley, The Gumps, Li'l Abner, Little Orphan Annie, Popeye the Sailor, Red Ryder, Reg'lar Fellers, Terry and the Pirates and Tillie the Toiler. Bob Montana's redheaded teen of comic strips and comic books was heard on radio's Archie Andrews from 1943 to 1953. The Timid Soul was a 1941–1942 comedy based on cartoonist H. T. Webster's famed Caspar Milquetoast character, and Robert L. Ripley's Believe It or Not! was adapted to several different radio formats during the 1930s and 1940s. Conversely, some radio shows gave rise to spinoff comic strips, such as My Friend Irma starring Marie Wilson.
Soap operas
The first program generally considered to be a daytime serial drama by scholars of the genre is Painted Dreams, which premiered on WGN on October 20, 1930. The first networked daytime serial is Clara, Lu, 'n Em, which started in a daytime time slot on February 15, 1932. As daytime serials became popular in the early 1930s, they became known as soap operas because many were sponsored by soap products and detergents. On November 25, 1960, the last four daytime radio dramas—Young Dr. Malone, Right to Happiness, The Second Mrs. Burton and Ma Perkins, all broadcast on the CBS Radio Network—were brought to an end.
Children's programming
The line-up of late afternoon adventure serials included Bobby Benson and the B-Bar-B Riders, The Cisco Kid, Jack Armstrong, the All-American Boy, Captain Midnight, and The Tom Mix Ralston Straight Shooters. Badges, rings, decoding devices and other radio premiums offered on these adventure shows were often allied with a sponsor's product, requiring the young listeners to mail in a boxtop from a breakfast cereal or other proof of purchase.
Radio plays
Radio plays were presented on such programs as 26 by Corwin, NBC Short Story, Arch Oboler's Plays, Quiet, Please, and CBS Radio Workshop. Orson Welles's The Mercury Theatre on the Air and The Campbell Playhouse were considered by many critics to be the finest radio drama anthologies ever presented. They usually starred Welles in the leading role, along with celebrity guest stars such as Margaret Sullavan or Helen Hayes, in adaptations from literature, Broadway, and/or films. They included such titles as Liliom, Oliver Twist (a title now feared lost), A Tale of Two Cities, Lost Horizon, and The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. It was on Mercury Theatre that Welles presented his celebrated-but-infamous 1938 adaptation of H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, formatted to sound like a breaking news program. Theatre Guild on the Air presented adaptations of classical and Broadway plays. Their Shakespeare adaptations included a one-hour Macbeth starring Maurice Evans and Judith Anderson, and a 90-minute Hamlet, starring John Gielgud. Recordings of many of these programs survive.
During the 1940s, Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce, famous for playing Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson in films, repeated their characterizations on radio on The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, which featured both original stories and episodes directly adapted from Arthur Conan Doyle's stories. None of the episodes in which Rathbone and Bruce starred on the radio program were filmed with the two actors as Holmes and Watson, so radio became the only medium in which audiences were able to experience Rathbone and Bruce appearing in some of the more famous Holmes stories, such as "The Speckled Band". There were also many dramatizations of Sherlock Holmes stories on radio without Rathbone and Bruce.
During the latter part of his career, celebrated actor John Barrymore starred in a radio program, Streamlined Shakespeare, which featured him in a series of one-hour adaptations of Shakespeare plays, many of which Barrymore never appeared in either on stage or in films, such as Twelfth Night (in which he played both Malvolio and Sir Toby Belch), and Macbeth.
Lux Radio Theatre and The Screen Guild Theater presented adaptations of Hollywood movies, performed before a live audience, usually with cast members from the original films. Suspense, Escape, The Mysterious Traveler and Inner Sanctum Mystery were popular thriller anthology series. Leading writers who created original material for radio included Norman Corwin, Carlton E. Morse, David Goodis, Archibald MacLeish, Arthur Miller, Arch Oboler, Wyllis Cooper, Rod Serling, Jay Bennett, and Irwin Shaw.
Game shows
Game shows saw their beginnings in radio. One of the first was Information Please in 1938, and one of the first major successes was Dr. I.Q. in 1939. Winner Take All, which premiered in 1946, was the first to use lockout devices and feature returning champions.
A relative of the game show, which would be called the giveaway show in contemporary media, typically involved giving sponsored products to studio audience members, people randomly called by telephone, or both. An early example of this show was the 1939 show Pot o' Gold, but the breakout hit of this type was ABC's Stop the Music in 1948. Winning a prize generally required knowledge of what was being aired on the show at that moment, which led to criticism of the giveaway show as a form of "buying an audience". Giveaway shows were extremely popular through 1948 and 1949. They were often panned as low-brow, and an unsuccessful attempt was even made by the FCC to ban them (as an illegal lottery) in August 1949.
Broadcast production methods
The RCA Type 44-BX microphone had two live faces and two dead ones. Thus actors could face each other and react. An actor could give the effect of leaving the room by simply moving their head toward the dead face of the microphone.
The scripts were paper-clipped together. It has been disputed whether or not actors and actresses would drop finished pages to the carpeted floor after use.
History of professional radio recordings in the United States
Radio stations
Despite a general ban on use of recordings on broadcasts by radio networks through the late 1940s, "reference recordings" on phonograph disc were made of many programs as they were being broadcast, for review by the sponsor and for the network's own archival purposes. With the development of high-fidelity magnetic wire and tape recording in the years following World War II, the networks became more open to airing recorded programs and the prerecording of shows became more common.
Local stations, however, had always been free to use recordings and sometimes made substantial use of prerecorded syndicated programs distributed on pressed (as opposed to individually recorded) transcription discs.
Recording was done using a cutting lathe and acetate discs. Programs were normally recorded at 331⁄3 rpm on 16 inch discs, the standard format used for such "electrical transcriptions" from the early 1930s through the 1950s. Sometimes, the groove was cut starting at the inside of the disc and running to the outside. This was useful when the program to be recorded was longer than 15 minutes so required more than one disc side. By recording the first side outside in, the second inside out, and so on, the sound quality at the disc change-over points would match and result in a more seamless playback. An inside start also had the advantage that the thread of material cut from the disc's surface, which had to be kept out of the path of the cutting stylus, was naturally thrown toward the center of the disc so was automatically out of the way. When cutting an outside start disc, a brush could be used to keep it out of the way by sweeping it toward the middle of the disc. Well-equipped recording lathes used the vacuum from a water aspirator to pick it up as it was cut and deposit it in a water-filled bottle. In addition to convenience, this served a safety purpose, as the cellulose nitrate thread was highly flammable and a loose accumulation of it combusted violently if ignited.
Most recordings of radio broadcasts were made at a radio network's studios, or at the facilities of a network-owned or affiliated station, which might have four or more lathes. A small local station often had none. Two lathes were required to capture a program longer than 15 minutes without losing parts of it while discs were flipped over or changed, along with a trained technician to operate them and monitor the recording while it was being made. However, some surviving recordings were produced by local stations.
When a substantial number of copies of an electrical transcription were required, as for the distribution of a syndicated program, they were produced by the same process used to make ordinary records. A master recording was cut, then electroplated to produce a stamper from which pressings in vinyl (or, in the case of transcription discs pressed before about 1935, shellac) were molded in a record press.
Armed Forces Radio Service
Main article: American Forces Network § History
Frank Sinatra and Alida Valli converse over Armed Forces Radio Service during World War II
The Armed Forces Radio Service (AFRS) had its origins in the U.S. War Department's quest to improve troop morale. This quest began with short-wave broadcasts of educational and information programs to troops in 1940. In 1941, the War Department began issuing "Buddy Kits" (B-Kits) to departing troops, which consisted of radios, 78 rpm records and electrical transcription discs of radio shows. However, with the entrance of the United States into World War II, the War Department decided that it needed to improve the quality and quantity of its offerings.
This began with the broadcasting of its own original variety programs. Command Performance was the first of these, produced for the first time on March 1, 1942. On May 26, 1942, the Armed Forces Radio Service was formally established. Originally, its programming comprised network radio shows with the commercials removed. However, it soon began producing original programming, such as Mail Call, G.I. Journal, Jubilee and GI Jive. At its peak in 1945, the Service produced around 20 hours of original programming each week.
From 1943 until 1949 the AFRS also broadcast programs developed through the collaborative efforts of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs and the Columbia Broadcasting System in support of America's cultural diplomacy initiatives and President Franklin Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy. Included among the popular shows was Viva America which showcased leading musical artists from both North and South America for the entertainment of America's troops. Included among the regular performers were: Alfredo Antonini, Juan Arvizu, Nestor Mesta Chayres, Kate Smith, and John Serry Sr.
After the war, the AFRS continued providing programming to troops in Europe. During the 1950s and early 1960s it presented performances by the Army's only symphonic orchestra ensemble—the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra.
It also provided programming for future wars that the United States was involved in. It survives today as a component of the American Forces Network (AFN).
All of the shows aired by the AFRS during the Golden Age were recorded as electrical transcription discs, vinyl copies of which were shipped to stations overseas to be broadcast to the troops. People in the United States rarely ever heard programming from the AFRS, though AFRS recordings of Golden Age network shows were occasionally broadcast on some domestic stations beginning in the 1950s.
In some cases, the AFRS disc is the only surviving recording of a program.
Home radio recordings in the United States
There was some home recording of radio broadcasts in the 1930s and 1940s. Examples from as early as 1930 have been documented. During these years, home recordings were made with disc recorders, most of which were only capable of storing about four minutes of a radio program on each side of a twelve-inch 78 rpm record. Most home recordings were made on even shorter-playing ten-inch or smaller discs. Some home disc recorders offered the option of the 331⁄3 rpm speed used for electrical transcriptions, allowing a recording more than twice as long to be made, although with reduced audio quality. Office dictation equipment was sometimes pressed into service for making recordings of radio broadcasts, but the audio quality of these devices was poor and the resulting recordings were in odd formats that had to be played back on similar equipment. Due to the expense of recorders and the limitations of the recording media, home recording of broadcasts was not common during this period and it was usually limited to brief excerpts.
The lack of suitable home recording equipment was somewhat relieved in 1947 with the availability of magnetic wire recorders for domestic use. These were capable of recording an hour-long broadcast on a single small spool of wire, and if a high-quality radio's audio output was recorded directly, rather than by holding a microphone up to its speaker, the recorded sound quality was very good. However, because the wire cost money and, like magnetic tape, could be repeatedly re-used to make new recordings, only a few complete broadcasts appear to have survived on this medium. In fact, there was little home recording of complete radio programs until the early 1950s, when increasingly affordable reel-to-reel tape recorders for home use were introduced to the market.
Recording media
Electrical transcription discs
Main article: Electrical transcription
The War of the Worlds radio broadcast by Orson Welles on electrical transcription disc
Before the early 1950s, when radio networks and local stations wanted to preserve a live broadcast, they did so by means of special phonograph records known as "electrical transcriptions" (ETs), made by cutting a sound-modulated groove into a blank disc. At first, in the early 1930s, the blanks varied in both size and composition, but most often they were simply bare aluminum and the groove was indented rather than cut. Typically, these very early recordings were not made by the network or radio station, but by a private recording service contracted by the broadcast sponsor or one of the performers. The bare aluminum discs were typically 10 or 12 inches in diameter and recorded at the then-standard speed of 78 rpm, which meant that several disc sides were required to accommodate even a 15-minute program. By about 1936, 16-inch aluminum-based discs coated with cellulose nitrate lacquer, commonly known as acetates and recorded at a speed of 331⁄3 rpm, had been adopted by the networks and individual radio stations as the standard medium for recording broadcasts. The making of such recordings, at least for some purposes, then became routine. Some discs were recorded using a "hill and dale" vertically modulated groove, rather than the "lateral" side-to-side modulation found on the records being made for home use at that time. The large slow-speed discs could easily contain fifteen minutes on each side, allowing an hour-long program to be recorded on only two discs. The lacquer was softer than shellac or vinyl and wore more rapidly, allowing only a few playbacks with the heavy pickups and steel needles then in use before deterioration became audible.
During World War II, aluminum became a necessary material for the war effort and was in short supply. This caused an alternative to be sought for the base on which to coat the lacquer. Glass, despite its obvious disadvantage of fragility, had occasionally been used in earlier years because it could provide a perfectly smooth and even supporting surface for mastering and other critical applications. Glass base recording blanks came into general use for the duration of the war.
Magnetic wire recording
In the late 1940s, wire recorders became a readily obtainable means of recording radio programs. On a per-minute basis, it was less expensive to record a broadcast on wire than on discs. The one-hour program that required the four sides of two 16-inch discs could be recorded intact on a single spool of wire less than three inches in diameter and about half an inch thick. The audio fidelity of a good wire recording was comparable to acetate discs and by comparison the wire was practically indestructible, but it was soon rendered obsolete by the more manageable and easily edited medium of magnetic tape.
Reel-to-reel tape recording
Bing Crosby became the first major proponent of magnetic tape recording for radio, and he was the first to use it on network radio, after he did a demonstration program in 1947. Tape had several advantages over earlier recording methods. Running at a sufficiently high speed, it could achieve higher fidelity than both electrical transcription discs and magnetic wire. Discs could be edited only by copying parts of them to a new disc, and the copying entailed a loss of audio quality. Wire could be divided up and the ends spliced together by knotting, but wire was difficult to handle and the crude splices were too noticeable. Tape could be edited by cutting it with a blade and neatly joining ends together with adhesive tape. By early 1949, the transition from live performances preserved on discs to performances prerecorded on magnetic tape for later broadcast was complete for network radio programs. However, for the physical distribution of prerecorded programming to individual stations, 16-inch 331⁄3 rpm vinyl pressings, less expensive to produce in quantities of identical copies than tapes, continued to be standard throughout the 1950s.
Availability of recordings
The great majority of pre-World War II live radio broadcasts are lost. Many were never recorded; few recordings antedate the early 1930s. Beginning then several of the longer-running radio dramas have their archives complete or nearly complete. The earlier the date, the less likely it is that a recording survives. However, a good number of syndicated programs from this period have survived because copies were distributed far and wide. Recordings of live network broadcasts from the World War II years were preserved in the form of pressed vinyl copies issued by the Armed Forces Radio Service (AFRS) and survive in relative abundance. Syndicated programs from World War II and later years have nearly all survived. The survival of network programming from this time frame is more inconsistent; the networks started prerecording their formerly live shows on magnetic tape for subsequent network broadcast, but did not physically distribute copies, and the expensive tapes, unlike electrical transcription ("ET") discs, could be "wiped" and re-used (especially since, in the age of emerging trends such as television and music radio, such recordings were believed to have virtually no rerun or resale value). Thus, while some prime time network radio series from this era exist in full or almost in full, especially the most famous and longest-lived of them, less prominent or shorter-lived series (such as serials) may have only a handful of extant episodes. Airchecks, off-the-air recordings of complete shows made by, or at the behest of, individuals for their own private use, sometimes help to fill in such gaps. The contents of privately made recordings of live broadcasts from the first half of the 1930s can be of particular interest, as little live material from that period survives. Unfortunately, the sound quality of very early private recordings is often very poor, although in some cases this is largely due to the use of an incorrect playback stylus, which can also badly damage some unusual types of discs.
Most of the Golden Age programs in circulation among collectors—whether on analog tape, CD, or in the form of MP3s—originated from analog 16-inch transcription disc, although some are off-the-air AM recordings. But in many cases, the circulating recordings are corrupted (decreased in quality), because lossless digital recording for the home market did not come until the very end of the twentieth century.
Collectors made and shared recordings on analog magnetic tapes, the only practical, relatively inexpensive medium, first on reels, then cassettes. "Sharing" usually meant making a duplicate tape. They connected two recorders, playing on one and recording on the other. Analog recordings are never perfect, and copying an analog recording multiplies the imperfections. With the oldest recordings this can even mean it went out the speaker of one machine and in via the microphone of the other. The muffled sound, dropouts, sudden changes in sound quality, unsteady pitch, and other defects heard all too often are almost always accumulated tape copy defects. In addition, magnetic recordings, unless preserved archivally, are gradually damaged by the Earth's magnetic field.
The audio quality of the source discs, when they have survived unscathed and are accessed and dubbed anew, is usually found to be reasonably clear and undistorted, sometimes startlingly good, although like all phonograph records they are vulnerable to wear and the effects of scuffs, scratches, and ground-in dust. Many shows from the 1940s have survived only in edited AFRS versions, although some exist in both the original and AFRS forms.
As of 2020, the Old Time Radio collection at the Internet Archive contains 5,121 recordings. An active group of collectors makes digitally available, via CD or download, large collections of programs. RadioEchoes.com offers 98,949 episodes in their collection, but not all is old-time radio.
Copyright status
Unlike film, television, and print items from the era, the copyright status of most recordings from the Golden Age of Radio is unclear. This is because, prior to 1972, the United States delegated the copyrighting of sound recordings to the individual states, many of which offered more generous common law copyright protections than the federal government offered for other media (some offered perpetual copyright, which has since been abolished; under the Music Modernization Act of September 2018, any sound recording 95 years old or older will be thrust into the public domain regardless of state law). The only exceptions are AFRS original productions, which are considered work of the United States government and thus both ineligible for federal copyright and outside the jurisdiction of any state; these programs are firmly in the public domain (this does not apply to programs carried by AFRS but produced by commercial networks).
In practice, most old-time radio recordings are treated as orphan works: although there may still be a valid copyright on the program, it is seldom enforced. The copyright on an individual sound recording is distinct from the federal copyright for the underlying material (such as a published script, music, or in the case of adaptations, the original film or television material), and in many cases it is impossible to determine where or when the original recording was made or if the recording was copyrighted in that state. The U.S. Copyright Office states "there are a variety of legal regimes governing protection of pre-1972 sound recordings in the various states, and the scope of protection and of exceptions and limitations to that protection is unclear." For example, New York has issued contradicting rulings on whether or not common law exists in that state; the most recent ruling, 2016's Flo & Eddie, Inc. v. Sirius XM Radio, holds that there is no such copyright in New York in regard to public performance. Further complicating matters is that certain examples in case law have implied that radio broadcasts (and faithful reproductions thereof), because they were distributed freely to the public over the air, may not be eligible for copyright in and of themselves. The Internet Archive and other organizations that distribute public domain and open-source audio recordings maintain extensive archives of old-time radio programs.
Legacy
United States
Some old-time radio shows continued on the air, although in ever-dwindling numbers, throughout the 1950s, even after their television equivalents had conquered the general public. One factor which helped to kill off old-time radio entirely was the evolution of popular music (including the development of rock and roll), which led to the birth of the top 40 radio format. A top 40 show could be produced in a small studio in a local station with minimal staff. This displaced full-service network radio and hastened the end of the golden-age era of radio drama by 1962. (Radio as a broadcast medium would survive, thanks in part to the proliferation of the transistor radio, and permanent installation in vehicles, making the medium far more portable than television). Full-service stations that did not adopt either top 40 or the mellower beautiful music or MOR formats eventually developed all-news radio in the mid-1960s.
Scripted radio comedy and drama in the vein of old-time radio has a limited presence on U.S. radio. Several radio theatre series are still in production in the United States, usually airing on Sunday nights. These include original series such as Imagination Theater and a radio adaptation of The Twilight Zone TV series, as well as rerun compilations such as the popular daily series When Radio Was and USA Radio Network's Golden Age of Radio Theatre, and weekly programs such as The Big Broadcast on WAMU, hosted by Murray Horwitz. These shows usually air in late nights and/or on weekends on small AM stations. Carl Amari's nationally syndicated radio show Hollywood 360 features 5 old-time radio episodes each week during his 5-hour broadcast. Amari's show is heard on 100+ radio stations coast-to-coast and in 168 countries on American Forces Radio. Local rerun compilations are also heard, primarily on public radio stations. Sirius XM Radio maintains a full-time Radio Classics channel devoted to rebroadcasts of vintage radio shows.
Starting in 1974, Garrison Keillor, through his syndicated two-hour-long program A Prairie Home Companion, has provided a living museum of the production, tone and listener's experience of this era of radio for several generations after its demise. Produced live in theaters throughout the country, using the same sound effects and techniques of the era, it ran through 2016 with Keillor as host. The program included segments that were close renditions (in the form of parody) of specific genres of this era, including Westerns ("Dusty and Lefty, The Lives of the Cowboys"), detective procedurals ("Guy Noir, Private Eye") and even advertising through fictional commercials. Keillor also wrote a novel, WLT: A Radio Romance based on a radio station of this era—including a personally narrated version for the ultimate in verisimilitude. Upon Keillor's retirement, replacement host Chris Thile chose to reboot the show (since renamed Live from Here after the syndicator cut ties with Keillor) and eliminate much of the old-time radio trappings of the format; the show was ultimately canceled in 2020 due to financial and logistics problems.
Vintage shows and new audio productions in America are accessible more widely from recordings or by satellite and web broadcasters, rather than over conventional AM and FM radio. The National Audio Theatre Festival is a national organization and yearly conference keeping the audio arts—especially audio drama—alive, and continues to involve long-time voice actors and OTR veterans in its ranks. Its predecessor, the Midwest Radio Theatre Workshop, was first hosted by Jim Jordan, of Fibber McGee and Molly fame, and Norman Corwin advised the organization.
One of the longest running radio programs celebrating this era is The Golden Days of Radio, which was hosted on the Armed Forces Radio Service for more than 20 years and overall for more than 50 years by Frank Bresee, who also played "Little Beaver" on the Red Ryder program as a child actor.
One of the very few still-running shows from the earlier era of radio is a Christian program entitled Unshackled! The weekly half-hour show, produced in Chicago by Pacific Garden Mission, has been continuously broadcast since 1950. The shows are created using techniques from the 1950s (including home-made sound effects) and are broadcast across the U.S. and around the world by thousands of radio stations.
Today, radio performers of the past appear at conventions that feature re-creations of classic shows, as well as music, memorabilia and historical panels. The largest of these events was the Friends of Old Time Radio Convention, held in Newark, New Jersey, which held its final convention in October 2011 after 36 years. Others include REPS in Seattle (June), SPERDVAC in California, the Cincinnati OTR & Nostalgia Convention (April), and the Mid-Atlantic Nostalgia Convention (September). Veterans of the Friends of Old Time Radio Convention, including Chairperson Steven M. Lewis of The Gotham Radio Players, Maggie Thompson, publisher of the Comic Book Buyer's Guide, Craig Wichman of audio drama troupe Quicksilver Audio Theater and long-time FOTR Publicist Sean Dougherty have launched a successor event, Celebrating Audio Theater – Old & New, scheduled for October 12–13, 2012.
Radio dramas from the golden age are sometimes recreated as live stage performances at such events. One such group, led by director Daniel Smith, has been performing re-creations of old-time radio dramas at Fairfield University's Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts since the year 2000.
The 40th anniversary of what is widely considered the end of the old time radio era (the final broadcasts of Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar and Suspense on September 30, 1962) was marked with a commentary on NPR's All Things Considered.
A handful of radio programs from the old-time era remain in production, all from the genres of news, music, or religious broadcasting: the Grand Ole Opry (1925), Music and the Spoken Word (1929), The Lutheran Hour (1930), the CBS World News Roundup (1938), King Biscuit Time (1941) and the Renfro Valley Gatherin' (1943). Of those, all but the Opry maintain their original short-form length of 30 minutes or less. The Wheeling Jamboree counts an earlier program on a competing station as part of its history, tracing its lineage back to 1933.
Western revival/comedy act Riders in the Sky produced a radio serial Riders Radio Theater in the 1980s and 1990s and continues to provide sketch comedy on existing radio programs including the Grand Ole Opry, Midnite Jamboree and WoodSongs Old-Time Radio Hour.
Elsewhere
Regular broadcasts of radio plays are also heard in—among other countries—Australia, Croatia, Estonia, France, Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Romania, and Sweden. In the United Kingdom, such scripted radio drama continues on BBC Radio 3 and (principally) BBC Radio 4, the second-most popular radio station in the country, as well as on the rerun channel BBC Radio 4 Extra, which is the seventh-most popular station there.
Museums
SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention
Museum of Broadcast Communications
Paley Center for Media
Pavek Museum of Broadcasting
See also
Radio portal1920s portal1930s portal1940s portal1950s portal
List of old-time radio programs
List of old-time American radio people
List of U.S. radio programs
List of radio soap operas
List of radios – List of specific models of radios
Antique radio
Audio theater
Music radio
Radio comedy
Radio Days (Woody Allen film dramatizing old-time radio)
Radio drama
Remember WENN (AMC television series set at an old-time radio station in Pittsburgh)
Soap opera
When Radio Was
Notes
^ "The Golden Age of Radio | SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention". SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention. Archived from the original on 2019-10-24. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
^ Halper, Donna (14 February 2007). "In Search of the Truth About Fessenden". Radio World Online. Archived from the original on 12 September 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ O'Neal, James E. (October 25, 2006). "Fessenden: World's First Broadcaster? – A Radio History Buff Finds That Evidence for the Famous Brant Rock Broadcast Is Lacking". Radio World Online. Archived from the original on 29 January 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ O'Neal, James E. (December 23, 2008). "Fessenden – The Next Chapter". Radio World Online. Archived from the original on September 16, 2009. Retrieved June 29, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ Belrose, John S. "Fessenden's 1906 Christmas Eve broadcast" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
^ Sayles, Ron. Old-Time Radio Digest, Volume 2009, number 51.
^ a b "Radio: A Consumer Product and a Producer of Consumption (Interactive Historical Introduction, Coolidge-Consumerism Collection)". American Memory Help Desk. 1995-08-14.
^ "Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930 (Abstract of the Fifteenth Census of the United States)" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1933.
^ "Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940 (Housing, Volume II, General Chraracteristics)" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1943.
^ "Hoover Advised That He Has No Authority Over the Radio Rules". The Herald Statesman. 1926-07-09. p. 2. Retrieved 2020-10-10.
^ "General Order No. 40 (August 30, 1928)", Radio Service Bulletin, August 31, 1928, pp. 9–10.
^ "Broadcasting Stations by Wave Lengths, Effective November 11, 1928", Commercial and Government Radio Stations of the United States (Edition June 30, 1928), pp. 172–176.
^ Donald Christensen, "Remember Radio?" July, 2012 http://www.todaysengineer.org/2012/Jul/backscatter.asp Archived 2013-01-27 at the Wayback Machine
^ "National Radio Broadcast By Bell System", Science & Invention, April 1922, pp. 1144, 1173.
^ "Big Business and Radio" by Gleason L. Archer, 1939, pp. 275–276.
^ "Moving Day For Radio Nears". The Birmingham News. 1945-06-13. p. 10. Retrieved 2020-10-10.
^ Sally Bedell Smith, In All His Glory: the Life and Times of William S. Paley and the Birth of Modern Broadcasting (1990)
^ "Home". www.museum.tv. Archived from the original on 22 September 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
^ "Everybody's Friend: Remembering Stan Lee and Dan DeCarlo's 'My Friend Irma'". Hogan's Alley. cartoonician.com. 2010. Archived from the original on 2013-03-19. Retrieved 2013-03-25.
^ Cox, Jim (2005). Historical Dictionary of American Radio Soap Operas. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6523-5.
^ a b Cox, Jim (2003). Frank and Anne Hummert's radio factory: the programs and personalities of broadcasting's most prolific producers. McFarland. ISBN 978-0786416318.
^ Hamlet (Episode 065) (MP3). Theater Guild on the Air. Internet Archive. 1951-03-04.
^ "FCC Bans Give-Away Radio Shows". The Miami Herald. 1949-08-20. p. 1. Retrieved 2020-10-10.
^ Bradley, Hanson (30 March 2018). "The Tennessee Jamboree: Local Radio, the Barn Dance, and Cultural Life in Appalachian East Tennessee". southernspaces.org. 2008. Archived from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
^ Fybush, Scott. "Frequently-Asked Questions". The [email protected]. Archived from the original on 2007-04-19. Retrieved 2007-05-16.
^ Photograph of actor Pat O'Brien and singer Kate Smith on the Viva America program for CBS Radio on Getty Images.com
^ The Directory of the Armed Forces Radio Service Series Mackenzie, Harry. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport CT, 1999 p. 21 ISBN 0-313-30812-8 Viva America on books.google.com
^ Media Sound & Culture in Latin America. Editors: Bronfman, Alejanda & Wood, Andrew Grant. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA, 2012, p. 49 ISBN 978-0-8229-6187-1 books.google.com See p. 49
^ Anthony, Edwin D. (1973). "Records of the Radio Division" (PDF). Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs. Vol. Inventory of Record Group 229. Washington D.C.: National Archives and Record Services – General Services Administration. pp. 25–26. LCCN 73-600146.
^ The Directory of the Armed Forces Radio Service Series Harry MacKenzie, Greeenwood Press, CT. 1999, p. 198 ISBN 0-313-30812-8 "Seventh Army Symphony on Armed Forces Radio in 1961 performing works by Vivaldi and Dvorak" via – Google Books
^ "Armed Forces Radio Services broadcasts". Bing Crosby Internet Museum. Archived from the original on 2007-02-21. Retrieved 2007-05-16.
^ "The History of Magnetic Tape". audiolabo.free.fr. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
^ a b Bensman, Marvin R. "A History of Radio Program Collecting". Radio Archive of the University of Memphis. Archived from the original on 2010-06-18. Retrieved 2007-05-18.
^ Beaupre, Walter J. "Music Electrically Transcribed!". The Vintage Radio Place. Archived from the original on 2007-11-09. Retrieved 2007-11-05.
^ "ABC Spends 100G in Shift From Wax to Tape Repeats Archived 2015-03-17 at the Wayback Machine", Billboard, Feb. 21, 1948, p. 6.
^ "NBC Drops All Wax Bans Archived 2015-03-17 at the Wayback Machine", Billboard, Jan. 29, 1949, p. 5.
^ "Webs' Tape Measure Grows Archived 2015-03-17 at the Wayback Machine", Billboard, Nov. 5, 1949, p. 5.
^ "RadioEchoes.com". RadioEchoes.com. Retrieved 2021-02-11.
^ a b "Federal Copyright Protection for Pre-1972 Sound Recordings – U.S. Copyright Office". www.copyright.gov. Archived from the original on 8 March 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
^ Klepper, David (20 December 2016). "Owner of 1967 Hit Song 'Happy Together' Lose Copyright Case". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
^ This was a key point in Waring v. WDAS Broadcasting Sta., a case that determined that a record company could claim copyright on a sound recording under Pennsylvania law because the recording was specifically designated as not being for radio broadcast.
^ Baenen, Jeff (April 12, 2016). Goodbye, Lake Wobegon: 'Prairie Home' is getting a new host Archived 2016-04-15 at the Wayback Machine. AP. Retrieved April 13, 2016.
^ Spiegel, Jan Ellen (2007-09-09). "We Interrupt This Play for a News Bulletin on the War". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-07-01. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
^ "Radio Dramas". Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts. Fairfield University. 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
^ Chimes, Art. "Last Radio Drama". NPR.org. National Public Radio. Archived from the original on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
^ "Raadioteater" (in Estonian). Eesti Rahvusringhääling (formerly Eesti Raadio). 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-02-07. Retrieved 2015-02-01.
References
Blue, Howard (2002). Words at War: World War II Era Radio and the Postwar Broadcasting Industry Blacklist. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-4413-3
Dunning, John (1998). On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507678-8.
Further reading
Buxton, Frank, and Bill Owen. (1972). The Big Broadcast 1920–1950. New York: Viking Press.
Delong, Thomas A. (1980). The Mighty Music Box: The Golden Age of Radio. Los Angeles, CA: Amber Crest Books. ISBN 0-86533-000-X
Dunning, John. (1976). Tune in Yesterday: The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio 1925–1976. Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13932-616-2.
Ellett, Ryan (2012). Encyclopedia of Black Radio in the United States, 1921–1955. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc. ISBN 978-1476693392. OCLC 1369512406.
Maltin, Leonard. (1997). The Great American Broadcast: A Celebration of Radio's Golden Age. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-52594-183-5.
Nachman, Gerald. (1998). Raised on Radio. New York: Pantheon, 1998. ISBN 0-37540-287-X.
It's That Time Again, Volume 4, edited by Jim Harmon. Albany, NY: BearManor Media, 2009. ISBN 1-59393-118-2.
External links
Gunsmoke series on WRCW Radio
Old Time Radio on-line archive at Archive.org
Old Time Radio on Way Back When Archived 2020-08-06 at the Wayback Machine
Audio Noir internet radio station – free old time radio detective & crime shows
OTRR: Old Time Radio Research group – OTR restoration and preservation
OTRR Internet Archive homepage – comprehensive OTRR collections
Golden Age of Radio at Curlie
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Prior to the emergence of television as the dominant entertainment medium in the 1950s, families gathered to listen to the home radio in the evening.The Golden Age of Radio, also known as the old-time radio (OTR) era, was an era of radio in the United States where it was the dominant electronic home entertainment medium. It began with the birth of commercial radio broadcasting in the early 1920s and lasted through the 1950s, when television gradually superseded radio as the medium of choice for scripted programming, variety and dramatic shows.Radio was the first broadcast medium, and during this period people regularly tuned in to their favorite radio programs, and families gathered to listen to the home radio in the evening. According to a 1947 C. E. Hooper survey, 82 out of 100 Americans were found to be radio listeners.[1] A variety of new entertainment formats and genres were created for the new medium, many of which later migrated to television: radio plays, mystery serials, soap operas, quiz shows, talent shows, daytime and evening variety hours, situation comedies, play-by-play sports, children's shows, cooking shows, and more.In the 1950s, television surpassed radio as the most popular broadcast medium, and commercial radio programming shifted to narrower formats of news, talk, sports and music. Religious broadcasters, listener-supported public radio and college stations provide their own distinctive formats.","title":"Golden Age of Radio"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crystal_radio_advertisement.png"},{"link_name":"crystal radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_radio"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_telegraph"},{"link_name":"wireless telegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy"},{"link_name":"Morse code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code"},{"link_name":"Théâtrophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2trophone"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"amplitude modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation"},{"link_name":"AM broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"Christmas Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve"},{"link_name":"Reginald Fessenden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden"},{"link_name":"Westinghouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Titanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Titanic"},{"link_name":"amateur (\"ham\") radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio"},{"link_name":"Morse code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code"},{"link_name":"vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"transceiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transceiver"},{"link_name":"8MK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWJ_(AM)"},{"link_name":"Detroit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit"},{"link_name":"The Detroit News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Detroit_News"},{"link_name":"KDKA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDKA_(AM)"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Rose Bowl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Bowl_Game"},{"link_name":"KHJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KHJ_(AM)"}],"text":"A family listening to the first broadcasts around 1920 with a crystal radio. The crystal radio, a legacy from the pre-broadcast era, could not power a loudspeaker so the family must share earphonesDuring the first three decades of radio, from 1887 to about 1920, the technology of transmitting sound was undeveloped; the information-carrying ability of radio waves was the same as a telegraph; the radio signal could be either on or off. Radio communication was by wireless telegraphy; at the sending end, an operator tapped on a switch which caused the radio transmitter to produce a series of pulses of radio waves which spelled out text messages in Morse code. At the receiver these sounded like beeps, requiring an operator who knew Morse code to translate them back to text. This type of radio was used exclusively for person-to-person text communication for commercial, diplomatic and military purposes and hobbyists; broadcasting did not exist.The broadcasts of live drama, comedy, music and news that characterize the Golden Age of Radio had a precedent in the Théâtrophone, commercially introduced in Paris in 1890 and available as late as 1932. It allowed subscribers to eavesdrop on live stage performances and hear news reports by means of a network of telephone lines. The development of radio eliminated the wires and subscription charges from this concept.Between 1900 and 1920 the first technology for transmitting sound by radio was developed, AM (amplitude modulation), and AM broadcasting sprang up around 1920.On Christmas Eve 1906, Reginald Fessenden is said to have broadcast the first radio program, consisting of some violin playing and passages from the Bible. While Fessenden's role as an inventor and early radio experimenter is not in dispute, several contemporary radio researchers have questioned whether the Christmas Eve broadcast took place, or whether the date was, in fact, several weeks earlier. The first apparent published reference to the event was made in 1928 by H. P. Davis, Vice President of Westinghouse, in a lecture given at Harvard University. In 1932 Fessenden cited the Christmas Eve 1906 broadcast event in a letter he wrote to Vice President S. M. Kinter of Westinghouse. Fessenden's wife Helen recounts the broadcast in her book Fessenden: Builder of Tomorrows (1940), eight years after Fessenden's death. The issue of whether the 1906 Fessenden broadcast actually happened is discussed in Donna Halper's article \"In Search of the Truth About Fessenden\"[2] and also in James O'Neal's essays.[3][4] An annotated argument supporting Fessenden as the world's first radio broadcaster was offered in 2006 by Dr. John S. Belrose, Radioscientist Emeritus at the Communications Research Centre Canada, in his essay \"Fessenden's 1906 Christmas Eve broadcast.\"[5]It was not until after the Titanic catastrophe in 1912 that radio for mass communication came into vogue, inspired first by the work of amateur (\"ham\") radio operators. Radio was especially important during World War I as it was vital for air and naval operations. World War I brought about major developments in radio, superseding the Morse code of the wireless telegraph with the vocal communication of the wireless telephone, through advancements in vacuum tube technology and the introduction of the transceiver.After the war, numerous radio stations were born in the United States and set the standard for later radio programs. The first radio news program was broadcast on August 31, 1920, on the station 8MK in Detroit; owned by The Detroit News, the station covered local election results. This was followed in 1920 with the first commercial radio station in the United States, KDKA, being established in Pittsburgh. The first regular entertainment programs were broadcast in 1922, and on March 10, Variety carried the front-page headline: \"Radio Sweeping Country: 1,000,000 Sets in Use.\"[6] A highlight of this time was the first Rose Bowl being broadcast on January 1, 1923, on the Los Angeles station KHJ.","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Broadcast radio in the United States underwent a period of rapid change through the decade of the 1920s. Technology advances, better regulation, rapid consumer adoption, and the creation of broadcast networks transformed radio from a consumer curiosity into the mass media powerhouse that defined the Golden Age of Radio.","title":"Growth of radio"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Radio Corporation of America (RCA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"triode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode_electron_tube"},{"link_name":"regenerative circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_circuit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"superheterodyne receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheterodyne_receiver"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Consumer adoption","text":"Through the decade of the 1920s, the purchase of radios by United States homes continued, and accelerated. The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) released figures in 1925 stating that 19% of United States homes owned a radio.[7] The triode and regenerative circuit made amplified, vacuum tube radios widely available to consumers by the second half of the 1920s. The advantage was obvious: several people at once in a home could now easily listen to their radio at the same time. In 1930, 40% of the nation's households owned a radio,[8] a figure that was much higher in suburban and large metropolitan areas.[7] The superheterodyne receiver and other inventions refined radios even further in the next decade; even as the Great Depression ravaged the country in the 1930s, radio would stay at the center of American life. 83% of American homes would own a radio by 1940.[9]","title":"Growth of radio"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Radio Act of 1927","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1927"},{"link_name":"Federal Radio Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Radio_Commission"},{"link_name":"General Order 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Order_40"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Government regulation","text":"Although radio was well established with United States consumers by the mid-1920s, regulation of the broadcast medium presented its own challenges. Until 1926, broadcast radio power and frequency use was regulated by the U.S. Department of Commerce, until a legal challenge rendered the agency powerless to do so.[10] Congress responded by enacting the Radio Act of 1927, which included the formation of the Federal Radio Commission (FRC).One of the FRC's most important early actions was the adoption of General Order 40,[11] which divided stations on the AM band into three power level categories, which became known as Local, Regional, and Clear Channel, and reorganized station assignments. Based on this plan, effective 3:00 a.m. Eastern time on November 11, 1928, most of the country's stations were assigned to new transmitting frequencies.[12]","title":"Growth of radio"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"radio network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_network"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-national-14"},{"link_name":"RCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_America"},{"link_name":"National Broadcasting Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"National Broadcasting Company Red Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC_Red_Network"},{"link_name":"antitrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitrust"},{"link_name":"National Broadcasting Company Blue Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Network"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"American Broadcasting Company Radio Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulus_Media_Networks"},{"link_name":"Columbia Broadcasting System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_CBS#Early_radio_years"},{"link_name":"William S. Paley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_S._Paley"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-17"},{"link_name":"Mutual Broadcasting System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_Broadcasting_System"}],"sub_title":"Broadcast networks","text":"The final element needed to make the Golden Age of Radio possible focused on the question of distribution: the ability for multiple radio stations to simultaneously broadcast the same content, and this would be solved with the concept of a radio network.[13] The earliest radio programs of the 1920s were largely unsponsored; radio stations were a service designed to sell radio receivers. In early 1922, American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) announced the beginning of advertisement-supported broadcasting on its owned stations, and plans for the development of the first radio network using its telephone lines to transmit the content.[14] In July 1926, AT&T abruptly decided to exit the broadcasting field, and signed an agreement to sell its entire network operations to a group headed by RCA, which used the assets to form the National Broadcasting Company.[15] Four radio networks had formed by 1934. These were:National Broadcasting Company Red Network (NBC Red), launched November 15, 1926. Originally founded as the National Broadcasting Company in late 1926, the company was almost immediately forced to split under antitrust laws to form NBC Red and NBC Blue. When, in 1942, NBC Blue was sold and renamed the Blue Network, this network would go back to calling itself simply the National Broadcasting Company Radio Network (NBC).\nNational Broadcasting Company Blue Network (NBC Blue); launched January 10, 1927, split from NBC Red. NBC Blue was sold in 1942 and became the Blue Network, and it in turn transferred its assets to a new company, the American Broadcasting Company on June 15, 1945.[16] That network identified itself as the American Broadcasting Company Radio Network (ABC).\nColumbia Broadcasting System (CBS), launched September 18, 1927. After an initially struggling attempt to compete with the NBC networks, CBS gained new momentum when William S. Paley was installed as company president.[17]\nMutual Broadcasting System (Mutual), launched September 29, 1934. Mutual was initially run as a cooperative in which the flagship stations owned the network, not the other way around as was the case with the other three radio networks.","title":"Growth of radio"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:You_Can%27t_Do_Business_with_Hitler_rehearsal.jpg"}],"text":"In the period before and after the advent of the broadcast network, new forms of entertainment needed to be created to fill the time of a station's broadcast day. Many of the formats born in this era continued into the television and digital eras. In the beginning of the Golden Age, network programs were almost exclusively broadcast live, as the national networks prohibited the airing of recorded programs until the late 1940s because of the inferior sound quality of phonograph discs, the only practical recording medium at that time. As a result, network prime-time shows would be performed twice, once for each coast.Rehearsal for the World War II radio show You Can't Do Business with Hitler with John Flynn and Virginia Moore. This series of programs, broadcast at least once weekly by more than 790 radio stations in the United States, was written and produced by the radio section of the Office of War Information (OWI).","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"play-by-play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play-by-play"},{"link_name":"sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_radio"}],"sub_title":"Live events","text":"Coverage of live events included musical concerts and play-by-play sports broadcasts.","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"radio news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_news"},{"link_name":"remote reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_broadcast"},{"link_name":"Vox Pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_Pop_(radio)"},{"link_name":"panel discussions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_discussion"},{"link_name":"weather reports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_forecasting"},{"link_name":"feud between the radio and newspaper industries in the mid-1930s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Press-Radio_War"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"mass hysteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_hysteria"},{"link_name":"The War of the Worlds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Worlds_(1938_radio_drama)"}],"sub_title":"News","text":"The capability of the new medium to get information to people created the format of modern radio news: headlines, remote reporting, sidewalk interviews (such as Vox Pop), panel discussions, weather reports, and farm reports. The entry of radio into the realm of news triggered a feud between the radio and newspaper industries in the mid-1930s, eventually culminating in newspapers trumping up exaggerated [citation needed] reports of a mass hysteria from the (entirely fictional) radio presentation of The War of the Worlds, which had been presented as a faux newscast.","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"naming rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naming_rights"},{"link_name":"The A&P Gypsies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_A%26P_Gypsies"},{"link_name":"Champion Spark Plug Hour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champion_Spark_Plug_Hour"},{"link_name":"The Clicquot Club Eskimos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Clicquot_Club_Eskimos"},{"link_name":"King Biscuit Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Biscuit_Time"},{"link_name":"big band remotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_band_remotes"},{"link_name":"Monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monitor_(NBC_Radio)"},{"link_name":"Harriet Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harriet_Lee_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Wendell Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendell_Hall"},{"link_name":"Jesse Crawford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Crawford"},{"link_name":"Classical music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music"},{"link_name":"The Voice of Firestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voice_of_Firestone"},{"link_name":"The Bell Telephone Hour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bell_Telephone_Hour"},{"link_name":"Texaco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texaco"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Opera radio broadcasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera_radio_broadcasts"},{"link_name":"Toll Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Arturo Toscanini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arturo_Toscanini"},{"link_name":"NBC Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"George Gershwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gershwin"},{"link_name":"New York Philharmonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic"},{"link_name":"NPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPR"},{"link_name":"NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Educational_Television"},{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS"},{"link_name":"Country music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music"},{"link_name":"National Barn Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Barn_Dance"},{"link_name":"WLS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WLS_(AM)"},{"link_name":"NBC Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC_Red_Network"},{"link_name":"WSM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WSM_(AM)"},{"link_name":"Nashville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashville"},{"link_name":"Grand Ole Opry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry"},{"link_name":"Red Foley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Foley"},{"link_name":"ABC Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citadel_Media"},{"link_name":"Ozark Jubilee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozark_Jubilee"}],"sub_title":"Musical features","text":"The sponsored musical feature soon became one of the most popular program formats. Most early radio sponsorship came in the form of selling the naming rights to the program, as evidenced by such programs as The A&P Gypsies, Champion Spark Plug Hour, The Clicquot Club Eskimos, and King Biscuit Time; commercials, as they are known in the modern era, were still relatively uncommon and considered intrusive. During the 1930s and 1940s, the leading orchestras were heard often through big band remotes, and NBC's Monitor continued such remotes well into the 1950s by broadcasting live music from New York City jazz clubs to rural America. Singers such as Harriet Lee and Wendell Hall became popular fixtures on network radio beginning in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Local stations often had staff organists such as Jesse Crawford playing popular tunes.Classical music programs on the air included The Voice of Firestone and The Bell Telephone Hour. Texaco sponsored the Metropolitan Opera radio broadcasts; the broadcasts, now sponsored by the Toll Brothers, continue to this day around the world, and are one of the few examples of live classical music still broadcast on radio. One of the most notable of all classical music radio programs of the Golden Age of Radio featured the celebrated Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra, which had been created especially for him. At that time, nearly all classical musicians and critics considered Toscanini the greatest living maestro. Popular songwriters such as George Gershwin were also featured on radio. (Gershwin, in addition to frequent appearances as a guest, had his own program in 1934.) The New York Philharmonic also had weekly concerts on radio. There was no dedicated classical music radio station like NPR at that time, so classical music programs had to share the network they were broadcast on with more popular ones, much as in the days of television before the creation of NET and PBS.Country music also enjoyed popularity. National Barn Dance, begun on Chicago's WLS in 1924, was picked up by NBC Radio in 1933. In 1925, WSM Barn Dance went on the air from Nashville. It was renamed the Grand Ole Opry in 1927 and NBC carried portions from 1944 to 1956. NBC also aired The Red Foley Show from 1951 to 1961, and ABC Radio carried Ozark Jubilee from 1953 to 1961.","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vaudeville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaudeville"},{"link_name":"Bing Crosby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby"},{"link_name":"Abbott and Costello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbott_and_Costello"},{"link_name":"Fred Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Allen"},{"link_name":"Jack Benny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Benny"},{"link_name":"Victor Borge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Borge"},{"link_name":"Fanny Brice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny_Brice"},{"link_name":"Billie Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billie_Burke"},{"link_name":"Bob Burns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Burns_(comedian)"},{"link_name":"Judy Canova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Canova"},{"link_name":"Eddie Cantor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Cantor"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Durante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Durante"},{"link_name":"Burns and Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burns_and_Allen"},{"link_name":"Phil Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Harris"},{"link_name":"Edgar Bergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Bergen"},{"link_name":"Bob Hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Hope"},{"link_name":"Groucho Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groucho_Marx"},{"link_name":"Jean Shepherd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Shepherd"},{"link_name":"Red Skelton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Skelton"},{"link_name":"Ed Wynn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Wynn"},{"link_name":"Situational comedies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitcom"},{"link_name":"Amos 'n' Andy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_%27n%27_Andy"},{"link_name":"Easy Aces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easy_Aces"},{"link_name":"Ethel and Albert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_and_Albert"},{"link_name":"Fibber McGee and Molly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibber_McGee_and_Molly"},{"link_name":"The Goldbergs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Goldbergs_(broadcast_series)"},{"link_name":"The Great Gildersleeve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Gildersleeve"},{"link_name":"The Halls of Ivy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Halls_of_Ivy"},{"link_name":"Ronald Colman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Colman"},{"link_name":"Benita Hume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benita_Hume"},{"link_name":"Meet Corliss Archer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meet_Corliss_Archer"},{"link_name":"Meet Millie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meet_Millie"},{"link_name":"Our Miss Brooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Miss_Brooks"},{"link_name":"Lum and Abner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lum_and_Abner"},{"link_name":"Herb Shriner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb_Shriner"},{"link_name":"Minnie Pearl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnie_Pearl"},{"link_name":"Mel Blanc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mel_Blanc"},{"link_name":"Henry Morgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Morgan_(comedian)"},{"link_name":"Stop Me If You've Heard This One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_Me_If_You%27ve_Heard_This_One"},{"link_name":"Can You Top This?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can_You_Top_This%3F"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"It Pays to Be Ignorant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_Pays_to_Be_Ignorant"},{"link_name":"Spike Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_Jones"},{"link_name":"Stoopnagle and Budd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoopnagle_and_Budd"},{"link_name":"Stan Freberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Freberg"},{"link_name":"Bob and Ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_and_Ray"},{"link_name":"The Goon Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Goon_Show"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Radio_-_Keep_It_Free.jpg"},{"link_name":"Clifford Goldsmith's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Goldsmith"},{"link_name":"What a Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Life_(play)"},{"link_name":"The Aldrich Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Aldrich_Family"},{"link_name":"catchphrases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catchphrase"},{"link_name":"You Can't Take It with You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Can%27t_Take_It_with_You_(play)"},{"link_name":"Walter Brennan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Brennan"},{"link_name":"Blondie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blondie_(comic_strip)"},{"link_name":"Dick Tracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Tracy"},{"link_name":"Gasoline Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_Alley_(comic_strip)"},{"link_name":"The Gumps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gumps"},{"link_name":"Li'l Abner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%27l_Abner"},{"link_name":"Little Orphan Annie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Orphan_Annie"},{"link_name":"Popeye the Sailor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popeye_the_Sailor"},{"link_name":"Red Ryder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Ryder"},{"link_name":"Reg'lar Fellers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reg%27lar_Fellers"},{"link_name":"Terry and the Pirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_and_the_Pirates_(radio_serial)"},{"link_name":"Tillie the Toiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillie_the_Toiler"},{"link_name":"Archie Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archie_Andrews_(comics)"},{"link_name":"H. T. Webster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._T._Webster"},{"link_name":"Caspar Milquetoast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar_Milquetoast"},{"link_name":"Ripley's Believe It or Not!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripley%27s_Believe_It_or_Not!"},{"link_name":"Marie Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Wilson_(American_actress)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Comedy","text":"Radio attracted top comedy talents from vaudeville and Hollywood for many years: Bing Crosby, Abbott and Costello, Fred Allen, Jack Benny, Victor Borge, Fanny Brice, Billie Burke, Bob Burns, Judy Canova, Eddie Cantor, Jimmy Durante, Burns and Allen, Phil Harris, Edgar Bergen, Bob Hope, Groucho Marx, Jean Shepherd, Red Skelton and Ed Wynn. Situational comedies also gained popularity, such as Amos 'n' Andy, Easy Aces, Ethel and Albert, Fibber McGee and Molly, The Goldbergs, The Great Gildersleeve, The Halls of Ivy (which featured screen star Ronald Colman and his wife Benita Hume), Meet Corliss Archer, Meet Millie, and Our Miss Brooks.Radio comedy ran the gamut from the small town humor of Lum and Abner, Herb Shriner and Minnie Pearl to the dialect characterizations of Mel Blanc and the caustic sarcasm of Henry Morgan. Gags galore were delivered weekly on Stop Me If You've Heard This One and Can You Top This?,[18] panel programs devoted to the art of telling jokes. Quiz shows were lampooned on It Pays to Be Ignorant, and other memorable parodies were presented by such satirists as Spike Jones, Stoopnagle and Budd, Stan Freberg and Bob and Ray. British comedy reached American shores in a major assault when NBC carried The Goon Show in the mid-1950s.Radio-related World War II propaganda posterSome shows originated as stage productions: Clifford Goldsmith's play What a Life was reworked into NBC's popular, long-running The Aldrich Family (1939–1953) with the familiar catchphrases \"Henry! Henry Aldrich!,\" followed by Henry's answer, \"Coming, Mother!\" Moss Hart and George S. Kaufman's Pulitzer Prize-winning Broadway hit, You Can't Take It with You (1936), became a weekly situation comedy heard on Mutual (1944) with Everett Sloane and later on NBC (1951) with Walter Brennan.Other shows were adapted from comic strips, such as Blondie, Dick Tracy, Gasoline Alley, The Gumps, Li'l Abner, Little Orphan Annie, Popeye the Sailor, Red Ryder, Reg'lar Fellers, Terry and the Pirates and Tillie the Toiler. Bob Montana's redheaded teen of comic strips and comic books was heard on radio's Archie Andrews from 1943 to 1953. The Timid Soul was a 1941–1942 comedy based on cartoonist H. T. Webster's famed Caspar Milquetoast character, and Robert L. Ripley's Believe It or Not! was adapted to several different radio formats during the 1930s and 1940s. Conversely, some radio shows gave rise to spinoff comic strips, such as My Friend Irma starring Marie Wilson.[19]","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Painted Dreams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painted_Dreams"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hummert-21"},{"link_name":"WGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WGN_(AM)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hummert-21"},{"link_name":"Clara, Lu, 'n Em","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clara,_Lu,_%27n_Em"},{"link_name":"soap operas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap_opera"},{"link_name":"Young Dr. Malone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Dr._Malone"},{"link_name":"Ma Perkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Perkins"},{"link_name":"CBS Radio Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Radio_Network"}],"sub_title":"Soap operas","text":"The first program generally considered to be a daytime serial drama by scholars of the genre is Painted Dreams,[20][21] which premiered on WGN on October 20, 1930.[21] The first networked daytime serial is Clara, Lu, 'n Em, which started in a daytime time slot on February 15, 1932. As daytime serials became popular in the early 1930s, they became known as soap operas because many were sponsored by soap products and detergents. On November 25, 1960, the last four daytime radio dramas—Young Dr. Malone, Right to Happiness, The Second Mrs. Burton and Ma Perkins, all broadcast on the CBS Radio Network—were brought to an end.","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bobby Benson and the B-Bar-B Riders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Benson_and_the_B-Bar-B_Riders"},{"link_name":"The Cisco Kid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cisco_Kid"},{"link_name":"Jack Armstrong, the All-American Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Armstrong,_the_All-American_Boy"},{"link_name":"Captain Midnight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_Midnight"},{"link_name":"The Tom Mix Ralston Straight Shooters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Mix#Radio"},{"link_name":"radio premiums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_premiums"},{"link_name":"boxtop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxtop"},{"link_name":"proof of purchase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_of_purchase"}],"sub_title":"Children's programming","text":"The line-up of late afternoon adventure serials included Bobby Benson and the B-Bar-B Riders, The Cisco Kid, Jack Armstrong, the All-American Boy, Captain Midnight, and The Tom Mix Ralston Straight Shooters. Badges, rings, decoding devices and other radio premiums offered on these adventure shows were often allied with a sponsor's product, requiring the young listeners to mail in a boxtop from a breakfast cereal or other proof of purchase.","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"26 by Corwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Corwin"},{"link_name":"Arch Oboler's Plays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_Oboler%27s_Plays"},{"link_name":"Quiet, Please","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiet,_Please"},{"link_name":"CBS Radio Workshop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Radio_Workshop"},{"link_name":"Orson Welles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orson_Welles"},{"link_name":"The Mercury Theatre on the Air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mercury_Theatre_on_the_Air"},{"link_name":"The Campbell Playhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Campbell_Playhouse_(radio_series)"},{"link_name":"Margaret Sullavan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Sullavan"},{"link_name":"Helen Hayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Hayes"},{"link_name":"Liliom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liliom"},{"link_name":"Oliver Twist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Twist"},{"link_name":"A Tale of Two Cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Tale_of_Two_Cities"},{"link_name":"Lost Horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_Horizon"},{"link_name":"The Murder of Roger Ackroyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Murder_of_Roger_Ackroyd"},{"link_name":"1938 adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Worlds_(radio_drama)"},{"link_name":"H. G. Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._G._Wells"},{"link_name":"The War of the Worlds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Worlds"},{"link_name":"breaking news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaking_news"},{"link_name":"Theatre Guild on the Air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_Guild_on_the_Air"},{"link_name":"Macbeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth"},{"link_name":"Maurice Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Evans_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Judith Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Anderson"},{"link_name":"Hamlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet"},{"link_name":"John Gielgud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gielgud"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Basil Rathbone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Rathbone"},{"link_name":"Nigel Bruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Bruce"},{"link_name":"Sherlock Holmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes"},{"link_name":"Dr. Watson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Watson"},{"link_name":"The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Adventures_of_Sherlock_Holmes"},{"link_name":"Arthur Conan Doyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle"},{"link_name":"The Speckled Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adventure_of_the_Speckled_Band"},{"link_name":"John Barrymore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Barrymore"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Twelfth Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night"},{"link_name":"Malvolio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvolio"},{"link_name":"Sir Toby Belch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Toby_Belch"},{"link_name":"Macbeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeth"},{"link_name":"Lux Radio Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux_Radio_Theatre"},{"link_name":"The Screen Guild Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Screen_Guild_Theater"},{"link_name":"Suspense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspense_(radio_drama)"},{"link_name":"Escape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_(radio_program)"},{"link_name":"The Mysterious Traveler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mysterious_Traveler"},{"link_name":"Inner Sanctum Mystery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Sanctum_Mystery"},{"link_name":"Norman Corwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Corwin"},{"link_name":"Carlton E. Morse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlton_E._Morse"},{"link_name":"David Goodis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Goodis"},{"link_name":"Archibald MacLeish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_MacLeish"},{"link_name":"Arthur Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Miller"},{"link_name":"Arch Oboler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_Oboler"},{"link_name":"Wyllis Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyllis_Cooper"},{"link_name":"Rod Serling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_Serling"},{"link_name":"Jay Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Bennett_(author)"},{"link_name":"Irwin Shaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irwin_Shaw"}],"sub_title":"Radio plays","text":"Radio plays were presented on such programs as 26 by Corwin, NBC Short Story, Arch Oboler's Plays, Quiet, Please, and CBS Radio Workshop. Orson Welles's The Mercury Theatre on the Air and The Campbell Playhouse were considered by many critics to be the finest radio drama anthologies ever presented. They usually starred Welles in the leading role, along with celebrity guest stars such as Margaret Sullavan or Helen Hayes, in adaptations from literature, Broadway, and/or films. They included such titles as Liliom, Oliver Twist (a title now feared lost), A Tale of Two Cities, Lost Horizon, and The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. It was on Mercury Theatre that Welles presented his celebrated-but-infamous 1938 adaptation of H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, formatted to sound like a breaking news program. Theatre Guild on the Air presented adaptations of classical and Broadway plays. Their Shakespeare adaptations included a one-hour Macbeth starring Maurice Evans and Judith Anderson, and a 90-minute Hamlet, starring John Gielgud.[22] Recordings of many of these programs survive.During the 1940s, Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce, famous for playing Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson in films, repeated their characterizations on radio on The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, which featured both original stories and episodes directly adapted from Arthur Conan Doyle's stories. None of the episodes in which Rathbone and Bruce starred on the radio program were filmed with the two actors as Holmes and Watson, so radio became the only medium in which audiences were able to experience Rathbone and Bruce appearing in some of the more famous Holmes stories, such as \"The Speckled Band\". There were also many dramatizations of Sherlock Holmes stories on radio without Rathbone and Bruce.During the latter part of his career, celebrated actor John Barrymore starred in a radio program, Streamlined Shakespeare, which featured him in a series of one-hour adaptations of Shakespeare plays, many of which Barrymore never appeared in either on stage or in films, such as Twelfth Night (in which he played both Malvolio and Sir Toby Belch), and Macbeth.Lux Radio Theatre and The Screen Guild Theater presented adaptations of Hollywood movies, performed before a live audience, usually with cast members from the original films. Suspense, Escape, The Mysterious Traveler and Inner Sanctum Mystery were popular thriller anthology series. Leading writers who created original material for radio included Norman Corwin, Carlton E. Morse, David Goodis, Archibald MacLeish, Arthur Miller, Arch Oboler, Wyllis Cooper, Rod Serling, Jay Bennett, and Irwin Shaw.","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Game shows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_show"},{"link_name":"Information Please","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Please"},{"link_name":"Dr. I.Q.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._I.Q."},{"link_name":"Winner Take All","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winner_Take_All_(game_show)"},{"link_name":"Pot o' Gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pot_o%27_Gold_(radio_program)"},{"link_name":"Stop the Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_the_Music_(American_game_show)"},{"link_name":"FCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Game shows","text":"Game shows saw their beginnings in radio. One of the first was Information Please in 1938, and one of the first major successes was Dr. I.Q. in 1939. Winner Take All, which premiered in 1946, was the first to use lockout devices and feature returning champions.A relative of the game show, which would be called the giveaway show in contemporary media, typically involved giving sponsored products to studio audience members, people randomly called by telephone, or both. An early example of this show was the 1939 show Pot o' Gold, but the breakout hit of this type was ABC's Stop the Music in 1948. Winning a prize generally required knowledge of what was being aired on the show at that moment, which led to criticism of the giveaway show as a form of \"buying an audience\". Giveaway shows were extremely popular through 1948 and 1949. They were often panned as low-brow, and an unsuccessful attempt was even made by the FCC to ban them (as an illegal lottery) in August 1949.[23]","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RCA Type 44-BX microphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Type_44"}],"text":"The RCA Type 44-BX microphone had two live faces and two dead ones. Thus actors could face each other and react. An actor could give the effect of leaving the room by simply moving their head toward the dead face of the microphone.The scripts were paper-clipped together. It has been disputed whether or not actors and actresses would drop finished pages to the carpeted floor after use.","title":"Broadcast production methods"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History of professional radio recordings in the United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"syndicated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_syndication"},{"link_name":"transcription discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_discs"},{"link_name":"cutting lathe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_cutting_lathe"},{"link_name":"acetate discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetate_disc"},{"link_name":"rpm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute"},{"link_name":"electrical transcriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_disc"},{"link_name":"radio network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_network"},{"link_name":"affiliated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_affiliate"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Radio stations","text":"Despite a general ban on use of recordings on broadcasts by radio networks through the late 1940s, \"reference recordings\" on phonograph disc were made of many programs as they were being broadcast, for review by the sponsor and for the network's own archival purposes. With the development of high-fidelity magnetic wire and tape recording in the years following World War II, the networks became more open to airing recorded programs and the prerecording of shows became more common.Local stations, however, had always been free to use recordings and sometimes made substantial use of prerecorded syndicated programs distributed on pressed (as opposed to individually recorded) transcription discs.Recording was done using a cutting lathe and acetate discs. Programs were normally recorded at 331⁄3 rpm on 16 inch discs, the standard format used for such \"electrical transcriptions\" from the early 1930s through the 1950s. Sometimes, the groove was cut starting at the inside of the disc and running to the outside. This was useful when the program to be recorded was longer than 15 minutes so required more than one disc side. By recording the first side outside in, the second inside out, and so on, the sound quality at the disc change-over points would match and result in a more seamless playback. An inside start also had the advantage that the thread of material cut from the disc's surface, which had to be kept out of the path of the cutting stylus, was naturally thrown toward the center of the disc so was automatically out of the way. When cutting an outside start disc, a brush could be used to keep it out of the way by sweeping it toward the middle of the disc. Well-equipped recording lathes used the vacuum from a water aspirator to pick it up as it was cut and deposit it in a water-filled bottle. In addition to convenience, this served a safety purpose, as the cellulose nitrate thread was highly flammable and a loose accumulation of it combusted violently if ignited.Most recordings of radio broadcasts were made at a radio network's studios, or at the facilities of a network-owned or affiliated station, which might have four or more lathes. A small local station often had none. Two lathes were required to capture a program longer than 15 minutes without losing parts of it while discs were flipped over or changed, along with a trained technician to operate them and monitor the recording while it was being made. However, some surviving recordings were produced by local stations.[24][25]When a substantial number of copies of an electrical transcription were required, as for the distribution of a syndicated program, they were produced by the same process used to make ordinary records. A master recording was cut, then electroplated to produce a stamper from which pressings in vinyl (or, in the case of transcription discs pressed before about 1935, shellac) were molded in a record press.","title":"History of professional radio recordings in the United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sinatra_Radio.gif"},{"link_name":"Frank Sinatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra"},{"link_name":"Alida Valli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alida_Valli"},{"link_name":"War Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War"},{"link_name":"Command Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_Performance_(radio_series)"},{"link_name":"Mail Call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_Call_(radio_program)"},{"link_name":"GI Jive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GI_Jive"},{"link_name":"Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Coordinator_of_Inter-American_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Columbia Broadcasting System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Broadcasting_System"},{"link_name":"cultural diplomacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_diplomacy"},{"link_name":"Good Neighbor policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Neighbor_policy"},{"link_name":"Viva America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viva_America"},{"link_name":"Alfredo Antonini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfredo_Antonini"},{"link_name":"Juan Arvizu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Arvizu"},{"link_name":"Nestor Mesta Chayres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestor_Mesta_Chayres"},{"link_name":"Kate Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Smith"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"John Serry Sr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Serry_Sr."},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_Army_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"American Forces Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Forces_Network"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Armed Forces Radio Service","text":"Frank Sinatra and Alida Valli converse over Armed Forces Radio Service during World War IIThe Armed Forces Radio Service (AFRS) had its origins in the U.S. War Department's quest to improve troop morale. This quest began with short-wave broadcasts of educational and information programs to troops in 1940. In 1941, the War Department began issuing \"Buddy Kits\" (B-Kits) to departing troops, which consisted of radios, 78 rpm records and electrical transcription discs of radio shows. However, with the entrance of the United States into World War II, the War Department decided that it needed to improve the quality and quantity of its offerings.This began with the broadcasting of its own original variety programs. Command Performance was the first of these, produced for the first time on March 1, 1942. On May 26, 1942, the Armed Forces Radio Service was formally established. Originally, its programming comprised network radio shows with the commercials removed. However, it soon began producing original programming, such as Mail Call, G.I. Journal, Jubilee and GI Jive. At its peak in 1945, the Service produced around 20 hours of original programming each week.From 1943 until 1949 the AFRS also broadcast programs developed through the collaborative efforts of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs and the Columbia Broadcasting System in support of America's cultural diplomacy initiatives and President Franklin Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy. Included among the popular shows was Viva America which showcased leading musical artists from both North and South America for the entertainment of America's troops. Included among the regular performers were: Alfredo Antonini, Juan Arvizu, Nestor Mesta Chayres, Kate Smith,[26] and John Serry Sr.[27][28][29]After the war, the AFRS continued providing programming to troops in Europe. During the 1950s and early 1960s it presented performances by the Army's only symphonic orchestra ensemble—the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra.[30]\nIt also provided programming for future wars that the United States was involved in. It survives today as a component of the American Forces Network (AFN).All of the shows aired by the AFRS during the Golden Age were recorded as electrical transcription discs, vinyl copies of which were shipped to stations overseas to be broadcast to the troops. People in the United States rarely ever heard programming from the AFRS,[31] though AFRS recordings of Golden Age network shows were occasionally broadcast on some domestic stations beginning in the 1950s.In some cases, the AFRS disc is the only surviving recording of a program.","title":"History of professional radio recordings in the United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"78 rpm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/78_rpm"},{"link_name":"331⁄3 rpm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP_record"},{"link_name":"magnetic wire recorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_recording"},{"link_name":"magnetic tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UnivMemphis-33"}],"sub_title":"Home radio recordings in the United States","text":"There was some home recording of radio broadcasts in the 1930s and 1940s. Examples from as early as 1930 have been documented. During these years, home recordings were made with disc recorders, most of which were only capable of storing about four minutes of a radio program on each side of a twelve-inch 78 rpm record. Most home recordings were made on even shorter-playing ten-inch or smaller discs. Some home disc recorders offered the option of the 331⁄3 rpm speed used for electrical transcriptions, allowing a recording more than twice as long to be made, although with reduced audio quality. Office dictation equipment was sometimes pressed into service for making recordings of radio broadcasts, but the audio quality of these devices was poor and the resulting recordings were in odd formats that had to be played back on similar equipment. Due to the expense of recorders and the limitations of the recording media, home recording of broadcasts was not common during this period and it was usually limited to brief excerpts.The lack of suitable home recording equipment was somewhat relieved in 1947 with the availability of magnetic wire recorders for domestic use. These were capable of recording an hour-long broadcast on a single small spool of wire, and if a high-quality radio's audio output was recorded directly, rather than by holding a microphone up to its speaker, the recorded sound quality was very good. However, because the wire cost money and, like magnetic tape, could be repeatedly re-used to make new recordings, only a few complete broadcasts appear to have survived on this medium. In fact, there was little home recording of complete radio programs until the early 1950s, when increasingly affordable reel-to-reel tape recorders for home use were introduced to the market.[32][33]","title":"History of professional radio recordings in the United States"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Recording media"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:War_of_the_Worlds_ET.jpg"},{"link_name":"The War of the Worlds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Worlds_(radio_drama)"},{"link_name":"phonograph records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record"},{"link_name":"electrical transcriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_disc"},{"link_name":"rpm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute"},{"link_name":"acetates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetate_disc"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Electrical transcription discs","text":"The War of the Worlds radio broadcast by Orson Welles on electrical transcription discBefore the early 1950s, when radio networks and local stations wanted to preserve a live broadcast, they did so by means of special phonograph records known as \"electrical transcriptions\" (ETs), made by cutting a sound-modulated groove into a blank disc. At first, in the early 1930s, the blanks varied in both size and composition, but most often they were simply bare aluminum and the groove was indented rather than cut. Typically, these very early recordings were not made by the network or radio station, but by a private recording service contracted by the broadcast sponsor or one of the performers. The bare aluminum discs were typically 10 or 12 inches in diameter and recorded at the then-standard speed of 78 rpm, which meant that several disc sides were required to accommodate even a 15-minute program. By about 1936, 16-inch aluminum-based discs coated with cellulose nitrate lacquer, commonly known as acetates and recorded at a speed of 331⁄3 rpm, had been adopted by the networks and individual radio stations as the standard medium for recording broadcasts. The making of such recordings, at least for some purposes, then became routine. Some discs were recorded using a \"hill and dale\" vertically modulated groove, rather than the \"lateral\" side-to-side modulation found on the records being made for home use at that time. The large slow-speed discs could easily contain fifteen minutes on each side, allowing an hour-long program to be recorded on only two discs. The lacquer was softer than shellac or vinyl and wore more rapidly, allowing only a few playbacks with the heavy pickups and steel needles then in use before deterioration became audible.During World War II, aluminum became a necessary material for the war effort and was in short supply. This caused an alternative to be sought for the base on which to coat the lacquer. Glass, despite its obvious disadvantage of fragility, had occasionally been used in earlier years because it could provide a perfectly smooth and even supporting surface for mastering and other critical applications. Glass base recording blanks came into general use for the duration of the war.[34]","title":"Recording media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wire recorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_recording"}],"sub_title":"Magnetic wire recording","text":"In the late 1940s, wire recorders became a readily obtainable means of recording radio programs. On a per-minute basis, it was less expensive to record a broadcast on wire than on discs. The one-hour program that required the four sides of two 16-inch discs could be recorded intact on a single spool of wire less than three inches in diameter and about half an inch thick. The audio fidelity of a good wire recording was comparable to acetate discs and by comparison the wire was practically indestructible, but it was soon rendered obsolete by the more manageable and easily edited medium of magnetic tape.","title":"Recording media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bing Crosby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UnivMemphis-33"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Reel-to-reel tape recording","text":"Bing Crosby became the first major proponent of magnetic tape recording for radio, and he was the first to use it on network radio, after he did a demonstration program in 1947.[33][35] Tape had several advantages over earlier recording methods. Running at a sufficiently high speed, it could achieve higher fidelity than both electrical transcription discs and magnetic wire. Discs could be edited only by copying parts of them to a new disc, and the copying entailed a loss of audio quality. Wire could be divided up and the ends spliced together by knotting, but wire was difficult to handle and the crude splices were too noticeable. Tape could be edited by cutting it with a blade and neatly joining ends together with adhesive tape. By early 1949, the transition from live performances preserved on discs to performances prerecorded on magnetic tape for later broadcast was complete for network radio programs.[36][37] However, for the physical distribution of prerecorded programming to individual stations, 16-inch 331⁄3 rpm vinyl pressings, less expensive to produce in quantities of identical copies than tapes, continued to be standard throughout the 1950s.","title":"Recording media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"music radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_radio"},{"link_name":"rerun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rerun"},{"link_name":"serials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_(radio_and_television)"},{"link_name":"Airchecks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircheck"},{"link_name":"MP3s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3"},{"link_name":"air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting"},{"link_name":"AM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"digital recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_recording"},{"link_name":"analog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal"},{"link_name":"reels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reel_to_reel"},{"link_name":"cassettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_tapes"},{"link_name":"archivally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival"},{"link_name":"Earth's magnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Golden_Age_of_Radio&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive"},{"link_name":"download","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Download"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"The great majority of pre-World War II live radio broadcasts are lost. Many were never recorded; few recordings antedate the early 1930s. Beginning then several of the longer-running radio dramas have their archives complete or nearly complete. The earlier the date, the less likely it is that a recording survives. However, a good number of syndicated programs from this period have survived because copies were distributed far and wide. Recordings of live network broadcasts from the World War II years were preserved in the form of pressed vinyl copies issued by the Armed Forces Radio Service (AFRS) and survive in relative abundance. Syndicated programs from World War II and later years have nearly all survived. The survival of network programming from this time frame is more inconsistent; the networks started prerecording their formerly live shows on magnetic tape for subsequent network broadcast, but did not physically distribute copies, and the expensive tapes, unlike electrical transcription (\"ET\") discs, could be \"wiped\" and re-used (especially since, in the age of emerging trends such as television and music radio, such recordings were believed to have virtually no rerun or resale value). Thus, while some prime time network radio series from this era exist in full or almost in full, especially the most famous and longest-lived of them, less prominent or shorter-lived series (such as serials) may have only a handful of extant episodes. Airchecks, off-the-air recordings of complete shows made by, or at the behest of, individuals for their own private use, sometimes help to fill in such gaps. The contents of privately made recordings of live broadcasts from the first half of the 1930s can be of particular interest, as little live material from that period survives. Unfortunately, the sound quality of very early private recordings is often very poor, although in some cases this is largely due to the use of an incorrect playback stylus, which can also badly damage some unusual types of discs.Most of the Golden Age programs in circulation among collectors—whether on analog tape, CD, or in the form of MP3s—originated from analog 16-inch transcription disc, although some are off-the-air AM recordings. But in many cases, the circulating recordings are corrupted (decreased in quality), because lossless digital recording for the home market did not come until the very end of the twentieth century.Collectors made and shared recordings on analog magnetic tapes, the only practical, relatively inexpensive medium, first on reels, then cassettes. \"Sharing\" usually meant making a duplicate tape. They connected two recorders, playing on one and recording on the other. Analog recordings are never perfect, and copying an analog recording multiplies the imperfections. With the oldest recordings this can even mean it went out the speaker of one machine and in via the microphone of the other. The muffled sound, dropouts, sudden changes in sound quality, unsteady pitch, and other defects heard all too often are almost always accumulated tape copy defects. In addition, magnetic recordings, unless preserved archivally, are gradually damaged by the Earth's magnetic field.The audio quality of the source discs, when they have survived unscathed and are accessed and dubbed anew, is usually found to be reasonably clear and undistorted, sometimes startlingly good, although like all phonograph records they are vulnerable to wear and the effects of scuffs, scratches, and ground-in dust. Many shows from the 1940s have survived only in edited AFRS versions, although some exist in both the original and AFRS forms.As of 2020[update], the Old Time Radio collection at the Internet Archive contains 5,121 recordings. An active group of collectors makes digitally available, via CD or download, large collections of programs. RadioEchoes.com offers 98,949 episodes in their collection, but not all is old-time radio.[38]","title":"Availability of recordings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"copyrighting of sound recordings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_copyright_symbol"},{"link_name":"common law copyright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law_copyright"},{"link_name":"Music Modernization Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Modernization_Act"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soundreccopyright-39"},{"link_name":"work of the United States government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_of_the_United_States_government"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"orphan works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_work"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soundreccopyright-39"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"Flo & Eddie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flo_%26_Eddie"},{"link_name":"Sirius XM Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_XM_Radio"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lawsuit-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive"}],"sub_title":"Copyright status","text":"Unlike film, television, and print items from the era, the copyright status of most recordings from the Golden Age of Radio is unclear. This is because, prior to 1972, the United States delegated the copyrighting of sound recordings to the individual states, many of which offered more generous common law copyright protections than the federal government offered for other media (some offered perpetual copyright, which has since been abolished; under the Music Modernization Act of September 2018, any sound recording 95 years old or older will be thrust into the public domain regardless of state law).[39] The only exceptions are AFRS original productions, which are considered work of the United States government and thus both ineligible for federal copyright and outside the jurisdiction of any state; these programs are firmly in the public domain (this does not apply to programs carried by AFRS but produced by commercial networks).In practice, most old-time radio recordings are treated as orphan works: although there may still be a valid copyright on the program, it is seldom enforced. The copyright on an individual sound recording is distinct from the federal copyright for the underlying material (such as a published script, music, or in the case of adaptations, the original film or television material), and in many cases it is impossible to determine where or when the original recording was made or if the recording was copyrighted in that state. The U.S. Copyright Office states \"there are a variety of legal regimes governing protection of pre-1972 sound recordings in the various states, and the scope of protection and of exceptions and limitations to that protection is unclear.\"[39] For example, New York has issued contradicting rulings on whether or not common law exists in that state; the most recent ruling, 2016's Flo & Eddie, Inc. v. Sirius XM Radio, holds that there is no such copyright in New York in regard to public performance.[40] Further complicating matters is that certain examples in case law have implied that radio broadcasts (and faithful reproductions thereof), because they were distributed freely to the public over the air, may not be eligible for copyright in and of themselves.[41] The Internet Archive and other organizations that distribute public domain and open-source audio recordings maintain extensive archives of old-time radio programs.","title":"Availability of recordings"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rock and roll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_roll"},{"link_name":"top 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_40"},{"link_name":"full-service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_service_(radio_format)"},{"link_name":"transistor radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_radio"},{"link_name":"beautiful music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beautiful_music"},{"link_name":"MOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_of_the_road_(music)"},{"link_name":"all-news radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-news_radio"},{"link_name":"Imagination Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagination_Theater"},{"link_name":"The Twilight Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Zone_(radio_series)"},{"link_name":"When Radio Was","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Radio_Was"},{"link_name":"USA Radio Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Radio_Network"},{"link_name":"Golden Age of Radio Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Radio_Network#Golden_Age_of_Radio_Theatre"},{"link_name":"WAMU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAMU"},{"link_name":"Murray Horwitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Horwitz"},{"link_name":"public radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_radio"},{"link_name":"Sirius XM Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_XM_Radio"},{"link_name":"Radio Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Classics"},{"link_name":"Garrison Keillor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrison_Keillor"},{"link_name":"A Prairie Home Companion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Prairie_Home_Companion"},{"link_name":"Guy Noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Noir"},{"link_name":"WLT: A Radio Romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WLT:_A_Radio_Romance"},{"link_name":"Chris Thile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Thile"},{"link_name":"Live from Here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_from_Here"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"National Audio Theatre Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Audio_Theatre_Festival"},{"link_name":"Jim Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Jordan_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Norman Corwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Corwin"},{"link_name":"Armed Forces Radio Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Forces_Network"},{"link_name":"Red Ryder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Ryder"},{"link_name":"Unshackled!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unshackled!"},{"link_name":"Pacific Garden Mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Garden_Mission"},{"link_name":"Newark, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Celebrating Audio Theater – Old & New","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.celebratingaudiotheater.org"},{"link_name":"Daniel Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Wakefield_Smith"},{"link_name":"Fairfield University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfield_University"},{"link_name":"Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regina_A._Quick_Center_for_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yours_Truly,_Johnny_Dollar"},{"link_name":"Suspense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspense_(radio_drama)"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Grand Ole Opry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry"},{"link_name":"Music and the Spoken Word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_and_the_Spoken_Word"},{"link_name":"The Lutheran Hour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lutheran_Hour"},{"link_name":"CBS World News Roundup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_World_News_Roundup"},{"link_name":"King Biscuit Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Biscuit_Time"},{"link_name":"Renfro Valley Gatherin'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renfro_Valley_Gatherin%27"},{"link_name":"Wheeling Jamboree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWVA_Jamboree"},{"link_name":"Riders in the Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riders_in_the_Sky_(band)"},{"link_name":"Riders Radio Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riders_Radio_Theater"},{"link_name":"Midnite Jamboree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnite_Jamboree"},{"link_name":"WoodSongs Old-Time Radio Hour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WoodSongs_Old-Time_Radio_Hour"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"Some old-time radio shows continued on the air, although in ever-dwindling numbers, throughout the 1950s, even after their television equivalents had conquered the general public. One factor which helped to kill off old-time radio entirely was the evolution of popular music (including the development of rock and roll), which led to the birth of the top 40 radio format. A top 40 show could be produced in a small studio in a local station with minimal staff. This displaced full-service network radio and hastened the end of the golden-age era of radio drama by 1962. (Radio as a broadcast medium would survive, thanks in part to the proliferation of the transistor radio, and permanent installation in vehicles, making the medium far more portable than television). Full-service stations that did not adopt either top 40 or the mellower beautiful music or MOR formats eventually developed all-news radio in the mid-1960s.Scripted radio comedy and drama in the vein of old-time radio has a limited presence on U.S. radio. Several radio theatre series are still in production in the United States, usually airing on Sunday nights. These include original series such as Imagination Theater and a radio adaptation of The Twilight Zone TV series, as well as rerun compilations such as the popular daily series When Radio Was and USA Radio Network's Golden Age of Radio Theatre, and weekly programs such as The Big Broadcast on WAMU, hosted by Murray Horwitz. These shows usually air in late nights and/or on weekends on small AM stations. Carl Amari's nationally syndicated radio show Hollywood 360 features 5 old-time radio episodes each week during his 5-hour broadcast. Amari's show is heard on 100+ radio stations coast-to-coast and in 168 countries on American Forces Radio. Local rerun compilations are also heard, primarily on public radio stations. Sirius XM Radio maintains a full-time Radio Classics channel devoted to rebroadcasts of vintage radio shows.Starting in 1974, Garrison Keillor, through his syndicated two-hour-long program A Prairie Home Companion, has provided a living museum of the production, tone and listener's experience of this era of radio for several generations after its demise. Produced live in theaters throughout the country, using the same sound effects and techniques of the era, it ran through 2016 with Keillor as host. The program included segments that were close renditions (in the form of parody) of specific genres of this era, including Westerns (\"Dusty and Lefty, The Lives of the Cowboys\"), detective procedurals (\"Guy Noir, Private Eye\") and even advertising through fictional commercials. Keillor also wrote a novel, WLT: A Radio Romance based on a radio station of this era—including a personally narrated version for the ultimate in verisimilitude. Upon Keillor's retirement, replacement host Chris Thile chose to reboot the show (since renamed Live from Here after the syndicator cut ties with Keillor) and eliminate much of the old-time radio trappings of the format; the show was ultimately canceled in 2020 due to financial and logistics problems.[42]Vintage shows and new audio productions in America are accessible more widely from recordings or by satellite and web broadcasters, rather than over conventional AM and FM radio. The National Audio Theatre Festival is a national organization and yearly conference keeping the audio arts—especially audio drama—alive, and continues to involve long-time voice actors and OTR veterans in its ranks. Its predecessor, the Midwest Radio Theatre Workshop, was first hosted by Jim Jordan, of Fibber McGee and Molly fame, and Norman Corwin advised the organization.One of the longest running radio programs celebrating this era is The Golden Days of Radio, which was hosted on the Armed Forces Radio Service for more than 20 years and overall for more than 50 years by Frank Bresee, who also played \"Little Beaver\" on the Red Ryder program as a child actor.One of the very few still-running shows from the earlier era of radio is a Christian program entitled Unshackled! The weekly half-hour show, produced in Chicago by Pacific Garden Mission, has been continuously broadcast since 1950. The shows are created using techniques from the 1950s (including home-made sound effects) and are broadcast across the U.S. and around the world by thousands of radio stations.Today, radio performers of the past appear at conventions that feature re-creations of classic shows, as well as music, memorabilia and historical panels. The largest of these events was the Friends of Old Time Radio Convention, held in Newark, New Jersey, which held its final convention in October 2011 after 36 years. Others include REPS in Seattle (June), SPERDVAC in California, the Cincinnati OTR & Nostalgia Convention (April), and the Mid-Atlantic Nostalgia Convention (September). Veterans of the Friends of Old Time Radio Convention, including Chairperson Steven M. Lewis of The Gotham Radio Players, Maggie Thompson, publisher of the Comic Book Buyer's Guide, Craig Wichman of audio drama troupe Quicksilver Audio Theater and long-time FOTR Publicist Sean Dougherty have launched a successor event, Celebrating Audio Theater – Old & New, scheduled for October 12–13, 2012.Radio dramas from the golden age are sometimes recreated as live stage performances at such events. One such group, led by director Daniel Smith, has been performing re-creations of old-time radio dramas at Fairfield University's Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts since the year 2000.[43][44]The 40th anniversary of what is widely considered the end of the old time radio era (the final broadcasts of Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar and Suspense on September 30, 1962) was marked with a commentary on NPR's All Things Considered.[45]A handful of radio programs from the old-time era remain in production, all from the genres of news, music, or religious broadcasting: the Grand Ole Opry (1925), Music and the Spoken Word (1929), The Lutheran Hour (1930), the CBS World News Roundup (1938), King Biscuit Time (1941) and the Renfro Valley Gatherin' (1943). Of those, all but the Opry maintain their original short-form length of 30 minutes or less. The Wheeling Jamboree counts an earlier program on a competing station as part of its history, tracing its lineage back to 1933.Western revival/comedy act Riders in the Sky produced a radio serial Riders Radio Theater in the 1980s and 1990s and continues to provide sketch comedy on existing radio programs including the Grand Ole Opry, Midnite Jamboree and WoodSongs Old-Time Radio Hour.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_3"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_4"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 4 Extra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_4_Extra"}],"sub_title":"Elsewhere","text":"Regular broadcasts of radio plays are also heard in—among other countries—Australia, Croatia, Estonia,[46] France, Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Romania, and Sweden. In the United Kingdom, such scripted radio drama continues on BBC Radio 3 and (principally) BBC Radio 4, the second-most popular radio station in the country, as well as on the rerun channel BBC Radio 4 Extra, which is the seventh-most popular station there.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARK_Museum_of_Electrical_Invention"},{"link_name":"Museum of Broadcast Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Broadcast_Communications"},{"link_name":"Paley Center for Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paley_Center_for_Media"},{"link_name":"Pavek Museum of Broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavek_Museum_of_Broadcasting"}],"text":"SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention\nMuseum of Broadcast Communications\nPaley Center for Media\nPavek Museum of Broadcasting","title":"Museums"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"The Golden Age of Radio | SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sparkmuseum.org/the-golden-age-of-radio/"},{"link_name":"SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARK_Museum_of_Electrical_Invention"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20191024224727/https://www.sparkmuseum.org/the-golden-age-of-radio/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"In Search of the Truth About Fessenden\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20120912104304/http://www.rwonline.com/article/922"},{"link_name":"cite 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Quick Center for the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regina_A._Quick_Center_for_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fairfield.edu/x15712.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-45"},{"link_name":"\"Last Radio Drama\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1150876"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110604025959/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1150876"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-46"},{"link_name":"\"Raadioteater\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//raadioteater.err.ee/raadioteater/avaleht"},{"link_name":"Eesti Rahvusringhääling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eesti_Rahvusringh%C3%A4%C3%A4ling"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20150207105827/http://raadioteater.err.ee/raadioteater/avaleht"}],"text":"^ \"The Golden Age of Radio | SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention\". 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Retrieved 2007-11-05.\n\n^ \"ABC Spends 100G in Shift From Wax to Tape Repeats Archived 2015-03-17 at the Wayback Machine\", Billboard, Feb. 21, 1948, p. 6.\n\n^ \"NBC Drops All Wax Bans Archived 2015-03-17 at the Wayback Machine\", Billboard, Jan. 29, 1949, p. 5.\n\n^ \"Webs' Tape Measure Grows Archived 2015-03-17 at the Wayback Machine\", Billboard, Nov. 5, 1949, p. 5.\n\n^ \"RadioEchoes.com\". RadioEchoes.com. Retrieved 2021-02-11.\n\n^ a b \"Federal Copyright Protection for Pre-1972 Sound Recordings – U.S. Copyright Office\". www.copyright.gov. Archived from the original on 8 March 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.\n\n^ Klepper, David (20 December 2016). \"Owner of 1967 Hit Song 'Happy Together' Lose Copyright Case\". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2017.\n\n^ This was a key point in Waring v. WDAS Broadcasting Sta., a case that determined that a record company could claim copyright on a sound recording under Pennsylvania law because the recording was specifically designated as not being for radio broadcast.\n\n^ Baenen, Jeff (April 12, 2016). Goodbye, Lake Wobegon: 'Prairie Home' is getting a new host Archived 2016-04-15 at the Wayback Machine. AP. Retrieved April 13, 2016.\n\n^ Spiegel, Jan Ellen (2007-09-09). \"We Interrupt This Play for a News Bulletin on the War\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-07-01. Retrieved 2007-09-09.\n\n^ \"Radio Dramas\". Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts. Fairfield University. 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2008-04-18.\n\n^ Chimes, Art. \"Last Radio Drama\". NPR.org. National Public Radio. Archived from the original on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2010-01-22.\n\n^ \"Raadioteater\" (in Estonian). Eesti Rahvusringhääling (formerly Eesti Raadio). 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-02-07. Retrieved 2015-02-01.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-86533-000-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86533-000-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13932-616-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13932-616-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1476693392","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1476693392"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1369512406","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1369512406"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-52594-183-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52594-183-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-37540-287-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-37540-287-X"},{"link_name":"Jim Harmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Harmon"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-59393-118-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59393-118-2"}],"text":"Buxton, Frank, and Bill Owen. (1972). The Big Broadcast 1920–1950. New York: Viking Press.\nDelong, Thomas A. (1980). The Mighty Music Box: The Golden Age of Radio. Los Angeles, CA: Amber Crest Books. ISBN 0-86533-000-X\nDunning, John. (1976). Tune in Yesterday: The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio 1925–1976. Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13932-616-2.\nEllett, Ryan (2012). Encyclopedia of Black Radio in the United States, 1921–1955. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc. ISBN 978-1476693392. OCLC 1369512406.\nMaltin, Leonard. (1997). The Great American Broadcast: A Celebration of Radio's Golden Age. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-52594-183-5.\nNachman, Gerald. (1998). Raised on Radio. New York: Pantheon, 1998. ISBN 0-37540-287-X.\nIt's That Time Again, Volume 4, edited by Jim Harmon. Albany, NY: BearManor Media, 2009. ISBN 1-59393-118-2.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Girl listening to vacuum tube radio during the Great Depression. Prior to the emergence of television as the dominant entertainment medium in the 1950s, families gathered to listen to the home radio in the evening.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Girl_listening_to_radio.gif/250px-Girl_listening_to_radio.gif"},{"image_text":"A family listening to the first broadcasts around 1920 with a crystal radio. The crystal radio, a legacy from the pre-broadcast era, could not power a loudspeaker so the family must share earphones","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Crystal_radio_advertisement.png/260px-Crystal_radio_advertisement.png"},{"image_text":"Rehearsal for the World War II radio show You Can't Do Business with Hitler with John Flynn and Virginia Moore. This series of programs, broadcast at least once weekly by more than 790 radio stations in the United States, was written and produced by the radio section of the Office of War Information (OWI).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/You_Can%27t_Do_Business_with_Hitler_rehearsal.jpg/300px-You_Can%27t_Do_Business_with_Hitler_rehearsal.jpg"},{"image_text":"Radio-related World War II propaganda poster","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Radio_-_Keep_It_Free.jpg/250px-Radio_-_Keep_It_Free.jpg"},{"image_text":"Frank Sinatra and Alida Valli converse over Armed Forces Radio Service during World War II","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Sinatra_Radio.gif/300px-Sinatra_Radio.gif"},{"image_text":"The War of the Worlds radio broadcast by Orson Welles on electrical transcription disc","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/War_of_the_Worlds_ET.jpg/150px-War_of_the_Worlds_ET.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Radio portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Radio"},{"title":"1920s portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:1920s"},{"title":"1930s portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:1930s"},{"title":"1940s portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:1940s"},{"title":"1950s portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:1950s"},{"title":"List of old-time radio programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old-time_radio_programs"},{"title":"List of old-time American radio people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old-time_American_radio_people"},{"title":"List of U.S. radio programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._radio_programs"},{"title":"List of radio soap operas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radio_soap_operas"},{"title":"List of radios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radios"},{"title":"Antique radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antique_radio"},{"title":"Audio theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_theater"},{"title":"Music radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_radio"},{"title":"Radio comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_comedy"},{"title":"Radio Days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Days"},{"title":"Woody Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_Allen"},{"title":"Radio drama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_drama"},{"title":"Remember WENN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remember_WENN"},{"title":"AMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMC_(TV_channel)"},{"title":"Soap opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap_opera"},{"title":"When Radio Was","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Radio_Was"}] | [{"reference":"\"The Golden Age of Radio | SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention\". SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention. Archived from the original on 2019-10-24. Retrieved 2019-10-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sparkmuseum.org/the-golden-age-of-radio/","url_text":"\"The Golden Age of Radio | SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARK_Museum_of_Electrical_Invention","url_text":"SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191024224727/https://www.sparkmuseum.org/the-golden-age-of-radio/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Halper, Donna (14 February 2007). \"In Search of the Truth About Fessenden\". Radio World Online. Archived from the original on 12 September 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120912104304/http://www.rwonline.com/article/922","url_text":"\"In Search of the Truth About Fessenden\""}]},{"reference":"O'Neal, James E. (October 25, 2006). \"Fessenden: World's First Broadcaster? – A Radio History Buff Finds That Evidence for the Famous Brant Rock Broadcast Is Lacking\". Radio World Online. Archived from the original on 29 January 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070129095540/http://www.rwonline.com/pages/s.0052/t.437.html","url_text":"\"Fessenden: World's First Broadcaster? – A Radio History Buff Finds That Evidence for the Famous Brant Rock Broadcast Is Lacking\""}]},{"reference":"O'Neal, James E. (December 23, 2008). \"Fessenden – The Next Chapter\". Radio World Online. Archived from the original on September 16, 2009. Retrieved June 29, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090916012103/http://www.rwonline.com/article/72046","url_text":"\"Fessenden – The Next Chapter\""}]},{"reference":"Belrose, John S. \"Fessenden's 1906 Christmas Eve broadcast\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.radiocom.net/Fessenden/BelroseXmas.pdf","url_text":"\"Fessenden's 1906 Christmas Eve broadcast\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170110170636/http://www.radiocom.net/Fessenden/BelroseXmas.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Radio: A Consumer Product and a Producer of Consumption (Interactive Historical Introduction, Coolidge-Consumerism Collection)\". American Memory Help Desk. 1995-08-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://lcweb2.loc.gov:8081/ammem/amrlhtml/inmenu.html","url_text":"\"Radio: A Consumer Product and a Producer of Consumption (Interactive Historical Introduction, Coolidge-Consumerism Collection)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930 (Abstract of the Fifteenth Census of the United States)\" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1933.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/1930radiosets.pdf","url_text":"\"Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930 (Abstract of the Fifteenth Census of the United States)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940 (Housing, Volume II, General Chraracteristics)\" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1943.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/1940radiosets.pdf","url_text":"\"Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940 (Housing, Volume II, General Chraracteristics)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hoover Advised That He Has No Authority Over the Radio Rules\". The Herald Statesman. 1926-07-09. p. 2. Retrieved 2020-10-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60856634/hoover-advised-that-he-has-no-authority/","url_text":"\"Hoover Advised That He Has No Authority Over the Radio Rules\""}]},{"reference":"\"Moving Day For Radio Nears\". The Birmingham News. 1945-06-13. p. 10. Retrieved 2020-10-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60877733/moving-day-for-radio-nears/","url_text":"\"Moving Day For Radio Nears\""}]},{"reference":"\"Home\". www.museum.tv. Archived from the original on 22 September 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.museum.tv/rhofsection.php?page=274","url_text":"\"Home\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120922034839/http://www.museum.tv/rhofsection.php?page=274","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Everybody's Friend: Remembering Stan Lee and Dan DeCarlo's 'My Friend Irma'\". Hogan's Alley. cartoonician.com. 2010. Archived from the original on 2013-03-19. Retrieved 2013-03-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130319184704/http://cartoonician.com/everybodys-friend-remembering-stan-lee-and-dan-decarlos-my-friend-irma/","url_text":"\"Everybody's Friend: Remembering Stan Lee and Dan DeCarlo's 'My Friend Irma'\""},{"url":"http://cartoonician.com/everybodys-friend-remembering-stan-lee-and-dan-decarlos-my-friend-irma/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cox, Jim (2005). Historical Dictionary of American Radio Soap Operas. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6523-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YPlPfU9KSGMC&pg=PA171","url_text":"Historical Dictionary of American Radio Soap Operas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6523-5","url_text":"978-0-8108-6523-5"}]},{"reference":"Cox, Jim (2003). Frank and Anne Hummert's radio factory: the programs and personalities of broadcasting's most prolific producers. McFarland. ISBN 978-0786416318.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786416318","url_text":"978-0786416318"}]},{"reference":"Hamlet (Episode 065) (MP3). Theater Guild on the Air. Internet Archive. 1951-03-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/download/TheaterGuildontheAir/Tgoa_51-03-04_ep065-Hamlet.mp3","url_text":"Hamlet (Episode 065)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"FCC Bans Give-Away Radio Shows\". The Miami Herald. 1949-08-20. p. 1. Retrieved 2020-10-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60864265/fcc-bans-give-away-radio-shows/","url_text":"\"FCC Bans Give-Away Radio Shows\""}]},{"reference":"Bradley, Hanson (30 March 2018). \"The Tennessee Jamboree: Local Radio, the Barn Dance, and Cultural Life in Appalachian East Tennessee\". southernspaces.org. 2008. Archived from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://southernspaces.org/2008/tennessee-jamboree-local-radio-barn-dance-and-cultural-life-appalachian-east-tennessee","url_text":"\"The Tennessee Jamboree: Local Radio, the Barn Dance, and Cultural Life in Appalachian East Tennessee\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180415094527/https://southernspaces.org/2008/tennessee-jamboree-local-radio-barn-dance-and-cultural-life-appalachian-east-tennessee","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fybush, Scott. \"Frequently-Asked Questions\". The [email protected]. Archived from the original on 2007-04-19. Retrieved 2007-05-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bostonradio.org/faq.html","url_text":"\"Frequently-Asked Questions\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070419153548/http://www.bostonradio.org/faq.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Anthony, Edwin D. (1973). \"Records of the Radio Division\" (PDF). Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs. Vol. Inventory of Record Group 229. Washington D.C.: National Archives and Record Services – General Services Administration. pp. 25–26. LCCN 73-600146.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.archives.gov/files/research/foreign-policy/related-records/rg-229-inter-american-affairs.pdf#page=33","url_text":"\"Records of the Radio Division\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/73-600146","url_text":"73-600146"}]},{"reference":"\"Armed Forces Radio Services broadcasts\". Bing Crosby Internet Museum. Archived from the original on 2007-02-21. Retrieved 2007-05-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070221191200/http://community.mcckc.edu/crosby/AFRS.htm","url_text":"\"Armed Forces Radio Services broadcasts\""},{"url":"http://community.mcckc.edu/crosby/AFRS.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The History of Magnetic Tape\". audiolabo.free.fr. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://audiolabo.free.fr/revue1999/content/History_tape.htm","url_text":"\"The History of Magnetic Tape\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110720220508/http://audiolabo.free.fr/revue1999/content/History_tape.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bensman, Marvin R. \"A History of Radio Program Collecting\". Radio Archive of the University of Memphis. Archived from the original on 2010-06-18. Retrieved 2007-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100618065554/https://umdrive.memphis.edu/mbensman/public/collectingarticle.html","url_text":"\"A History of Radio Program Collecting\""},{"url":"https://umdrive.memphis.edu/mbensman/public/collectingarticle.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Beaupre, Walter J. \"Music Electrically Transcribed!\". The Vintage Radio Place. Archived from the original on 2007-11-09. Retrieved 2007-11-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.otrsite.com/articles/artwb006.html","url_text":"\"Music Electrically Transcribed!\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071109122453/http://www.otrsite.com/articles/artwb006.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"RadioEchoes.com\". RadioEchoes.com. Retrieved 2021-02-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.radioechoes.com/","url_text":"\"RadioEchoes.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Federal Copyright Protection for Pre-1972 Sound Recordings – U.S. Copyright Office\". www.copyright.gov. Archived from the original on 8 March 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.copyright.gov/docs/sound/","url_text":"\"Federal Copyright Protection for Pre-1972 Sound Recordings – U.S. Copyright Office\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180308090939/https://www.copyright.gov/docs/sound/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Klepper, David (20 December 2016). \"Owner of 1967 Hit Song 'Happy Together' Lose Copyright Case\". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161221093429/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_RECORDING_COPYRIGHT_RULING?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2016-12-20-16-50-38","url_text":"\"Owner of 1967 Hit Song 'Happy Together' Lose Copyright Case\""},{"url":"http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_RECORDING_COPYRIGHT_RULING?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2016-12-20-16-50-38","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Spiegel, Jan Ellen (2007-09-09). \"We Interrupt This Play for a News Bulletin on the War\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-07-01. Retrieved 2007-09-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/09/nyregion/nyregionspecial2/09peoplect.html?ex=1190001600&en=c2a8d60db4ac9e04&ei=5070","url_text":"\"We Interrupt This Play for a News Bulletin on the War\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170701064723/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/09/nyregion/nyregionspecial2/09peoplect.html?ex=1190001600&en=c2a8d60db4ac9e04&ei=5070","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Radio Dramas\". Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts. Fairfield University. 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2008-04-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070813201521/http://www.fairfield.edu/x15712.html","url_text":"\"Radio Dramas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regina_A._Quick_Center_for_the_Arts","url_text":"Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts"},{"url":"http://www.fairfield.edu/x15712.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chimes, Art. \"Last Radio Drama\". NPR.org. National Public Radio. Archived from the original on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2010-01-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1150876","url_text":"\"Last Radio Drama\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110604025959/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1150876","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Raadioteater\" (in Estonian). Eesti Rahvusringhääling (formerly Eesti Raadio). 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-02-07. Retrieved 2015-02-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://raadioteater.err.ee/raadioteater/avaleht","url_text":"\"Raadioteater\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eesti_Rahvusringh%C3%A4%C3%A4ling","url_text":"Eesti Rahvusringhääling"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150207105827/http://raadioteater.err.ee/raadioteater/avaleht","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dunning, John (1998). On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507678-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/onairencyclop00dunn","url_text":"On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507678-8","url_text":"0-19-507678-8"}]},{"reference":"Ellett, Ryan (2012). Encyclopedia of Black Radio in the United States, 1921–1955. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., Inc. ISBN 978-1476693392. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olena_Kurylo | Olena Kurylo | ["1 Biography","2 References"] | Ukrainian linguist (1890–1946)
Olena Kurylo
Olena Kurylo (7 October 1890 – 1946) was a Ukrainian linguist and specialized in Ukrainian dialects and folklore. She helped in codifying the orthography in 1928-1929. Her contributions in Ukraine linguistics include both theoretical as well as practical. She was the author of textbooks in Ukrainian language, and compiled the Ukrainian scientific terminology.
Biography
Born as Olena Borysivna Kurylo in a Jewish family on 7 October 1890 in Slonim, Grodno Region in Belarus, Russian Empire, Olena Kurylo studied philosophy at the university of Königsberg. In 1911 she enrolled at department of Slavic Studies in the university of Warsaw where she graduated with a teacher's certificate in 1913 which qualified her to teach pedagogy, history of pedagogy, and methods of the Russian language.
In 1921 she became a lecturer at the Institute of the People's Education, Kyiv, Ukraine. She later joined as a senior associate at the All Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (VUAN) where she served as a member of its Ethnographic, Regional Studies and Dialectological commissions. She also worked as a consultant of the Institute of the Ukrainian Scientific Language.
She played an instrumental role in the normalization of Ukrainian language and Ukrainian scientific terminology. Her Ukrainian grammar textbook for children was widely used.
In the early 1930s, she sought refuge in Moscow and started teaching there until her arrest in 1937. She was later released and was allowed to stay in the northern part of Russia, where she died in 1946.
References
^ Stammerjohann, Harro (2 June 2009). Lexicon Grammaticorum: A bio-bibliographical companion to the history of linguistics. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 852. ISBN 978-3-484-97112-7. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
^ Wolfe, Larry (15 February 2013). Shatterzone of Empires: Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Borderlands. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. NA. ISBN 978-0-253-00639-4. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
^ a b c d e "Kurylo, Olena". encyclopediaofukraine.com. Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
^ a b c Stammerjohann 2009, p. 853.
^ Schmid, Ulrich (14 August 2019). Regionalism without Regions: Reconceptualizing Ukraine's Heterogeneity. Budapest: Central European University Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-9-633-86311-4. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
^ Shkandrij, Myroslav (25 August 2009). Jews in Ukrainian Literature: Representation and Identity. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-300-15625-6. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
Authority control databases International
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Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_weightlifting | Olympic weightlifting | ["1 Competition","1.1 Component lifts","1.2 Weight classes","1.3 Official procedure","1.4 Local competition rules","2 History","2.1 Early international competitions","2.2 Olympic Games 1920–1972","2.3 1973–present","2.4 Women's weightlifting","3 Equipment","3.1 Barbell","3.2 Bumper plates","3.3 Competition iron plates","3.4 Collars","3.5 Singlet","3.6 Belt","3.7 Chalk","3.8 Tape","3.9 Shoes","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Sport
This article is about the competitive sport. For the sport's appearance at the Olympics, see Weightlifting at the Summer Olympics.
WeightliftingOlympic weightlifter Lasha Talakhadze lifting 258 kg at the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio, BrazilHighest governing bodyInternational Weightlifting FederationFirst developedAncient GreeceCharacteristicsContactNoMixed-sexNoTypePower sportEquipmentBarbells, weight plates, collars, chalk, tape, heel-elevated shoes, belt, knee sleeves, wrist wrapsPresenceCountry or regionWorldwideOlympicMen: 1896, 1904, 1920–present; Women: 2000–presentWorld GamesWomen: 1997
Weightlifting (often known as Olympic weightlifting) is a sport in which athletes compete in lifting a barbell loaded with weight plates from the ground to overhead, with the aim of successfully lifting the heaviest weights. Athletes compete in two specific ways of lifting the barbell overhead. The snatch is a wide-grip lift, in which the weighted barbell is lifted overhead in one motion. The clean and jerk is a combination lift, in which the weight is first taken from the ground to the front of the shoulders (the clean), and then from the shoulders to over the head (the jerk). The sport formerly included a third lift/event known as clean and press.
Each weightlifter gets three attempts at both the snatch and the clean and jerk, with the snatch attempted first. An athlete's score is the combined total of the highest successfully-lifted weight in kilograms for each lift. Athletes compete in various weight classes, which are different for each sex and have changed over time.
Weightlifting is an Olympic sport, and has been contested in every Summer Olympic Games since 1920. While the sport is officially named "weightlifting", the terms "Olympic weightlifting" and "Olympic-style weightlifting" are often used to distinguish it from the other sports and events that involve the lifting of weights, such as powerlifting, weight training, and strongman events. Similarly, the snatch and the clean and jerk are known as the "Olympic lifts".
While other strength sports test limit strength, Olympic-style weightlifting also tests limits of human power (explosive strength): the olympic lifts are executed faster, and require more mobility and a greater range of motion during their execution, than other barbell lifts. The Olympic lifts, and their variations (e.g., power snatch, power clean)as well as components of the Olympic lifts (e.g., cleans, squats) are used by elite athletes in other sports to train for both explosive strength (power) and functional strength.
Competition
The sport is competed at local, national, and international levels. The sport is governed internationally by the International Weightlifting Federation (IWF), which runs the World Weightlifting Championships each year.
Component lifts
Main articles: Snatch (weightlifting), Clean and jerk, and Clean and press
Mohammad Reza Barari, an Iranian lifter, snatching at the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio, Brazil
The snatch is a lift wherein an athlete sweeps the barbell up and overhead in one fluid action: the lifter takes a wide-grip on the bar and pulls the barbell off the floor before rapidly re-bending their knees to get themself under the barbell (usually bringing themself into a deep overhead squat position), so that the barbell is supported over their head with arms outstretched. The snatch is then completed by the lifter rising to a standing position while holding the barbell overhead. The snatch demands precise balance.
Lidia Valentín of Spain performing a clean at the 2012 Olympic Games in LondonThe clean and jerk is a combination lift, in which the athlete gets the barbell overhead in two stages: first by lifting the barbell into support on the front of the shoulders, a position known as the front rack (the clean), and then lifting it from shoulders to overhead (the jerk). To perform the clean, the lifter takes a shoulder-width grip on the bar and pulls it off the floor, and then rapidly re-bends their knees (and bends their arms) to get their body under the barbell and "catch" the bar on the front of the shoulders (usually in a deep front squat position). The lifter finishes the clean by rising to a standing position while holding the barbell on the front of their shoulders. The lifter then uses the jerk to jump into a bent knees position (most commonly with one foot forward and the other back, a technique known as the split jerk) while pumping the barbell overhead. The jerk is completed when the lifter re-straightens the legs (bringing them together after a split jerk) so they come to a straight standing position with the barbell held overhead.
A third lift, the clean and press, was also a competition lift from 1924 through 1972. It entails a clean followed by an overhead press. The overhead press is distinguished from the jerk, in that jerking movements, bending of the legs, and displacement of the feet are prohibited. It was discontinued after 1972 due to difficulties in judging proper form.
Weight classes
Athletes compete in a division determined by their body mass. In summer 2018, the IWF approved the current weight categories, specifying which 7 of the 10 total would be contested at the 2020 Summer Olympics.
IWF Men's weight classes:
Categories
55 kg (121 lb)
61 kg (134 lb)
67 kg (148 lb)
73 kg (161 lb)
81 kg (179 lb)
89 kg (196 lb)
96 kg (212 lb)
102 kg (225 lb)
109 kg (240 lb)
109 kg and over (240 lb+)
Only five weight classes were chosen for Paris 2024:
61 kg, 73 kg, 89 kg, 102 kg and over 102 kg.
IWF Women's weight classes:
Categories
45 kg (99 lb)
49 kg (108 lb)
55 kg (121 lb)
59 kg (130 lb)
64 kg (141 lb)
71 kg (157 lb)
76 kg (168 lb)
81 kg (179 lb)
87 kg (192 lb)
87 kg and over (192 lb+)
Weight classes chosen for Paris 2024:
49 kg, 59 kg, 71 kg, 81 kg and over 81 kg.
Official procedure
In each weight division, lifters compete in both the snatch and the clean and jerk. Prizes are usually given for the heaviest weights lifted in each and in the overall—the maximum lifts of both added. The order of the competition is up to the lifters—the competitor who chooses to attempt the lowest weight goes first. If they are unsuccessful at that weight, they have the option of reattempting at that weight or trying a heavier weight after any other competitors have made attempts at the previous weight or any other intermediate weights. The barbell is loaded incrementally and progresses to a heavier weight throughout the course of competition. Weights are set in 1-kilogram increments. If two athletes lift the same weight, they are both credited with it but in terms of placing the one who lifted the weight first gets the highest placing.
During competition, the snatch event takes place first, followed by a short intermission, and then the clean and jerk event. There are two side judges and one head referee who together provide a "successful" or "failed" result for each attempt based on their observation of the lift within the governing body's rules and regulations. Two successes are required for any attempt to pass. Usually, the judges' and referee's results are registered via a lighting system with a white light indicating a "successful" lift and a red light indicating a "failed" lift. This is done for the benefit of all in attendance be they athlete, coach, administrator or audience. In addition, one or two technical officials may be present to advise during a ruling.
Lifters who fail to successfully complete at least one snatch and at least one clean and jerk fail to total, and receive an "incomplete" entry for the competition.
Local competition rules
At local competitions, a "Best Lifter" title is commonly awarded. It is awarded to both the best men's and women's lifters. The award is based on a formula which employs the "Sinclair coefficient", a coefficient derived and approved by the sport's world governing body, which allows for differences in both gender and bodyweight. When the formula is applied to each lifter's overall total and then grouped along with the other competitors' and evaluated, it provides a numeric result which determines the competition's best overall men's and women's lifters. And while, usually, the winner of the heaviest weight class will have lifted the most overall weight during the course of a competition, a lifter in a lighter weight class may still have lifted more weight both relative to their own bodyweight, and to the Sinclair coefficient formula, thereby garnering the "Best Lifter" award.
History
Competitions to establish who can lift the heaviest weight have been recorded throughout civilization, with the earliest known recordings including those found in Egypt, China, India, and Ancient Greece.
Early international competitions
The international sport of weightlifting began with the First World Weightlifting Championships in 1891, in London, with Edward Lawrence Levy becoming the first world champion;
In 1896, the inaugural Olympic Games in Athens included weightlifting in the field event (the predecessor to today's track and field or athletics event). In the early Olympic Games a distinction was drawn between lifting with 'one hand' only and lifting with 'two hands', and all competitors competed together regardless of their size and weight. The winner of the 'one hand' competition in 1896 was Launceston Elliot of Scotland, while the winner of the 'two hands' event was Viggo Jensen of Denmark.
Further World Weightlifting Championships followed in 1898 in Austria, 1899 in Milan, and 1903 in Paris, with the International Weightlifting Federation being founded in 1905.
Weightlifting was next contested at the Olympics in the 1904 Games (again in athletics), and at the 1906 Intercalated Games, but was omitted from the Games of 1900, 1908 and 1912 (1912 being the last Games until after the First World War).
Olympic Games 1920–1972
In 1920, weightlifting returned to the Olympics and, for the first time, as an event in its own right – and weightlifting has been contested at every (summer) Olympics Games since. The 1920 Games took place at Antwerp in Belgium; and fourteen nations competed. The competition lifts were the 'one hand' snatch, the 'one hand' clean and jerk and the 'two hands' clean and jerk. At the next Olympic Games, in Paris, in 1924, the 'two hands' press and the 'two hands' snatch were added to the program, making a total of five lifts; and weight classes were introduced for competitors, with weightlifters competing in five weight divisions.The 110 kg division weightlifting winners at the 1980 Summer Olympics, held in Moscow
In 1928, the sport dropped the 'one hand' exercises, going forward with three 'two hand' exercises: the snatch, the clean and press, and the clean and jerk.
The 1972 Olympics was the last Olympics featuring the clean and press, as difficulties in judging proper form led to it being dropped from subsequent competitions. Athletes, rather than "strictly" pressing the weight overhead with an upright torso, had been using their hips and leaning backward substantially. Some athletes were able to initiate the press with a hip thrust so rapid that judges found it difficult to determine whether or not they had utilized any knee bend to generate additional force, something strictly prohibited in the rules. Also prohibited was "excessive layback" (leaning back too much), but it was considered too difficult to determine what degree of layback constituted a rule violation. As a result, the clean and press was discontinued as a competition lift after 1972.
1973–present
Since the 1973 World Weightlifting Championships, weightlifting competitions have been biathlons of the snatch and the clean and jerk, with the 1976 Olympics being the first Olympics in this format.
Women's weightlifting
In 1987, women's world championship events were included for the first time in IWF's annual World Weightlifting Championships, with women such as Karyn Marshall (US) and Cai Jun (China) amongst the winners in that first year. Yet it was not until the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia, that women's weightlifting was incorporated into the Olympics. China's Chen Yanqing became an early star of women's weightlifting at the Olympics—as she won Olympic gold two games in a row, in 2004 and 2008.
In 2011, the International Weightlifting Federation (IWF) ruled that athletes could wear a full body "unitard" under the customary weightlifting uniform. Kulsoom Abdullah became the first woman to do so at the U.S. National Championships that year, and athletes are allowed to do so at the Olympics. IWF rules previously stated that an athlete's knees and elbows must be visible so officials can determine if a lift is correctly executed.
Equipment
Barbell
Knurling on an Olympic barbell
Olympic weightlifting uses a steel bar (also known as a barbell) with larger-diameter rotating sleeves on either end, holding rubber-coated weight plates of different weights. This sleeve rotation is important for the Olympic lifts, particularly the snatch and clean movements, because it drastically reduces the rotational inertia of the bar. Without sleeve rotation, the Olympic lifter faces more challenging lifts and a greater risk of injury.
A men's Olympic barbell weighs 20 kg (44 lbs) with a shaft diameter of 28 mm and a length of 2200 mm, whereas a women's Olympic barbell weighs 15 kg (33 lbs) and has a shaft diameter of 25 mm with a length of 2010 mm. The distance between the sleeves, however, is the same for the men's and the women's bars at 1310 mm. The grip texture of the bar is called the knurling, and is distributed differently between the men's and women's bars: the men's has knurling in the center but the women's does not. The Olympic barbells used in competition are certified by the IWF.
Bumper plates
The weight plates, typically referred to as "bumper plates" because of their rubber coated design, weigh between 10 kg and 25 kg in 5 kg increments. The bumper plates are coated with rubber to allow the weights to be dropped from various heights—either after a successful lift or during an unsuccessful one. Olympic bumper plates conform to international standards for coloring. That is, 10 kg is green, 15 kg is yellow, 20 kg is blue, and 25 kg is red.
Competition iron plates
In addition to the rubber bumpers, smaller competition iron plates can be used to add weight in small increments to the bar. The color designations for these iron plates are as follows: 1 kg is green, 1.5 kg is yellow, 2 kg is blue, 2.5 kg is red, 5 kg and 0.5 kg are white. It is useful to note the color assignment of these iron plates is consistent with the heavier bumper plates (i.e. 1 kg and 10 kg are green, 1.5 kg and 15 kg are yellow, etc.).
Collars
An Olympic lifter, Jang Mi-ran, holding a barbell loaded with red 25 kg bumper plates, held in place with a collar. Note the lifter's taped wrists and thumbs, her weightlifting shoes, and her weightlifting belt.
Weight plates are secured to the bar using collars on each sleeve that weigh exactly 2.5 kg each.
Singlet
Lifters typically wear a one-piece close-fitting leotard often called a singlet. The wearing of a T-shirt underneath the singlet is optional.
Belt
A weightlifting belt of 120 mm maximum width may also be worn to increase intra-abdominal pressure.
Chalk
Chalk is regularly used by Olympic lifters, generally prior to each attempt at a lift. Lifters rub their hands with the chalk to promote dryness and prevent the bar moving in their hands.
Tape
Olympic lifters frequently use tape to cover the areas of their bodies exposed to friction while completing Olympic lifts. Tape is most commonly found on the Olympic lifter's thumb. A taped thumb not only lessens the risk of calluses, but it also reduces the pain associated with the hook grip.
Olympic lifters also tape their wrists, preventing exaggerated and uncomfortable joint movement during lifts. For particularly heavy overhead lifts, a taped wrist enables the lifter to regulate wrist extension and delimit the translation of the radius and ulna distal heads. However, while taped wrists can prevent wrist and forearm injuries in the short-term, excessive use can lead to weakened connective tissue in the area, increasing the risk of pain and injury.
Shoes
The type of shoes worn by Olympic weightlifters is perhaps their most distinctive piece of equipment. Weightlifting shoes are typically designed with a raised heel of 0.5" to 1.5" and one or two metatarsal straps that tighten across the instep of the shoe. The raised heel helps the lifter maintain an upright torso while catching the bar and also allows for a deeper squat under the bar. The soles of the shoes are also quite rigid, helping to resist compression while under heavy loads. The shoes are designed for maximum stability while remaining flexible in the toe box. This allows the lifter to come up on the toes and to catch the weight on the ball of the back foot during the "jerk" movement of the lift.
There are also different heel constructions. Most modern Weightlifting shoes use a hard TPU plastic heel that does not deform and is more durable than other materials. However, there has been a resurgence in premium shoes using retro wood heels which are hard but do not last as long.
Knee sleeves
Some weightlifters may use knee sleeves to provide joint support and assist in standing from the deep squatting position.
Wrist wraps
Wrist wraps are commonly used to provide support to the joint.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Olympic weightlifting.
World Weightlifting Championships
Weightlifting at the Summer Olympics
List of world records in Olympic weightlifting
List of Olympic records in weightlifting
List of Olympic medalists in weightlifting
Powerlifting
Power training
Paralympic powerlifting
References
^ "World Championships". International Weightlifting Federation. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
^ Hoffman, Bob (1963). Guide to Weight Lifting Competition. Urbana-Champaign, Illinois: Strength and Health Publishing Company. p. 2.
^ a b "New Bodyweight Categories Approved by the IWF Executive Board". International Weightlifting Federation. 5 July 2018. Retrieved 2018-10-19.
^ "The Sinclair Coefficients for the Olympiad". International Weightlifting Federation. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
^ "Lift Up, History of Olympic Weightlifting". chidlovski.net. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
^ "Ancient Egyptian Sport".
^ a b "Weightlifting History". International Weightlifting Federation. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
^ "122 years since the first World Championships". International Weightlifting Federation. 2013-03-29. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
^ Encyclopedia Britannica Almanac 2010. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2010. p. 736. ISBN 9781615353293.
^ chidlovski (2019-04-17). "Wilhelm Turk: World Champion (1898)". CHIDLOVSKI БЛОГ ШИДЛОВСКОГО. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
^ chidlovski (2019-04-27). "Sergey Eliseev and Georg Hackenschmidt: Early World Class Weightlifters From the Russian Empire". CHIDLOVSKI БЛОГ ШИДЛОВСКОГО. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
^ "The History of Weightlifting". teamUSA.org. 2009-10-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
^ Julie Carft (July 29, 1989). "Image is Heavy Burden - Weightlifter Karyn Marshall Feels Pressure to Project 'Femininity, Intelligence'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
^ "20 years anniversary of female inclusion in weightlifting at the Olympic Games". International Weightlifting Federation. 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
^ Miele, Vincent J.; Bailes, Julian E. (2001). Bailes, Julian E.; Day, Arthur L. (eds.). Neurological Sports Medicine: A Guide for Physicians and Athletic Trainers. Rolling Meadows, Illinois: American Association of Neurological Surgeons. p. 239. ISBN 1-879284-75-8.
^ "Chen Yanqing". www.insidethegames.biz. 2022-11-29. Retrieved 2023-02-01.
^ "Yanqing CHEN". olympics.com. 2023-02-01. Retrieved 2023-02-01.
^ a b c "Kulsoom Abdullah makes history". ESPN. 2011-07-15. Retrieved 2012-09-19.
^ a b c d e f Everett, Greg (2009). Olympic Weightlifting: A Complete Guide for Athletes & Coaches. Catalyst Athletics. pp. 20, 21, 22, 26, 27. ISBN 978-0980011111.
^ Johnson, Jolie. "Official Specifications for Olympic Weightlifting Bar". Retrieved 22 October 2014.
^ Morrison, Norm. "Olympic Lifting for Beginners". Retrieved 22 October 2014.
^ "Best Olympic Weightlifting Shoes (2023 Edition) - Lift Big Eat Big". 2023-07-14. Retrieved 2023-08-02.
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Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Weightlifting at the Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport"},{"link_name":"barbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbell"},{"link_name":"snatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snatch_(weightlifting)"},{"link_name":"clean and jerk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_and_jerk"},{"link_name":"clean and press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_and_press"},{"link_name":"Weightlifting is an Olympic sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Summer Olympic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"lifting of weights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting"},{"link_name":"powerlifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powerlifting"},{"link_name":"weight training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_training"},{"link_name":"strongman events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongman_competition"},{"link_name":"squats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat_(exercise)"}],"text":"This article is about the competitive sport. For the sport's appearance at the Olympics, see Weightlifting at the Summer Olympics.Weightlifting (often known as Olympic weightlifting) is a sport in which athletes compete in lifting a barbell loaded with weight plates from the ground to overhead, with the aim of successfully lifting the heaviest weights. Athletes compete in two specific ways of lifting the barbell overhead. The snatch is a wide-grip lift, in which the weighted barbell is lifted overhead in one motion. The clean and jerk is a combination lift, in which the weight is first taken from the ground to the front of the shoulders (the clean), and then from the shoulders to over the head (the jerk). The sport formerly included a third lift/event known as clean and press.Each weightlifter gets three attempts at both the snatch and the clean and jerk, with the snatch attempted first. An athlete's score is the combined total of the highest successfully-lifted weight in kilograms for each lift. Athletes compete in various weight classes, which are different for each sex and have changed over time.Weightlifting is an Olympic sport, and has been contested in every Summer Olympic Games since 1920. While the sport is officially named \"weightlifting\", the terms \"Olympic weightlifting\" and \"Olympic-style weightlifting\" are often used to distinguish it from the other sports and events that involve the lifting of weights, such as powerlifting, weight training, and strongman events. Similarly, the snatch and the clean and jerk are known as the \"Olympic lifts\".While other strength sports test limit strength, Olympic-style weightlifting also tests limits of human power (explosive strength): the olympic lifts are executed faster, and require more mobility and a greater range of motion during their execution, than other barbell lifts. The Olympic lifts, and their variations (e.g., power snatch, power clean)as well as components of the Olympic lifts (e.g., cleans, squats) are used by elite athletes in other sports to train for both explosive strength (power) and functional strength.","title":"Olympic weightlifting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Weightlifting Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Weightlifting_Federation"},{"link_name":"World Weightlifting Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Weightlifting_Championships"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The sport is competed at local, national, and international levels. The sport is governed internationally by the International Weightlifting Federation (IWF), which runs the World Weightlifting Championships each year.[1]","title":"Competition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Weightlifting_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_105_kg_7.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Reza Barari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Barari"},{"link_name":"snatching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snatch_(weightlifting)"},{"link_name":"2016 Olympic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Rio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"snatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snatch_(weightlifting)"},{"link_name":"overhead squat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overhead_squat"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Olympics_2012_Women%27s_75kg_Weightlifting.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lidia Valentín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidia_Valent%C3%ADn"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"2012 Olympic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"clean and jerk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_and_jerk"},{"link_name":"front squat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_squat"},{"link_name":"clean and press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_and_press"},{"link_name":"overhead press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overhead_press"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Component lifts","text":"Mohammad Reza Barari, an Iranian lifter, snatching at the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio, BrazilThe snatch is a lift wherein an athlete sweeps the barbell up and overhead in one fluid action: the lifter takes a wide-grip on the bar and pulls the barbell off the floor before rapidly re-bending their knees to get themself under the barbell (usually bringing themself into a deep overhead squat position), so that the barbell is supported over their head with arms outstretched. The snatch is then completed by the lifter rising to a standing position while holding the barbell overhead. The snatch demands precise balance.Lidia Valentín of Spain performing a clean at the 2012 Olympic Games in LondonThe clean and jerk is a combination lift, in which the athlete gets the barbell overhead in two stages: first by lifting the barbell into support on the front of the shoulders, a position known as the front rack (the clean), and then lifting it from shoulders to overhead (the jerk). To perform the clean, the lifter takes a shoulder-width grip on the bar and pulls it off the floor, and then rapidly re-bends their knees (and bends their arms) to get their body under the barbell and \"catch\" the bar on the front of the shoulders (usually in a deep front squat position). The lifter finishes the clean by rising to a standing position while holding the barbell on the front of their shoulders. The lifter then uses the jerk to jump into a bent knees position (most commonly with one foot forward and the other back, a technique known as the split jerk) while pumping the barbell overhead. The jerk is completed when the lifter re-straightens the legs (bringing them together after a split jerk) so they come to a straight standing position with the barbell held overhead.A third lift, the clean and press, was also a competition lift from 1924 through 1972. It entails a clean followed by an overhead press. The overhead press is distinguished from the jerk, in that jerking movements, bending of the legs, and displacement of the feet are prohibited.[2] It was discontinued after 1972 due to difficulties in judging proper form.","title":"Competition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"body mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_weight"},{"link_name":"2020 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rules-3"},{"link_name":"kg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram"},{"link_name":"lb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_(mass)"}],"sub_title":"Weight classes","text":"Athletes compete in a division determined by their body mass. In summer 2018, the IWF approved the current weight categories, specifying which 7 of the 10 total would be contested at the 2020 Summer Olympics.[3]IWF Men's weight classes:Categories55 kg (121 lb)\n61 kg (134 lb)\n67 kg (148 lb)\n73 kg (161 lb)\n81 kg (179 lb)\n89 kg (196 lb)\n96 kg (212 lb)\n102 kg (225 lb)\n109 kg (240 lb)\n109 kg and over (240 lb+)Only five weight classes were chosen for Paris 2024:61 kg, 73 kg, 89 kg, 102 kg and over 102 kg.IWF Women's weight classes:Categories45 kg (99 lb)\n49 kg (108 lb)\n55 kg (121 lb)\n59 kg (130 lb)\n64 kg (141 lb)\n71 kg (157 lb)\n76 kg (168 lb)\n81 kg (179 lb)\n87 kg (192 lb)\n87 kg and over (192 lb+)Weight classes chosen for Paris 2024:49 kg, 59 kg, 71 kg, 81 kg and over 81 kg.","title":"Competition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rules-3"}],"sub_title":"Official procedure","text":"In each weight division, lifters compete in both the snatch and the clean and jerk. Prizes are usually given for the heaviest weights lifted in each and in the overall—the maximum lifts of both added. The order of the competition is up to the lifters—the competitor who chooses to attempt the lowest weight goes first. If they are unsuccessful at that weight, they have the option of reattempting at that weight or trying a heavier weight after any other competitors have made attempts at the previous weight or any other intermediate weights. The barbell is loaded incrementally and progresses to a heavier weight throughout the course of competition. Weights are set in 1-kilogram increments. If two athletes lift the same weight, they are both credited with it but in terms of placing the one who lifted the weight first gets the highest placing.[3]During competition, the snatch event takes place first, followed by a short intermission, and then the clean and jerk event. There are two side judges and one head referee who together provide a \"successful\" or \"failed\" result for each attempt based on their observation of the lift within the governing body's rules and regulations. Two successes are required for any attempt to pass. Usually, the judges' and referee's results are registered via a lighting system with a white light indicating a \"successful\" lift and a red light indicating a \"failed\" lift. This is done for the benefit of all in attendance be they athlete, coach, administrator or audience. In addition, one or two technical officials may be present to advise during a ruling.Lifters who fail to successfully complete at least one snatch and at least one clean and jerk fail to total, and receive an \"incomplete\" entry for the competition.","title":"Competition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sinclair coefficient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_coefficient"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Local competition rules","text":"At local competitions, a \"Best Lifter\" title is commonly awarded. It is awarded to both the best men's and women's lifters. The award is based on a formula which employs the \"Sinclair coefficient\", a coefficient derived and approved by the sport's world governing body, which allows for differences in both gender and bodyweight. When the formula is applied to each lifter's overall total and then grouped along with the other competitors' and evaluated, it provides a numeric result which determines the competition's best overall men's and women's lifters.[4] And while, usually, the winner of the heaviest weight class will have lifted the most overall weight during the course of a competition, a lifter in a lighter weight class may still have lifted more weight both relative to their own bodyweight, and to the Sinclair coefficient formula, thereby garnering the \"Best Lifter\" award.","title":"Competition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Competitions to establish who can lift the heaviest weight have been recorded throughout civilization, with the earliest known recordings including those found in Egypt, China, India, and Ancient Greece.[5][6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edward Lawrence Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Lawrence_Levy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Olympic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"included weightlifting in the field event","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1896_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Launceston Elliot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launceston_Elliot"},{"link_name":"Viggo Jensen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viggo_Jensen"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"International Weightlifting Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Weightlifting_Federation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"in the 1904 Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1904_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"at the 1906 Intercalated Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1906_Intercalated_Games"}],"sub_title":"Early international competitions","text":"The international sport of weightlifting began with the First World Weightlifting Championships in 1891, in London, with Edward Lawrence Levy becoming the first world champion;[7][8]In 1896, the inaugural Olympic Games in Athens included weightlifting in the field event (the predecessor to today's track and field or athletics event). In the early Olympic Games a distinction was drawn between lifting with 'one hand' only and lifting with 'two hands', and all competitors competed together regardless of their size and weight. The winner of the 'one hand' competition in 1896 was Launceston Elliot of Scotland, while the winner of the 'two hands' event was Viggo Jensen of Denmark.[9]Further World Weightlifting Championships followed in 1898 in Austria,[10] 1899 in Milan, and 1903 in Paris,[11] with the International Weightlifting Federation being founded in 1905.[7]Weightlifting was next contested at the Olympics in the 1904 Games (again in athletics), and at the 1906 Intercalated Games, but was omitted from the Games of 1900, 1908 and 1912 (1912 being the last Games until after the First World War).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1920, weightlifting returned to the Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1920_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"in Paris, in 1924","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1924_Summer_Olympics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_484445_Winners_of_the_weightlifting_competition_in_the_1980_Olympics.jpg"},{"link_name":"1980 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1980_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_110_kg"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"In 1928","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1928_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"1972 Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1972_Summer_Olympics"}],"sub_title":"Olympic Games 1920–1972","text":"In 1920, weightlifting returned to the Olympics and, for the first time, as an event in its own right – and weightlifting has been contested at every (summer) Olympics Games since. The 1920 Games took place at Antwerp in Belgium; and fourteen nations competed. The competition lifts were the 'one hand' snatch, the 'one hand' clean and jerk and the 'two hands' clean and jerk. At the next Olympic Games, in Paris, in 1924, the 'two hands' press and the 'two hands' snatch were added to the program, making a total of five lifts; and weight classes were introduced for competitors, with weightlifters competing in five weight divisions.The 110 kg division weightlifting winners at the 1980 Summer Olympics, held in MoscowIn 1928, the sport dropped the 'one hand' exercises, going forward with three 'two hand' exercises: the snatch, the clean and press, and the clean and jerk.The 1972 Olympics was the last Olympics featuring the clean and press, as difficulties in judging proper form led to it being dropped from subsequent competitions. Athletes, rather than \"strictly\" pressing the weight overhead with an upright torso, had been using their hips and leaning backward substantially. Some athletes were able to initiate the press with a hip thrust so rapid that judges found it difficult to determine whether or not they had utilized any knee bend to generate additional force, something strictly prohibited in the rules. Also prohibited was \"excessive layback\" (leaning back too much), but it was considered too difficult to determine what degree of layback constituted a rule violation. As a result, the clean and press was discontinued as a competition lift after 1972.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1973 World Weightlifting Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_World_Weightlifting_Championships"},{"link_name":"1976 Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_1976_Summer_Olympics"}],"sub_title":"1973–present","text":"Since the 1973 World Weightlifting Championships, weightlifting competitions have been biathlons of the snatch and the clean and jerk, with the 1976 Olympics being the first Olympics in this format.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"women's world championship events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Championships_medalists_in_weightlifting_(women)"},{"link_name":"World Weightlifting Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Weightlifting_Championships"},{"link_name":"Karyn Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karyn_Marshall"},{"link_name":"Cai Jun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cai_Jun"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tws02oct78-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tws02oct01-13"},{"link_name":"2000 Olympic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_2000_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Chen Yanqing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Yanqing"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"International Weightlifting Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Weightlifting_Federation"},{"link_name":"unitard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitard"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-18"},{"link_name":"Kulsoom Abdullah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulsoom_Abdullah"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-18"}],"sub_title":"Women's weightlifting","text":"In 1987, women's world championship events were included for the first time in IWF's annual World Weightlifting Championships, with women such as Karyn Marshall (US) and Cai Jun (China) amongst the winners in that first year.[12][13] Yet it was not until the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia, that women's weightlifting was incorporated into the Olympics.[14][15] China's Chen Yanqing became an early star of women's weightlifting at the Olympics—as she won Olympic gold two games in a row, in 2004 and 2008.[16][17]In 2011, the International Weightlifting Federation (IWF) ruled that athletes could wear a full body \"unitard\" under the customary weightlifting uniform.[18] Kulsoom Abdullah became the first woman to do so at the U.S. National Championships that year, and athletes are allowed to do so at the Olympics.[18] IWF rules previously stated that an athlete's knees and elbows must be visible so officials can determine if a lift is correctly executed.[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gewichtheben_Hantelstange_Detail.jpg"},{"link_name":"barbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbell"},{"link_name":"weight plates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_plate"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"knurling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knurling"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"}],"sub_title":"Barbell","text":"Knurling on an Olympic barbellOlympic weightlifting uses a steel bar (also known as a barbell) with larger-diameter rotating sleeves on either end, holding rubber-coated weight plates of different weights. This sleeve rotation is important for the Olympic lifts, particularly the snatch and clean movements, because it drastically reduces the rotational inertia of the bar. Without sleeve rotation, the Olympic lifter faces more challenging lifts and a greater risk of injury.[19]A men's Olympic barbell weighs 20 kg (44 lbs) with a shaft diameter of 28 mm and a length of 2200 mm, whereas a women's Olympic barbell weighs 15 kg (33 lbs) and has a shaft diameter of 25 mm with a length of 2010 mm.[20][21] The distance between the sleeves, however, is the same for the men's and the women's bars at 1310 mm. The grip texture of the bar is called the knurling, and is distributed differently between the men's and women's bars: the men's has knurling in the center but the women's does not. The Olympic barbells used in competition are certified by the IWF.[19]","title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bumper plates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbell#Bumper_plates"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"}],"sub_title":"Bumper plates","text":"The weight plates, typically referred to as \"bumper plates\" because of their rubber coated design, weigh between 10 kg and 25 kg in 5 kg increments. The bumper plates are coated with rubber to allow the weights to be dropped from various heights—either after a successful lift or during an unsuccessful one. Olympic bumper plates conform to international standards for coloring. That is, 10 kg is green, 15 kg is yellow, 20 kg is blue, and 25 kg is red.[19]","title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"}],"sub_title":"Competition iron plates","text":"In addition to the rubber bumpers, smaller competition iron plates can be used to add weight in small increments to the bar. The color designations for these iron plates are as follows: 1 kg is green, 1.5 kg is yellow, 2 kg is blue, 2.5 kg is red, 5 kg and 0.5 kg are white. It is useful to note the color assignment of these iron plates is consistent with the heavier bumper plates (i.e. 1 kg and 10 kg are green, 1.5 kg and 15 kg are yellow, etc.).[19]","title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korea_London_Jang_Miran_03_(7771959092).jpg"},{"link_name":"Jang Mi-ran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jang_Mi-ran"},{"link_name":"collars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbell#Collars"}],"sub_title":"Collars","text":"An Olympic lifter, Jang Mi-ran, holding a barbell loaded with red 25 kg bumper plates, held in place with a collar. Note the lifter's taped wrists and thumbs, her weightlifting shoes, and her weightlifting belt.Weight plates are secured to the bar using collars on each sleeve that weigh exactly 2.5 kg each.","title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"singlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_singlet"}],"sub_title":"Singlet","text":"Lifters typically wear a one-piece close-fitting leotard often called a singlet. The wearing of a T-shirt underneath the singlet is optional.","title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Belt","text":"A weightlifting belt of 120 mm maximum width may also be worn to increase intra-abdominal pressure.","title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Chalk","text":"Chalk is regularly used by Olympic lifters, generally prior to each attempt at a lift. Lifters rub their hands with the chalk to promote dryness and prevent the bar moving in their hands.","title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hook grip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_grip"},{"link_name":"translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(mechanics)#Six_degrees_of_freedom"},{"link_name":"radius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radius_(bone)"},{"link_name":"ulna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulna"},{"link_name":"distal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Proximal_and_distal"},{"link_name":"connective tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"}],"sub_title":"Tape","text":"Olympic lifters frequently use tape to cover the areas of their bodies exposed to friction while completing Olympic lifts. Tape is most commonly found on the Olympic lifter's thumb. A taped thumb not only lessens the risk of calluses, but it also reduces the pain associated with the hook grip.Olympic lifters also tape their wrists, preventing exaggerated and uncomfortable joint movement during lifts. For particularly heavy overhead lifts, a taped wrist enables the lifter to regulate wrist extension and delimit the translation of the radius and ulna distal heads. However, while taped wrists can prevent wrist and forearm injuries in the short-term, excessive use can lead to weakened connective tissue in the area, increasing the risk of pain and injury.[19]","title":"Equipment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"toe box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toe_box"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Shoes","text":"The type of shoes worn by Olympic weightlifters is perhaps their most distinctive piece of equipment. Weightlifting shoes are typically designed with a raised heel of 0.5\" to 1.5\" and one or two metatarsal straps that tighten across the instep of the shoe. The raised heel helps the lifter maintain an upright torso while catching the bar and also allows for a deeper squat under the bar. The soles of the shoes are also quite rigid, helping to resist compression while under heavy loads. The shoes are designed for maximum stability while remaining flexible in the toe box. This allows the lifter to come up on the toes and to catch the weight on the ball of the back foot during the \"jerk\" movement of the lift.[19]There are also different heel constructions. Most modern Weightlifting shoes use a hard TPU plastic heel that does not deform and is more durable than other materials. However, there has been a resurgence in premium shoes using retro wood heels which are hard but do not last as long.[22]Knee sleevesSome weightlifters may use knee sleeves to provide joint support and assist in standing from the deep squatting position.Wrist wrapsWrist wraps are commonly used to provide support to the joint.","title":"Equipment"}] | [{"image_text":"Mohammad Reza Barari, an Iranian lifter, snatching at the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio, Brazil","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Weightlifting_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_105_kg_7.jpg/280px-Weightlifting_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_105_kg_7.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lidia Valentín of Spain performing a clean at the 2012 Olympic Games in London","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Olympics_2012_Women%27s_75kg_Weightlifting.jpg/220px-Olympics_2012_Women%27s_75kg_Weightlifting.jpg"},{"image_text":"The 110 kg division weightlifting winners at the 1980 Summer Olympics, held in Moscow","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/RIAN_archive_484445_Winners_of_the_weightlifting_competition_in_the_1980_Olympics.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_484445_Winners_of_the_weightlifting_competition_in_the_1980_Olympics.jpg"},{"image_text":"Knurling on an Olympic barbell","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gewichtheben_Hantelstange_Detail.jpg/220px-Gewichtheben_Hantelstange_Detail.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Olympic lifter, Jang Mi-ran, holding a barbell loaded with red 25 kg bumper plates, held in place with a collar. Note the lifter's taped wrists and thumbs, her weightlifting shoes, and her weightlifting belt.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Korea_London_Jang_Miran_03_%287771959092%29.jpg/220px-Korea_London_Jang_Miran_03_%287771959092%29.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Olympic weightlifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Olympic_weightlifting"},{"title":"World Weightlifting Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Weightlifting_Championships"},{"title":"Weightlifting at the Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlifting_at_the_Summer_Olympics"},{"title":"List of world records in Olympic weightlifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_world_records_in_Olympic_weightlifting"},{"title":"List of Olympic records in weightlifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_records_in_weightlifting"},{"title":"List of Olympic medalists in weightlifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_weightlifting"},{"title":"Powerlifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powerlifting"},{"title":"Power training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_training"},{"title":"Paralympic powerlifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralympic_powerlifting"}] | [{"reference":"\"World Championships\". International Weightlifting Federation. Retrieved 2023-01-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://iwf.sport/events/world-championships/","url_text":"\"World Championships\""}]},{"reference":"Hoffman, Bob (1963). Guide to Weight Lifting Competition. Urbana-Champaign, Illinois: Strength and Health Publishing Company. p. 2.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"New Bodyweight Categories Approved by the IWF Executive Board\". International Weightlifting Federation. 5 July 2018. Retrieved 2018-10-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iwf.net/2018/07/05/new-bodyweight-categories-approved-iwf-executive-board/","url_text":"\"New Bodyweight Categories Approved by the IWF Executive Board\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Sinclair Coefficients for the Olympiad\". International Weightlifting Federation. Retrieved 2009-07-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iwf.net/weightlifting_/sinclair-coefficient/","url_text":"\"The Sinclair Coefficients for the Olympiad\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lift Up, History of Olympic Weightlifting\". chidlovski.net. Retrieved 2022-11-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://chidlovski.net/liftup/l_history.asp","url_text":"\"Lift Up, History of Olympic Weightlifting\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ancient Egyptian Sport\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sis.gov.eg/section/722/733?lang=en-us","url_text":"\"Ancient Egyptian Sport\""}]},{"reference":"\"Weightlifting History\". International Weightlifting Federation. Retrieved 2023-01-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://iwf.sport/weightlifting_/history/","url_text":"\"Weightlifting History\""}]},{"reference":"\"122 years since the first World Championships\". International Weightlifting Federation. 2013-03-29. Retrieved 2023-01-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://iwf.sport/2013/03/29/122-years-since-the-first-world-championships/","url_text":"\"122 years since the first World Championships\""}]},{"reference":"Encyclopedia Britannica Almanac 2010. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2010. p. 736. ISBN 9781615353293.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615353293","url_text":"9781615353293"}]},{"reference":"chidlovski (2019-04-17). \"Wilhelm Turk: World Champion (1898)\". CHIDLOVSKI БЛОГ ШИДЛОВСКОГО. Retrieved 2023-01-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://chidlovski.livejournal.com/1147654.html","url_text":"\"Wilhelm Turk: World Champion (1898)\""}]},{"reference":"chidlovski (2019-04-27). \"Sergey Eliseev and Georg Hackenschmidt: Early World Class Weightlifters From the Russian Empire\". CHIDLOVSKI БЛОГ ШИДЛОВСКОГО. Retrieved 2023-01-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://chidlovski.livejournal.com/1148987.html","url_text":"\"Sergey Eliseev and Georg Hackenschmidt: Early World Class Weightlifters From the Russian Empire\""}]},{"reference":"\"The History of Weightlifting\". teamUSA.org. 2009-10-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 2009-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100412113002/http://weightlifting.teamusa.org/pages/1400","url_text":"\"The History of Weightlifting\""},{"url":"http://weightlifting.teamusa.org/pages/1400","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Julie Carft (July 29, 1989). \"Image is Heavy Burden - Weightlifter Karyn Marshall Feels Pressure to Project 'Femininity, Intelligence'\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.latimes.com/1989-07-29/sports/sp-145_1_karyn-marshall","url_text":"\"Image is Heavy Burden - Weightlifter Karyn Marshall Feels Pressure to Project 'Femininity, Intelligence'\""}]},{"reference":"\"20 years anniversary of female inclusion in weightlifting at the Olympic Games\". International Weightlifting Federation. 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2023-01-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://iwf.sport/2020/09/22/20-years-anniversary-female-inclusion-weightlifting-olympic-games/","url_text":"\"20 years anniversary of female inclusion in weightlifting at the Olympic Games\""}]},{"reference":"Miele, Vincent J.; Bailes, Julian E. (2001). Bailes, Julian E.; Day, Arthur L. (eds.). Neurological Sports Medicine: A Guide for Physicians and Athletic Trainers. Rolling Meadows, Illinois: American Association of Neurological Surgeons. p. 239. ISBN 1-879284-75-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-879284-75-8","url_text":"1-879284-75-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Chen Yanqing\". www.insidethegames.biz. 2022-11-29. Retrieved 2023-02-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1131017/chen-yanqing","url_text":"\"Chen Yanqing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Yanqing CHEN\". olympics.com. 2023-02-01. Retrieved 2023-02-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://olympics.com/en/athletes/yanqing-chen","url_text":"\"Yanqing CHEN\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kulsoom Abdullah makes history\". ESPN. 2011-07-15. Retrieved 2012-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://espn.go.com/olympics/weightlifting/story/_/id/6773853/muslim-woman-kulsoom-abdullah-makes-history-weightlifting-event","url_text":"\"Kulsoom Abdullah makes history\""}]},{"reference":"Everett, Greg (2009). Olympic Weightlifting: A Complete Guide for Athletes & Coaches. Catalyst Athletics. pp. 20, 21, 22, 26, 27. ISBN 978-0980011111.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0980011111","url_text":"978-0980011111"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Jolie. \"Official Specifications for Olympic Weightlifting Bar\". Retrieved 22 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.livestrong.com/article/357098-official-specifications-for-olympic-weightlifting-bar/","url_text":"\"Official Specifications for Olympic Weightlifting Bar\""}]},{"reference":"Morrison, Norm. \"Olympic Lifting for Beginners\". Retrieved 22 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gymsource.com/blog/olympic-lifting-for-beginners/","url_text":"\"Olympic Lifting for Beginners\""}]},{"reference":"\"Best Olympic Weightlifting Shoes (2023 Edition) - Lift Big Eat Big\". 2023-07-14. Retrieved 2023-08-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://liftbigeatbig.com/best-shoes-for-olympic-weightlifting/","url_text":"\"Best Olympic Weightlifting Shoes (2023 Edition) - Lift Big Eat Big\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://iwf.sport/events/world-championships/","external_links_name":"\"World Championships\""},{"Link":"https://www.iwf.net/2018/07/05/new-bodyweight-categories-approved-iwf-executive-board/","external_links_name":"\"New Bodyweight Categories Approved by the IWF Executive Board\""},{"Link":"http://www.iwf.net/weightlifting_/sinclair-coefficient/","external_links_name":"\"The Sinclair Coefficients for the Olympiad\""},{"Link":"http://chidlovski.net/liftup/l_history.asp","external_links_name":"\"Lift Up, History of Olympic Weightlifting\""},{"Link":"https://www.sis.gov.eg/section/722/733?lang=en-us","external_links_name":"\"Ancient Egyptian Sport\""},{"Link":"https://iwf.sport/weightlifting_/history/","external_links_name":"\"Weightlifting History\""},{"Link":"https://iwf.sport/2013/03/29/122-years-since-the-first-world-championships/","external_links_name":"\"122 years since the first World Championships\""},{"Link":"https://chidlovski.livejournal.com/1147654.html","external_links_name":"\"Wilhelm Turk: World Champion (1898)\""},{"Link":"https://chidlovski.livejournal.com/1148987.html","external_links_name":"\"Sergey Eliseev and Georg Hackenschmidt: Early World Class Weightlifters From the Russian Empire\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100412113002/http://weightlifting.teamusa.org/pages/1400","external_links_name":"\"The History of Weightlifting\""},{"Link":"http://weightlifting.teamusa.org/pages/1400","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://articles.latimes.com/1989-07-29/sports/sp-145_1_karyn-marshall","external_links_name":"\"Image is Heavy Burden - Weightlifter Karyn Marshall Feels Pressure to Project 'Femininity, Intelligence'\""},{"Link":"https://iwf.sport/2020/09/22/20-years-anniversary-female-inclusion-weightlifting-olympic-games/","external_links_name":"\"20 years anniversary of female inclusion in weightlifting at the Olympic Games\""},{"Link":"https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1131017/chen-yanqing","external_links_name":"\"Chen Yanqing\""},{"Link":"https://olympics.com/en/athletes/yanqing-chen","external_links_name":"\"Yanqing CHEN\""},{"Link":"http://espn.go.com/olympics/weightlifting/story/_/id/6773853/muslim-woman-kulsoom-abdullah-makes-history-weightlifting-event","external_links_name":"\"Kulsoom Abdullah makes history\""},{"Link":"http://www.livestrong.com/article/357098-official-specifications-for-olympic-weightlifting-bar/","external_links_name":"\"Official Specifications for Olympic Weightlifting Bar\""},{"Link":"http://www.gymsource.com/blog/olympic-lifting-for-beginners/","external_links_name":"\"Olympic Lifting for Beginners\""},{"Link":"https://liftbigeatbig.com/best-shoes-for-olympic-weightlifting/","external_links_name":"\"Best Olympic Weightlifting Shoes (2023 Edition) - Lift Big Eat Big\""},{"Link":"http://www.iwf.net/","external_links_name":"International Weightlifting Federation"},{"Link":"http://www.swiss-weightlifting.ch/","external_links_name":"Swiss Amateur Weightlifting Federation (SAGV/FSHA)"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007553501405171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85145957","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00575132","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph127314&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=32841","external_links_name":"Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Race | Omega Race | ["1 Gameplay","2 Ports","3 Reception","4 Legacy","5 References","6 External links"] | 1981 video gameOmega RaceColecoVision box coverDeveloper(s)MidwayCommodoreCBS ElectronicsPublisher(s)MidwayCommodoreCBS ElectronicsDesigner(s)Ron HaliburtonPlatform(s)Arcade, Atari 2600, VIC-20, Commodore 64, ColecoVisionRelease1981Genre(s)Shoot 'em upMode(s)Single-player
Omega Race is a shoot 'em up arcade video game designed by Ron Haliburton and released in 1981 by Midway. It is the only arcade game with vector graphics that Midway created.
Omega Race was ported to the VIC-20 and Commodore 64 and published by Commodore in 1982. In 1983, ColecoVision and Atari 2600 versions were released by CBS Electronics.
Gameplay
Set in the year 2003, the player controls an Omegan Fighter spaceship to destroy enemy droid ships in a rectangular "track." The player's ship is controlled with a spinner to rotate the ship, a button for thrusting, and a button for firing lasers. The enemies that the player must destroy or avoid are drone ships, commander ships, two types of space mines, and shooting star ships. The ship bounces off an invisible barrier on the edges of the screen that briefly appears when hit. By default, extra ships are awarded at 40,000 and 100,000 points.
Ports
The Atari 2600 cartridge came bundled with a "booster grip" controller which converted the single-button Atari CX40 joystick to having separate buttons for thrust and shoot. Omega Race is one of a few CBS games for the Atari 2600 with an additional 256 bytes of RAM in each cartridge, a feature promoted by CBS as "RAM Plus."
Reception
Consumer Guide's How To Win At Video Games stated in 1982 of Omega Race that "any unskilled player can pop a quarter into the machine and stay up there for up to 20,000 points." According to the book, more than 35,000 machines were created, with the average machine taking in $181.00 per week at the time of the book's publication. Frequently, it was one of the top ten money-making arcade machines in any given week in that time period. Michael Blanchet's 1982 book How to Beat the Video Games praised it as having a "deceiving appearance", saying that despite appearing easy it "develops a healthy level of frustration, which you'll find quite stimulating".
Compute! called Omega Race "a real winner for the VIC". BYTE stated that the VIC-20 version "is fast paced, has colorful graphics, and features good sound effects ... Omega Race is a fun game that retains all the best characteristics of the arcade version". Ahoy! called the VIC-20 version "fairly faithful to the arcade game, and very exciting". The VIC-20 version of Omega Race was awarded a Certificate of Merit in the category of "Best Solitaire Computer Game" at the 4th annual Arkie Awards.: 33
Legacy
Omega Race was cloned for the TRS-80 Color Computer as Space Race in 1982.
An update of the game for the Atari Jaguar was pitched to Atari Corporation by Temporary Sanity Designs, however, it never moved forward beyond the proposal phase and the document is in the hands of community member joekorali of AtariAge.
References
^ a b Hague, James. "The Giant List of Classic Game Programmers". Retrieved 2018-06-10.
^ "Omega Race". Arcade History. Archived from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2018-06-10.
^ "Omega Race by CBS Electronics". Atari Guide. Archived from the original on 2015-12-23. Retrieved 2015-12-22.
^ Stilphen, Scott. "Part of the Secret to the VCS's Longevity". Atari Compendium.
^ "Omega Race". How to Win Video Games. Pocket Books. 1982. pp. 42, 86. ISBN 0-671-45841-8.
^ Blanchet, Michael (1982). How to Beat the Video Games. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 96–100. ISBN 0671453750. Omega Race has a deceiving appearance. "A piece of cake," I said the first time I saw it. I was wrong. This game develops a healthy level of frustration, which you'll find quite stimulating.
^ Herman, Harvey B. (October 1982). "Four New Cartridges for VIC-20". Compute!. p. 132. Archived from the original on 2013-01-02. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
^ Wszola, Stan (March 1983). "Omega Race for the VIC-20". BYTE. p. 251. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
^ Salm, Walter (March 1984). "VIC Game Buyer's Guide". Ahoy!. p. 49. Retrieved 27 June 2014.
^ Kunkel, Bill; Katz, Arnie (March 1983). "Arcade Alley: The Best Computer Games". Video. 6 (12). Reese Communications: 32–33. ISSN 0147-8907.
^ Boyle, L. Curtis. "Space Race". Tandy Color Computer Games. Archived from the original on 2018-06-27. Retrieved 2018-06-09.
^ joekorali (March 30, 2009). "Atari Jaguar promo stuff? (Page 2)". AtariAge. Retrieved 2019-01-27.
^ successfultroll (March 30, 2009). Atari Jaguar Promo Stuff Part 3 (6min 23sec). YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-19.
External links
Omega Race at the Killer List of Videogames
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_SA | Omega SA | ["1 History","1.1 Early history","1.2 Re-organization","1.3 Recent development","2 Watch manufacturing","2.1 Notable inventions and patents","2.2 Observatory trials","2.3 Reference Numbers","3 Notable models","4 Historic events","4.1 Space exploration","4.2 First watch on the Moon","5 Sponsorship","6 Controversy","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"] | Coordinates: 47°08′37″N 7°15′36″E / 47.14362°N 7.25998°E / 47.14362; 7.25998Swiss watchmaker
Omega SABoutique on Fifth Avenue, ManhattanFormerlyLa Generale Watch Co. (1848–1903)Louis Brandt et Frère-Omega Watch & Co. (1903–1984)Company typeSubsidiaryIndustryWatchmakingFounded1848; 176 years ago (1848) in La Chaux-de-Fonds, SwitzerlandFounderLouis BrandtHeadquartersBiel/Bienne, Switzerland47°08′37″N 7°15′36″E / 47.14362°N 7.25998°E / 47.14362; 7.25998Area servedWorldwideKey peopleRaynald Aeschlimann (President)ProductsWatchesParentThe Swatch GroupWebsiteomegawatches.com
Omega SA is a Swiss luxury watchmaker based in Biel/Bienne, Switzerland. Founded by Louis Brandt in La Chaux-de-Fonds in 1848, the company formerly operated as La Generale Watch Co. until incorporating the name Omega in 1903, becoming Louis Brandt et Frère-Omega Watch & Co. In 1984, the company officially changed its name to Omega SA and opened its museum in Biel/Bienne to the public. Omega is a subsidiary of The Swatch Group.
Britain's Royal Flying Corps used Omega watches in 1917 for its combat units, followed by the U.S. Army in 1918, and NASA in 1969 for Apollo 11. Omega has been the official timekeeper of the Olympics since 1932 and is the current timekeeper of the America's Cup yacht race. Omega was a main partner of the 2022 Winter Olympics.
History
Early history
The workbench of Louis Brandt with a photograph of the founder
The forerunner of Omega, La Generale Watch Co., was founded at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland, in 1848 by Louis Brandt, who assembled key-wound precision pocket watches from parts supplied by local craftsmen. He sold his watches from Italy to Scandinavia by way of England, his chief market. In 1894, his two sons Louis-Paul and César developed their own in-house manufacturing and total production control system that allowed component parts to be interchangeable. Watches developed with these techniques were marketed under the Omega brand of La Generale Watch Co. By 1903, the success of the Omega brand led La Generale Watch Co to spin off Omega as its own company, and the Omega Watch Co was officially founded in 1903.
Re-organization
Pocket watch, made in the 1970s
Louis-Paul and César Brandt both died in 1903, leaving one of Switzerland's largest watch companies — with 240,000 watches produced annually and employing 800 people — in the hands of four young people, the oldest of whom, Paul-Emile Brandt, was not yet 24. The economic difficulties brought on by the First World War led Paul-Emile Brandt to work in 1925 towards the union of Omega and Tissot, then to their merger in 1930 into the group SSIH, Geneva.
Under Brandt's leadership and Joseph Reiser's from 1955, the SSIH Group continued to grow and multiply, absorbing or creating some fifty companies, including Lanco and Lemania, manufacturer of the most famous Omega chronograph movements. By the 1970s, SSIH had become Switzerland's top producer of finished watches and third in the world. Up to this time, Omega outsold Rolex, its main Swiss rival in the luxury watch segment, in the race for "King of Swiss Watch brands", although Rolex sold at a higher price point. Omega tended to be more revolutionary and more professionally focused, while Rolex watches were more ‘evolutionary’ and famous for their mechanical pieces and branding.
While Omega and Rolex had dominated in the pre-quartz era, this changed in the 1970s during the quartz crisis, when Japanese watch manufacturers, such as Seiko and Citizen, rose to dominance due to their use of quartz movements. In response, Rolex continued concentrating on its expensive mechanical chronometers where its expertise lay (though it did have some experimentation in quartz), while Omega tried to compete in the quartz watch market with its own quartz movements.
Recent development
Omega Seamaster De Ville, an early "waterproof" watch, with automatic movement and date, in 14k gold
Weakened by the severe monetary crisis and recession of 1975 to 1980, SSIH was bailed out by banks in 1981. During this period, Seiko expressed interest in acquiring Omega, but nothing came of the talks.
Switzerland's other watch making giant Allgemeine Schweizerische Uhrenindustrie AG (ASUAG), supplier of a large range of Swiss movements and watch assemblies, was in economic difficulty. It was the principal manufacturer of Ébauche (unfinished movements) and owner, through their sub-holding company General Watch Co (GWC), of various other Swiss watch brands including Longines, Rado, Certina, Hamilton Watch Company and Mido. After drastic financial restructuring, the R&D departments of ASUAG and SSIH merged production operations at the ETA complex in Granges. The two companies completely merged forming ASUAG-SSIH, a holding company, in 1983.
Two years later, the holding company was taken over by a group of private investors led by Nicolas Hayek. Renamed Société de Microélectronique et d'Horlogerie (SMH), the new group over the next decade proceeded to become one of the top watch producers in the world. In 1998 it became The Swatch Group, which now manufactures Omega and other brands such as Blancpain, Swatch, and Breguet.
Omega experienced a resurgence with advertisements that focused on product placement strategies, such as in the James Bond 007 films; the character had previously worn a Rolex Submariner but switched to the Omega Seamaster Diver 300M with GoldenEye (1995), and later an Omega Planet Ocean and Aqua Terra. Omega adopted many elements of Rolex's business model (i.e. premium pricing, tighter controls of dealer pricing, increasing advertising, etc.), which succeeded in increasing Omega's market share and name recognition to become a direct competitor to Rolex.
In 2019, Omega licensed its name and branding to Marcolin for a collection of men's and women's optical frames and sunglasses. In March 2022, Omega collaborated with sibling company Swatch, both of which are owned by The Swatch Group, to release a budget version of its iconic Omega Speedmaster Moonwatch. The so-called "MoonSwatch", available in 11 colors, is made of bioceramic (a mixture of ceramic and castor oil) and priced at $260 / £207, well below the $5,250 price (as of March 2022) of the least expensive Omega Speedmaster Moonwatch.
Watch manufacturing
Notable inventions and patents
18k rose gold Omega Constellation, 1958
In 1892, Louis Brandt, the founder of Omega, manufactured the world's first minute repeating wristwatch in collaboration with Audemars Piguet, which provided the minute-repeating movement. The 18K-gold watch is now kept in the Omega Museum in Biel/Bienne, Switzerland.
In 1947, Omega created the first tourbillon wristwatch calibre in the world with the 30I. Twelve of these movements were made, intended for inclusion in the observatory trials in Geneva, Neuchâtel and Kew-Teddington, and they were known as the Omega Observatory Tourbillons. Unlike conventional Tourbillion movements whose cages rotate once per minute, the 30I's cage rotated one time each seven and a half minutes. In 1949, one of these delivered the best results ever recorded by a wristwatch up to that time. A year later, Omega broke its own record in the Geneva Observatory Trials of 1950.
In 1999, after the successful development of Calibre 2500, Omega made history by introducing the first mass-produced watch incorporating the coaxial escapement — invented by English watchmaker George Daniels. Considered by many to be one of the more significant horological advances since the invention of the lever escapement, the coaxial escapement functions with virtually no lubrication, thereby eliminating one of the shortcomings of the traditional lever escapement. Through using radial friction instead of sliding friction at the impulse surfaces the coaxial escapement significantly reduces friction, theoretically resulting in longer service intervals and greater accuracy over time.
On January 24, 2007, Omega unveiled its new Calibres 8500 and 8501, two coaxial (25,200 bph) movements created exclusively from inception by Omega.
On January 17, 2013, Omega announced the creation of the world's first movement that is resistant to magnetic fields greater than 1.5 Tesla (15,000 Gauss), far exceeding the levels of magnetic resistance achieved by any previous movement - a similar movement was used by Daniel Craig as James Bond, though the official collectors watch was labelled as resistant to 15,007 Gauss in honor of the fictional secret agent's codename. Most anti-magnetic watches utilize a soft iron - Faraday cage which distributes electromagnetism in such a way that it cancels the effect on the movement contained within. This type of anti-magnetic case required de-magnetizing procedures of the case. Omega has instead built a movement of non-ferrous materials eliminating the need for such a cage and providing a far greater resistance to magnetic fields eliminating necessity of additional maintenance.
In 2015, they introduced the Master Chronometer Certification, which denotes that along with a COSC (Official Swiss Chronometer Testing Institute) certification, a movement has also passed a series of eight tests set out by METAS (The Federal Institute of Metrology). Master Chronometer watches have a minimum water-resistance rating of 100 metres (330 ft) (the 2022 Speedmaster '57 is a Master Chronometer with 50 metres (160 ft) water-resistance), a minimum power reserve rating of 60 hours, an accuracy rating of 0/+5 seconds per day, and are resistant to magnetic fields of 15,000 gauss. The Master Chronometer Certification debuted on the Globemaster but they now offer it across many more of its watch collections.
Observatory trials
Omega Genève Cal. 613
Observatory trials focused on the science of Chronometry and the ability to make chronometers measure time precisely. Only Patek Philippe and Omega participated every year in the trials. Omega's performances at these competitions garnered the company a reputation of precision and innovation.
For more than a decade (1958–1969), Omega was the largest manufacturer of COSC chronometers. Omega developed the slogan "Omega – Exact time for life" in 1931 based on its historical performance at the Observatory trials. Omega's early prowess in designing and regulating timing movements was made possible by the company's incorporation of new chronometric innovations.
Notable dates for the Omega precision records:
1894: Creation of the 19 caliber named Omega. The company is renamed Omega from Louis Brandt et Frères in 1903 Omega participates for the first time at observatory trials in Neuenburg, Albert Willemin, Omega's first "regleur de précision", regulated the movement
1919: 1st Prize at observatory trials in Neuenburg with a 21 caliber, this caliber was slightly modified to become the Cal. 47.7
1922: Omega participates for the first time at observatory trials in Kew-Teddington, achieves 3rd place
1925: 1st place at observatory trials in Kew-Teddington with a Cal. 47.7 (95.9 of 100 points ex aequo with Ulysse Nardin), movement regulated by Gottlob Ith
1930: 1st place at observatory trials in Kew-Teddington (96.3 of 100 points ex aequo with Movado), movement regulated by Alfred Jaccard
1931: Omega achieves 1st place in all 6 categories at observatory trials in Geneva, movements, regulated by Alfred Jaccard
1933: A Cal. 47.7 regulated by Alfred Jaccard achieved the precision record at observatory trials at Kew-Teddington, achieved 97.4/100 points
1936: Another Cal. 47.7 regulated by Alfred Jaccard achieved the precision record of 97.8/100 points at Kew-Teddington, record not broken until 1965
1937: 1st place at Kew-Teddington with 97.3 points
1938: 1st place at Kew-Teddington with 97.7 points
1940: 1st place with Cal. 30mm at Kew Teddington, movement regulated by Alfred Jaccard
1945: 1st place with 30mm caliber at the observatory in Geneva, movement regulated by Alfred JaccardThe distinctive Omega Constellation day-date model of 1980's generation that was known as "Manhattan", equipped with quartz movement, Cal. 1444
1948: 1st place at observatory trial in Neuenburg for 30mm caliber
1950: 1st place for tourbillon Cal. 30I at Geneva Trials, regulated by Alfred Jaccard
1951: 1st place at the observatory trials in Geneva
1952: 1st place at the observatory trials in Geneva
1954: New record in Geneva by Gottlob Ith
1955: Two new records at Neuenburg by Gottlob Ith
1956: Two 1st places at observatory trials in Neuenburg
1958: New record in Geneva movements regulated by Joseph Ory
1959: Two records in Neuenburg and one new record in Geneva, movement regulated by Joseph Ory
1960: One new record in Geneva, one new record in Neuenburg, and 1st place in Neuenburg, movement regulated by Joseph Ory
1961: Two new records in Geneva by Joseph Ory, the first four places for the 'single pieces' category in Geneva are occupied by Omega
1962: 2nd, 3rd and 4th places for Omega
1963: Two 1st places in Geneva and Neuenburg, movement regulated by Joseph Ory and André Brielmann
1964: New record in Neuchatel by Joseph Ory
1965: Omega occupies 2nd to 9th places
1966: Three new records for Omega (two in Neuenburg, one in Geneva)
1968: Omega enters with a tuning fork, movement regulated by André Brielmann for a new record
1969: Two new records for the tuning fork, movement regulated by André Brielmann
1970: One new record for the tuning fork, movement regulated by André Brielmann
1971: Two new records for the tuning fork, movement regulated by André Brielmann
1974: Omega Marine Chronometer certified as the world's first Marine Chronometer wristwatch, accurate to 12 seconds per year
Reference Numbers
Before 1962 it was a simple alphanumeric code of two letters followed by four digits. Between 1962 and 2007 Omega used the Mapics system, consisting of two letters followed by either six or seven numbers. The PIC system started in 1988, running concurrently with Mapics, and featured an arrangement of eight numbers in three groups (XXXX.XX.XX).
Finally, today we have the PIC14 structure, with 14 digits in six groups.
Notable models
Main article: List of most expensive watches sold at auction
Buzz Aldrin wearing the Omega Speedmaster (on his right wrist) during the first manned Moon landing of Apollo 11 in 1969
The Omega wristwatch Ref. H6582/D96043 (1960) once owned by Elvis Presley was sold in auction by Phillips for US$1.812 million in Geneva on May 12, 2018, making it the most expensive Omega timepiece ever sold at auction. The watch was manufactured in 1960 and was sold by Tiffany & Co. in 1961. The watch was presented to Elvis Presley as a gift from RCA Records on February 25, 1961, to commemorate his remarkable achievement of having sold 75 million records. Petros Protopapas, the director of Omega Museum, later confirmed that the museum was the winning bidder.
The Omega Stainless Steel Tourbillon 301 was sold in auction by Phillips for around US$1.43 million (1,428,500 CHF) in Geneva on November 12, 2017. It was then the most expensive Omega timepiece ever sold at auction.
In March 1965, the Omega Speedmaster was declared “Flight Qualified for all Manned Spaced Missions." On July 20, 1969, Buzz Aldrin stepped onto the Moon wearing his Omega Speedmaster watch. The model of the first watch on the Moon is the Omega Speedmaster 105.012.
Seamaster 120M Analog-Digital "Multifunction" was introduced in 1998 and discontinued after few years, fitted with Omega, Cal. 1665.
Historic events
The Omega Speedmaster, or "Moonwatch", selected by NASA for all the Apollo missions
Space exploration
Main article: Omega Speedmaster Professional
First worn by Mercury astronaut Wally Schirra in 1962, the "Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph" was chosen by NASA to become the only chronograph certified for use on all missions since 1965.
The selection of the "Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph" for American astronauts was the subject of a rivalry between Omega and Bulova.
All subsequent crewed NASA missions also used this handwound wristwatch. NASA started selecting the chronograph in the early 1960s. Automatic chronograph wristwatches were not available until 1969. Even so, all the instrument panel clocks and time-keeping mechanisms in the spacecraft on those space missions were Bulova Accutrons with tuning fork movements, because at the time NASA did not know how well a mechanical movement would work in zero gravity.
First watch on the Moon
The Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph was the first watch on the Moon, worn by Buzz Aldrin. Although Apollo 11 commander Neil Armstrong was first to set foot on the Moon, he left his 105.012 Speedmaster inside the Lunar Module Eagle as a backup because the LM's electronic timer had malfunctioned. Aldrin wore his, making his Speedmaster the first watch worn on the Moon. Armstrong's watch is displayed at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. Aldrin's was stolen; he mentions in his 1973 book, Return to Earth, that when donating several items to the Smithsonian Institution his Omega was one of the few things stolen from his personal effects.
In 2007, to mark the 50th anniversary of the Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph, Omega unveiled the commemorative Speedmaster Professional Chronograph Moonwatch. The watch had the distinctive features of the first hand-winding Omega Speedmaster introduced in 1957. It was sold in an edition of 1,957 pieces.
Sponsorship
NCIS
In the US television series NCIS, lead actor Mark Harmon wears an Omega Seamaster Planet Ocean with supporting cast member Michael Weatherly wearing a matching version. In both cases, this is the stainless steel model with orange bezel and black dial.
Need for Speed
Omega is the official timekeeper for the video game Need for Speed II, released on Microsoft Windows and PlayStation in 1997.
Kojak
In the US television series Kojak, lead actor Telly Savalas wore a gold-plated Omega Time Computer One, the first mass-produced LED watch.
James BondThe Omega Seamaster, a deep diving watch. The second crown (at 10 o'clock) is a helium release valve to allow helium out of the watch after practicing saturation diving at great depths. The watch is similar to that shown in recent James Bond films, in which this valve is transformed into improbable hidden gadgets.
Omega has been associated with James Bond movies since 1995. That year, Pierce Brosnan took over the role of James Bond and began wearing the Omega Seamaster Quartz Professional (model 2541.80.00) in GoldenEye. In all later films, Brosnan wore an Omega Seamaster Professional Chronometer (model 2531.80.00). The producers wanted to update the image of the spy to a more distinctly sophisticated "Euro" look. Omega was eager to participate in the high-profile product placement opportunity to further its brand image and supplied the watches.
For the 40th anniversary of James Bond (2002) a commemorative edition of the watch was made available model 2537.80.00 (10,007 units). The watch is identical to the model 2531.80.00 except the blue watch dial had a 007 logo inscribed across it, machined into the case-back, and inscribed on the clasp.
Daniel Craig, the current James Bond since Casino Royale, also wears an Omega Seamaster: the Seamaster Planet Ocean (model 2900.50.91) in the first part of Casino Royale, and the Seamaster Professional 300M (model 2220.80.00) in the latter part (from travelling to Montenegro). He mentions Omega by name when questioned by Vesper Lynd. With the launch of the film in 2006, Omega released a 007-special of the Professional 300M, (model 2226.80.00) featuring the 007-gun logo on the second hand and the rifle pattern on the watch face, based on the gun barrel sequence of Bond movies.
Omega released a second James Bond limited edition watch in 2006, a Seamaster Planet Ocean model with a limited production of 5007 units. The model is similar to what Craig wears earlier on in the film; however, it has a small orange colored 007 logo on the second hand, an engraved caseback signifying the Bond connection, and an engraved 007 on the clasp.
In the 2008 movie Quantum of Solace, Craig wears the Omega Seamaster Planet Ocean with a black face and steel bracelet (42mm version). Another limited edition was released featuring the checkered "PPK grip" face with the Quantum of Solace logo. The third limited edition release from Omega came in 2012, based on the Planet Ocean Ref: 232.30.42.21.01.004. It featured a textured dial with the 007 logo at the 7 o'clock position and a 007 decorated rotor visible through the case-back.
In 2015, two commemorative models were produced for the 24th Bond film, Spectre: the Omega Seamaster 300m master co-axial Ref: 233.32.41.21.01.001. 7007 units were produced and came with a NATO strap, as well as the standard bracelet. The watch featured a bi-directional bezel with a world timing scale, rather than the diving scale present on the standard 300m. The second timepiece, the Omega Seamaster Aqua Terra 150m master co-axial Ref: 231.10.42.21.03.004, was decorated with a textured dial based on the Bond family coat of arms and a rotor resembling a bullet and gun barrel with "James Bond" inscribed.
Sports sponsorship
Speedmaster Racing, Michael Schumacher Edition of 2000, with his signature engraving on the backside
Omega scoreboards during the 2012 Olympic Games
Omega has frequently been the official timekeeper for the Olympics, beginning with the 1932 Summer Olympics. It was the official timekeeper for the 2006 Winter Olympics, 2008 Summer Olympics, 2010 Winter Olympics, and 2012 Summer Olympics. In 2008, Omega released an Olympic edition watch with the Olympics logo on the second hand. Olympic swimmer and multiple gold medalist Michael Phelps is an Omega Ambassador and wears the Omega Seamaster Planet Ocean. In 2014, Omega became the official timekeeper of the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics. The brand was a Worldwide Olympic Partner at the 2016 Summer Olympics. After the 2020 Summer Olympics were postponed due to COVID-19, the Tokyo Station's Olympic countdown clock, made by Omega, which was displaying the number of days until the Games, and a local tourist attraction, was halted and switched to show the current date and time. This partnership will continue at least until 2032.
Omega constructed and maintained a monochrome video scoreboard for Milwaukee's County Stadium, the former home of Major League Baseball's Milwaukee Brewers, which was in use from the board's construction in 1980 until the stadium's closure in 2000.
Providing support to Emirates Team New Zealand and representing the team's official watch, in 2007 Omega introduced the Seamaster NZL-32 chronograph, named after the boat that won America's Cup in 1995. The watch was developed in cooperation with Dean Barker, skipper of Team New Zealand and Omega Ambassador.
On July 1, 2011, Omega became the official timekeeper of PGA of America and signed a five-year agreement through 2016. The brand also sponsors the Dubai Desert Classic and the Omega European Masters.
Controversy
In December 2018, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) released a report assigning environmental ratings to 15 major watch manufacturers and jewelers in Switzerland, and Omega was given the lowest environmental rating, "Latecomers/Non-transparent", suggesting the manufacturer has taken few actions addressing the impact of its manufacturing activities on the environment and climate change.
Omega faced activist pressure to withdraw from being the official timekeepers of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics after numerous governments enacted diplomatic boycotts over human rights violations (in particular China's repression of Uyghurs and other minorities, which some countries have designated as a genocide). Omega defended its continued role as official time keeper of the Olympics by stating its policy to "not to get involved in certain political issues because it would not advance the cause of sport in which our commitment lies." Omega has been the official timekeeper of the Olympics since 1932 including the controversial 1936 and 1980 Olympics, which also saw widespread boycotts over human rights concerns.
See also
Companies portal
Ernst Thomke
Nicolas G. Hayek
List of watch manufacturers
References
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External links
Official website
OMEGA Watches Serial Numbers Guide
Authority control databases International
ISNI
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National
Germany
United States
Other
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"watchmaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchmaker"},{"link_name":"Biel/Bienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biel/Bienne"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-1"},{"link_name":"La Chaux-de-Fonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Chaux-de-Fonds"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"The Swatch Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Swatch_Group"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-1"},{"link_name":"Royal Flying Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps"},{"link_name":"U.S. Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Army"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Apollo 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"1932","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"America's Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s_Cup"},{"link_name":"2022 Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Swiss watchmakerOmega SA is a Swiss luxury watchmaker based in Biel/Bienne, Switzerland.[1] Founded by Louis Brandt in La Chaux-de-Fonds in 1848, the company formerly operated as La Generale Watch Co. until incorporating the name Omega in 1903, becoming Louis Brandt et Frère-Omega Watch & Co.[2][3][4] In 1984, the company officially changed its name to Omega SA[5] and opened its museum in Biel/Bienne to the public.[6][7] Omega is a subsidiary of The Swatch Group.[1]Britain's Royal Flying Corps used Omega watches in 1917 for its combat units, followed by the U.S. Army in 1918, and NASA in 1969 for Apollo 11.[8] Omega has been the official timekeeper of the Olympics since 1932[9] and is the current timekeeper of the America's Cup yacht race. Omega was a main partner of the 2022 Winter Olympics.[10][11]","title":"Omega SA"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Workspace_of_Louis_Brandt.jpg"},{"link_name":"La Chaux-de-Fonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Chaux-de-Fonds"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Early history","text":"The workbench of Louis Brandt with a photograph of the founderThe forerunner of Omega, La Generale Watch Co., was founded at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland, in 1848 by Louis Brandt, who assembled key-wound precision pocket watches from parts supplied by local craftsmen.[12] He sold his watches from Italy to Scandinavia by way of England, his chief market. In 1894, his two sons Louis-Paul and César developed their own in-house manufacturing and total production control system that allowed component parts to be interchangeable. Watches developed with these techniques were marketed under the Omega brand of La Generale Watch Co. By 1903, the success of the Omega brand led La Generale Watch Co to spin off Omega as its own company, and the Omega Watch Co was officially founded in 1903.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omega_pocket_watch_cal._960_(1973)_-_1700.jpg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Tissot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissot"},{"link_name":"SSIH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSIH"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Lanco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langendorf_Watch_Company_SA"},{"link_name":"chronograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronograph"},{"link_name":"movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_(clockwork)"},{"link_name":"Rolex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolex"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Omega_Vs_Rolex-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"quartz crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_crisis"},{"link_name":"Seiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiko"},{"link_name":"Citizen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_Holdings"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Omega_Vs_Rolex-14"}],"sub_title":"Re-organization","text":"Pocket watch, made in the 1970sLouis-Paul and César Brandt both died in 1903, leaving one of Switzerland's largest watch companies — with 240,000 watches produced annually and employing 800 people — in the hands of four young people, the oldest of whom, Paul-Emile Brandt, was not yet 24.[13] The economic difficulties brought on by the First World War led Paul-Emile Brandt to work in 1925 towards the union of Omega and Tissot, then to their merger in 1930 into the group SSIH, Geneva.Under Brandt's leadership and Joseph Reiser's from 1955, the SSIH Group continued to grow and multiply, absorbing or creating some fifty companies, including Lanco and Lemania, manufacturer of the most famous Omega chronograph movements. By the 1970s, SSIH had become Switzerland's top producer of finished watches and third in the world. Up to this time, Omega outsold Rolex, its main Swiss rival in the luxury watch segment, in the race for \"King of Swiss Watch brands\", although Rolex sold at a higher price point. Omega tended to be more revolutionary and more professionally focused, while Rolex watches were more ‘evolutionary’ and famous for their mechanical pieces and branding.[14][15][16]While Omega and Rolex had dominated in the pre-quartz era, this changed in the 1970s during the quartz crisis, when Japanese watch manufacturers, such as Seiko and Citizen, rose to dominance due to their use of quartz movements. In response, Rolex continued concentrating on its expensive mechanical chronometers where its expertise lay (though it did have some experimentation in quartz), while Omega tried to compete in the quartz watch market with its own quartz movements.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omega_Seamaster_De_Ville_1970.jpg"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Allgemeine Schweizerische Uhrenindustrie AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allgemeine_Schweizerische_Uhrenindustrie_AG"},{"link_name":"Ébauche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89bauche"},{"link_name":"General Watch Co","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Watch_Co"},{"link_name":"Longines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longines"},{"link_name":"Rado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rado_(watchmaker)"},{"link_name":"Certina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certina"},{"link_name":"Hamilton Watch Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_Watch_Company"},{"link_name":"Mido","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mido_(watch)"},{"link_name":"R&D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%26D"},{"link_name":"ETA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETA_SA"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Hayek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Hayek"},{"link_name":"Société de Microélectronique et d'Horlogerie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_de_Micro%C3%A9lectronique_et_d%27Horlogerie"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"The Swatch Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Swatch_Group"},{"link_name":"Blancpain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blancpain"},{"link_name":"Swatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swatch"},{"link_name":"Breguet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breguet_(watch)"},{"link_name":"James Bond 007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bond_007"},{"link_name":"Rolex Submariner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolex_Submariner"},{"link_name":"Omega Seamaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Seamaster"},{"link_name":"GoldenEye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GoldenEye"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Omega_Vs_Rolex-14"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Swatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swatch"},{"link_name":"Omega Speedmaster Moonwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Speedmaster"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"MoonSwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoonSwatch"},{"link_name":"bioceramic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioceramic"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Recent development","text":"Omega Seamaster De Ville, an early \"waterproof\" watch, with automatic movement and date, in 14k goldWeakened by the severe monetary crisis and recession of 1975 to 1980, SSIH was bailed out by banks in 1981.[17] During this period, Seiko expressed interest in acquiring Omega, but nothing came of the talks.Switzerland's other watch making giant Allgemeine Schweizerische Uhrenindustrie AG (ASUAG), supplier of a large range of Swiss movements and watch assemblies, was in economic difficulty. It was the principal manufacturer of Ébauche (unfinished movements) and owner, through their sub-holding company General Watch Co (GWC), of various other Swiss watch brands including Longines, Rado, Certina, Hamilton Watch Company and Mido. After drastic financial restructuring, the R&D departments of ASUAG and SSIH merged production operations at the ETA complex in Granges. The two companies completely merged forming ASUAG-SSIH, a holding company, in 1983.Two years later, the holding company was taken over by a group of private investors led by Nicolas Hayek. Renamed Société de Microélectronique et d'Horlogerie (SMH), the new group over the next decade proceeded to become one of the top watch producers in the world.[18] In 1998 it became The Swatch Group, which now manufactures Omega and other brands such as Blancpain, Swatch, and Breguet.Omega experienced a resurgence with advertisements that focused on product placement strategies, such as in the James Bond 007 films; the character had previously worn a Rolex Submariner but switched to the Omega Seamaster Diver 300M with GoldenEye (1995), and later an Omega Planet Ocean and Aqua Terra. Omega adopted many elements of Rolex's business model (i.e. premium pricing, tighter controls of dealer pricing, increasing advertising, etc.), which succeeded in increasing Omega's market share and name recognition to become a direct competitor to Rolex.[14][19][20]In 2019, Omega licensed its name and branding to Marcolin for a collection of men's and women's optical frames and sunglasses.[21] In March 2022, Omega collaborated with sibling company Swatch, both of which are owned by The Swatch Group, to release a budget version of its iconic Omega Speedmaster Moonwatch.[22] The so-called \"MoonSwatch\", available in 11 colors, is made of bioceramic (a mixture of ceramic and castor oil) and priced at $260 / £207,[23] well below the $5,250 price (as of March 2022) of the least expensive Omega Speedmaster Moonwatch.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Watch manufacturing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omega_Constellation_Rotgold_1958.jpg"},{"link_name":"minute repeating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute_repeater"},{"link_name":"Audemars Piguet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audemars_Piguet"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-27"},{"link_name":"Biel/Bienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biel/Bienne"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-27"},{"link_name":"tourbillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourbillon"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Calibre 2500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETA_SA#The_Omega_coaxial_based_upon_an_ETA_movement"},{"link_name":"coaxial escapement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_escapement"},{"link_name":"George Daniels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Daniels_(watchmaker)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"horological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horology"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"friction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"magnetic fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Gauss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Daniel Craig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Craig"},{"link_name":"Faraday cage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cage"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sm57-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Notable inventions and patents","text":"18k rose gold Omega Constellation, 1958In 1892, Louis Brandt, the founder of Omega, manufactured the world's first minute repeating wristwatch in collaboration with Audemars Piguet, which provided the minute-repeating movement.[25][26][27] The 18K-gold watch is now kept in the Omega Museum in Biel/Bienne, Switzerland.[27]\nIn 1947, Omega created the first tourbillon wristwatch calibre in the world with the 30I. Twelve of these movements were made, intended for inclusion in the observatory trials in Geneva, Neuchâtel and Kew-Teddington, and they were known as the Omega Observatory Tourbillons. Unlike conventional Tourbillion movements whose cages rotate once per minute, the 30I's cage rotated one time each seven and a half minutes. In 1949, one of these delivered the best results ever recorded by a wristwatch up to that time. A year later, Omega broke its own record in the Geneva Observatory Trials of 1950.[28]\nIn 1999, after the successful development of Calibre 2500, Omega made history by introducing the first mass-produced watch incorporating the coaxial escapement — invented by English watchmaker George Daniels.[29] Considered by many to be one of the more significant horological advances since the invention of the lever escapement, the coaxial escapement functions with virtually no lubrication, thereby eliminating one of the shortcomings of the traditional lever escapement.[30] Through using radial friction instead of sliding friction at the impulse surfaces the coaxial escapement significantly reduces friction, theoretically resulting in longer service intervals and greater accuracy over time.[31]\nOn January 24, 2007, Omega unveiled its new Calibres 8500 and 8501, two coaxial (25,200 bph) movements created exclusively from inception by Omega.[32][33]\nOn January 17, 2013, Omega announced the creation of the world's first movement that is resistant to magnetic fields greater than 1.5 Tesla (15,000 Gauss), far exceeding the levels of magnetic resistance achieved by any previous movement - a similar movement was used by Daniel Craig as James Bond, though the official collectors watch was labelled as resistant to 15,007 Gauss in honor of the fictional secret agent's codename. Most anti-magnetic watches utilize a soft iron - Faraday cage which distributes electromagnetism in such a way that it cancels the effect on the movement contained within. This type of anti-magnetic case required de-magnetizing procedures of the case. Omega has instead built a movement of non-ferrous materials eliminating the need for such a cage and providing a far greater resistance to magnetic fields eliminating necessity of additional maintenance.[34]\nIn 2015, they introduced the Master Chronometer Certification, which denotes that along with a COSC (Official Swiss Chronometer Testing Institute) certification, a movement has also passed a series of eight tests set out by METAS (The Federal Institute of Metrology). Master Chronometer watches have a minimum water-resistance rating of 100 metres (330 ft) (the 2022 Speedmaster '57 is a Master Chronometer with 50 metres (160 ft) water-resistance),[35] a minimum power reserve rating of 60 hours, an accuracy rating of 0/+5 seconds per day, and are resistant to magnetic fields of 15,000 gauss. The Master Chronometer Certification debuted on the Globemaster but they now offer it across many more of its watch collections.[36]","title":"Watch manufacturing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omega_Gen%C3%A8ve_Handaufzug,_Cal._613.jpg"},{"link_name":"Patek Philippe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patek_Philippe"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-omega.watchprosite.com-37"},{"link_name":"chronometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronometer_watch"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-omega.watchprosite.com-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-omega.watchprosite.com-37"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omega_constellation_quartz_day-date_Manhattan.jpg"},{"link_name":"Omega Marine Chronometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Marine_Chronometer"}],"sub_title":"Observatory trials","text":"Omega Genève Cal. 613Observatory trials focused on the science of Chronometry and the ability to make chronometers measure time precisely. Only Patek Philippe and Omega participated every year in the trials. Omega's performances at these competitions garnered the company a reputation of precision and innovation.[37]For more than a decade (1958–1969), Omega was the largest manufacturer of COSC chronometers. Omega developed the slogan \"Omega – Exact time for life\" in 1931 based on its historical performance at the Observatory trials.[38] Omega's early prowess in designing and regulating timing movements was made possible by the company's incorporation of new chronometric innovations.[37]Notable dates for the Omega precision records:[37]1894: Creation of the 19 caliber named Omega. The company is renamed Omega from Louis Brandt et Frères in 1903[39] Omega participates for the first time at observatory trials in Neuenburg, Albert Willemin, Omega's first \"regleur de précision\", regulated the movement\n1919: 1st Prize at observatory trials in Neuenburg with a 21 caliber, this caliber was slightly modified to become the Cal. 47.7\n1922: Omega participates for the first time at observatory trials in Kew-Teddington, achieves 3rd place\n1925: 1st place at observatory trials in Kew-Teddington with a Cal. 47.7 (95.9 of 100 points ex aequo with Ulysse Nardin), movement regulated by Gottlob Ith\n1930: 1st place at observatory trials in Kew-Teddington (96.3 of 100 points ex aequo with Movado), movement regulated by Alfred Jaccard\n1931: Omega achieves 1st place in all 6 categories at observatory trials in Geneva, movements, regulated by Alfred Jaccard\n1933: A Cal. 47.7 regulated by Alfred Jaccard achieved the precision record at observatory trials at Kew-Teddington, achieved 97.4/100 points\n1936: Another Cal. 47.7 regulated by Alfred Jaccard achieved the precision record of 97.8/100 points at Kew-Teddington, record not broken until 1965\n1937: 1st place at Kew-Teddington with 97.3 points\n1938: 1st place at Kew-Teddington with 97.7 points\n1940: 1st place with Cal. 30mm at Kew Teddington, movement regulated by Alfred Jaccard\n1945: 1st place with 30mm caliber at the observatory in Geneva, movement regulated by Alfred JaccardThe distinctive Omega Constellation day-date model of 1980's generation that was known as \"Manhattan\", equipped with quartz movement, Cal. 1444\n1948: 1st place at observatory trial in Neuenburg for 30mm caliber\n1950: 1st place for tourbillon Cal. 30I at Geneva Trials, regulated by Alfred Jaccard\n1951: 1st place at the observatory trials in Geneva\n1952: 1st place at the observatory trials in Geneva\n1954: New record in Geneva by Gottlob Ith\n1955: Two new records at Neuenburg by Gottlob Ith\n1956: Two 1st places at observatory trials in Neuenburg\n1958: New record in Geneva movements regulated by Joseph Ory\n1959: Two records in Neuenburg and one new record in Geneva, movement regulated by Joseph Ory\n1960: One new record in Geneva, one new record in Neuenburg, and 1st place in Neuenburg, movement regulated by Joseph Ory\n1961: Two new records in Geneva by Joseph Ory, the first four places for the 'single pieces' category in Geneva are occupied by Omega\n1962: 2nd, 3rd and 4th places for Omega\n1963: Two 1st places in Geneva and Neuenburg, movement regulated by Joseph Ory and André Brielmann\n1964: New record in Neuchatel by Joseph Ory\n1965: Omega occupies 2nd to 9th places\n1966: Three new records for Omega (two in Neuenburg, one in Geneva)\n1968: Omega enters with a tuning fork, movement regulated by André Brielmann for a new record\n1969: Two new records for the tuning fork, movement regulated by André Brielmann\n1970: One new record for the tuning fork, movement regulated by André Brielmann\n1971: Two new records for the tuning fork, movement regulated by André Brielmann\n1974: Omega Marine Chronometer certified as the world's first Marine Chronometer wristwatch, accurate to 12 seconds per year","title":"Watch manufacturing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Reference Numbers","text":"Before 1962 it was a simple alphanumeric code of two letters followed by four digits. Between 1962 and 2007 Omega used the Mapics system, consisting of two letters followed by either six or seven numbers. The PIC system started in 1988, running concurrently with Mapics, and featured an arrangement of eight numbers in three groups (XXXX.XX.XX).[40]Finally, today we have the PIC14 structure, with 14 digits in six groups.","title":"Watch manufacturing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aldrin_Apollo_11_original.jpg"},{"link_name":"Buzz Aldrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin"},{"link_name":"Omega Speedmaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Speedmaster"},{"link_name":"Apollo 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11"},{"link_name":"Elvis Presley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_Presley"},{"link_name":"Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillips_(auctioneers)"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-42"},{"link_name":"Tiffany & Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiffany_%26_Co."},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-42"},{"link_name":"RCA Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Records"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-41"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Tourbillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourbillon"},{"link_name":"CHF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_franc"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Omega Speedmaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Speedmaster"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omega_seamaster_120m_1998.jpg"}],"text":"Buzz Aldrin wearing the Omega Speedmaster (on his right wrist) during the first manned Moon landing of Apollo 11 in 1969The Omega wristwatch Ref. H6582/D96043 (1960) once owned by Elvis Presley was sold in auction by Phillips for US$1.812 million in Geneva on May 12, 2018, making it the most expensive Omega timepiece ever sold at auction.[41][42] The watch was manufactured in 1960 and was sold by Tiffany & Co. in 1961.[42] The watch was presented to Elvis Presley as a gift from RCA Records on February 25, 1961, to commemorate his remarkable achievement of having sold 75 million records.[41] Petros Protopapas, the director of Omega Museum, later confirmed that the museum was the winning bidder.[43]\nThe Omega Stainless Steel Tourbillon 301 was sold in auction by Phillips for around US$1.43 million (1,428,500 CHF) in Geneva on November 12, 2017.[44] It was then the most expensive Omega timepiece ever sold at auction.[45][46]\nIn March 1965, the Omega Speedmaster was declared “Flight Qualified for all Manned Spaced Missions.\"[47] On July 20, 1969, Buzz Aldrin stepped onto the Moon wearing his Omega Speedmaster watch.[48] The model of the first watch on the Moon is the Omega Speedmaster 105.012.[49]Seamaster 120M Analog-Digital \"Multifunction\" was introduced in 1998 and discontinued after few years, fitted with Omega, Cal. 1665.","title":"Notable models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OMEGA-Speedmaster-Professional-Front.jpg"}],"text":"The Omega Speedmaster, or \"Moonwatch\", selected by NASA for all the Apollo missions","title":"Historic events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Mercury"},{"link_name":"Wally Schirra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wally_Schirra"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Bulova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulova"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Accutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accutron"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Space exploration","text":"First worn by Mercury astronaut Wally Schirra in 1962, the \"Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph\" was chosen by NASA to become the only chronograph certified for use on all missions since 1965.[50]The selection of the \"Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph\" for American astronauts was the subject of a rivalry between Omega and Bulova.[51]All subsequent crewed NASA missions also used this handwound wristwatch. NASA started selecting the chronograph in the early 1960s. Automatic chronograph wristwatches were not available until 1969. Even so, all the instrument panel clocks and time-keeping mechanisms in the spacecraft on those space missions were Bulova Accutrons with tuning fork movements,[citation needed] because at the time NASA did not know how well a mechanical movement would work in zero gravity. [citation needed]","title":"Historic events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Buzz Aldrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Aldrin"},{"link_name":"Neil Armstrong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Armstrong"},{"link_name":"Lunar Module Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Module_Eagle"},{"link_name":"National Air and Space Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"First watch on the Moon","text":"The Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph was the first watch on the Moon, worn by Buzz Aldrin. Although Apollo 11 commander Neil Armstrong was first to set foot on the Moon, he left his 105.012 Speedmaster inside the Lunar Module Eagle as a backup because the LM's electronic timer had malfunctioned. Aldrin wore his, making his Speedmaster the first watch worn on the Moon. Armstrong's watch is displayed at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.[52][53] Aldrin's was stolen; he mentions in his 1973 book, Return to Earth, that when donating several items to the Smithsonian Institution his Omega was one of the few things stolen from his personal effects.[54]In 2007, to mark the 50th anniversary of the Omega Speedmaster Professional Chronograph, Omega unveiled the commemorative Speedmaster Professional Chronograph Moonwatch. The watch had the distinctive features of the first hand-winding Omega Speedmaster introduced in 1957. It was sold in an edition of 1,957 pieces.[55]","title":"Historic events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NCIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCIS_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Mark Harmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Harmon"},{"link_name":"Omega Seamaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Seamaster"},{"link_name":"Michael Weatherly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Weatherly"},{"link_name":"Need for Speed II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_Speed_II"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"PlayStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_(console)"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Kojak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojak"},{"link_name":"Telly Savalas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telly_Savalas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bond-Omega.JPG"},{"link_name":"Omega Seamaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Seamaster"},{"link_name":"helium release valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_release_valve"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"saturation diving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_diving"},{"link_name":"Pierce Brosnan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierce_Brosnan"},{"link_name":"Omega Seamaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Seamaster"},{"link_name":"GoldenEye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GoldenEye"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Daniel Craig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Craig"},{"link_name":"Casino Royale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casino_Royale_(2006_film)"},{"link_name":"Omega Seamaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Seamaster"},{"link_name":"Vesper Lynd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesper_Lynd"},{"link_name":"gun barrel sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bond_gun_barrel_sequence"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Quantum of Solace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_of_Solace"},{"link_name":"Omega Seamaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Seamaster"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Spectre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectre_(2015_film)"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omega_Speedmaster_Omega_Speedmaster_Schumacher_Edition_compo.jpg"},{"link_name":"Michael Schumacher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Schumacher"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Usain_Bolt_2012_Olympics_start.jpg"},{"link_name":"2012 Olympic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"2006 Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"2008 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"2010 Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"2012 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Michael Phelps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Phelps"},{"link_name":"2014 Sochi Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Sochi_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"2016 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"2020 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_2019%E2%80%9320_coronavirus_pandemic_on_the_2020_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Milwaukee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee"},{"link_name":"County Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee_County_Stadium"},{"link_name":"Major League Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball"},{"link_name":"Milwaukee Brewers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Emirates Team New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates_Team_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"America's Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s_Cup"},{"link_name":"Dean Barker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_Barker_(yachtsman)"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"PGA of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA_of_America"},{"link_name":"Dubai Desert Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai_Desert_Classic"},{"link_name":"Omega European Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_European_Masters"}],"text":"NCISIn the US television series NCIS, lead actor Mark Harmon wears an Omega Seamaster Planet Ocean with supporting cast member Michael Weatherly wearing a matching version. In both cases, this is the stainless steel model with orange bezel and black dial.Need for SpeedOmega is the official timekeeper for the video game Need for Speed II, released on Microsoft Windows and PlayStation in 1997.[56]KojakIn the US television series Kojak, lead actor Telly Savalas wore a gold-plated Omega Time Computer One, the first mass-produced LED watch.James BondThe Omega Seamaster, a deep diving watch. The second crown (at 10 o'clock) is a helium release valve to allow helium out of the watch after practicing saturation diving at great depths. The watch is similar to that shown in recent James Bond films, in which this valve is transformed into improbable hidden gadgets.Omega has been associated with James Bond movies since 1995. That year, Pierce Brosnan took over the role of James Bond and began wearing the Omega Seamaster Quartz Professional (model 2541.80.00) in GoldenEye. In all later films, Brosnan wore an Omega Seamaster Professional Chronometer (model 2531.80.00). The producers wanted to update the image of the spy to a more distinctly sophisticated \"Euro\" look.[57] Omega was eager to participate in the high-profile product placement opportunity to further its brand image and supplied the watches.[58]For the 40th anniversary of James Bond (2002) a commemorative edition of the watch was made available model 2537.80.00 (10,007 units). The watch is identical to the model 2531.80.00 except the blue watch dial had a 007 logo inscribed across it, machined into the case-back, and inscribed on the clasp.[59]Daniel Craig, the current James Bond since Casino Royale, also wears an Omega Seamaster: the Seamaster Planet Ocean (model 2900.50.91) in the first part of Casino Royale, and the Seamaster Professional 300M (model 2220.80.00) in the latter part (from travelling to Montenegro). He mentions Omega by name when questioned by Vesper Lynd. With the launch of the film in 2006, Omega released a 007-special of the Professional 300M, (model 2226.80.00) featuring the 007-gun logo on the second hand and the rifle pattern on the watch face, based on the gun barrel sequence of Bond movies.[60]Omega released a second James Bond limited edition watch in 2006, a Seamaster Planet Ocean model with a limited production of 5007 units. The model is similar to what Craig wears earlier on in the film; however, it has a small orange colored 007 logo on the second hand, an engraved caseback signifying the Bond connection, and an engraved 007 on the clasp.[61]In the 2008 movie Quantum of Solace, Craig wears the Omega Seamaster Planet Ocean with a black face and steel bracelet (42mm version). Another limited edition was released featuring the checkered \"PPK grip\" face with the Quantum of Solace logo.[62] The third limited edition release from Omega came in 2012, based on the Planet Ocean Ref: 232.30.42.21.01.004. It featured a textured dial with the 007 logo at the 7 o'clock position and a 007 decorated rotor visible through the case-back.[63]In 2015, two commemorative models were produced for the 24th Bond film, Spectre: the Omega Seamaster 300m master co-axial Ref: 233.32.41.21.01.001. 7007 units were produced and came with a NATO strap, as well as the standard bracelet. The watch featured a bi-directional bezel with a world timing scale, rather than the diving scale present on the standard 300m.[64] The second timepiece, the Omega Seamaster Aqua Terra 150m master co-axial Ref: 231.10.42.21.03.004, was decorated with a textured dial based on the Bond family coat of arms and a rotor resembling a bullet and gun barrel with \"James Bond\" inscribed.[65]Sports sponsorshipSpeedmaster Racing, Michael Schumacher Edition of 2000, with his signature engraving on the backsideOmega scoreboards during the 2012 Olympic GamesOmega has frequently been the official timekeeper for the Olympics, beginning with the 1932 Summer Olympics. It was the official timekeeper for the 2006 Winter Olympics, 2008 Summer Olympics, 2010 Winter Olympics, and 2012 Summer Olympics.[66][67] In 2008, Omega released an Olympic edition watch with the Olympics logo on the second hand. Olympic swimmer and multiple gold medalist Michael Phelps is an Omega Ambassador and wears the Omega Seamaster Planet Ocean. In 2014, Omega became the official timekeeper of the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics. The brand was a Worldwide Olympic Partner at the 2016 Summer Olympics. After the 2020 Summer Olympics were postponed due to COVID-19, the Tokyo Station's Olympic countdown clock, made by Omega, which was displaying the number of days until the Games, and a local tourist attraction, was halted and switched to show the current date and time.[68] This partnership will continue at least until 2032.[69]Omega constructed and maintained a monochrome video scoreboard for Milwaukee's County Stadium, the former home of Major League Baseball's Milwaukee Brewers, which was in use from the board's construction in 1980 until the stadium's closure in 2000.[70]Providing support to Emirates Team New Zealand and representing the team's official watch, in 2007 Omega introduced the Seamaster NZL-32 chronograph, named after the boat that won America's Cup in 1995. The watch was developed in cooperation with Dean Barker, skipper of Team New Zealand and Omega Ambassador.[71]On July 1, 2011, Omega became the official timekeeper of PGA of America and signed a five-year agreement through 2016. The brand also sponsors the Dubai Desert Classic and the Omega European Masters.","title":"Sponsorship"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World Wide Fund for Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:44-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:45-73"},{"link_name":"environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalism"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:44-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:45-73"},{"link_name":"2022 Beijing Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"human rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_China"},{"link_name":"Uyghurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyghurs"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"1936","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"text":"In December 2018, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) released a report assigning environmental ratings to 15 major watch manufacturers and jewelers in Switzerland,[72][73] and Omega was given the lowest environmental rating, \"Latecomers/Non-transparent\", suggesting the manufacturer has taken few actions addressing the impact of its manufacturing activities on the environment and climate change.[72][73]Omega faced activist pressure to withdraw from being the official timekeepers of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics after numerous governments enacted diplomatic boycotts over human rights violations (in particular China's repression of Uyghurs and other minorities, which some countries have designated as a genocide).[74] Omega defended its continued role as official time keeper of the Olympics by stating its policy to \"not to get involved in certain political issues because it would not advance the cause of sport in which our commitment lies.\"[75] Omega has been the official timekeeper of the Olympics since 1932 including the controversial 1936 and 1980 Olympics, which also saw widespread boycotts over human rights concerns.[76][77]","title":"Controversy"}] | [{"image_text":"The workbench of Louis Brandt with a photograph of the founder","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Workspace_of_Louis_Brandt.jpg/220px-Workspace_of_Louis_Brandt.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pocket watch, made in the 1970s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Omega_pocket_watch_cal._960_%281973%29_-_1700.jpg/220px-Omega_pocket_watch_cal._960_%281973%29_-_1700.jpg"},{"image_text":"Omega Seamaster De Ville, an early \"waterproof\" watch, with automatic movement and date, in 14k gold","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Omega_Seamaster_De_Ville_1970.jpg/200px-Omega_Seamaster_De_Ville_1970.jpg"},{"image_text":"18k rose gold Omega Constellation, 1958","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Omega_Constellation_Rotgold_1958.jpg/200px-Omega_Constellation_Rotgold_1958.jpg"},{"image_text":"Omega Genève Cal. 613","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Omega_Gen%C3%A8ve_Handaufzug%2C_Cal._613.jpg/200px-Omega_Gen%C3%A8ve_Handaufzug%2C_Cal._613.jpg"},{"image_text":"The distinctive Omega Constellation day-date model of 1980's generation that was known as \"Manhattan\", equipped with quartz movement, Cal. 1444","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Omega_constellation_quartz_day-date_Manhattan.jpg/200px-Omega_constellation_quartz_day-date_Manhattan.jpg"},{"image_text":"Buzz Aldrin wearing the Omega Speedmaster (on his right wrist) during the first manned Moon landing of Apollo 11 in 1969","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Aldrin_Apollo_11_original.jpg/220px-Aldrin_Apollo_11_original.jpg"},{"image_text":"Seamaster 120M Analog-Digital \"Multifunction\" was introduced in 1998 and discontinued after few years, fitted with Omega, Cal. 1665.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Omega_seamaster_120m_1998.jpg/220px-Omega_seamaster_120m_1998.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Omega Speedmaster, or \"Moonwatch\", selected by NASA for all the Apollo missions","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/OMEGA-Speedmaster-Professional-Front.jpg/200px-OMEGA-Speedmaster-Professional-Front.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Omega Seamaster, a deep diving watch. The second crown (at 10 o'clock) is a helium release valve to allow helium out of the watch after practicing saturation diving at great depths. The watch is similar to that shown in recent James Bond films, in which this valve is transformed into improbable hidden gadgets.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Bond-Omega.JPG/200px-Bond-Omega.JPG"},{"image_text":"Speedmaster Racing, Michael Schumacher Edition of 2000, with his signature engraving on the backside","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Omega_Speedmaster_Omega_Speedmaster_Schumacher_Edition_compo.jpg/220px-Omega_Speedmaster_Omega_Speedmaster_Schumacher_Edition_compo.jpg"},{"image_text":"Omega scoreboards during the 2012 Olympic Games","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Usain_Bolt_2012_Olympics_start.jpg/220px-Usain_Bolt_2012_Olympics_start.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Companies portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"title":"Ernst Thomke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Thomke"},{"title":"Nicolas G. 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Retrieved February 2, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hautehorlogerie.org/en/brands/brand/h/omega/","url_text":"\"Brand - Fondation de la Haute Horlogerie\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190423055022/https://www.hautehorlogerie.org/en/brands/brand/h/omega/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"10 Things to Know About Omega\". WatchTime - USA's No.1 Watch Magazine. January 24, 2019. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved February 2, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.watchtime.com/featured/10-things-to-know-about-omega/","url_text":"\"10 Things to Know About Omega\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201112012131/https://www.watchtime.com/featured/10-things-to-know-about-omega/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The History Of The Omega Watch Company\". HallandLaddco. Archived from the original on March 19, 2020. 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The Rolex Submariner 16610 | Luxury Tyme: The Rolex Reference Page\""},{"url":"http://luxurytyme.com/en/rolex-reviews/comparative-review-of-the-omega-seamaster-professional-model2254-50-00-vs-the-rolex-submariner-16610/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Comparative Review of the Rolex Sea-Dweller VS. Omega Planet Ocean\". The Seamaster Reference Page. August 3, 2010. Archived from the original on October 28, 2017. Retrieved December 31, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201411/http://seamasterreferencepage.com/srp/featured/comparative-review-of-the-rolex-sea-dweller-vs-omega-planet-ocean/","url_text":"\"Comparative Review of the Rolex Sea-Dweller VS. Omega Planet Ocean\""},{"url":"http://seamasterreferencepage.com/srp/featured/comparative-review-of-the-rolex-sea-dweller-vs-omega-planet-ocean/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Conklin, David W. (2006). Cases in the Environment of Business: International Perspectives. SAGE. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omicron_Delta_Kappa | Omicron Delta Kappa | ["1 History","1.1 Founding","1.2 Women in ODK","1.3 Affiliations and memberships","2 Membership","3 Circles","4 Notable members","5 References","6 External links"] | American honor society
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Omicron Delta KappaΟΔΚFoundedDecember 3, 1914; 109 years ago (1914-12-03)Washington and Lee UniversityTypeHonor societyAffiliationHonor Society CaucusStatusActiveEmphasisScholarship, Leadership, and ServiceScopeNationalMission statementRecognize individuals who consistently achieve high standards of excellence.Vision statementCampus leaders today, community leaders tomorrow.MottoSuccess Achieved in Worthy UndertakingsColors Sky blue, White and BlackSymbolA Laurel with StarsFlowerBlue delphiniumPublicationThe Circle of Omicron Delta KappaChapters300+ active; 418 charteredMembers330,000+ lifetimeHeadquarters224 McLaughlin StreetLexington, Virginia 24450 United StatesWebsiteodk.org
Omicron Delta Kappa (ΟΔΚ), also known as The Circle and ODK, is an honor society located in the United States with chapters at more than 300 college campuses. It was founded on December 3, 1914, at Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, by fifteen student and faculty leaders. The society recognizes achievement in five areas: scholarship; athletics; campus and community service, social or religious activities, and campus government; journalism, speech, and the mass media; and creative and performing arts. Some circles of ΟΔΚ are quasi-secret, in that newly selected members remain undisclosed for some time.
Membership in the Omicron Delta Kappa Society is regarded as an honor in the tradition of Phi Kappa Phi, Phi Beta Kappa and Tau Beta Pi. To be selected as a member of ΟΔΚ, students must be among the top 35 percent of all students at that particular institution and hold a leadership role in one of the society's five areas of recognition.
History
Omicron Delta Kappa Key
Founding
On December 3, 1914, the Omicron Delta Kappa Society was founded by fifteen men who met in an office on the third floor of Reid Hall at Washington and Lee University. J. Carl Fisher first introduced the idea of creating such a society to a close friend, Rupert Latture. The two soon included mutual friend William Brown in the discussion, and thus these three are referred to as the principal founders of the society. Together with the president of the University, the dean of engineering, and another faculty member, the founders selected nine others to join them. A complete list of the fifteen founders follows:
James Edwin Bear, ΒΘΠ, editor of the student magazine
William Moseley Brown, ΔΚΕ, ΦΒΚ, debater and president of the YMCA
Carl Shaffer Davidson, ΚΣ, student instructor in civil engineering
Edward Parks Davis, ΚΣ, athlete
Edward A. Donahue, ΦΚΣ, captain of football and baseball teams
De la Warr Benjamin Easter, PhD, ΚΣ, ΦΒΚ, professor and the founding president of ΟΔΚ
James Carl Fisher, business manager of the student magazine and founder of the campus radio station
Philip Pendleton Gibson, ΠΚΑ, president of student government and editor of the student newspaper
Thomas McPheeters Glasgow, ΦΔΘ, orator and athlete
David Carlisle Humphreys, FIJI, professor and dean of the School of Applied Science
Rupert Nelson Latture, ΔΥ, ΦΒΚ, a president of the YMCA
John Eppes Martin, ΑΧΡ, business manager of the yearbook
William Caulfield Raftery, ΦΚΣ, athlete
John Purver Richardson Jr., ΣΧ, instructor in biology
Henry Louis Smith, PhD, ΦΔΘ, ΦΒΚ, president of Washington and Lee University
The founders of the Omicron Delta Kappa Society
All fifteen men were prominent leaders on campus. The rallied around the idea that all-around leadership in college should be recognized, that representative men in all phases of college life should cooperate in worthwhile endeavors and that outstanding students and faculty should affiliate in the spirit of mutual interest and understanding. The founders intended that ΟΔΚ not be yet another society in which members would simply earn a societal key. Instead, members of ΟΔΚ would remain active as leaders, upholding spiritual and moral values and providing service to the campus and community.
Reid Hall, the birthplace of The Circle
The founders decided that the organization would be kept a complete secret until keys could be designed and produced. The keys arrived shortly past the winter holiday. The student newspaper, Ring-Tum Phi, broke the news on d January 12, 1915, of a new society to be known as "The Circle," with the secret significance of its three Greek letters known only to its members. The members first wore their keys on January 15, 1915.
Women in ODK
Only men could become members of Omicron Delta Kappa in the first sixty years of its existence. At the 1970 and 1972 National Conventions, the University of Alabama Circle introduced an amendment to the national constitution to admit women into the society. In June 1972, Title IX of the "Education Amendments Act of 1972" prohibited sex discrimination in federally assisted educational programs and amended parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Professional and honor fraternities were included in Title IX. The society's special committee on the possible role of women met in January 1973 and recommended changes to the national constitution that would abolish segregation based on gender within the Society. On March 12, 1974, the national convention convened in New Orleans and approved the initiation of women into the society. The first women members were initiated that day, including Carolyn Julia Kucinski, and Diane Christine Ragosa of the Newark College of Engineering Circle and Robbie Lynn Cooney, Maria Dolores Delvalle, Roxane R. Dow, Catherine Ann Rohrbacher, Karen Diane Janzer, Linda Ann Touten, Martha Gwyn Van Deman, and Cathy Sue Welch of the University of South Florida Circle.
Cheryl Hogle was elected as the first woman national president at the convention in Knoxville, Tennessee on February 25, 1998.
Affiliations and memberships
A similar honorary society, for exceptionally outstanding women leaders, known as Mortar Board, was established in 1918, with many similar ideals and purposes of Omicron Delta Kappa. With the passage of Title IX in 1972, each of those two societies was then required to accept candidates of either gender into its membership. As a result, the two organizations found themselves competing to tap many of the same distinguished students, and those formerly complementary societies became rivals at many institutions, perhaps fiercely so during membership selection, while more congenially so during the rest of the year, as the two rivaled one another in service, athletics, or other campus activities.
On March 22, 1992, the national convention passed a resolution authorizing the incorporation of the society. On July 1, 1992, the Omicron Delta Kappa Society was merged into the corporation, The Omicron Delta Kappa Society, Inc.
Omicron Delta Kappa became a member of the Association of College Honor Societies since March 30, 1930. It resigned that membership in 2005. Today, the society participates in a more loosely coordinated lobbying association called the Honor Society Caucus. Its members include Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Kappa Phi, Sigma Xi, and Omicron Delta Kappa.
Membership
Unlike some honor societies that accept all potential members who meet the selection criteria and pay the required fees, ΟΔΚ chooses a highly select group from a pool of potential and qualified students through a process known as tapping. Eligibility for membership in ΟΔΚ requires at least sophomore academic standing. ΟΔΚ accepts candidates from every field of study who distinguish themselves as outstanding leaders in at least one of the five areas celebrated by the society: scholarship; athletics; campus and community service, social or religious activities, and campus government; journalism, speech, and the mass media; and creative and performing arts. Members may be chosen annually or semi-annually depending on the tradition of each circle. The number of candidates tapped each year is limited to 35 percent of the undergraduate population, but most circles limit membership to fewer than the top one-quarter of one percent of the students on their respective campuses.
Once a circle votes on who will be tapped for membership, it keeps that secret from all but those few chosen for initiation. Once tapped, each candidate must maintain the secret until the circle reveals it to the campus and community in a public ceremony, only after the circle has initiated the new members into the bonds of the society through its private ritual. At some institutions, such as the University of Missouri, with several such elite societies that tap new members, the public revelations are all held in conjunction, with an annual ceremonial Tap Day celebration on campus.
Circles
Main article: List of Omicron Delta Kappa circles
Omicron Delta Kappa uses the term circle to indicate chapters. As of May 4, 2023, 431 circles have been chartered. The practice of automatically designating circles with Greek letter names was abandoned in 1949, although some circles have adopted Greek letter nicknames in later years. Members who have died are said to have entered the Eternal Circle.
Notable members
Main article: List of Omicron Delta Kappa members
References
^ "New Honor Society – ' 'The Circle' '". Washington and Lee University Bulletin. Vol. XIV, no. 3. 1915. p. 22.
^ "Commemorating the Silver Anniversary, Omicron Delta Kappa Fraternity, 1914–1939"
^ "New Society formed for Washington & Lee". The Ring-Tum Phi. Vol. XVIII, no. 1. January 12, 1915. p. 7.
^ "Women in ODK"
^ "Honor Society Caucus | Honor Society". www.phikappaphi.org. Retrieved 2021-10-22.
External links
Official Circle Website
ODK (Omicron Delta Kappa) Collection (MUM00598) at the University of Mississippi, Archives and Special Collections.areass
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"honor society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor_society"},{"link_name":"Washington and Lee University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University"},{"link_name":"Lexington, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Phi Kappa Phi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Kappa_Phi"},{"link_name":"Phi Beta Kappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa"},{"link_name":"Tau Beta Pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau_Beta_Pi"}],"text":"Omicron Delta Kappa (ΟΔΚ), also known as The Circle and ODK, is an honor society located in the United States with chapters at more than 300 college campuses. It was founded on December 3, 1914, at Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, by fifteen student and faculty leaders. The society recognizes achievement in five areas: scholarship; athletics; campus and community service, social or religious activities, and campus government; journalism, speech, and the mass media; and creative and performing arts. Some circles of ΟΔΚ are quasi-secret, in that newly selected members remain undisclosed for some time.Membership in the Omicron Delta Kappa Society is regarded as an honor in the tradition of Phi Kappa Phi, Phi Beta Kappa and Tau Beta Pi. To be selected as a member of ΟΔΚ, students must be among the top 35 percent of all students at that particular institution and hold a leadership role in one of the society's five areas of recognition.","title":"Omicron Delta Kappa"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omicron_Delta_Kappa_Key.png"}],"text":"Omicron Delta Kappa Key","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"ΒΘΠ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%98%CE%A0"},{"link_name":"ΔΚΕ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%9A%CE%95"},{"link_name":"ΦΒΚ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%92%CE%9A"},{"link_name":"ΚΣ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%A3"},{"link_name":"ΚΣ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%A3"},{"link_name":"ΦΚΣ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Kappa_Sigma"},{"link_name":"ΚΣ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%A3"},{"link_name":"ΦΒΚ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%92%CE%9A"},{"link_name":"ΠΚΑ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi_Kappa_Alpha"},{"link_name":"ΦΔΘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%94%CE%98"},{"link_name":"David Carlisle Humphreys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Carlisle_Humphreys"},{"link_name":"FIJI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Gamma_Delta"},{"link_name":"ΔΥ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%A5"},{"link_name":"ΦΒΚ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%92%CE%9A"},{"link_name":"ΑΧΡ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%A7%CE%A1"},{"link_name":"ΦΚΣ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Kappa_Sigma"},{"link_name":"ΣΧ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%A7"},{"link_name":"Henry Louis Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Louis_Smith"},{"link_name":"ΦΔΘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%94%CE%98"},{"link_name":"ΦΒΚ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%92%CE%9A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ODKfounders.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ReidHall.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Founding","text":"On December 3, 1914, the Omicron Delta Kappa Society was founded by fifteen men who met in an office on the third floor of Reid Hall at Washington and Lee University. J. Carl Fisher first introduced the idea of creating such a society to a close friend, Rupert Latture. The two soon included mutual friend William Brown in the discussion, and thus these three are referred to as the principal founders of the society. Together with the president of the University, the dean of engineering, and another faculty member, the founders selected nine others to join them. A complete list of the fifteen founders follows:[1]James Edwin Bear, ΒΘΠ, editor of the student magazine\nWilliam Moseley Brown, ΔΚΕ, ΦΒΚ, debater and president of the YMCA\nCarl Shaffer Davidson, ΚΣ, student instructor in civil engineering\nEdward Parks Davis, ΚΣ, athlete\nEdward A. Donahue, ΦΚΣ, captain of football and baseball teams\nDe la Warr Benjamin Easter, PhD, ΚΣ, ΦΒΚ, professor and the founding president of ΟΔΚ\nJames Carl Fisher, business manager of the student magazine and founder of the campus radio station\nPhilip Pendleton Gibson, ΠΚΑ, president of student government and editor of the student newspaper\nThomas McPheeters Glasgow, ΦΔΘ, orator and athlete\nDavid Carlisle Humphreys, FIJI, professor and dean of the School of Applied Science\nRupert Nelson Latture, ΔΥ, ΦΒΚ, a president of the YMCA\nJohn Eppes Martin, ΑΧΡ, business manager of the yearbook\nWilliam Caulfield Raftery, ΦΚΣ, athlete\nJohn Purver Richardson Jr., ΣΧ, instructor in biology\nHenry Louis Smith, PhD, ΦΔΘ, ΦΒΚ, president of Washington and Lee UniversityThe founders of the Omicron Delta Kappa SocietyAll fifteen men were prominent leaders on campus. The rallied around the idea that all-around leadership in college should be recognized, that representative men in all phases of college life should cooperate in worthwhile endeavors and that outstanding students and faculty should affiliate in the spirit of mutual interest and understanding. The founders intended that ΟΔΚ not be yet another society in which members would simply earn a societal key. Instead, members of ΟΔΚ would remain active as leaders, upholding spiritual and moral values and providing service to the campus and community.Reid Hall, the birthplace of The CircleThe founders decided that the organization would be kept a complete secret until keys could be designed and produced. The keys arrived shortly past the winter holiday. The student newspaper, Ring-Tum Phi, broke the news on d January 12, 1915, of a new society to be known as \"The Circle,\" with the secret significance of its three Greek letters known only to its members.[2][3] The members first wore their keys on January 15, 1915.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Alabama"},{"link_name":"Title IX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_IX"},{"link_name":"Civil Rights Act of 1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964"},{"link_name":"New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"Newark College of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark_College_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"University of South Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_South_Florida"},{"link_name":"Knoxville, Tennessee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knoxville,_Tennessee"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Women in ODK","text":"Only men could become members of Omicron Delta Kappa in the first sixty years of its existence. At the 1970 and 1972 National Conventions, the University of Alabama Circle introduced an amendment to the national constitution to admit women into the society. In June 1972, Title IX of the \"Education Amendments Act of 1972\" prohibited sex discrimination in federally assisted educational programs and amended parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Professional and honor fraternities were included in Title IX. The society's special committee on the possible role of women met in January 1973 and recommended changes to the national constitution that would abolish segregation based on gender within the Society. On March 12, 1974, the national convention convened in New Orleans and approved the initiation of women into the society. The first women members were initiated that day, including Carolyn Julia Kucinski, and Diane Christine Ragosa of the Newark College of Engineering Circle and Robbie Lynn Cooney, Maria Dolores Delvalle, Roxane R. Dow, Catherine Ann Rohrbacher, Karen Diane Janzer, Linda Ann Touten, Martha Gwyn Van Deman, and Cathy Sue Welch of the University of South Florida Circle.Cheryl Hogle was elected as the first woman national president at the convention in Knoxville, Tennessee on February 25, 1998.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mortar Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_Board"},{"link_name":"Association of College Honor Societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_College_Honor_Societies"},{"link_name":"Honor Society Caucus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor_Society_Caucus"},{"link_name":"Phi Beta Kappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa"},{"link_name":"Phi Kappa Phi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Kappa_Phi"},{"link_name":"Sigma Xi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_Xi"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Affiliations and memberships","text":"A similar honorary society, for exceptionally outstanding women leaders, known as Mortar Board, was established in 1918, with many similar ideals and purposes of Omicron Delta Kappa. With the passage of Title IX in 1972, each of those two societies was then required to accept candidates of either gender into its membership. As a result, the two organizations found themselves competing to tap many of the same distinguished students, and those formerly complementary societies became rivals at many institutions, perhaps fiercely so during membership selection, while more congenially so during the rest of the year, as the two rivaled one another in service, athletics, or other campus activities.On March 22, 1992, the national convention passed a resolution authorizing the incorporation of the society. On July 1, 1992, the Omicron Delta Kappa Society was merged into the corporation, The Omicron Delta Kappa Society, Inc.Omicron Delta Kappa became a member of the Association of College Honor Societies since March 30, 1930. It resigned that membership in 2005. Today, the society participates in a more loosely coordinated lobbying association called the Honor Society Caucus. Its members include Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Kappa Phi, Sigma Xi, and Omicron Delta Kappa.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Missouri"}],"text":"Unlike some honor societies that accept all potential members who meet the selection criteria and pay the required fees, ΟΔΚ chooses a highly select group from a pool of potential and qualified students through a process known as tapping. Eligibility for membership in ΟΔΚ requires at least sophomore academic standing. ΟΔΚ accepts candidates from every field of study who distinguish themselves as outstanding leaders in at least one of the five areas celebrated by the society: scholarship; athletics; campus and community service, social or religious activities, and campus government; journalism, speech, and the mass media; and creative and performing arts. Members may be chosen annually or semi-annually depending on the tradition of each circle. The number of candidates tapped each year is limited to 35 percent of the undergraduate population, but most circles limit membership to fewer than the top one-quarter of one percent of the students on their respective campuses.Once a circle votes on who will be tapped for membership, it keeps that secret from all but those few chosen for initiation. Once tapped, each candidate must maintain the secret until the circle reveals it to the campus and community in a public ceremony, only after the circle has initiated the new members into the bonds of the society through its private ritual. At some institutions, such as the University of Missouri, with several such elite societies that tap new members, the public revelations are all held in conjunction, with an annual ceremonial Tap Day celebration on campus.","title":"Membership"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Omicron Delta Kappa uses the term circle to indicate chapters. As of May 4, 2023, 431 circles have been chartered. The practice of automatically designating circles with Greek letter names was abandoned in 1949, although some circles have adopted Greek letter nicknames in later years. Members who have died are said to have entered the Eternal Circle.","title":"Circles"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notable members"}] | [{"image_text":"Omicron Delta Kappa Key","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Omicron_Delta_Kappa_Key.png"},{"image_text":"The founders of the Omicron Delta Kappa Society","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/ODKfounders.jpg/320px-ODKfounders.jpg"},{"image_text":"Reid Hall, the birthplace of The Circle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/ReidHall.jpg/240px-ReidHall.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"New Honor Society – ' 'The Circle' '\". Washington and Lee University Bulletin. Vol. XIV, no. 3. 1915. p. 22.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=trRGAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"\"New Honor Society – ' 'The Circle' '\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Society formed for Washington & Lee\". The Ring-Tum Phi. Vol. XVIII, no. 1. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_Realism | Capitalist Realism | ["1 Definition","2 Effects","2.1 Realism","3 Reception","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading"] | 2009 book by Mark Fisher
This article is about the book. For the art criticism term, see Capitalist realism.
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Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative? AuthorMark FisherSubject
Capitalist realism
neoliberalism
political theory
popular culture
GenrePolitical philosophyPublisherZero BooksPublication date2009Pages81ISBN9781846943171
Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative? is a 2009 book by British philosopher Mark Fisher. It explores Fisher's concept of "capitalist realism", which he describes as "the widespread sense that not only is capitalism the only viable political and economic system, but also that it is now impossible even to imagine a coherent alternative to it."
The book investigates what Fisher describes as the widespread effects of neoliberal ideology on popular culture, work, education, and mental health in contemporary society. The subtitle refers to British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's pro-market slogan "There is no alternative". Capitalist Realism was an unexpected success and has influenced a range of writers.
Definition
Widely regarded as Mark Fisher's most influential idea, capitalist realism is an ideological framework for viewing capitalism and its effects on politics, economics, and public thought. The name itself is a play on the term "socialist realism". Fisher wrote extensively on the subject and frequently gave interviews with political bloggers and theorists on the subject, which expanded on his definition of the concept.
According to Fisher, the quotation "it is easier to imagine an end to the world than an end to capitalism", attributed to both Fredric Jameson and Slavoj Žižek, encompasses the essence of capitalist realism. Capitalist realism is loosely defined as the predominant conception that capitalism is the only viable economic system, and thus there can be no imaginable alternative. Fisher likens capitalist realism to a "pervasive atmosphere" that affects areas of cultural production, political-economic activity, and general thought.
Capitalist realism as I understand it cannot be confined to art or to the quasi-propagandistic way in which advertising functions. It is more like a pervasive atmosphere, conditioning not only the production of culture but also the regulation of work and education, and acting as a kind of invisible barrier constraining thought and action.
Capitalist realism propagates an idea of the post-political, in which the fall of the Soviet Union both solidified capitalism as the only effective political-economic system and removed the question of capitalism's dissolution from any political consideration. This has subverted the arena of political discussion from one in which capitalism is one of many potential means of operating an economy, to one in which political considerations operate solely within the confines of the capitalist system. Similarly, within the frame of capitalist realism, mainstream anti-capitalist movements shifted away from promoting alternative systems and toward mitigating capitalism's worst effects.
Exponents of capitalist realism do not assert that capitalism is a perfect system, but instead that it is the only system that can operate in a means compatible with human nature and economic law. By promoting the idea that innate human desire is only compatible with capitalism, any other system that is not based on the personal accumulation of wealth and capital is seen as counter to human nature and, by extension, impossible to implement under capitalism realism.
Fisher argues that the bank bailouts following the 2008 economic crisis were a quintessential example of capitalist realism in action, reasoning that the bailouts occurred largely because the idea of allowing the banking system to fail was unimaginable to both politicians and the general population. Due to the intrinsic value of banks to the capitalist system, Fisher proposes that the influence of capitalist realism meant that such a failure was never considered an option. As a consequence, Fisher observes, the neoliberal system survived and capitalist realism was further validated. Fisher classifies the current state of capitalist realism in the neoliberal system in the following terms:
The only powerful agents influencing politicians and managers in education are business interests. It's become far too easy to ignore workers and, partly because of this, workers feel increasingly helpless and impotent. The concerted attack on unions by neoliberal interest groups, together with the shift from a Fordist to a post-Fordist organisation of the economy – the move towards casualisation, just-in-time production, globalization – has eroded the power base of unions .
Fisher regards capitalist realism as emerging from a purposeful push by the neoliberal right to transform the attitudes of both the general population and the left towards capitalism and specifically the post-Fordist form of capitalism that prevailed throughout the 1980s. The relative inability of the political left to come up with an alternative economic model in response to the rise of neoliberal capitalism and the concurrent Reaganomics era created a vacuum that facilitated the birth of a capitalist realist system. The collapse of the Soviet Union, which Fisher believes represented the only real example of a working non-capitalist system, further cemented the place of capitalist realism both politically and in the general population, and was hailed as the decisive final victory of capitalism. According to Fisher, in a post-Soviet era, unchecked capitalism was able to reframe history into a capitalist narrative in which neoliberalism was the result of a natural progression of history and even embodied the culmination of human development.
Despite the fact that the emergence of capitalist realism is tied to the birth of neoliberalism, Fisher is clear to state that capitalist realism and neoliberalism are separate entities that simply reinforce each other. According to Fisher, capitalist realism has the potential to live past the demise of neoliberal capitalism, though Fisher posits that the opposite would not be true. Capitalist realism is inherently anti-utopian, as it holds that no matter the flaws or externalities, capitalism is the only possible means of operation. Neoliberalism conversely glorifies capitalism by portraying it as providing the means necessary to pursue and achieve near-utopian socioeconomic conditions. In this way, capitalist realism pacifies opposition to neoliberalism's overly positive projections while neoliberalism counteracts the despair and disillusionment central to capitalist realism with its utopian claims.
Effects
According to Fisher, capitalist realism has so captured public thought that the idea of anti-capitalism no longer acts as the antithesis to capitalism. Instead, anti-capitalism is deployed as a means for reinforcing capitalism. This is done through modern media which aims to provide a safe means of entertaining anti-capitalist ideas without actually challenging the system. The lack of coherent alternatives, as presented through the lens of capitalist realism, leads many anti-capitalist movements to cease targeting the end of capitalism, but instead to mitigate its worst effects, often through individual consumption-based activities such as Product Red.
With regard to public views on capitalism, Fisher coined the term "reflexive impotence" which describes a phenomenon where people recognize the flawed nature of capitalism, but believe there are no means of effecting change. According to Fisher, this inaction leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy as well as a negative toll on their mental health.
Fisher identifies a widespread popular desire for a public sphere that operates outside of the state and free from the undesired "add-ons of capital". However, he claims that it is the state alone that has been able to maintain public arenas against the capitalist push for mass privatization. Popular neoliberal thought supports the destruction of public spheres in favor of the privatization of public institutions such as education and health based on the assumption that the market best serves public needs. In this vein, Fisher also raises the idea of "business ontology", which is the capitalist ideology in which purposes and objectives are understood exclusively in business terms. He further postulates that in the case of uniformly business-oriented social conditions there is no place for the public and its only chance at survival is by means of extinguishing the business framework in public services, adding that "if businesses can't be run as businesses, why should public services?" Thus, a frequent topic of Fisher's writing is the future of the public sphere in the face of neoliberal business ontology and what it might look like in absence of a centralized state-run industry.
Realism
The "realism" aspect of capitalist realism and its inspiration—socialist realism—is based on Jacques Lacan's distinction between the Real and "realities", such as capitalist realism, which are ideologically based understandings of the world that reject facts that lie outside of their interpretations. Fisher posits that an appeal to the Real which is suppressed by capitalist realism may begin to deconstruct the pervasiveness of the ideology. Fisher points to areas such as climate change, mental health, and bureaucracy that can be highlighted to show the weaknesses and gaps in capitalist realism.
Reception
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2023)
The New Yorker noted that Capitalist Realism became a "cult favorite" due to Fisher's "relentless energy" and its "rousing call to arms".
In the wake of Fisher's work, other critical theorists in academia and the political blogosphere have employed capitalist realism as a theoretical framework.
See also
Occupational burnout
Socialist Patients' Collective, West German Marxist collective with motto "Turn illness into a weapon"
Capitalism and Schizophrenia
References
^ Fisher, Mark (2010). Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative?. Winchester, UK: Zero Books. pp. 2. ISBN 9781846943171.
^ Reynolds, Simon (18 January 2017). "Mark Fisher's k-punk blogs were required reading for a generation". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
^ a b c d e Mark, Fisher (2010). Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative?. Zero Books. ISBN 9781846943171. OCLC 699737863.
^ Mark Fisher, Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative? (Winchester, UK; Washington : Zero, 2009).
^ Fisher, Mark (5 January 2014). "Going Overground". k-punk. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
^ a b Shonkwiler, Alison; La Berge, Leigh Claire (2014). Reading capitalist realism. University of Iowa Press. ISBN 9781609382346. OCLC 863196248.
^ a b "Mark Fisher: 'Crises of Capitalism won't in and of themselves deliver a better world'". Ceasefire Magazine. 30 September 2010. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
^ a b Capitalist Realism: An Interview with Mark Fisher. Retrieved 2 March 2017 – via archive.org.
^ a b "The Quietus | Features | Tome On The Range | 'We Have To Invent The Future': An Unseen Interview With Mark Fisher". The Quietus. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
^ a b c capitalism, Matthew Fuller Topics; ecology (January 1970). "Questioning Capitalist Realism: An Interview with Mark Fisher | MR Online". Retrieved 2 March 2017.
^ Fisher, Mark (5 May 2015). "Communist Realism". k-punk. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
^ Hsu, Hua (11 December 2018). "Mark Fisher's "K-Punk" and the Futures That Have Never Arrived". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
^ Prominently Fisher, Mark; Gilbert, Jeremy (Winter 2013). "Capitalist Realism and Neoliberal Hegemony: A Dialogue". New Formations (80–81): 89–101. doi:10.3898/neWF.80/81.05.2013. S2CID 142588084.; Reading Capitalist Realism, ed. by Alison Shonkwiler and Leigh Claire La Berge (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2014).
^ "Capitalist Realism | Steve Grossi". www.stevegrossi.com. 28 April 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
Further reading
Bown, Alfie (12 April 2017). "Opening Capitalist Realism". LSE. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Capitalist realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_realism"},{"link_name":"Mark Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Fisher"},{"link_name":"capitalist realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_realism"},{"link_name":"capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"neoliberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoliberal"},{"link_name":"Margaret Thatcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher"},{"link_name":"There is no alternative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There_is_no_alternative"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-g-2"}],"text":"This article is about the book. For the art criticism term, see Capitalist realism.Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative? is a 2009 book by British philosopher Mark Fisher. It explores Fisher's concept of \"capitalist realism\", which he describes as \"the widespread sense that not only is capitalism the only viable political and economic system, but also that it is now impossible even to imagine a coherent alternative to it.\"[1]The book investigates what Fisher describes as the widespread effects of neoliberal ideology on popular culture, work, education, and mental health in contemporary society. The subtitle refers to British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's pro-market slogan \"There is no alternative\". Capitalist Realism was an unexpected success and has influenced a range of writers.[2]","title":"Capitalist Realism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"capitalist realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_realism"},{"link_name":"socialist realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_realism"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-3"},{"link_name":"Fredric Jameson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredric_Jameson"},{"link_name":"Slavoj Žižek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"anti-capitalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-capitalist"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"bank bailouts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailout"},{"link_name":"2008 economic crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-7"},{"link_name":"Fordist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordism"},{"link_name":"post-Fordist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Fordism"},{"link_name":"casualisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workforce_casualisation"},{"link_name":"just-in-time production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time_manufacturing"},{"link_name":"globalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-7"},{"link_name":"Reaganomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaganomics"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"externalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externality"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"}],"text":"Widely regarded as Mark Fisher's most influential idea, capitalist realism is an ideological framework for viewing capitalism and its effects on politics, economics, and public thought. The name itself is a play on the term \"socialist realism\". Fisher wrote extensively on the subject and frequently gave interviews with political bloggers and theorists on the subject, which expanded on his definition of the concept.[3]According to Fisher, the quotation \"it is easier to imagine an end to the world than an end to capitalism\", attributed to both Fredric Jameson and Slavoj Žižek, encompasses the essence of capitalist realism. Capitalist realism is loosely defined as the predominant conception that capitalism is the only viable economic system, and thus there can be no imaginable alternative. Fisher likens capitalist realism to a \"pervasive atmosphere\" that affects areas of cultural production, political-economic activity, and general thought.[3]Capitalist realism as I understand it cannot be confined to art or to the quasi-propagandistic way in which advertising functions. It is more like a pervasive atmosphere, conditioning not only the production of culture but also the regulation of work and education, and acting as a kind of invisible barrier constraining thought and action.[4]Capitalist realism propagates an idea of the post-political, in which the fall of the Soviet Union both solidified capitalism as the only effective political-economic system and removed the question of capitalism's dissolution from any political consideration. This has subverted the arena of political discussion from one in which capitalism is one of many potential means of operating an economy, to one in which political considerations operate solely within the confines of the capitalist system. Similarly, within the frame of capitalist realism, mainstream anti-capitalist movements shifted away from promoting alternative systems and toward mitigating capitalism's worst effects.Exponents of capitalist realism do not assert that capitalism is a perfect system, but instead that it is the only system that can operate in a means compatible with human nature and economic law.[5] By promoting the idea that innate human desire is only compatible with capitalism, any other system that is not based on the personal accumulation of wealth and capital is seen as counter to human nature and, by extension, impossible to implement under capitalism realism.[6]Fisher argues that the bank bailouts following the 2008 economic crisis were a quintessential example of capitalist realism in action, reasoning that the bailouts occurred largely because the idea of allowing the banking system to fail was unimaginable to both politicians and the general population. Due to the intrinsic value of banks to the capitalist system, Fisher proposes that the influence of capitalist realism meant that such a failure was never considered an option. As a consequence, Fisher observes, the neoliberal system survived and capitalist realism was further validated.[7] Fisher classifies the current state of capitalist realism in the neoliberal system in the following terms:The only powerful agents influencing politicians and managers in education are business interests. It's become far too easy to ignore workers and, partly because of this, workers feel increasingly helpless and impotent. The concerted attack on unions by neoliberal interest groups, together with the shift from a Fordist to a post-Fordist organisation of the economy – the move towards casualisation, just-in-time production, globalization – has eroded the power base of unions [and thus the labor force].[7]Fisher regards capitalist realism as emerging from a purposeful push by the neoliberal right to transform the attitudes of both the general population and the left towards capitalism and specifically the post-Fordist form of capitalism that prevailed throughout the 1980s. The relative inability of the political left to come up with an alternative economic model in response to the rise of neoliberal capitalism and the concurrent Reaganomics era created a vacuum that facilitated the birth of a capitalist realist system.[8] The collapse of the Soviet Union, which Fisher believes represented the only real example of a working non-capitalist system, further cemented the place of capitalist realism both politically and in the general population, and was hailed as the decisive final victory of capitalism. According to Fisher, in a post-Soviet era, unchecked capitalism was able to reframe history into a capitalist narrative in which neoliberalism was the result of a natural progression of history and even embodied the culmination of human development.[3]Despite the fact that the emergence of capitalist realism is tied to the birth of neoliberalism, Fisher is clear to state that capitalist realism and neoliberalism are separate entities that simply reinforce each other. According to Fisher, capitalist realism has the potential to live past the demise of neoliberal capitalism, though Fisher posits that the opposite would not be true.[8] Capitalist realism is inherently anti-utopian, as it holds that no matter the flaws or externalities, capitalism is the only possible means of operation. Neoliberalism conversely glorifies capitalism by portraying it as providing the means necessary to pursue and achieve near-utopian socioeconomic conditions. In this way, capitalist realism pacifies opposition to neoliberalism's overly positive projections while neoliberalism counteracts the despair and disillusionment central to capitalist realism with its utopian claims.[6]","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anti-capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-capitalism"},{"link_name":"antithesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antithesis"},{"link_name":"Product Red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Red"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-3"},{"link_name":"self-fulfilling prophecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-3"},{"link_name":"public sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sphere"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-9"},{"link_name":"business ontology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_ontology"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-10"}],"text":"According to Fisher, capitalist realism has so captured public thought that the idea of anti-capitalism no longer acts as the antithesis to capitalism. Instead, anti-capitalism is deployed as a means for reinforcing capitalism. This is done through modern media which aims to provide a safe means of entertaining anti-capitalist ideas without actually challenging the system. The lack of coherent alternatives, as presented through the lens of capitalist realism, leads many anti-capitalist movements to cease targeting the end of capitalism, but instead to mitigate its worst effects, often through individual consumption-based activities such as Product Red.[3]With regard to public views on capitalism, Fisher coined the term \"reflexive impotence\" which describes a phenomenon where people recognize the flawed nature of capitalism, but believe there are no means of effecting change. According to Fisher, this inaction leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy as well as a negative toll on their mental health.[3]Fisher identifies a widespread popular desire for a public sphere that operates outside of the state and free from the undesired \"add-ons of capital\".[9] However, he claims that it is the state alone that has been able to maintain public arenas against the capitalist push for mass privatization. Popular neoliberal thought supports the destruction of public spheres in favor of the privatization of public institutions such as education and health based on the assumption that the market best serves public needs. In this vein, Fisher also raises the idea of \"business ontology\", which is the capitalist ideology in which purposes and objectives are understood exclusively in business terms.[10] He further postulates that in the case of uniformly business-oriented social conditions there is no place for the public and its only chance at survival is by means of extinguishing the business framework in public services, adding that \"if businesses can't be run as businesses, why should public services?\"[10] Thus, a frequent topic of Fisher's writing is the future of the public sphere in the face of neoliberal business ontology and what it might look like in absence of a centralized state-run industry.[9][10]","title":"Effects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jacques Lacan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Lacan"},{"link_name":"the Real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-11"}],"sub_title":"Realism","text":"The \"realism\" aspect of capitalist realism and its inspiration—socialist realism—is based on Jacques Lacan's distinction between the Real and \"realities\", such as capitalist realism, which are ideologically based understandings of the world that reject facts that lie outside of their interpretations. Fisher posits that an appeal to the Real which is suppressed by capitalist realism may begin to deconstruct the pervasiveness of the ideology. Fisher points to areas such as climate change, mental health, and bureaucracy that can be highlighted to show the weaknesses and gaps in capitalist realism.[11]","title":"Effects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"critical theorists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory"},{"link_name":"blogosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blogosphere"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The New Yorker noted that Capitalist Realism became a \"cult favorite\" due to Fisher's \"relentless energy\" and its \"rousing call to arms\".[12]In the wake of Fisher's work, other critical theorists in academia and the political blogosphere have employed capitalist realism as a theoretical framework.[13][14]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Opening Capitalist Realism\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2017/04/12/lse-rb-feature-essay-opening-capitalist-realism-by-alfie-bown/"},{"link_name":"LSE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics_and_Political_Science"}],"text":"Bown, Alfie (12 April 2017). \"Opening Capitalist Realism\". LSE.","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | [{"title":"Occupational burnout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_burnout"},{"title":"Socialist Patients' Collective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Patients%27_Collective"},{"title":"West German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany"},{"title":"Capitalism and Schizophrenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism_and_Schizophrenia"}] | [{"reference":"Fisher, Mark (2010). Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative?. Winchester, UK: Zero Books. pp. 2. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbocation | Carbocation | ["1 Definitions","2 History","3 Structure and properties","4 Non-classical ions","5 Specific carbocations","6 Pyramidal carbocation","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"] | Ion with a positively charged carbon atom
Carbenium ion of methane
tert-Butyl cation, demonstrating planar geometry and sp2 hybridization
Carbonium ion of methane
A carbocation is an ion with a positively charged carbon atom. Among the simplest examples are the methenium CH+3, methanium CH+5 and vinyl C2H+3 cations. Occasionally, carbocations that bear more than one positively charged carbon atom are also encountered (e.g., ethylene dication C2H2+4).
Until the early 1970s, all carbocations were called carbonium ions. In the present-day definition given by the IUPAC, a carbocation is any even-electron cation with significant partial positive charge on a carbon atom. They are further classified in two main categories according to the coordination number of the charged carbon: three in the carbenium ions and five in the carbonium ions. This nomenclature was proposed by G. A. Olah. Carbonium ions, as originally defined by Olah, are characterized by a three-center two-electron delocalized bonding scheme and are essentially synonymous with so-called 'non-classical carbocations', which are carbocations that contain bridging C–C or C–H σ-bonds. However, others have more narrowly defined the term 'carbonium ion' as formally protonated or alkylated alkanes (CR+5, where R is H or alkyl), to the exclusion of non-classical carbocations like the 2-norbornyl cation.
Definitions
According to the IUPAC, a carbocation is any cation containing an even number of electrons in which a significant portion of the positive charge resides on a carbon atom. Prior to the observation of five-coordinate carbocations by Olah and coworkers, carbocation and carbonium ion were used interchangeably. Olah proposed a redefinition of carbonium ion as a carbocation featuring any type of three-center two-electron bonding, while a carbenium ion was newly coined to refer to a carbocation containing only two-center two-electron bonds with a three-coordinate positive carbon. Subsequently, others have used the term carbonium ion more narrowly to refer to species that are derived (at least formally) from electrophilic attack of H+ or R+ on an alkane, in analogy to other main group onium species, while a carbocation that contains any type of three-centered bonding is referred to as a non-classical carbocation. In this usage, 2-norbornyl cation is not a carbonium ion, because it is formally derived from protonation of an alkene (norbornene) rather than an alkane, although it is a non-classical carbocation due to its bridged structure. The IUPAC acknowledges the three divergent definitions of carbonium ion and urges care in the usage of this term. For the remainder of this article, the term carbonium ion will be used in this latter restricted sense, while non-classical carbocation will be used to refer to any carbocation with C–C and/or C–H σ-bonds delocalized by bridging.
Since the late 1990s, most textbooks have stopped using the term carbonium ion for the classical three-coordinate carbocation. However, some university-level textbooks continue to use the term carbocation as if it were synonymous with carbenium ion, or discuss carbocations with only a fleeting reference to the older terminology of carbonium ions or carbenium and carbonium ions. One textbook retains the older name of carbonium ion for carbenium ion to this day, and uses the phrase hypervalent carbonium ion for CH+5.
A carbocation with a two-coordinate positive carbon derived from formal removal of a hydride ion (H−) from an alkene is known as a vinyl cation. In the absence of geometric constraints, most substituted vinyl cations carry the formal positive charge on an sp-hydridized carbon atom of linear geometry. A two-coordinate approximately sp2-hybridized cation resulting from the formal removal of a hydride ion from an arene is termed an aryl cation. These carbocations are relatively unstable (aryl cations especially so) and are infrequently encountered. Hence, they are frequently omitted from introductory and intermediate level textbooks. The IUPAC definition stipulates that carbocations are even-electron species; hence, radical cations like CH•+4 that are frequently encountered in mass spectrometry are not considered to be carbocations.
History
The history of carbocations dates back to 1891 when G. Merling reported that he added bromine to tropylidene (cycloheptatriene) and then heated the product to obtain a crystalline, water-soluble material, C7H7Br. He did not suggest a structure for it; however, Doering and Knox convincingly showed that it was tropylium (cycloheptatrienylium) bromide. This ion is predicted to be aromatic by Hückel's rule.
In 1902, Norris and Kehrman independently discovered that colorless triphenylmethanol gives deep-yellow solutions in concentrated sulfuric acid. Triphenylmethyl chloride similarly formed orange complexes with aluminium and tin chlorides. In 1902, Adolf von Baeyer recognized the salt-like character of the compounds formed. The trityl carbocation (shown below) is a stable carbocationic system that has been used as homogeneous organocatalyst in organic synthesis, for example in the form of trityl hexafluorophosphate.
reaction of triphenylmethanol with sulfuric acid
He dubbed the relationship between color and salt formation halochromy, of which malachite green is a prime example.
Carbocations are reactive intermediates in many organic reactions. This idea, first proposed by Julius Stieglitz in 1899, was further developed by Hans Meerwein in his 1922 study of the Wagner–Meerwein rearrangement. Carbocations were also found to be involved in the SN1 reaction, the E1 reaction, and in rearrangement reactions such as the Whitmore 1,2 shift. The chemical establishment was reluctant to accept the notion of a carbocation and for a long time the Journal of the American Chemical Society refused articles that mentioned them.
The first NMR spectrum of a stable carbocation in solution was published by Doering et al. in 1958. It was the heptamethylbenzenium ion, made by treating hexamethylbenzene with methyl chloride and aluminium chloride. The stable 7-norbornadienyl cation was prepared by Story et al. in 1960 by reacting norbornadienyl chloride with silver tetrafluoroborate in sulfur dioxide at −80 °C. The NMR spectrum established that it was non-classically bridged (the first stable non-classical ion observed).
In 1962, Olah directly observed the tert-butyl carbocation by nuclear magnetic resonance as a stable species on dissolving tert-butyl fluoride in magic acid. The NMR of the norbornyl cation was first reported by Schleyer et al. and it was shown to undergo proton-scrambling over a barrier by Saunders et al.
Structure and properties
Carbonium ions can be thought of as protonated alkanes. Although alkanes are usually considered inert, under superacid conditions (e.g., HF·SbF5), the C-H sigma bond can act as a donor to H+. This results in a species that contains a 3c-2e bond between a carbon and two hydrogen atoms, a type of bonding common in boron chemistry, though relatively uncommon for carbon. As an alternative view point, the 3c-2e bond of carbonium ions could be considered as a molecule of H2 coordinated to a carbenium ion (see below). Indeed, carbonium ions frequently decompose by loss of molecular hydrogen to form the corresponding carbenium ion. Structurally, the methanium ion CH+5 is computed to have a minimum energy structure of Cs symmetry. However, the various possible structures of the ion are close in energy and separated by shallow barriers. Hence, the structure of the ion is often described as fluxional. Although there appear to be five bonds to carbon in carbonium ions, they are not hypervalent, as the electron count around the central carbon is only eight, on account of the 3c-2e bond.
In contrast, at least in a formal sense, carbenium ions are derived from the protonation (addition of H+) or alkylation (addition of R+) of a carbene or alkene. Thus, in at least one of their resonance depictions, they possess a carbon atom bearing a formal positive charge that is surrounded by a sextet of electrons (six valence electrons) instead of the usual octet required to fill the valence shell of carbon (octet rule). Therefore, carbenium ions (and carbocations in general) are often reactive, seeking to fill the octet of valence electrons as well as regain a neutral charge. In accord with VSEPR and Bent's rule, unless geometrically constrained to be pyramidal (e.g., 1-adamantyl cation), 3-coordinate carbenium ions are usually trigonal planar, with a pure p character empty orbital as its lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) and CH/CC bonds formed from C(sp2) orbitals. A prototypical example is the methyl cation, CH+3. For the same reasons, carbocations that are 2-coordinate (vinyl cations) are generally linear in geometry, with CH/CC bonds formed from C(sp) orbitals.
Hyperconjugation by neighboring alkyl groups stabilizes the t-butyl cation. The stabilizing interaction can be depicted as an orbital interaction or by resonance structures involving "no-bond" resonance forms. (For clarity, a dashed line is used to show that the hydrogen atom is still attached, although the formal C–H bond order in the hyperconjugative structure is zero.)
Alkyl-substituted carbocations follow the order 3° > 2° > 1° > methyl in stability, as can be inferred by the hydride ion affinity values (231, 246, 273, and 312 kcal/mol for (CH3)3C+, (CH3)2CH+, CH3CH+2, and CH+3). The effect of alkyl substitution is a strong one: tertiary cations are stable and many are directly observable in superacid media, but secondary cations are usually transient and only the isopropyl, s-butyl, and cyclopentyl cations have been observed in solution. There is seldom any experimental support for primary carbocations in the solution phase, even as transient intermediates (the ethyl cation has been proposed for reactions in 99.9% sulfuric acid and in FSO2OH·SbF5), and methyl cation has only been unambiguously identified in the gas phase. In most, if not all cases, the ground state of alleged primary carbocations consist of bridged structures in which positive charge is shared by two or more carbon atoms and are better described as side-protonated alkenes, edge-protonated cyclopropanes, or corner-protonated cyclopropanes rather than true primary cations. Even the simple ethyl cation, C2H+5, has been demonstrated experimentally and computationally to be bridged and can be thought of as a symmetrically protonated ethylene molecule. The same is true for higher homologues like 1-propyl and 1-butyl cations. Neopentyl derivatives are thought to ionize with concomitant migration of a methyl group (anchimeric assistance); thus, in most if not all cases, a discrete neopentyl cation is not believed to be involved.
The stabilization by alkyl groups is explained by hyperconjugation. The donation of electron density from a β C-H or C-C bond into the unoccupied p orbital of the carbocation (a σCH/CC → p interaction) allows the positive charge to be delocalized.
Based on hydride ion affinity, the parent vinyl cation is less stable than even a primary sp2-hybridized carbocation, while an α alkyl-substituted vinyl cation has a stability that is comparable to the latter. Hence, vinyl cations are relatively uncommon intermediates. They can be generated by the ionization of a vinyl electrophile, provided the leaving group is sufficiently good (e.g., TfO−, IPh, or N2). They have been implicated as intermediates in some vinyl substitution reactions (designated as SN1(vinyl)) and as intermediates in the electrophilic addition reactions of arylalkynes. With the exception of the parent vinyl cation, which is believed to be a bridged species, and geometrically constrained cyclic vinyl cations, most vinyl cations take on sp hybridization and are linear.
Aryl cations are more unstable than vinyl cations, due to the ring-enforced distortion to a nonlinear geometry and approximately sp2-character of the unoccupied orbital. Only N2 in aryldiazonium salts is a good enough leaving group for the chemical generation of aryl cations.
Alkynyl cations are extremely unstable, much less stable than even CH+3 (hydride ion affinity 386 kcal/mol versus 312 kcal/mol for CH+3) and cannot be generated by purely chemical means. They can, however, be generated radiochemically via the beta decay of tritium:
RC
≡
CT
⟶
[
RC
≡
C
3
He
]
+
+
e
−
+
ν
¯
e
⟶
RC
≡
C
+
+
He
3
+
e
−
+
ν
¯
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{\displaystyle {\ce {RC#CT -> + + e-}}+{\bar {\nu }}_{e}\longrightarrow {\ce {RC#C+ + ^{3}He + e-}}+{\bar {\nu }}_{e}}
Order of stability of examples of tertiary (III), secondary (II), and primary (I) alkylcarbenium ions, as well as the methyl cation (far right).
In terms of reactivity, carbocations are susceptible to attack by nucleophiles, like water, alcohols, carboxylates, azide, and halide ions, to form the addition product. Strongly basic nucleophiles, especially hindered ones, favor elimination over addition. Because even weak nucleophiles will react with carbocations, most can only be directly observed or isolated in non-nucleophilic media like superacids.
Relative formation energy of carbocations from computational calculation
Carbocations typically undergo rearrangement reactions from less stable structures to equally stable or more stable ones by migration of an alkyl group or hydrogen to the cationic center to form a new carbocationic center. This often occurs with rate constants in excess of 1010 s−1 at ambient temperature and still takes place rapidly (compared to the NMR timescale) at temperatures as low as −120 °C (see Wagner-Meerwein shift). In especially favorable cases like the 2-norbornyl cation, hydrogen shifts may still take place at rates fast enough to interfere with X-ray crystallography at 86 K (−187 °C). Typically, carbocations will rearrange to give a tertiary isomer. For instance, all isomers of C6H+11 rapidly rearrange to give the 1-methyl-1-cyclopentyl cation. This fact often complicates synthetic pathways. For example, when 3-pentanol is heated with aqueous HCl, the initially formed 3-pentyl carbocation rearranges to a statistical mixture of the 3-pentyl and 2-pentyl. These cations react with chloride ion to produce about one third 3-chloropentane and two thirds 2-chloropentane. The Friedel–Crafts alkylation suffers from this limitation; for this reason, the acylation (followed by Wolff–Kishner or Clemmensen reduction to give the alkylated product) is more frequently applied.
The sp2 lone pair of molecule A is oriented such that it forms sufficient orbital overlap with the empty p orbital of the carbonation to allow the formation of a π bond, sequestering the carbonation in a contributing resonance structure. The lone pair of molecule B is rotated 90° with respect to the empty p orbital of the carbonation, demonstrated by the Newman projection (bottom right). Without proper orbital overlap, the nitrogen lone pair cannot donate into the carbocation's empty p orbital. Thus, the carbocation in molecule B is not resonance-stabilized.
A carbocation may be stabilized by resonance by a carbon–carbon double bond or by the lone pair of a heteroatom adjacent to the ionized carbon. In order for a carbocation to be resonance-stabilized, the molecular orbital of the donating group must have the proper symmetry, orientation, and energy level to interact with the empty 2p orbital of the carbocation. Such cations as allyl cation CH2=CH−CH+2 and benzyl cation C6H5−CH+2 are more stable than most other carbocations due to donation of electron density from π systems to the cationic center. Furthermore, carbocations present in aromatic molecules are especially stabilized, largely due to the delocalized π electrons characteristic of aromatic rings. Molecules that can form allyl or benzyl carbocations are especially reactive. These carbocations where the C+ is adjacent to another carbon atom that has a double or triple bond have extra stability because of the overlap of the empty p orbital of the carbocation with the p orbitals of the π bond. This overlap of the orbitals allows the positive charge to be dispersed and electron density from the π system to be shared with the electron-deficient center, resulting in stabilization. The doubly- and triply-benzylic carbocations, diphenylcarbenium and triphenylcarbenium (trityl) cation, are particularly stable. For the same reasons, the partial p character of strained C–C bonds in cyclopropyl groups also allows for donation of electron density and stabilizes the cyclopropylmethyl (cyclopropylcarbinyl) cation.
The stability order of carbocations, from most stable to least stable as reflected by hydride ion affinity (HIA) values, are as follows (HIA values in kcal/mol in parentheses):
Hydride ion affinity (HIA) as a measure of carbocation stability
Carbocation
c-C7H+7 (most stable)
(C6H5)3C+
c-C3H+3
(C6H5)2CH+
2-norbornyl+
t-C4H+9
C6H5CH+2
i-C3H+7
HIA (kcal/mol)
201
215
221
222
231
231
234
246
Carbocation
c-C3H5CH+2
CH2=CH−CH+2
c-C5H+5
CH≡C−CH+2
C2H+5
C2H+3
C6H+5
CH+3 (least stable)
HIA (kcal/mol)
249
256
258
270
273
287
298
312
As noted in the history section, the tropylium cation (C7H+7) was one of the first carbocations to be discovered, due to its aromatic stability. This carbocation is so stabilized that the molecule can be isolated and sold as a salt. On the other hand, the antiaromatic cyclopentadienyl cation (C5H+5) is destabilized by some 40 kcal/mol. The cyclopropenium cation (C3H+3), although somewhat destabilized by angle strain, is still clearly stabilized by aromaticity when compared to its open-chain analog, allyl cation. These varying cation stabilities, depending on the number of π electrons in the ring system, can furthermore be crucial factors in reaction kinetics. The formation of an aromatic carbocation is much faster than the formation of an anti-aromatic or open-chain carbocation. Given the role of carbocations in many reaction schemes, such as SN1 for example, choosing the conjugation of starting materials can be a powerful method for conferring kinetic favorability or unfavorability, as the rate constant for any given step is dependent on the step's activation energy according to the Arrhenius equation.
The effect of hyperconjugation is strongly stabilizing for carbocations: hyperconjugation with alkyl substituents is often as stabilizing or even more so than conjugation with a π system. Although conjugation to unsaturated groups results in significant stabilization by the mesomeric effect (resonance), the benefit is partially offset by the presence of a more electronegative sp2 or sp carbon next to the carbocationic center. Thus, as reflected by hydride ion affinities, a secondary carbocation is more stabilized than the allyl cation, while a tertiary carbocation is more stabilized than the benzyl cation — results that may seem counterintuitive on first glance.
Oxocarbenium and iminium ions have important secondary canonical forms (resonance structures) in which carbon bears a positive charge. As such, they are carbocations according to the IUPAC definition although some chemists do not regard them to be "true" carbocations, as their most important resonance contributors carry the formal positive charge on an oxygen or nitrogen atom, respectively.
Non-classical ions
Some carbocations such as the 2-norbornyl cation exhibit more or less symmetrical three-center two-electron bonding. Such structures, referred to as non-classical carbocations, involve the delocalization of the bonds involved in the σ-framework of the molecule, resulting in C–C and C–H bonds of fractional bond order. This delocalization results in additional stabilization of the cation. For instance, depicted as a classical carbenium ion, 2-norbornyl cation appears to be a secondary carbocation. However, it is more stable than a typical "secondary" carbocation, being roughly as stable as a tertiary carbocation like t-butyl cation, according to hydride ion affinity.
The existence of non-classical carbocations was once the subject of great controversy. On opposing sides were Herbert C. Brown, who believed that what appeared to be a non-classical carbocation represents the average of two rapidly equilibrating classical species (or possibly two structures exhibiting some degree of bridging or leaning but is nevertheless not symmetric) and that the true non-classical structure is a transition state between the two potential energy minima, and Saul Winstein, who believed that a non-classical structure that possessed a plane of symmetry was the sole potential energy minimum and that the classical structures merely two contributing resonance forms of this non-classical species. George Olah's discovery of superacidic media to allow carbocations to be directly observed, together with a very sensitive NMR technique developed by Martin Saunders to distinguish between the two scenarios, played important roles in resolving this controversy. At least for the 2-norbornyl cation itself, the controversy has been settled overwhelmingly in Winstein's favor, with no sign of the putative interconverting classical species, even at temperatures as low as 6 K, and a 2013 crystal structure showing a distinctly non-classical structure. A variety of carbocations (e.g., ethyl cation, see above) are now believed to adopt non-classical structures. However, in many cases, the energy difference between the two possible "classical" structures and the "non-classical" one is very small, and it may be difficult to distinguish between the two possibilities experimentally.
Specific carbocations
A non-classical structure for C4H+7 is supported by substantial experimental evidence from solvolysis experiments and NMR studies conducted in non-nucleophilic media. One or both of two structures, the cyclopropylcarbinyl cation and the bicyclobutonium cation, were invoked to account for the observed reactivity in various experiments, while the NMR data point to a highly fluxional system that undergoes rapid rearrangement to give an averaged spectrum consisting of only two 13C NMR signals, even at temperatures as low as −132 °C. Computationally, it was confirmed that the energetic landscape of the C4H+7 system is very flat, and that the two isomers postulated based on experimental data are very close in energy, the bicyclobutonium structure being computed to be just 0.4 kcal/mol more stable than the cyclopropylcarbinyl structure. In the solution phase (SbF5·SO2ClF·SO2F2, with SbF–6 as the counterion), the bicyclobutonium structure predominates over the cyclopropylcarbinyl structure in a 84:16 ratio at −61 °C.
Three other possible structures, two classical structures (the homoallyl cation and cyclobutyl cation) and a more highly delocalized non-classical structure (the tricyclobutonium ion), are now known to be less stable isomers (or merely a transition state rather than an energy minimum in the case of the cyclobutyl cation).
Substituted cyclopropylcarbinyl cations have also been studied by NMR:
In the NMR spectrum of a dimethyl derivative, two nonequivalent signals are found for the two methyl groups, indicating that the molecular conformation of this cation is not perpendicular (as in A), which possesses a mirror plane, but is bisected (as in B) with the empty p-orbital parallel to the cyclopropyl ring system:
In terms of bent bond theory, this preference is explained by assuming favorable orbital overlap between the filled cyclopropane bent bonds and the empty p-orbital.
Pyramidal carbocation
Pyramidal Carbocations
Besides the classical and non-classical carbocations, a third class can be distinguished: pyramidal carbocations. In these ions, a single carbon atom hovers over a four- or five-sided polygon, in effect forming a pyramid. The square pyramidal ion will carry a charge of +1, the Pentagonal pyramidal ion will carry +2.
A stable hexagonal-pyramidal configuration of tropylium trication, (C7H7)3+, has been also predicted. In this case, the coordination number of carbon reaches seven. The crystal structure of 2·HSO3F confirms the pentagonal-pyramidal shape of the hexamethylbenzene dication.
An example of the monovalent carbocation
An example of the divalent carbocation
See also
Armilenium
Carbanion
Carbene
Carbo-mer
Oxocarbenium
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^ Strictly speaking, the hyperconjugative stabilization of alkyl-substituted carbocations is a type of three-center bonding. Geometrically, the C–H bonds involved in hyperconjugation are observed (or computed) to "lean" slightly toward the carbocationic center as a result (that is, the +C–C–H bond angle decreases somewhat). Nevertheless, the hydrogen atom is still primarily bonded to the carbon α to the cationic carbon. To qualify as a non-classical carbocation, the two-electron three-center bond needs to feature a group equally (or nearly equally) bonded to two electron-deficient centers. In practice, there is a continuum of possible bonding schemes, ranging from slight involvement of a neighboring group (weak hyperconjugation) to equal sharing of a group between adjacent centers (fully non-classical bonding).
^ Carey, Francis A. (2007). Advanced Organic Chemistry: Part A: Structure and Mechanisms. Sundberg, Richard J. (5th ed.). New York: Springer. p. 447-450. ISBN 9780387448978. OCLC 154040953.
^ Olah, George A.; Prakash, G. K. Surya; Saunders, Martin (May 2002). "Conclusion of the classical-nonclassical ion controversy based on the structural study of the 2-norbornyl cation". Accounts of Chemical Research. 16 (12): 440–448. doi:10.1021/ar00096a003.
^ George A. Olah - Nobel Lecture
^ Yannoni, C. S.; Myhre, P. C.; Webb, Gretchen G. (November 1990). "Magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance near liquid-helium temperatures. Variable-temperature CPMAS spectra of the 2-norbornyl cation to 6 K". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 112 (24): 8991–8992. doi:10.1021/ja00180a060. ISSN 0002-7863.
^ Olah, George A.; Surya Prakash, G. K.; Rasul, Golam (July 2008). "Ab Initio/GIAO-CCSD(T) Study of Structures, Energies, and 13C NMR Chemical Shifts of C4H+7 and C5H+9 Ions: Relative Stability and Dynamic Aspects of the Cyclopropylcarbinyl vs Bicyclobutonium Ions". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 130 (28): 9168–9172. doi:10.1021/ja802445s. ISSN 0002-7863. PMID 18570420.
^ Kabakoff, David S.; Namanworth, Eli (1970). "Nuclear magnetic double resonance studies of the dimethylcyclopropylcarbinyl cation. Measurement of the rotation barrier". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 92 (10): 3234–3235. doi:10.1021/ja00713a080.
^ Pittman Jr., Charles U.; Olah, George A. (1965). "Stable Carbonium Ions. XVII.1a Cyclopropyl Carbonium Ions and Protonated Cyclopropyl Ketones". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 87 (22): 5123–5132. doi:10.1021/ja00950a026.
^ Carey, F.A.; Sundberg, R.J. Advanced Organic Chemistry Part A (2nd ed.).
^ Wang, George; Rahman, A. K. Fazlur; Wang, Bin (May 2018). "Ab initio calculations of ionic hydrocarbon compounds with heptacoordinate carbon". Journal of Molecular Modeling. 24 (5): 116. doi:10.1007/s00894-018-3640-9. ISSN 1610-2940. PMID 29696384. S2CID 13960338.
^ Malischewski, Moritz; Seppelt, K. (2016-11-25). "Crystal Structure Determination of the Pentagonal-Pyramidal Hexamethylbenzene Dication C6(CH3)2+6". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 56 (1): 368–370. doi:10.1002/anie.201608795. ISSN 1433-7851. PMID 27885766.
External links
Media related to Carbocations at Wikimedia Commons
Press Release The 1994 Nobel Prize in Chemistry". Nobelprize.org. 9 Jun 2010
Authority control databases: National
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Japan | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Methyl_cation.svg"},{"link_name":"methane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carbocationstructure.png"},{"link_name":"tert-Butyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butyl"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Methonium.svg"},{"link_name":"ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"atom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"methenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methenium"},{"link_name":"methanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanium"},{"link_name":"vinyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_cation"},{"link_name":"ethylene dication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethylene_dication&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gruetz-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"coordination number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_number"},{"link_name":"carbenium ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbenium_ion"},{"link_name":"carbonium ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonium_ion"},{"link_name":"G. A. Olah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Andrew_Olah"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OlahCXVIII-3"},{"link_name":"three-center two-electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-center_two-electron_bond"},{"link_name":"non-classical carbocations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-classical_carbocation"},{"link_name":"2-norbornyl cation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbornyl_cation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Carbenium ion of methanetert-Butyl cation, demonstrating planar geometry and sp2 hybridizationCarbonium ion of methaneA carbocation is an ion with a positively charged carbon atom. Among the simplest examples are the methenium CH+3, methanium CH+5 and vinyl C2H+3 cations. Occasionally, carbocations that bear more than one positively charged carbon atom are also encountered (e.g., ethylene dication C2H2+4).[1]Until the early 1970s, all carbocations were called carbonium ions.[2] In the present-day definition given by the IUPAC, a carbocation is any even-electron cation with significant partial positive charge on a carbon atom. They are further classified in two main categories according to the coordination number of the charged carbon: three in the carbenium ions and five in the carbonium ions. This nomenclature was proposed by G. A. Olah.[3] Carbonium ions, as originally defined by Olah, are characterized by a three-center two-electron delocalized bonding scheme and are essentially synonymous with so-called 'non-classical carbocations', which are carbocations that contain bridging C–C or C–H σ-bonds. However, others have more narrowly defined the term 'carbonium ion' as formally protonated or alkylated alkanes (CR+5, where R is H or alkyl), to the exclusion of non-classical carbocations like the 2-norbornyl cation.[4]","title":"Carbocation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IUPAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"onium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onium_compound"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"According to the IUPAC, a carbocation is any cation containing an even number of electrons in which a significant portion of the positive charge resides on a carbon atom.[5] Prior to the observation of five-coordinate carbocations by Olah and coworkers, carbocation and carbonium ion were used interchangeably. Olah proposed a redefinition of carbonium ion as a carbocation featuring any type of three-center two-electron bonding, while a carbenium ion was newly coined to refer to a carbocation containing only two-center two-electron bonds with a three-coordinate positive carbon. Subsequently, others have used the term carbonium ion more narrowly to refer to species that are derived (at least formally) from electrophilic attack of H+ or R+ on an alkane, in analogy to other main group onium species, while a carbocation that contains any type of three-centered bonding is referred to as a non-classical carbocation. In this usage, 2-norbornyl cation is not a carbonium ion, because it is formally derived from protonation of an alkene (norbornene) rather than an alkane, although it is a non-classical carbocation due to its bridged structure. The IUPAC acknowledges the three divergent definitions of carbonium ion and urges care in the usage of this term. For the remainder of this article, the term carbonium ion will be used in this latter restricted sense, while non-classical carbocation will be used to refer to any carbocation with C–C and/or C–H σ-bonds delocalized by bridging.Since the late 1990s, most textbooks have stopped using the term carbonium ion for the classical three-coordinate carbocation. However, some university-level textbooks continue to use the term carbocation as if it were synonymous with carbenium ion,[6][7] or discuss carbocations with only a fleeting reference to the older terminology of carbonium ions[8] or carbenium and carbonium ions.[9] One textbook retains the older name of carbonium ion for carbenium ion to this day, and uses the phrase hypervalent carbonium ion for CH+5.[10]A carbocation with a two-coordinate positive carbon derived from formal removal of a hydride ion (H−) from an alkene is known as a vinyl cation. In the absence of geometric constraints, most substituted vinyl cations carry the formal positive charge on an sp-hydridized carbon atom of linear geometry. A two-coordinate approximately sp2-hybridized cation resulting from the formal removal of a hydride ion from an arene is termed an aryl cation. These carbocations are relatively unstable (aryl cations especially so) and are infrequently encountered. Hence, they are frequently omitted from introductory and intermediate level textbooks. The IUPAC definition stipulates that carbocations are even-electron species; hence, radical cations like CH•+4 that are frequently encountered in mass spectrometry are not considered to be carbocations.","title":"Definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merling1891-11"},{"link_name":"cycloheptatriene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloheptatriene"},{"link_name":"Doering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_von_Eggers_Doering"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"tropylium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropylium_cation"},{"link_name":"aromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatic"},{"link_name":"Hückel's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCckel%27s_rule"},{"link_name":"triphenylmethanol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphenylmethanol"},{"link_name":"sulfuric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid"},{"link_name":"Triphenylmethyl chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphenylmethyl_chloride"},{"link_name":"Adolf von Baeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_von_Baeyer"},{"link_name":"trityl carbocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphenylcarbenium"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"trityl hexafluorophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphenylmethyl_hexafluorophosphate"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Urch-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TriphenylmethanolCarbocationFormation.svg"},{"link_name":"malachite green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malachite_green"},{"link_name":"reactive intermediates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_intermediates"},{"link_name":"Julius Stieglitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Stieglitz"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Hans Meerwein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Meerwein"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Wagner–Meerwein rearrangement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner%E2%80%93Meerwein_rearrangement"},{"link_name":"SN1 reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN1_reaction"},{"link_name":"E1 reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elimination_reaction"},{"link_name":"rearrangement reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rearrangement_reaction"},{"link_name":"Whitmore 1,2 shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitmore_1,2_shift"},{"link_name":"NMR spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMR_spectrum"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"benzenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arenium_ion"},{"link_name":"hexamethylbenzene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexamethylbenzene"},{"link_name":"methyl chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyl_chloride"},{"link_name":"aluminium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_chloride"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"norbornadienyl chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbornadiene"},{"link_name":"silver tetrafluoroborate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_tetrafluoroborate"},{"link_name":"sulfur dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide"},{"link_name":"non-classical ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-classical_ion"},{"link_name":"Olah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Andrew_Olah"},{"link_name":"tert-butyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tert-butyl"},{"link_name":"nuclear magnetic resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance"},{"link_name":"magic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_acid"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The history of carbocations dates back to 1891 when G. Merling[11] reported that he added bromine to tropylidene (cycloheptatriene) and then heated the product to obtain a crystalline, water-soluble material, C7H7Br. He did not suggest a structure for it; however, Doering and Knox[12] convincingly showed that it was tropylium (cycloheptatrienylium) bromide. This ion is predicted to be aromatic by Hückel's rule.In 1902, Norris and Kehrman independently discovered that colorless triphenylmethanol gives deep-yellow solutions in concentrated sulfuric acid. Triphenylmethyl chloride similarly formed orange complexes with aluminium and tin chlorides. In 1902, Adolf von Baeyer recognized the salt-like character of the compounds formed. The trityl carbocation (shown below) is a stable carbocationic system that has been used as homogeneous organocatalyst in organic synthesis,[13] for example in the form of trityl hexafluorophosphate.[14]reaction of triphenylmethanol with sulfuric acidHe dubbed the relationship between color and salt formation halochromy, of which malachite green is a prime example.Carbocations are reactive intermediates in many organic reactions. This idea, first proposed by Julius Stieglitz in 1899,[15] was further developed by Hans Meerwein in his 1922 study[16][17] of the Wagner–Meerwein rearrangement. Carbocations were also found to be involved in the SN1 reaction, the E1 reaction, and in rearrangement reactions such as the Whitmore 1,2 shift. The chemical establishment was reluctant to accept the notion of a carbocation and for a long time the Journal of the American Chemical Society refused articles that mentioned them.The first NMR spectrum of a stable carbocation in solution was published by Doering et al.[18] in 1958. It was the heptamethylbenzenium ion, made by treating hexamethylbenzene with methyl chloride and aluminium chloride. The stable 7-norbornadienyl cation was prepared by Story et al. in 1960[19] by reacting norbornadienyl chloride with silver tetrafluoroborate in sulfur dioxide at −80 °C. The NMR spectrum established that it was non-classically bridged (the first stable non-classical ion observed).In 1962, Olah directly observed the tert-butyl carbocation by nuclear magnetic resonance as a stable species on dissolving tert-butyl fluoride in magic acid. The NMR of the norbornyl cation was first reported by Schleyer et al.[20] and it was shown to undergo proton-scrambling over a barrier by Saunders et al.[21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"superacid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superacid"},{"link_name":"HF·SbF5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoroantimonic_acid"},{"link_name":"methanium ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanium"},{"link_name":"fluxional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluxional_molecule"},{"link_name":"hypervalent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervalent_molecule"},{"link_name":"carbene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbene"},{"link_name":"alkene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkene"},{"link_name":"resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"valence electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_electron"},{"link_name":"octet rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octet_rule"},{"link_name":"charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"VSEPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VSEPR_theory"},{"link_name":"Bent's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bent%27s_rule"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stabilization_of_t-butyl_cation(2).png"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"anchimeric assistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchimeric_assistance"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"hyperconjugation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperconjugation"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"aryldiazonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazonium_compound"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"beta decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay"},{"link_name":"tritium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritium"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CarboCationStabilities.svg"},{"link_name":"carbenium ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbenium_ion"},{"link_name":"nucleophiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleophile"},{"link_name":"superacids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superacid"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Relative_formation_energy_of_carbocations.png"},{"link_name":"rearrangement reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rearrangement_reaction"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"rate constants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_constant"},{"link_name":"Wagner-Meerwein shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner%E2%80%93Meerwein_rearrangement"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-35"},{"link_name":"Friedel–Crafts alkylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedel%E2%80%93Crafts_alkylation"},{"link_name":"acylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedel-Crafts_acylation"},{"link_name":"Wolff–Kishner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolff%E2%80%93Kishner_reduction"},{"link_name":"Clemmensen reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemmensen_reduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:5.13_final-_resonance-stabalized_carbocation.jpg"},{"link_name":"resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"heteroatom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heteroatom"},{"link_name":"molecular orbital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_orbital"},{"link_name":"allyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allyl"},{"link_name":"benzyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzyl"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"aromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromaticity"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"triphenylcarbenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphenylmethyl_cation"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"tropylium cation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropylium_cation"},{"link_name":"aromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromaticity"},{"link_name":"antiaromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiaromatic"},{"link_name":"SN1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN1_reaction"},{"link_name":"kinetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_kinetics"},{"link_name":"Arrhenius equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_equation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aromatic_cations.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oxocarbenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxocarbenium"},{"link_name":"iminium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iminium"}],"text":"Carbonium ions can be thought of as protonated alkanes. Although alkanes are usually considered inert, under superacid conditions (e.g., HF·SbF5), the C-H sigma bond can act as a donor to H+. This results in a species that contains a 3c-2e bond between a carbon and two hydrogen atoms, a type of bonding common in boron chemistry, though relatively uncommon for carbon. As an alternative view point, the 3c-2e bond of carbonium ions could be considered as a molecule of H2 coordinated to a carbenium ion (see below). Indeed, carbonium ions frequently decompose by loss of molecular hydrogen to form the corresponding carbenium ion. Structurally, the methanium ion CH+5 is computed to have a minimum energy structure of Cs symmetry. However, the various possible structures of the ion are close in energy and separated by shallow barriers. Hence, the structure of the ion is often described as fluxional. Although there appear to be five bonds to carbon in carbonium ions, they are not hypervalent, as the electron count around the central carbon is only eight, on account of the 3c-2e bond.In contrast, at least in a formal sense, carbenium ions are derived from the protonation (addition of H+) or alkylation (addition of R+) of a carbene or alkene. Thus, in at least one of their resonance depictions, they possess a carbon atom bearing a formal positive charge that is surrounded by a sextet of electrons (six valence electrons) instead of the usual octet required to fill the valence shell of carbon (octet rule). Therefore, carbenium ions (and carbocations in general) are often reactive, seeking to fill the octet of valence electrons as well as regain a neutral charge. In accord with VSEPR and Bent's rule, unless geometrically constrained to be pyramidal (e.g., 1-adamantyl cation), 3-coordinate carbenium ions are usually trigonal planar, with a pure p character empty orbital as its lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) and CH/CC bonds formed from C(sp2) orbitals. A prototypical example is the methyl cation, CH+3. For the same reasons, carbocations that are 2-coordinate (vinyl cations) are generally linear in geometry, with CH/CC bonds formed from C(sp) orbitals.Hyperconjugation by neighboring alkyl groups stabilizes the t-butyl cation. The stabilizing interaction can be depicted as an orbital interaction or by resonance structures involving \"no-bond\" resonance forms. (For clarity, a dashed line is used to show that the hydrogen atom is still attached, although the formal C–H bond order in the hyperconjugative structure is zero.)Alkyl-substituted carbocations follow the order 3° > 2° > 1° > methyl in stability, as can be inferred by the hydride ion affinity values (231, 246, 273, and 312 kcal/mol for (CH3)3C+, (CH3)2CH+, CH3CH+2, and CH+3).[22] The effect of alkyl substitution is a strong one: tertiary cations are stable and many are directly observable in superacid media, but secondary cations are usually transient and only the isopropyl, s-butyl, and cyclopentyl cations have been observed in solution.[23] There is seldom any experimental support for primary carbocations in the solution phase, even as transient intermediates (the ethyl cation has been proposed for reactions in 99.9% sulfuric acid and in FSO2OH·SbF5),[24] and methyl cation has only been unambiguously identified in the gas phase. In most, if not all cases, the ground state of alleged primary carbocations consist of bridged structures in which positive charge is shared by two or more carbon atoms and are better described as side-protonated alkenes, edge-protonated cyclopropanes, or corner-protonated cyclopropanes rather than true primary cations.[25][26] Even the simple ethyl cation, C2H+5, has been demonstrated experimentally and computationally to be bridged[27] and can be thought of as a symmetrically protonated ethylene molecule. The same is true for higher homologues like 1-propyl and 1-butyl cations.[28] Neopentyl derivatives are thought to ionize with concomitant migration of a methyl group (anchimeric assistance); thus, in most if not all cases, a discrete neopentyl cation is not believed to be involved.[29]The stabilization by alkyl groups is explained by hyperconjugation.[30] The donation of electron density from a β C-H or C-C bond into the unoccupied p orbital of the carbocation (a σCH/CC → p interaction) allows the positive charge to be delocalized.Based on hydride ion affinity, the parent vinyl cation is less stable than even a primary sp2-hybridized carbocation, while an α alkyl-substituted vinyl cation has a stability that is comparable to the latter. Hence, vinyl cations are relatively uncommon intermediates. They can be generated by the ionization of a vinyl electrophile, provided the leaving group is sufficiently good (e.g., TfO−, IPh, or N2). They have been implicated as intermediates in some vinyl substitution reactions (designated as SN1(vinyl)) and as intermediates in the electrophilic addition reactions of arylalkynes. With the exception of the parent vinyl cation, which is believed to be a bridged species, and geometrically constrained cyclic vinyl cations, most vinyl cations take on sp hybridization and are linear.Aryl cations are more unstable than vinyl cations, due to the ring-enforced distortion to a nonlinear geometry and approximately sp2-character of the unoccupied orbital. Only N2 in aryldiazonium salts is a good enough leaving group for the chemical generation of aryl cations.[31]Alkynyl cations are extremely unstable, much less stable than even CH+3 (hydride ion affinity 386 kcal/mol versus 312 kcal/mol for CH+3) and cannot be generated by purely chemical means. They can, however, be generated radiochemically via the beta decay of tritium:[32]RC\n \n ≡\n \n CT\n ⟶\n \n \n [\n RC\n \n ≡\n \n \n C\n \n 3\n \n \n He\n ]\n \n \n +\n \n \n +\n \n e\n \n −\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n ν\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n ⟶\n \n RC\n \n ≡\n \n \n C\n \n +\n \n \n +\n \n He\n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n +\n \n e\n \n −\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n ν\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {RC#CT -> [RC#C^3 He]+ + e-}}+{\\bar {\\nu }}_{e}\\longrightarrow {\\ce {RC#C+ + ^{3}He + e-}}+{\\bar {\\nu }}_{e}}Order of stability of examples of tertiary (III), secondary (II), and primary (I) alkylcarbenium ions, as well as the methyl cation (far right).In terms of reactivity, carbocations are susceptible to attack by nucleophiles, like water, alcohols, carboxylates, azide, and halide ions, to form the addition product. Strongly basic nucleophiles, especially hindered ones, favor elimination over addition. Because even weak nucleophiles will react with carbocations, most can only be directly observed or isolated in non-nucleophilic media like superacids.[33]Relative formation energy of carbocations from computational calculationCarbocations typically undergo rearrangement reactions from less stable structures to equally stable or more stable ones by migration of an alkyl group or hydrogen to the cationic center to form a new carbocationic center.[34] This often occurs with rate constants in excess of 1010 s−1 at ambient temperature and still takes place rapidly (compared to the NMR timescale) at temperatures as low as −120 °C (see Wagner-Meerwein shift). In especially favorable cases like the 2-norbornyl cation, hydrogen shifts may still take place at rates fast enough to interfere with X-ray crystallography at 86 K (−187 °C).[35] Typically, carbocations will rearrange to give a tertiary isomer. For instance, all isomers of C6H+11 rapidly rearrange to give the 1-methyl-1-cyclopentyl cation. This fact often complicates synthetic pathways. For example, when 3-pentanol is heated with aqueous HCl, the initially formed 3-pentyl carbocation rearranges to a statistical mixture of the 3-pentyl and 2-pentyl. These cations react with chloride ion to produce about one third 3-chloropentane and two thirds 2-chloropentane. The Friedel–Crafts alkylation suffers from this limitation; for this reason, the acylation (followed by Wolff–Kishner or Clemmensen reduction to give the alkylated product) is more frequently applied.The sp2 lone pair of molecule A is oriented such that it forms sufficient orbital overlap with the empty p orbital of the carbonation to allow the formation of a π bond, sequestering the carbonation in a contributing resonance structure. The lone pair of molecule B is rotated 90° with respect to the empty p orbital of the carbonation, demonstrated by the Newman projection (bottom right). Without proper orbital overlap, the nitrogen lone pair cannot donate into the carbocation's empty p orbital. Thus, the carbocation in molecule B is not resonance-stabilized.A carbocation may be stabilized by resonance by a carbon–carbon double bond or by the lone pair of a heteroatom adjacent to the ionized carbon. In order for a carbocation to be resonance-stabilized, the molecular orbital of the donating group must have the proper symmetry, orientation, and energy level to interact with the empty 2p orbital of the carbocation. Such cations as allyl cation CH2=CH−CH+2 and benzyl cation C6H5−CH+2 are more stable than most other carbocations due to donation of electron density from π systems to the cationic center.[36] Furthermore, carbocations present in aromatic molecules are especially stabilized, largely due to the delocalized π electrons characteristic of aromatic rings.[37] Molecules that can form allyl or benzyl carbocations are especially reactive. These carbocations where the C+ is adjacent to another carbon atom that has a double or triple bond have extra stability because of the overlap of the empty p orbital of the carbocation with the p orbitals of the π bond. This overlap of the orbitals allows the positive charge to be dispersed and electron density from the π system to be shared with the electron-deficient center, resulting in stabilization. The doubly- and triply-benzylic carbocations, diphenylcarbenium and triphenylcarbenium (trityl) cation, are particularly stable. For the same reasons, the partial p character of strained C–C bonds in cyclopropyl groups also allows for donation of electron density[38] and stabilizes the cyclopropylmethyl (cyclopropylcarbinyl) cation.The stability order of carbocations, from most stable to least stable as reflected by hydride ion affinity (HIA) values, are as follows (HIA values in kcal/mol in parentheses):As noted in the history section, the tropylium cation (C7H+7) was one of the first carbocations to be discovered, due to its aromatic stability. This carbocation is so stabilized that the molecule can be isolated and sold as a salt. On the other hand, the antiaromatic cyclopentadienyl cation (C5H+5) is destabilized by some 40 kcal/mol. The cyclopropenium cation (C3H+3), although somewhat destabilized by angle strain, is still clearly stabilized by aromaticity when compared to its open-chain analog, allyl cation. These varying cation stabilities, depending on the number of π electrons in the ring system, can furthermore be crucial factors in reaction kinetics. The formation of an aromatic carbocation is much faster than the formation of an anti-aromatic or open-chain carbocation. Given the role of carbocations in many reaction schemes, such as SN1 for example, choosing the conjugation of starting materials can be a powerful method for conferring kinetic favorability or unfavorability, as the rate constant for any given step is dependent on the step's activation energy according to the Arrhenius equation.The effect of hyperconjugation is strongly stabilizing for carbocations: hyperconjugation with alkyl substituents is often as stabilizing or even more so than conjugation with a π system. Although conjugation to unsaturated groups results in significant stabilization by the mesomeric effect (resonance), the benefit is partially offset by the presence of a more electronegative sp2 or sp carbon next to the carbocationic center. Thus, as reflected by hydride ion affinities, a secondary carbocation is more stabilized than the allyl cation, while a tertiary carbocation is more stabilized than the benzyl cation — results that may seem counterintuitive on first glance.Oxocarbenium and iminium ions have important secondary canonical forms (resonance structures) in which carbon bears a positive charge. As such, they are carbocations according to the IUPAC definition although some chemists do not regard them to be \"true\" carbocations, as their most important resonance contributors carry the formal positive charge on an oxygen or nitrogen atom, respectively.","title":"Structure and properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2-norbornyl cation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Norbornyl_cation"},{"link_name":"non-classical carbocations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonclassical_ion"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Herbert C. Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown"},{"link_name":"Saul Winstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Winstein"},{"link_name":"George Olah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Olah"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-35"}],"text":"Some carbocations such as the 2-norbornyl cation exhibit more or less symmetrical three-center two-electron bonding. Such structures, referred to as non-classical carbocations, involve the delocalization of the bonds involved in the σ-framework of the molecule, resulting in C–C and C–H bonds of fractional bond order.[39][40] This delocalization results in additional stabilization of the cation. For instance, depicted as a classical carbenium ion, 2-norbornyl cation appears to be a secondary carbocation. However, it is more stable than a typical \"secondary\" carbocation, being roughly as stable as a tertiary carbocation like t-butyl cation, according to hydride ion affinity.The existence of non-classical carbocations was once the subject of great controversy. On opposing sides were Herbert C. Brown, who believed that what appeared to be a non-classical carbocation represents the average of two rapidly equilibrating classical species (or possibly two structures exhibiting some degree of bridging or leaning but is nevertheless not symmetric) and that the true non-classical structure is a transition state between the two potential energy minima, and Saul Winstein, who believed that a non-classical structure that possessed a plane of symmetry was the sole potential energy minimum and that the classical structures merely two contributing resonance forms of this non-classical species. George Olah's discovery of superacidic media to allow carbocations to be directly observed, together with a very sensitive NMR technique developed by Martin Saunders to distinguish between the two scenarios, played important roles in resolving this controversy.[41][42] At least for the 2-norbornyl cation itself, the controversy has been settled overwhelmingly in Winstein's favor, with no sign of the putative interconverting classical species, even at temperatures as low as 6 K, and a 2013 crystal structure showing a distinctly non-classical structure.[43][35] A variety of carbocations (e.g., ethyl cation, see above) are now believed to adopt non-classical structures. However, in many cases, the energy difference between the two possible \"classical\" structures and the \"non-classical\" one is very small, and it may be difficult to distinguish between the two possibilities experimentally.","title":"Non-classical ions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ch47cations.png"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_cyclopropyl_carbinyl_cation.svg"},{"link_name":"molecular conformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_conformation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyclopropylcarbinyl_bisected_conformation.svg"},{"link_name":"bent bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bent_bond"},{"link_name":"orbital overlap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_overlap"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"text":"A non-classical structure for C4H+7 is supported by substantial experimental evidence from solvolysis experiments and NMR studies conducted in non-nucleophilic media. One or both of two structures, the cyclopropylcarbinyl cation and the bicyclobutonium cation, were invoked to account for the observed reactivity in various experiments, while the NMR data point to a highly fluxional system that undergoes rapid rearrangement to give an averaged spectrum consisting of only two 13C NMR signals, even at temperatures as low as −132 °C. Computationally, it was confirmed that the energetic landscape of the C4H+7 system is very flat, and that the two isomers postulated based on experimental data are very close in energy, the bicyclobutonium structure being computed to be just 0.4 kcal/mol more stable than the cyclopropylcarbinyl structure. In the solution phase (SbF5·SO2ClF·SO2F2, with SbF–6 as the counterion), the bicyclobutonium structure predominates over the cyclopropylcarbinyl structure in a 84:16 ratio at −61 °C.Three other possible structures, two classical structures (the homoallyl cation and cyclobutyl cation) and a more highly delocalized non-classical structure (the tricyclobutonium ion), are now known to be less stable isomers (or merely a transition state rather than an energy minimum in the case of the cyclobutyl cation).[44]Substituted cyclopropylcarbinyl cations have also been studied by NMR:[45][46]In the NMR spectrum of a dimethyl derivative, two nonequivalent signals are found for the two methyl groups, indicating that the molecular conformation of this cation is not perpendicular (as in A), which possesses a mirror plane, but is bisected (as in B) with the empty p-orbital parallel to the cyclopropyl ring system:In terms of bent bond theory, this preference is explained by assuming favorable orbital overlap between the filled cyclopropane bent bonds and the empty p-orbital.[47]","title":"Specific carbocations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Pyramidal carbocation"}] | [{"image_text":"Carbenium ion of methane","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Methyl_cation.svg/120px-Methyl_cation.svg.png"},{"image_text":"tert-Butyl cation, demonstrating planar geometry and sp2 hybridization","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Carbocationstructure.png/120px-Carbocationstructure.png"},{"image_text":"Carbonium ion of methane","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Methonium.svg/220px-Methonium.svg.png"},{"image_text":"reaction of triphenylmethanol with sulfuric acid","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/TriphenylmethanolCarbocationFormation.svg/411px-TriphenylmethanolCarbocationFormation.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Hyperconjugation by neighboring alkyl groups stabilizes the t-butyl cation. The stabilizing interaction can be depicted as an orbital interaction or by resonance structures involving \"no-bond\" resonance forms. (For clarity, a dashed line is used to show that the hydrogen atom is still attached, although the formal C–H bond order in the hyperconjugative structure is zero.)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Stabilization_of_t-butyl_cation%282%29.png/400px-Stabilization_of_t-butyl_cation%282%29.png"},{"image_text":"Order of stability of examples of tertiary (III), secondary (II), and primary (I) alkylcarbenium ions, as well as the methyl cation (far right).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/CarboCationStabilities.svg/220px-CarboCationStabilities.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Relative formation energy of carbocations from computational calculation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Relative_formation_energy_of_carbocations.png/220px-Relative_formation_energy_of_carbocations.png"},{"image_text":"The sp2 lone pair of molecule A is oriented such that it forms sufficient orbital overlap with the empty p orbital of the carbonation to allow the formation of a π bond, sequestering the carbonation in a contributing resonance structure. The lone pair of molecule B is rotated 90° with respect to the empty p orbital of the carbonation, demonstrated by the Newman projection (bottom right). Without proper orbital overlap, the nitrogen lone pair cannot donate into the carbocation's empty p orbital. Thus, the carbocation in molecule B is not resonance-stabilized.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/5.13_final-_resonance-stabalized_carbocation.jpg/409px-5.13_final-_resonance-stabalized_carbocation.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Aromatic_cations.jpg/275px-Aromatic_cations.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Ch47cations.png/600px-Ch47cations.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/The_cyclopropyl_carbinyl_cation.svg/400px-The_cyclopropyl_carbinyl_cation.svg.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Cyclopropylcarbinyl_bisected_conformation.svg/400px-Cyclopropylcarbinyl_bisected_conformation.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Armilenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armilenium"},{"title":"Carbanion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbanion"},{"title":"Carbene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbene"},{"title":"Carbo-mer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbo-mer"},{"title":"Oxocarbenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxocarbenium"}] | [{"reference":"Grützmacher, Hansjörg; Marchand, Christina M. (1997). \"Heteroatom stabilized carbenium ions\". Coord. Chem. Rev. 163: 287–344. doi:10.1016/S0010-8545(97)00043-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0010-8545%2897%2900043-X","url_text":"10.1016/S0010-8545(97)00043-X"}]},{"reference":"Robert B. Grossman (2007-07-31). The Art of Writing Reasonable Organic Reaction Mechanisms. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 105. ISBN 978-0-387-95468-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/artofwritingreas00gros","url_text":"The Art of Writing Reasonable Organic Reaction Mechanisms"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/artofwritingreas00gros/page/105","url_text":"105"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95468-4","url_text":"978-0-387-95468-4"}]},{"reference":"Olah, George A. (1972). \"Stable carbocations. CXVIII. General concept and structure of carbocations based on differentiation of trivalent (classical) carbenium ions from three-center bound penta- of tetracoordinated (nonclassical) carbonium ions. Role of carbocations in electrophilic reactions\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 94 (3): 808–820. doi:10.1021/ja00758a020.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja00758a020","url_text":"10.1021/ja00758a020"}]},{"reference":"Sommer, J.; Jost, R. (2000-01-01). \"Carbenium and carbonium ions in liquid- and solid-superacid-catalyzed activation of small alkanes\". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 72 (12): 2309–2318. doi:10.1351/pac200072122309. ISSN 1365-3075.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200072122309","url_text":"\"Carbenium and carbonium ions in liquid- and solid-superacid-catalyzed activation of small alkanes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200072122309","url_text":"10.1351/pac200072122309"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1365-3075","url_text":"1365-3075"}]},{"reference":"\"Carbocation\", IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, International Union of Applied Chemistry, 2009, doi:10.1351/goldbook.C00817, ISBN 978-0967855097, retrieved 2018-11-03","urls":[{"url":"https://goldbook.iupac.org/html/C/C00817.html","url_text":"\"Carbocation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.C00817","url_text":"10.1351/goldbook.C00817"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0967855097","url_text":"978-0967855097"}]},{"reference":"McMurry, John (August 1999). Organic chemistry (5th ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 978-0-534-37617-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_E._McMurry","url_text":"McMurry, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-37617-8","url_text":"978-0-534-37617-8"}]},{"reference":"Vollhardt, K. Peter C.; Schore, Neil Eric (2018). Organic chemistry: Structure and function (8th ed.). New York. ISBN 9781319079451. OCLC 1007924903.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_E._Schore","url_text":"Schore, Neil Eric"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781319079451","url_text":"9781319079451"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1007924903","url_text":"1007924903"}]},{"reference":"Yurkanis Bruice, Paula (2004). Organic Chemistry (4th ed.). Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-140748-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-140748-0","url_text":"978-0-13-140748-0"}]},{"reference":"Clayden, Jonathan; Greeves, Nick; Warren, Stuart; Wothers, Peter (2001). Organic Chemistry (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850346-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Clayden","url_text":"Clayden, Jonathan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Warren","url_text":"Warren, Stuart"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Wothers","url_text":"Wothers, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850346-0","url_text":"978-0-19-850346-0"}]},{"reference":"Fox, Marye Anne; Whitesell, James K. (1997). Organic Chemistry. Jones and Bartlett. ISBN 978-0-7637-0413-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0413-1","url_text":"978-0-7637-0413-1"}]},{"reference":"Merling, G. (1891). \"Ueber Tropin\". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 24 (2): 3108–3126. doi:10.1002/cber.189102402151. ISSN 0365-9496.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.189102402151","url_text":"10.1002/cber.189102402151"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0365-9496","url_text":"0365-9496"}]},{"reference":"Doering, W. von E.; Knox, L. H. (1954). \"The Cycloheptatrienylium (Tropylium) Ion\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 76 (12): 3203–3206. doi:10.1021/ja01641a027.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society","url_text":"Journal of the American Chemical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01641a027","url_text":"10.1021/ja01641a027"}]},{"reference":"\"Discovery of an in situ carbocationic system using trityl chloride as a homogeneous organocatalyst\". Tetrahedron. 69: 212–218. 2013. doi:10.1016/j.tet.2012.10.042.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tet.2012.10.042","url_text":"10.1016/j.tet.2012.10.042"}]},{"reference":"Urch, C. (2001). \"Triphenylmethyl Hexafluorophosphate\". Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis. doi:10.1002/047084289X.rt363f. ISBN 0471936235.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F047084289X.rt363f","url_text":"10.1002/047084289X.rt363f"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471936235","url_text":"0471936235"}]},{"reference":"\"On the Constitution of the Salts of Imido-Ethers and other Carbimide Derivatives\". American Chemical Journal. 21: 101. ISSN 0096-4085.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0096-4085","url_text":"0096-4085"}]},{"reference":"Meerwein, H.; Emster, K. van (1922). \"About the equilibrium isomerism between bornyl chloride isobornyl chloride and camphene chlorohydrate\". Berichte. 55: 2500.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rzepa, H. S.; Allan, C. S. M. (2010). \"Racemization of Isobornyl Chloride via Carbocations: A Nonclassical Look at a Classic Mechanism\". Journal of Chemical Education. 87 (2): 221. Bibcode:2010JChEd..87..221R. doi:10.1021/ed800058c.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010JChEd..87..221R","url_text":"2010JChEd..87..221R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed800058c","url_text":"10.1021/ed800058c"}]},{"reference":"Doering, W. von E.; Saunders, M.; Boyton, H. G.; Earhart, H. W.; Wadley, E. F.; Edwards, W. R.; Laber, G. (1958). \"The 1,1,2,3,4,5,6-heptamethylbenzenonium ion\". Tetrahedron. 4 (1–2): 178–185. doi:10.1016/0040-4020(58)88016-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0040-4020%2858%2988016-3","url_text":"10.1016/0040-4020(58)88016-3"}]},{"reference":"Story, Paul R.; Saunders, Martin (1960). \"The 7-norbornadienyl carbonium ion\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 82 (23): 6199. doi:10.1021/ja01508a058.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society","url_text":"Journal of the American Chemical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01508a058","url_text":"10.1021/ja01508a058"}]},{"reference":"Schleyer, Paul von R.; Watts, William E.; Fort, Raymond C.; Comisarow, Melvin B.; Olah, George A. (1964). \"Stable Carbonium Ions. X.1 Direct Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Observation of the 2-Norbornyl Cation\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 86 (24): 5679–5680. doi:10.1021/ja01078a056.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society","url_text":"Journal of the American Chemical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01078a056","url_text":"10.1021/ja01078a056"}]},{"reference":"Saunders, Martin; Schleyer, Paul von R.; Olah, George A. (1964). \"Stable Carbonium Ions. XI.1 The Rate of Hydride Shifts in the 2-Norbornyl Cation\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 86 (24): 5680–5681. doi:10.1021/ja01078a057.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society","url_text":"Journal of the American Chemical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01078a057","url_text":"10.1021/ja01078a057"}]},{"reference":"Anslyn, Eric V.; Dougherty, Dennis A. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_copy | Carbon copy | ["1 Process","2 History","3 Use","3.1 Use as a verb","4 Email","5 Printers","6 Examples","7 References","8 External links"] | Copy of a document made by carbon paper
For other uses, see Carbon copy (disambiguation).
"cc:" redirects here. For other uses, see CC (disambiguation).
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A copy made with carbon paper
Before the development of photographic copiers, a carbon copy was the under-copy of a typed or written document placed over carbon paper and the under-copy sheet itself (not to be confused with the carbon print family of photographic reproduction processes). When copies of business letters were so produced, it was customary to use the acronym "CC" or "cc" before a colon and below the writer's signature to inform the principal recipient that carbon copies had been made and distributed to the parties listed after the colon. With the advent of word processors and e-mail, "cc" is used as a merely formal indication of the distribution of letters to secondary recipients.
Process
A sheet of carbon paper is placed between two or more sheets of paper. The pressure applied by the writing implement (pen, pencil, typewriter or impact printer) to the top sheet causes pigment from the carbon paper to reproduce the similar mark on the copy sheet(s). More than one copy can be made by stacking several sheets with carbon paper between each pair. Four or five copies is a practical limit. The top sheet is the original and each of the additional sheets is called a carbon copy.
History
As creating carbon copies requires relatively few resources, it became a common method for producing underground and clandestine newspapers, as seen in this French example from World War II.
While carbon paper was invented by Pellegrino Turri in 1801, it was not widely used for copying until typewriters became common. Carbon copies were in wide use between the 1870s and 1980s, largely for administrative tasks.
Use
The use of carbon copies declined with the advent of photocopying and electronic document creation and distribution (word processing). Carbon copies are still sometimes used in special applications: for example, in manual receipt books which have a multiple-use sheet of carbon paper supplied, so that the user can keep an exact copy of each receipt issued, although even here carbonless copy paper is often used to the same effect.
It is still common for a business letter to include, at the end, a list of names preceded by the abbreviation "CC", indicating that the named persons are to receive copies of the letter, even though carbon paper is no longer used to make the copies.
An alternative etymology is that "c:" was used for copy and "cc:" indicates the plural, just as "p." means page and "pp." means pages. This alternative etymology explains the frequent usage of "c:" when only one recipient is listed, while "cc:" is used for two or more recipients of the copies. This etymology can also explain why, even originally, "cc:" was used to list recipients who received typed copies and not necessarily carbon copies. Sometimes this "cc" is interpreted as "courtesy copy".
The term "carbon copy" can denote anything that is a near duplicate of an original ("...and you want to turn him into a carbon copy of every fourth-rate conformist in this frightened land!" Robert Heinlein, Stranger in a Strange Land).
Use as a verb
Carbon copy can be used as a transitive verb with the meaning described under e-mail below related to the CC field of an e-mail message. That is, to send the message to additional recipients beyond the primary recipient. It is common practice to abbreviate the verb form, and many forms are used, including cc and cc:. Past tense forms in use are CCed, cc'd, cc'ed, cc-ed and cc:'d. Present participle or imperfect forms in use include cc'ing. Merriam-Webster uses cc, cc'd and cc'ing, respectively.
Email
See also: Blind carbon copy
In common usage, an email message has three fields for addressees: the To field is for principal recipients of the message, the Cc field indicates secondary recipients whose names are visible to one another and to the principal, and the Bcc (blind carbon copy) field contains the names of tertiary recipients whose names are invisible to each other and to the primary and secondary recipients. It is considered good practice to indicate to the other recipients that a new participant has been added to the list of receivers (e.g. by writing "I sent a copy to John Doe" or "John Doe, who is reading in copy, ").
Printers
Dot matrix and daisy wheel impact printers are also able to use carbon paper to produce several copies of a document in one pass, and most models feature adjustable impact power and head spacing to accommodate up to three copies plus the original printout. Usually, this feature is used in conjunction with continuous, prearranged perforated paper and carbon supplies for use with a tractor feeder, rather than with single sheets of paper, for example, when printing out commercial invoices or receipts.
Examples
Menu for the Blackpool Tower Café Restaurant, with daily specials (in blue) carbon copied, early 20th century.
Typed carbon copy letter from 1919, with stamp reading "A true copy of the signed original."
References
^ Raj (2020-07-13). "History of CC and BCC before Emails". Budding Geek. Archived from the original on 2022-12-06. Retrieved 2020-07-20.
^ Beal, Peter. (2008) "carbon copy" in A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology 1450–2000. Online edition. Oxford University Press, 2008. http://www.oxfordreference.com Archived 2013-06-02 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 22 November 2013.
^ "Italian Inventors and their Inventions". YourGuideToItaly.com. 2010. Archived from the original on 2023-05-09. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
^ "Carbon Copy". Society of American Archivists Dictionary. Society of American Archivists. Archived from the original on 2023-02-12. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
^ "Office Printing and Reprography". Preservation Self-Assessment Program (PSAP). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Archived from the original on 2023-02-12. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
^ "CC all readers" Archived 2015-05-09 at the Wayback Machine. New Scientist. 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-03.
^ Heinlein, Robert A. (1991-10-01). Stranger in a Strange Land. Penguin. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-441-78838-5.
^ "What To Do When You Are Cc:'d". thestudio.com. 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-12-14. Retrieved 2012-07-18.
^ "CC". Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. 2012. Archived from the original on 2018-05-25. Retrieved 2016-11-17.
^ Resnick, Pete (April 2001). "RFC 2822 - Internet Message Format". The Internet Society. Archived from the original on 2021-05-08. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
External links
The dictionary definition of carbon copy at Wiktionary
Authority control databases
NARA | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carbon copy (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_copy_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"CC (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CC_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karbonkopia_2008.jpg"},{"link_name":"carbon paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_paper"},{"link_name":"carbon print","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_print"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"business letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_letter"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"For other uses, see Carbon copy (disambiguation).\"cc:\" redirects here. For other uses, see CC (disambiguation).A copy made with carbon paperBefore the development of photographic copiers, a carbon copy was the under-copy of a typed or written document placed over carbon paper and the under-copy sheet itself (not to be confused with the carbon print family of photographic reproduction processes).[1] When copies of business letters were so produced, it was customary to use the acronym \"CC\" or \"cc\" before a colon and below the writer's signature to inform the principal recipient that carbon copies had been made and distributed to the parties listed after the colon.[2] With the advent of word processors and e-mail, \"cc\" is used as a merely formal indication of the distribution of letters to secondary recipients.","title":"Carbon copy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"impact printer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printer_(computing)#Obsolete_and_special-purpose_printing_technologies"}],"text":"A sheet of carbon paper is placed between two or more sheets of paper. The pressure applied by the writing implement (pen, pencil, typewriter or impact printer) to the top sheet causes pigment from the carbon paper to reproduce the similar mark on the copy sheet(s). More than one copy can be made by stacking several sheets with carbon paper between each pair. Four or five copies is a practical limit. The top sheet is the original and each of the additional sheets is called a carbon copy.","title":"Process"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_Libre_clandestine_15_Aout_1940_06.jpg"},{"link_name":"carbon paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_paper"},{"link_name":"Pellegrino Turri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pellegrino_Turri"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inventors-3"},{"link_name":"typewriters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"As creating carbon copies requires relatively few resources, it became a common method for producing underground and clandestine newspapers, as seen in this French example from World War II.While carbon paper was invented by Pellegrino Turri in 1801,[3] it was not widely used for copying until typewriters became common.[4] Carbon copies were in wide use between the 1870s and 1980s, largely for administrative tasks.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"photocopying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocopying"},{"link_name":"carbonless copy paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonless_copy_paper"},{"link_name":"business letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_letter"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Robert Heinlein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_A._Heinlein"},{"link_name":"Stranger in a Strange Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranger_in_a_Strange_Land"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The use of carbon copies declined with the advent of photocopying and electronic document creation and distribution (word processing). Carbon copies are still sometimes used in special applications: for example, in manual receipt books which have a multiple-use sheet of carbon paper supplied, so that the user can keep an exact copy of each receipt issued, although even here carbonless copy paper is often used to the same effect.It is still common for a business letter to include, at the end, a list of names preceded by the abbreviation \"CC\", indicating that the named persons are to receive copies of the letter, even though carbon paper is no longer used to make the copies.An alternative etymology is that \"c:\" was used for copy and \"cc:\" indicates the plural, just as \"p.\" means page and \"pp.\" means pages. This alternative etymology explains the frequent usage of \"c:\" when only one recipient is listed, while \"cc:\" is used for two or more recipients of the copies. This etymology can also explain why, even originally, \"cc:\" was used to list recipients who received typed copies and not necessarily carbon copies.[6] Sometimes this \"cc\" is interpreted as \"courtesy copy\".The term \"carbon copy\" can denote anything that is a near duplicate of an original (\"...and you want to turn him into a carbon copy of every fourth-rate conformist in this frightened land!\" Robert Heinlein, Stranger in a Strange Land).[7]","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"participle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participle"},{"link_name":"imperfect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfect"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Use as a verb","text":"Carbon copy can be used as a transitive verb with the meaning described under e-mail below related to the CC field of an e-mail message. That is, to send the message to additional recipients beyond the primary recipient. It is common practice to abbreviate the verb form, and many forms are used, including cc and cc:. Past tense forms in use are CCed, cc'd, cc'ed, cc-ed and cc:'d.[8] Present participle or imperfect forms in use include cc'ing. Merriam-Webster uses cc, cc'd and cc'ing, respectively.[9]","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blind carbon copy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_carbon_copy"},{"link_name":"email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"blind carbon copy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_carbon_copy"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"See also: Blind carbon copyIn common usage, an email message has three fields for addressees: the To field is for principal recipients of the message, the Cc field indicates secondary recipients whose names are visible to one another and to the principal, and the Bcc (blind carbon copy) field contains the names of tertiary recipients whose names are invisible to each other and to the primary and secondary recipients. It is considered good practice to indicate to the other recipients that a new participant has been added to the list of receivers (e.g. by writing \"I sent a copy to John Doe\" or \"John Doe, who is reading in copy, [...]\").[10]","title":"Email"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dot matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_matrix_printers"},{"link_name":"daisy wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisy_wheel_printer"},{"link_name":"impact printers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_printer"}],"text":"Dot matrix and daisy wheel impact printers are also able to use carbon paper to produce several copies of a document in one pass, and most models feature adjustable impact power and head spacing to accommodate up to three copies plus the original printout. Usually, this feature is used in conjunction with continuous, prearranged perforated paper and carbon supplies for use with a tractor feeder, rather than with single sheets of paper, for example, when printing out commercial invoices or receipts.","title":"Printers"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LUNCHEON_(held_by)_TOWER_RESTAURANT_AND_CAFE_(at)_%22BLACKPOOL,_(ENGLAND)%22_(FOR;_REST;)_(NYPL_Hades-274209-4000010340).tiff"},{"link_name":"Blackpool Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpool_Tower"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carbon_Copy_of_Letter_from_Frank_Polk,_Acting_Secretary_of_State_to_the_Governor_of_Illinois_Acknowledging_Receipt_of_His_Letter_and_Certified_Copy_of_the_State%27s_Joint_Resolution_R_-_DPLA_-_f0a4966abac23a6bf934b76d52096db4.jpg"}],"text":"Menu for the Blackpool Tower Café Restaurant, with daily specials (in blue) carbon copied, early 20th century.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTyped carbon copy letter from 1919, with stamp reading \"A true copy of the signed original.\"","title":"Examples"}] | [{"image_text":"A copy made with carbon paper","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Karbonkopia_2008.jpg/220px-Karbonkopia_2008.jpg"},{"image_text":"As creating carbon copies requires relatively few resources, it became a common method for producing underground and clandestine newspapers, as seen in this French example from World War II.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/La_Libre_clandestine_15_Aout_1940_06.jpg/220px-La_Libre_clandestine_15_Aout_1940_06.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Raj (2020-07-13). \"History of CC and BCC before Emails\". 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Retrieved 2008-04-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822","url_text":"\"RFC 2822 - Internet Message Format\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210508144218/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822","url_text":"Archived"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Carbon+copy%22","external_links_name":"\"Carbon copy\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Carbon+copy%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Carbon+copy%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Carbon+copy%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Carbon+copy%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Carbon+copy%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://buddinggeek.com/cc-and-bcc-in-an-email/#History_of_CC_and_BCC_before_emails","external_links_name":"\"History of CC and BCC before Emails\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221206231253/https://buddinggeek.com/cc-and-bcc-in-an-email/#History_of_CC_and_BCC_before_emails","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.oxfordreference.com/","external_links_name":"http://www.oxfordreference.com"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130602205448/http://www.oxfordreference.com/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.yourguidetoitaly.com/italian-inventors.html","external_links_name":"\"Italian Inventors and their Inventions\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230509152104/http://www.yourguidetoitaly.com/italian-inventors.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://dictionary.archivists.org/entry/carbon-copy.html","external_links_name":"\"Carbon Copy\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230212192820/https://dictionary.archivists.org/entry/carbon-copy.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://psap.library.illinois.edu/collection-id-guide/officeprintcopy#carboncopy","external_links_name":"\"Office Printing and Reprography\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230212194318/https://psap.library.illinois.edu/collection-id-guide/officeprintcopy#carboncopy","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028171.200-cc-all-readers.html","external_links_name":"\"CC all readers\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150509222025/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21028171.200-cc-all-readers.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=wy5lDwAAQBAJ&dq=and+you+want+to+turn+him+into+a+carbon+copy+of+every+fourth-rate+conformist+in+this+frightened+land%21%22&pg=PA121","external_links_name":"Stranger in a Strange Land"},{"Link":"http://www.businessemailetiquette.com/19/when-youre-ccd","external_links_name":"\"What To Do When You Are Cc:'d\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131214061849/http://www.businessemailetiquette.com/19/when-youre-ccd","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cc","external_links_name":"\"CC\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180525105317/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cc","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822","external_links_name":"\"RFC 2822 - Internet Message Format\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210508144218/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10629820","external_links_name":"NARA"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_serial | Asynchronous serial communication | ["1 Origin","2 Operation","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"] | Form of serial communication lacking synchronization control signals
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "Asynchronous serial communication" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013)
In this diagram, two bytes are sent, each consisting of a start bit, followed by eight data bits (bits 0-7), and one stop bit, for a 10-bit character frame. The last data bit is sometimes used as a parity bit. The number of data and formatting bits, the order of data bits, the presence or absence of a parity bit, the form of parity (even or odd) and the transmission speed must be pre-agreed by the communicating parties. The "stop bit" is actually a "stop period"; the stop period of the transmitter may be arbitrarily long. It cannot be shorter than a specified amount, usually 1 to 2 bit times. The receiver requires a shorter stop period than the transmitter. At the end of each character, the receiver stops briefly to wait for the next start bit. It is this difference which keeps the transmitter and receiver synchronized.
Asynchronous serial communication is a form of serial communication in which the communicating endpoints' interfaces are not continuously synchronized by a common clock signal. Instead of a common synchronization signal, the data stream contains synchronization information in form of start and stop signals, before and after each unit of transmission, respectively. The start signal prepares the receiver for arrival of data and the stop signal resets its state to enable triggering of a new sequence.
A common kind of start-stop transmission is ASCII over RS-232, for example for use in teletypewriter operation.
Origin
Mechanical teleprinters using 5-bit codes (see Baudot code) typically used a stop period of 1.5 bit times. Very early electromechanical teletypewriters (pre-1930) could require 2 stop bits to allow mechanical impression without buffering. Hardware which does not support fractional stop bits can communicate with a device that uses 1.5 bit times if it is configured to send 2 stop bits when transmitting and requiring 1 stop bit when receiving.
The format is derived directly from the design of the teletypewriter, which was designed this way because the electromechanical technology of its day was not precise enough for synchronous operation: thus the systems needed to be re-synchronized at the start of each character. Having been re-synchronized, the technology of the day was good enough to preserve bit-sync for the remainder of the character. The stop bits gave the system time to recover before the next start bit. Early teleprinter systems used five data bits, typically with some variant of the Baudot code.
Very early experimental printing telegraph devices used only a start bit and required manual adjustment of the receiver mechanism speed to reliably decode characters. Automatic synchronization was required to keep the transmitting and receiving units "in step". This was finally achieved by Howard Krum, who patented the start-stop method of synchronization (US 1199011 , granted September 19, 1916, then US 1286351 , granted December 3, 1918). Shortly afterward a practical teleprinter was patented (US 1232045 , granted July 3, 1917).
Operation
Before signaling will work, the sender and receiver must agree on the signaling parameters:
Full or half-duplex operation
The number of bits per character -- currently almost always 8-bit characters, but historically some transmitters have used a five-bit character code, six-bit character code, or a 7-bit ASCII.
Endianness: the order in which the bits are sent
The speed or bits per second of the line (equal to the Baud rate when each symbol represents one bit). Some systems use automatic speed detection, also called automatic baud rate detection.
Whether to use or not use parity
Odd or even parity, if used
The number of stop bits sent must be chosen (the number sent must be at least what the receiver needs)
Mark and space symbols (current directions in early telegraphy, later voltage polarities in EIA RS-232 and so on, frequency-shift polarities in frequency-shift keying and so on)
Asynchronous start-stop signaling was widely used for dial-up modem access to time-sharing computers and BBS systems. These systems used either seven or eight data bits, transmitted least-significant bit first, in accordance with the ASCII standard.
Between computers, the most common configuration used was "8N1": eight-bit characters, with one start bit, one stop bit, and no parity bit. Thus 10 Baud times are used to send a single character, and so dividing the signaling bit-rate by ten results in the overall transmission speed in characters per second.
Asynchronous start-stop is the lower data-link layer used to connect computers to modems for many dial-up Internet access applications, using a second (encapsulating) data link framing protocol such as PPP to create packets made up out of asynchronous serial characters. The most common physical layer interface used is RS-232D. The performance loss relative to synchronous access is negligible, as most modern modems will use a private synchronous protocol to send the data between themselves, and the asynchronous links at each end are operated faster than this data link, with flow control being used to throttle the data rate to prevent overrun.
See also
Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling
Degree of start-stop distortion
Synchronous serial communication
Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART)
References
^ Description, Typebar Page Printer (Model 15) (PDF). Vol. Bulletin No. 144. Chicago: Teletype Corporation. 1931. p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2009.Dead link: 2015-Oct-03
Further reading
Nelson, R. A. and Lovitt, K. M. History of Teletypewriter Development (October 1963), Teletype Corporation, retrieved April 14, 2005
Hobbs, Allan G. (1999) Five-unit codes, accessed 20 December 2007
Edward E. Kleinschmidt. Printing Telegraphy ... A New Era Begins, 1967, released Nov. 9, 2016 by Project Gutenberg.
External links
Programming:Serial Data Communications at Wikibooks | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Puerto_serie_Rs232.png"},{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"parity bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_bit"},{"link_name":"order of data bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness"},{"link_name":"serial communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_communication"},{"link_name":"stop signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_signal"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"RS-232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"teletypewriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletypewriter"}],"text":"Form of serial communication lacking synchronization control signalsIn this diagram, two bytes are sent, each consisting of a start bit, followed by eight data bits (bits 0-7), and one stop bit, for a 10-bit character frame. The last data bit is sometimes used as a parity bit. The number of data and formatting bits, the order of data bits, the presence or absence of a parity bit, the form of parity (even or odd) and the transmission speed must be pre-agreed by the communicating parties. The \"stop bit\" is actually a \"stop period\"; the stop period of the transmitter may be arbitrarily long. It cannot be shorter than a specified amount, usually 1 to 2 bit times. The receiver requires a shorter stop period than the transmitter. At the end of each character, the receiver stops briefly to wait for the next start bit. It is this difference which keeps the transmitter and receiver synchronized.Asynchronous serial communication is a form of serial communication in which the communicating endpoints' interfaces are not continuously synchronized by a common clock signal. Instead of a common synchronization signal, the data stream contains synchronization information in form of start and stop signals, before and after each unit of transmission, respectively. The start signal prepares the receiver for arrival of data and the stop signal resets its state to enable triggering of a new sequence.A common kind of start-stop transmission is ASCII over RS-232, for example for use in teletypewriter operation.","title":"Asynchronous serial communication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"teleprinters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"},{"link_name":"Baudot code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudot_code"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"teletypewriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletypewriter"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"synchronous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_synchronous_and_asynchronous_signalling"},{"link_name":"Baudot code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudot_code"},{"link_name":"US 1199011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US1199011"},{"link_name":"US 1286351","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US1286351"},{"link_name":"teleprinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"},{"link_name":"US 1232045","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US1232045"}],"text":"Mechanical teleprinters using 5-bit codes (see Baudot code) typically used a stop period of 1.5 bit times.[1] Very early electromechanical teletypewriters (pre-1930) could require 2 stop bits to allow mechanical impression without buffering.[citation needed] Hardware which does not support fractional stop bits can communicate with a device that uses 1.5 bit times if it is configured to send 2 stop bits when transmitting and requiring 1 stop bit when receiving.The format is derived directly from the design of the teletypewriter, which was designed this way because the electromechanical technology of its day was not precise enough[citation needed] for synchronous operation: thus the systems needed to be re-synchronized at the start of each character. Having been re-synchronized, the technology of the day was good enough to preserve bit-sync for the remainder of the character. The stop bits gave the system time to recover before the next start bit. Early teleprinter systems used five data bits, typically with some variant of the Baudot code.Very early experimental printing telegraph devices used only a start bit and required manual adjustment of the receiver mechanism speed to reliably decode characters. Automatic synchronization was required to keep the transmitting and receiving units \"in step\". This was finally achieved by Howard Krum, who patented the start-stop method of synchronization (US 1199011 , granted September 19, 1916, then US 1286351 , granted December 3, 1918). Shortly afterward a practical teleprinter was patented (US 1232045 , granted July 3, 1917).","title":"Origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"duplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"8-bit characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bit_character"},{"link_name":"five-bit character code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-bit_character_code"},{"link_name":"six-bit character code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-bit_character_code"},{"link_name":"7-bit ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-bit_ASCII"},{"link_name":"Endianness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness"},{"link_name":"Baud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baud"},{"link_name":"automatic baud rate detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_baud_rate_detection"},{"link_name":"parity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_bit"},{"link_name":"EIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Industries_Alliance"},{"link_name":"RS-232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"frequency-shift keying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"time-sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-sharing"},{"link_name":"BBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system"},{"link_name":"least-significant bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least-significant_bit"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"8N1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-N-1"},{"link_name":"data-link layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-link_layer"},{"link_name":"framing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_(networking)"},{"link_name":"PPP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocol"},{"link_name":"packets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_packet"},{"link_name":"flow control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_control_(data)"}],"text":"Before signaling will work, the sender and receiver must agree on the signaling parameters:Full or half-duplex operation\nThe number of bits per character -- currently almost always 8-bit characters, but historically some transmitters have used a five-bit character code, six-bit character code, or a 7-bit ASCII.\nEndianness: the order in which the bits are sent\nThe speed or bits per second of the line (equal to the Baud rate when each symbol represents one bit). Some systems use automatic speed detection, also called automatic baud rate detection.\nWhether to use or not use parity\nOdd or even parity, if used\nThe number of stop bits sent must be chosen (the number sent must be at least what the receiver needs)\nMark and space symbols (current directions in early telegraphy, later voltage polarities in EIA RS-232 and so on, frequency-shift polarities in frequency-shift keying and so on)Asynchronous start-stop signaling was widely used for dial-up modem access to time-sharing computers and BBS systems. These systems used either seven or eight data bits, transmitted least-significant bit first, in accordance with the ASCII standard.Between computers, the most common configuration used was \"8N1\": eight-bit characters, with one start bit, one stop bit, and no parity bit. Thus 10 Baud times are used to send a single character, and so dividing the signaling bit-rate by ten results in the overall transmission speed in characters per second.Asynchronous start-stop is the lower data-link layer used to connect computers to modems for many dial-up Internet access applications, using a second (encapsulating) data link framing protocol such as PPP to create packets made up out of asynchronous serial characters. The most common physical layer interface used is RS-232D. The performance loss relative to synchronous access is negligible, as most modern modems will use a private synchronous protocol to send the data between themselves, and the asynchronous links at each end are operated faster than this data link, with flow control being used to throttle the data rate to prevent overrun.","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of Teletypewriter Development (October 1963)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.rtty.com/history/nelson.htm"},{"link_name":"Five-unit codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/19991104220621/http://www.nadcomm.com/fiveunit/fiveunits.htm"},{"link_name":"Printing Telegraphy ... A New Era Begins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.gutenberg.org/files/53481/53481-h/53481-h.htm"},{"link_name":"Project Gutenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.gutenberg.org"}],"text":"Nelson, R. A. and Lovitt, K. M. History of Teletypewriter Development (October 1963), Teletype Corporation, retrieved April 14, 2005\nHobbs, Allan G. (1999) Five-unit codes, accessed 20 December 2007\nEdward E. Kleinschmidt. Printing Telegraphy ... A New Era Begins, 1967, released Nov. 9, 2016 by Project Gutenberg.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"In this diagram, two bytes are sent, each consisting of a start bit, followed by eight data bits (bits 0-7), and one stop bit, for a 10-bit character frame. The last data bit is sometimes used as a parity bit. The number of data and formatting bits, the order of data bits, the presence or absence of a parity bit, the form of parity (even or odd) and the transmission speed must be pre-agreed by the communicating parties. The \"stop bit\" is actually a \"stop period\"; the stop period of the transmitter may be arbitrarily long. It cannot be shorter than a specified amount, usually 1 to 2 bit times. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(mythology) | Atlas (mythology) | ["1 Etymology","2 Mythology","2.1 War and punishment","2.2 Encounter with Perseus","2.3 Encounter with Heracles","3 Other mythological characters named Atlas","3.1 King of Atlantis","3.2 King of Mauretania","3.3 Other","4 Genealogy","5 Cultural influence","6 Gallery","7 Genealogy","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 External links"] | Deity in Greek mythology
This article is about the Titan. For other uses, see Atlas (disambiguation).
AtlasThe Farnese Atlas, the oldest surviving depiction of the celestial spheres.AbodeWestern edge of Gaia (Earth)Personal informationParents
Iapetus (father)
Asia or Clymene (mother)
Consort
Pleione
Hesperis
Children
The Hesperides
The Hyades
The Pleiades
Hyas
Calypso
Dione
EquivalentsRoman equivalentAtlasEgyptian equivalentGeb
In Greek mythology, Atlas (/ˈætləs/; Greek: Ἄτλας, Átlās) is a Titan condemned to hold up the heavens or sky for eternity after the Titanomachy. Atlas also plays a role in the myths of two of the greatest Greek heroes: Heracles (Hercules in Roman mythology) and Perseus. According to the ancient Greek poet Hesiod, Atlas stood at the ends of the earth in the extreme west. Later, he became commonly identified with the Atlas Mountains in northwest Africa and was said to be the first King of Mauretania (modern-day Morocco and, much later, including west Algeria, not to be confused with the modern-day country of Mauritania). Atlas was said to have been skilled in philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy. In antiquity, he was credited with inventing the first celestial sphere. In some texts, he is even credited with the invention of astronomy itself.
Atlas was the son of the Titan Iapetus and the Oceanid Asia or Clymene. He was a brother of Epimetheus and Prometheus. He had many children, mostly daughters, the Hesperides, the Hyades, the Pleiades, and the nymph Calypso who lived on the island Ogygia.
The term "atlas" has been used to describe a collection of maps since the 16th century when Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator published his work in honour of the mythological Titan.
The "Atlantic Ocean" is derived from "Sea of Atlas". The name of Atlantis mentioned in Plato's Timaeus' dialogue derives from "Atlantis nesos" (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος), literally meaning "Atlas's Island".
Etymology
Atlas and the Hesperides by John Singer Sargent (1925)
The etymology of the name Atlas is uncertain. Virgil took pleasure in translating etymologies of Greek names by combining them with adjectives that explained them: for Atlas his adjective is durus, "hard, enduring", which suggested to George Doig that Virgil was aware of the Greek τλῆναι "to endure"; Doig offers the further possibility that Virgil was aware of Strabo's remark that the native North African name for this mountain was Douris. Since the Atlas mountains rise in the region inhabited by Berbers, it has been suggested that the name might be taken from one of the Berber languages, specifically from the word ádrār "mountain".
Traditionally historical linguists etymologize the Ancient Greek word Ἄτλας (genitive: Ἄτλαντος) as comprised from copulative α- and the Proto-Indo-European root *telh₂- 'to uphold, support' (whence also τλῆναι), and which was later reshaped to an nt-stem. However, Robert S. P. Beekes argues that it cannot be expected that this ancient Titan carries an Indo-European name, and he suggests instead that the word is of Pre-Greek origin, as such words often end in -ant.
Mythology
War and punishment
Main article: Titanomachy
Atlas and his brother Menoetius sided with the Titans in their war against the Olympians, the Titanomachy. When the Titans were defeated, many of them (including Menoetius) were confined to Tartarus, but Zeus condemned Atlas to stand at the western edge of the earth and hold up the sky on his shoulders. Thus, he was Atlas Telamon, "enduring Atlas", and became a doublet of Coeus, the embodiment of the celestial axis around which the heavens revolve.
A common misconception today is that Atlas was forced to hold the Earth on his shoulders, but Classical art shows Atlas holding the celestial spheres, not the terrestrial globe; the solidity of the marble globe borne by the renowned Farnese Atlas may have aided the conflation, reinforced in the 16th century by the developing usage of atlas to describe a corpus of terrestrial maps.
Encounter with Perseus
Main article: Perseus
The Greek poet Polyidus c. 398 BC tells a tale of Atlas, then a shepherd, encountering Perseus who turned him to stone. Ovid later gives a more detailed account of the incident, combining it with the myth of Heracles. In this account Atlas is not a shepherd, but a king. According to Ovid, Perseus arrives in Atlas's Kingdom and asks for shelter, declaring he is a son of Zeus. Atlas, fearful of a prophecy that warned of a son of Zeus stealing his golden apples from his orchard, refuses Perseus hospitality. In this account, Atlas is turned not just into stone by Perseus, but an entire mountain range: Atlas's head the peak, his shoulders ridges and his hair woods. The prophecy did not relate to Perseus stealing the golden apples but to Heracles, another son of Zeus, and Perseus's great-grandson.
Encounter with Heracles
Main article: Heracles
Herkules und Atlas by Lucas Cranach the Elder
One of the Twelve Labours of the hero Heracles was to fetch some of the golden apples that grow in Hera's garden, tended by Atlas's reputed daughters, the Hesperides (which were also called the Atlantides), and guarded by the dragon Ladon. Heracles went to Atlas and offered to hold up the heavens while Atlas got the apples from his daughters.
Upon his return with the apples, however, Atlas attempted to trick Heracles into carrying the sky permanently by offering to deliver the apples himself, as anyone who purposely took the burden must carry it forever, or until someone else took it away. Heracles, suspecting Atlas did not intend to return, pretended to agree to Atlas's offer, asking only that Atlas take the sky again for a few minutes so Heracles could rearrange his cloak as padding on his shoulders. When Atlas set down the apples and took the heavens upon his shoulders again, Heracles took the apples and ran away.
In some versions, Heracles instead built the two great Pillars of Hercules to hold the sky away from the earth, liberating Atlas much as he liberated Prometheus.
Other mythological characters named Atlas
Besides the Titan, there are other mythological characters who were also called Atlas:
King of Atlantis
Atlas and Heracles, metope from the temple of Zeus at Olympia.
According to Plato, the first king of Atlantis was also named Atlas, but that Atlas was a son of Poseidon and the mortal woman Cleito. The works of Eusebius and Diodorus also give an Atlantean account of Atlas. In these accounts, Atlas' father was Uranus and his mother was Gaia. His grandfather was Elium "King of Phoenicia" who lived in Byblos with his wife Beruth. Atlas was raised by his sister, Basilia.
King of Mauretania
Atlas was also a legendary king of Mauretania, the land of the Mauri in antiquity roughly corresponding with modern Morocco and Algeria . In the 16th century, Gerardus Mercator put together the first collection of maps to be called an "Atlas" and devoted his book to the "King of Mauretania".
Atlas became associated with Northwest Africa over time. He had been connected with the Hesperides, or "Nymphs", which guarded the golden apples, and Gorgons both of which were said to live beyond Ocean in the extreme west of the world since Hesiod's Theogony. Diodorus and Palaephatus mention that the Gorgons lived in the Gorgades, islands in the Aethiopian Sea. The main island was called Cerna, and modern-day arguments have been advanced that these islands may correspond to Cape Verde due to Phoenician exploration. The Northwest Africa region emerged as the canonical home of the King via separate sources. In particular, according to Ovid, after Perseus turns Atlas into a mountain range, he flies over Aethiopia, the blood of Medusa's head giving rise to Libyan snakes. By the time of the Roman Empire, the habit of associating Atlas's home to a chain of mountains, the Atlas Mountains, which were near Mauretania and Numidia, was firmly entrenched.
Other
The identifying name Aril is inscribed on two 5th-century BC Etruscan bronze items: a mirror from Vulci and a ring from an unknown site. Both objects depict the encounter with Atlas of Hercle—the Etruscan Heracles—identified by the inscription; they represent rare instances where a figure from Greek mythology was imported into Etruscan mythology, but the name was not. The Etruscan name Aril is etymologically independent.
Genealogy
Sources describe Atlas as the father, by different goddesses, of numerous children, mostly daughters. Some of these are assigned conflicting or overlapping identities or parentage in different sources.
By Hesperis:
The Hesperides
By Pleione (or Aethra):
The Hyades
A son, Hyas
The Pleiades
By one or more unspecified goddesses:
Calypso
Dione
Maera
Hyginus, in his Fabulae, adds an older Atlas who is the son of Aether and Gaia.
Cultural influence
Main article: Atlas (disambiguation)
Atlas' best-known cultural association is in cartography. The first publisher to associate the Titan Atlas with a group of maps was the print-seller Antonio Lafreri, who included a depiction of the Titan on the engraved title-page he applied to his ad hoc assemblages of maps, Tavole Moderne di Geografia de la Maggior parte del Mondo di Diversi Autori (1572). However, Lafreri did not use the word "Atlas" in the title of his work; this was an innovation of Gerardus Mercator, who named his work Atlas Sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati (1585 – 1595), using the word Atlas as a dedication specifically to honour the Titan Atlas, in his capacity as King of Mauretania, a learned philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer.
In psychology, Atlas is used metaphorically to describe the personality of someone whose childhood was characterized by excessive responsibilities.
Ayn Rand's political dystopian novel Atlas Shrugged (1957) references the popular misconception of Atlas holding up the entire world on his back by comparing the capitalist and intellectual class as being "modern Atlases" who hold the modern world up at great expense to themselves.
Gallery
Atlas supports the terrestrial globe on a building in Collins Street, Melbourne, Australia.
Nautilus Cup. This drinking vessel, for court feasts, depicts Atlas holding the shell on his back. The Walters Art Museum
Sculpture of Atlas, Praza do Toural, Santiago de Compostela
Lee Lawrie's colossal bronze Atlas, Rockefeller Center, New York
Greco-Buddhist (c. AD 100) Atlas, supporting a Buddhist monument, Hadda, Afghanistan
Atlas inside the Royal Palace, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Statues of Atlas on the exterior of Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, Pushkin, Saint Petersburg
Genealogy
Atlas's family tree
UranusGaiaPontus
OceanusTethysHyperionTheiaCriusEurybia
The RiversThe OceanidsHeliosSeleneEosAstraeusPallasPerses
CronusRheaCoeusPhoebe
HestiaHeraHadesZeusLetoAsteria
DemeterPoseidon
IapetusClymene (or Asia)Mnemosyne(Zeus)Themis
ATLASMenoetiusPrometheusEpimetheusThe MusesThe Horae
See also
Atlas (architecture)
Bahamut, a rough analogue from Arabian mythology, and other members of Category:World-bearing animals
Farnese Atlas
Upelluri
Notes
^ Hesiod, Theogony 517–520.
^ Smith, s.v. Atlas
^ a b Referencing Diodorus:
" perfected the science of astrology and was the first to publish to mankind the doctrine of the sphere. and it was for this reason that the idea was held that the entire heavens were supported upon the shoulders of Atlas, the myth darkly hinting in this way at his discovery and description of the sphere." Bibliotheca historica, Book III 60.2
"Atlas was so grateful to Heracles for his kindly deed that he not only gladly gave him such assistance as his Labour called for, but he also instructed him quite freely in the knowledge of astrology. For Atlas had worked out the science of astrology to a degree surpassing others and had ingeniously discovered the spherical nature of the stars, and for that reason was generally believed to be bearing the entire firmament upon his shoulders. Similarly in the case of Heracles, when he had brought to the Greeks the doctrine of the sphere, he gained great fame, as if he had taken over the burden of the firmament which Atlas had borne, since men intimated in this enigmatic way what had actually taken place." Bibliotheca historica, Book IV 27.4-5
^ Apollodorus, 1.2.3.
^ Hesiod,Theogony 507. It is possible that the name Asia became preferred over Hesiod's Clymene to avoid confusion with what must be a different Oceanid named Clymene, who was mother of Phaethon by Helios in some accounts.
^ Roman, Luke; Roman, Monica (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology. Infobase Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4381-2639-5.
^ Homer, Odyssey, 1.14, 1.50. Calypso is sometimes referred to as Atlantis (Ατλαντίς), which means the daughter of Atlas, see the entry Ατλαντίς in Liddell & Scott, and also Hesiod, Theogony, 938.
^ "What does "Atlantis" mean? And why is the Space Shuttle Atlantis named after something underwater?". 8 July 2011.
^ Aeneid iv.247: "Atlantis duri" and other instances; see Robert W. Cruttwell, "Virgil, Aeneid, iv. 247: 'Atlantis Duri'" The Classical Review 59.1 (May 1945), p. 11.
^ George Doig, "Vergil's Art and the Greek Language" The Classical Journal 64.1 (October 1968, pp. 1-6) p. 2.
^ Strabo, 17.3;
^ a b Beekes, Robert; van Beek, Lucien (2010). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Vol. 1. Brill. p. 163.
^ Hesiod, Theogony 517–520; Gantz (1993), p. 46
^ The usage in Virgil's maximum Atlas axem umero torquet stellis ardentibus aptum (Aeneid, iv.481f, cf vi.796f), combining poetic and parascientific images, is discussed in P. R. Hardie, "Atlas and Axis" The Classical Quarterly N.S. 33.1 (1983:220-228).
^ Polyeidos, fr. 837 Campbell; Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.627.
^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.617 ff. (on-line English translation at Theoi Project).
^ William Godwin (1876). Lives of the Necromancers. London, F. J. Mason. p. 39.
^ Ogden (2008), pp. 49, 108, 114
^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.27.2; Gantz (1993), pp. 410–413.
^ a lost passage of Pindar quoted by Strabo (3.5.5) was the earliest reference in this context: "the pillars which Pindar calls the "gates of Gades" when he asserts that they are the farthermost limits reached by Heracles"; the passage in Pindar has not been traced.
^ Plato, Critias 133d–114a
^ The "testimony of Eusebius" was "drawn from the most ancient historians" according to Mercator. Eusebius' Praeparatio evangelica gives accounts of Atlas that had been translated from the works of ancient Phoenician Sanchuniathon, the original sources for which predate the Trojan War (i.e. 13th century BCE).
^ For further comment on Mercator's chosen Titanic genealogy see Keuning (1947), Akerman (1994) and Ramachandran (2015), p. 42
^ a b Mercator & Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection (Library of Congress) (2000)
^ See Bibliotheca historica, Book III, Eusebius' Praeparatio evangelica references the same mythology as Diodorus stating "These then are the principal heads of the theology held among the Atlanteans".
^ Grafton, Most & Settis (2010), p. 103
^ See Gantz (1993), p. 401 and Ogden (2008), p. 47-49
^ For instance, the Phoenician Hanno the Navigator is said to have sailed as far as Mount Cameroon in the 5th or 6th century BC. See Lemprière (1833), pp. 249–250 and Ovid, The Metamorphoses, commented by Henry T. Riley ISBN 978-1-4209-3395-6
^ Lemprière (1833), pp. 249–250
^ Paolo Martini, Il nome etrusco di Atlante, (Rome:Università di Roma) 1987 investigates the etymology of aril, rejecting a link to the verbal morpheme ar- ("support") in favor of a Phoenician etymon in an unattested possible form *'arrab(a), signifying "guarantor in a commercial transaction" with the connotation of "mediator", related to the Latin borrowing arillator, "middleman". This section and note depend on Rex Wallace's review of Martini in Language 65.1 (March 1989:187–188).
^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.27.2; Gantz (1993), p. 7.
^ Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21.4, 2.21.6; Ovid, Fasti 5.164
^ a b Hyginus, Fabulae 192
^ Hesiod, Works and Days 383; Apollodorus, 3.10.1; Ovid, Fasti 5.79
^ Homer, Odyssey 1.52; Apollodorus, Epitome 7.24
^ Hyginus, Fabulae 82 & 83
^ Pausanias, 8.12.7 & 8.48.6
^ Hyginus, Fabulae Preface
^ Ashley Baynton-Williams. "The "Lafreri school" of Italian mapmakers". Archived from the original on April 23, 2016. Retrieved February 26, 2013.
^ van Egmond, Marco. "The 'Atlas' by Mercator and Hondius". Utrecht University. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
^ Vogel, L. Z.; Savva, Stavroula (1993-12-01). "Atlas personality". British Journal of Medical Psychology. 66 (4): 323–330. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1993.tb01758.x. ISSN 2044-8341. PMID 8123600.
^ "Nautilus Cup". The Walters Art Museum.
^ Hesiod, Theogony 132–138, 337–411, 453–520, 901–906, 915–920; Caldwell, pp. 8–11, tables 11–14.
^ Although usually the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, as in Hesiod, Theogony 371–374, in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes (4), 99–100, Selene is instead made the daughter of Pallas the son of Megamedes.
^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 507–511, Clymene, one of the Oceanids, the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, at Hesiod, Theogony 351, was the mother by Iapetus of Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, while according to Apollodorus, 1.2.3, another Oceanid, Asia was their mother by Iapetus.
^ According to Plato, Critias, 113d–114a, Atlas was the son of Poseidon and the mortal Cleito.
^ In Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 18, 211, 873 (Sommerstein, pp. 444–445 n. 2, 446–447 n. 24, 538–539 n. 113) Prometheus is made to be the son of Themis.
References
Akerman, J. R. (1994). "Atlas, la genèse d'un titre". In Watelet, M. (ed.). Gerardi Mercatoris, Atlas Europae. Antwerp: Bibliothèque des Amis du Fonds Mercator. pp. 15–29.
Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Diodorus Siculus (1933–67). Oldfather, C. H.; Sherman, C. L.; Welles, C. B.; Geer, R. M.; Walton, F. R. (eds.). Diodorus of Sicily : The Library of History. 12 Vols (2004 ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Gantz, T. (1993). Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4410-2. LCCN 92026010. OCLC 917033766.
Grafton, A.; Most, G. W.; Settis, S., eds. (2010). The Classical Tradition (2013 ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07227-5. LCCN 2010019667. OCLC 957010841.
Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Hesiod; Works and Days, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Hornblower, S.; Spawforth, A.; Eidinow, E., eds. (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. LCCN 2012009579. OCLC 799019502.
Hyginus, Gaius Julius, De Astronomica, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText.
Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText.
Keuning, J. (1947). "The History of an Atlas: Mercator. Hondius". Imago Mundi. 4 (1): 37–62. doi:10.1080/03085694708591880. ISSN 0308-5694. JSTOR 1149747.
Lemprière, J. (1833). Anthon, C. (ed.). A Classical Dictionary. New York: G. & C. & H. Carvill LCCN 31001224. OCLC 81170896.
Mercator, G.; Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection (Library of Congress) (2000). Karrow, R. W. (ed.). Atlas sive Cosmographicæ Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura: Duisburg, 1595 (PDF). Translated by Sullivan, D. Oakland, CA: Octavo. ISBN 978-1-891788-26-0. LCCN map55000728. OCLC 48878698. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2016.
Ogden, D. (2008). Perseus (1st ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-42724-1. LCCN 2007031552. OCLC 163604137.
Ogden, D. (2013). Drakon: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955732-5. LCCN 2012277527. OCLC 799069191.
Ramachandran, A. (2015). The Worldmakers: Global Imagining in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-28879-6. OCLC 930260324.
Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Atlas"
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Atlas (mythology) (category)
"Atlas (1.)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. III (9th ed.). 1878. p. 27.
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (c. 120 images of Atlas)
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Groups
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Moderntreatments
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vteAncient Greek deitiesPrimordial deities
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Other deitiesSky
The Anemoi
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vteMetamorphoses in Greek mythologyAnimalsAvian
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Atlas (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Greek mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology"},{"link_name":"/ˈætləs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Titan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titans"},{"link_name":"eternity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternity"},{"link_name":"Titanomachy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanomachy"},{"link_name":"Greek heroes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures#Heroes"},{"link_name":"Heracles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracles"},{"link_name":"Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercules"},{"link_name":"Roman mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_mythology"},{"link_name":"Perseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"west","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperides"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-517%E2%80%93520-1"},{"link_name":"Atlas Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Mauretania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauretania"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"},{"link_name":"Mauritania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"celestial sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_spheres"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Diodorus-3"},{"link_name":"Iapetus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iapetus"},{"link_name":"Oceanid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanid"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_(Oceanid)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pseudo-Apollodorus-4"},{"link_name":"Clymene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clymene_(wife_of_Iapetus)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Asia-5"},{"link_name":"Epimetheus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epimetheus"},{"link_name":"Prometheus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Hesperides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperides"},{"link_name":"Hyades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyades_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Pleiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiades_(Greek_mythology)"},{"link_name":"Calypso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calypso_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Ogygia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogygia"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Daughter-7"},{"link_name":"atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas"},{"link_name":"Flemish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flanders"},{"link_name":"Gerardus Mercator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Atlantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantis"},{"link_name":"Plato's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Timaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"This article is about the Titan. For other uses, see Atlas (disambiguation).In Greek mythology, Atlas (/ˈætləs/; Greek: Ἄτλας, Átlās) is a Titan condemned to hold up the heavens or sky for eternity after the Titanomachy. Atlas also plays a role in the myths of two of the greatest Greek heroes: Heracles (Hercules in Roman mythology) and Perseus. According to the ancient Greek poet Hesiod, Atlas stood at the ends of the earth in the extreme west.[1] Later, he became commonly identified with the Atlas Mountains in northwest Africa and was said to be the first King of Mauretania (modern-day Morocco and, much later, including west Algeria, not to be confused with the modern-day country of Mauritania).[2] Atlas was said to have been skilled in philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy. In antiquity, he was credited with inventing the first celestial sphere. In some texts, he is even credited with the invention of astronomy itself.[3]Atlas was the son of the Titan Iapetus and the Oceanid Asia[4] or Clymene.[5] He was a brother of Epimetheus and Prometheus.[6] He had many children, mostly daughters, the Hesperides, the Hyades, the Pleiades, and the nymph Calypso who lived on the island Ogygia.[7]The term \"atlas\" has been used to describe a collection of maps since the 16th century when Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator published his work in honour of the mythological Titan.The \"Atlantic Ocean\" is derived from \"Sea of Atlas\". The name of Atlantis mentioned in Plato's Timaeus' dialogue derives from \"Atlantis nesos\" (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος), literally meaning \"Atlas's Island\".[8]","title":"Atlas (mythology)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Singer_Sargent,_John_-_Atlas_and_the_Hesperides_-_1925.jpg"},{"link_name":"etymology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Strabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo"},{"link_name":"Berbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_people"},{"link_name":"Berber languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_languages"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"genitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitive_case"},{"link_name":"Proto-Indo-European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beekes-12"},{"link_name":"Robert S. P. Beekes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes"},{"link_name":"Pre-Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beekes-12"}],"text":"Atlas and the Hesperides by John Singer Sargent (1925)The etymology of the name Atlas is uncertain. Virgil took pleasure in translating etymologies of Greek names by combining them with adjectives that explained them: for Atlas his adjective is durus, \"hard, enduring\",[9] which suggested to George Doig[10] that Virgil was aware of the Greek τλῆναι \"to endure\"; Doig offers the further possibility that Virgil was aware of Strabo's remark that the native North African name for this mountain was Douris. Since the Atlas mountains rise in the region inhabited by Berbers, it has been suggested that the name might be taken from one of the Berber languages, specifically from the word ádrār \"mountain\".[11]Traditionally historical linguists etymologize the Ancient Greek word Ἄτλας (genitive: Ἄτλαντος) as comprised from copulative α- and the Proto-Indo-European root *telh₂- 'to uphold, support' (whence also τλῆναι), and which was later reshaped to an nt-stem.[12] However, Robert S. P. Beekes argues that it cannot be expected that this ancient Titan carries an Indo-European name, and he suggests instead that the word is of Pre-Greek origin, as such words often end in -ant.[12]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Menoetius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menoetius_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Olympians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Olympians"},{"link_name":"Titanomachy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanomachy"},{"link_name":"Tartarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartarus"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Coeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coeus"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"celestial spheres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_spheres"},{"link_name":"terrestrial globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe"},{"link_name":"Farnese Atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnese_Atlas"},{"link_name":"terrestrial maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"War and punishment","text":"Atlas and his brother Menoetius sided with the Titans in their war against the Olympians, the Titanomachy. When the Titans were defeated, many of them (including Menoetius) were confined to Tartarus, but Zeus condemned Atlas to stand at the western edge of the earth and hold up the sky on his shoulders.[13] Thus, he was Atlas Telamon, \"enduring Atlas\", and became a doublet of Coeus, the embodiment of the celestial axis around which the heavens revolve.[14]A common misconception today is that Atlas was forced to hold the Earth on his shoulders, but Classical art shows Atlas holding the celestial spheres, not the terrestrial globe; the solidity of the marble globe borne by the renowned Farnese Atlas may have aided the conflation, reinforced in the 16th century by the developing usage of atlas to describe a corpus of terrestrial maps.[citation needed]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Polyidus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyidus"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Perseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus"},{"link_name":"turned him to stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrifaction_in_mythology_and_fiction"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LOTN-17"},{"link_name":"Heracles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracles"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Encounter with Perseus","text":"The Greek poet Polyidus c. 398 BC[15] tells a tale of Atlas, then a shepherd, encountering Perseus who turned him to stone. Ovid later gives a more detailed account of the incident, combining it with the myth of Heracles. In this account Atlas is not a shepherd, but a king.[16] According to Ovid, Perseus arrives in Atlas's Kingdom and asks for shelter, declaring he is a son of Zeus. Atlas, fearful of a prophecy that warned of a son of Zeus stealing his golden apples from his orchard, refuses Perseus hospitality.[17] In this account, Atlas is turned not just into stone by Perseus, but an entire mountain range: Atlas's head the peak, his shoulders ridges and his hair woods. The prophecy did not relate to Perseus stealing the golden apples but to Heracles, another son of Zeus, and Perseus's great-grandson.[18]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Herkules_und_Atlas_(Herzog_Anton_Ulrich-Museum).jpg"},{"link_name":"Lucas Cranach the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Twelve Labours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labours_of_Hercules"},{"link_name":"Heracles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracles"},{"link_name":"Hera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera"},{"link_name":"Hesperides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperides"},{"link_name":"Ladon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladon_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Pillars of Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Hercules"},{"link_name":"Prometheus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus"}],"sub_title":"Encounter with Heracles","text":"Herkules und Atlas by Lucas Cranach the ElderOne of the Twelve Labours of the hero Heracles was to fetch some of the golden apples that grow in Hera's garden, tended by Atlas's reputed daughters, the Hesperides (which were also called the Atlantides), and guarded by the dragon Ladon. Heracles went to Atlas and offered to hold up the heavens while Atlas got the apples from his daughters.[19]Upon his return with the apples, however, Atlas attempted to trick Heracles into carrying the sky permanently by offering to deliver the apples himself, as anyone who purposely took the burden must carry it forever, or until someone else took it away. Heracles, suspecting Atlas did not intend to return, pretended to agree to Atlas's offer, asking only that Atlas take the sky again for a few minutes so Heracles could rearrange his cloak as padding on his shoulders. When Atlas set down the apples and took the heavens upon his shoulders again, Heracles took the apples and ran away.[citation needed]In some versions,[20] Heracles instead built the two great Pillars of Hercules to hold the sky away from the earth, liberating Atlas much as he liberated Prometheus.","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Besides the Titan, there are other mythological characters who were also called Atlas:","title":"Other mythological characters named Atlas"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:M%C3%A8topa_del_temple_de_Zeus_d%27Ol%C3%ADmpia_amb_representaci%C3%B3_d%27H%C3%A8racles_i_les_pomes_de_les_Hesp%C3%A8rides_(Museu_Arqueol%C3%B2gic_d%27Ol%C3%ADmpia).JPG"},{"link_name":"Olympia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia,_Greece"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Atlantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantis"},{"link_name":"Poseidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Eusebius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eusebius-22"},{"link_name":"Diodorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Diodorus-3"},{"link_name":"Uranus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Gaia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia"},{"link_name":"Elium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elyon#Sanchuniathon"},{"link_name":"Phoenicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Byblos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byblos"},{"link_name":"Beruth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal_Berith"},{"link_name":"Basilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilea_(queen)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mercator-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"King of Atlantis","text":"Atlas and Heracles, metope from the temple of Zeus at Olympia.According to Plato, the first king of Atlantis was also named Atlas, but that Atlas was a son of Poseidon and the mortal woman Cleito.[21] The works of Eusebius[22] and Diodorus[3] also give an Atlantean account of Atlas. In these accounts, Atlas' father was Uranus and his mother was Gaia. His grandfather was Elium \"King of Phoenicia\" who lived in Byblos with his wife Beruth. Atlas was raised by his sister, Basilia.[23][24][25]","title":"Other mythological characters named Atlas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mauretania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauretania"},{"link_name":"Mauri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauri_people"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"},{"link_name":"Gerardus Mercator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator"},{"link_name":"Atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mercator-24"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Hesperides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperides"},{"link_name":"golden apples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_apple"},{"link_name":"Gorgons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgons"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Theogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogony"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Diodorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus"},{"link_name":"Palaephatus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaephatus"},{"link_name":"Aethiopian Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethiopian_Sea"},{"link_name":"Cape Verde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Verde"},{"link_name":"Phoenician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Aethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethiopia"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Atlas Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Mauretania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauretania"},{"link_name":"Numidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numidia"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"King of Mauretania","text":"Atlas was also a legendary king of Mauretania, the land of the Mauri in antiquity roughly corresponding with modern Morocco and Algeria . In the 16th century, Gerardus Mercator put together the first collection of maps to be called an \"Atlas\" and devoted his book to the \"King of Mauretania\".[24][26]Atlas became associated with Northwest Africa over time. He had been connected with the Hesperides, or \"Nymphs\", which guarded the golden apples, and Gorgons both of which were said to live beyond Ocean in the extreme west of the world since Hesiod's Theogony.[27] Diodorus and Palaephatus mention that the Gorgons lived in the Gorgades, islands in the Aethiopian Sea. The main island was called Cerna, and modern-day arguments have been advanced that these islands may correspond to Cape Verde due to Phoenician exploration.[28] The Northwest Africa region emerged as the canonical home of the King via separate sources. In particular, according to Ovid, after Perseus turns Atlas into a mountain range, he flies over Aethiopia, the blood of Medusa's head giving rise to Libyan snakes. By the time of the Roman Empire, the habit of associating Atlas's home to a chain of mountains, the Atlas Mountains, which were near Mauretania and Numidia, was firmly entrenched.[29]","title":"Other mythological characters named Atlas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vulci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulci"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Hercle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercle"},{"link_name":"Heracles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracles"},{"link_name":"Greek mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology"},{"link_name":"Etruscan mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_mythology"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"The identifying name Aril is inscribed on two 5th-century BC Etruscan bronze items: a mirror from Vulci and a ring from an unknown site.[30] Both objects depict the encounter with Atlas of Hercle—the Etruscan Heracles—identified by the inscription; they represent rare instances where a figure from Greek mythology was imported into Etruscan mythology, but the name was not. The Etruscan name Aril is etymologically independent.[citation needed]","title":"Other mythological characters named Atlas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hesperis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperis_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Hesperides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperides"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Pleione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleione_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Aethra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethra_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Hyades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyades_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hyginus,_Fabulae_192-33"},{"link_name":"Hyas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyas"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hyginus,_Fabulae_192-33"},{"link_name":"Pleiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiades_(Greek_mythology)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Calypso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calypso_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Dione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dione_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Maera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maera_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Hyginus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus"},{"link_name":"Fabulae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabulae"},{"link_name":"Aether","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Gaia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"Sources describe Atlas as the father, by different goddesses, of numerous children, mostly daughters. Some of these are assigned conflicting or overlapping identities or parentage in different sources.By Hesperis:\nThe Hesperides[31]\nBy Pleione (or Aethra[32]):\nThe Hyades[33]\nA son, Hyas[33]\nThe Pleiades[34]\nBy one or more unspecified goddesses:\nCalypso[35]\nDione[36]\nMaera[37]Hyginus, in his Fabulae, adds an older Atlas who is the son of Aether and Gaia.[38]","title":"Genealogy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cartography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography"},{"link_name":"Antonio Lafreri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Lafreri"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Gerardus Mercator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Mauretania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauretania"},{"link_name":"personality of someone whose childhood was characterized by excessive responsibilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_personality"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Atlas Shrugged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_Shrugged"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Atlas' best-known cultural association is in cartography. The first publisher to associate the Titan Atlas with a group of maps was the print-seller Antonio Lafreri, who included a depiction of the Titan on the engraved title-page he applied to his ad hoc assemblages of maps, Tavole Moderne di Geografia de la Maggior parte del Mondo di Diversi Autori (1572).[39] However, Lafreri did not use the word \"Atlas\" in the title of his work; this was an innovation of Gerardus Mercator, who named his work Atlas Sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati (1585 – 1595),[40] using the word Atlas as a dedication specifically to honour the Titan Atlas, in his capacity as King of Mauretania, a learned philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer.In psychology, Atlas is used metaphorically to describe the personality of someone whose childhood was characterized by excessive responsibilities.[41]Ayn Rand's political dystopian novel Atlas Shrugged (1957) references the popular misconception of Atlas holding up the entire world on his back by comparing the capitalist and intellectual class as being \"modern Atlases\" who hold the modern world up at great expense to themselves.[citation needed]","title":"Cultural influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_sculpture_on_collins_street_melbourne.jpg"},{"link_name":"Collins Street, Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collins_Street,_Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dutch_-_Nautilus_Cup_-_Walters_57989_-_Profile.jpg"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_Santiago_Toural_GFDL.jpg"},{"link_name":"Santiago de Compostela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_New_York.JPG"},{"link_name":"Lee Lawrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Lawrie"},{"link_name":"Atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_statue_(New_York_City)"},{"link_name":"Rockefeller Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller_Center"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GandharanAtlas.JPG"},{"link_name":"Greco-Buddhist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Buddhist"},{"link_name":"Hadda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadda,_Afghanistan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_inside_the_Royal_Palace,_Amsterdam,_Netherlands.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Palace_of_Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam, Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FR_Carskie_Siolo,_palac,_2013.08.10,_fot._I._Nowicka_(7)_corr.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tsarskoye Selo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsarskoye_Selo"},{"link_name":"Pushkin, Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pushkin,_Saint_Petersburg"}],"text":"Atlas supports the terrestrial globe on a building in Collins Street, Melbourne, Australia.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNautilus Cup. This drinking vessel, for court feasts, depicts Atlas holding the shell on his back.[42] The Walters Art Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSculpture of Atlas, Praza do Toural, Santiago de Compostela\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLee Lawrie's colossal bronze Atlas, Rockefeller Center, New York\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGreco-Buddhist (c. AD 100) Atlas, supporting a Buddhist monument, Hadda, Afghanistan\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAtlas inside the Royal Palace, Amsterdam, Netherlands\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStatues of Atlas on the exterior of Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, Pushkin, Saint Petersburg","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Genealogy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-517%E2%80%93520_1-0"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Theogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogony"},{"link_name":"517–520","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0020.tlg001.perseus-eng1:507-544"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"s.v. 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And why is the Space Shuttle Atlantis named after something underwater?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.dictionary.com/e/atlantis/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Aeneid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Beekes_12-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Beekes_12-1"},{"link_name":"Beekes, Robert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Beekes"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Theogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogony"},{"link_name":"517–520","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0020.tlg001.perseus-eng1:507-544"},{"link_name":"Gantz (1993)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGantz1993"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Polyeidos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyeidos_(poet)"},{"link_name":"fr. 837 Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.loebclassics.com/view/polyidus-fragment/1993/pb_LCL144.203.xml"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Metamorphoses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphoses"},{"link_name":"4.627","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//topostext.org/work/141#4.621"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"Metamorphoses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphoses"},{"link_name":"on-line English translation at Theoi Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.theoi.com/Heros/Perseus.html#Atlas"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-LOTN_17-0"},{"link_name":"Lives of the Necromancers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/livesnecromance04godwgoog"},{"link_name":"39","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/livesnecromance04godwgoog/page/n62"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"Ogden (2008)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFOgden2008"},{"link_name":"49","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=uRDFljXN0LkC&pg=PA49"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_19-0"},{"link_name":"Diodorus Siculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus"},{"link_name":"4.27.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4B*.html"},{"link_name":"Gantz (1993)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGantz1993"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"Pindar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pindar"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Critias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"133d–114a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0059.tlg032.perseus-eng1:113d"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Eusebius_22-0"},{"link_name":"Praeparatio evangelica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeparatio_evangelica"},{"link_name":"ancient Phoenician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Sanchuniathon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanchuniathon"},{"link_name":"Trojan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"Keuning (1947)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFKeuning1947"},{"link_name":"Akerman (1994)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAkerman1994"},{"link_name":"Ramachandran (2015)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRamachandran2015"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Mercator_24-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Mercator_24-1"},{"link_name":"Mercator & Lessing J. 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(2008)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFOgden2008"},{"link_name":"47-49","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=uRDFljXN0LkC&pg=PA47"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"Hanno the Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator"},{"link_name":"Mount Cameroon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Cameroon"},{"link_name":"Lemprière (1833)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLempri%C3%A8re1833"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4209-3395-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4209-3395-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"Lemprière (1833)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLempri%C3%A8re1833"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"Diodorus 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915–920","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+901"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-44"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Theogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogony"},{"link_name":"371–374","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+371"},{"link_name":"Homeric Hymn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymns"},{"link_name":"99–100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=HH+4+99&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0138"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-45"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Theogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogony"},{"link_name":"507–511","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+507"},{"link_name":"Oceanids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanid"},{"link_name":"Oceanus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanus"},{"link_name":"Tethys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Theogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogony"},{"link_name":"351","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+351"},{"link_name":"Apollodorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus)"},{"link_name":"1.2.3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D2%3Asection%3D3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-46"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Critias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"113d–114a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0059.tlg032.perseus-eng1:113d"},{"link_name":"Poseidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon"},{"link_name":"Cleito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleito"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-47"},{"link_name":"Aeschylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschylus"},{"link_name":"Prometheus Bound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus_Bound"},{"link_name":"444–445 n. 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-prometheus_bound/2009/pb_LCL145.445.xml"},{"link_name":"446–447 n. 24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-prometheus_bound/2009/pb_LCL145.467.xml"},{"link_name":"538–539 n. 113","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-prometheus_bound/2009/pb_LCL145.539.xml"},{"link_name":"Themis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themis"}],"text":"^ Hesiod, Theogony 517–520.\n\n^ Smith, s.v. Atlas\n\n^ a b Referencing Diodorus:\n\"[Atlas] perfected the science of astrology and was the first to publish to mankind the doctrine of the sphere. and it was for this reason that the idea was held that the entire heavens were supported upon the shoulders of Atlas, the myth darkly hinting in this way at his discovery and description of the sphere.\" Bibliotheca historica, Book III 60.2\n\"Atlas was so grateful to Heracles for his kindly deed that he not only gladly gave him such assistance as his Labour called for, but he also instructed him quite freely in the knowledge of astrology. For Atlas had worked out the science of astrology to a degree surpassing others and had ingeniously discovered the spherical nature of the stars, and for that reason was generally believed to be bearing the entire firmament upon his shoulders. Similarly in the case of Heracles, when he had brought to the Greeks the doctrine of the sphere, he gained great fame, as if he had taken over the burden of the firmament which Atlas had borne, since men intimated in this enigmatic way what had actually taken place.\" Bibliotheca historica, Book IV 27.4-5\n\n^ Apollodorus, 1.2.3.\n\n^ Hesiod,Theogony 507. It is possible that the name Asia became preferred over Hesiod's Clymene to avoid confusion with what must be a different Oceanid named Clymene, who was mother of Phaethon by Helios in some accounts.\n\n^ Roman, Luke; Roman, Monica (2010). Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology. Infobase Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4381-2639-5.\n\n^ Homer, Odyssey, 1.14, 1.50. Calypso is sometimes referred to as Atlantis (Ατλαντίς), which means the daughter of Atlas, see the entry Ατλαντίς in Liddell & Scott, and also Hesiod, Theogony, 938.\n\n^ \"What does \"Atlantis\" mean? And why is the Space Shuttle Atlantis named after something underwater?\". 8 July 2011.\n\n^ Aeneid iv.247: \"Atlantis duri\" and other instances; see Robert W. Cruttwell, \"Virgil, Aeneid, iv. 247: 'Atlantis Duri'\" The Classical Review 59.1 (May 1945), p. 11.\n\n^ George Doig, \"Vergil's Art and the Greek Language\" The Classical Journal 64.1 (October 1968, pp. 1-6) p. 2.\n\n^ Strabo, 17.3;\n\n^ a b Beekes, Robert; van Beek, Lucien (2010). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Vol. 1. Brill. p. 163.\n\n^ Hesiod, Theogony 517–520; Gantz (1993), p. 46\n\n^ The usage in Virgil's maximum Atlas axem umero torquet stellis ardentibus aptum (Aeneid, iv.481f, cf vi.796f), combining poetic and parascientific images, is discussed in P. R. Hardie, \"Atlas and Axis\" The Classical Quarterly N.S. 33.1 (1983:220-228).\n\n^ Polyeidos, fr. 837 Campbell; Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.627.\n\n^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.617 ff. (on-line English translation at Theoi Project).\n\n^ William Godwin (1876). Lives of the Necromancers. London, F. J. Mason. p. 39.\n\n^ Ogden (2008), pp. 49, 108, 114\n\n^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.27.2; Gantz (1993), pp. 410–413.\n\n^ a lost passage of Pindar quoted by Strabo (3.5.5) was the earliest reference in this context: \"the pillars which Pindar calls the \"gates of Gades\" when he asserts that they are the farthermost limits reached by Heracles\"; the passage in Pindar has not been traced.\n\n^ Plato, Critias 133d–114a\n\n^ The \"testimony of Eusebius\" was \"drawn from the most ancient historians\" according to Mercator. Eusebius' Praeparatio evangelica gives accounts of Atlas that had been translated from the works of ancient Phoenician Sanchuniathon, the original sources for which predate the Trojan War (i.e. 13th century BCE).\n\n^ For further comment on Mercator's chosen Titanic genealogy see Keuning (1947), Akerman (1994) and Ramachandran (2015), p. 42\n\n^ a b Mercator & Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection (Library of Congress) (2000)\n\n^ See Bibliotheca historica, Book III, Eusebius' Praeparatio evangelica references the same mythology as Diodorus stating \"These then are the principal heads of the theology held among the Atlanteans\".\n\n^ Grafton, Most & Settis (2010), p. 103\n\n^ See Gantz (1993), p. 401 and Ogden (2008), p. 47-49\n\n^ For instance, the Phoenician Hanno the Navigator is said to have sailed as far as Mount Cameroon in the 5th or 6th century BC. See Lemprière (1833), pp. 249–250 and Ovid, The Metamorphoses, commented by Henry T. Riley ISBN 978-1-4209-3395-6\n\n^ Lemprière (1833), pp. 249–250\n\n^ Paolo Martini, Il nome etrusco di Atlante, (Rome:Università di Roma) 1987 investigates the etymology of aril, rejecting a link to the verbal morpheme ar- (\"support\") in favor of a Phoenician etymon in an unattested possible form *'arrab(a), signifying \"guarantor in a commercial transaction\" with the connotation of \"mediator\", related to the Latin borrowing arillator, \"middleman\". This section and note depend on Rex Wallace's review of Martini in Language 65.1 (March 1989:187–188).\n\n^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.27.2; Gantz (1993), p. 7.\n\n^ Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21.4, 2.21.6; Ovid, Fasti 5.164\n\n^ a b Hyginus, Fabulae 192\n\n^ Hesiod, Works and Days 383; Apollodorus, 3.10.1; Ovid, Fasti 5.79\n\n^ Homer, Odyssey 1.52; Apollodorus, Epitome 7.24\n\n^ Hyginus, Fabulae 82 & 83\n\n^ Pausanias, 8.12.7 & 8.48.6\n\n^ Hyginus, Fabulae Preface\n\n^ Ashley Baynton-Williams. \"The \"Lafreri school\" of Italian mapmakers\". Archived from the original on April 23, 2016. Retrieved February 26, 2013.\n\n^ van Egmond, Marco. \"The 'Atlas' by Mercator and Hondius\". Utrecht University. Retrieved 21 September 2023.\n\n^ Vogel, L. Z.; Savva, Stavroula (1993-12-01). \"Atlas personality\". British Journal of Medical Psychology. 66 (4): 323–330. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1993.tb01758.x. ISSN 2044-8341. PMID 8123600.\n\n^ \"Nautilus Cup\". The Walters Art Museum.\n\n^ Hesiod, Theogony 132–138, 337–411, 453–520, 901–906, 915–920; Caldwell, pp. 8–11, tables 11–14.\n\n^ Although usually the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, as in Hesiod, Theogony 371–374, in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes (4), 99–100, Selene is instead made the daughter of Pallas the son of Megamedes.\n\n^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 507–511, Clymene, one of the Oceanids, the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, at Hesiod, Theogony 351, was the mother by Iapetus of Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, while according to Apollodorus, 1.2.3, another Oceanid, Asia was their mother by Iapetus.\n\n^ According to Plato, Critias, 113d–114a, Atlas was the son of Poseidon and the mortal Cleito.\n\n^ In Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 18, 211, 873 (Sommerstein, pp. 444–445 n. 2, 446–447 n. 24, 538–539 n. 113) Prometheus is made to be the son of Themis.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Atlas and the Hesperides by John Singer Sargent (1925)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Singer_Sargent%2C_John_-_Atlas_and_the_Hesperides_-_1925.jpg/220px-Singer_Sargent%2C_John_-_Atlas_and_the_Hesperides_-_1925.jpg"},{"image_text":"Herkules und Atlas by Lucas Cranach the Elder","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Herkules_und_Atlas_%28Herzog_Anton_Ulrich-Museum%29.jpg/220px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Herkules_und_Atlas_%28Herzog_Anton_Ulrich-Museum%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Atlas and Heracles, metope from the temple of Zeus at Olympia.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/M%C3%A8topa_del_temple_de_Zeus_d%27Ol%C3%ADmpia_amb_representaci%C3%B3_d%27H%C3%A8racles_i_les_pomes_de_les_Hesp%C3%A8rides_%28Museu_Arqueol%C3%B2gic_d%27Ol%C3%ADmpia%29.JPG/260px-M%C3%A8topa_del_temple_de_Zeus_d%27Ol%C3%ADmpia_amb_representaci%C3%B3_d%27H%C3%A8racles_i_les_pomes_de_les_Hesp%C3%A8rides_%28Museu_Arqueol%C3%B2gic_d%27Ol%C3%ADmpia%29.JPG"}] | [{"title":"Atlas (architecture)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(architecture)"},{"title":"Bahamut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahamut"},{"title":"Category:World-bearing animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:World-bearing_animals"},{"title":"Farnese Atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnese_Atlas"},{"title":"Upelluri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upelluri"}] | [{"reference":"Roman, Luke; Roman, Monica (2010). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems | Bioinformatics workflow management system | ["1 Examples","2 Comparisons between workflow systems","3 References"] | "IDBS" redirects here. For other uses, see IDB.
This article may contain excessive or irrelevant examples. Please help improve the article by adding descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. (February 2012)
A bioinformatics workflow management system is a specialized form of workflow management system designed specifically to compose and execute a series of computational or data manipulation steps, or a workflow, that relate to bioinformatics.
There are currently many different workflow systems. Some have been developed more generally as scientific workflow systems for use by scientists from many different disciplines like astronomy and earth science. All such systems are based on an abstract representation of how a computation proceeds in the form of a directed graph, where each node represents a task to be executed and edges represent either data flow or execution dependencies between different tasks. Each system typically provides a visual front-end, allowing the user to build and modify complex applications with little or no programming expertise.
Examples
In alphabetical order, some examples of bioinformatics workflow management systems include:
Anduril bioinformatics and image analysis
BioBIKE: a Web-based, programmable, integrated biological knowledge base
CLC bio, a bioinformatics analysis and workflow management platform from QIAGEN Digital Insights.
Clone Manager from Sci-Ed.
Cuneiform: A functional workflow language for large-scale data analysis
Discovery Net: one of the earliest examples of a scientific workflow system, later commercialized as InforSense which was then acquired by IDBS.
Galaxy: initially targeted at genomics
GenePattern: A powerful scientific workflow system that provides access to hundreds of genomic analysis tools.
KNIME the Konstanz Information Miner
OnlineHPC Online workflow designer based on Taverna
Playbook Workflow Builder Flexible workflow builder for bioinformatics applications based on API services. Initially developed for the NIH CFDE Common Fund program
UGENE provides a workflow management system that is installed on a local computer
VisTrails
Comparisons between workflow systems
With a large number of bioinformatics workflow systems to choose from, it becomes difficult to understand and compare the features of the different workflow systems. There has been little work conducted in evaluating and comparing the systems from a bioinformatician's perspective, especially when it comes to comparing the data types they can deal with, the in-built functionalities that are provided to the user or even their performance or usability. Examples of existing comparisons include:
The paper "Scientific workflow systems-can one size fit all?", which provides a high-level framework for comparing workflow systems based on their control flow and data flow properties. The systems compared include Discovery Net, Taverna, Triana, Kepler as well as Yawl and BPEL.
The paper "Meta-workflows: pattern-based interoperability between Galaxy and Taverna" which provides a more user-oriented comparison between Taverna and Galaxy in the context of enabling interoperability between both systems.
The infrastructure paper "Delivering ICT Infrastructure for Biomedical Research" compares two workflow systems, Anduril and Chipster, in terms of infrastructure requirements in a cloud-delivery model.
The paper "A review of bioinformatic pipeline frameworks" attempts to classify workflow management systems based on three dimensions: "using an implicit or explicit syntax, using a configuration, convention or class-based design paradigm and offering a command line or workbench interface".
References
^ Oinn, T.; Greenwood, M.; Addis, M.; Alpdemir, M. N.; Ferris, J.; Glover, K.; Goble, C.; Goderis, A.; Hull, D.; Marvin, D.; Li, P.; Lord, P.; Pocock, M. R.; Senger, M.; Stevens, R.; Wipat, A.; Wroe, C. (2006). "Taverna: Lessons in creating a workflow environment for the life sciences" (PDF). Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience. 18 (10): 1067–1100. doi:10.1002/cpe.993. S2CID 10219281.
^ Yu, J.; Buyya, R. (2005). "A taxonomy of scientific workflow systems for grid computing". ACM SIGMOD Record. 34 (3): 44. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.63.3176. doi:10.1145/1084805.1084814. S2CID 538714.
^ a b Curcin, V.; Ghanem, M. (2008). "Scientific workflow systems - can one size fit all?". 2008 Cairo International Biomedical Engineering Conference. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1109/CIBEC.2008.4786077. ISBN 978-1-4244-2694-2. S2CID 1885579.
^ "Anduril workflow website".
^ Ovaska, Kristian; Laakso, Marko; Haapa-Paananen, Saija; Louhimo, Riku; Chen, Ping; Aittomäki, Viljami; Valo, Erkka; Núñez-Fontarnau, Javier; Rantanen, Ville (2010-09-07). "Large-scale data integration framework provides a comprehensive view on glioblastoma multiforme". Genome Medicine. 2 (9): 65. doi:10.1186/gm186. ISSN 1756-994X. PMC 3092116. PMID 20822536.
^ Elhai, J.; Taton, A.; Massar, J.; Myers, J. K.; Travers, M.; Casey, J.; Slupesky, M.; Shrager, J. (2009). "BioBIKE: A Web-based, programmable, integrated biological knowledge base". Nucleic Acids Research. 37 (Web Server issue): W28–W32. doi:10.1093/nar/gkp354. PMC 2703918. PMID 19433511.
^ Brandt, Jörgen; Bux, Marc N.; Leser, Ulf (2015). "Cuneiform: A functional language for large scale scientific data analysis" (PDF). Proceedings of the Workshops of the EDBT/ICDT. 1330: 17–26.
^ Goecks, J.; Nekrutenko, A.; Taylor, J.; Galaxy Team, T. (2010). "Galaxy: A comprehensive approach for supporting accessible, reproducible, and transparent computational research in the life sciences". Genome Biology. 11 (8): R86. doi:10.1186/gb-2010-11-8-r86. PMC 2945788. PMID 20738864.
^ Reich, Michael; et al. (2006). "GenePattern 2.0". Nature Genetics. 38 (1): 500–5001. doi:10.1038/ng0506-500. PMID 16642009. S2CID 5503897.
^ Tiwari, Abhishek; Sekhar, Arvind K.T. (2007). "Workflow based framework for life science informatics". Computational Biology and Chemistry. 31 (5–6): 305–319. doi:10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2007.08.009. PMID 17931570.
^ Okonechnikov, K; Golosova, O; Fursov, M; Ugene, Team (2012). "Unipro UGENE: A unified bioinformatics toolkit". Bioinformatics. 28 (8): 1166–7. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bts091. PMID 22368248.
^ Bavoil, L.; Callahan, S.P.; Crossno, P.J.; Freire, J.; Scheidegger, C.E.; Silva, C.T.; Vo, H.T. (2005). "VisTrails: Enabling Interactive Multiple-View Visualizations". VIS 05. IEEE Visualization, 2005. pp. 135–142. doi:10.1109/VISUAL.2005.1532788. ISBN 978-0-7803-9462-9.
^ "Existing Workflow systems". Common Workflow Language wiki. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
^
Abouelhoda, M.; Alaa, S.; Ghanem, M. (2010). "Meta-workflows". Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Workflow Approaches to New Data-centric Science - Wands '10. p. 1. doi:10.1145/1833398.1833400. ISBN 9781450301886. S2CID 17343728.
^
Nyrönen, TH; Laitinen, J; et al. (2012), Delivering ICT infrastructure for biomedical research, Proceedings of the WICSA/ECSA 2012 Companion Volume (WICSA/ECSA '12), ACM, pp. 37–44, doi:10.1145/2361999.2362006, ISBN 9781450315685, S2CID 18199745
^ Kallio, M. A.; Tuimala, J. T.; Hupponen, T; Klemelä, P; Gentile, M; Scheinin, I; Koski, M; Käki, J; Korpelainen, E. I. (2011). "Chipster: User-friendly analysis software for microarray and other high-throughput data". BMC Genomics. 12: 507. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-12-507. PMC 3215701. PMID 21999641.
^ Leipzig J (2016). "A review of bioinformatic pipeline frameworks". Briefings in Bioinformatics. 18 (3): 530–536. doi:10.1093/bib/bbw020. PMC 5429012. PMID 27013646. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDB_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"workflow management system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workflow_management_system"},{"link_name":"workflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workflows"},{"link_name":"bioinformatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics"},{"link_name":"scientific workflow systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_workflow_system"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"earth science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CIBEC_2008-3"}],"text":"\"IDBS\" redirects here. For other uses, see IDB.A bioinformatics workflow management system is a specialized form of workflow management system designed specifically to compose and execute a series of computational or data manipulation steps, or a workflow, that relate to bioinformatics.There are currently many different workflow systems. Some have been developed more generally as scientific workflow systems for use by scientists from many different disciplines like astronomy and earth science. All such systems are based on an abstract representation of how a computation proceeds in the form of a directed graph, where each node represents a task to be executed and edges represent either data flow or execution dependencies between different tasks. Each system typically provides a visual front-end, allowing the user to build and modify complex applications with little or no programming expertise.[1][2][3]","title":"Bioinformatics workflow management system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anduril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anduril_(workflow_engine)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"BioBIKE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioBIKE"},{"link_name":"Web-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_application"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"CLC bio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLC_bio"},{"link_name":"QIAGEN Digital Insights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiagen"},{"link_name":"Clone Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_manager"},{"link_name":"Cuneiform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Discovery Net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_Net"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_(computational_biology)"},{"link_name":"genomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"GenePattern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GenePattern"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"KNIME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KNIME"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"OnlineHPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OnlineHPC"},{"link_name":"Taverna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taverna_workbench"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Playbook Workflow Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Playbook_Workflow_Builder&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"UGENE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UGENE"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"VisTrails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisTrails"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"In alphabetical order, some examples of bioinformatics workflow management systems include:Anduril bioinformatics and image analysis[4][5]\nBioBIKE: a Web-based, programmable, integrated biological knowledge base[6]\nCLC bio, a bioinformatics analysis and workflow management platform from QIAGEN Digital Insights.\nClone Manager from Sci-Ed.\nCuneiform: A functional workflow language for large-scale data analysis[7]\nDiscovery Net: one of the earliest examples of a scientific workflow system, later commercialized as InforSense which was then acquired by IDBS.[citation needed]\nGalaxy: initially targeted at genomics[8]\nGenePattern: A powerful scientific workflow system that provides access to hundreds of genomic analysis tools.[9]\nKNIME the Konstanz Information Miner[10]\nOnlineHPC Online workflow designer based on Taverna[citation needed]\nPlaybook Workflow Builder Flexible workflow builder for bioinformatics applications based on API services. Initially developed for the NIH CFDE Common Fund program [citation needed]\nUGENE provides a workflow management system that is installed on a local computer[11]\nVisTrails[12]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CIBEC_2008-3"},{"link_name":"Discovery Net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_Net"},{"link_name":"Taverna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taverna_workbench"},{"link_name":"Kepler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_scientific_workflow_system"},{"link_name":"BPEL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Process_Execution_Language"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Taverna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taverna_workbench"},{"link_name":"Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_(computational_biology)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Anduril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anduril_(workflow_engine)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chipster-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"With a large number of bioinformatics workflow systems to choose from,[13] it becomes difficult to understand and compare the features of the different workflow systems. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_vision | Visual perception | ["1 Visual system","2 Study","2.1 Early studies","2.2 Unconscious inference","2.3 Gestalt theory","2.4 Analysis of eye movement","2.5 Face and object recognition","3 Cognitive and computational approaches","4 Transduction","5 Opponent process","6 Artificial visual perception","7 See also","7.1 Vision deficiencies or disorders","7.2 Related disciplines","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"] | Ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the visible spectrum
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Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision, scotopic vision (night vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using light in the visible spectrum reflected by objects in the environment. This is different from visual acuity, which refers to how clearly a person sees (for example "20/20 vision"). A person can have problems with visual perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision.
The resulting perception is also known as vision, sight, or eyesight (adjectives visual, optical, and ocular, respectively). The various physiological components involved in vision are referred to collectively as the visual system, and are the focus of much research in linguistics, psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and molecular biology, collectively referred to as vision science.
Visual system
Main article: Visual system
In humans and a number of other mammals, light enters the eye through the cornea and is focused by the lens onto the retina, a light-sensitive membrane at the back of the eye. The retina serves as a transducer for the conversion of light into neuronal signals. This transduction is achieved by specialized photoreceptive cells of the retina, also known as the rods and cones, which detect the photons of light and respond by producing neural impulses. These signals are transmitted by the optic nerve, from the retina upstream to central ganglia in the brain. The lateral geniculate nucleus, which transmits the information to the visual cortex. Signals from the retina also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus.
The lateral geniculate nucleus sends signals to primary visual cortex, also called striate cortex. Extrastriate cortex, also called visual association cortex is a set of cortical structures, that receive information from striate cortex, as well as each other. Recent descriptions of visual association cortex describe a division into two functional pathways, a ventral and a dorsal pathway. This conjecture is known as the two streams hypothesis.
The human visual system is generally believed to be sensitive to visible light in the range of wavelengths between 370 and 730 nanometers of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, some research suggests that humans can perceive light in wavelengths down to 340 nanometers (UV-A), especially the young. Under optimal conditions these limits of human perception can extend to 310 nm (UV) to 1100 nm (NIR).
Study
See also: Two-streams hypothesis
The major problem in visual perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of retinal stimuli (i.e., the image on the retina), with the brain altering the basic information taken in. Thus people interested in perception have long struggled to explain what visual processing does to create what is actually seen.
Early studies
The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are shown. Much of the human cerebral cortex is involved in vision.
There were two major ancient Greek schools, providing a primitive explanation of how vision works.
The first was the "emission theory" of vision which maintained that vision occurs when rays emanate from the eyes and are intercepted by visual objects. If an object was seen directly it was by 'means of rays' coming out of the eyes and again falling on the object. A refracted image was, however, seen by 'means of rays' as well, which came out of the eyes, traversed through the air, and after refraction, fell on the visible object which was sighted as the result of the movement of the rays from the eye. This theory was championed by scholars who were followers of Euclid's Optics and Ptolemy's Optics.
The second school advocated the so-called 'intromission' approach which sees vision as coming from something entering the eyes representative of the object. With its main propagator Aristotle (De Sensu), and his followers, this theory seems to have some contact with modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only a speculation lacking any experimental foundation. (In eighteenth-century England, Isaac Newton, John Locke, and others, carried the intromission theory of vision forward by insisting that vision involved a process in which rays—composed of actual corporeal matter—emanated from seen objects and entered the seer's mind/sensorium through the eye's aperture.)
Both schools of thought relied upon the principle that "like is only known by like", and thus upon the notion that the eye was composed of some "internal fire" that interacted with the "external fire" of visible light and made vision possible. Plato makes this assertion in his dialogue Timaeus (45b and 46b), as does Empedocles (as reported by Aristotle in his De Sensu, DK frag. B17).
Leonardo da Vinci: The eye has a central line and everything that reaches the eye through this central line can be seen distinctly.
Alhazen (965 – c. 1040) carried out many investigations and experiments on visual perception, extended the work of Ptolemy on binocular vision, and commented on the anatomical works of Galen. He was the first person to explain that vision occurs when light bounces on an object and then is directed to one's eyes.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is believed to be the first to recognize the special optical qualities of the eye. He wrote "The function of the human eye ... was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it to be completely different." His main experimental finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight—the optical line that ends at the fovea. Although he did not use these words literally he actually is the father of the modern distinction between foveal and peripheral vision.
Isaac Newton (1642–1726/27) was the first to discover through experimentation, by isolating individual colors of the spectrum of light passing through a prism, that the visually perceived color of objects appeared due to the character of light the objects reflected, and that these divided colors could not be changed into any other color, which was contrary to scientific expectation of the day.
Unconscious inference
Main article: Unconscious inference
Hermann von Helmholtz is often credited with the first modern study of visual perception. Helmholtz examined the human eye and concluded that it was incapable of producing a high-quality image. Insufficient information seemed to make vision impossible. He, therefore, concluded that vision could only be the result of some form of "unconscious inference", coining that term in 1867. He proposed the brain was making assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, based on previous experiences.
Inference requires prior experience of the world.
Examples of well-known assumptions, based on visual experience, are:
light comes from above;
objects are normally not viewed from below;
faces are seen (and recognized) upright;
closer objects can block the view of more distant objects, but not vice versa; and
figures (i.e., foreground objects) tend to have convex borders.
The study of visual illusions (cases when the inference process goes wrong) has yielded much insight into what sort of assumptions the visual system makes.
Another type of unconscious inference hypothesis (based on probabilities) has recently been revived in so-called Bayesian studies of visual perception. Proponents of this approach consider that the visual system performs some form of Bayesian inference to derive a perception from sensory data. However, it is not clear how proponents of this view derive, in principle, the relevant probabilities required by the Bayesian equation. Models based on this idea have been used to describe various visual perceptual functions, such as the perception of motion, the perception of depth, and figure-ground perception. The "wholly empirical theory of perception" is a related and newer approach that rationalizes visual perception without explicitly invoking Bayesian formalisms.
Gestalt theory
Main article: Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychologists working primarily in the 1930s and 1940s raised many of the research questions that are studied by vision scientists today.
The Gestalt Laws of Organization have guided the study of how people perceive visual components as organized patterns or wholes, instead of many different parts. "Gestalt" is a German word that partially translates to "configuration or pattern" along with "whole or emergent structure". According to this theory, there are eight main factors that determine how the visual system automatically groups elements into patterns: Proximity, Similarity, Closure, Symmetry, Common Fate (i.e. common motion), Continuity as well as Good Gestalt (pattern that is regular, simple, and orderly) and Past Experience.
Analysis of eye movement
See also: Eye movement
Eye movement first 2 seconds (Yarbus, 1967)
During the 1960s, technical development permitted the continuous registration of eye movement during reading, in picture viewing, and later, in visual problem solving, and when headset-cameras became available, also during driving.
The picture to the right shows what may happen during the first two seconds of visual inspection. While the background is out of focus, representing the peripheral vision, the first eye movement goes to the boots of the man (just because they are very near the starting fixation and have a reasonable contrast). Eye movements serve the function of attentional selection, i.e., to select a fraction of all visual inputs for deeper processing by the brain.
The following fixations jump from face to face. They might even permit comparisons between faces.
It may be concluded that the icon face is a very attractive search icon within the peripheral field of vision. The foveal vision adds detailed information to the peripheral first impression.
It can also be noted that there are different types of eye movements: fixational eye movements (microsaccades, ocular drift, and tremor), vergence movements, saccadic movements and pursuit movements. Fixations are comparably static points where the eye rests. However, the eye is never completely still, and gaze position will drift. These drifts are in turn corrected by microsaccades, very small fixational eye movements. Vergence movements involve the cooperation of both eyes to allow for an image to fall on the same area of both retinas. This results in a single focused image. Saccadic movements is the type of eye movement that makes jumps from one position to another position and is used to rapidly scan a particular scene/image. Lastly, pursuit movement is smooth eye movement and is used to follow objects in motion.
Face and object recognition
There is considerable evidence that face and object recognition are accomplished by distinct systems. For example, prosopagnosic patients show deficits in face, but not object processing, while object agnosic patients (most notably, patient C.K.) show deficits in object processing with spared face processing. Behaviorally, it has been shown that faces, but not objects, are subject to inversion effects, leading to the claim that faces are "special". Further, face and object processing recruit distinct neural systems. Notably, some have argued that the apparent specialization of the human brain for face processing does not reflect true domain specificity, but rather a more general process of expert-level discrimination within a given class of stimulus, though this latter claim is the subject of substantial debate. Using fMRI and electrophysiology Doris Tsao and colleagues described brain regions and a mechanism for face recognition in macaque monkeys.
The inferotemporal cortex has a key role in the task of recognition and differentiation of different objects. A study by MIT shows that subset regions of the IT cortex are in charge of different objects. By selectively shutting off neural activity of many small areas of the cortex, the animal gets alternately unable to distinguish between certain particular pairments of objects. This shows that the IT cortex is divided into regions that respond to different and particular visual features. In a similar way, certain particular patches and regions of the cortex are more involved in face recognition than other object recognition.
Some studies tend to show that rather than the uniform global image, some particular features and regions of interest of the objects are key elements when the brain needs to recognise an object in an image. In this way, the human vision is vulnerable to small particular changes to the image, such as disrupting the edges of the object, modifying texture or any small change in a crucial region of the image.
Studies of people whose sight has been restored after a long blindness reveal that they cannot necessarily recognize objects and faces (as opposed to color, motion, and simple geometric shapes). Some hypothesize that being blind during childhood prevents some part of the visual system necessary for these higher-level tasks from developing properly. The general belief that a critical period lasts until age 5 or 6 was challenged by a 2007 study that found that older patients could improve these abilities with years of exposure.
Cognitive and computational approaches
In the 1970s, David Marr developed a multi-level theory of vision, which analyzed the process of vision at different levels of abstraction. In order to focus on the understanding of specific problems in vision, he identified three levels of analysis: the computational, algorithmic and implementational levels. Many vision scientists, including Tomaso Poggio, have embraced these levels of analysis and employed them to further characterize vision from a computational perspective.
The computational level addresses, at a high level of abstraction, the problems that the visual system must overcome. The algorithmic level attempts to identify the strategy that may be used to solve these problems. Finally, the implementational level attempts to explain how solutions to these problems are realized in neural circuitry.
Marr suggested that it is possible to investigate vision at any of these levels independently. Marr described vision as proceeding from a two-dimensional visual array (on the retina) to a three-dimensional description of the world as output. His stages of vision include:
A 2D or primal sketch of the scene, based on feature extraction of fundamental components of the scene, including edges, regions, etc. Note the similarity in concept to a pencil sketch drawn quickly by an artist as an impression.
A 21⁄2 D sketch of the scene, where textures are acknowledged, etc. Note the similarity in concept to the stage in drawing where an artist highlights or shades areas of a scene, to provide depth.
A 3 D model, where the scene is visualized in a continuous, 3-dimensional map.
Marr's 21⁄2D sketch assumes that a depth map is constructed, and that this map is the basis of 3D shape perception. However, both stereoscopic and pictorial perception, as well as monocular viewing, make clear that the perception of 3D shape precedes, and does not rely on, the perception of the depth of points. It is not clear how a preliminary depth map could, in principle, be constructed, nor how this would address the question of figure-ground organization, or grouping. The role of perceptual organizing constraints, overlooked by Marr, in the production of 3D shape percepts from binocularly-viewed 3D objects has been demonstrated empirically for the case of 3D wire objects, e.g. For a more detailed discussion, see Pizlo (2008).
A more recent, alternative framework proposes that vision is composed instead of the following three stages: encoding, selection, and decoding. Encoding is to sample and represent visual inputs (e.g., to represent visual inputs as neural activities in the retina). Selection, or attentional selection, is to select a tiny fraction of input information for further processing, e.g., by shifting gaze to an object or visual location to better process the visual signals at that location. Decoding is to infer or recognize the selected input signals, e.g., to recognize the object at the center of gaze as somebody's face. In this framework, attentional selection starts at the primary visual cortex along the visual pathway, and the attentional constraints impose a dichotomy between the central and peripheral visual fields for visual recognition or decoding.
Transduction
Main article: Visual phototransduction
Transduction is the process through which energy from environmental stimuli is converted to neural activity. The retina contains three different cell layers: photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell layer and ganglion cell layer. The photoreceptor layer where transduction occurs is farthest from the lens. It contains photoreceptors with different sensitivities called rods and cones. The cones are responsible for color perception and are of three distinct types labelled red, green and blue. Rods are responsible for the perception of objects in low light. Photoreceptors contain within them a special chemical called a photopigment, which is embedded in the membrane of the lamellae; a single human rod contains approximately 10 million of them. The photopigment molecules consist of two parts: an opsin (a protein) and retinal (a lipid). There are 3 specific photopigments (each with their own wavelength sensitivity) that respond across the spectrum of visible light. When the appropriate wavelengths (those that the specific photopigment is sensitive to) hit the photoreceptor, the photopigment splits into two, which sends a signal to the bipolar cell layer, which in turn sends a signal to the ganglion cells, the axons of which form the optic nerve and transmit the information to the brain. If a particular cone type is missing or abnormal, due to a genetic anomaly, a color vision deficiency, sometimes called color blindness will occur.
Opponent process
Transduction involves chemical messages sent from the photoreceptors to the bipolar cells to the ganglion cells. Several photoreceptors may send their information to one ganglion cell. There are two types of ganglion cells: red/green and yellow/blue. These neurons constantly fire—even when not stimulated. The brain interprets different colors (and with a lot of information, an image) when the rate of firing of these neurons alters. Red light stimulates the red cone, which in turn stimulates the red/green ganglion cell. Likewise, green light stimulates the green cone, which stimulates the green/red ganglion cell and blue light stimulates the blue cone which stimulates the blue/yellow ganglion cell. The rate of firing of the ganglion cells is increased when it is signaled by one cone and decreased (inhibited) when it is signaled by the other cone. The first color in the name of the ganglion cell is the color that excites it and the second is the color that inhibits it. i.e.: A red cone would excite the red/green ganglion cell and the green cone would inhibit the red/green ganglion cell. This is an opponent process. If the rate of firing of a red/green ganglion cell is increased, the brain would know that the light was red, if the rate was decreased, the brain would know that the color of the light was green.
Artificial visual perception
Theories and observations of visual perception have been the main source of inspiration for computer vision (also called machine vision, or computational vision). Special hardware structures and software algorithms provide machines with the capability to interpret the images coming from a camera or a sensor.
For instance, the 2022 Toyota 86 uses the Subaru EyeSight system for driver-assist technology.
See also
Color vision
Computer vision
Depth perception
Entoptic phenomenon
Gestalt psychology
Lateral masking
Looming
Naked eye
Machine vision
McGill Picture Anomaly Test
Motion perception
Multisensory integration
Interpretation (philosophy)
Spatial frequency
Visual illusion
Visual processing
Visual system
Sensations
Vision deficiencies or disorders
Achromatopsia
Akinetopsia
Apperceptive agnosia
Associative visual agnosia
Color blindness
Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder
Illusory palinopsia
Prosopagnosia
Refractive error
Recovery from blindness
Scotopic sensitivity syndrome
Visual agnosia
Visual snow
Related disciplines
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive science
Neuroscience
Ophthalmology
Optometry
Psychophysics
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Further reading
Von Helmholtz, Hermann (1867). Handbuch der physiologischen Optik. Vol. 3. Leipzig: Voss. Quotations are from the English translation produced by the Optical Society of America (1924–25): Treatise on Physiological Optics Archived September 27, 2018, at the Wayback Machine.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sight and Vision.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Vision.
Look up vision in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Organization of the Retina and Visual System
Effect of Detail on Visual Perception by Jon McLoone, the Wolfram Demonstrations Project
The Joy of Visual Perception, resource on the eye's perception abilities.
VisionScience. Resource for Research in Human and Animal Vision A collection of resources in vision science and perception
Vision and Psychophysics
Vision, Scholarpedia Expert articles about Vision
What are the limits of human vision?
Topics related to visual perception
vteMental processesCognition
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vteSensation and perceptionProcesses and conceptsSensation
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Transduction (physiology)
Sensory processing
Active sensory system
Perception
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Feeling
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Sensory systems
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Auditory system (sense of hearing)
Vestibular system (sense of balance)
Olfactory system (sense of smell)
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Sensory cranial and spinal nerves
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thermoception
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Types of sensory receptorsMechanoreceptor
Baroreceptor
Mechanotransduction
Lamellar corpuscle
Tactile corpuscle
Merkel nerve ending
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Campaniform sensilla
Slit sensilla
Stretch receptor
Photoreceptor
Photoreceptor cell
Cone cell
Rod cell
ipRGC
Photopigment
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Nociceptin receptor
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DisordersVisual
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vteOptical illusions (list)Illusions
Afterimage
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Ames room
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Waterfall (1961 drawing)
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Accidental viewpoint
Auditory illusions
Illusions
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Temporal illusion
vteVision in animalsVision
Birds
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horses
dogs
cats
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PeoplePre-19th century
Edmond Halley
Charles-René de Fourcroy
Joseph Priestley
Gaspard Monge
19th century
Charles Dupin
Adolphe Quetelet
André-Michel Guerry
William Playfair
August Kekulé
Charles Joseph Minard
Luigi Perozzo
Francis Amasa Walker
John Venn
Oliver Byrne
Matthew Sankey
Charles Booth
Georg von Mayr
John Snow
Florence Nightingale
Karl Wilhelm Pohlke
Toussaint Loua
Francis Galton
Early 20th century
Edward Walter Maunder
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W. E. B. Du Bois
Henry Gantt
Arthur Lyon Bowley
Howard G. Funkhouser
John B. Peddle
Ejnar Hertzsprung
Henry Norris Russell
Max O. Lorenz
Fritz Kahn
Harry Beck
Erwin Raisz
Mid 20th century
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İslâm Ansiklopedisi | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sight (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sight_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Eyesight (song)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyesight_(song)"},{"link_name":"environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysical_environment"},{"link_name":"photopic vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photopic_vision"},{"link_name":"color vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision"},{"link_name":"scotopic vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotopic_vision"},{"link_name":"mesopic vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopic_vision"},{"link_name":"visible spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrum"},{"link_name":"visual acuity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_acuity"},{"link_name":"perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception"},{"link_name":"visual system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"cognitive science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"molecular biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology"},{"link_name":"vision science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_science"}],"text":"\"Sight\" and \"Eyesight\" redirect here. For other uses, see Sight (disambiguation) and Eyesight (song).Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision, scotopic vision (night vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using light in the visible spectrum reflected by objects in the environment. This is different from visual acuity, which refers to how clearly a person sees (for example \"20/20 vision\"). A person can have problems with visual perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision.The resulting perception is also known as vision, sight, or eyesight (adjectives visual, optical, and ocular, respectively). The various physiological components involved in vision are referred to collectively as the visual system, and are the focus of much research in linguistics, psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and molecular biology, collectively referred to as vision science.","title":"Visual perception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cornea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornea"},{"link_name":"lens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"retina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina"},{"link_name":"transducer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transducer"},{"link_name":"neuronal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron"},{"link_name":"photoreceptive cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoreceptor_cells"},{"link_name":"photons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon"},{"link_name":"neural impulses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential"},{"link_name":"optic nerve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_nerve"},{"link_name":"ganglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganglia"},{"link_name":"brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"},{"link_name":"lateral geniculate nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus"},{"link_name":"visual cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex"},{"link_name":"superior colliculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_colliculus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"primary visual cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_visual_cortex"},{"link_name":"Extrastriate cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrastriate_cortex"},{"link_name":"visual association cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_association_cortex"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carlson_2013_187-189-2"},{"link_name":"ventral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location"},{"link_name":"dorsal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location"},{"link_name":"two streams hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_streams_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"visible light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_light"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Margaret._2008-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"UV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"},{"link_name":"NIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"In humans and a number of other mammals, light enters the eye through the cornea and is focused by the lens onto the retina, a light-sensitive membrane at the back of the eye. The retina serves as a transducer for the conversion of light into neuronal signals. This transduction is achieved by specialized photoreceptive cells of the retina, also known as the rods and cones, which detect the photons of light and respond by producing neural impulses. These signals are transmitted by the optic nerve, from the retina upstream to central ganglia in the brain. The lateral geniculate nucleus, which transmits the information to the visual cortex. Signals from the retina also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus.[1]The lateral geniculate nucleus sends signals to primary visual cortex, also called striate cortex. Extrastriate cortex, also called visual association cortex is a set of cortical structures, that receive information from striate cortex, as well as each other.[2] Recent descriptions of visual association cortex describe a division into two functional pathways, a ventral and a dorsal pathway. This conjecture is known as the two streams hypothesis.The human visual system is generally believed to be sensitive to visible light in the range of wavelengths between 370 and 730 nanometers of the electromagnetic spectrum.[3] However, some research suggests that humans can perceive light in wavelengths down to 340 nanometers (UV-A), especially the young.[4] Under optimal conditions these limits of human perception can extend to 310 nm (UV) to 1100 nm (NIR).[5][6]","title":"Visual system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Two-streams hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-streams_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"visual processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_processing"}],"text":"See also: Two-streams hypothesisThe major problem in visual perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of retinal stimuli (i.e., the image on the retina), with the brain altering the basic information taken in. Thus people interested in perception have long struggled to explain what visual processing does to create what is actually seen.","title":"Study"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg"},{"link_name":"dorsal stream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_stream"},{"link_name":"ventral stream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral_stream"},{"link_name":"cerebral cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex"},{"link_name":"ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"emission theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_theory_(vision)"},{"link_name":"Euclid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid"},{"link_name":"Optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid%27s_Optics"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"Optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics_(Ptolemy)"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"De Sensu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finger-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finger-7"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"John Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Timaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Empedocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles"},{"link_name":"DK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diels%E2%80%93Kranz_numbering_system"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finger-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eye_Line_of_sight.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"Alhazen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen"},{"link_name":"experiments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment"},{"link_name":"binocular vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_vision"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Howard-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Khaleefa-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"fovea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fovea_centralis"},{"link_name":"peripheral vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_vision"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"prism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prism_(optics)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Margaret._2008-3"}],"sub_title":"Early studies","text":"The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are shown. Much of the human cerebral cortex is involved in vision.There were two major ancient Greek schools, providing a primitive explanation of how vision works.The first was the \"emission theory\" of vision which maintained that vision occurs when rays emanate from the eyes and are intercepted by visual objects. If an object was seen directly it was by 'means of rays' coming out of the eyes and again falling on the object. A refracted image was, however, seen by 'means of rays' as well, which came out of the eyes, traversed through the air, and after refraction, fell on the visible object which was sighted as the result of the movement of the rays from the eye. This theory was championed by scholars who were followers of Euclid's Optics and Ptolemy's Optics.The second school advocated the so-called 'intromission' approach which sees vision as coming from something entering the eyes representative of the object. With its main propagator Aristotle (De Sensu),[7] and his followers,[7] this theory seems to have some contact with modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only a speculation lacking any experimental foundation. (In eighteenth-century England, Isaac Newton, John Locke, and others, carried the intromission theory of vision forward by insisting that vision involved a process in which rays—composed of actual corporeal matter—emanated from seen objects and entered the seer's mind/sensorium through the eye's aperture.)[8]Both schools of thought relied upon the principle that \"like is only known by like\", and thus upon the notion that the eye was composed of some \"internal fire\" that interacted with the \"external fire\" of visible light and made vision possible. Plato makes this assertion in his dialogue Timaeus (45b and 46b), as does Empedocles (as reported by Aristotle in his De Sensu, DK frag. B17).[7]Leonardo da Vinci: The eye has a central line and everything that reaches the eye through this central line can be seen distinctly.Alhazen (965 – c. 1040) carried out many investigations and experiments on visual perception, extended the work of Ptolemy on binocular vision, and commented on the anatomical works of Galen.[9][10] He was the first person to explain that vision occurs when light bounces on an object and then is directed to one's eyes.[11]Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is believed to be the first to recognize the special optical qualities of the eye. He wrote \"The function of the human eye ... was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it to be completely different.\" His main experimental finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight—the optical line that ends at the fovea. Although he did not use these words literally he actually is the father of the modern distinction between foveal and peripheral vision.[12]Isaac Newton (1642–1726/27) was the first to discover through experimentation, by isolating individual colors of the spectrum of light passing through a prism, that the visually perceived color of objects appeared due to the character of light the objects reflected, and that these divided colors could not be changed into any other color, which was contrary to scientific expectation of the day.[3]","title":"Study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hermann von Helmholtz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonHelmholtz1867-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"visual illusions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_illusions"},{"link_name":"Bayesian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_approaches_to_brain_function"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Bayesian inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_inference"},{"link_name":"perception of motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_perception"},{"link_name":"perception of depth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception"},{"link_name":"figure-ground perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure-ground_(perception)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Unconscious inference","text":"Hermann von Helmholtz is often credited with the first modern study of visual perception. Helmholtz examined the human eye and concluded that it was incapable of producing a high-quality image. Insufficient information seemed to make vision impossible. He, therefore, concluded that vision could only be the result of some form of \"unconscious inference\", coining that term in 1867. He proposed the brain was making assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, based on previous experiences.[13]Inference requires prior experience of the world.Examples of well-known assumptions, based on visual experience, are:light comes from above;\nobjects are normally not viewed from below;\nfaces are seen (and recognized) upright;[14]\ncloser objects can block the view of more distant objects, but not vice versa; and\nfigures (i.e., foreground objects) tend to have convex borders.The study of visual illusions (cases when the inference process goes wrong) has yielded much insight into what sort of assumptions the visual system makes.Another type of unconscious inference hypothesis (based on probabilities) has recently been revived in so-called Bayesian studies of visual perception.[15] Proponents of this approach consider that the visual system performs some form of Bayesian inference to derive a perception from sensory data. However, it is not clear how proponents of this view derive, in principle, the relevant probabilities required by the Bayesian equation. Models based on this idea have been used to describe various visual perceptual functions, such as the perception of motion, the perception of depth, and figure-ground perception.[16][17] The \"wholly empirical theory of perception\" is a related and newer approach that rationalizes visual perception without explicitly invoking Bayesian formalisms.[citation needed]","title":"Study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gestalt psychologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gestalt_and_Vision-18"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Gestalt theory","text":"Gestalt psychologists working primarily in the 1930s and 1940s raised many of the research questions that are studied by vision scientists today.[18]The Gestalt Laws of Organization have guided the study of how people perceive visual components as organized patterns or wholes, instead of many different parts. \"Gestalt\" is a German word that partially translates to \"configuration or pattern\" along with \"whole or emergent structure\". According to this theory, there are eight main factors that determine how the visual system automatically groups elements into patterns: Proximity, Similarity, Closure, Symmetry, Common Fate (i.e. common motion), Continuity as well as Good Gestalt (pattern that is regular, simple, and orderly) and Past Experience.[citation needed]","title":"Study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eye movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_movement"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vision_2_secondes.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yarbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_L._Yarbus"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taylor,_1965-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"peripheral vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_vision"},{"link_name":"attentional selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"foveal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foveal"},{"link_name":"fixational eye movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixational_eye_movements"},{"link_name":"microsaccades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsaccade"},{"link_name":"Saccadic movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccade"},{"link_name":"pursuit movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_pursuit"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Analysis of eye movement","text":"See also: Eye movementEye movement first 2 seconds (Yarbus, 1967)During the 1960s, technical development permitted the continuous registration of eye movement during reading,[19] in picture viewing,[20] and later, in visual problem solving,[21] and when headset-cameras became available, also during driving.[22]The picture to the right shows what may happen during the first two seconds of visual inspection. While the background is out of focus, representing the peripheral vision, the first eye movement goes to the boots of the man (just because they are very near the starting fixation and have a reasonable contrast). Eye movements serve the function of attentional selection, i.e., to select a fraction of all visual inputs for deeper processing by the brain.[citation needed]The following fixations jump from face to face. They might even permit comparisons between faces.[citation needed]It may be concluded that the icon face is a very attractive search icon within the peripheral field of vision. The foveal vision adds detailed information to the peripheral first impression.It can also be noted that there are different types of eye movements: fixational eye movements (microsaccades, ocular drift, and tremor), vergence movements, saccadic movements and pursuit movements. Fixations are comparably static points where the eye rests. However, the eye is never completely still, and gaze position will drift. These drifts are in turn corrected by microsaccades, very small fixational eye movements. Vergence movements involve the cooperation of both eyes to allow for an image to fall on the same area of both retinas. This results in a single focused image. Saccadic movements is the type of eye movement that makes jumps from one position to another position and is used to rapidly scan a particular scene/image. Lastly, pursuit movement is smooth eye movement and is used to follow objects in motion.[23]","title":"Study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"object recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience_of_visual_object_recognition"},{"link_name":"prosopagnosic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosopagnosia"},{"link_name":"agnosic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosia"},{"link_name":"patient C.K.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_agnosia#Patient_CK"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMID_23965118-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMID_23965118-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"substantial debate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusiform_face_area#Function_and_controversy"},{"link_name":"face recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_perception"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"inferotemporal cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_temporal_gyrus"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"critical period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_period"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Face and object recognition","text":"There is considerable evidence that face and object recognition are accomplished by distinct systems. For example, prosopagnosic patients show deficits in face, but not object processing, while object agnosic patients (most notably, patient C.K.) show deficits in object processing with spared face processing.[24] Behaviorally, it has been shown that faces, but not objects, are subject to inversion effects, leading to the claim that faces are \"special\".[24][25] Further, face and object processing recruit distinct neural systems.[26] Notably, some have argued that the apparent specialization of the human brain for face processing does not reflect true domain specificity, but rather a more general process of expert-level discrimination within a given class of stimulus,[27] though this latter claim is the subject of substantial debate. Using fMRI and electrophysiology Doris Tsao and colleagues described brain regions and a mechanism for face recognition in macaque monkeys.[28]The inferotemporal cortex has a key role in the task of recognition and differentiation of different objects. A study by MIT shows that subset regions of the IT cortex are in charge of different objects.[29] By selectively shutting off neural activity of many small areas of the cortex, the animal gets alternately unable to distinguish between certain particular pairments of objects. This shows that the IT cortex is divided into regions that respond to different and particular visual features. In a similar way, certain particular patches and regions of the cortex are more involved in face recognition than other object recognition.Some studies tend to show that rather than the uniform global image, some particular features and regions of interest of the objects are key elements when the brain needs to recognise an object in an image.[30][31] In this way, the human vision is vulnerable to small particular changes to the image, such as disrupting the edges of the object, modifying texture or any small change in a crucial region of the image.[32]Studies of people whose sight has been restored after a long blindness reveal that they cannot necessarily recognize objects and faces (as opposed to color, motion, and simple geometric shapes). Some hypothesize that being blind during childhood prevents some part of the visual system necessary for these higher-level tasks from developing properly.[33] The general belief that a critical period lasts until age 5 or 6 was challenged by a 2007 study that found that older patients could improve these abilities with years of exposure.[34]","title":"Study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Marr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Marr_(neuroscientist)"},{"link_name":"Tomaso Poggio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomaso_Poggio"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"two-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_plane"},{"link_name":"three-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marr-36"},{"link_name":"3D shape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_shape"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"attentional selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention"},{"link_name":"shifting gaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_movement"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"primary visual cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex"},{"link_name":"peripheral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_vision"}],"text":"In the 1970s, David Marr developed a multi-level theory of vision, which analyzed the process of vision at different levels of abstraction. In order to focus on the understanding of specific problems in vision, he identified three levels of analysis: the computational, algorithmic and implementational levels. Many vision scientists, including Tomaso Poggio, have embraced these levels of analysis and employed them to further characterize vision from a computational perspective.[35]The computational level addresses, at a high level of abstraction, the problems that the visual system must overcome. The algorithmic level attempts to identify the strategy that may be used to solve these problems. Finally, the implementational level attempts to explain how solutions to these problems are realized in neural circuitry.Marr suggested that it is possible to investigate vision at any of these levels independently. Marr described vision as proceeding from a two-dimensional visual array (on the retina) to a three-dimensional description of the world as output. His stages of vision include:A 2D or primal sketch of the scene, based on feature extraction of fundamental components of the scene, including edges, regions, etc. Note the similarity in concept to a pencil sketch drawn quickly by an artist as an impression.\nA 21⁄2 D sketch of the scene, where textures are acknowledged, etc. Note the similarity in concept to the stage in drawing where an artist highlights or shades areas of a scene, to provide depth.\nA 3 D model, where the scene is visualized in a continuous, 3-dimensional map.[36]Marr's 21⁄2D sketch assumes that a depth map is constructed, and that this map is the basis of 3D shape perception. However, both stereoscopic and pictorial perception, as well as monocular viewing, make clear that the perception of 3D shape precedes, and does not rely on, the perception of the depth of points. It is not clear how a preliminary depth map could, in principle, be constructed, nor how this would address the question of figure-ground organization, or grouping. The role of perceptual organizing constraints, overlooked by Marr, in the production of 3D shape percepts from binocularly-viewed 3D objects has been demonstrated empirically for the case of 3D wire objects, e.g.[37][38] For a more detailed discussion, see Pizlo (2008).[39]A more recent, alternative framework proposes that vision is composed instead of the following three stages: encoding, selection, and decoding.[40] Encoding is to sample and represent visual inputs (e.g., to represent visual inputs as neural activities in the retina). Selection, or attentional selection, is to select a tiny fraction of input information for further processing, e.g., by shifting gaze to an object or visual location to better process the visual signals at that location. Decoding is to infer or recognize the selected input signals, e.g., to recognize the object at the center of gaze as somebody's face. In this framework,[41] attentional selection starts at the primary visual cortex along the visual pathway, and the attentional constraints impose a dichotomy between the central and peripheral visual fields for visual recognition or decoding.","title":"Cognitive and computational approaches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"retina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"opsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opsin"},{"link_name":"retinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carlson_2013_170-43"},{"link_name":"optic nerve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_nerve"},{"link_name":"color vision deficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision_deficiency"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carlson_2010_138%E2%80%93145-44"}],"text":"Transduction is the process through which energy from environmental stimuli is converted to neural activity. The retina contains three different cell layers: photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell layer and ganglion cell layer. The photoreceptor layer where transduction occurs is farthest from the lens. It contains photoreceptors with different sensitivities called rods and cones. The cones are responsible for color perception and are of three distinct types labelled red, green and blue. Rods are responsible for the perception of objects in low light.[42] Photoreceptors contain within them a special chemical called a photopigment, which is embedded in the membrane of the lamellae; a single human rod contains approximately 10 million of them. The photopigment molecules consist of two parts: an opsin (a protein) and retinal (a lipid).[43] There are 3 specific photopigments (each with their own wavelength sensitivity) that respond across the spectrum of visible light. When the appropriate wavelengths (those that the specific photopigment is sensitive to) hit the photoreceptor, the photopigment splits into two, which sends a signal to the bipolar cell layer, which in turn sends a signal to the ganglion cells, the axons of which form the optic nerve and transmit the information to the brain. If a particular cone type is missing or abnormal, due to a genetic anomaly, a color vision deficiency, sometimes called color blindness will occur.[44]","title":"Transduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"opponent process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opponent_process"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carlson_2010_138%E2%80%93145-44"}],"text":"Transduction involves chemical messages sent from the photoreceptors to the bipolar cells to the ganglion cells. Several photoreceptors may send their information to one ganglion cell. There are two types of ganglion cells: red/green and yellow/blue. These neurons constantly fire—even when not stimulated. The brain interprets different colors (and with a lot of information, an image) when the rate of firing of these neurons alters. Red light stimulates the red cone, which in turn stimulates the red/green ganglion cell. Likewise, green light stimulates the green cone, which stimulates the green/red ganglion cell and blue light stimulates the blue cone which stimulates the blue/yellow ganglion cell. The rate of firing of the ganglion cells is increased when it is signaled by one cone and decreased (inhibited) when it is signaled by the other cone. The first color in the name of the ganglion cell is the color that excites it and the second is the color that inhibits it. i.e.: A red cone would excite the red/green ganglion cell and the green cone would inhibit the red/green ganglion cell. This is an opponent process. If the rate of firing of a red/green ganglion cell is increased, the brain would know that the light was red, if the rate was decreased, the brain would know that the color of the light was green.[44]","title":"Opponent process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision"},{"link_name":"machine vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_vision"},{"link_name":"Toyota 86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_86"},{"link_name":"Subaru EyeSight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_EyeSight"},{"link_name":"driver-assist technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_driver-assistance_systems"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"Theories and observations of visual perception have been the main source of inspiration for computer vision (also called machine vision, or computational vision). Special hardware structures and software algorithms provide machines with the capability to interpret the images coming from a camera or a sensor.For instance, the 2022 Toyota 86 uses the Subaru EyeSight system for driver-assist technology.[45]","title":"Artificial visual perception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Von Helmholtz, Hermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz"},{"link_name":"Treatise on Physiological Optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Helmholtz/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180927064524/http://poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Helmholtz/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"Von Helmholtz, Hermann (1867). Handbuch der physiologischen Optik. Vol. 3. Leipzig: Voss. Quotations are from the English translation produced by the Optical Society of America (1924–25): Treatise on Physiological Optics Archived September 27, 2018, at the Wayback Machine.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are shown. Much of the human cerebral cortex is involved in vision.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg/290px-Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Leonardo da Vinci: The eye has a central line and everything that reaches the eye through this central line can be seen distinctly.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Eye_Line_of_sight.jpg/220px-Eye_Line_of_sight.jpg"},{"image_text":"Eye movement first 2 seconds (Yarbus, 1967)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Vision_2_secondes.jpg/220px-Vision_2_secondes.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Color vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision"},{"title":"Computer vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision"},{"title":"Depth perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception"},{"title":"Entoptic phenomenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entoptic_phenomenon"},{"title":"Gestalt psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology"},{"title":"Lateral masking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_masking"},{"title":"Looming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Looming"},{"title":"Naked eye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naked_eye"},{"title":"Machine vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_vision"},{"title":"McGill Picture Anomaly Test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_Picture_Anomaly_Test"},{"title":"Motion perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_perception"},{"title":"Multisensory integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multisensory_integration"},{"title":"Interpretation (philosophy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_(philosophy)"},{"title":"Spatial frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_frequency"},{"title":"Visual illusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_illusion"},{"title":"Visual processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_processing"},{"title":"Visual system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system"},{"title":"Sensations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sensation"}] | [{"reference":"Sadun, Alfredo A.; Johnson, Betty M.; Smith, Lois E. H. (1986). \"Neuroanatomy of the human visual system: Part II Retinal projections to the superior colliculus and pulvinar\". Neuro-Ophthalmology. 6 (6): 363–370. doi:10.3109/01658108609016476. ISSN 0165-8107.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/01658108609016476","url_text":"\"Neuroanatomy of the human visual system: Part II Retinal projections to the superior colliculus and pulvinar\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3109%2F01658108609016476","url_text":"10.3109/01658108609016476"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0165-8107","url_text":"0165-8107"}]},{"reference":"Carlson, Neil R. (2013). \"6\". Physiology of Behaviour (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, US: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 187–189. ISBN 978-0-205-23939-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-23939-9","url_text":"978-0-205-23939-9"}]},{"reference":"Margaret, Livingstone (2008). Vision and art : the biology of seeing. Hubel, David H. New York: Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-9554-3. OCLC 192082768.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8109-9554-3","url_text":"978-0-8109-9554-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/192082768","url_text":"192082768"}]},{"reference":"Brainard, George C.; Beacham, Sabrina; Sanford, Britt E.; Hanifin, John P.; Streletz, Leopold; Sliney, David (March 1, 1999). \"Near ultraviolet radiation elicits visual evoked potentials in children\". Clinical Neurophysiology. 110 (3): 379–383. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(98)00022-4. ISSN 1388-2457. PMID 10363758. S2CID 8509975.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1388-2457%2898%2900022-4","url_text":"10.1016/S1388-2457(98)00022-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1388-2457","url_text":"1388-2457"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10363758","url_text":"10363758"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8509975","url_text":"8509975"}]},{"reference":"D. H. Sliney (February 2016). \"What is light? The visible spectrum and beyond\". Eye. 30 (2): 222–229. doi:10.1038/eye.2015.252. ISSN 1476-5454. PMC 4763133. PMID 26768917.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4763133","url_text":"\"What is light? The visible spectrum and beyond\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Feye.2015.252","url_text":"10.1038/eye.2015.252"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-5454","url_text":"1476-5454"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4763133","url_text":"4763133"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26768917","url_text":"26768917"}]},{"reference":"W. C. Livingston (2001). Color and light in nature (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77284-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4Abp5FdhskAC&pg=PA231","url_text":"Color and light in nature"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77284-2","url_text":"0-521-77284-2"}]},{"reference":"Finger, Stanley (1994). Origins of neuroscience: a history of explorations into brain function. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-19-506503-9. OCLC 27151391.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506503-9","url_text":"978-0-19-506503-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27151391","url_text":"27151391"}]},{"reference":"Swenson Rivka (2010). \"Optics, Gender, and the Eighteenth-Century Gaze: Looking at Eliza Haywood's Anti-Pamela\". The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation. 51 (1–2): 27–43. doi:10.1353/ecy.2010.0006. S2CID 145149737.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fecy.2010.0006","url_text":"10.1353/ecy.2010.0006"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145149737","url_text":"145149737"}]},{"reference":"Howard, I (1996). \"Alhazen's neglected discoveries of visual phenomena\". Perception. 25 (10): 1203–1217. doi:10.1068/p251203. PMID 9027923. S2CID 20880413.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fp251203","url_text":"10.1068/p251203"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9027923","url_text":"9027923"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20880413","url_text":"20880413"}]},{"reference":"Khaleefa, Omar (1999). \"Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?\". American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. 16 (2): 1–26. doi:10.35632/ajis.v16i2.2126.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.35632%2Fajis.v16i2.2126","url_text":"10.35632/ajis.v16i2.2126"}]},{"reference":"Adamson, Peter (July 7, 2016). Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Oxford University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-19-957749-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KEpRDAAAQBAJ","url_text":"Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957749-1","url_text":"978-0-19-957749-1"}]},{"reference":"Keele, Kd (1955). \"Leonardo da Vinci on vision\". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 48 (5): 384–390. doi:10.1177/003591575504800512. ISSN 0035-9157. PMC 1918888. PMID 14395232.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1918888","url_text":"\"Leonardo da Vinci on vision\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F003591575504800512","url_text":"10.1177/003591575504800512"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-9157","url_text":"0035-9157"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1918888","url_text":"1918888"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14395232","url_text":"14395232"}]},{"reference":"von Helmholtz, Hermann (1925). Handbuch der physiologischen Optik. Vol. 3. Leipzig: Voss. Archived from the original on September 27, 2018. Retrieved December 14, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz","url_text":"von Helmholtz, Hermann"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180927064524/http://poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Helmholtz/","url_text":"Handbuch der physiologischen Optik"},{"url":"http://poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Helmholtz/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hunziker, Hans-Werner (2006). Im Auge des Lesers: foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung – vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude [In the eye of the reader: foveal and peripheral perception – from letter recognition to the joy of reading]. Zürich: Transmedia Stäubli Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7266-0068-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7266-0068-6","url_text":"978-3-7266-0068-6"}]},{"reference":"Stone, JV (2011). \"Footprints sticking out of the sand. Part 2: children's Bayesian priors for shape and lighting direction\" (PDF). Perception. 40 (2): 175–90. doi:10.1068/p6776. PMID 21650091. S2CID 32868278.","urls":[{"url":"http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/42967/1/bayes_chilld_Jan2011_v23_sent.pdf","url_text":"\"Footprints sticking out of the sand. Part 2: children's Bayesian priors for shape and lighting direction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fp6776","url_text":"10.1068/p6776"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21650091","url_text":"21650091"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32868278","url_text":"32868278"}]},{"reference":"Mamassian, Pascal; Landy, Michael; Maloney, Laurence T. (2002). \"Bayesian Modelling of Visual Perception\". In Rao, Rajesh P. N.; Olshausen, Bruno A.; Lewicki, Michael S. (eds.). Probabilistic Models of the Brain: Perception and Neural Function. Neural Information Processing. MIT Press. pp. 13–36. ISBN 978-0-262-26432-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mzBlvComcqwC&pg=PA13","url_text":"\"Bayesian Modelling of Visual Perception\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-26432-7","url_text":"978-0-262-26432-7"}]},{"reference":"\"A Primer on Probabilistic Approaches to Visual Perception\". Archived from the original on July 10, 2006. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomimetic_polymer | Biomimetic material | ["1 Tissue engineering","2 Biomimetic mineralization","3 Extracellular matrix proteins","4 Biomimetic artificial muscles","5 Biomimetic photonic structures","6 Artificial enzyme","7 Biomimetic composite","8 References"] | Biomimetic materials are materials developed using inspiration from nature. This may be useful in the design of composite materials. Natural structures have inspired and innovated human creations. Notable examples of these natural structures include: honeycomb structure of the beehive, strength of spider silks, bird flight mechanics, and shark skin water repellency. The etymological roots of the neologism "biomimetic" derive from Greek, since bios means "life" and mimetikos means "imitative".
Tissue engineering
Biomimetic materials in tissue engineering are materials that have been designed such that they elicit specified cellular responses mediated by interactions with scaffold-tethered peptides from extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins; essentially, the incorporation of cell-binding peptides into biomaterials via chemical or physical modification. Amino acids located within the peptides are used as building blocks by other biological structures. These peptides are often referred to as "self-assembling peptides", since they can be modified to contain biologically active motifs. This allows them to replicate information derived from tissue and to reproduce the same information independently. Thus, these peptides act as building blocks capable of conducting multiple biochemical activities, including tissue engineering. Tissue engineering research currently being performed on both short chain and long chain peptides is still in early stages.
Such peptides include both native long chains of ECM proteins as well as short peptide sequences derived from intact ECM proteins. The idea is that the biomimetic material will mimic some of the roles that an ECM plays in neural tissue. In addition to promoting cellular growth and mobilization, the incorporated peptides could also mediate by specific protease enzymes or initiate cellular responses not present in a local native tissue.
In the beginning, long chains of ECM proteins including fibronectin (FN), vitronectin (VN), and laminin (LN) were used, but more recently the advantages of using short peptides have been discovered. Short peptides are more advantageous because, unlike the long chains that fold randomly upon adsorption causing the active protein domains to be sterically unavailable, short peptides remain stable and do not hide the receptor binding domains when adsorbed. Another advantage to short peptides is that they can be replicated more economically due to the smaller size. A bi-functional cross-linker with a long spacer arm is used to tether peptides to the substrate surface. If a functional group is not available for attaching the cross-linker, photochemical immobilization may be used.
In addition to modifying the surface, biomaterials can be modified in bulk, meaning that the cell signaling peptides and recognition sites are present not just on the surface but also throughout the bulk of the material. The strength of cell attachment, cell migration rate, and extent of cytoskeletal organization formation is determined by the receptor binding to the ligand bound to the material; thus, receptor-ligand affinity, the density of the ligand, and the spatial distribution of the ligand must be carefully considered when designing a biomimetic material.
Biomimetic mineralization
Proteins of the developing enamel extracellular matrix (such as amelogenin) control initial mineral deposition (nucleation) and subsequent crystal growth, ultimately determining the physico-mechanical properties of the mature mineralized tissue. Nucleators bring together mineral ions from the surrounding fluids (such as saliva) into the form of a crystal lattice structure, by stabilizing small nuclei to permit crystal growth, forming mineral tissue. Mutations in enamel ECM proteins result in enamel defects such as amelogenesis imperfecta. Type-I collagen is thought to have a similar role for the formation of dentin and bone.
Dental enamel mineral (as well as dentin and bone) is made of hydroxylapatite with foreign ions incorporated in the structure. Carbonate, fluoride, and magnesium are the most common heteroionic substituents.
In a biomimetic mineralization strategy based on normal enamel histogenesis, a three-dimensional scaffold is formed to attract and arrange calcium and/or phosphate ions to induce de novo precipitation of hydroxylapatite.
Two general strategies have been applied. One is using fragments known to support natural mineralization proteins, such as Amelogenin, Collagen, or Dentin Phosphophoryn as the basis. Alternatively, de novo macromolecular structures have been designed to support mineralization, not based on natural molecules, but on rational design. One example is oligopeptide P11-4.
In dental orthopedics and implants, a more traditional strategy to improve the density of the underlying jaw bone is via the in situ application of calcium phosphate materials. Commonly used materials include hydroxylapatite, tricalcium phosphate, and calcium phosphate cement. Newer bioactive glasses follow this line of strategy, where the added silicone provides an important bonus to the local absorption of calcium.
Extracellular matrix proteins
Many studies utilize laminin-1 when designing a biomimetic material. Laminin is a component of the extracellular matrix that is able to promote neuron attachment and differentiation, in addition to axon growth guidance. Its primary functional site for bioactivity is its core protein domain isoleucine-lysine-valine-alanine-valine (IKVAV), which is located in the α-1 chain of laminin.
A recent study by Wu, Zheng et al., synthesized a self-assembled IKVAV peptide nanofiber and tested its effect on the adhesion of neuron-like pc12 cells. Early cell adhesion is very important for preventing cell degeneration; the longer cells are suspended in culture, the more likely they are to degenerate. The purpose was to develop a biomaterial with good cell adherence and bioactivity with IKVAV, which is able to inhibit differentiation and adhesion of glial cells in addition to promoting neuronal cell adhesion and differentiation. The IKVAV peptide domain is on the surface of the nanofibers so that it is exposed and accessible for promoting cell contact interactions. The IKVAV nanofibers promoted stronger cell adherence than the electrostatic attraction induced by poly-L-lysine, and cell adherence increased with increasing density of IKVAV until the saturation point was reached. IKVAV does not exhibit time dependent effects because the adherence was shown to be the same at 1 hour and at 3 hours.
Laminin is known to stimulate neurite outgrowth and it plays a role in the developing nervous system. It is known that gradients are critical for the guidance of growth cones to their target tissues in the developing nervous system. There has been much research done on soluble gradients; however, little emphasis has been placed on gradients of substratum bound substances of the extracellular matrix such as laminin. Dodla and Bellamkonda, fabricated an anisotropic 3D agarose gel with gradients of coupled laminin-1 (LN-1). Concentration gradients of LN-1 were shown to promote faster neurite extension than the highest neurite growth rate observed with isotropic LN-1 concentrations. Neurites grew both up and down the gradients, but growth was faster at less steep gradients and was faster up the gradients than down the gradients.
Biomimetic artificial muscles
Electroactive polymers (EAPs) are also known as artificial muscles. EAPs are polymeric materials and they are able to produce large deformation when applied in an electric field. This provides large potential in applications in biotechnology and robotics, sensors, and actuators.
Biomimetic photonic structures
Main article: Bio-inspired photonics
The production of structural colours concerns a large array of organisms. From bacteria (Flavobacterium strain IR1) to multicellular organisms, (Hibiscus trionum, Doryteuthis pealeii (squid), or Chrysochroa fulgidissima (beetle)), manipulation of light is not limited to rare and exotic life forms. Different organisms evolved different mechanisms to produce structural colours: multilayered cuticle in some insects and plants, grating like surface in plants, geometrically organised cells in bacteria... all of theme stand for a source of inspiration towards the development of structurally coloured materials.
Study of the firefly abdomen revealed the presence of a 3-layer system comprising the cuticle, the Photogenic layer and then a reflector layer. Microscopy of the reflector layer revealed a granulate structure. Directly inspired from the fire fly Reflector layer, an artificial granulate film composed of hollow silica beads of about 1.05 μm was correlated with a high reflection index and could be used to improve light emission in chemiluminescent systems.
Artificial enzyme
Artificial enzymes are synthetic materials that can mimic (partial) function of a natural enzyme without necessarily being a protein. Among them, some nanomaterials have been used to mimic natural enzymes. These nanomaterials are termed nanozymes. Nanozymes as well as other artificial enzymes have found wide applications, from biosensing and immunoassays, to stem cell growth and pollutant removal.
Biomimetic composite
Biomimetic composites are being made by mimicking natural design strategies. The designs or structures found in animals and plants have been studied and these biological structures are applied to manufacture composite structure. Advanced manufacturing techniques like 3d printing are being used by the researcher to fabricate them.
References
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^ "7 Amazing Examples of Biomimicry". Retrieved 28 July 2014.
^ a b c d Shin, H., S. Jo, and A.G. Mikos, Biomimetic materials for tissue engineering. Biomaterials, 2003. 24: p. 4353-5364.
^ Cavalli, Silvia (2009). "Amphiphilic peptides and their cross-disciplinary role as building blocks for nanoscience" (PDF). Chemical Society Reviews. 39 (1): 241–263. doi:10.1039/b906701a. PMID 20023851. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
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^ a b c Wu, Y., et al., Self-assembled IKVAV peptide nanofibers promote adherence of PC12 cells. Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 2006. 26(5): p. 594-596.
^ a b Dodla, M.C. and R.V. Bellamkonda, Anisotropic scaffolds facilitate enhanced neurite extension "in vitro". Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. Part A, 2006. 78: p. 213-221.
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Authority control databases: National
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These peptides are often referred to as \"self-assembling peptides\", since they can be modified to contain biologically active motifs. This allows them to replicate information derived from tissue and to reproduce the same information independently. Thus, these peptides act as building blocks capable of conducting multiple biochemical activities, including tissue engineering.[4] Tissue engineering research currently being performed on both short chain and long chain peptides is still in early stages.Such peptides include both native long chains of ECM proteins as well as short peptide sequences derived from intact ECM proteins. The idea is that the biomimetic material will mimic some of the roles that an ECM plays in neural tissue. In addition to promoting cellular growth and mobilization, the incorporated peptides could also mediate by specific protease enzymes or initiate cellular responses not present in a local native tissue.[3]In the beginning, long chains of ECM proteins including fibronectin (FN), vitronectin (VN), and laminin (LN) were used, but more recently the advantages of using short peptides have been discovered. Short peptides are more advantageous because, unlike the long chains that fold randomly upon adsorption causing the active protein domains to be sterically unavailable, short peptides remain stable and do not hide the receptor binding domains when adsorbed. Another advantage to short peptides is that they can be replicated more economically due to the smaller size. A bi-functional cross-linker with a long spacer arm is used to tether peptides to the substrate surface. If a functional group is not available for attaching the cross-linker, photochemical immobilization may be used.[3]In addition to modifying the surface, biomaterials can be modified in bulk, meaning that the cell signaling peptides and recognition sites are present not just on the surface but also throughout the bulk of the material. The strength of cell attachment, cell migration rate, and extent of cytoskeletal organization formation is determined by the receptor binding to the ligand bound to the material; thus, receptor-ligand affinity, the density of the ligand, and the spatial distribution of the ligand must be carefully considered when designing a biomimetic material.[3]","title":"Tissue engineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"amelogenin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amelogenin"},{"link_name":"nucleation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"amelogenesis imperfecta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amelogenesis_imperfecta"},{"link_name":"Type-I collagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type-I_collagen"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"dentin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentin"},{"link_name":"hydroxylapatite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxylapatite"},{"link_name":"Carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate"},{"link_name":"fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride"},{"link_name":"magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"histogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogenesis"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"oligopeptide P11-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligopeptide_P11-4"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"tricalcium phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricalcium_phosphate"},{"link_name":"calcium phosphate cement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_phosphate_cement"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"bioactive glasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioactive_glass"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Si-13"}],"text":"Proteins of the developing enamel extracellular matrix (such as amelogenin) control initial mineral deposition (nucleation) and subsequent crystal growth, ultimately determining the physico-mechanical properties of the mature mineralized tissue. Nucleators bring together mineral ions from the surrounding fluids (such as saliva) into the form of a crystal lattice structure, by stabilizing small nuclei to permit crystal growth, forming mineral tissue.[5] Mutations in enamel ECM proteins result in enamel defects such as amelogenesis imperfecta. Type-I collagen is thought to have a similar role for the formation of dentin and bone.[6][7]Dental enamel mineral (as well as dentin and bone) is made of hydroxylapatite with foreign ions incorporated in the structure. Carbonate, fluoride, and magnesium are the most common heteroionic substituents.[8]In a biomimetic mineralization strategy based on normal enamel histogenesis, a three-dimensional scaffold is formed to attract and arrange calcium and/or phosphate ions to induce de novo precipitation of hydroxylapatite.[9]Two general strategies have been applied. One is using fragments known to support natural mineralization proteins, such as Amelogenin, Collagen, or Dentin Phosphophoryn as the basis.[10] Alternatively, de novo macromolecular structures have been designed to support mineralization, not based on natural molecules, but on rational design. One example is oligopeptide P11-4.[11]In dental orthopedics and implants, a more traditional strategy to improve the density of the underlying jaw bone is via the in situ application of calcium phosphate materials. Commonly used materials include hydroxylapatite, tricalcium phosphate, and calcium phosphate cement.[12] Newer bioactive glasses follow this line of strategy, where the added silicone provides an important bonus to the local absorption of calcium.[13]","title":"Biomimetic mineralization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"axon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon"},{"link_name":"isoleucine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoleucine"},{"link_name":"lysine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysine"},{"link_name":"valine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valine"},{"link_name":"alanine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alanine"},{"link_name":"valine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valine"},{"link_name":"α-1 chain of laminin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminin_subunit_alpha-1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Self-assembled_IKVAV_peptide_nanofibers_promote_adherence_of_PC12_cells-14"},{"link_name":"pc12 cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pc12_cells"},{"link_name":"biomaterial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomaterial"},{"link_name":"differentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiation_(cellular)"},{"link_name":"cell adhesion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_adhesion"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Self-assembled_IKVAV_peptide_nanofibers_promote_adherence_of_PC12_cells-14"},{"link_name":"poly-L-lysine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly-L-lysine"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Self-assembled_IKVAV_peptide_nanofibers_promote_adherence_of_PC12_cells-14"},{"link_name":"neurite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurite"},{"link_name":"growth cones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_cones"},{"link_name":"nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Anisotropic_scaffolds_facilitate_enhanced_neurite_extension-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Anisotropic_scaffolds_facilitate_enhanced_neurite_extension-15"}],"text":"Many studies utilize laminin-1 when designing a biomimetic material. Laminin is a component of the extracellular matrix that is able to promote neuron attachment and differentiation, in addition to axon growth guidance. Its primary functional site for bioactivity is its core protein domain isoleucine-lysine-valine-alanine-valine (IKVAV), which is located in the α-1 chain of laminin.[14]A recent study by Wu, Zheng et al., synthesized a self-assembled IKVAV peptide nanofiber and tested its effect on the adhesion of neuron-like pc12 cells. Early cell adhesion is very important for preventing cell degeneration; the longer cells are suspended in culture, the more likely they are to degenerate. The purpose was to develop a biomaterial with good cell adherence and bioactivity with IKVAV, which is able to inhibit differentiation and adhesion of glial cells in addition to promoting neuronal cell adhesion and differentiation.[14] The IKVAV peptide domain is on the surface of the nanofibers so that it is exposed and accessible for promoting cell contact interactions. The IKVAV nanofibers promoted stronger cell adherence than the electrostatic attraction induced by poly-L-lysine, and cell adherence increased with increasing density of IKVAV until the saturation point was reached. IKVAV does not exhibit time dependent effects because the adherence was shown to be the same at 1 hour and at 3 hours.[14]Laminin is known to stimulate neurite outgrowth and it plays a role in the developing nervous system. It is known that gradients are critical for the guidance of growth cones to their target tissues in the developing nervous system. There has been much research done on soluble gradients; however, little emphasis has been placed on gradients of substratum bound substances of the extracellular matrix such as laminin.[15] Dodla and Bellamkonda, fabricated an anisotropic 3D agarose gel with gradients of coupled laminin-1 (LN-1). Concentration gradients of LN-1 were shown to promote faster neurite extension than the highest neurite growth rate observed with isotropic LN-1 concentrations. Neurites grew both up and down the gradients, but growth was faster at less steep gradients and was faster up the gradients than down the gradients.[15]","title":"Extracellular matrix proteins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electroactive polymers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroactive_polymers"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Biomimetic_Robotic_Artificial_Muscles-16"}],"text":"Electroactive polymers (EAPs) are also known as artificial muscles. EAPs are polymeric materials and they are able to produce large deformation when applied in an electric field. This provides large potential in applications in biotechnology and robotics, sensors, and actuators.[16]","title":"Biomimetic artificial muscles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JohansenCat%C3%B3n2018-17"},{"link_name":"Hibiscus trionum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibiscus_trionum"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VignoliniMoyroud2015-18"},{"link_name":"Doryteuthis pealeii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doryteuthis_pealeii"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WardillGonzalez-Bellido2012-19"},{"link_name":"Chrysochroa fulgidissima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysochroa_fulgidissima"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StavengaWilts2011-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StavengaWilts2011-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JacobsLopez-Garcia2016-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VignoliniMoyroud2015-18"},{"link_name":"chemiluminescent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiluminescence"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChenShi2015-22"}],"text":"The production of structural colours concerns a large array of organisms. From bacteria (Flavobacterium strain IR1)[17] to multicellular organisms, (Hibiscus trionum,[18] Doryteuthis pealeii (squid),[19] or Chrysochroa fulgidissima (beetle)[20]), manipulation of light is not limited to rare and exotic life forms. Different organisms evolved different mechanisms to produce structural colours: multilayered cuticle in some insects[20] and plants,[21] grating like surface in plants,[18] geometrically organised cells in bacteria... all of theme stand for a source of inspiration towards the development of structurally coloured materials.\nStudy of the firefly abdomen revealed the presence of a 3-layer system comprising the cuticle, the Photogenic layer and then a reflector layer. Microscopy of the reflector layer revealed a granulate structure. Directly inspired from the fire fly Reflector layer, an artificial granulate film composed of hollow silica beads of about 1.05 μm was correlated with a high reflection index and could be used to improve light emission in chemiluminescent systems.[22]","title":"Biomimetic photonic structures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Artificial enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_enzyme"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Artificial enzymes are synthetic materials that can mimic (partial) function of a natural enzyme without necessarily being a protein. Among them, some nanomaterials have been used to mimic natural enzymes. These nanomaterials are termed nanozymes. Nanozymes as well as other artificial enzymes have found wide applications, from biosensing and immunoassays, to stem cell growth and pollutant removal.[23]","title":"Artificial enzyme"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Biomimetic composites are being made by mimicking natural design strategies. The designs or structures found in animals and plants have been studied and these biological structures are applied to manufacture composite structure. Advanced manufacturing techniques like 3d printing are being used by the researcher to fabricate them.[24]","title":"Biomimetic composite"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"7 Amazing Examples of Biomimicry\". Retrieved 28 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness-resources/photos/7-amazing-examples-of-biomimicry/copying-mother-nature","url_text":"\"7 Amazing Examples of Biomimicry\""}]},{"reference":"Cavalli, Silvia (2009). \"Amphiphilic peptides and their cross-disciplinary role as building blocks for nanoscience\" (PDF). Chemical Society Reviews. 39 (1): 241–263. doi:10.1039/b906701a. PMID 20023851. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 3 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215713/http://www.pcb.ub.edu/fama/pdf/Chem.%20Soc.%20Rev.,%202010,%2039,%20241.pdf","url_text":"\"Amphiphilic peptides and their cross-disciplinary role as building blocks for nanoscience\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fb906701a","url_text":"10.1039/b906701a"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20023851","url_text":"20023851"},{"url":"http://www.pcb.ub.edu/fama/pdf/Chem.%20Soc.%20Rev.,%202010,%2039,%20241.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Simmer, J.P. & Fincham, A. G. (1995). \"Molecular Mechanisms of Dental Enamel Formation\". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology & Medicine. 6 (2): 84–108. doi:10.1177/10454411950060020701. PMID 7548623.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F10454411950060020701","url_text":"\"Molecular Mechanisms of Dental Enamel Formation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F10454411950060020701","url_text":"10.1177/10454411950060020701"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7548623","url_text":"7548623"}]},{"reference":"Wright, J. T.; Hart, P. S.; et al. (2003). \"Relationship of phenotype and genotype in X-linked amelogenesis imperfecta\". Connective Tissue Research. 44 (1): 72–78. doi:10.1080/03008200390152124. PMID 12952177. S2CID 12455593.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03008200390152124","url_text":"10.1080/03008200390152124"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12952177","url_text":"12952177"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12455593","url_text":"12455593"}]},{"reference":"Kim, J. W.; Seymen, F.; et al. (March 2005). \"ENAM Mutations in Autosomal-dominant Amelogenesis Imperfecta\". Journal of Dental Research. 84 (3): 278–282. doi:10.1177/154405910508400314. PMID 15723871. S2CID 464969.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F154405910508400314","url_text":"10.1177/154405910508400314"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15723871","url_text":"15723871"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:464969","url_text":"464969"}]},{"reference":"Robinson, C.; Kirkham, J.; Shore, R. (1995). Dental enamel formation to destruction. Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 978-0849345890.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0849345890","url_text":"978-0849345890"}]},{"reference":"Palmer, L. C.; Newcomb, C. J.; et al. (November 2008). \"Biomimetic systems for hydroxyapatite mineralization inspired by bone and enamel\". Chemical Reviews. 108 (11): 4754–4783. doi:10.1021/cr8004422. PMC 2593885. PMID 19006400.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593885","url_text":"\"Biomimetic systems for hydroxyapatite mineralization inspired by bone and enamel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr8004422","url_text":"10.1021/cr8004422"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593885","url_text":"2593885"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19006400","url_text":"19006400"}]},{"reference":"Sfeir, C.; Lee, D.; et al. (February 2011). \"Expression of phosphophoryn is sufficient for the induction of matrix mineralization by mammalian cells\". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 286 (23): 20228–20238. doi:10.1074/jbc.M110.209528. PMC 3121506. PMID 21343307.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3121506","url_text":"\"Expression of phosphophoryn is sufficient for the induction of matrix mineralization by mammalian cells\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M110.209528","url_text":"10.1074/jbc.M110.209528"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3121506","url_text":"3121506"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21343307","url_text":"21343307"}]},{"reference":"Kirkham, J.; Firth, A.; et al. (May 2007). \"Self-assembling peptide scaffolds promote enamel remineralization\". Journal of Dental Research. 86 (5): 426–430. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.496.1945. doi:10.1177/154405910708600507. PMID 17452562. S2CID 21582771.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.496.1945","url_text":"10.1.1.496.1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F154405910708600507","url_text":"10.1177/154405910708600507"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17452562","url_text":"17452562"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21582771","url_text":"21582771"}]},{"reference":"Al-Sanabani, JS; Madfa, AA; Al-Sanabani, FA (2013). \"Application of calcium phosphate materials in dentistry\". International Journal of Biomaterials. 2013: 876132. doi:10.1155/2013/876132. PMC 3710628. PMID 23878541.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3710628","url_text":"\"Application of calcium phosphate materials in dentistry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2013%2F876132","url_text":"10.1155/2013/876132"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3710628","url_text":"3710628"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23878541","url_text":"23878541"}]},{"reference":"Rabiee, S.M.; Nazparvar, N.; Azizian, M.; Vashaee, D.; Tayebi, L. (July 2015). \"Effect of ion substitution on properties of bioactive glasses: A review\". Ceramics International. 41 (6): 7241–7251. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.02.140.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ceramint.2015.02.140","url_text":"10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.02.140"}]},{"reference":"Johansen, Villads Egede; Catón, Laura; Hamidjaja, Raditijo; Oosterink, Els; Wilts, Bodo D.; Rasmussen, Torben Sølbeck; Sherlock, Michael Mario; Ingham, Colin J.; Vignolini, Silvia (2018). \"Genetic manipulation of structural color in bacterial colonies\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (11): 2652–2657. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.2652E. doi:10.1073/pnas.1716214115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5856530. PMID 29472451.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5856530","url_text":"\"Genetic manipulation of structural color in bacterial colonies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PNAS..115.2652E","url_text":"2018PNAS..115.2652E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1716214115","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.1716214115"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424","url_text":"0027-8424"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5856530","url_text":"5856530"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29472451","url_text":"29472451"}]},{"reference":"Vignolini, Silvia; Moyroud, Edwige; Hingant, Thomas; Banks, Hannah; Rudall, Paula J.; Steiner, Ullrich; Glover, Beverley J. (2015). \"The flower ofHibiscus trionumis both visibly and measurably iridescent\". New Phytologist. 205 (1): 97–101. doi:10.1111/nph.12958. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 25040014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/245472","url_text":"\"The flower ofHibiscus trionumis both visibly and measurably iridescent\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.12958","url_text":"10.1111/nph.12958"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-646X","url_text":"0028-646X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25040014","url_text":"25040014"}]},{"reference":"Wardill, T. J.; Gonzalez-Bellido, P. T.; Crook, R. J.; Hanlon, R. T. (2012). \"Neural control of tuneable skin iridescence in squid\". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1745): 4243–4252. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.1374. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 3441077. PMID 22896651.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3441077","url_text":"\"Neural control of tuneable skin iridescence in squid\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2012.1374","url_text":"10.1098/rspb.2012.1374"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8452","url_text":"0962-8452"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3441077","url_text":"3441077"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22896651","url_text":"22896651"}]},{"reference":"Stavenga, D. G.; Wilts, B. D.; Leertouwer, H. L.; Hariyama, T. (2011). \"Polarized iridescence of the multilayered elytra of the Japanese jewel beetle, Chrysochroa fulgidissima\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 366 (1565): 709–723. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0197. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 3049007. PMID 21282175.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3049007","url_text":"\"Polarized iridescence of the multilayered elytra of the Japanese jewel beetle, Chrysochroa fulgidissima\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0197","url_text":"10.1098/rstb.2010.0197"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436","url_text":"0962-8436"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3049007","url_text":"3049007"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21282175","url_text":"21282175"}]},{"reference":"Jacobs, Matthew; Lopez-Garcia, Martin; Phrathep, O.-Phart; Lawson, Tracy; Oulton, Ruth; Whitney, Heather M. (2016). \"Photonic multilayer structure of Begonia chloroplasts enhances photosynthetic efficiency\" (PDF). Nature Plants. 2 (11): 16162. doi:10.1038/nplants.2016.162. ISSN 2055-0278. PMID 27775728. 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Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 12965. doi:10.1038/srep12965. PMC 4532992. PMID 26264643.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4532992","url_text":"\"Bioinspired photonic structures by the reflector layer of firefly lantern for highly efficient chemiluminescencejournal=Scientific Reports\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep12965","url_text":"10.1038/srep12965"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4532992","url_text":"4532992"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26264643","url_text":"26264643"}]},{"reference":"Wei, Hui; Wang, Erkang (2013-06-21). \"Nanomaterials with enzyme-like characteristics (nanozymes): next-generation artificial enzymes\". Chemical Society Reviews. 42 (14): 6060–93. doi:10.1039/C3CS35486E. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_attack | Birthday attack | ["1 Understanding the problem","2 Mathematics","2.1 Simple approximation","3 Digital signature susceptibility","3.1 Reverse attack","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"] | Type of cryptographic attack
A birthday attack is a bruteforce collision attack that exploits the mathematics behind the birthday problem in probability theory. This attack can be used to abuse communication between two or more parties. The attack depends on the higher likelihood of collisions found between random attack attempts and a fixed degree of permutations (pigeonholes). With a birthday attack, it is possible to find a collision of a hash function with
50
%
{\textstyle 50\%}
chance in
2
n
=
2
n
/
2
{\textstyle {\sqrt {2^{n}}}=2^{n/2}}
, with
2
n
−
1
{\textstyle 2^{n-1}}
being the classical preimage resistance security with the same probability. There is a general (though disputed) result that quantum computers can perform birthday attacks, thus breaking collision resistance, in
2
n
3
=
2
n
/
3
{\textstyle {\sqrt{2^{n}}}=2^{n/3}}
.
Although there are some digital signature vulnerabilities associated with the birthday attack, it cannot be used to break an encryption scheme any faster than a brute-force attack.: 36
Understanding the problem
Comparison of the birthday problem (1) and birthday attack (2): In (1), collisions are found within one set, in this case, 3 out of 276 pairings of the 24 lunar astronauts. In (2), collisions are found between two sets, in this case, 1 out of 256 pairings of only the first bytes of SHA-256 hashes of 16 variants each of benign and malicious contracts.
Main article: Birthday problem
As an example, consider the scenario in which a teacher with a class of 30 students (n = 30) asks for everybody's birthday (for simplicity, ignore leap years) to determine whether any two students have the same birthday (corresponding to a hash collision as described further). Intuitively, this chance may seem small. Counter-intuitively, the probability that at least one student has the same birthday as any other student on any day is around 70% (for n = 30), from the formula
1
−
365
!
(
365
−
n
)
!
⋅
365
n
{\displaystyle 1-{\frac {365!}{(365-n)!\cdot 365^{n}}}}
.
If the teacher had picked a specific day (say, 16 September), then the chance that at least one student was born on that specific day is
1
−
(
364
/
365
)
30
{\displaystyle 1-(364/365)^{30}}
, about 7.9%.
In a birthday attack, the attacker prepares many different variants of benign and malicious contracts, each having a digital signature. A pair of benign and malicious contracts with the same signature is sought. In this fictional example, suppose that the digital signature of a string is the first byte of its SHA-256 hash. The pair found is indicated in green – note that finding a pair of benign contracts (blue) or a pair of malicious contracts (red) is useless. After the victim accepts the benign contract, the attacker substitutes it with the malicious one and claims the victim signed it, as proven by the digital signature.
Mathematics
Given a function
f
{\displaystyle f}
, the goal of the attack is to find two different inputs
x
1
,
x
2
{\displaystyle x_{1},x_{2}}
such that
f
(
x
1
)
=
f
(
x
2
)
{\displaystyle f(x_{1})=f(x_{2})}
. Such a pair
x
1
,
x
2
{\displaystyle x_{1},x_{2}}
is called a collision. The method used to find a collision is simply to evaluate the function
f
{\displaystyle f}
for different input values that may be chosen randomly or pseudorandomly until the same result is found more than once. Because of the birthday problem, this method can be rather efficient. Specifically, if a function
f
(
x
)
{\displaystyle f(x)}
yields any of
H
{\displaystyle H}
different outputs with equal probability and
H
{\displaystyle H}
is sufficiently large, then we expect to obtain a pair of different arguments
x
1
{\displaystyle x_{1}}
and
x
2
{\displaystyle x_{2}}
with
f
(
x
1
)
=
f
(
x
2
)
{\displaystyle f(x_{1})=f(x_{2})}
after evaluating the function for about
1.25
H
{\displaystyle 1.25{\sqrt {H}}}
different arguments on average.
We consider the following experiment. From a set of H values we choose n values uniformly at random thereby allowing repetitions. Let p(n; H) be the probability that during this experiment at least one value is chosen more than once. This probability can be approximated as
p
(
n
;
H
)
≈
1
−
e
−
n
(
n
−
1
)
/
(
2
H
)
≈
1
−
e
−
n
2
/
(
2
H
)
{\displaystyle p(n;H)\approx 1-e^{-n(n-1)/(2H)}\approx 1-e^{-n^{2}/(2H)}}
Let n(p; H) be the smallest number of values we have to choose, such that the probability for finding a collision is at least p. By inverting this expression above, we find the following approximation
n
(
p
;
H
)
≈
2
H
ln
1
1
−
p
{\displaystyle n(p;H)\approx {\sqrt {2H\ln {\frac {1}{1-p}}}}}
and assigning a 0.5 probability of collision we arrive at
n
(
0.5
;
H
)
≈
1.1774
H
{\displaystyle n(0.5;H)\approx 1.1774{\sqrt {H}}}
Let Q(H) be the expected number of values we have to choose before finding the first collision. This number can be approximated by
Q
(
H
)
≈
π
2
H
{\displaystyle Q(H)\approx {\sqrt {{\frac {\pi }{2}}H}}}
As an example, if a 64-bit hash is used, there are approximately 1.8×1019 different outputs. If these are all equally probable (the best case), then it would take 'only' approximately 5 billion attempts (5.38×109) to generate a collision using brute force. This value is called birthday bound and for n-bit codes it could be approximated as 2n/2. Other examples are as follows:
Bits
Possible outputs (H)
Desired probability of random collision(2 s.f.) (p)
10−18
10−15
10−12
10−9
10−6
0.1%
1%
25%
50%
75%
16
216 (~6.5 x 104)
<2
<2
<2
<2
<2
11
36
190
300
430
32
232 (~4.3×109)
<2
<2
<2
3
93
2900
9300
50,000
77,000
110,000
64
264 (~1.8×1019)
6
190
6100
190,000
6,100,000
1.9×108
6.1×108
3.3×109
5.1×109
7.2×109
128
2128 (~3.4×1038)
2.6×1010
8.2×1011
2.6×1013
8.2×1014
2.6×1016
8.3×1017
2.6×1018
1.4×1019
2.2×1019
3.1×1019
256
2256 (~1.2×1077)
4.8×1029
1.5×1031
4.8×1032
1.5×1034
4.8×1035
1.5×1037
4.8×1037
2.6×1038
4.0×1038
5.7×1038
384
2384 (~3.9×10115)
8.9×1048
2.8×1050
8.9×1051
2.8×1053
8.9×1054
2.8×1056
8.9×1056
4.8×1057
7.4×1057
1.0×1058
512
2512 (~1.3×10154)
1.6×1068
5.2×1069
1.6×1071
5.2×1072
1.6×1074
5.2×1075
1.6×1076
8.8×1076
1.4×1077
1.9×1077
Table shows number of hashes n(p) needed to achieve the given probability of success, assuming all hashes are equally likely. For comparison, 10−18 to 10−15 is the uncorrectable bit error rate of a typical hard disk. In theory, MD5 hashes or UUIDs, being roughly 128 bits, should stay within that range until about 820 billion documents, even if its possible outputs are many more.
It is easy to see that if the outputs of the function are distributed unevenly, then a collision could be found even faster. The notion of 'balance' of a hash function quantifies the resistance of the function to birthday attacks (exploiting uneven key distribution.) However, determining the balance of a hash function will typically require all possible inputs to be calculated and thus is infeasible for popular hash functions such as the MD and SHA families.
The subexpression
ln
1
1
−
p
{\displaystyle \ln {\frac {1}{1-p}}}
in the equation for
n
(
p
;
H
)
{\displaystyle n(p;H)}
is not computed accurately for small
p
{\displaystyle p}
when directly translated into common programming languages as log(1/(1-p)) due to loss of significance. When log1p is available (as it is in C99) for example, the equivalent expression -log1p(-p) should be used instead. If this is not done, the first column of the above table is computed as zero, and several items in the second column do not have even one correct significant digit.
Simple approximation
A good rule of thumb which can be used for mental calculation is the relation
p
(
n
)
≈
n
2
2
H
{\displaystyle p(n)\approx {n^{2} \over 2H}}
which can also be written as
H
≈
n
2
2
p
(
n
)
{\displaystyle H\approx {n^{2} \over 2p(n)}}
.
or
n
≈
2
H
×
p
(
n
)
{\displaystyle n\approx {\sqrt {2H\times p(n)}}}
.
This works well for probabilities less than or equal to 0.5.
This approximation scheme is especially easy to use when working with exponents. For instance, suppose you are building 32-bit hashes (
H
=
2
32
{\displaystyle H=2^{32}}
) and want the chance of a collision to be at most one in a million (
p
≈
2
−
20
{\displaystyle p\approx 2^{-20}}
), how many documents could we have at the most?
n
≈
2
×
2
32
×
2
−
20
=
2
1
+
32
−
20
=
2
13
=
2
6.5
≈
90.5
{\displaystyle n\approx {\sqrt {2\times 2^{32}\times 2^{-20}}}={\sqrt {2^{1+32-20}}}={\sqrt {2^{13}}}=2^{6.5}\approx 90.5}
which is close to the correct answer of 93.
Digital signature susceptibility
Digital signatures can be susceptible to a birthday attack or more precisely a chosen-prefix collision attack. A message
m
{\displaystyle m}
is typically signed by first computing
f
(
m
)
{\displaystyle f(m)}
, where
f
{\displaystyle f}
is a cryptographic hash function, and then using some secret key to sign
f
(
m
)
{\displaystyle f(m)}
. Suppose Mallory wants to trick Bob into signing a fraudulent contract. Mallory prepares a fair contract
m
{\displaystyle m}
and a fraudulent one
m
′
{\displaystyle m'}
. She then finds a number of positions where
m
{\displaystyle m}
can be changed without changing the meaning, such as inserting commas, empty lines, one versus two spaces after a sentence, replacing synonyms, etc. By combining these changes, she can create a huge number of variations on
m
{\displaystyle m}
which are all fair contracts.
In a similar manner, Mallory also creates a huge number of variations on the fraudulent contract
m
′
{\displaystyle m'}
. She then applies the hash function to all these variations until she finds a version of the fair contract and a version of the fraudulent contract which have the same hash value,
f
(
m
)
=
f
(
m
′
)
{\displaystyle f(m)=f(m')}
. She presents the fair version to Bob for signing. After Bob has signed, Mallory takes the signature and attaches it to the fraudulent contract. This signature then "proves" that Bob signed the fraudulent contract.
The probabilities differ slightly from the original birthday problem, as Mallory gains nothing by finding two fair or two fraudulent contracts with the same hash. Mallory's strategy is to generate pairs of one fair and one fraudulent contract. For a given hash function
2
n
{\displaystyle 2^{n}}
is the number of possible hashes. The birthday problem equations does not exactly apply here, the number of hashes Mallory actually generates for a
50
%
{\displaystyle 50\%}
chance is twice as much as required for a simple collision
2
n
/
2
×
2
{\displaystyle 2^{n/2}\times 2}
which corresponds to
2
(
n
/
2
)
+
1
{\displaystyle 2^{(n/2)+1}}
.
To avoid this attack, the output length of the hash function used for a signature scheme can be chosen large enough so that the birthday attack becomes computationally infeasible, i.e. about twice as many bits as are needed to prevent an ordinary brute-force attack.
Besides using a larger bit length, the signer (Bob) can protect himself by making some random, inoffensive changes to the document before signing it, and by keeping a copy of the contract he signed in his own possession, so that he can at least demonstrate in court that his signature matches that contract, not just the fraudulent one.
Pollard's rho algorithm for logarithms is an example for an algorithm using a birthday attack for the computation of discrete logarithms.
Reverse attack
The same fraud is possible if the signer is Mallory, not Bob. Bob could suggest a contract to Mallory for a signature. Mallory could find both an inoffensively-modified version of this fair contract that has the same signature as a fraudulent contract, and Mallory could provide the modified fair contract and signature to Bob. Later, Mallory could produce the fraudulent copy. If Bob doesn't have the inoffensively-modified version contract (perhaps only finding their original proposal), Mallory's fraud is perfect. If Bob does have it, Mallory can at least claim that it is Bob who is the fraudster.
See also
Collision attack
Meet-in-the-middle attack
BHT Algorithm
Notes
^ "Avoiding collisions, Cryptographic hash functions" (PDF). Foundations of Cryptography, Computer Science Department, Wellesley College.
^ a b Dang, Q H (2012). Recommendation for applications using approved hash algorithms (Report). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
^ Daniel J. Bernstein. "Cost analysis of hash collisions : Will quantum computers make SHARCS obsolete?" (PDF). Cr.yp.to. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
^ Brassard, Gilles; HØyer, Peter; Tapp, Alain (20 April 1998). "Quantum cryptanalysis of hash and claw-free functions". LATIN'98: Theoretical Informatics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 1380. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 163–169. arXiv:quant-ph/9705002. doi:10.1007/BFb0054319. ISBN 978-3-540-64275-6. S2CID 118940551.
^ R. Shirey (August 2007). Internet Security Glossary, Version 2. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC4949. RFC 4949. Informational.
^ "Birthday Problem". Brilliant.org. Brilliant_(website). Retrieved 28 July 2023.
^ Bellare, Mihir; Rogaway, Phillip (2005). "The Birthday Problem". Introduction to Modern Cryptography (PDF). pp. 273–274. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
^ Flajolet, Philippe; Odlyzko, Andrew M. (1990). "Random Mapping Statistics". In Quisquater, Jean-Jacques; Vandewalle, Joos (eds.). Advances in Cryptology — EUROCRYPT '89. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 434. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 329–354. doi:10.1007/3-540-46885-4_34. ISBN 978-3-540-46885-1.
^ See upper and lower bounds.
^ Jacques Patarin, Audrey Montreuil (2005). "Benes and Butterfly schemes revisited" (PostScript, PDF). Université de Versailles. Retrieved 2007-03-15. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Gray, Jim; van Ingen, Catharine (25 January 2007). "Empirical Measurements of Disk Failure Rates and Error Rates". arXiv:cs/0701166.
^ "CiteSeerX". Archived from the original on 2008-02-23. Retrieved 2006-05-02.
^ "Compute log(1+x) accurately for small values of x". Mathworks.com. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
References
Mihir Bellare, Tadayoshi Kohno: Hash Function Balance and Its Impact on Birthday Attacks. EUROCRYPT 2004: pp401–418
Applied Cryptography, 2nd ed. by Bruce Schneier
External links
"What is a digital signature and what is authentication?" from RSA Security's crypto FAQ.
"Birthday Attack" X5 Networks Crypto FAQs
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Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"collision attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision_attack"},{"link_name":"birthday problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_problem"},{"link_name":"probability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory"},{"link_name":"pigeonholes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhole_principle"},{"link_name":"collision of a hash function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash_collision"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"preimage resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preimage_resistance"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"result","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BHT_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"digital signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature"},{"link_name":"brute-force attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc4949-5"}],"text":"A birthday attack is a bruteforce collision attack that exploits the mathematics behind the birthday problem in probability theory. This attack can be used to abuse communication between two or more parties. The attack depends on the higher likelihood of collisions found between random attack attempts and a fixed degree of permutations (pigeonholes). With a birthday attack, it is possible to find a collision of a hash function with \n \n \n \n 50\n %\n \n \n {\\textstyle 50\\%}\n \n chance in \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\sqrt {2^{n}}}=2^{n/2}}\n \n,[1][2] with \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle 2^{n-1}}\n \n being the classical preimage resistance security with the same probability.[2] There is a general (though disputed[3]) result that quantum computers can perform birthday attacks, thus breaking collision resistance, in \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n =\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\sqrt[{3}]{2^{n}}}=2^{n/3}}\n \n.[4]Although there are some digital signature vulnerabilities associated with the birthday attack, it cannot be used to break an encryption scheme any faster than a brute-force attack.[5]: 36","title":"Birthday attack"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Birthday_attack_vs_paradox.svg"},{"link_name":"leap years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_year"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"digital signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature"},{"link_name":"SHA-256","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHA-256"}],"text":"Comparison of the birthday problem (1) and birthday attack (2): In (1), collisions are found within one set, in this case, 3 out of 276 pairings of the 24 lunar astronauts. In (2), collisions are found between two sets, in this case, 1 out of 256 pairings of only the first bytes of SHA-256 hashes of 16 variants each of benign and malicious contracts.As an example, consider the scenario in which a teacher with a class of 30 students (n = 30) asks for everybody's birthday (for simplicity, ignore leap years) to determine whether any two students have the same birthday (corresponding to a hash collision as described further). Intuitively, this chance may seem small. Counter-intuitively, the probability that at least one student has the same birthday as any other student on any day is around 70% (for n = 30), from the formula \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n \n \n 365\n !\n \n \n (\n 365\n −\n n\n )\n !\n ⋅\n \n 365\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1-{\\frac {365!}{(365-n)!\\cdot 365^{n}}}}\n \n.[6]If the teacher had picked a specific day (say, 16 September), then the chance that at least one student was born on that specific day is \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n (\n 364\n \n /\n \n 365\n \n )\n \n 30\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1-(364/365)^{30}}\n \n, about 7.9%.In a birthday attack, the attacker prepares many different variants of benign and malicious contracts, each having a digital signature. A pair of benign and malicious contracts with the same signature is sought. In this fictional example, suppose that the digital signature of a string is the first byte of its SHA-256 hash. The pair found is indicated in green – note that finding a pair of benign contracts (blue) or a pair of malicious contracts (red) is useless. After the victim accepts the benign contract, the attacker substitutes it with the malicious one and claims the victim signed it, as proven by the digital signature.","title":"Understanding the problem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"MD5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MD5"},{"link_name":"UUIDs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universally_unique_identifier"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"loss of significance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance"},{"link_name":"C99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C99"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Given a function \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n, the goal of the attack is to find two different inputs \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1},x_{2}}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n =\n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x_{1})=f(x_{2})}\n \n. Such a pair \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1},x_{2}}\n \n is called a collision. The method used to find a collision is simply to evaluate the function \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n for different input values that may be chosen randomly or pseudorandomly until the same result is found more than once. Because of the birthday problem, this method can be rather efficient. Specifically, if a function \n \n \n \n f\n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x)}\n \n yields any of \n \n \n \n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H}\n \n different outputs with equal probability and \n \n \n \n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H}\n \n is sufficiently large, then we expect to obtain a pair of different arguments \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{2}}\n \n with \n \n \n \n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n =\n f\n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x_{1})=f(x_{2})}\n \n after evaluating the function for about \n \n \n \n 1.25\n \n \n H\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1.25{\\sqrt {H}}}\n \n different arguments on average.We consider the following experiment. From a set of H values we choose n values uniformly at random thereby allowing repetitions. Let p(n; H) be the probability that during this experiment at least one value is chosen more than once. This probability can be approximated asp\n (\n n\n ;\n H\n )\n ≈\n 1\n −\n \n e\n \n −\n n\n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n (\n 2\n H\n )\n \n \n ≈\n 1\n −\n \n e\n \n −\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n (\n 2\n H\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(n;H)\\approx 1-e^{-n(n-1)/(2H)}\\approx 1-e^{-n^{2}/(2H)}}\n \n[7]Let n(p; H) be the smallest number of values we have to choose, such that the probability for finding a collision is at least p. By inverting this expression above, we find the following approximationn\n (\n p\n ;\n H\n )\n ≈\n \n \n 2\n H\n ln\n \n \n \n 1\n \n 1\n −\n p\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n(p;H)\\approx {\\sqrt {2H\\ln {\\frac {1}{1-p}}}}}and assigning a 0.5 probability of collision we arrive atn\n (\n 0.5\n ;\n H\n )\n ≈\n 1.1774\n \n \n H\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n(0.5;H)\\approx 1.1774{\\sqrt {H}}}Let Q(H) be the expected number of values we have to choose before finding the first collision. This number can be approximated byQ\n (\n H\n )\n ≈\n \n \n \n \n π\n 2\n \n \n H\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q(H)\\approx {\\sqrt {{\\frac {\\pi }{2}}H}}}As an example, if a 64-bit hash is used, there are approximately 1.8×1019 different outputs. If these are all equally probable (the best case), then it would take 'only' approximately 5 billion attempts (5.38×109) to generate a collision using brute force.[8] This value is called birthday bound[9] and for n-bit codes it could be approximated as 2n/2.[10] Other examples are as follows:Bits\n\nPossible outputs (H)\n\nDesired probability of random collision(2 s.f.) (p)\n\n\n10−18\n\n10−15\n\n10−12\n\n10−9\n\n10−6\n\n0.1%\n\n1%\n\n25%\n\n50%\n\n75%\n\n\n16\n\n216 (~6.5 x 104)\n\n<2\n\n<2\n\n<2\n\n<2\n\n<2\n\n11\n\n36\n\n190\n\n300\n\n430\n\n\n32\n\n232 (~4.3×109)\n\n<2\n\n<2\n\n<2\n\n3\n\n93\n\n2900\n\n9300\n\n50,000\n\n77,000\n\n110,000\n\n\n64\n\n264 (~1.8×1019)\n\n6\n\n190\n\n6100\n\n190,000\n\n6,100,000\n\n1.9×108\n\n6.1×108\n\n3.3×109\n\n5.1×109\n\n7.2×109\n\n\n128\n\n2128 (~3.4×1038)\n\n2.6×1010\n\n8.2×1011\n\n2.6×1013\n\n8.2×1014\n\n2.6×1016\n\n8.3×1017\n\n2.6×1018\n\n1.4×1019\n\n2.2×1019\n\n3.1×1019\n\n\n256\n\n2256 (~1.2×1077)\n\n4.8×1029\n\n1.5×1031\n\n4.8×1032\n\n1.5×1034\n\n4.8×1035\n\n1.5×1037\n\n4.8×1037\n\n2.6×1038\n\n4.0×1038\n\n5.7×1038\n\n\n384\n\n2384 (~3.9×10115)\n\n8.9×1048\n\n2.8×1050\n\n8.9×1051\n\n2.8×1053\n\n8.9×1054\n\n2.8×1056\n\n8.9×1056\n\n4.8×1057\n\n7.4×1057\n\n1.0×1058\n\n\n512\n\n2512 (~1.3×10154)\n\n1.6×1068\n\n5.2×1069\n\n1.6×1071\n\n5.2×1072\n\n1.6×1074\n\n5.2×1075\n\n1.6×1076\n\n8.8×1076\n\n1.4×1077\n\n1.9×1077Table shows number of hashes n(p) needed to achieve the given probability of success, assuming all hashes are equally likely. For comparison, 10−18 to 10−15 is the uncorrectable bit error rate of a typical hard disk.[11] In theory, MD5 hashes or UUIDs, being roughly 128 bits, should stay within that range until about 820 billion documents, even if its possible outputs are many more.It is easy to see that if the outputs of the function are distributed unevenly, then a collision could be found even faster. The notion of 'balance' of a hash function quantifies the resistance of the function to birthday attacks (exploiting uneven key distribution.) However, determining the balance of a hash function will typically require all possible inputs to be calculated and thus is infeasible for popular hash functions such as the MD and SHA families.[12]\nThe subexpression \n \n \n \n ln\n \n \n \n 1\n \n 1\n −\n p\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ln {\\frac {1}{1-p}}}\n \n in the equation for \n \n \n \n n\n (\n p\n ;\n H\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n(p;H)}\n \n is not computed accurately for small \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n when directly translated into common programming languages as log(1/(1-p)) due to loss of significance. When log1p is available (as it is in C99) for example, the equivalent expression -log1p(-p) should be used instead.[13] If this is not done, the first column of the above table is computed as zero, and several items in the second column do not have even one correct significant digit.","title":"Mathematics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rule of thumb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_thumb"},{"link_name":"mental calculation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_calculation"}],"sub_title":"Simple approximation","text":"A good rule of thumb which can be used for mental calculation is the relationp\n (\n n\n )\n ≈\n \n \n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n H\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(n)\\approx {n^{2} \\over 2H}}which can also be written asH\n ≈\n \n \n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n p\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H\\approx {n^{2} \\over 2p(n)}}\n \n.orn\n ≈\n \n \n 2\n H\n ×\n p\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\approx {\\sqrt {2H\\times p(n)}}}\n \n.This works well for probabilities less than or equal to 0.5.This approximation scheme is especially easy to use when working with exponents. For instance, suppose you are building 32-bit hashes (\n \n \n \n H\n =\n \n 2\n \n 32\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H=2^{32}}\n \n) and want the chance of a collision to be at most one in a million (\n \n \n \n p\n ≈\n \n 2\n \n −\n 20\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p\\approx 2^{-20}}\n \n), how many documents could we have at the most?n\n ≈\n \n \n 2\n ×\n \n 2\n \n 32\n \n \n ×\n \n 2\n \n −\n 20\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 2\n \n 1\n +\n 32\n −\n 20\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 2\n \n 13\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n 2\n \n 6.5\n \n \n ≈\n 90.5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\approx {\\sqrt {2\\times 2^{32}\\times 2^{-20}}}={\\sqrt {2^{1+32-20}}}={\\sqrt {2^{13}}}=2^{6.5}\\approx 90.5}which is close to the correct answer of 93.","title":"Mathematics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digital signatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature"},{"link_name":"cryptographic hash function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function"},{"link_name":"Mallory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_and_Bob"},{"link_name":"Bob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_and_Bob"},{"link_name":"fraudulent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraudulent"},{"link_name":"brute-force attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack"},{"link_name":"Pollard's rho algorithm for logarithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollard%27s_rho_algorithm_for_logarithms"},{"link_name":"discrete logarithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_logarithm"}],"text":"Digital signatures can be susceptible to a birthday attack or more precisely a chosen-prefix collision attack. A message \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n is typically signed by first computing \n \n \n \n f\n (\n m\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(m)}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is a cryptographic hash function, and then using some secret key to sign \n \n \n \n f\n (\n m\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(m)}\n \n. Suppose Mallory wants to trick Bob into signing a fraudulent contract. Mallory prepares a fair contract \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n and a fraudulent one \n \n \n \n \n m\n ′\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle m'}\n \n. She then finds a number of positions where \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n can be changed without changing the meaning, such as inserting commas, empty lines, one versus two spaces after a sentence, replacing synonyms, etc. By combining these changes, she can create a huge number of variations on \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n which are all fair contracts.In a similar manner, Mallory also creates a huge number of variations on the fraudulent contract \n \n \n \n \n m\n ′\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle m'}\n \n. She then applies the hash function to all these variations until she finds a version of the fair contract and a version of the fraudulent contract which have the same hash value, \n \n \n \n f\n (\n m\n )\n =\n f\n (\n \n m\n ′\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(m)=f(m')}\n \n. She presents the fair version to Bob for signing. After Bob has signed, Mallory takes the signature and attaches it to the fraudulent contract. This signature then \"proves\" that Bob signed the fraudulent contract.The probabilities differ slightly from the original birthday problem, as Mallory gains nothing by finding two fair or two fraudulent contracts with the same hash. Mallory's strategy is to generate pairs of one fair and one fraudulent contract. For a given hash function \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{n}}\n \n is the number of possible hashes. The birthday problem equations does not exactly apply here, the number of hashes Mallory actually generates for a \n \n \n \n 50\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 50\\%}\n \n chance is twice as much as required for a simple collision \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n ×\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{n/2}\\times 2}\n \n which corresponds to \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n (\n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n )\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{(n/2)+1}}\n \n.To avoid this attack, the output length of the hash function used for a signature scheme can be chosen large enough so that the birthday attack becomes computationally infeasible, i.e. about twice as many bits as are needed to prevent an ordinary brute-force attack.Besides using a larger bit length, the signer (Bob) can protect himself by making some random, inoffensive changes to the document before signing it, and by keeping a copy of the contract he signed in his own possession, so that he can at least demonstrate in court that his signature matches that contract, not just the fraudulent one.Pollard's rho algorithm for logarithms is an example for an algorithm using a birthday attack for the computation of discrete logarithms.","title":"Digital signature susceptibility"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Reverse attack","text":"The same fraud is possible if the signer is Mallory, not Bob. Bob could suggest a contract to Mallory for a signature. Mallory could find both an inoffensively-modified version of this fair contract that has the same signature as a fraudulent contract, and Mallory could provide the modified fair contract and signature to Bob. Later, Mallory could produce the fraudulent copy. If Bob doesn't have the inoffensively-modified version contract (perhaps only finding their original proposal), Mallory's fraud is perfect. If Bob does have it, Mallory can at least claim that it is Bob who is the fraudster.","title":"Digital signature susceptibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Avoiding collisions, Cryptographic hash functions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cs.wellesley.edu/~cs310/lectures/15_hash_functions_slides_handouts.pdf"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_2-1"},{"link_name":"Recommendation for applications using approved hash algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.sp.800-107r1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Cost analysis of hash collisions : Will quantum computers make SHARCS obsolete?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cr.yp.to/hash/collisioncost-20090823.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"quant-ph/9705002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9705002"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BFb0054319","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBFb0054319"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-64275-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-64275-6"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"118940551","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118940551"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-rfc4949_5-0"},{"link_name":"Internet Security Glossary, Version 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4949"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.17487/RFC4949","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC4949"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments"},{"link_name":"4949","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4949"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Birthday Problem\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//brilliant.org/wiki/birthday-paradox/"},{"link_name":"Brilliant_(website)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brilliant_(website)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Introduction to Modern Cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.cs.ucdavis.edu/~rogaway/classes/227/spring05/book/main.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Random Mapping Statistics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F3-540-46885-4_34"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/3-540-46885-4_34","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-46885-4_34"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-46885-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-46885-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"upper and lower bounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_and_lower_bounds"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Benes and Butterfly schemes revisited\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//eprint.iacr.org/2005/004"},{"link_name":"PostScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostScript"},{"link_name":"PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF"},{"link_name":"cite journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"cs/0701166","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/cs/0701166"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"CiteSeerX\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080223163847/http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/bellare02hash.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//citeseer.ist.psu.edu/bellare02hash.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"\"Compute log(1+x) accurately for small values of x\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.mathworks.com/help/techdoc/ref/log1p.html"}],"text":"^ \"Avoiding collisions, Cryptographic hash functions\" (PDF). Foundations of Cryptography, Computer Science Department, Wellesley College.\n\n^ a b Dang, Q H (2012). Recommendation for applications using approved hash algorithms (Report). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.\n\n^ Daniel J. Bernstein. \"Cost analysis of hash collisions : Will quantum computers make SHARCS obsolete?\" (PDF). Cr.yp.to. Retrieved 29 October 2017.\n\n^ Brassard, Gilles; HØyer, Peter; Tapp, Alain (20 April 1998). \"Quantum cryptanalysis of hash and claw-free functions\". LATIN'98: Theoretical Informatics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 1380. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 163–169. arXiv:quant-ph/9705002. doi:10.1007/BFb0054319. ISBN 978-3-540-64275-6. S2CID 118940551.\n\n^ R. Shirey (August 2007). Internet Security Glossary, Version 2. Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC4949. RFC 4949. Informational.\n \n\n^ \"Birthday Problem\". Brilliant.org. Brilliant_(website). Retrieved 28 July 2023.\n\n^ Bellare, Mihir; Rogaway, Phillip (2005). \"The Birthday Problem\". Introduction to Modern Cryptography (PDF). pp. 273–274. Retrieved 2023-03-31.\n\n^ Flajolet, Philippe; Odlyzko, Andrew M. (1990). \"Random Mapping Statistics\". In Quisquater, Jean-Jacques; Vandewalle, Joos (eds.). Advances in Cryptology — EUROCRYPT '89. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 434. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 329–354. doi:10.1007/3-540-46885-4_34. ISBN 978-3-540-46885-1.\n\n^ See upper and lower bounds.\n\n^ Jacques Patarin, Audrey Montreuil (2005). \"Benes and Butterfly schemes revisited\" (PostScript, PDF). Université de Versailles. Retrieved 2007-03-15. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)\n\n\n^ Gray, Jim; van Ingen, Catharine (25 January 2007). \"Empirical Measurements of Disk Failure Rates and Error Rates\". arXiv:cs/0701166.\n\n^ \"CiteSeerX\". Archived from the original on 2008-02-23. Retrieved 2006-05-02.\n\n^ \"Compute log(1+x) accurately for small values of x\". Mathworks.com. Retrieved 29 October 2017.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Comparison of the birthday problem (1) and birthday attack (2): In (1), collisions are found within one set, in this case, 3 out of 276 pairings of the 24 lunar astronauts. In (2), collisions are found between two sets, in this case, 1 out of 256 pairings of only the first bytes of SHA-256 hashes of 16 variants each of benign and malicious contracts.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Birthday_attack_vs_paradox.svg/220px-Birthday_attack_vs_paradox.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Collision attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision_attack"},{"title":"Meet-in-the-middle attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meet-in-the-middle_attack"},{"title":"BHT Algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BHT_algorithm"}] | [{"reference":"\"Avoiding collisions, Cryptographic hash functions\" (PDF). Foundations of Cryptography, Computer Science Department, Wellesley College.","urls":[{"url":"https://cs.wellesley.edu/~cs310/lectures/15_hash_functions_slides_handouts.pdf","url_text":"\"Avoiding collisions, Cryptographic hash functions\""}]},{"reference":"Dang, Q H (2012). 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RFC 4949.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4949","url_text":"Internet Security Glossary, Version 2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC4949","url_text":"10.17487/RFC4949"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4949","url_text":"4949"}]},{"reference":"\"Birthday Problem\". Brilliant.org. Brilliant_(website). Retrieved 28 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://brilliant.org/wiki/birthday-paradox/","url_text":"\"Birthday Problem\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brilliant_(website)","url_text":"Brilliant_(website)"}]},{"reference":"Bellare, Mihir; Rogaway, Phillip (2005). \"The Birthday Problem\". Introduction to Modern Cryptography (PDF). pp. 273–274. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticality_accident | Criticality accident | ["1 Physical basis","2 Accident types","3 Known incidents","4 Observed effects","4.1 Blue glow","4.2 Heat effects","5 See also","5.1 In popular culture","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links"] | Uncontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction
A criticality accident is an accidental uncontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction. It is sometimes referred to as a critical excursion, critical power excursion, divergent chain reaction, or simply critical. Any such event involves the unintended accumulation or arrangement of a critical mass of fissile material, for example enriched uranium or plutonium. Criticality accidents can release potentially fatal radiation doses if they occur in an unprotected environment.
Under normal circumstances, a critical or supercritical fission reaction (one that is self-sustaining in power or increasing in power) should only occur inside a safely shielded location, such as a reactor core or a suitable test environment. A criticality accident occurs if the same reaction is achieved unintentionally, for example in an unsafe environment or during reactor maintenance.
Though dangerous and frequently lethal to humans within the immediate area, the critical mass formed would not be capable of producing a massive nuclear explosion of the type that fission bombs are designed to produce. This is because all the design features needed to make a nuclear warhead cannot arise by chance. In some cases, the heat released by the chain reaction will cause the fissile (and other nearby) materials to expand. In such cases, the chain reaction can either settle into a low power steady state or may even become either temporarily or permanently shut down (subcritical).
In the history of atomic power development, at least 60 criticality accidents have occurred, including 22 in process environments, outside nuclear reactor cores or experimental assemblies, and 38 in small experimental reactors and other test assemblies. Although process accidents occurring outside reactors are characterized by large releases of radiation, the releases are localized. Nonetheless, fatal radiation exposures have occurred to persons close to these events, resulting in more than 20 fatalities. In a few reactor and critical experiment assembly accidents, the energy released has caused significant mechanical damage or steam explosions.
Physical basis
Criticality occurs when sufficient fissile material (a critical mass) accumulates in a small volume such that each fission, on average, produces a neutron that in turn strikes another fissile atom causing another fission; this causes the chain reaction to become self-sustaining within the mass of material. In other words, in a critical mass the number of neutrons emitted, over time, exactly equals the number of neutrons captured by another nucleus or lost to the environment. If the mass is supercritical, the number of neutrons emitted per unit time exceeds those absorbed or lost, resulting in a cascade of nuclear fissions at increasing rate.
Criticality can be achieved by using metallic uranium or plutonium, liquid solutions, or powder slurries. The chain reaction is influenced by range of parameters noted by the acronyms MAGIC MERV (for mass, absorption, geometry, interaction, concentration, moderation, enrichment, reflection, and volume) and MERMAIDS (for mass, enrichment, reflection, moderation, absorption, interaction, density, and shape). Temperature is also a factor.
Calculations can be performed to determine the conditions needed for a critical state, mass, geometry, concentration etc. Where fissile materials are handled in civil and military installations, specially trained personnel are employed to carry out such calculations, and to ensure that all reasonably practicable measures are used to prevent criticality accidents, during both planned normal operations and any potential process upset conditions that cannot be dismissed on the basis of negligible likelihoods (reasonably foreseeable accidents).
The assembly of a critical mass establishes a nuclear chain reaction, resulting in an exponential rate of change in the neutron population over space and time leading to an increase in neutron flux. This increased flux and attendant fission rate produces radiation that contains both a neutron and gamma ray component and is extremely dangerous to any unprotected nearby life-form. The rate of change of neutron population depends on the neutron generation time, which is characteristic of the neutron population, the state of "criticality", and the fissile medium.
A nuclear fission creates approximately 2.5 neutrons per fission event on average. Hence, to maintain a stable, exactly critical chain reaction, 1.5 neutrons per fission event must either leak from the system or be absorbed without causing further fissions.
For every 1,000 neutrons released by fission, a small number, typically no more than about 7, are delayed neutrons which are emitted from the fission product precursors, called delayed neutron emitters. This delayed neutron fraction, on the order of 0.007 for uranium, is crucial for the control of the neutron chain reaction in reactors. It is called one dollar of reactivity. The lifetime of delayed neutrons ranges from fractions of seconds to almost 100 seconds after fission. The neutrons are usually classified in 6 delayed neutron groups. The average neutron lifetime considering delayed neutrons is approximately 0.1 sec, which makes the chain reaction relatively easy to control over time. The remaining 993 prompt neutrons are released very quickly, approximately 1 μs after the fission event.
In steady-state operation, nuclear reactors operate at exact criticality. When at least one dollar of reactivity is added above the exact critical point (where the neutron production rate balances the rate of neutron losses, from both absorption and leakage) then the chain reaction does not rely on delayed neutrons. In such cases, the neutron population can rapidly increase exponentially, with a very small time constant, known as the prompt neutron lifetime. Thus there is a very large increase in neutron population over a very short time frame. Since each fission event contributes approximately 200 MeV per fission, this results in a very large energy burst as a "prompt-critical spike". This spike can be easily detected by radiation dosimetry instrumentation and "criticality accident alarm system" detectors that are properly deployed.
Accident types
Criticality accidents are divided into one of two categories:
Process accidents, where controls in place to prevent any criticality are breached;
Reactor accidents, which occur due to operator errors or other unintended events (e.g., during maintenance or fuel loading) in locations intended to achieve or approach criticality, such as nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors, and nuclear experiments.
Excursion types can be classified into four categories depicting the nature of the evolution over time:
Prompt criticality excursion
Transient criticality excursion
Exponential excursion
Steady-state excursion
The prompt-critical excursion is characterized by a power history with an initial prompt-critical spike as previously noted, which either self-terminates or continues with a tail region that decreases over an extended period of time. The transient critical excursion is characterized by a continuing or repeating spike pattern (sometimes known as "chugging") after the initial prompt-critical excursion. The longest of the 22 process accidents occurred at Hanford Works in 1962 and lasted for 37.5 hours. The 1999 Tokaimura nuclear accident remained critical for about 20 hours, until it was shut down by active intervention. The exponential excursion is characterized by a reactivity of less than one dollar added, where the neutron population rises as an exponential over time, until either feedback effects or intervention reduce the reactivity. The exponential excursion can reach a peak power level, then decrease over time, or reach a steady-state power level, where the critical state is exactly achieved for a "steady-state" excursion.
The steady-state excursion is also a state which the heat generated by fission is balanced by the heat losses to the ambient environment. This excursion has been characterized by the Oklo natural reactor that was naturally produced within uranium deposits in Gabon, Africa about 1.7 billion years ago.
Known incidents
A Los Alamos report (McLaughlin et al.) recorded 60 criticality accidents between 1945 and 1999. These caused 21 deaths: seven in the United States, ten in the Soviet Union, two in Japan, one in Argentina, and one in Yugoslavia. Nine have been due to process accidents, and the others from research reactor accidents. Criticality accidents have occurred in the context of production and testing of fissile material for both nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors.
The table below gives a selection of well documented incidents, including some not included in the report by McLaughlin et al.
Date
Location
Description
Injuries
Fatalities
Refs
1944
Los Alamos
Otto Frisch received a larger than intended dose of radiation when leaning over the original Lady Godiva device for a couple of seconds. He noticed that the red lamps (that normally flickered intermittently when neutrons were being emitted) were "glowing continuously". Frisch's body had reflected some neutrons back to the device, increasing its neutron multiplication, and it was only by quickly leaning back and away from the device and removing a couple of the uranium blocks that Frisch escaped harm. Afterwards he said, "If I had hesitated for another two seconds before removing the material ... the dose would have been fatal". On 3 February 1954 and 12 February 1957, accidental criticality excursions occurred, causing damage to the device but only insignificant exposures to personnel. This original Godiva device was irreparable after the second accident and was replaced by the Godiva II.
0
0
4 June 1945
Los Alamos
Scientist John Bistline was conducting an experiment to determine the effect of surrounding a sub-critical mass of enriched uranium with a water reflector. The experiment unexpectedly became critical when water leaked into the polyethylene box holding the metal. When that happened, the water began to function as a highly effective moderator rather than just a neutron reflector. Three people received non-fatal doses of radiation.
3
0
21 August 1945
Los Alamos
Scientist Harry Daghlian suffered fatal radiation poisoning and died 25 days later after accidentally dropping a tungsten carbide brick onto a sphere of plutonium, which was later (see next entry) nicknamed the demon core. The brick acted as a neutron reflector, bringing the mass to criticality. This was the first known criticality accident causing a fatality.
0
1
21 May 1946
Los Alamos
Scientist Louis Slotin accidentally irradiated himself during a similar incident (called the "Pajarito accident" at the time) using the same "demon core" sphere of plutonium involved in the Daghlian accident. Slotin surrounded the plutonium sphere with two 9-inch diameter hemispherical cups of the neutron-reflecting material beryllium, one above and one below. He was using a screwdriver to keep the cups slightly apart and the assembly thereby subcritical, contrary to normal protocols. When the screwdriver accidentally slipped, the cups closed around the plutonium, sending the assembly supercritical. Slotin quickly disassembled the device, likely sparing others in the room from lethal exposure, but Slotin himself died of radiation poisoning nine days later. The demon core was melted down and the material was reused in other bomb tests in subsequent years.
8
1
16 June 1958
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
The first recorded uranium-processing–related criticality occurred at the Y-12 Plant. During a routine leak test a fissile solution was unknowingly allowed to collect in a 55-gallon drum. The excursion lasted for approximately 20 minutes and resulted in eight workers receiving significant exposure. There were no fatalities, though five were hospitalized for 44 days. All eight workers eventually returned to work.
8
0
15 October 1958
Vinča Nuclear Institute
A criticality excursion occurred in the heavy water RB reactor at the Boris Kidrič Nuclear Institute in Vinča, Yugoslavia, killing one person and injuring five. The initial survivors received the first bone marrow transplant in Europe.
5
1
30 December 1958
Los Alamos
Cecil Kelley, a chemical operator working on plutonium purification, switched on a stirrer on a large mixing tank, which created a vortex in the tank. The plutonium, dissolved in an organic solvent, flowed into the center of the vortex. Due to a procedural error, the mixture contained 3.27 kg of plutonium, which reached criticality for about 200 microseconds. Kelley received 3,900 to 4,900 rad (36.385 to 45.715 Sv) according to later estimates. The other operators reported seeing a bright flash of blue light and found Kelley outside, saying "I'm burning up! I'm burning up!" He died 35 hours later.
0
1
3 January 1961
SL-1, 40 miles (64 km) west of Idaho Falls
SL-1, a United States Army experimental nuclear power reactor underwent a steam explosion and core disassembly due to improper manual withdrawal of the central control rod, killing its three operators by explosion force and impaling.
0
3
24 July 1964
Wood River Junction
The facility in Richmond, Rhode Island was designed to recover uranium from scrap material left over from fuel element production. Technician Robert Peabody, intending to add trichloroethene to a tank containing uranium-235 and sodium carbonate to remove organics, added uranium solution instead, producing a criticality excursion. The operator was exposed to a fatal radiation dose of 10,000 rad (100 Gy). Ninety minutes later a second excursion happened when a plant manager returned to the building and turned off the agitator, exposing himself and another administrator to doses of up to 100 rad (1 Gy) without ill effect. The operator involved in the initial exposure died 49 hours after the incident.
0
1
10 December 1968
Mayak
The nuclear fuel processing center in central Russia was experimenting with plutonium purification techniques using different solvents for solvent extraction. Some of these solvents carried over to a tank not intended to hold them, and exceeded the fissile safe limit for that tank. Against procedure a shift supervisor ordered two operators to lower the tank inventory and remove the solvent to another vessel. Two operators were using an "unfavorable geometry vessel in an improvised and unapproved operation as a temporary vessel for storing plutonium organic solution"; in other words, the operators were decanting plutonium solutions into the wrong type—more importantly, shape—of container. After most of the solvent solution had been poured out, there was a flash of light and heat. "Startled, the operator dropped the bottle, ran down the stairs, and from the room." After the complex had been evacuated, the shift supervisor and radiation control supervisor re-entered the building. The shift supervisor then deceived the radiation control supervisor and entered the room of the incident; this was followed by the third and largest criticality excursion that irradiated the shift supervisor with a fatal dose of radiation, possibly due to an attempt by the supervisor to pour the solution down a floor drain.
1
1
23 September 1983
Centro Atomico Constituyentes
An operator at the RA-2 research reactor in Buenos Aires, Argentina, received a fatal radiation dose of 3700 rad (37 Gy) while changing the fuel rod configuration with moderating water in the reactor. Two others were injured.
2
1
10 August 1985
Chazhma Bay, Vladivostok
The reactor tank lid of the nuclear powered Soviet submarine K-431 was being replaced, after it had been refuelled. The lid was laid incorrectly and had to be lifted again with the control rods attached. A beam was supposed to prevent the lid from being lifted too far, but this beam was positioned incorrectly, and the lid with control rods was lifted up too far. At 10:55 AM the starboard reactor became prompt critical, resulting in a criticality excursion of about 5·1018 fissions and a thermal/steam explosion. The explosion expelled the new load of fuel, destroyed the machine enclosures, ruptured the submarine's pressure hull and aft bulkhead, and partially destroyed the fuelling shack, with the shack's roof falling 70 metres away in the water. A fire followed, which was extinguished after 4 hours, after which assessment of the radioactive contamination began. There were ten fatalities and 49 other people suffered radiation injuries, and a large area northwest across the Dunay Peninsula was severely contaminated.
49
10
17 June 1997
Sarov
Russian Federal Nuclear Center senior researcher Alexandr Zakharov received a fatal dose of 4850 rem in a criticality accident.
0
1
30 September 1999
Tōkai
At the Japanese uranium reprocessing facility in Ibaraki Prefecture, technicians working on producing fuel for the Jōyō fast reactor poured a uranyl nitrate solution into a precipitation tank which was not designed to hold a solution of this uranium enrichment, causing an eventual critical mass to be formed, resulting in the death of two workers from severe radiation exposure.
1
2
The sphere of plutonium surrounded by neutron-reflecting tungsten carbide blocks in a re-enactment of Harry Daghlian's 1945 experiment
A re-creation of the Slotin incident. The plutonium "demon core" (the same as in the Daghlian incident) was inside at the time of the accident, and would not be visible.
Lady Godiva assembly in the scrammed (safe) configuration
Lady Godiva assembly, with damaged supporting rods after the excursion of February 1954. Note the images are of different assemblies.
There was speculation although not confirmed within criticality accident experts, that Fukushima 3 suffered a criticality accident. Based on incomplete information about the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Dr. Ferenc Dalnoki-Veress speculates that transient criticalities may have occurred there. Noting that limited, uncontrolled chain reactions might occur at Fukushima I, a spokesman for the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) "emphasized that the nuclear reactors won't explode." By 23 March 2011, neutron beams had already been observed 13 times at the crippled Fukushima nuclear power plant. While a criticality accident was not believed to account for these beams, the beams could indicate nuclear fission is occurring. On 15 April, TEPCO reported that nuclear fuel had melted and fallen to the lower containment sections of three of the Fukushima I reactors, including reactor three. The melted material was not expected to breach one of the lower containers, which could cause a massive radioactivity release. Instead, the melted fuel is thought to have dispersed uniformly across the lower portions of the containers of reactors No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, making the resumption of the fission process, known as a "recriticality", most unlikely.
Observed effects
Image of a 60-inch cyclotron, circa 1939, showing an external beam of accelerated ions (perhaps protons or deuterons) ionizing the surrounding air and causing an ionized-air glow. Due to the similar mechanism of production, the blue glow is thought to resemble the "blue flash" seen by Harry Daghlian and other witnesses of criticality accidents.
Blue glow
See also: Ionized-air glow
It has been observed that many criticality accidents emit a blue flash of light.
The blue glow of a criticality accident results from the fluorescence of the excited ions, atoms and molecules of the surrounding medium falling back to unexcited states. This is also the reason electric sparks in air, including lightning, appear electric blue. The smell of ozone was said to be a sign of high ambient radioactivity by Chernobyl liquidators.
This blue flash or "blue glow" can also be attributed to Cherenkov radiation, if either water is involved in the critical system or when the blue flash is experienced by the human eye. Additionally, if ionizing radiation directly transects the vitreous humor of the eye, Cherenkov radiation can be generated and perceived as a visual blue glow/spark sensation.
It is a coincidence that the color of Cherenkov light and light emitted by ionized air are a very similar blue; their methods of production are different. Cherenkov radiation does occur in air for high-energy particles (such as particle showers from cosmic rays) but not for the lower energy charged particles emitted from nuclear decay.
Heat effects
Some people reported feeling a "heat wave" during a criticality event. It is not known whether this may be a psychosomatic reaction to the realization of what has just occurred (i.e. the high probability of inevitable impending death from a fatal radiation dose), or if it is a physical effect of heating (or non-thermal stimulation of heat sensing nerves in the skin) due to radiation emitted by the criticality event.
A review of all of the criticality accidents with eyewitness accounts indicates that the heat waves were only observed when the fluorescent blue glow (the non-Cherenkov light, see above) was also observed. This would suggest a possible relationship between the two, and indeed, one can be potentially identified. In dense air, over 30% of the emission lines from nitrogen and oxygen are in the ultraviolet range, and about 45% are in the infrared range. Only about 25% are in the visible range. Since the skin feels light (visible or otherwise) through its heating of the skin surface, it is possible that this phenomenon can explain the heat wave perceptions. However, this explanation has not been confirmed and may be inconsistent with the intensity of light reported by witnesses compared to the intensity of heat perceived. Further research is hindered by the small amount of data available from the few instances where humans have witnessed these incidents and survived long enough to provide a detailed account of their experiences and observations.
See also
Criticality (status)
Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
Nuclear criticality safety
In popular culture
List of films about nuclear issues
The Beginning or the End
Day One (1989 film)
Edge of Darkness
Fat Man and Little Boy
Infinity (1996 film)
"Meridian" (Stargate SG-1)
1000 Ways to Die
Notes
^ a b c McLaughlin, Thomas P.; et al. (2000). A Review of Criticality Accidents (PDF). Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory. LA-13638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 5 November 2012.
^ Fernandez, MeLinda H. (8 April 2020). "LA-UR-20-22807: Fissionable Materials Handlers Operators – Initial Training" (PDF). Los Alamos National Laboratory. pp. 134–147. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
^ Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (September 1999). "INEEL/EXT-98-00895: Criticality Safety Basics, a Study Guide" (PDF). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (Rev. 1 ed.): 23–33 (PDF pp. 39–49). doi:10.2172/751136. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
^ a b Lewis, Elmer E. (2008). Fundamentals of Nuclear Reactor Physics. Elsevier. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-08-056043-4. Archived from the original on 20 February 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2016.
^ Diana Preston Before the Fall-Out – From Marie Curie to Hiroshima – Transworld – 2005 – ISBN 0-385-60438-6 p. 278
^ McLaughlin et al. pages 78, 80–83
^ McLaughlin et al. page 93, "In this excursion, three people received radiation doses in the amounts of 66, 66, and 7.4 rep.", LA Appendix A: "rep: An obsolete term for absorbed dose in human tissue, replaced by rad. Originally derived from roentgen equivalent, physical."
^ Dion, Arnold S. "Harry Daghlian: America's first peacetime atom bomb fatality". Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
^ McLaughlin et al. pages 74–76, "His dose was estimated as 510 rem"
^ "The blue flash". Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog. Archived from the original on 24 May 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
^ Declassified report Archived 13 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine See pg. 23 for dimensions of beryllium hand-controlled sphere.
^ McLaughlin et al. pages 74–76, "The eight people in the room received doses of about 2100, 360, 250, 160, 110, 65, 47, and 37 rem."
^ Y-12’s 1958 nuclear criticality accident and increased safety Archived 13 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine
^ Criticality accident at the Y-12 plant Archived 29 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Diagnosis and treatment of acute radiation injury, 1961, Geneva, World Health Organization, pp. 27–48.
^ McLaughlin et al. page 96, "Radiation doses were intense, being estimated at 205, 320, 410, 415, 422, and 433 rem. Of the six persons present, one died shortly afterward, and the other five recovered after severe cases of radiation sickness."
^ Johnston, Wm. Robert. "Vinca reactor accident, 1958". Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
^ Nuove esplosioni a Fukushima: danni al nocciolo. Ue: “In Giappone l’apocalisse” Archived 16 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 14 marzo 2011
^ The Cecil Kelley Criticality Accident Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
^ Stacy, Susan M. (2000). "Chapter 15: The SL-1 Incident" (PDF). Proving the Principle: A History of The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 1949–1999. U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho Operations Office. pp. 138–149. ISBN 978-0-16-059185-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
^ McLaughlin et al. pages 33–34
^ Johnston, Wm. Robert. "Wood River criticality accident, 1964". Archived from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
^ Powell, Dennis E. (24 July 2018). "Nuclear Fatality at Wood River Junction". New England Today. Archived from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
^ McLaughlin et al. pages 40–43
^ McLaughlin et al. page 103
^ "NRC: Information Notice No. 83-66, Supplement 1: Fatality at Argentine Critical Facility". Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
^ "The Worst Nuclear Disasters". Time. 2012. Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
^ Johnston, Wm. Robert. "Arzamas-16 criticality accident, 19". Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
^ Kudrik, Igor (23 June 1997). "Arzamas-16 researcher died on 20 June". Archived from the original on 4 July 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
^ The criticality accident in Sarov Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, IAEA, 2001.
^ McLaughlin et al. pages 53–56
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ McLaughlin et al. pages 74-75
^ a b McLaughlin et al. pages 81-82
^ "Has Fukushima's Reactor No. 1 Gone Critical?". Ecocentric. Time. 30 March 2011. Archived from the original on 30 March 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
^ Jonathan Tirone; Sachiko Sakamaki; Yuriy Humber (31 March 2011). "Fukushima Workers Threatened by Heat Bursts; Sea Radiation Rises". Archived from the original on 1 April 2011.
^ Neutron beam observed 13 times at crippled Fukushima nuke plant. These "neutron beams" as explained in the popular media, do not explain or prove a criticality excursion, as the requisite signature (combined neutron/gamma ratio of approximately 1:3 was not confirmed). A more credible explanation is the presence of neutrons from continued fissions from the decay process. It is highly unlikely that a recriticality occurred in Fukushima 3 since workers near the reactor were not exposed to a high neutron dose in a very short time (milliseconds), and plant radiation instruments would have captured any "repeating spikes" that are characteristic of a continuing moderated criticality accident.
TOKYO, 23 March, Kyodo News
https://web.archive.org/web/20110323214235/http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/80539.html
^ Japan Plant Fuel Melted Partway Through Reactors: Report
Because there was no large radiation release in the proximity of the reactor, and available dosimetry did not indicate an abnormal neutron dose or neutron/gamma dose ratio, there is no evidence of a criticality accident at Fukushima.
Friday, 15 April 2011
"NTI: Global Security Newswire - Japan Plant Fuel Melted Partway Through Reactors: Report". Archived from the original on 2 December 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
^ a b E. D. Clayton. "Anomalies of Nuclear Criticality" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015.
^ Martin A. Uman (1984). Lightning. Courier Corporation. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-486-64575-9. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
^ Tendler, Irwin I.; Hartford, Alan; Jermyn, Michael; LaRochelle, Ethan; Cao, Xu; Borza, Victor; Alexander, Daniel; Bruza, Petr; Hoopes, Jack; Moodie, Karen; Marr, Brian P.; Williams, Benjamin B.; Pogue, Brian W.; Gladstone, David J.; Jarvis, Lesley A. (2020). "Experimentally Observed Cherenkov Light Generation in the Eye During Radiation Therapy". International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 106 (2). Elsevier BV: 422–429. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2019.10.031. ISSN 0360-3016. PMC 7161418. PMID 31669563.
^ "Science". Archived from the original on 29 August 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
^ McLaughlin et al. page 42, "the operator saw a flash of light and felt a pulse of heat."
^ McLaughlin et al. page 88, "There was a flash, a shock, a stream of heat in our faces."
^ Minnema, "Criticality Accidents and the Blue Glow", American Nuclear Society Winter Meeting, 2007.
References
Johnston, Wm. Robert. List of radiation accidents
McLaughlin et al. "A Review of Criticality Accidents" by Los Alamos National Laboratory (Report LA-13638), May 2000. Coverage includes United States, Russia, United Kingdom, and Japan. Also available at this page, which also tries to track down documents referenced in the report.
External links
Press release on a report on criticality accidents from Los Alamos National Laboratory
U.S. report from 1971 on criticality accidents to date
vteNuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sitesLists of disasters and incidents
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Related articles
1985 Chazhma Bay nuclear accident
1985–1987 Therac-25 accident
1982 Andreev Bay nuclear accident
1980 Kramatorsk radiological accident
1979 Three Mile Island accident and Three Mile Island accident health effects
1969 Lucens reactor
1962 Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll under Operation Fishbowl
1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
1961 K-19 nuclear accident
1961 SL-1 nuclear meltdown
1957 Kyshtym disaster
1957 Windscale fire
1957 Operation Plumbbob
1954 Totskoye nuclear exercise
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1945 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
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Nuclear technology portal Category
Portal: Nuclear technology | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nuclear fission chain reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction"},{"link_name":"critical mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_mass"},{"link_name":"fissile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fissile"},{"link_name":"enriched uranium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriched_uranium"},{"link_name":"plutonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium"},{"link_name":"unprotected environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_shielding"},{"link_name":"critical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_mass_(nuclear)#Explanation_of_criticality"},{"link_name":"fission reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fission"},{"link_name":"reactor core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_core"},{"link_name":"nuclear explosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_explosion"},{"link_name":"fission bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon#Fission_weapons"},{"link_name":"design features","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design"},{"link_name":"atomic power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_power"},{"link_name":"steam explosions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_explosion"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lanl-1"}],"text":"A criticality accident is an accidental uncontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction. It is sometimes referred to as a critical excursion, critical power excursion, divergent chain reaction, or simply critical. Any such event involves the unintended accumulation or arrangement of a critical mass of fissile material, for example enriched uranium or plutonium. Criticality accidents can release potentially fatal radiation doses if they occur in an unprotected environment.Under normal circumstances, a critical or supercritical fission reaction (one that is self-sustaining in power or increasing in power) should only occur inside a safely shielded location, such as a reactor core or a suitable test environment. A criticality accident occurs if the same reaction is achieved unintentionally, for example in an unsafe environment or during reactor maintenance.Though dangerous and frequently lethal to humans within the immediate area, the critical mass formed would not be capable of producing a massive nuclear explosion of the type that fission bombs are designed to produce. This is because all the design features needed to make a nuclear warhead cannot arise by chance. In some cases, the heat released by the chain reaction will cause the fissile (and other nearby) materials to expand. In such cases, the chain reaction can either settle into a low power steady state or may even become either temporarily or permanently shut down (subcritical).In the history of atomic power development, at least 60 criticality accidents have occurred, including 22 in process environments, outside nuclear reactor cores or experimental assemblies, and 38 in small experimental reactors and other test assemblies. Although process accidents occurring outside reactors are characterized by large releases of radiation, the releases are localized. Nonetheless, fatal radiation exposures have occurred to persons close to these events, resulting in more than 20 fatalities. In a few reactor and critical experiment assembly accidents, the energy released has caused significant mechanical damage or steam explosions.[1]","title":"Criticality accident"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Criticality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticality_(status)"},{"link_name":"critical mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_mass"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LANL-20-22807-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-INEEL/EXT-98-00895-3"},{"link_name":"exponential rate of change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_growth"},{"link_name":"neutron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"neutron flux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_flux"},{"link_name":"neutron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_radiation"},{"link_name":"gamma ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"},{"link_name":"neutron generation time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction#Mean_generation_time"},{"link_name":"nuclear fission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fission"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"delayed neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed_neutron"},{"link_name":"reactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor"},{"link_name":"one dollar of reactivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_(reactivity)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"prompt neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prompt_neutron"},{"link_name":"MeV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeV"},{"link_name":"dosimetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dosimetry"}],"text":"Criticality occurs when sufficient fissile material (a critical mass) accumulates in a small volume such that each fission, on average, produces a neutron that in turn strikes another fissile atom causing another fission; this causes the chain reaction to become self-sustaining within the mass of material. In other words, in a critical mass the number of neutrons emitted, over time, exactly equals the number of neutrons captured by another nucleus or lost to the environment. If the mass is supercritical, the number of neutrons emitted per unit time exceeds those absorbed or lost, resulting in a cascade of nuclear fissions at increasing rate.Criticality can be achieved by using metallic uranium or plutonium, liquid solutions, or powder slurries. The chain reaction is influenced by range of parameters noted by the acronyms MAGIC MERV (for mass, absorption, geometry, interaction, concentration, moderation, enrichment, reflection, and volume)[2] and MERMAIDS (for mass, enrichment, reflection, moderation, absorption, interaction, density, and shape).[3] Temperature is also a factor.Calculations can be performed to determine the conditions needed for a critical state, mass, geometry, concentration etc. Where fissile materials are handled in civil and military installations, specially trained personnel are employed to carry out such calculations, and to ensure that all reasonably practicable measures are used to prevent criticality accidents, during both planned normal operations and any potential process upset conditions that cannot be dismissed on the basis of negligible likelihoods (reasonably foreseeable accidents).The assembly of a critical mass establishes a nuclear chain reaction, resulting in an exponential rate of change in the neutron population over space and time leading to an increase in neutron flux. This increased flux and attendant fission rate produces radiation that contains both a neutron and gamma ray component and is extremely dangerous to any unprotected nearby life-form. The rate of change of neutron population depends on the neutron generation time, which is characteristic of the neutron population, the state of \"criticality\", and the fissile medium.A nuclear fission creates approximately 2.5 neutrons per fission event on average.[4] Hence, to maintain a stable, exactly critical chain reaction, 1.5 neutrons per fission event must either leak from the system or be absorbed without causing further fissions.For every 1,000 neutrons released by fission, a small number, typically no more than about 7, are delayed neutrons which are emitted from the fission product precursors, called delayed neutron emitters. This delayed neutron fraction, on the order of 0.007 for uranium, is crucial for the control of the neutron chain reaction in reactors. It is called one dollar of reactivity. The lifetime of delayed neutrons ranges from fractions of seconds to almost 100 seconds after fission. The neutrons are usually classified in 6 delayed neutron groups.[4] The average neutron lifetime considering delayed neutrons is approximately 0.1 sec, which makes the chain reaction relatively easy to control over time. The remaining 993 prompt neutrons are released very quickly, approximately 1 μs after the fission event.In steady-state operation, nuclear reactors operate at exact criticality. When at least one dollar of reactivity is added above the exact critical point (where the neutron production rate balances the rate of neutron losses, from both absorption and leakage) then the chain reaction does not rely on delayed neutrons. In such cases, the neutron population can rapidly increase exponentially, with a very small time constant, known as the prompt neutron lifetime. Thus there is a very large increase in neutron population over a very short time frame. Since each fission event contributes approximately 200 MeV per fission, this results in a very large energy burst as a \"prompt-critical spike\". This spike can be easily detected by radiation dosimetry instrumentation and \"criticality accident alarm system\" detectors that are properly deployed.","title":"Physical basis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nuclear power plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant_accident"},{"link_name":"nuclear reactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lanl-1"},{"link_name":"Prompt criticality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prompt_criticality"},{"link_name":"transient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transient_response"},{"link_name":"Tokaimura nuclear accident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokaimura_nuclear_accident"},{"link_name":"dollar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_(reactivity)"},{"link_name":"Oklo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklo"},{"link_name":"natural reactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor"},{"link_name":"Gabon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon"}],"text":"Criticality accidents are divided into one of two categories:Process accidents, where controls in place to prevent any criticality are breached;\nReactor accidents, which occur due to operator errors or other unintended events (e.g., during maintenance or fuel loading) in locations intended to achieve or approach criticality, such as nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors, and nuclear experiments.[1]Excursion types can be classified into four categories depicting the nature of the evolution over time:Prompt criticality excursion\nTransient criticality excursion\nExponential excursion\nSteady-state excursionThe prompt-critical excursion is characterized by a power history with an initial prompt-critical spike as previously noted, which either self-terminates or continues with a tail region that decreases over an extended period of time. The transient critical excursion is characterized by a continuing or repeating spike pattern (sometimes known as \"chugging\") after the initial prompt-critical excursion. The longest of the 22 process accidents occurred at Hanford Works in 1962 and lasted for 37.5 hours. The 1999 Tokaimura nuclear accident remained critical for about 20 hours, until it was shut down by active intervention. The exponential excursion is characterized by a reactivity of less than one dollar added, where the neutron population rises as an exponential over time, until either feedback effects or intervention reduce the reactivity. The exponential excursion can reach a peak power level, then decrease over time, or reach a steady-state power level, where the critical state is exactly achieved for a \"steady-state\" excursion.The steady-state excursion is also a state which the heat generated by fission is balanced by the heat losses to the ambient environment. This excursion has been characterized by the Oklo natural reactor that was naturally produced within uranium deposits in Gabon, Africa about 1.7 billion years ago.","title":"Accident types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lanl-1"},{"link_name":"nuclear weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon"},{"link_name":"nuclear reactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Partially-reflected-plutonium-sphere.jpeg"},{"link_name":"plutonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium"},{"link_name":"tungsten carbide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten_carbide"},{"link_name":"Harry Daghlian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Daghlian"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-l-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tickling_the_Dragons_Tail.jpg"},{"link_name":"Slotin incident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Slotin"},{"link_name":"demon core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon_core"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Godiva-before-scrammed.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lady Godiva assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Godiva_assembly"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLaughlin_et_al._pages_81-82-34"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Godiva-after-scrammed.jpg"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLaughlin_et_al._pages_81-82-34"},{"link_name":"Fukushima I nuclear accidents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"IAEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAEA"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Fukushima I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_I"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"A Los Alamos report (McLaughlin et al.[1]) recorded 60 criticality accidents between 1945 and 1999. These caused 21 deaths: seven in the United States, ten in the Soviet Union, two in Japan, one in Argentina, and one in Yugoslavia. Nine have been due to process accidents, and the others from research reactor accidents. Criticality accidents have occurred in the context of production and testing of fissile material for both nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors.The table below gives a selection of well documented incidents, including some not included in the report by McLaughlin et al.The sphere of plutonium surrounded by neutron-reflecting tungsten carbide blocks in a re-enactment of Harry Daghlian's 1945 experiment[33]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA re-creation of the Slotin incident. The plutonium \"demon core\" (the same as in the Daghlian incident) was inside at the time of the accident, and would not be visible.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLady Godiva assembly in the scrammed (safe) configuration[34]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLady Godiva assembly, with damaged supporting rods after the excursion of February 1954. Note the images are of different assemblies.[34]There was speculation although not confirmed within criticality accident experts, that Fukushima 3 suffered a criticality accident. Based on incomplete information about the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Dr. Ferenc Dalnoki-Veress speculates that transient criticalities may have occurred there.[35] Noting that limited, uncontrolled chain reactions might occur at Fukushima I, a spokesman for the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) \"emphasized that the nuclear reactors won't explode.\"[36] By 23 March 2011, neutron beams had already been observed 13 times at the crippled Fukushima nuclear power plant. While a criticality accident was not believed to account for these beams, the beams could indicate nuclear fission is occurring.[37] On 15 April, TEPCO reported that nuclear fuel had melted and fallen to the lower containment sections of three of the Fukushima I reactors, including reactor three. The melted material was not expected to breach one of the lower containers, which could cause a massive radioactivity release. Instead, the melted fuel is thought to have dispersed uniformly across the lower portions of the containers of reactors No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, making the resumption of the fission process, known as a \"recriticality\", most unlikely.[38]","title":"Known incidents"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg"},{"link_name":"cyclotron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclotron"},{"link_name":"ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion"},{"link_name":"protons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"deuterons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteron"},{"link_name":"ionized-air glow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized-air_glow"},{"link_name":"Harry Daghlian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Daghlian"}],"text":"Image of a 60-inch cyclotron, circa 1939, showing an external beam of accelerated ions (perhaps protons or deuterons) ionizing the surrounding air and causing an ionized-air glow. Due to the similar mechanism of production, the blue glow is thought to resemble the \"blue flash\" seen by Harry Daghlian and other witnesses of criticality accidents.","title":"Observed effects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ionized-air glow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized-air_glow"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clayton-39"},{"link_name":"blue glow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized_air_glow"},{"link_name":"fluorescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence"},{"link_name":"excited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excited_state"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"electric sparks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_spark"},{"link_name":"lightning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning"},{"link_name":"electric blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_blue_(color)"},{"link_name":"ozone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone"},{"link_name":"radioactivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivity"},{"link_name":"Chernobyl liquidators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidator_(Chernobyl)"},{"link_name":"Cherenkov radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clayton-39"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tendler_Hartford_Jermyn_LaRochelle_2020_pp._422%E2%80%93429-41"},{"link_name":"cosmic rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Blue glow","text":"See also: Ionized-air glowIt has been observed that many criticality accidents emit a blue flash of light.[39]The blue glow of a criticality accident results from the fluorescence of the excited ions, atoms and molecules of the surrounding medium falling back to unexcited states.[40] This is also the reason electric sparks in air, including lightning, appear electric blue. The smell of ozone was said to be a sign of high ambient radioactivity by Chernobyl liquidators.This blue flash or \"blue glow\" can also be attributed to Cherenkov radiation, if either water is involved in the critical system or when the blue flash is experienced by the human eye.[39] Additionally, if ionizing radiation directly transects the vitreous humor of the eye, Cherenkov radiation can be generated and perceived as a visual blue glow/spark sensation.[41]It is a coincidence that the color of Cherenkov light and light emitted by ionized air are a very similar blue; their methods of production are different. Cherenkov radiation does occur in air for high-energy particles (such as particle showers from cosmic rays)[42] but not for the lower energy charged particles emitted from nuclear decay.","title":"Observed effects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"psychosomatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosomatic"},{"link_name":"heat sensing nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_nerves"},{"link_name":"non-Cherenkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation"},{"link_name":"emission lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_line"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"},{"link_name":"infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Heat effects","text":"Some people reported feeling a \"heat wave\" during a criticality event.[43][44] It is not known whether this may be a psychosomatic reaction to the realization of what has just occurred (i.e. the high probability of inevitable impending death from a fatal radiation dose), or if it is a physical effect of heating (or non-thermal stimulation of heat sensing nerves in the skin) due to radiation emitted by the criticality event.A review of all of the criticality accidents with eyewitness accounts indicates that the heat waves were only observed when the fluorescent blue glow (the non-Cherenkov light, see above) was also observed. This would suggest a possible relationship between the two, and indeed, one can be potentially identified. In dense air, over 30% of the emission lines from nitrogen and oxygen are in the ultraviolet range, and about 45% are in the infrared range. Only about 25% are in the visible range. Since the skin feels light (visible or otherwise) through its heating of the skin surface, it is possible that this phenomenon can explain the heat wave perceptions.[45] However, this explanation has not been confirmed and may be inconsistent with the intensity of light reported by witnesses compared to the intensity of heat perceived. Further research is hindered by the small amount of data available from the few instances where humans have witnessed these incidents and survived long enough to provide a detailed account of their experiences and observations.","title":"Observed effects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-lanl_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-lanl_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-lanl_1-2"},{"link_name":"A Review of Criticality Accidents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.orau.org/ptp/Library/accidents/la-13638.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070927235352/http://www.orau.org/ptp/Library/accidents/la-13638.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-LANL-20-22807_2-0"},{"link_name":"\"LA-UR-20-22807: Fissionable Materials Handlers Operators – Initial Training\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//permalink.lanl.gov/object/tr?what=info:lanl-repo/lareport/LA-UR-20-22807"},{"link_name":"Los Alamos National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210428104857/https://permalink.lanl.gov/object/tr?what=info%3Alanl-repo%2Flareport%2FLA-UR-20-22807"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-INEEL/EXT-98-00895_3-0"},{"link_name":"Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho_National_Engineering_and_Environmental_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"\"INEEL/EXT-98-00895: Criticality Safety Basics, a Study Guide\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/751136"},{"link_name":"Office of Scientific and Technical 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Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=hwRIHGJR56MC&pg=PA123"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-08-056043-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-056043-4"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180220071813/https://books.google.com/books?id=hwRIHGJR56MC&pg=PA123"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ReferenceA_5-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-385-60438-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-60438-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-la_6-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"rep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgen_equivalent_physical"},{"link_name":"rad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rad_(unit)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-dion_8-0"},{"link_name":"\"Harry Daghlian: America's first peacetime atom bomb fatality\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//members.tripod.com/~Arnold_Dion/Daghlian/index.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110622084509/http://members.tripod.com/~Arnold_Dion/Daghlian/index.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"rem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgen_equivalent_man"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"The blue flash\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2016/05/23/the-blue-flash/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160524122659/http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2016/05/23/the-blue-flash/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"Declassified 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1958\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1958YUG1.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110127110604/http://johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1958YUG1.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"Nuove esplosioni a Fukushima: danni al nocciolo. Ue: “In Giappone l’apocalisse”","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2011/03/14/giappone-due-esplosioni-di-idrogeno-a-fukushima-bloccato-un-altro-reattore/97466/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110316115525/http://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2011/03/14/giappone-due-esplosioni-di-idrogeno-a-fukushima-bloccato-un-altro-reattore/97466/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"The Cecil Kelley Criticality Accident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00326644.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160303210644/http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00326644.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback 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19\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1997RUS1.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140419184314/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1997RUS1.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"\"Arzamas-16 researcher died on 20 June\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090704013241/http://www.bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/incidents/8416"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/incidents/8416"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"The criticality accident in 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a b c McLaughlin, Thomas P.; et al. (2000). A Review of Criticality Accidents (PDF). Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory. LA-13638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 5 November 2012.\n\n^ Fernandez, MeLinda H. (8 April 2020). \"LA-UR-20-22807: Fissionable Materials Handlers Operators – Initial Training\" (PDF). Los Alamos National Laboratory. pp. 134–147. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2020.\n\n^ Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (September 1999). \"INEEL/EXT-98-00895: Criticality Safety Basics, a Study Guide\" (PDF). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (Rev. 1 ed.): 23–33 (PDF pp. 39–49). doi:10.2172/751136. Retrieved 23 September 2020.\n\n^ a b Lewis, Elmer E. (2008). Fundamentals of Nuclear Reactor Physics. Elsevier. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-08-056043-4. Archived from the original on 20 February 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2016.\n\n^ Diana Preston Before the Fall-Out – From Marie Curie to Hiroshima – Transworld – 2005 – ISBN 0-385-60438-6 p. 278\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. pages 78, 80–83\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. page 93, \"In this excursion, three people received radiation doses in the amounts of 66, 66, and 7.4 rep.\", LA Appendix A: \"rep: An obsolete term for absorbed dose in human tissue, replaced by rad. Originally derived from roentgen equivalent, physical.\"\n\n^ Dion, Arnold S. \"Harry Daghlian: America's first peacetime atom bomb fatality\". Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2010.\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. pages 74–76, \"His dose was estimated as 510 rem\"\n\n^ \"The blue flash\". Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog. Archived from the original on 24 May 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016.\n\n^ Declassified report Archived 13 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine See pg. 23 for dimensions of beryllium hand-controlled sphere.\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. pages 74–76, \"The eight people in the room received doses of about 2100, 360, 250, 160, 110, 65, 47, and 37 rem.\"\n\n^ Y-12’s 1958 nuclear criticality accident and increased safety Archived 13 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ Criticality accident at the Y-12 plant Archived 29 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Diagnosis and treatment of acute radiation injury, 1961, Geneva, World Health Organization, pp. 27–48.\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. page 96, \"Radiation doses were intense, being estimated at 205, 320, 410, 415, 422, and 433 rem. Of the six persons present, one died shortly afterward, and the other five recovered after severe cases of radiation sickness.\"\n\n^ Johnston, Wm. Robert. \"Vinca reactor accident, 1958\". Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2011.\n\n^ Nuove esplosioni a Fukushima: danni al nocciolo. Ue: “In Giappone l’apocalisse” Archived 16 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 14 marzo 2011\n\n^ The Cecil Kelley Criticality Accident Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ Stacy, Susan M. (2000). \"Chapter 15: The SL-1 Incident\" (PDF). Proving the Principle: A History of The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 1949–1999. U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho Operations Office. pp. 138–149. ISBN 978-0-16-059185-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2015.\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. pages 33–34\n\n^ Johnston, Wm. Robert. \"Wood River criticality accident, 1964\". Archived from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.\n\n^ Powell, Dennis E. (24 July 2018). \"Nuclear Fatality at Wood River Junction\". New England Today. Archived from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2018.\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. pages 40–43\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. page 103\n\n^ \"NRC: Information Notice No. 83-66, Supplement 1: Fatality at Argentine Critical Facility\". Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.\n\n^ \"The Worst Nuclear Disasters\". Time. 2012. Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 25 February 2012.\n\n^ Johnston, Wm. Robert. \"Arzamas-16 criticality accident, 19\". Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2013.\n\n^ Kudrik, Igor (23 June 1997). \"Arzamas-16 researcher died on 20 June\". Archived from the original on 4 July 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2013.\n\n^ The criticality accident in Sarov Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, IAEA, 2001.\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. pages 53–56\n\n^ \"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)\n\n^ \"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. pages 74-75\n\n^ a b McLaughlin et al. pages 81-82\n\n^ \"Has Fukushima's Reactor No. 1 Gone Critical?\". Ecocentric. Time. 30 March 2011. Archived from the original on 30 March 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011.\n\n^ Jonathan Tirone; Sachiko Sakamaki; Yuriy Humber (31 March 2011). \"Fukushima Workers Threatened by Heat Bursts; Sea Radiation Rises\". Archived from the original on 1 April 2011.\n\n^ Neutron beam observed 13 times at crippled Fukushima nuke plant. These \"neutron beams\" as explained in the popular media, do not explain or prove a criticality excursion, as the requisite signature (combined neutron/gamma ratio of approximately 1:3 was not confirmed). A more credible explanation is the presence of neutrons from continued fissions from the decay process. It is highly unlikely that a recriticality occurred in Fukushima 3 since workers near the reactor were not exposed to a high neutron dose in a very short time (milliseconds), and plant radiation instruments would have captured any \"repeating spikes\" that are characteristic of a continuing moderated criticality accident.\n\nTOKYO, 23 March, Kyodo News\n\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110323214235/http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/80539.html\n\n^ Japan Plant Fuel Melted Partway Through Reactors: Report\n\nBecause there was no large radiation release in the proximity of the reactor, and available dosimetry did not indicate an abnormal neutron dose or neutron/gamma dose ratio, there is no evidence of a criticality accident at Fukushima.\n\nFriday, 15 April 2011\n\n\"NTI: Global Security Newswire - Japan Plant Fuel Melted Partway Through Reactors: Report\". Archived from the original on 2 December 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.\n\n^ a b E. D. Clayton. \"Anomalies of Nuclear Criticality\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015.\n\n^ Martin A. Uman (1984). Lightning. Courier Corporation. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-486-64575-9. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2017.\n\n^ Tendler, Irwin I.; Hartford, Alan; Jermyn, Michael; LaRochelle, Ethan; Cao, Xu; Borza, Victor; Alexander, Daniel; Bruza, Petr; Hoopes, Jack; Moodie, Karen; Marr, Brian P.; Williams, Benjamin B.; Pogue, Brian W.; Gladstone, David J.; Jarvis, Lesley A. (2020). \"Experimentally Observed Cherenkov Light Generation in the Eye During Radiation Therapy\". International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 106 (2). Elsevier BV: 422–429. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2019.10.031. ISSN 0360-3016. PMC 7161418. PMID 31669563.\n\n^ \"Science\". Archived from the original on 29 August 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2016.\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. page 42, \"the operator saw a flash of light and felt a pulse of heat.\"\n\n^ McLaughlin et al. page 88, \"There was a flash, a shock, a stream of heat in our faces.\"\n\n^ Minnema, \"Criticality Accidents and the Blue Glow\", American Nuclear Society Winter Meeting, 2007.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Image of a 60-inch cyclotron, circa 1939, showing an external beam of accelerated ions (perhaps protons or deuterons) ionizing the surrounding air and causing an ionized-air glow. Due to the similar mechanism of production, the blue glow is thought to resemble the \"blue flash\" seen by Harry Daghlian and other witnesses of criticality accidents.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg/220px-Cyclotron_with_glowing_beam.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Criticality (status)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticality_(status)"},{"title":"Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents"},{"title":"Nuclear criticality safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_criticality_safety"}] | [{"reference":"McLaughlin, Thomas P.; et al. (2000). A Review of Criticality Accidents (PDF). Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory. LA-13638. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 5 November 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.orau.org/ptp/Library/accidents/la-13638.pdf","url_text":"A Review of Criticality Accidents"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927235352/http://www.orau.org/ptp/Library/accidents/la-13638.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fernandez, MeLinda H. (8 April 2020). \"LA-UR-20-22807: Fissionable Materials Handlers Operators – Initial Training\" (PDF). Los Alamos National Laboratory. pp. 134–147. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://permalink.lanl.gov/object/tr?what=info:lanl-repo/lareport/LA-UR-20-22807","url_text":"\"LA-UR-20-22807: Fissionable Materials Handlers Operators – Initial Training\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory","url_text":"Los Alamos National Laboratory"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210428104857/https://permalink.lanl.gov/object/tr?what=info%3Alanl-repo%2Flareport%2FLA-UR-20-22807","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (September 1999). \"INEEL/EXT-98-00895: Criticality Safety Basics, a Study Guide\" (PDF). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (Rev. 1 ed.): 23–33 (PDF pp. 39–49). doi:10.2172/751136. Retrieved 23 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho_National_Engineering_and_Environmental_Laboratory","url_text":"Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory"},{"url":"https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/751136","url_text":"\"INEEL/EXT-98-00895: Criticality Safety Basics, a Study Guide\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_and_Technical_Information","url_text":"Office of Scientific and Technical Information"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2172%2F751136","url_text":"10.2172/751136"}]},{"reference":"Lewis, Elmer E. (2008). Fundamentals of Nuclear Reactor Physics. Elsevier. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-08-056043-4. Archived from the original on 20 February 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hwRIHGJR56MC&pg=PA123","url_text":"Fundamentals of Nuclear Reactor Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-056043-4","url_text":"978-0-08-056043-4"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180220071813/https://books.google.com/books?id=hwRIHGJR56MC&pg=PA123","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dion, Arnold S. \"Harry Daghlian: America's first peacetime atom bomb fatality\". Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://members.tripod.com/~Arnold_Dion/Daghlian/index.html","url_text":"\"Harry Daghlian: America's first peacetime atom bomb fatality\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110622084509/http://members.tripod.com/~Arnold_Dion/Daghlian/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The blue flash\". Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog. Archived from the original on 24 May 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2016/05/23/the-blue-flash/","url_text":"\"The blue flash\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160524122659/http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2016/05/23/the-blue-flash/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Johnston, Wm. Robert. \"Vinca reactor accident, 1958\". Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1958YUG1.html","url_text":"\"Vinca reactor accident, 1958\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110127110604/http://johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1958YUG1.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Stacy, Susan M. (2000). \"Chapter 15: The SL-1 Incident\" (PDF). Proving the Principle: A History of The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 1949–1999. U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho Operations Office. pp. 138–149. ISBN 978-0-16-059185-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.inl.gov/proving-the-principle/chapter_15.pdf","url_text":"\"Chapter 15: The SL-1 Incident\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy","url_text":"U.S. Department of Energy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-059185-3","url_text":"978-0-16-059185-3"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110807212441/http://www.inl.gov/proving-the-principle/chapter_15.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Johnston, Wm. Robert. \"Wood River criticality accident, 1964\". Archived from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1964USA1.html","url_text":"\"Wood River criticality accident, 1964\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170418060912/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1964USA1.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Powell, Dennis E. (24 July 2018). \"Nuclear Fatality at Wood River Junction\". New England Today. Archived from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://newengland.com/today/living/new-england-history/nuclear-accident-at-wood-river-junction/","url_text":"\"Nuclear Fatality at Wood River Junction\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181024042326/https://newengland.com/today/living/new-england-history/nuclear-accident-at-wood-river-junction/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"NRC: Information Notice No. 83-66, Supplement 1: Fatality at Argentine Critical Facility\". Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/gen-comm/info-notices/1983/in83066s1.html","url_text":"\"NRC: Information Notice No. 83-66, Supplement 1: Fatality at Argentine Critical Facility\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160603053419/http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/gen-comm/info-notices/1983/in83066s1.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Worst Nuclear Disasters\". Time. 2012. Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 25 February 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090330064114/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1887705_1862270,00.html","url_text":"\"The Worst Nuclear Disasters\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time"},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1887705_1862270,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Johnston, Wm. Robert. \"Arzamas-16 criticality accident, 19\". Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1997RUS1.html","url_text":"\"Arzamas-16 criticality accident, 19\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140419184314/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1997RUS1.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kudrik, Igor (23 June 1997). \"Arzamas-16 researcher died on 20 June\". Archived from the original on 4 July 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090704013241/http://www.bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/incidents/8416","url_text":"\"Arzamas-16 researcher died on 20 June\""},{"url":"http://www.bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/incidents/8416","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/commission/secys/2000/secy2000-0085/2000-0085scy.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170618201057/https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/commission/secys/2000/secy2000-0085/2000-0085scy.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/commission/secys/2000/secy2000-0085/attachment3.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170715233826/https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/commission/secys/2000/secy2000-0085/attachment3.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Has Fukushima's Reactor No. 1 Gone Critical?\". Ecocentric. Time. 30 March 2011. Archived from the original on 30 March 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://ecocentric.blogs.time.com/2011/03/30/has-fukushimas-reactor-no-1-gone-critical/","url_text":"\"Has Fukushima's Reactor No. 1 Gone Critical?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110330215721/http://ecocentric.blogs.time.com/2011/03/30/has-fukushimas-reactor-no-1-gone-critical/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jonathan Tirone; Sachiko Sakamaki; Yuriy Humber (31 March 2011). \"Fukushima Workers Threatened by Heat Bursts; Sea Radiation Rises\". Archived from the original on 1 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-30/record-high-levels-of-radiation-found-in-sea-near-crippled-nuclear-reactor.html","url_text":"\"Fukushima Workers Threatened by Heat Bursts; Sea Radiation Rises\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110401101022/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-30/record-high-levels-of-radiation-found-in-sea-near-crippled-nuclear-reactor.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"NTI: Global Security Newswire - Japan Plant Fuel Melted Partway Through Reactors: Report\". Archived from the original on 2 December 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111202101125/http://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20110415_5020.php","url_text":"\"NTI: Global Security Newswire - Japan Plant Fuel Melted Partway Through Reactors: Report\""},{"url":"http://www.globalsecuritynewswire.org/gsn/nw_20110415_5020.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"E. D. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crm_software | Customer relationship management | ["1 History","2 Types","2.1 Strategic","2.2 Operational","2.3 Analytical","2.4 Collaborative","2.5 Customer data platform","3 Components","4 Effect on customer satisfaction","4.1 Customer benefits","4.2 Examples","5 Customer profile","6 Improving CRM","6.1 Data analysis","6.2 Employee training","7 In practice","7.1 Call centers","7.2 Contact-center automation","7.3 Social media","7.4 Location-based services","7.5 Business-to-business transactions","8 Market trends","8.1 Social networking","8.2 Mobile","8.3 Cloud computing and SaaS","8.4 Sales and sales force automation","8.5 Vendor relationship management","8.6 Customer success","8.7 AI and predictive analytics","9 Criticism","10 See also","11 References"] | Process of managing interactions with customers
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Customer relationship management (CRM) is a process in which a business or other organization administers its interactions with customers, typically using data analysis to study large amounts of information.
CRM systems compile data from a range of different communication channels, including a company's website, telephone (which many software come with a softphone), email, live chat, marketing materials and more recently, social media. They allow businesses to learn more about their target audiences and how to better cater to their needs, thus retaining customers and driving sales growth. CRM may be used with past, present or potential customers. The concepts, procedures, and rules that a corporation follows when communicating with its consumers are referred to as CRM. This complete connection covers direct contact with customers, such as sales and service-related operations, forecasting, and the analysis of consumer patterns and behaviors, from the perspective of the company. According to Gartner, the global CRM market size is estimated at $69 billion in 2020.
History
The concept of customer relationship management started in the early 1970s, when customer satisfaction was evaluated using annual surveys or by front-line asking. At that time, businesses had to rely on standalone mainframe systems to automate sales, but the extent of technology allowed them to categorize customers in spreadsheets and lists. One of the best-known precursors of modern-day CRM is the Farley File. Developed by Franklin Roosevelt's campaign manager, James Farley, the Farley File was a comprehensive set of records detailing political and personal facts about people FDR and Farley met or were supposed to meet. Using it, people that FDR met were impressed by his "recall" of facts about their family and what they were doing professionally and politically. In 1982, Kate and Robert D. Kestenbaum introduced the concept of database marketing, namely applying statistical methods to analyze and gather customer data. By 1986, Pat Sullivan and Mike Muhney had released a customer evaluation system called ACT! based on the principle of a digital Rolodex, which offered a contact management service for the first time.
The trend was followed by numerous companies and independent developers trying to maximize lead potential, including Tom Siebel of Siebel Systems, who designed the first CRM product, Siebel Customer Relationship Management, in 1993. In order to compete with these new and quickly growing stand-alone CRM solutions, established enterprise resource planning (ERP) software companies like Oracle, Zoho Corporation, SAP, Peoplesoft (an Oracle subsidiary as of 2005) and Navision started extending their sales, distribution and customer service capabilities with embedded CRM modules. This included embedding sales force automation or extended customer service (e.g. inquiry, activity management) as CRM features in their ERP.
Customer relationship management was popularized in 1997, due to the work of Siebel, Gartner, and IBM. Between 1997 and 2000, leading CRM products were enriched with shipping and marketing capabilities. Siebel introduced the first mobile CRM app called Siebel Sales Handheld in 1999. The idea of a stand-alone, cloud-hosted customer base was soon adopted by other leading providers at the time, including PeopleSoft (acquired by Oracle), Oracle, SAP and Salesforce.com.
The first open-source CRM system was developed by SugarCRM in 2004. During this period, CRM was rapidly migrating to the cloud, as a result of which it became accessible to sole entrepreneurs and small teams. This increase in accessibility generated a huge wave of price reduction. Around 2009, developers began considering the options to profit from social media's momentum and designed tools to help companies become accessible on all users' favourite networks. Many startups at the time benefited from this trend to provide exclusively social CRM solutions, including Base and Nutshell. The same year, Gartner organized and held the first Customer Relationship Management Summit, and summarized the features systems should offer to be classified as CRM solutions. In 2013 and 2014, most of the popular CRM products were linked to business intelligence systems and communication software to improve corporate communication and end-users' experience. The leading trend is to replace standardized CRM solutions with industry-specific ones, or to make them customizable enough to meet the needs of every business. In November 2016, Forrester released a report where it "identified the nine most significant CRM suites from eight prominent vendors".
Types
Strategic
Strategic CRM concentrates upon the development of a customer-centric business culture.
The focus of a business on being customer-centric (in design and implementation of their CRM strategy) will translate into an improved CLV.
Operational
The primary goal of CRM systems is integration and automation of sales, marketing, and customer support. Therefore, these systems typically have a dashboard that gives an overall view of the three functions on a single customer view, a single page for each customer that a company may have. The dashboard may provide client information, past sales, previous marketing efforts, and more, summarizing all of the relationships between the customer and the firm. Operational CRM is made up of 3 main components: sales force automation, marketing automation, and service automation.
Sales force automation works with all stages in the sales cycle, from initially entering contact information to converting a prospective client into an actual client. It implements sales promotion analysis, automates the tracking of a client's account history for repeated sales or future sales and coordinates sales, marketing, call centers, and retail outlets. It prevents duplicate efforts between a salesperson and a customer and also automatically tracks all contacts and follow-ups between both parties.
Marketing automation focuses on easing the overall marketing process to make it more effective and efficient. CRM tools with marketing automation capabilities can automate repeated tasks, for example, sending out automated marketing emails at certain times to customers, or posting marketing information on social media. The goal with marketing automation is to turn a sales lead into a full customer. CRM systems today also work on customer engagement through social media.
Service automation is the part of the CRM system that focuses on direct customer service technology. Through service automation, customers are supported through multiple channels such as phone, email, knowledge bases, ticketing portals, FAQs, and more.
Analytical
The role of analytical CRM systems is to analyze customer data collected through multiple sources and present it so that business managers can make more informed decisions. Analytical CRM systems use techniques such as data mining, correlation, and pattern recognition to analyze customer data. These analytics help improve customer service by finding small problems which can be solved, perhaps by marketing to different parts of a consumer audience differently. For example, through the analysis of a customer base's buying behavior, a company might see that this customer base has not been buying a lot of products recently. After scanning through this data, the company might think to market to this subset of consumers differently, to best communicate how this company's products might benefit this group specifically.
Collaborative
The third primary aim of CRM systems is to incorporate external stakeholders such as suppliers, vendors, and distributors, and share customer information across groups/departments and organizations. For example, feedback can be collected from technical support calls, which could help provide direction for marketing products and services to that particular customer in the future.
Customer data platform
Main article: Customer data platform
A customer data platform (CDP) is a computer system used by marketing departments that assembles data about individual people from various sources into one database, with which other software systems can interact. As of February 2017 there were about twenty companies selling such systems and revenue for them was around US$300 million.
Components
Components in the different types of CRMThe main components of CRM are building and managing customer relationships through marketing, observing relationships as they mature through distinct phases, managing these relationships at each stage and recognizing that the distribution of the value of a relationship to the firm is not homogeneous. When building and managing customer relationships through marketing, firms might benefit from using a variety of tools to help organizational design, incentive schemes, customer structures, and more to optimize the reach of their marketing campaigns. Through the acknowledgment of the distinct phases of CRM, businesses will be able to benefit from seeing the interaction of multiple relationships as connected transactions. The final factor of CRM highlights the importance of CRM through accounting for the profitability of customer relationships. Through studying the particular spending habits of customers, a firm may be able to dedicate different resources and amounts of attention to different types of consumers.
Relational Intelligence, which is the awareness of the variety of relationships a customer can have with a firm and the ability of the firm to reinforce or change those connections, is an important component to the main phases of CRM. Companies may be good at capturing demographic data, such as gender, age, income, and education, and connecting them with purchasing information to categorize customers into profitability tiers, but this is only a firm's industrial view of customer relationships. A lack in relational intelligence is a sign that firms still see customers as resources that can be used for up-sell or cross-sell opportunities, rather than people looking for interesting and personalized interactions.
CRM systems include:
Data warehouse technology, used to aggregate transaction information, to merge the information with CRM products, and to provide key performance indicators.
Opportunity management which helps the company to manage unpredictable growth and demand, and implement a good forecasting model to integrate sales history with sales projections.
CRM systems that track and measure marketing campaigns over multiple networks, tracking customer analysis by customer clicks and sales.
Some CRM software is available as a software as a service (SaaS), delivered via the internet and accessed via a web browser instead of being installed on a local computer. Businesses using the software do not purchase it, but typically pay a recurring subscription fee to the software vendor.
For small businesses a CRM system may consist of a contact management system that integrates emails, documents, jobs, faxes, and scheduling for individual accounts. CRM systems available for specific markets (legal, finance) frequently focus on event management and relationship tracking as opposed to financial return on investment (ROI).
CRM systems for eCommerce, focused on marketing automation tasks, like cart rescue, re-engage users with email, personalization.
Customer-centric relationship management (CCRM) is a nascent sub-discipline that focuses on customer preferences instead of customer leverage. CCRM aims to add value by engaging customers in individual, interactive relationships.
Systems for non-profit and membership-based organizations help track constituents, fundraising, sponsors' demographics, membership levels, membership directories, volunteering and communication with individuals.
CRM not only indicates technology and strategy but also indicates an integrated approach which includes employees knowledge, organizational culture to embrace the CRM philosophy.
Effect on customer satisfaction
Customer satisfaction has important implications for the economic performance of firms because it has the ability to increase customer loyalty and usage behavior and reduce customer complaints and the likelihood of customer defection. The implementation of a CRM approach is likely to affect customer satisfaction and customer knowledge for a variety of different reasons.
Firstly, firms can customize their offerings for each customer. By accumulating information across customer interactions and processing this information to discover hidden patterns, CRM applications help firms customize their offerings to suit the individual tastes of their customers. This customization enhances the perceived quality of products and services from a customer's viewpoint, and because the perceived quality is a determinant of customer satisfaction, it follows that CRM applications indirectly affect customer satisfaction. CRM applications also enable firms to provide timely, accurate processing of customer orders and requests and the ongoing management of customer accounts. For example, Piccoli and Applegate discuss how Wyndham uses IT tools to deliver a consistent service experience across its various properties to a customer. Both an improved ability to customize and reduced variability of the consumption experience enhance perceived quality, which in turn positively affects customer satisfaction. Furthermore, CRM applications also help firms manage customer relationships more effectively across the stages of relationship initiation, maintenance, and termination.
Customer benefits
With CRM systems, customers are served on the day-to-day process. With more reliable information, their demand for self-service from companies will decrease. If there is less need to interact with the company for different problems, customer satisfaction level are expected to increase. These central benefits of CRM will be connected hypothetically to the three kinds of equity that are relationship, value, and brand, and in the end to customer equity. Eight benefits were recognized to provide value drivers.
Enhanced ability to target profitable customers.
Integrated assistance across channels.
Enhanced sales force efficiency and effectiveness.
Improved pricing.
Customized products and services.
Improved customer service efficiency and effectiveness.
Individualized marketing messages are also called campaigns.
Connect customers and all channels on a single platform.
In 2012, after reviewing the previous studies, someone selected some of those benefits which are more significant in customer satisfaction and summarized them into the following cases:
Improve customer services: In general, customers would have some questions, concerns, or requests. CRM services provide the ability to a company for producing, allocating, and managing requests or something made by customers. For example, call centre software, which helps to connect a customer to the manager or person who can best assist them with their existing problem, is one of the CRM abilities that can be implemented to increase efficiency.
Increased personalized service or one-to-one service: Personalizing customer service or one-to-one service provides companies to improve understanding and gaining knowledge of the customers and also to have better knowledge about their customers' preferences, requirements and demands.
Responsive to customer's needs: Customers' situations and needs can be understood by the firms focusing on customer needs and requirements.
Customer segmentation: In CRM, segmentation is used to categorize customers, according to some similarity, such as industry, job or some other characteristics, into similar groups. Although these characteristics, can be one or more attributes. It can be defined as a subdividing the customers based on already known good discriminator.
Improve customization of marketing: Meaning of customization of marketing is that the firm or organization adapt and changes its services or products based on presenting a different and unique product or service for each customer. To ensure that customer needs and requirements are met Customization is used by the organization. Companies can put investment in information from customers and then customize their products or services to maintain customer interests.
Multichannel integration: Multichannel integration shows the point of co-creation of customer value in CRM. On the other hand, a company's skill to perform multichannel integration successfully is heavily dependent on the organization's ability to get together customer information from all channels and incorporate it with other related information.
Time saving: CRM will let companies interact with customers more frequently, by personalized message and communication way which can be produced rapidly and matched on a timely basis, and finally they can better understand their customers and therefore look forward to their needs.
Improve customer knowledge: Firms can make and improve products and services through the information from tracking (e.g. via website tracking) customer behaviour to customer tastes and needs. CRM could contribute to a competitive advantage in improving a firm's ability of customer information collecting to customize products and services according to customer needs.
Examples
Research has found a 5% increase in customer retention boosts lifetime customer profits by 50% on average across multiple industries, as well as a boost of up to 90% within specific industries such as insurance. Companies that have mastered customer relationship strategies have the most successful CRM programs. For example, MBNA Europe has had a 75% annual profit growth since 1995. The firm heavily invests in screening potential cardholders. Once proper clients are identified, the firm retains 97% of its profitable customers. They implement CRM by marketing the right products to the right customers. The firm's customers' card usage is 52% above the industry norm, and the average expenditure is 30% more per transaction. Also 10% of their account holders ask for more information on cross-sale products.
Amazon has also seen successes through its customer proposition. The firm implemented personal greetings, collaborative filtering, and more for the customer. They also used CRM training for the employees to see up to 80% of customers repeat.
Customer profile
Further information: Consumer behaviour, Biology and consumer behaviour, and Buying decision
A customer profile is a detailed description of any particular classification of customer which is created to represent the typical users of a product or service. Customer profiling is a method to understand your customers in terms of demographics, behaviour and lifestyle. It is used to help make customer-focused decisions without confusing the scope of the project with personal opinion. Overall profiling is gathering information that sums up consumption habits so far and projects them into the future so that they can be grouped for marketing and advertising purposes.
Customer or consumer profiles are the essences of the data that is collected alongside core data (name, address, company) and processed through customer analytics methods, essentially a type of profiling.
The three basic methods of customer profiling are the psychographic approach, the consumer typology approach, and the consumer characteristics approach. These customer profiling methods help you design your business around who your customers are and help you make better customer-centered decisions.
Improving CRM
Consultants hold that it is important for companies to establish strong CRM systems to improve their relational intelligence. According to this argument, a company must recognize that people have many different types of relationships with different brands. One research study analyzed relationships between consumers in China, Germany, Spain, and the United States, with over 200 brands in 11 industries including airlines, cars, and media. This information is valuable as it provides demographic, behavioral, and value-based customer segmentation. These types of relationships can be both positive and negative. Some customers view themselves as friends of the brands, while others as enemies, and some are mixed with a love-hate relationship with the brand. Some relationships are distant, intimate, or anything in between.
Data analysis
Managers must understand the different reasons for the types of relationships, and provide the customer with what they are looking for. Companies can collect this information by using surveys, interviews, and more, with current customers.
Companies must also improve the relational intelligence of their CRM systems. Companies store and receive huge amounts of data through emails, online chat sessions, phone calls, and more. Many companies do not properly make use of this great amount of data, however. All of these are signs of what types of relationships the customer wants with the firm, and therefore companies may consider investing more time and effort in building out their relational intelligence. Companies can use data mining technologies and web searches to understand relational signals. Social media such as social networking sites, blogs, and forums can also be used to collect and analyze information. Understanding the customer and capturing this data allows companies to convert customers' signals into information and knowledge that the firm can use to understand a potential customer's desired relations with a brand.
Employee training
Many firms have also implemented training programs to teach employees how to recognize and create strong customer-brand relationships. Other employees have also been trained in social psychology and the social sciences to help bolster customer relationships. Customer service representatives must be trained to value customer relationships and trained to understand existing customer profiles. Even the finance and legal departments should understand how to manage and build relationships with customers.
In practice
Call centers
Contact centre CRM providers are popular for small and mid-market businesses. These systems codify the interactions between the company and customers by using analytics and key performance indicators to give the users information on where to focus their marketing and customer service. This allows agents to have access to a caller's history to provide personalized customer communication. The intention is to maximize average revenue per user, decrease churn rate and decrease idle and unproductive contact with the customers.
Growing in popularity is the idea of gamifying, or using game design elements and game principles in a non-game environment such as customer service environments. The gamification of customer service environments includes providing elements found in games like rewards and bonus points to customer service representatives as a method of feedback for a job well done.
Gamification tools can motivate agents by tapping into their desire for rewards, recognition, achievements, and competition.
Contact-center automation
Contact-center automation, CCA, the practice of having an integrated system that coordinates contacts between an organization and the public, is designed to reduce the repetitive and tedious parts of a contact center agent's job. Automation prevents this by having pre-recorded audio messages that help customers solve their problems. For example, an automated contact center may be able to re-route a customer through a series of commands asking him or her to select a certain number to speak with a particular contact center agent who specializes in the field in which the customer has a question. Software tools can also integrate with the agent's desktop tools to handle customer questions and requests. This also saves time on behalf of the employees.
Social media
Social CRM involves the use of social media and technology to engage and learn from consumers. Because the public, especially young people, are increasingly using social networking sites, companies use these sites to draw attention to their products, services and brands, with the aim of building up customer relationships to increase demand. With the increase in the use of social media platforms, integrating CRM with the help of social media can potentially be a quicker and more cost-friendly process.
Some CRM systems integrate social media sites like Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook to track and communicate with customers. These customers also share their own opinions and experiences with a company's products and services, giving these firms more insight. Therefore, these firms can both share their own opinions and also track the opinions of their customers.
Enterprise feedback management software platforms combine internal survey data with trends identified through social media to allow businesses to make more accurate decisions on which products to supply.
Location-based services
CRM systems can also include technologies that create geographic marketing campaigns. The systems take in information based on a customer's physical location and sometimes integrates it with popular location-based GPS applications. It can be used for networking or contact management as well to help increase sales based on location.
Business-to-business transactions
Despite the general notion that CRM systems were created for customer-centric businesses, they can also be applied to B2B environments to streamline and improve customer management conditions. For the best level of CRM operation in a B2B environment, the software must be personalized and delivered at individual levels.
The main differences between business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business CRM systems concern aspects like sizing of contact databases and length of relationships.
Market trends
Social networking
In the Gartner CRM Summit 2010 challenges like "system tries to capture data from social networking traffic like Twitter, handles Facebook page addresses or other online social networking sites" were discussed and solutions were provided that would help in bringing more clientele.
The era of the "social customer" refers to the use of social media by customers.
Mobile
Some CRM systems are equipped with mobile capabilities, making information accessible to remote sales staff.
Cloud computing and SaaS
Many CRM vendors offer subscription-based web tools (cloud computing) and SaaS. Salesforce.com was the first company to provide enterprise applications through a web browser, and has maintained its leadership position.
Traditional providers moved into the cloud-based market via acquisitions of smaller providers: Oracle purchased RightNow in October 2011, and Taleo and Eloqua in 2012; SAP acquired SuccessFactors in December 2011 and NetSuite acquired Verenia in 2022.
Sales and sales force automation
Sales forces also play an important role in CRM, as maximizing sales effectiveness and increasing sales productivity is a driving force behind the adoption of CRM software. Some of the top CRM trends identified in 2021 include focusing on customer service automation such as chatbots, hyper-personalization based on customer data and insights, and the use of unified CRM systems. CRM vendors support sales productivity with different products, such as tools that measure the effectiveness of ads that appear in 3D video games.
Pharmaceutical companies were some of the first investors in sales force automation (SFA) and some are on their third- or fourth-generation implementations. However, until recently, the deployments did not extend beyond SFA—limiting their scope and interest to Gartner analysts.
Vendor relationship management
Another related development is vendor relationship management (VRM), which provide tools and services that allow customers to manage their individual relationship with vendors. VRM development has grown out of efforts by ProjectVRM at Harvard's Berkman Center for Internet & Society and Identity Commons' Internet Identity Workshops, as well as by a growing number of startups and established companies. VRM was the subject of a cover story in the May 2010 issue of CRM Magazine.
Customer success
Another trend worth noting is the rise of Customer Success as a discipline within companies. More and more companies establish Customer Success teams as separate from the traditional Sales team and task them with managing existing customer relations. This trend fuels demand for additional capabilities for a more holistic understanding of customer health, which is a limitation for many existing vendors in the space. As a result, a growing number of new entrants enter the market while existing vendors add capabilities in this area to their suites.
AI and predictive analytics
In 2017, artificial intelligence and predictive analytics were identified as the newest trends in CRM.
Criticism
See also: Anonymization and Customer rights
Companies face large challenges when trying to implement CRM systems. Consumer companies frequently manage their customer relationships haphazardly and unprofitably. They may not effectively or adequately use their connections with their customers, due to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of a CRM system's analysis. Clients may be treated like an exchange party, rather than a unique individual, due to, occasionally, a lack of a bridge between the CRM data and the CRM analysis output. Many studies show that customers are frequently frustrated by a company's inability to meet their relationship expectations, and on the other side, companies do not always know how to translate the data they have gained from CRM software into a feasible action plan. In 2003, a Gartner report estimated that more than $2 billion had been spent on software that was not being used. According to CSO Insights, less than 40 percent of 1,275 participating companies had end-user adoption rates above 90 percent. Many corporations only use CRM systems on a partial or fragmented basis. In a 2007 survey from the UK, four-fifths of senior executives reported that their biggest challenge is getting their staff to use the systems they had installed. Forty-three percent of respondents said they use less than half the functionality of their existing systems. However, market research regarding consumers' preferences may increase the adoption of CRM among developing countries' consumers.
Collection of customer data such as personally identifiable information must strictly obey customer privacy laws, which often requires extra expenditures on legal support.
Part of the paradox with CRM stems from the challenge of determining exactly what CRM is and what it can do for a company. The CRM paradox, also referred to as the "dark side of CRM", may entail favoritism and differential treatment of some customers. This can happen because a business prioritizes customers who are more profitable, more relationship-orientated or tend to have increased loyalty to the company. Although focusing on such customers by itself isn't a bad thing, it can leave other customers feeling left out and alienated potentially decreasing profits because of it.
CRM technologies can easily become ineffective if there is no proper management, and they are not implemented correctly. The data sets must also be connected, distributed, and organized properly so that the users can access the information that they need quickly and easily. Research studies also show that customers are increasingly becoming dissatisfied with contact center experiences due to lags and wait times. They also request and demand multiple channels of communication with a company, and these channels must transfer information seamlessly. Therefore, it is increasingly important for companies to deliver a cross-channel customer experience that can be both consistent as well as reliable.
See also
Comparison of CRM systems
Corporate social responsibility – Form of corporate self-regulation aimed at contributing to social or charitable goals
Customer value model – Representation of the monetary worth of what a company could do for its customers
Farley file – Set of records kept by politicians
History of marketing – Academic discipline studying the history of marketing practice and thought
Healthcare CRM – Healthcare CRMPages displaying short descriptions matching their page name
Intersubjectivity – Concept in philosophy and psychology
Relationship marketing – Form of marketing focused on customer retention
Socially responsible marketing – Marketing philosophy
Sustainable market orientation – The present era i.e 21st century demands that a business organization create and maintain a sustainable competitive advantage over rival organizations in its industry by embracing the new approach: sustainable market orientation.Afolayan(2020)Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Vendor relationship management – category of business activityPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Business portal
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United States
Japan
Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis"},{"link_name":"large amounts of information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"compile data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collection"},{"link_name":"communication channels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_channel"},{"link_name":"website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website"},{"link_name":"softphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softphone"},{"link_name":"email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"live chat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_chat"},{"link_name":"social media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"retaining customers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_retention"},{"link_name":"sales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sales"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Gartner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gartner"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Customer relationship management (CRM) is a process in which a business or other organization administers its interactions with customers, typically using data analysis to study large amounts of information.[1]CRM systems compile data from a range of different communication channels, including a company's website, telephone (which many software come with a softphone), email, live chat, marketing materials and more recently, social media.[2] They allow businesses to learn more about their target audiences and how to better cater to their needs, thus retaining customers and driving sales growth.[3] CRM may be used with past, present or potential customers. The concepts, procedures, and rules that a corporation follows when communicating with its consumers are referred to as CRM. This complete connection covers direct contact with customers, such as sales and service-related operations, forecasting, and the analysis of consumer patterns and behaviors, from the perspective of the company.[4] According to Gartner, the global CRM market size is estimated at $69 billion in 2020.[5][6]","title":"Customer relationship management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"standalone mainframe systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer"},{"link_name":"spreadsheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"Farley File","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farley_File"},{"link_name":"Franklin Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"James Farley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Farley"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"database marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_marketing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Pat Sullivan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_Sullivan_(programmer)"},{"link_name":"Mike Muhney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Muhney"},{"link_name":"ACT!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act!_CRM"},{"link_name":"Tom Siebel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Siebel"},{"link_name":"Siebel Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siebel_Systems"},{"link_name":"Siebel Customer Relationship Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siebel_Systems#Key_dates"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"enterprise resource planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_resource_planning"},{"link_name":"software companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_companies"},{"link_name":"Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Zoho Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoho_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mukherjee-2017-10"},{"link_name":"SAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_SE"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Peoplesoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PeopleSoft"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McMillan-2005-12"},{"link_name":"Navision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Dynamics_NAV"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"embedded CRM modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_embedded_CRM_systems"},{"link_name":"sales force automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sales_force_management_system"},{"link_name":"Gartner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gartner"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-COMP-14"},{"link_name":"PeopleSoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PeopleSoft"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McMillan-2005-12"},{"link_name":"Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_CRM"},{"link_name":"SAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_CRM"},{"link_name":"Salesforce.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesforce.com"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"SugarCRM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SugarCRM"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-COMP-14"},{"link_name":"social CRM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_CRM"},{"link_name":"Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_CRM"},{"link_name":"Nutshell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutshell_CRM"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-COMP-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-forrester-crm-18"}],"text":"The concept of customer relationship management started in the early 1970s, when customer satisfaction was evaluated using annual surveys or by front-line asking.[7] At that time, businesses had to rely on standalone mainframe systems to automate sales, but the extent of technology allowed them to categorize customers in spreadsheets and lists. One of the best-known precursors of modern-day CRM is the Farley File. Developed by Franklin Roosevelt's campaign manager, James Farley, the Farley File was a comprehensive set of records detailing political and personal facts about people FDR and Farley met or were supposed to meet. Using it, people that FDR met were impressed by his \"recall\" of facts about their family and what they were doing professionally and politically.[8] In 1982, Kate and Robert D. Kestenbaum introduced the concept of database marketing, namely applying statistical methods to analyze and gather customer data.[citation needed] By 1986, Pat Sullivan and Mike Muhney had released a customer evaluation system called ACT! based on the principle of a digital Rolodex, which offered a contact management service for the first time.The trend was followed by numerous companies and independent developers trying to maximize lead potential, including Tom Siebel of Siebel Systems, who designed the first CRM product, Siebel Customer Relationship Management, in 1993.[9] In order to compete with these new and quickly growing stand-alone CRM solutions, established enterprise resource planning (ERP) software companies like Oracle, Zoho Corporation,[10] SAP,[11] Peoplesoft (an Oracle subsidiary as of 2005)[12] and Navision[13] started extending their sales, distribution and customer service capabilities with embedded CRM modules. This included embedding sales force automation or extended customer service (e.g. inquiry, activity management) as CRM features in their ERP.Customer relationship management was popularized in 1997, due to the work of Siebel, Gartner, and IBM. Between 1997 and 2000, leading CRM products were enriched with shipping and marketing capabilities.[14] Siebel introduced the first mobile CRM app called Siebel Sales Handheld in 1999. The idea of a stand-alone, cloud-hosted customer base was soon adopted by other leading providers at the time, including PeopleSoft (acquired by Oracle),[12] Oracle, SAP and Salesforce.com.[15]The first open-source CRM system was developed by SugarCRM in 2004. During this period, CRM was rapidly migrating to the cloud, as a result of which it became accessible to sole entrepreneurs and small teams. This increase in accessibility generated a huge wave of price reduction.[14] Around 2009, developers began considering the options to profit from social media's momentum and designed tools to help companies become accessible on all users' favourite networks. Many startups at the time benefited from this trend to provide exclusively social CRM solutions, including Base and Nutshell.[14] The same year, Gartner organized and held the first Customer Relationship Management Summit, and summarized the features systems should offer to be classified as CRM solutions.[16] In 2013 and 2014, most of the popular CRM products were linked to business intelligence systems and communication software to improve corporate communication and end-users' experience. The leading trend is to replace standardized CRM solutions with industry-specific ones, or to make them customizable enough to meet the needs of every business.[17] In November 2016, Forrester released a report where it \"identified the nine most significant CRM suites from eight prominent vendors\".[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"CLV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_lifetime_value"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Strategic","text":"Strategic CRM concentrates upon the development of a customer-centric business culture.[19]The focus of a business on being customer-centric (in design and implementation of their CRM strategy) will translate into an improved CLV.[20]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_automation"},{"link_name":"single customer view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_customer_view"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crmsoftware-2015-21"},{"link_name":"Sales force automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sales_force_management_system"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WhatIs-2015-22"},{"link_name":"sales promotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sales_promotion"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WhatIs-2015-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Marketing automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_automation"},{"link_name":"customer engagement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_engagement"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SearchCRM-2015-24"},{"link_name":"knowledge bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_base"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crmsoftware-2015-21"}],"sub_title":"Operational","text":"The primary goal of CRM systems is integration and automation of sales, marketing, and customer support. Therefore, these systems typically have a dashboard that gives an overall view of the three functions on a single customer view, a single page for each customer that a company may have. The dashboard may provide client information, past sales, previous marketing efforts, and more, summarizing all of the relationships between the customer and the firm. Operational CRM is made up of 3 main components: sales force automation, marketing automation, and service automation.[21]Sales force automation works with all stages in the sales cycle, from initially entering contact information to converting a prospective client into an actual client.[22] It implements sales promotion analysis, automates the tracking of a client's account history for repeated sales or future sales and coordinates sales, marketing, call centers, and retail outlets. It prevents duplicate efforts between a salesperson and a customer and also automatically tracks all contacts and follow-ups between both parties.[22][23]\nMarketing automation focuses on easing the overall marketing process to make it more effective and efficient. CRM tools with marketing automation capabilities can automate repeated tasks, for example, sending out automated marketing emails at certain times to customers, or posting marketing information on social media. The goal with marketing automation is to turn a sales lead into a full customer. CRM systems today also work on customer engagement through social media.[24]\nService automation is the part of the CRM system that focuses on direct customer service technology. Through service automation, customers are supported through multiple channels such as phone, email, knowledge bases, ticketing portals, FAQs, and more.[21]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"pattern recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crmsoftware-2015-21"}],"sub_title":"Analytical","text":"The role of analytical CRM systems is to analyze customer data collected through multiple sources and present it so that business managers can make more informed decisions.[25] Analytical CRM systems use techniques such as data mining, correlation, and pattern recognition to analyze customer data. These analytics help improve customer service by finding small problems which can be solved, perhaps by marketing to different parts of a consumer audience differently.[21] For example, through the analysis of a customer base's buying behavior, a company might see that this customer base has not been buying a lot of products recently. After scanning through this data, the company might think to market to this subset of consumers differently, to best communicate how this company's products might benefit this group specifically.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tavana-2013-26"}],"sub_title":"Collaborative","text":"The third primary aim of CRM systems is to incorporate external stakeholders such as suppliers, vendors, and distributors, and share customer information across groups/departments and organizations. For example, feedback can be collected from technical support calls, which could help provide direction for marketing products and services to that particular customer in the future.[26]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"customer data platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_data_platform"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZDnet-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZDnet-27"}],"sub_title":"Customer data platform","text":"A customer data platform (CDP) is a computer system used by marketing departments that assembles data about individual people from various sources into one database, with which other software systems can interact.[27] As of February 2017 there were about twenty companies selling such systems and revenue for them was around US$300 million.[27]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CRMTypesComponents2.png"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tavana-2013-26"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reinartz-2004-28"},{"link_name":"demographic data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_data"},{"link_name":"profitability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profitability"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown-2015-29"},{"link_name":"up-sell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up-selling"},{"link_name":"cross-sell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-sell"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Avery-2014a-30"},{"link_name":"Data warehouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_warehouse"},{"link_name":"Opportunity management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_management"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeng-2003-31"},{"link_name":"software as a service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_as_a_service"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crmsoftware-2015-21"},{"link_name":"return on investment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_on_investment"},{"link_name":"eCommerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECommerce"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reinartz-2004-28"}],"text":"Components in the different types of CRM[26]The main components of CRM are building and managing customer relationships through marketing, observing relationships as they mature through distinct phases, managing these relationships at each stage and recognizing that the distribution of the value of a relationship to the firm is not homogeneous. When building and managing customer relationships through marketing, firms might benefit from using a variety of tools to help organizational design, incentive schemes, customer structures, and more to optimize the reach of their marketing campaigns. Through the acknowledgment of the distinct phases of CRM, businesses will be able to benefit from seeing the interaction of multiple relationships as connected transactions. The final factor of CRM highlights the importance of CRM through accounting for the profitability of customer relationships. Through studying the particular spending habits of customers, a firm may be able to dedicate different resources and amounts of attention to different types of consumers.[28]Relational Intelligence, which is the awareness of the variety of relationships a customer can have with a firm and the ability of the firm to reinforce or change those connections, is an important component to the main phases of CRM. Companies may be good at capturing demographic data, such as gender, age, income, and education, and connecting them with purchasing information to categorize customers into profitability tiers, but this is only a firm's industrial view of customer relationships.[29] A lack in relational intelligence is a sign that firms still see customers as resources that can be used for up-sell or cross-sell opportunities, rather than people looking for interesting and personalized interactions.[30]CRM systems include:Data warehouse technology, used to aggregate transaction information, to merge the information with CRM products, and to provide key performance indicators.\nOpportunity management which helps the company to manage unpredictable growth and demand, and implement a good forecasting model to integrate sales history with sales projections.[31]\nCRM systems that track and measure marketing campaigns over multiple networks, tracking customer analysis by customer clicks and sales.\nSome CRM software is available as a software as a service (SaaS), delivered via the internet and accessed via a web browser instead of being installed on a local computer. Businesses using the software do not purchase it, but typically pay a recurring subscription fee to the software vendor.[21]\nFor small businesses a CRM system may consist of a contact management system that integrates emails, documents, jobs, faxes, and scheduling for individual accounts. CRM systems available for specific markets (legal, finance) frequently focus on event management and relationship tracking as opposed to financial return on investment (ROI).\nCRM systems for eCommerce, focused on marketing automation tasks, like cart rescue, re-engage users with email, personalization.\nCustomer-centric relationship management (CCRM) is a nascent sub-discipline that focuses on customer preferences instead of customer leverage. CCRM aims to add value by engaging customers in individual, interactive relationships.[28]\nSystems for non-profit and membership-based organizations help track constituents, fundraising, sponsors' demographics, membership levels, membership directories, volunteering and communication with individuals.\nCRM not only indicates technology and strategy but also indicates an integrated approach which includes employees knowledge, organizational culture to embrace the CRM philosophy.","title":"Components"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Customer satisfaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_satisfaction"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mithas-2005-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mithas-2005-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mithas-2005-34"},{"link_name":"experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_experience"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"Customer satisfaction has important implications for the economic performance of firms because it has the ability to increase customer loyalty and usage behavior and reduce customer complaints and the likelihood of customer defection.[32][33] The implementation of a CRM approach is likely to affect customer satisfaction and customer knowledge for a variety of different reasons.Firstly, firms can customize their offerings for each customer.[34] By accumulating information across customer interactions and processing this information to discover hidden patterns, CRM applications help firms customize their offerings to suit the individual tastes of their customers.[34] This customization enhances the perceived quality of products and services from a customer's viewpoint, and because the perceived quality is a determinant of customer satisfaction, it follows that CRM applications indirectly affect customer satisfaction. CRM applications also enable firms to provide timely, accurate processing of customer orders and requests and the ongoing management of customer accounts.[34] For example, Piccoli and Applegate discuss how Wyndham uses IT tools to deliver a consistent service experience across its various properties to a customer. Both an improved ability to customize and reduced variability of the consumption experience enhance perceived quality, which in turn positively affects customer satisfaction.[35] Furthermore, CRM applications also help firms manage customer relationships more effectively across the stages of relationship initiation, maintenance, and termination.[36]","title":"Effect on customer satisfaction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"self-service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-service"},{"link_name":"customer satisfaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_satisfaction"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"customer equity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_equity"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"target","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/targeting"},{"link_name":"sales force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sales"},{"link_name":"pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricing"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"call centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_centre"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Personalizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personalization"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"segmentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_segmentation"},{"link_name":"categorize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorize"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Multichannel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multichannel_marketing"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"website tracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website_tracking"},{"link_name":"customer behaviour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_behaviour"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Customer benefits","text":"With CRM systems, customers are served on the day-to-day process. With more reliable information, their demand for self-service from companies will decrease. If there is less need to interact with the company for different problems, customer satisfaction level are expected to increase.[37] These central benefits of CRM will be connected hypothetically to the three kinds of equity that are relationship, value, and brand, and in the end to customer equity. Eight benefits were recognized to provide value drivers.[38]Enhanced ability to target profitable customers.\nIntegrated assistance across channels.\nEnhanced sales force efficiency and effectiveness.\nImproved pricing.\nCustomized products and services.\nImproved customer service efficiency and effectiveness.\nIndividualized marketing messages are also called campaigns.\nConnect customers and all channels on a single platform.In 2012, after reviewing the previous studies, someone selected some of those benefits which are more significant in customer satisfaction and summarized them into the following cases:[39]Improve customer services: In general, customers would have some questions, concerns, or requests. CRM services provide the ability to a company for producing, allocating, and managing requests or something made by customers. For example, call centre software, which helps to connect a customer to the manager or person who can best assist them with their existing problem, is one of the CRM abilities that can be implemented to increase efficiency.[40]\nIncreased personalized service or one-to-one service: Personalizing customer service or one-to-one service provides companies to improve understanding and gaining knowledge of the customers and also to have better knowledge about their customers' preferences, requirements and demands.\nResponsive to customer's needs: Customers' situations and needs can be understood by the firms focusing on customer needs and requirements.[41]\nCustomer segmentation: In CRM, segmentation is used to categorize customers, according to some similarity, such as industry, job or some other characteristics, into similar groups.[42] Although these characteristics, can be one or more attributes. It can be defined as a subdividing the customers based on already known good discriminator.\nImprove customization of marketing: Meaning of customization of marketing is that the firm or organization adapt and changes its services or products based on presenting a different and unique product or service for each customer. To ensure that customer needs and requirements are met Customization is used by the organization. Companies can put investment in information from customers and then customize their products or services to maintain customer interests.\nMultichannel integration: Multichannel integration shows the point of co-creation of customer value in CRM. On the other hand, a company's skill to perform multichannel integration successfully is heavily dependent on the organization's ability to get together customer information from all channels and incorporate it with other related information.[43]\nTime saving: CRM will let companies interact with customers more frequently, by personalized message and communication way which can be produced rapidly and matched on a timely basis, and finally they can better understand their customers and therefore look forward to their needs.[44]\nImprove customer knowledge: Firms can make and improve products and services through the information from tracking (e.g. via website tracking) customer behaviour to customer tastes and needs.[45] CRM could contribute to a competitive advantage in improving a firm's ability of customer information collecting to customize products and services according to customer needs.","title":"Effect on customer satisfaction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"customer retention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_retention"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"profits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_(economics)"},{"link_name":"insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_industry"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gillies-2002-46"},{"link_name":"MBNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBNA"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gillies-2002-46"},{"link_name":"Amazon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon.com"},{"link_name":"customer proposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_proposition"},{"link_name":"collaborative filtering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative_filtering"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gillies-2002-46"}],"sub_title":"Examples","text":"Research has found a 5% increase in customer retention boosts lifetime customer[clarification needed] profits by 50% on average across multiple industries, as well as a boost of up to 90% within specific industries such as insurance.[46] Companies that have mastered customer relationship strategies have the most successful CRM programs. For example, MBNA Europe has had a 75% annual profit growth since 1995. The firm heavily invests in screening potential cardholders. Once proper clients are identified, the firm retains 97% of its profitable customers. They implement CRM by marketing the right products to the right customers. The firm's customers' card usage is 52% above the industry norm, and the average expenditure is 30% more per transaction. Also 10% of their account holders ask for more information on cross-sale products.[46]Amazon has also seen successes through its customer proposition. The firm implemented personal greetings, collaborative filtering, and more for the customer. They also used CRM training for the employees to see up to 80% of customers repeat.[46]","title":"Effect on customer satisfaction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Consumer behaviour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_behaviour"},{"link_name":"Biology and consumer behaviour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_and_consumer_behaviour"},{"link_name":"Buying decision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buying_decision"},{"link_name":"consumption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption_(economics)"},{"link_name":"projects them into the future","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrapolation"},{"link_name":"advertising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_data"},{"link_name":"customer analytics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_analytics"},{"link_name":"profiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profiling_(information_science)"}],"text":"Further information: Consumer behaviour, Biology and consumer behaviour, and Buying decisionA customer profile is a detailed description of any particular classification of customer which is created to represent the typical users of a product or service. Customer profiling is a method to understand your customers in terms of demographics, behaviour and lifestyle. It is used to help make customer-focused decisions without confusing the scope of the project with personal opinion. Overall profiling is gathering information that sums up consumption habits so far and projects them into the future so that they can be grouped for marketing and advertising purposes.[47]\nCustomer or consumer profiles are the essences of the data that is collected alongside core data (name, address, company) and processed through customer analytics methods, essentially a type of profiling. \nThe three basic methods of customer profiling are the psychographic approach, the consumer typology approach, and the consumer characteristics approach. These customer profiling methods help you design your business around who your customers are and help you make better customer-centered decisions.","title":"Customer profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Avery-2014a-30"}],"text":"Consultants hold that it is important for companies to establish strong CRM systems to improve their relational intelligence.[48] According to this argument, a company must recognize that people have many different types of relationships with different brands. One research study analyzed relationships between consumers in China, Germany, Spain, and the United States, with over 200 brands in 11 industries including airlines, cars, and media. This information is valuable as it provides demographic, behavioral, and value-based customer segmentation. These types of relationships can be both positive and negative. Some customers view themselves as friends of the brands, while others as enemies, and some are mixed with a love-hate relationship with the brand. Some relationships are distant, intimate, or anything in between.[30]","title":"Improving CRM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"collect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collection"},{"link_name":"surveys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_(human_research)"},{"link_name":"emails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"online chat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_chat"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown-2015-29"},{"link_name":"data mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mining"},{"link_name":"web searches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_search"},{"link_name":"Social media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media"},{"link_name":"blogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Avery-2014-50"}],"sub_title":"Data analysis","text":"Managers must understand the different reasons for the types of relationships, and provide the customer with what they are looking for. Companies can collect this information by using surveys, interviews, and more, with current customers. \nCompanies must also improve the relational intelligence of their CRM systems. Companies store and receive huge amounts of data through emails, online chat sessions, phone calls, and more.[49] Many companies do not properly make use of this great amount of data, however. All of these are signs of what types of relationships the customer wants with the firm, and therefore companies may consider investing more time and effort in building out their relational intelligence.[29] Companies can use data mining technologies and web searches to understand relational signals. Social media such as social networking sites, blogs, and forums can also be used to collect and analyze information. Understanding the customer and capturing this data allows companies to convert customers' signals into information and knowledge that the firm can use to understand a potential customer's desired relations with a brand.[50]","title":"Improving CRM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"teach employees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee_training"},{"link_name":"social psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology"},{"link_name":"social sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science"},{"link_name":"Customer service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_service"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Employee training","text":"Many firms have also implemented training programs to teach employees how to recognize and create strong customer-brand relationships. Other employees have also been trained in social psychology and the social sciences to help bolster customer relationships. Customer service representatives must be trained to value customer relationships and trained to understand existing customer profiles. Even the finance and legal departments should understand how to manage and build relationships with customers.[51]","title":"Improving CRM"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"In practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Contact centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_centre"},{"link_name":"key performance indicators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_performance_indicator"},{"link_name":"average revenue per user","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_revenue_per_user"},{"link_name":"churn rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churn_rate"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sap1-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Gamification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamification"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Call centers","text":"Contact centre CRM providers are popular for small and mid-market businesses. These systems codify the interactions between the company and customers by using analytics and key performance indicators to give the users information on where to focus their marketing and customer service. This allows agents to have access to a caller's history to provide personalized customer communication. The intention is to maximize average revenue per user, decrease churn rate and decrease idle and unproductive contact with the customers.[52][53][54]Growing in popularity is the idea of gamifying, or using game design elements and game principles in a non-game environment such as customer service environments. The gamification of customer service environments includes providing elements found in games like rewards and bonus points to customer service representatives as a method of feedback for a job well done.[55]\nGamification tools can motivate agents by tapping into their desire for rewards, recognition, achievements, and competition.[56]","title":"In practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SearchCRM-2015-24"}],"sub_title":"Contact-center automation","text":"Contact-center automation, CCA, the practice of having an integrated system that coordinates contacts between an organization and the public, is designed to reduce the repetitive and tedious parts of a contact center agent's job. Automation prevents this by having pre-recorded audio messages that help customers solve their problems. For example, an automated contact center may be able to re-route a customer through a series of commands asking him or her to select a certain number to speak with a particular contact center agent who specializes in the field in which the customer has a question.[57] Software tools can also integrate with the agent's desktop tools to handle customer questions and requests. This also saves time on behalf of the employees.[24]","title":"In practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Social CRM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_CRM"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Avery-2014a-30"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tavana-2013-26"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"}],"sub_title":"Social media","text":"Social CRM involves the use of social media and technology to engage and learn from consumers.[58] Because the public, especially young people, are increasingly using social networking sites, companies use[30] these sites to draw attention to their products, services and brands, with the aim of building up customer relationships to increase demand. With the increase in the use of social media platforms, integrating CRM with the help of social media can potentially be a quicker and more cost-friendly process.[59]Some CRM systems integrate social media sites like Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook to track and communicate with customers. These customers also share their own opinions and experiences with a company's products and services, giving these firms more insight. Therefore, these firms can both share their own opinions and also track the opinions of their customers.[26]Enterprise feedback management software platforms combine internal survey data with trends identified through social media to allow businesses to make more accurate decisions on which products to supply.[60]","title":"In practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"location-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Location-based_services"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SearchCRM-2015-24"}],"sub_title":"Location-based services","text":"CRM systems can also include technologies that create geographic marketing campaigns. The systems take in information based on a customer's physical location and sometimes integrates it with popular location-based GPS applications. It can be used for networking or contact management as well to help increase sales based on location.[24]","title":"In practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Henderson-61"},{"link_name":"business-to-business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business-to-business"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"sub_title":"Business-to-business transactions","text":"Despite the general notion that CRM systems were created for customer-centric businesses, they can also be applied to B2B environments to streamline and improve customer management conditions. For the best level of CRM operation in a B2B environment, the software must be personalized and delivered at individual levels.[61]The main differences between business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business CRM systems concern aspects like sizing of contact databases and length of relationships.[62]","title":"In practice"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Market trends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"sub_title":"Social networking","text":"In the Gartner CRM Summit 2010 challenges like \"system tries to capture data from social networking traffic like Twitter, handles Facebook page addresses or other online social networking sites\" were discussed and solutions were provided that would help in bringing more clientele.[63]The era of the \"social customer\" refers to the use of social media by customers.[64]","title":"Market trends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"sub_title":"Mobile","text":"Some CRM systems are equipped with mobile capabilities, making information accessible to remote sales staff.[65][66][67]","title":"Market trends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"SaaS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_as_a_service"},{"link_name":"Salesforce.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesforce.com"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporation"},{"link_name":"RightNow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RightNow"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Taleo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taleo"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"SAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_AG"},{"link_name":"SuccessFactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuccessFactors"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"NetSuite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetSuite"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"sub_title":"Cloud computing and SaaS","text":"Many CRM vendors offer subscription-based web tools (cloud computing) and SaaS. Salesforce.com was the first company to provide enterprise applications through a web browser, and has maintained its leadership position.[68]Traditional providers moved into the cloud-based market via acquisitions of smaller providers: Oracle purchased RightNow in October 2011,[69] and Taleo[70] and Eloqua[71] in 2012; SAP acquired SuccessFactors in December 2011[72] and NetSuite acquired Verenia in 2022.[73]","title":"Market trends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sales effectiveness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sales_Effectiveness"},{"link_name":"productivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Sales and sales force automation","text":"Sales forces also play an important role in CRM, as maximizing sales effectiveness and increasing sales productivity is a driving force behind the adoption of CRM software. Some of the top CRM trends identified in 2021 include focusing on customer service automation such as chatbots, hyper-personalization based on customer data and insights, and the use of unified CRM systems.[74][75] CRM vendors support sales productivity with different products, such as tools that measure the effectiveness of ads that appear in 3D video games.[76]Pharmaceutical companies were some of the first investors in sales force automation (SFA) and some are on their third- or fourth-generation implementations. However, until recently, the deployments did not extend beyond SFA—limiting their scope and interest to Gartner analysts.[77]","title":"Market trends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vendor relationship management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vendor_relationship_management"},{"link_name":"Berkman Center for Internet & Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkman_Center_for_Internet_%26_Society"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"sub_title":"Vendor relationship management","text":"Another related development is vendor relationship management (VRM), which provide tools and services that allow customers to manage their individual relationship with vendors. VRM development has grown out of efforts by ProjectVRM at Harvard's Berkman Center for Internet & Society and Identity Commons' Internet Identity Workshops, as well as by a growing number of startups and established companies. VRM was the subject of a cover story in the May 2010 issue of CRM Magazine.[78]","title":"Market trends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Customer Success","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_Success"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"}],"sub_title":"Customer success","text":"Another trend worth noting is the rise of Customer Success as a discipline within companies. More and more companies establish Customer Success teams as separate from the traditional Sales team and task them with managing existing customer relations. This trend fuels demand for additional capabilities for a more holistic understanding of customer health, which is a limitation for many existing vendors in the space.[79] As a result, a growing number of new entrants enter the market while existing vendors add capabilities in this area to their suites.","title":"Market trends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"predictive analytics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_analytics"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"sub_title":"AI and predictive analytics","text":"In 2017, artificial intelligence and predictive analytics were identified as the newest trends in CRM.[80]","title":"Market trends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anonymization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymization"},{"link_name":"Customer rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_rights"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Avery-2014a-30"},{"link_name":"Gartner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gartner"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collection"},{"link_name":"personally identifiable information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personally_identifiable_information"},{"link_name":"customer privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_privacy"},{"link_name":"laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_law"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SearchCRM-2015-24"}],"text":"See also: Anonymization and Customer rightsCompanies face large challenges when trying to implement CRM systems. Consumer companies frequently manage their customer relationships haphazardly and unprofitably.[81] They may not effectively or adequately use their connections with their customers, due to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of a CRM system's analysis. Clients may be treated like an exchange party, rather than a unique individual, due to, occasionally, a lack of a bridge between the CRM data and the CRM analysis output. Many studies show that customers are frequently frustrated by a company's inability to meet their relationship expectations, and on the other side, companies do not always know how to translate the data they have gained from CRM software into a feasible action plan.[30] In 2003, a Gartner report estimated that more than $2 billion had been spent on software that was not being used. According to CSO Insights, less than 40 percent of 1,275 participating companies had end-user adoption rates above 90 percent.[82] Many corporations only use CRM systems on a partial or fragmented basis.[83] In a 2007 survey from the UK, four-fifths of senior executives reported that their biggest challenge is getting their staff to use the systems they had installed. Forty-three percent of respondents said they use less than half the functionality of their existing systems.[84] However, market research regarding consumers' preferences may increase the adoption of CRM among developing countries' consumers.[85]Collection of customer data such as personally identifiable information must strictly obey customer privacy laws, which often requires extra expenditures on legal support.Part of the paradox with CRM stems from the challenge of determining exactly what CRM is and what it can do for a company.[86] The CRM paradox, also referred to as the \"dark side of CRM\",[87] may entail favoritism and differential treatment of some customers. This can happen because a business prioritizes customers who are more profitable, more relationship-orientated or tend to have increased loyalty to the company. Although focusing on such customers by itself isn't a bad thing, it can leave other customers feeling left out and alienated potentially decreasing profits because of it.[88]CRM technologies can easily become ineffective if there is no proper management, and they are not implemented correctly. The data sets must also be connected, distributed, and organized properly so that the users can access the information that they need quickly and easily. Research studies also show that customers are increasingly becoming dissatisfied with contact center experiences due to lags and wait times. They also request and demand multiple channels of communication with a company, and these channels must transfer information seamlessly. Therefore, it is increasingly important for companies to deliver a cross-channel customer experience that can be both consistent as well as reliable.[24]","title":"Criticism"}] | [{"image_text":"Components in the different types of CRM[26]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/CRMTypesComponents2.png/762px-CRMTypesComponents2.png"}] | [{"title":"Comparison of CRM systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_CRM_systems"},{"title":"Corporate social responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility"},{"title":"Customer value model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_value_model"},{"title":"Farley file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farley_file"},{"title":"History of marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_marketing"},{"title":"Healthcare CRM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_CRM"},{"title":"Intersubjectivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjectivity"},{"title":"Relationship marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_marketing"},{"title":"Socially responsible marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_responsible_marketing"},{"title":"Sustainable market orientation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_market_orientation"},{"title":"Vendor relationship management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vendor_relationship_management"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg"},{"title":"Business portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Business"}] | [{"reference":"Anshari, Muhammad; Almunawar, Mohammad Nabil; Lim, Syamimi Ariff; Al-Mudimigh, Abdullah (1 July 2019). \"Customer relationship management and big data enabled: Personalization & customization of services\". Applied Computing and Informatics. 15 (2): 94–101. doi:10.1016/j.aci.2018.05.004. ISSN 2210-8327. S2CID 67296369.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aci.2018.05.004","url_text":"\"Customer relationship management and big data enabled: Personalization & customization of services\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aci.2018.05.004","url_text":"10.1016/j.aci.2018.05.004"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2210-8327","url_text":"2210-8327"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:67296369","url_text":"67296369"}]},{"reference":"Shaw, Robert (1991). Computer-Aided Marketing & Selling. Butterworth Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-1707-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/computeraidedmar0000shaw","url_text":"Computer-Aided Marketing & Selling"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-1707-9","url_text":"978-0-7506-1707-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Management Tools – Customer Relationship Management – Bain & Company\". www.bain.com. Retrieved 23 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bain.com/publications/articles/management-tools-customer-relationship-management.aspx","url_text":"\"Management Tools – Customer Relationship Management – Bain & Company\""}]},{"reference":"Hargrave, Marshall. \"Customer Relationship Management – CRM goes beyond just software\". Investopedia. 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Retrieved 17 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://techseen.com/2017/02/02/global-company-zoho-story/","url_text":"\"How to build a global company from a small town: The Zoho story\""}]},{"reference":"\"SAP R/3 SD Wiki\". Retrieved 7 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://wiki.scn.sap.com/wiki/display/ERPLO/ERP+SD","url_text":"\"SAP R/3 SD Wiki\""}]},{"reference":"\"It's official: Oracle closes on PeopleSoft acquisition\". Computerworld. 10 January 2005. Retrieved 18 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerworld.com/article/2568706/it-s-official--oracle-closes-on-peoplesoft-acquisition.html","url_text":"\"It's official: Oracle closes on PeopleSoft acquisition\""}]},{"reference":"\"Navision 3.0\". Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_tube | Crookes tube | ["1 Operation","2 History","3 Discovery of X-rays","4 Experiments","4.1 Maltese cross","4.2 Perpendicular emission","4.3 Deflection by electric fields","4.4 Deflection by magnetic fields","4.5 Paddlewheel","4.6 Charge","4.7 Anode rays","4.8 Doppler shift","4.9 Lenard window","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Early type of cathode ray tube
A Crookes tube: light and dark. Electrons (cathode rays) travel in straight lines from the cathode (left), as shown by the shadow cast by the metal Maltese cross on the fluorescence of the righthand glass wall of the tube. The anode is the electrode at the bottom.
A Crookes tube (also Crookes–Hittorf tube) is an early experimental electrical discharge tube, with partial vacuum, invented by English physicist William Crookes and others around 1869-1875, in which cathode rays, streams of electrons, were discovered.
Developed from the earlier Geissler tube, the Crookes tube consists of a partially evacuated glass bulb of various shapes, with two metal electrodes, the cathode and the anode, one at either end. When a high voltage is applied between the electrodes, cathode rays (electrons) are projected in straight lines from the cathode. It was used by Crookes, Johann Hittorf, Julius Plücker, Eugen Goldstein, Heinrich Hertz, Philipp Lenard, Kristian Birkeland and others to discover the properties of cathode rays, culminating in J.J. Thomson's 1897 identification of cathode rays as negatively charged particles, which were later named electrons. Crookes tubes are now used only for demonstrating cathode rays.
Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays using the Crookes tube in 1895. The term Crookes tube is also used for the first generation, cold cathode X-ray tubes, which evolved from the experimental Crookes tubes and were used until about 1920.
Power off.Without magnet, rays travel straight.With magnet, rays are bent up.With magnet reversed, rays are bent down.A Crookes tube demonstrating magnetic deflection. With a magnet held at the neck of the tube (right) the rays are bent upward or downward, perpendicular to the horizontal magnetic field, so the green fluorescent patch appears higher or lower. Residual air in the tube glows pink when it is struck by electrons.
Operation
Diagram showing a Crookes tube circuit.
Crookes tubes are cold cathode tubes, meaning that they do not have a heated filament in them that releases electrons as the later electronic vacuum tubes usually do. Instead, electrons are generated by the ionization of the residual air by a high DC voltage (from a few kilovolts to about 100 kilovolts) applied between the cathode and anode electrodes in the tube, usually by an induction coil (a "Ruhmkorff coil"). The Crookes tubes require a small amount of air in them to function, from about 10−6 to 5×10−8 atmosphere (7×10−4 - 4×10−5 torr or 0.1-0.006 pascal).
When high voltage is applied to the tube, the electric field accelerates the small number of electrically charged ions and free electrons always present in the gas, created by natural processes like photoionization and radioactivity. The electrons collide with other gas molecules, knocking electrons off them and creating more positive ions. The electrons go on to create more ions and electrons in a chain reaction called a Townsend discharge. All the positive ions are attracted to the cathode or negative electrode. When they strike it, they knock large numbers of electrons out of the surface of the metal, which in turn are repelled by the cathode and attracted to the anode or positive electrode. These are the cathode rays.
Enough of the air has been removed from the tube that most of the electrons can travel the length of the tube without striking a gas molecule. The high voltage accelerates these low-mass particles to a high velocity (about 37,000 miles per second, or 59,000 km/s, about 20 percent of the speed of light, for a typical tube voltage of 10 kV). When they get to the anode end of the tube, they have so much momentum that, although they are attracted to the anode, many fly past it and strike the end wall of the tube. When they strike atoms in the glass, they knock their orbital electrons into a higher energy level. When the electrons fall back to their original energy level, they emit light. This process, called cathodoluminescence, causes the glass to glow, usually yellow-green. The electrons themselves are invisible, but the glow reveals where the beam of electrons strikes the glass. Later on, researchers painted the inside back wall of the tube with a phosphor, a fluorescent chemical such as zinc sulfide, in order to make the glow more visible. After striking the wall, the electrons eventually make their way to the anode, flow through the anode wire, the power supply, and back to the cathode.
When the amount of gas in a Crookes tube is a little higher, it produces a pattern of glowing regions of gas called a glow discharge.
The above only describes the motion of the electrons. The full details of the action in a Crookes tube are complicated, because it contains a nonequilibrium plasma of positively charged ions, electrons, and neutral atoms which are constantly interacting. At higher gas pressures, above 10−6 atm (0.1 Pa), this creates a glow discharge; a pattern of different colored glowing regions in the gas, depending on the pressure in the tube (see diagram). The details were not fully understood until the development of plasma physics in the early 20th century.
History
Crookes tubes evolved from the earlier Geissler tubes invented by the German physicist and glassblower Heinrich Geissler in 1857, experimental tubes which are similar to modern neon tube lights. Geissler tubes had only a low vacuum, around 10−3 atm (100 Pa), and the electrons in them could only travel a short distance before hitting a gas molecule. So the current of electrons moved in a slow diffusion process, constantly colliding with gas molecules, never gaining much energy. These tubes did not create beams of cathode rays, only a colorful glow discharge that filled the tube as the electrons struck the gas molecules and excited them, producing light.
Crookes and his glowing tubes gained renown, as shown by this 1902 caricature in Vanity Fair. The caption read "ubi Crookes ibi lux", which in Latin means roughly, "Where there is Crookes, there is light".
By the 1870s, Crookes (among other researchers) was able to evacuate his tubes to a lower pressure, 10−6 to 5x10−8 atm, using an improved Sprengel mercury vacuum pump invented by his coworker Charles A. Gimingham. He found that as he pumped more air out of his tubes, a dark area in the glowing gas formed next to the cathode. As the pressure got lower, the dark area, now called the Faraday dark space or Crookes dark space, spread down the tube, until the inside of the tube was totally dark. However, the glass envelope of the tube began to glow at the anode end.
What was happening was that as more air was pumped out of the tube, there were fewer gas molecules to obstruct the motion of the electrons from the cathode, so they could travel a longer distance, on average, before they struck one. By the time the inside of the tube became dark, they were able to travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode, without a collision. They were accelerated to a high velocity by the electric field between the electrodes, both because they did not lose energy to collisions, and also because Crookes tubes were operated at a higher voltage. By the time they reached the anode end of the tube, they were going so fast that many flew past the anode and hit the glass wall. The electrons themselves were invisible, but when they hit the glass walls of the tube they excited the atoms in the glass, making them give off light or fluoresce, usually yellow-green. Later experimenters painted the back wall of Crookes tubes with fluorescent paint, to make the beams more visible.
This accidental fluorescence allowed researchers to notice that objects in the tube, such as the anode, cast a sharp-edged shadow on the tube wall. Johann Hittorf was first to recognise in 1869 that something must be travelling in straight lines from the cathode to cast the shadow. In 1876, Eugen Goldstein proved that they came from the cathode, and named them cathode rays (Kathodenstrahlen).
At the time, atoms were the smallest particles known and were believed to be indivisible, the electron was unknown, and what carried electric currents was a mystery. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many ingenious types of Crookes tubes were invented and used in historic experiments to determine what cathode rays were (see below). There were two theories: Crookes believed they were 'radiant matter'; that is, electrically charged atoms, while German scientists Hertz and Goldstein believed they were 'aether vibrations'; some new form of electromagnetic waves. The debate was resolved in 1897 when J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first subatomic particle to be discovered, which was later named the electron. It was quickly realized that these particles were also responsible for electric currents in wires, and carried the negative charge in the atom.
The colorful glowing tubes were also popular in public lectures to demonstrate the mysteries of the new science of electricity. Decorative tubes were made with fluorescent minerals, or butterfly figures painted with fluorescent paint, sealed inside. When power was applied, the fluorescent materials lit up with many glowing colors.
In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays emanating from Crookes tubes. The many uses for X-rays were immediately apparent, the first practical application for Crookes tubes. Medical manufacturers began to produce specialized Crookes tubes to generate X-rays, the first X-ray tubes.
Crookes tubes were unreliable and temperamental. Both the energy and the quantity of cathode rays produced depended on the pressure of residual gas in the tube. Over time the gas was absorbed by the walls of the tube, reducing the pressure. This reduced the amount of cathode rays produced and caused the voltage across the tube to increase, creating more energetic cathode rays. In Crookes X-ray tubes this phenomenon was called "hardening" because the higher voltage produced "harder", more penetrating X-rays; a tube with a higher vacuum was called a "hard" tube, while one with lower vacuum was a "soft" tube. Eventually the pressure got so low the tube stopped working entirely. To prevent this, in heavily used tubes such as X-ray tubes various "softener" devices were incorporated that released a small amount of gas, restoring the tube's function.
The electronic vacuum tubes invented later around 1904 superseded the Crookes tube. These operate at a still lower pressure, around 10−9 atm (10−4 Pa), at which there are so few gas molecules that they do not conduct by ionization. Instead, they use a more reliable and controllable source of electrons, a heated filament or hot cathode which releases electrons by thermionic emission. The ionization method of creating cathode rays used in Crookes tubes is today only used in a few specialized gas discharge tubes such as thyratrons.
The technology of manipulating electron beams pioneered in Crookes tubes was applied practically in the design of vacuum tubes, and particularly in the invention of the cathode ray tube by Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is now used in sophisticated processes such as electron beam lithography.
Discovery of X-rays
Crookes X-ray tube from around 1910.
Another Crookes x-ray tube. The device attached to the neck of the tube (right) is an "osmotic softener".
When the voltage applied to a Crookes tube is high enough, around 5,000 volts or greater, it can accelerate the electrons to a high enough velocity to create X-rays when they hit the anode or the glass wall of the tube. The fast electrons emit X-rays when their path is bent sharply as they pass near the high electric charge of an atom's nucleus, a process called bremsstrahlung, or they knock an atom's inner electrons into a higher energy level, and these in turn emit X-rays as they return to their former energy level, a process called X-ray fluorescence. Many early Crookes tubes undoubtedly generated X-rays, because early researchers such as Ivan Pulyui had noticed that they could make foggy marks on nearby unexposed photographic plates.
On November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen was operating a Crookes tube covered with black cardboard when he noticed that a nearby fluorescent screen glowed faintly. He realized that some unknown invisible rays from the tube were able to pass through the cardboard and make the screen fluoresce. He found that they could pass through books and papers on his desk. Röntgen began to investigate the rays full-time, and on December 28, 1895, published the first scientific research paper on X-rays. Röntgen
was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics (in 1901) for his discoveries.
The many applications of X-rays created the first practical use for Crookes tubes, and workshops began manufacturing specialized Crookes tubes to generate X-rays, the first X-ray tubes. The anode was made of a heavy metal, usually platinum, which generated more X-rays, and was tilted at an angle to the cathode, so the X-rays would radiate through the side of the tube. The cathode had a concave spherical surface which focused the electrons into a small spot around 1 mm in diameter on the anode, in order to approximate a point source of X-rays, which gave the sharpest radiographs. These cold cathode type X-ray tubes were used until about 1920, when they were superseded by the hot cathode Coolidge X-ray tube.
Experiments
During the last quarter of the 19th century Crookes tubes were used in dozens of historic experiments to try to find out what cathode rays were. There were two theories: British scientists Crookes and Cromwell Varley believed they were particles of 'radiant matter', that is, electrically charged atoms. German researchers E. Wiedemann, Heinrich Hertz, and Eugen Goldstein believed they were 'aether vibrations', some new form of electromagnetic waves, and were separate from what carried the current through the tube. The debate continued until J.J. Thomson measured their mass, proving they were a previously unknown negatively charged particle, the first subatomic particle, which he called a 'corpuscle' but was later renamed the 'electron'.
Maltese cross
Julius Plücker in 1869 built a tube with an anode shaped like a Maltese Cross facing the cathode. It was hinged, so it could fold down against the floor of the tube. When the tube was turned on, the cathode rays cast a sharp cross-shaped shadow on the fluorescence on the back face of the tube, showing that the rays moved in straight lines. This fluorescence was used as an argument that cathode rays were electromagnetic waves, since the only thing known to cause fluorescence at the time was ultraviolet light. After a while the fluorescence would get 'tired' and the glow would decrease. If the cross was folded down out of the path of the rays, it no longer cast a shadow, and the previously shadowed area would fluoresce more strongly than the area around it.
Perpendicular emission
Crookes tube with concave cathode
Eugen Goldstein in 1876 found that cathode rays were always emitted perpendicular to the cathode's surface. If the cathode was a flat plate, the rays were shot out in straight lines perpendicular to the plane of the plate. This was evidence that they were particles, because a luminous object, like a red hot metal plate, emits light in all directions, while a charged particle will be repelled by the cathode in a perpendicular direction. If the electrode was made in the form of a concave spherical dish, the cathode rays would be focused to a spot in front of the dish. This could be used to heat samples to a high temperature.
Deflection by electric fields
Heinrich Hertz built a tube with a second pair of metal plates to either side of the cathode ray beam, a crude CRT. If the cathode rays were charged particles, their path should be bent by the electric field created when a voltage was applied to the plates, causing the spot of light where the rays hit to move sideways. He did not find any bending, but it was later determined that his tube was insufficiently evacuated, causing accumulations of surface charge which masked the electric field. Later Arthur Schuster repeated the experiment with a higher vacuum. He found that the rays were attracted toward a positively charged plate and repelled by a negative one, bending the beam. This was evidence they were negatively charged, and therefore not electromagnetic waves.
Deflection by magnetic fields
Crookes magnetic deflection tube.
Deflection of electron beam with bar magnet
Crookes put a magnet across the neck of the tube, so that the North pole was on one side of the beam and the South pole was on the other, and the beam travelled through the magnetic field between them. The beam was bent down, perpendicular to the magnetic field. To reveal the path of the beam, Crookes invented a tube (see pictures) with a cardboard screen with a phosphor coating down the length of the tube, at a slight angle so the electrons would strike the phosphor along its length, making a glowing line on the screen. The line could be seen to bend up or down in a transverse magnetic field. This effect (now called the Lorentz force) was similar to the behavior of electric currents in an electric motor and showed that the cathode rays obeyed Faraday's law of induction like currents in wires. Both electric and magnetic deflection were evidence for the particle theory, because static electric and magnetic fields have no effect on a beam of light waves in vacuum.
Paddlewheel
Crookes' paddlewheel tube, from his 1879 paper On Radiant Matter
Crookes put a tiny vaned turbine or paddlewheel in the path of the cathode rays, and found that it rotated when the rays hit it. The paddlewheel turned in a direction away from the cathode side of the tube, suggesting that the force of the cathode rays striking the paddles was causing the rotation. Crookes concluded at the time that this showed that cathode rays had momentum, so the rays were likely matter particles. However, later it was concluded that the paddle wheel turned not due to the momentum of the particles (or electrons) hitting the paddle wheel but due to the radiometric effect. When the rays hit the paddle surface they heated it, and the heat caused the gas next to it to expand, pushing the paddle. This was proven in 1903 by J. J. Thomson who calculated that the momentum of the electrons hitting the paddle wheel would only be sufficient to turn the wheel one revolution per minute. All this experiment really showed was that cathode rays were able to heat surfaces.
Charge
Jean-Baptiste Perrin wanted to determine whether the cathode rays actually carried negative charge, or whether they just accompanied the charge carriers, as the Germans thought. In 1895 he constructed a tube with a 'catcher', a closed aluminum cylinder with a small hole in the end facing the cathode, to collect the cathode rays. The catcher was attached to an electroscope to measure its charge. The electroscope showed a negative charge, proving that cathode rays really carry negative electricity.
Anode rays
Special tube with perforated cathode, producing anode rays (top, pink)
Goldstein found in 1886 that if the cathode is made with small holes in it, streams of a faint luminous glow will be seen issuing from the holes on the back side of the cathode, facing away from the anode. It was found that in an electric field these anode rays bend in the opposite direction from cathode rays, toward a negatively charged plate, indicating that they carry a positive charge. These were the positive ions which were attracted to the cathode, and created the cathode rays. They were named canal rays (Kanalstrahlen) by Goldstein.
Doppler shift
Eugen Goldstein thought he had figured out a method of measuring the speed of cathode rays. If the glow discharge seen in the gas of Crookes tubes was produced by the moving cathode rays, the light radiated from them in the direction they were moving, down the tube, would be shifted in frequency due to the Doppler effect. This could be detected with a spectroscope because the emission line spectrum would be shifted. He built a tube shaped like an "L", with a spectroscope pointed through the glass of the elbow down one of the arms. He measured the spectrum of the glow when the spectroscope was pointed toward the cathode end, then switched the power supply connections so the cathode became the anode and the electrons were moving in the other direction, and again observed the spectrum looking for a shift. He did not find one, which he calculated meant that the rays were traveling very slowly. It was later recognized that the glow in Crookes tubes is emitted from gas atoms hit by the electrons, not the electrons themselves. Since the atoms are thousands of times more massive than the electrons, they move much slower, accounting for the lack of Doppler shift.
Lenard window
Lenard window tube
Philipp Lenard wanted to see if cathode rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air. See diagram. He built a tube with a "window" (W) in the glass envelope made of aluminum foil just thick enough to hold the atmospheric pressure out (later called a "Lenard window") facing the cathode (C) so the cathode rays would hit it. He found that something did come through. Holding a fluorescent screen up to the window caused it to fluoresce, even though no light reached it. A photographic plate held up to it would be darkened, even though it was not exposed to light. The effect had a very short range of about 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in). He measured the ability of cathode rays to penetrate sheets of material, and found they could penetrate much farther than moving atoms could. Since atoms were the smallest particles known at the time, this was first taken as evidence that cathode rays were waves. Later it was realized that electrons were much smaller than atoms, accounting for their greater penetration ability. Lenard was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1905 for his work.
See also
X-ray tube
Vacuum tube
Crookes radiometer
References
^ T. A. Delchar, Physics in Medical Diagnosis, Springer, 1997, p. 135.
^ Crookes, William (December 1878). "On the illumination of lines of molecular pressure, and the trajectory of molecules". Phil. Trans. 170: 135–164. doi:10.1098/rstl.1879.0065. S2CID 122178245.
^ "Crookes Tube". The New International Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. Dodd, Mead & Co. 1902. p. 470. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
^ "Crookes tube". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. Columbia Univ. Press. 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
^ Mosby's Dental Dictionary, 2nd ed., 2008, Elsevier, Inc. cited in "X-ray tube". The Free Dictionary. Farlex, Inc. 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
^ Kaye, George W. K. (1918). X-rays, 3rd Ed. London: Longmans, Green Co. p. 262., Table 27
^ Tousey, Sinclair (1915). Medical Electricity, Rontgen Rays, and Radium. Saunders. p. 624. Archived from the original on 2016-07-12. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
^ Thomson, J. J. (1903) The Discharge of Electricity through Gases, p.139
^ Pais, Abraham (1986). Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World. UK: Oxford Univ. Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-19-851997-3.
^ Thomson, Joseph J. (1903). The Discharge of Electricity through Gases. USA: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 138.
^ a b Thomson, Joseph John (1903). The Discharge of Electricity Through Gases. Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 189–190. ether corpuscular theory.
^ Thomson, J. J. (August 1901). "On bodies smaller than atoms". The Popular Science Monthly. Bonnier Corp.: 323–335. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
^ a b c Kaye, George William Clarkson (1914). X rays: an introduction to the study of Röntgen rays. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 71–74. pressure progressive hardening time progressively lower.
^ a b c Crowther, James Arnold (1922). The Principles of Radiography. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co. pp. 74–76. pressure reduces increases soft hard.
^ a b c d e van der Plaats, G.J. (2012). Medical X-Ray Techniques in Diagnostic Radiology: A textbook for radiographers and Radiological Technicians, 4th Ed. Springer Scientific and Business Media. ISBN 978-9400987852.
^ Dushman, Saul (1922). Production and measurement of high vacuum. New York: General Electric Review. pp. 123, 174. x-ray tube hardening pressure disappears increases.
^ The energy and penetrating ability of the x-rays increases with the voltage on the tube. Tubes with voltages below 5,000 V also create x-rays, but they are "soft" enough that very few penetrate the glass envelope of the tube.
^ Peters, Peter (1995). "W. C. Roentgen and the discovery of X-rays". Textbook of Radiology. Medcyclopedia.com, GE Healthcare. Archived from the original (Chapter 1) on 2008-05-11. Retrieved 2008-05-05.. There are many conflicting accounts of the discovery because Röntgen had his lab notes burned after his death. This is a likely reconstruction by his biographers.
^ Röntgen, Wilhelm (January 23, 1896). "On a New Kind of Rays". Nature. 53 (1369): 274–276. Bibcode:1896Natur..53R.274.. doi:10.1038/053274b0., a translation of his paper read before the Wurtzberg Physical and Medical Society, December 28, 1895.
^ Brona, Grzegorz; et al. "The Cathode Rays". Atom - The Incredible World. Archived from the original on 2009-02-11. Retrieved 2008-09-27.
^ Pais, 1986, pp. 79-81.
^ Thomson, Joseph J. (1903). The Discharge of Electricity through Gasses. USA: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 138.
^ Goldstein E. (1876). Monat der Berl. Akad., p. 284.
^ Goldstein E. (1886) Berliner Sitzungsberichte, 39, p.391
^ Thomson 1903, p.158-159
^ "Concept review Ch.41 Electric Current through Gasses". Learning Physics for IIT JEE. 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crookes tube.
An illustration of a "maltese cross" Crookes tube.
The Cathode Ray Tube site
Crookes and Geissler tubes shown working
Java animation of a Crookes tube
"The Cathode Rays". Library. Oracle Thinkquest Education Foundation. Archived from the original on 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2008-04-28. History of d
Jenkins, John. "Crookes and Geissler tubes". Spark Museum. Retrieved 2008-04-29. | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg"},{"link_name":"cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode"},{"link_name":"Maltese cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltese_cross"},{"link_name":"fluorescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"discharge tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_tube"},{"link_name":"William Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"cathode rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Geissler tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geissler_tube"},{"link_name":"evacuated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum"},{"link_name":"electrodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodes"},{"link_name":"cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode"},{"link_name":"anode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode"},{"link_name":"high voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_voltage"},{"link_name":"cathode rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"Johann Hittorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hittorf"},{"link_name":"Julius Plücker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker"},{"link_name":"Eugen Goldstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Hertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz"},{"link_name":"Philipp Lenard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Lenard"},{"link_name":"Kristian Birkeland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristian_Birkeland"},{"link_name":"J.J. Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.J._Thomson"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm Röntgen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen"},{"link_name":"X-rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray"},{"link_name":"cold cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_cathode"},{"link_name":"X-ray tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_tube"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kat%C3%B3dsugarak_m%C3%A1gneses_mez%C5%91ben(1).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kat%C3%B3dsugarak_m%C3%A1gneses_mez%C5%91ben(2).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kat%C3%B3dsugarak_m%C3%A1gneses_mez%C5%91ben(3).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kat%C3%B3dsugarak_m%C3%A1gneses_mez%C5%91ben(4).jpg"},{"link_name":"magnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"}],"text":"A Crookes tube: light and dark. Electrons (cathode rays) travel in straight lines from the cathode (left), as shown by the shadow cast by the metal Maltese cross on the fluorescence of the righthand glass wall of the tube. The anode is the electrode at the bottom.A Crookes tube (also Crookes–Hittorf tube)[1] is an early experimental electrical discharge tube, with partial vacuum, invented by English physicist William Crookes[2] and others around 1869-1875,[3] in which cathode rays, streams of electrons, were discovered.[4]Developed from the earlier Geissler tube, the Crookes tube consists of a partially evacuated glass bulb of various shapes, with two metal electrodes, the cathode and the anode, one at either end. When a high voltage is applied between the electrodes, cathode rays (electrons) are projected in straight lines from the cathode. It was used by Crookes, Johann Hittorf, Julius Plücker, Eugen Goldstein, Heinrich Hertz, Philipp Lenard, Kristian Birkeland and others to discover the properties of cathode rays, culminating in J.J. Thomson's 1897 identification of cathode rays as negatively charged particles, which were later named electrons. Crookes tubes are now used only for demonstrating cathode rays.Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays using the Crookes tube in 1895. The term Crookes tube is also used for the first generation, cold cathode X-ray tubes,[5] which evolved from the experimental Crookes tubes and were used until about 1920.Power off.Without magnet, rays travel straight.With magnet, rays are bent up.With magnet reversed, rays are bent down.A Crookes tube demonstrating magnetic deflection. With a magnet held at the neck of the tube (right) the rays are bent upward or downward, perpendicular to the horizontal magnetic field, so the green fluorescent patch appears higher or lower. Residual air in the tube glows pink when it is struck by electrons.","title":"Crookes tube"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crookes_tube2_diagram.svg"},{"link_name":"cold cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_cathode"},{"link_name":"filament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_filament"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"vacuum tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"ionization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization"},{"link_name":"DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"kilovolts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilovolts"},{"link_name":"cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode"},{"link_name":"anode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode"},{"link_name":"induction coil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_coil"},{"link_name":"atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atm_(unit)"},{"link_name":"torr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torr_(unit)"},{"link_name":"pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"electric field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field"},{"link_name":"ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"photoionization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoionization"},{"link_name":"radioactivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivity"},{"link_name":"molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule"},{"link_name":"Townsend discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend_discharge"},{"link_name":"cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode"},{"link_name":"anode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode"},{"link_name":"cathode rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray"},{"link_name":"speed of light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum"},{"link_name":"orbital electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbital"},{"link_name":"energy level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_level"},{"link_name":"cathodoluminescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodoluminescence"},{"link_name":"phosphor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphor"},{"link_name":"zinc sulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_sulfide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glow_discharge_regions.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electric_glow_discharge_schematic.png"},{"link_name":"glow discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glow_discharge"},{"link_name":"plasma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)"},{"link_name":"ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"glow discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glow_discharge"},{"link_name":"plasma physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_physics"}],"text":"Diagram showing a Crookes tube circuit.Crookes tubes are cold cathode tubes, meaning that they do not have a heated filament in them that releases electrons as the later electronic vacuum tubes usually do. Instead, electrons are generated by the ionization of the residual air by a high DC voltage (from a few kilovolts to about 100 kilovolts) applied between the cathode and anode electrodes in the tube, usually by an induction coil (a \"Ruhmkorff coil\"). The Crookes tubes require a small amount of air in them to function, from about 10−6 to 5×10−8 atmosphere (7×10−4 - 4×10−5 torr or 0.1-0.006 pascal).When high voltage is applied to the tube, the electric field accelerates the small number of electrically charged ions and free electrons always present in the gas, created by natural processes like photoionization and radioactivity. The electrons collide with other gas molecules, knocking electrons off them and creating more positive ions. The electrons go on to create more ions and electrons in a chain reaction called a Townsend discharge. All the positive ions are attracted to the cathode or negative electrode. When they strike it, they knock large numbers of electrons out of the surface of the metal, which in turn are repelled by the cathode and attracted to the anode or positive electrode. These are the cathode rays.Enough of the air has been removed from the tube that most of the electrons can travel the length of the tube without striking a gas molecule. The high voltage accelerates these low-mass particles to a high velocity (about 37,000 miles per second, or 59,000 km/s, about 20 percent of the speed of light, for a typical tube voltage of 10 kV[6]). When they get to the anode end of the tube, they have so much momentum that, although they are attracted to the anode, many fly past it and strike the end wall of the tube. When they strike atoms in the glass, they knock their orbital electrons into a higher energy level. When the electrons fall back to their original energy level, they emit light. This process, called cathodoluminescence, causes the glass to glow, usually yellow-green. The electrons themselves are invisible, but the glow reveals where the beam of electrons strikes the glass. Later on, researchers painted the inside back wall of the tube with a phosphor, a fluorescent chemical such as zinc sulfide, in order to make the glow more visible. After striking the wall, the electrons eventually make their way to the anode, flow through the anode wire, the power supply, and back to the cathode.When the amount of gas in a Crookes tube is a little higher, it produces a pattern of glowing regions of gas called a glow discharge.The above only describes the motion of the electrons. The full details of the action in a Crookes tube are complicated, because it contains a nonequilibrium plasma of positively charged ions, electrons, and neutral atoms which are constantly interacting. At higher gas pressures, above 10−6 atm (0.1 Pa), this creates a glow discharge; a pattern of different colored glowing regions in the gas, depending on the pressure in the tube (see diagram). The details were not fully understood until the development of plasma physics in the early 20th century.","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Geissler tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geissler_tube"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Geissler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Geissler"},{"link_name":"neon tube lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon_lighting#Neon_tube_lighting_and_signs"},{"link_name":"atm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atm_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Pa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"diffusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion"},{"link_name":"glow discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glow_discharge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"Vanity Fair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"atm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atm_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Sprengel mercury vacuum pump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprengel_pump"},{"link_name":"Faraday dark space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_dark_space"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomson4-8"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"fluoresce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoresce"},{"link_name":"Johann Hittorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hittorf"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Eugen Goldstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein"},{"link_name":"cathode rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_rays"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomson2-10"},{"link_name":"electric currents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomson3-11"},{"link_name":"J. J. Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Thomson"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"subatomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle"},{"link_name":"electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomson1-12"},{"link_name":"electric currents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm Röntgen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen"},{"link_name":"X-rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray"},{"link_name":"X-ray tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_tube"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kaye-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crowther-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanDerPlaats-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dushman-16"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kaye-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crowther-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanDerPlaats-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanDerPlaats-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanDerPlaats-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kaye-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crowther-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanDerPlaats-15"},{"link_name":"vacuum tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"ionization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization"},{"link_name":"hot cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_cathode"},{"link_name":"thermionic emission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_emission"},{"link_name":"gas discharge tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_discharge_tube"},{"link_name":"thyratrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyratron"},{"link_name":"electron beams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beam"},{"link_name":"cathode ray tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand Braun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Braun"},{"link_name":"electron beam lithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beam_lithography"}],"text":"Crookes tubes evolved from the earlier Geissler tubes invented by the German physicist and glassblower Heinrich Geissler in 1857, experimental tubes which are similar to modern neon tube lights. Geissler tubes had only a low vacuum, around 10−3 atm (100 Pa),[7] and the electrons in them could only travel a short distance before hitting a gas molecule. So the current of electrons moved in a slow diffusion process, constantly colliding with gas molecules, never gaining much energy. These tubes did not create beams of cathode rays, only a colorful glow discharge that filled the tube as the electrons struck the gas molecules and excited them, producing light.Crookes and his glowing tubes gained renown, as shown by this 1902 caricature in Vanity Fair. The caption read \"ubi Crookes ibi lux\", which in Latin means roughly, \"Where there is Crookes, there is light\".By the 1870s, Crookes (among other researchers) was able to evacuate his tubes to a lower pressure, 10−6 to 5x10−8 atm, using an improved Sprengel mercury vacuum pump invented by his coworker Charles A. Gimingham. He found that as he pumped more air out of his tubes, a dark area in the glowing gas formed next to the cathode. As the pressure got lower, the dark area, now called the Faraday dark space or Crookes dark space, spread down the tube, until the inside of the tube was totally dark. However, the glass envelope of the tube began to glow at the anode end.[8]What was happening was that as more air was pumped out of the tube, there were fewer gas molecules to obstruct the motion of the electrons from the cathode, so they could travel a longer distance, on average, before they struck one. By the time the inside of the tube became dark, they were able to travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode, without a collision. They were accelerated to a high velocity by the electric field between the electrodes, both because they did not lose energy to collisions, and also because Crookes tubes were operated at a higher voltage. By the time they reached the anode end of the tube, they were going so fast that many flew past the anode and hit the glass wall. The electrons themselves were invisible, but when they hit the glass walls of the tube they excited the atoms in the glass, making them give off light or fluoresce, usually yellow-green. Later experimenters painted the back wall of Crookes tubes with fluorescent paint, to make the beams more visible.This accidental fluorescence allowed researchers to notice that objects in the tube, such as the anode, cast a sharp-edged shadow on the tube wall. Johann Hittorf was first to recognise in 1869 that something must be travelling in straight lines from the cathode to cast the shadow.[9] In 1876, Eugen Goldstein proved that they came from the cathode, and named them cathode rays (Kathodenstrahlen).[10]At the time, atoms were the smallest particles known and were believed to be indivisible, the electron was unknown, and what carried electric currents was a mystery. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many ingenious types of Crookes tubes were invented and used in historic experiments to determine what cathode rays were (see below). There were two theories: Crookes believed they were 'radiant matter'; that is, electrically charged atoms, while German scientists Hertz and Goldstein believed they were 'aether vibrations'; some new form of electromagnetic waves.[11] The debate was resolved in 1897 when J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first subatomic particle to be discovered, which was later named the electron.[12] It was quickly realized that these particles were also responsible for electric currents in wires, and carried the negative charge in the atom.The colorful glowing tubes were also popular in public lectures to demonstrate the mysteries of the new science of electricity. Decorative tubes were made with fluorescent minerals, or butterfly figures painted with fluorescent paint, sealed inside. When power was applied, the fluorescent materials lit up with many glowing colors.In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays emanating from Crookes tubes. The many uses for X-rays were immediately apparent, the first practical application for Crookes tubes. Medical manufacturers began to produce specialized Crookes tubes to generate X-rays, the first X-ray tubes.Crookes tubes were unreliable and temperamental. Both the energy and the quantity of cathode rays produced depended on the pressure of residual gas in the tube.[13][14][15] Over time the gas was absorbed by the walls of the tube, reducing the pressure.[16][13][14][15] This reduced the amount of cathode rays produced and caused the voltage across the tube to increase, creating more energetic cathode rays.[15] In Crookes X-ray tubes this phenomenon was called \"hardening\" because the higher voltage produced \"harder\", more penetrating X-rays; a tube with a higher vacuum was called a \"hard\" tube, while one with lower vacuum was a \"soft\" tube. Eventually the pressure got so low the tube stopped working entirely.[15] To prevent this, in heavily used tubes such as X-ray tubes various \"softener\" devices were incorporated that released a small amount of gas, restoring the tube's function.[13][14][15]The electronic vacuum tubes invented later around 1904 superseded the Crookes tube. These operate at a still lower pressure, around 10−9 atm (10−4 Pa), at which there are so few gas molecules that they do not conduct by ionization. Instead, they use a more reliable and controllable source of electrons, a heated filament or hot cathode which releases electrons by thermionic emission. The ionization method of creating cathode rays used in Crookes tubes is today only used in a few specialized gas discharge tubes such as thyratrons.The technology of manipulating electron beams pioneered in Crookes tubes was applied practically in the design of vacuum tubes, and particularly in the invention of the cathode ray tube by Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is now used in sophisticated processes such as electron beam lithography.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cosser_Crookes_xray_tube.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:X-ray_tube_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"volts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"X-rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rays"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"bremsstrahlung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremsstrahlung"},{"link_name":"energy level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_level"},{"link_name":"X-ray fluorescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence"},{"link_name":"Ivan Pulyui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pulyui"},{"link_name":"photographic plates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_plate"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm Röntgen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize in Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics"},{"link_name":"platinum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum"},{"link_name":"radiographs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiograph"},{"link_name":"hot cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_cathode"}],"text":"Crookes X-ray tube from around 1910.Another Crookes x-ray tube. The device attached to the neck of the tube (right) is an \"osmotic softener\".When the voltage applied to a Crookes tube is high enough, around 5,000 volts or greater,[17] it can accelerate the electrons to a high enough velocity to create X-rays when they hit the anode or the glass wall of the tube. The fast electrons emit X-rays when their path is bent sharply as they pass near the high electric charge of an atom's nucleus, a process called bremsstrahlung, or they knock an atom's inner electrons into a higher energy level, and these in turn emit X-rays as they return to their former energy level, a process called X-ray fluorescence. Many early Crookes tubes undoubtedly generated X-rays, because early researchers such as Ivan Pulyui had noticed that they could make foggy marks on nearby unexposed photographic plates.On November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen was operating a Crookes tube covered with black cardboard when he noticed that a nearby fluorescent screen glowed faintly.[18] He realized that some unknown invisible rays from the tube were able to pass through the cardboard and make the screen fluoresce. He found that they could pass through books and papers on his desk. Röntgen began to investigate the rays full-time, and on December 28, 1895, published the first scientific research paper on X-rays.[19] Röntgen\nwas awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics (in 1901) for his discoveries.The many applications of X-rays created the first practical use for Crookes tubes, and workshops began manufacturing specialized Crookes tubes to generate X-rays, the first X-ray tubes. The anode was made of a heavy metal, usually platinum, which generated more X-rays, and was tilted at an angle to the cathode, so the X-rays would radiate through the side of the tube. The cathode had a concave spherical surface which focused the electrons into a small spot around 1 mm in diameter on the anode, in order to approximate a point source of X-rays, which gave the sharpest radiographs. These cold cathode type X-ray tubes were used until about 1920, when they were superseded by the hot cathode Coolidge X-ray tube.","title":"Discovery of X-rays"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"Cromwell Varley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._F._Varley"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoms"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Hertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz"},{"link_name":"Eugen Goldstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein"},{"link_name":"aether","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminiferous_aether"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomson3-11"},{"link_name":"J.J. Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.J._Thomson"},{"link_name":"subatomic particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle"}],"text":"During the last quarter of the 19th century Crookes tubes were used in dozens of historic experiments to try to find out what cathode rays were.[20] There were two theories: British scientists Crookes and Cromwell Varley believed they were particles of 'radiant matter', that is, electrically charged atoms. German researchers E. Wiedemann, Heinrich Hertz, and Eugen Goldstein believed they were 'aether vibrations', some new form of electromagnetic waves, and were separate from what carried the current through the tube.[21][11] The debate continued until J.J. Thomson measured their mass, proving they were a previously unknown negatively charged particle, the first subatomic particle, which he called a 'corpuscle' but was later renamed the 'electron'.","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julius Plücker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker"},{"link_name":"Maltese Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltese_Cross"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"}],"sub_title":"Maltese cross","text":"Julius Plücker in 1869 built a tube with an anode shaped like a Maltese Cross facing the cathode. It was hinged, so it could fold down against the floor of the tube. When the tube was turned on, the cathode rays cast a sharp cross-shaped shadow on the fluorescence on the back face of the tube, showing that the rays moved in straight lines. This fluorescence was used as an argument that cathode rays were electromagnetic waves, since the only thing known to cause fluorescence at the time was ultraviolet light. After a while the fluorescence would get 'tired' and the glow would decrease. If the cross was folded down out of the path of the rays, it no longer cast a shadow, and the previously shadowed area would fluoresce more strongly than the area around it.","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crookes_tube_for_heating_1879.png"},{"link_name":"Eugen Goldstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomson-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Perpendicular emission","text":"Crookes tube with concave cathodeEugen Goldstein in 1876 found that cathode rays were always emitted perpendicular to the cathode's surface.[22][23] If the cathode was a flat plate, the rays were shot out in straight lines perpendicular to the plane of the plate. This was evidence that they were particles, because a luminous object, like a red hot metal plate, emits light in all directions, while a charged particle will be repelled by the cathode in a perpendicular direction. If the electrode was made in the form of a concave spherical dish, the cathode rays would be focused to a spot in front of the dish. This could be used to heat samples to a high temperature.","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Heinrich Hertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz"},{"link_name":"CRT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube"},{"link_name":"charged particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charged_particle"},{"link_name":"electric field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"surface charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_charge"}],"sub_title":"Deflection by electric fields","text":"Heinrich Hertz built a tube with a second pair of metal plates to either side of the cathode ray beam, a crude CRT. If the cathode rays were charged particles, their path should be bent by the electric field created when a voltage was applied to the plates, causing the spot of light where the rays hit to move sideways. He did not find any bending, but it was later determined that his tube was insufficiently evacuated, causing accumulations of surface charge which masked the electric field. Later Arthur Schuster repeated the experiment with a higher vacuum. He found that the rays were attracted toward a positively charged plate and repelled by a negative one, bending the beam. This was evidence they were negatively charged, and therefore not electromagnetic waves.","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crookes_magnetic_deflection_tube.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ampola_de_Crookes.gif"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"magnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet"},{"link_name":"magnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"phosphor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphor"},{"link_name":"Lorentz force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_force"},{"link_name":"electric motor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor"},{"link_name":"Faraday's law of induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction"}],"sub_title":"Deflection by magnetic fields","text":"Crookes magnetic deflection tube.Deflection of electron beam with bar magnetCrookes put a magnet across the neck of the tube, so that the North pole was on one side of the beam and the South pole was on the other, and the beam travelled through the magnetic field between them. The beam was bent down, perpendicular to the magnetic field. To reveal the path of the beam, Crookes invented a tube (see pictures) with a cardboard screen with a phosphor coating down the length of the tube, at a slight angle so the electrons would strike the phosphor along its length, making a glowing line on the screen. The line could be seen to bend up or down in a transverse magnetic field. This effect (now called the Lorentz force) was similar to the behavior of electric currents in an electric motor and showed that the cathode rays obeyed Faraday's law of induction like currents in wires. Both electric and magnetic deflection were evidence for the particle theory, because static electric and magnetic fields have no effect on a beam of light waves in vacuum.","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crookes_paddlewheel_tube.png"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine"},{"link_name":"paddlewheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddlewheel"},{"link_name":"Crookes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes"},{"link_name":"momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"radiometric effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_radiometer"},{"link_name":"J. J. Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Thomson"}],"sub_title":"Paddlewheel","text":"Crookes' paddlewheel tube, from his 1879 paper On Radiant MatterCrookes put a tiny vaned turbine or paddlewheel in the path of the cathode rays, and found that it rotated when the rays hit it. The paddlewheel turned in a direction away from the cathode side of the tube, suggesting that the force of the cathode rays striking the paddles was causing the rotation. Crookes concluded at the time that this showed that cathode rays had momentum, so the rays were likely matter particles. However, later it was concluded that the paddle wheel turned not due to the momentum of the particles (or electrons) hitting the paddle wheel but due to the radiometric effect. When the rays hit the paddle surface they heated it, and the heat caused the gas next to it to expand, pushing the paddle. This was proven in 1903 by J. J. Thomson who calculated that the momentum of the electrons hitting the paddle wheel would only be sufficient to turn the wheel one revolution per minute. All this experiment really showed was that cathode rays were able to heat surfaces.","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jean-Baptiste Perrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Perrin"},{"link_name":"charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"electroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope"}],"sub_title":"Charge","text":"Jean-Baptiste Perrin wanted to determine whether the cathode rays actually carried negative charge, or whether they just accompanied the charge carriers, as the Germans thought. In 1895 he constructed a tube with a 'catcher', a closed aluminum cylinder with a small hole in the end facing the cathode, to collect the cathode rays. The catcher was attached to an electroscope to measure its charge. The electroscope showed a negative charge, proving that cathode rays really carry negative electricity.","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anode_Ray_Tube.jpg"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"anode rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode_ray"},{"link_name":"ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Anode rays","text":"Special tube with perforated cathode, producing anode rays (top, pink)Goldstein found in 1886 that if the cathode is made with small holes in it, streams of a faint luminous glow will be seen issuing from the holes on the back side of the cathode, facing away from the anode.[24][25] It was found that in an electric field these anode rays bend in the opposite direction from cathode rays, toward a negatively charged plate, indicating that they carry a positive charge. These were the positive ions which were attracted to the cathode, and created the cathode rays. They were named canal rays (Kanalstrahlen) by Goldstein.[26]","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eugen Goldstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein"},{"link_name":"glow discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glow_discharge"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"Doppler effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect"},{"link_name":"spectroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscope"},{"link_name":"emission line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_line"},{"link_name":"spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum"}],"sub_title":"Doppler shift","text":"Eugen Goldstein thought he had figured out a method of measuring the speed of cathode rays. If the glow discharge seen in the gas of Crookes tubes was produced by the moving cathode rays, the light radiated from them in the direction they were moving, down the tube, would be shifted in frequency due to the Doppler effect. This could be detected with a spectroscope because the emission line spectrum would be shifted. He built a tube shaped like an \"L\", with a spectroscope pointed through the glass of the elbow down one of the arms. He measured the spectrum of the glow when the spectroscope was pointed toward the cathode end, then switched the power supply connections so the cathode became the anode and the electrons were moving in the other direction, and again observed the spectrum looking for a shift. He did not find one, which he calculated meant that the rays were traveling very slowly. It was later recognized that the glow in Crookes tubes is emitted from gas atoms hit by the electrons, not the electrons themselves. Since the atoms are thousands of times more massive than the electrons, they move much slower, accounting for the lack of Doppler shift.","title":"Experiments"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lenard_window_tube_labeled.svg"},{"link_name":"Philipp Lenard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Lenard"},{"link_name":"aluminum foil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum_foil"},{"link_name":"photographic plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_plate"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize in Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics"}],"sub_title":"Lenard window","text":"Lenard window tubePhilipp Lenard wanted to see if cathode rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air. See diagram. He built a tube with a \"window\" (W) in the glass envelope made of aluminum foil just thick enough to hold the atmospheric pressure out (later called a \"Lenard window\") facing the cathode (C) so the cathode rays would hit it. He found that something did come through. Holding a fluorescent screen up to the window caused it to fluoresce, even though no light reached it. A photographic plate held up to it would be darkened, even though it was not exposed to light. The effect had a very short range of about 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in). He measured the ability of cathode rays to penetrate sheets of material, and found they could penetrate much farther than moving atoms could. Since atoms were the smallest particles known at the time, this was first taken as evidence that cathode rays were waves. Later it was realized that electrons were much smaller than atoms, accounting for their greater penetration ability. Lenard was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1905 for his work.","title":"Experiments"}] | [{"image_text":"A Crookes tube: light and dark. Electrons (cathode rays) travel in straight lines from the cathode (left), as shown by the shadow cast by the metal Maltese cross on the fluorescence of the righthand glass wall of the tube. The anode is the electrode at the bottom.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg/250px-Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg"},{"image_text":"Diagram showing a Crookes tube circuit.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Crookes_tube2_diagram.svg/220px-Crookes_tube2_diagram.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Crookes and his glowing tubes gained renown, as shown by this 1902 caricature in Vanity Fair. The caption read \"ubi Crookes ibi lux\", which in Latin means roughly, \"Where there is Crookes, there is light\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg/220px-Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg"},{"image_text":"Crookes X-ray tube from around 1910.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Cosser_Crookes_xray_tube.jpg/240px-Cosser_Crookes_xray_tube.jpg"},{"image_text":"Another Crookes x-ray tube. The device attached to the neck of the tube (right) is an \"osmotic softener\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/X-ray_tube_2.jpg/220px-X-ray_tube_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Crookes tube with concave cathode","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Crookes_tube_for_heating_1879.png/90px-Crookes_tube_for_heating_1879.png"},{"image_text":"Crookes magnetic deflection tube.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Crookes_magnetic_deflection_tube.png/220px-Crookes_magnetic_deflection_tube.png"},{"image_text":"Deflection of electron beam with bar magnet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ampola_de_Crookes.gif/220px-Ampola_de_Crookes.gif"},{"image_text":"Crookes' paddlewheel tube, from his 1879 paper On Radiant Matter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Crookes_paddlewheel_tube.png/220px-Crookes_paddlewheel_tube.png"},{"image_text":"Special tube with perforated cathode, producing anode rays (top, pink)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Anode_Ray_Tube.jpg/170px-Anode_Ray_Tube.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lenard window tube","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Lenard_window_tube_labeled.svg/220px-Lenard_window_tube_labeled.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"X-ray tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_tube"},{"title":"Vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"title":"Crookes radiometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_radiometer"}] | [{"reference":"Crookes, William (December 1878). \"On the illumination of lines of molecular pressure, and the trajectory of molecules\". 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Medcyclopedia.com, GE Healthcare. Archived from the original (Chapter 1) on 2008-05-11. Retrieved 2008-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20080511205052/http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/library/radiology/chapter01.aspx","url_text":"\"W. C. Roentgen and the discovery of X-rays\""},{"url":"http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/library/radiology/chapter01.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Röntgen, Wilhelm (January 23, 1896). \"On a New Kind of Rays\". Nature. 53 (1369): 274–276. Bibcode:1896Natur..53R.274.. doi:10.1038/053274b0.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F053274b0","url_text":"\"On a New Kind of Rays\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1896Natur..53R.274.","url_text":"1896Natur..53R.274."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F053274b0","url_text":"10.1038/053274b0"}]},{"reference":"Brona, Grzegorz; et al. \"The Cathode Rays\". Atom - The Incredible World. Archived from the original on 2009-02-11. Retrieved 2008-09-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090211185645/http://library.thinkquest.org/19662/high/eng/cathoderays.html","url_text":"\"The Cathode Rays\""},{"url":"http://library.thinkquest.org/19662/high/eng/cathoderays.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Thomson, Joseph J. (1903). The Discharge of Electricity through Gasses. 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Retrieved 2008-04-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sparkmuseum.com/GLASS.HTM","url_text":"\"Crookes and Geissler tubes\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1879.0065","external_links_name":"10.1098/rstl.1879.0065"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122178245","external_links_name":"122178245"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NF1MAAAAMAAJ&dq=crookes+tube&pg=PA470","external_links_name":"\"Crookes Tube\""},{"Link":"http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0814112.html","external_links_name":"\"Crookes tube\""},{"Link":"http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/X-ray%20tube","external_links_name":"\"X-ray tube\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/xrays01kayegoog","external_links_name":"X-rays, 3rd Ed"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/xrays01kayegoog/page/n290","external_links_name":"262"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160712201625/http://www.electrotherapymuseum.com/Library/TouseyMedicalElectricity/Vacuums/index.htm","external_links_name":"Medical Electricity, Rontgen Rays, and Radium"},{"Link":"http://www.electrotherapymuseum.com/Library/TouseyMedicalElectricity/Vacuums/index.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mREnwpAqz-YC&pg=PA81","external_links_name":"Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Ryw4AAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"The Discharge of Electricity through Gases"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Ryw4AAAAMAAJ/page/n147","external_links_name":"138"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Ryw4AAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"The Discharge of Electricity Through Gases"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Ryw4AAAAMAAJ/page/n198","external_links_name":"189"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3CMDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA323","external_links_name":"\"On bodies smaller than atoms\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/xraysanintroduc00kayegoog","external_links_name":"X rays: an introduction to the study of Röntgen rays"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/xraysanintroduc00kayegoog/page/n98","external_links_name":"71"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/principlesradio00unkngoog","external_links_name":"The Principles of Radiography"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/principlesradio00unkngoog/page/n88","external_links_name":"74"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dpfqCAAAQBAJ&dq=%22as+the+tube+aged%22+pressure+hard+soft+reduced+increased+diminished&pg=PA4","external_links_name":"Medical X-Ray Techniques in Diagnostic Radiology: A textbook for radiographers and Radiological Technicians, 4th Ed"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/productionmeasur00dushuoft","external_links_name":"Production and measurement of high vacuum"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/productionmeasur00dushuoft/page/123","external_links_name":"123"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20080511205052/http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/library/radiology/chapter01.aspx","external_links_name":"\"W. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies | Cross-cultural studies | ["1 History","2 Modern era","3 See also","4 References","5 Bibliography","6 External links","6.1 Journals","6.2 Associations"] | Specialization in anthropology and sister sciences
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Cross-cultural studies, sometimes called holocultural studies or comparative studies, is a specialization in anthropology and sister sciences such as sociology, psychology, economics, political science that uses field data from many societies through comparative research to examine the scope of human behavior and test hypotheses about human behavior and culture.
Cross-cultural studies is the third form of cross-cultural comparisons. The first is comparison of case studies, the second is controlled comparison among variants of a common derivation, and the third is comparison within a sample of cases. Unlike comparative studies, which examines similar characteristics of a few societies, cross-cultural studies uses a sufficiently large sample so that statistical analysis can be made to show relationships or lack of relationships between the traits in question. These studies are surveys of ethnographic data, or involve qualitative data collection.
Cross-cultural studies are applied widely in the social sciences, particularly in cultural anthropology and psychology.
History
The first cross-cultural studies were carried out by 19th-century anthropologists such as Edward Burnett Tylor and Lewis H. Morgan. One of Edward Tylor's first studies gave rise to the central statistical issue of cross-cultural studies: phylogenetic autocorrelation also known as Galton's problem. In the recent decades historians and particularly historians of science started looking at the mechanism and networks by which knowledge, ideas, skills, instruments and books moved across cultures, generating new and fresh concepts concerning the order of things in nature. In Cross-Cultural Scientific Exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean 1560–1660 Avner Ben-Zaken has argued that cross-cultural exchanges take place at a cultural hazy locus where the margins of one culture overlaps the other, creating a "mutually embraced zone" where exchanges take place on mundane ways. From such a stimulating zone, ideas, styles, instruments and practices move onward to the cultural centers, urging them to renew and update cultural notions.
Modern era
The modern era of cross-cultural studies began with George Murdock (1949), who set up a number of foundational data sets, including the Human Relations Area Files, and the Ethnographic Atlas. Together with Douglas R. White, he developed the widely-used Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, which is currently maintained by the open access electronic journal World Cultures.
Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede in the 1970s. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis. The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task-orientation versus person-orientation). It has been refined several times since then.
With the widespread access of people to the Internet and the high influence of online social networks on daily life, users behavior in these websites have become a new resource to perform cross-cultural and comparative studies. A study on Twitter examined the usage of emoticons from users of 78 countries and found a positive correlation between individualism-collectivism dimension of Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory and people's use of mouth-oriented emoticons. Another user experience study on the usage of smileys from users of 12 countries showed that emoji-based scales may ease the challenges related to translation and implementation for brief cross-cultural surveys.
See also
Comparative cultural studies
Cross-cultural
Cross-cultural capital
Cross-cultural communication
Cross-cultural psychiatry
Cross-cultural psychology
Cultural bias
Cultural relativism
Ethnocentrism
Human Relations Area Files
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's values orientation theory
Standard cross-cultural sample
Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory
References
^ van de Vijver, Fons J. R. (2009-03-01). "Types of Comparative Studies in Cross-Cultural Psychology". Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. 2 (2). doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1017. ISSN 2307-0919.
^ Brislin, Richard W. (January 1976). "Comparative Research Methodology: Cross-Cultural Studies". International Journal of Psychology. 11 (3): 215–229. doi:10.1080/00207597608247359. ISSN 0020-7594.
^ Sha, Mandy (2020-04-30). Sha, Mandy (ed.). Cross-Cultural Comparison of Focus Groups as a Research Method (Chapter 8) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research. RTI Press. pp. 151–179. doi:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004. ISBN 978-1-934831-24-3.
^ "Galton Difference Problem", Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004-07-15, doi:10.1002/0471667196.ess0843, ISBN 0471667196
^ Avner Ben-Zaken, "From "Incommensurability of Cultures" to Mutually Embraced Zones" in Cross-Cultural Scientific Exchanges In the Eastern Mediterranean 1560–1660 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010)], pp. 163–167. ISBN 9780801894763
^ Whiting (1986:305)
^ Adeoye, Blessing; Tomei, Lawrence (2014). Effects of information capitalism and globalisation on teaching and learning. Pennsylvania: Information Science Reference. ISBN 9781466661639. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
^ Hofstede, Geert (2011-12-01). "Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context". Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. 2 (1). doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1014. ISSN 2307-0919.
^ Park, Jaram; Baek, Young Min; Cha, Meeyoung (2014-03-19). "Cross-Cultural Comparison of Nonverbal Cues in Emoticons on Twitter: Evidence from Big Data Analysis". Journal of Communication. 64 (2): 333–354. doi:10.1111/jcom.12086. ISSN 0021-9916.
^ Sedley, Aaron; Yang, Yongwei (2020-04-30). Sha, Mandy (ed.). Scaling the Smileys: A Multicountry Investigation in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research. RTI Press. doi:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004. ISBN 978-1-934831-24-3.
Bibliography
Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember. 1998. Cross-Cultural Research. Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology / Ed. by H. R. Bernard, pp. 647–90. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember. 2001. Cross-Cultural Research Methods. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press.
Korotayev, Andrey, World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 0-7734-6310-0
Franco, F.M., and D. Narasimhan. 2009. Plant names and uses as indicators of traditional knowledge. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge.
Franco, F.M., D. Narasimhan and W. Stanley. 2008. Relationship between four tribal communities and their natural resources in the Koraput region. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, Vol. 6.
Levinson, David, and Martin J. Malone. 1980. Toward Explaining Human Culture: A Critical Review of the Findings of Worldwide Cross-Cultural Research. New Haven, CT: HRAF Press.
Macfarlane, Alan. 2004. To Contrast and Compare, pp. 94–111, in Methodology and Fieldwork, edited by Vinay Kumar Srivastava. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
de Munck V. Cultural Units in Cross-Cultural Research Archived 2013-07-22 at the Wayback Machine // Ethnology 39/4 (2000): 335–348.
Murdock, George P. 1949. Social Structure. New York: Macmillan.
Murdock, George P. 1967. Ethnographic Atlas: A Summary. Pittsburgh: The University of Pittsburgh Prsrtjh sdxthgn fdty a45tesjtukcn bess.
Murdock, George P. 1970. Kin Term Patterns and their Distribution. Ethnology 9: 165–207.
Murdock, George P. 1981. Atlas of World Cultures. Pittsburgh: The University of Pittsburgh Press.
Murdock, George P., and Douglas R. White. 1969. Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. Ethnology 8:329–369.
Whiting, John W.M. 1986. George Peter Murdock, (1897–1985). American Anthropologist. 88(3): 682–686.
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Body Ritual among the Nacirema
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Cultural appropriation
Cultural area
Cultural artifact
Cultural baggage
Cultural behavior
Cultural bias
Cultural capital
Cross-cultural
Cultural communication
Cultural conflict
Cultural cringe
Cultural dissonance
Cultural emphasis
Cultural framework
Cultural heritage
Destroyed
Cultural icon
Cultural identity
Cultural industry
Cultural invention
Cultural landscape
Cultural learning
Cultural leveling
Cultural memory
Cultural pluralism
Cultural practice
Cultural property
Cultural reproduction
Cultural system
Cultural technology
Cultural universal
Cultureme
Enculturation
High- and low-context cultures
Interculturality
Manuscript culture
Material culture
Non-material culture
Organizational culture
Print culture
Protoculture
Relational mobility
Safety culture
Technoculture
Trans-cultural diffusion
Transculturation
Visual culture
Politics
Colonial mentality
Consumer capitalism
Cross cultural sensitivity
Cultural assimilation
Cultural attaché
Cultural backwardness
Cultural Bolshevism
Cultural conservatism
Cultural contracts
Cultural deprivation
Cultural diplomacy
Cultural environmentalism
Cultural exception
Cultural feminism
Cultural genocide
Cultural globalization
Cultural hegemony
Cultural imperialism
Cultural intelligence
Cultural liberalism
Cultural nationalism
Cultural pessimism
Cultural policy
Cultural racism
Cultural radicalism
Cultural retention
Cultural Revolution
Cultural rights
Cultural safety
Cultural silence
Cultural subsidy
Cultural Zionism
Culture change
Culture minister
Culture of fear
Culture war
Deculturalization
Dominator culture
Interculturalism
Monoculturalism
Multiculturalism
Biculturalism
Multiracial democracy
Pluriculturalism
Polyculturalism
Transculturism
Religions
Buddhism
Christianity
Catholicism
Cultural Christians
Protestantism
Role of Christianity in civilization
Eastern Orthodoxy
Mormonism
Cultural Hindus
Islam
Cultural Muslims
Judaism
Sikhism
Related
Animal culture
Archaeological culture
Bennett scale
Cannabis culture
Circuit of culture
Civilization
Coffee culture
Cross-cultural
Cultural center
Cultural competence
Cultural critic
Cultural determinism
Cultural diversity
Cultural evolutionism
Cultural homogenization
Cultural institution
Cultural jet lag
Cultural lag
Cultural literacy
Cultural mosaic
Cultural movement
Cultural mulatto
Cultural probe
Cultural relativism
Culture speculation
Cultural tourism
Pop-culture
Cultural translation
Cultural turn
Cultural sensibility
Culture and menstruation
Culture and positive psychology
Culture and social cognition
Culture gap
Culture hero
Culture industry
Culture shock
Culturgen
Children's culture
Culturalism
Cyberculture
Death and culture
Disability culture
Deaf culture
Drinking culture
Drug culture
Eastern culture
Emotions and culture
Intercultural communication
Intercultural competence
Languaculture
Living things in culture
Media culture
Oppositional culture
Participatory culture
Permission culture
Rape culture
Remix culture
Tea culture
Transformation of culture
Urban culture
Welfare culture
Western culture
Youth culture
Category
Commons
WikiProject
Changes
Authority control databases International
FAST
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
2 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"},{"link_name":"sociology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"political science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science"},{"link_name":"societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society"},{"link_name":"comparative research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_research"},{"link_name":"human behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"ethnographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"social sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science"},{"link_name":"cultural anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_anthropology"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"}],"text":"Cross-cultural studies, sometimes called holocultural studies or comparative studies, is a specialization in anthropology and sister sciences such as sociology, psychology, economics, political science that uses field data from many societies through comparative research to examine the scope of human behavior and test hypotheses about human behavior and culture.Cross-cultural studies is the third form of cross-cultural comparisons. The first is comparison of case studies, the second is controlled comparison among variants of a common derivation, and the third is comparison within a sample of cases.[1] Unlike comparative studies, which examines similar characteristics of a few societies, cross-cultural studies uses a sufficiently large sample so that statistical analysis can be made to show relationships or lack of relationships between the traits in question.[2] These studies are surveys of ethnographic data, or involve qualitative data collection.[3]Cross-cultural studies are applied widely in the social sciences, particularly in cultural anthropology and psychology.","title":"Cross-cultural studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edward Burnett Tylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor"},{"link_name":"Lewis H. Morgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan"},{"link_name":"phylogenetic autocorrelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_autocorrelation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The first cross-cultural studies were carried out by 19th-century anthropologists such as Edward Burnett Tylor and Lewis H. Morgan. One of Edward Tylor's first studies gave rise to the central statistical issue of cross-cultural studies: phylogenetic autocorrelation also known as Galton's problem.[4] In the recent decades[when?] historians and particularly historians of science started looking at the mechanism and networks by which knowledge, ideas, skills, instruments and books moved across cultures, generating new and fresh concepts concerning the order of things in nature. In Cross-Cultural Scientific Exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean 1560–1660 Avner Ben-Zaken has argued that cross-cultural exchanges take place at a cultural hazy locus where the margins of one culture overlaps the other, creating a \"mutually embraced zone\" where exchanges take place on mundane ways. From such a stimulating zone, ideas, styles, instruments and practices move onward to the cultural centers, urging them to renew and update cultural notions.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Murdock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Murdock"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Human Relations Area Files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Relations_Area_Files"},{"link_name":"Douglas R. White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_R._White"},{"link_name":"Standard Cross-Cultural Sample","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Cross-Cultural_Sample"},{"link_name":"open access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access_(publishing)"},{"link_name":"Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory"},{"link_name":"cross-cultural communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication"},{"link_name":"Geert Hofstede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede"},{"link_name":"culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture"},{"link_name":"values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)"},{"link_name":"factor analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_analysis"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"individualism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism"},{"link_name":"collectivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism"},{"link_name":"uncertainty avoidance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_avoidance"},{"link_name":"power distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"online social networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service"},{"link_name":"emoticons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoticon"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"user experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_experience"},{"link_name":"smileys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiley"},{"link_name":"emoji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The modern era of cross-cultural studies began with George Murdock (1949),[6] who set up a number of foundational data sets, including the Human Relations Area Files, and the Ethnographic Atlas. Together with Douglas R. White, he developed the widely-used Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, which is currently maintained by the open access electronic journal World Cultures.Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede in the 1970s. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.[7] The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task-orientation versus person-orientation). It has been refined several times since then.[8]With the widespread access of people to the Internet and the high influence of online social networks on daily life, users behavior in these websites have become a new resource to perform cross-cultural and comparative studies. A study on Twitter examined the usage of emoticons from users of 78 countries and found a positive correlation between individualism-collectivism dimension of Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory and people's use of mouth-oriented emoticons.[9] Another user experience study on the usage of smileys from users of 12 countries showed that emoji-based scales may ease the challenges related to translation and implementation for brief cross-cultural surveys.[10]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Melvin Ember","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Ember"},{"link_name":"Melvin Ember","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Ember"},{"link_name":"Korotayev, Andrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrey_Korotayev"},{"link_name":"World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.academia.edu/37305025/World_Religions_and_Social_Evolution_of_the_Old_World_Oikumene_Civilizations_A_Cross-Cultural_Perspective_full_version_"},{"link_name":"Edwin Mellen Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Mellen_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7734-6310-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7734-6310-0"},{"link_name":"traditional knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/6289"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130615112402/http://lib-ojs3.lib.sfu.ca:8114/index.php/era/article/view/199"},{"link_name":"HRAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Relations_Area_Files"},{"link_name":"Macfarlane, Alan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Macfarlane"},{"link_name":"To Contrast and Compare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/socdyn/wp/20060815/"},{"link_name":"Cultural Units in Cross-Cultural Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.scribd.com/doc/19980040/MunckKorotayev2000Ethnology"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130722102142/http://www.scribd.com/doc/19980040/MunckKorotayev2000Ethnology"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Murdock, George P.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Murdock"},{"link_name":"Douglas R. White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_R._White"},{"link_name":"Standard Cross-Cultural Sample.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/socdyn/wp/Standard_Cross-Cultural_Sample/"},{"link_name":"George Peter Murdock, (1897–1985)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20130105055338/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122424831/abstract"}],"text":"Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember. 1998. Cross-Cultural Research. Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology / Ed. by H. R. Bernard, pp. 647–90. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.\nEmber, Carol R., and Melvin Ember. 2001. Cross-Cultural Research Methods. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press.\nKorotayev, Andrey, World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 0-7734-6310-0\nFranco, F.M., and D. Narasimhan. 2009. Plant names and uses as indicators of traditional knowledge. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. [1]\nFranco, F.M., D. Narasimhan and W. Stanley. 2008. Relationship between four tribal communities and their natural resources in the Koraput region. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, Vol. 6. [2]\nLevinson, David, and Martin J. Malone. 1980. Toward Explaining Human Culture: A Critical Review of the Findings of Worldwide Cross-Cultural Research. New Haven, CT: HRAF Press.\nMacfarlane, Alan. 2004. To Contrast and Compare, pp. 94–111, in Methodology and Fieldwork, edited by Vinay Kumar Srivastava. Delhi: Oxford University Press.\nde Munck V. Cultural Units in Cross-Cultural Research Archived 2013-07-22 at the Wayback Machine // Ethnology 39/4 (2000): 335–348.\nMurdock, George P. 1949. Social Structure. New York: Macmillan.\nMurdock, George P. 1967. Ethnographic Atlas: A Summary. Pittsburgh: The University of Pittsburgh Prsrtjh sdxthgn fdty a45tesjtukcn bess.\nMurdock, George P. 1970. Kin Term Patterns and their Distribution. Ethnology 9: 165–207.\nMurdock, George P. 1981. Atlas of World Cultures. Pittsburgh: The University of Pittsburgh Press.\nMurdock, George P., and Douglas R. White. 1969. Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. Ethnology 8:329–369.\nWhiting, John W.M. 1986. George Peter Murdock, (1897–1985). American Anthropologist. 88(3): 682–686.","title":"Bibliography"}] | [] | [{"title":"Comparative cultural studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_cultural_studies"},{"title":"Cross-cultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural"},{"title":"Cross-cultural capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_capital"},{"title":"Cross-cultural communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication"},{"title":"Cross-cultural psychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychiatry"},{"title":"Cross-cultural psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology"},{"title":"Cultural bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_bias"},{"title":"Cultural relativism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_relativism"},{"title":"Ethnocentrism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism"},{"title":"Human Relations Area Files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Relations_Area_Files"},{"title":"Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's values orientation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kluckhohn_and_Strodtbeck%27s_values_orientation_theory"},{"title":"Standard cross-cultural sample","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample"},{"title":"Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory"}] | [{"reference":"van de Vijver, Fons J. R. (2009-03-01). \"Types of Comparative Studies in Cross-Cultural Psychology\". Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. 2 (2). doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1017. ISSN 2307-0919.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.9707%2F2307-0919.1017","url_text":"\"Types of Comparative Studies in Cross-Cultural Psychology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.9707%2F2307-0919.1017","url_text":"10.9707/2307-0919.1017"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2307-0919","url_text":"2307-0919"}]},{"reference":"Brislin, Richard W. (January 1976). \"Comparative Research Methodology: Cross-Cultural Studies\". International Journal of Psychology. 11 (3): 215–229. doi:10.1080/00207597608247359. ISSN 0020-7594.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207597608247359","url_text":"\"Comparative Research Methodology: Cross-Cultural Studies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207597608247359","url_text":"10.1080/00207597608247359"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7594","url_text":"0020-7594"}]},{"reference":"Sha, Mandy (2020-04-30). Sha, Mandy (ed.). Cross-Cultural Comparison of Focus Groups as a Research Method (Chapter 8) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research. RTI Press. pp. 151–179. doi:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004. ISBN 978-1-934831-24-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research","url_text":"Cross-Cultural Comparison of Focus Groups as a Research Method (Chapter 8) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3768%2Frtipress.bk.0023.2004","url_text":"10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934831-24-3","url_text":"978-1-934831-24-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Galton Difference Problem\", Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004-07-15, doi:10.1002/0471667196.ess0843, ISBN 0471667196","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F0471667196.ess0843","url_text":"10.1002/0471667196.ess0843"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471667196","url_text":"0471667196"}]},{"reference":"Adeoye, Blessing; Tomei, Lawrence (2014). Effects of information capitalism and globalisation on teaching and learning. Pennsylvania: Information Science Reference. ISBN 9781466661639. Retrieved 2015-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ap5_BAAAQBAJ&q=Geert+Hofstede.+It+describes+the+effects+of+a+society%27s+culture+on+the+values+of+its+members,+and+how+these+values+relate+to+behavior,+using+a+structure+derived+from+factor+analysis.&pg=PA6","url_text":"Effects of information capitalism and globalisation on teaching and learning"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781466661639","url_text":"9781466661639"}]},{"reference":"Hofstede, Geert (2011-12-01). \"Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context\". Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. 2 (1). doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1014. ISSN 2307-0919.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.9707%2F2307-0919.1014","url_text":"\"Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.9707%2F2307-0919.1014","url_text":"10.9707/2307-0919.1014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2307-0919","url_text":"2307-0919"}]},{"reference":"Park, Jaram; Baek, Young Min; Cha, Meeyoung (2014-03-19). \"Cross-Cultural Comparison of Nonverbal Cues in Emoticons on Twitter: Evidence from Big Data Analysis\". Journal of Communication. 64 (2): 333–354. doi:10.1111/jcom.12086. ISSN 0021-9916.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cha_Meeyoung","url_text":"Cha, Meeyoung"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjcom.12086","url_text":"10.1111/jcom.12086"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9916","url_text":"0021-9916"}]},{"reference":"Sedley, Aaron; Yang, Yongwei (2020-04-30). Sha, Mandy (ed.). Scaling the Smileys: A Multicountry Investigation in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research. RTI Press. doi:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004. ISBN 978-1-934831-24-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research","url_text":"Scaling the Smileys: A Multicountry Investigation in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3768%2Frtipress.bk.0023.2004","url_text":"10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934831-24-3","url_text":"978-1-934831-24-3"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.9707%2F2307-0919.1017","external_links_name":"\"Types of Comparative Studies in Cross-Cultural 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-layer_optimization | Cross-layer optimization | ["1 Principles","2 Applications","3 Adjusting quality of service","4 Tailoring to resource efficiency of cross-layer","5 Adapting MAC scheduling based on PHY parameters","6 Issues","7 See also","8 References"] | This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Cross-layer optimization is an escape from the pure waterfall-like concept of the OSI communications model with virtually strict boundaries between layers. The cross layer approach transports feedback dynamically via the layer boundaries to enable the compensation for overload, latency or other mismatch of requirements and resources by any control input to another layer, but that layer directly affected by the detected deficiency.
Strict boundaries between layers are enforced in the original OSI networking model, where data is kept strictly within a given layer. Cross‑layer optimization removes such strict boundaries to allow communication between layers by permitting one layer to access the data of another layer to exchange information and enable interaction. For example, having knowledge of the current physical state will help a channel allocation scheme or automatic repeat request (ARQ) strategy at the MAC layer in optimizing tradeoffs and achieving throughput maximization.
Especially in information routing with concurrent demand for limited capacity of channels there may be a need for a concept of intervention to balance between e.g. the needs of intelligible speech transmission and of sufficiently dynamic control commands. Any fixed allocation of resources will lead to a mismatch under special conditions of operations. Any highly dynamic change of resource allocation might affect the intelligibility of voice or the steadiness of videos. However, as with other optimizing strategies, the algorithm consumes time as well.
Principles
There are principles that a cross-layer design must adhere to:
Interactions and the Law of Unintended Consequences
Dependency Graph
Timescale Separation and Stability
The Chaos of Unbridled Cross-Layer Design
Unlike a traditional architectural design approach, where designers can focus on a single problem without worrying about the rest of the protocol stack, one must be careful to prevent unintended effects on other parts of the system. Dependency graphs are helpful for adaptation loops that occur using cross-layer design.
Applications
Cross-layer optimization can be used for
adaptation
scheduling
resource allocation
power control
congestion control
multihop routing
Its advantages include high adaptivity in a Wireless sensor network and a larger optimization space.
Adjusting quality of service
Cross-layer optimization shall contribute to an improvement of quality of services under various operational conditions. Such adaptive quality of service management is currently subject of various patent applications, as e.g.
The cross-layer control mechanism provides a feedback on concurrent quality information for the adaptive setting of control parameters. The control scheme apply
the observed quality parameters
a fuzzy logic based reasoning about applying the appropriate control strategy
the statistically computed control input to parameter settings and mode switches
Tailoring to resource efficiency of cross-layer
The quality aspect is not the only approach to tailor the cross-layer optimization strategy. The control adjusted to availability of limited resources is the first mandatory step to achieve at least a minimum level of quality. Respective studies have been performed and will continue.
Adapting MAC scheduling based on PHY parameters
Communication systems that need to operate over media with non stationary background noise and interference may benefit from having a close coordination between the MAC layer (which is responsible for scheduling transmissions) and the PHY layer (which manages actual transmission and reception of data over the media).
In some communications channels (for example, in power lines), noise and interference may be non-stationary and might vary synchronously with the 50 or 60 Hz AC current cycle. In scenarios like this, the overall system performance can be improved if the MAC can get information from the PHY regarding when and how the noise and interference level is changing, so that the MAC can schedule transmission during the periods of time in which noise and interference levels are lower.
An example of a communications system that allows this kind of Cross-layer optimization is the ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables).
Issues
Some issues may arise with cross-layer design and optimization by creating unwanted effects as explained in. Cross-layer design solutions that allow optimized operation for mobile devices in the modern heterogeneous wireless environment are described in, where in addition the major open technical challenges in the cross-layer design research area are pointed out.
See also
Cognitive networks
OSI model
References
^ http://www.ece.purdue.edu/~shroff/Shroff/journal/LSS06.pdf
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-04. Retrieved 2008-06-25.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "IETE Technical Review : Paid Content". Archived from the original on 15 April 2013.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2008-06-25.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ a b Cognitive Radio Communications and Networks : Principles and Practice. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. 2010. pp. 201–234. ISBN 9780080879321.
^ Karmokar, Ashok (21 November 2012). "Energy-Efficient Green Radio Communications for Delay Tolerant Applications". Handbook of Green Information and Communication Systems: 183–208. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-415844-3.00007-3. ISBN 9780124158443.
^ Wymeersch, Henk (2016). "Multiple access control in wireless networks". Academic Press Library in Mobile and Wireless Communications: Transmission Techniques for Digital Communications.
^ "Cross-layer integrated collision free path routing - US Patent 7339897". Archived from the original on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2008-06-25.
^ http://www.nyman-workshop.org/2003/papers/Cross-Layer%20Optimization%20for%20Sensor%20Networks.pdf Archived 2008-08-28 at the Wayback Machine
^ S. Shabdanov, P. Mitran, C. Rosenberg,
"Cross-Layer Optimization Using Advanced Physical Layer Techniques in Wireless Mesh Networks", in IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications
^ a b Guowang Miao; Guocong Song (2014). Energy and spectrum efficient wireless network design. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107039889.
^ V. Kawadia, P.R. Kumar, "A cautionary perspective on cross-layer design", in: IEEE Wireless Communications, Volume 12, Issue 1, Feb. 2005.
^ P. Papadimitratos, A. Mishra, and D. Rosenburgh, "A Cross-Layer Design Approach to Enhance 802.15.4", in: IEEE MILCON 2005, Volume 3, pp 1719-1726, June 2005
^ F. Foukalas et al.,
"Cross-layer design proposals for wireless mobile networks: a survey and taxonomy "
Authority control databases: National
Israel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_test_model | List of common 3D test models | ["1 Modelled","2 Scanned","3 Gallery","4 Notes","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | This is a list of models and meshes commonly used in 3D computer graphics for testing and demonstrating rendering algorithms and visual effects. Their use is important for comparing results, similar to the way standard test images are used in image processing.
Modelled
Designed using CAD software; sorted by year of modelling.
Name and viewer
Render
Year of creation
Person/organisation that did the modelling
Description of source object
Model size
License
Comments
Utah teapot
1975
Martin Newell at University of Utah
Melitta teapot
28 Bézier patches (32 with the bottom)
Also called the "Newell teapot". One of the first models not to be measured.
Cornell box
1984
Cindy M. Goral, Kenneth E. Torrance, Donald P. Greenberg, Bennett Battaile at Cornell University
Originally meant to be compared to real-life setup to test physicality of simulated optics
5 quads, 1 light source
Scene includes multiple models and light source. Many versions exist, but only one of them is considered the standard Cornell box; the color of the left and right walls is important.
Suzanne
2002
Willem-Paul van Overbruggen for Blender
Chimpanzee head, based on an orangutan from the movie Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back
500 faces
GNU GPL 2+ (inherited from Blender as a whole)
Mascot for Blender
Crytek Sponza
2010
Frank Meinl at Crytek
The colonnaded atrium of the Sponza Palace in Dubrovnik
262,267 triangles184,330 vertices
Used for demonstrating global illumination techniques. The Crytek version is based on a model created by Marko Dabrović in early 2001 while he was at RNA studio, and donated to a radiosity competition held by CGTechniques.com in early 2002.
Spot
2012
Keenan Crane at Caltech
cartoon cow
2,930 vertices5,856 triangles
Catmull-Clark control mesh, quadrangulation, triangulation, vector texture, and bitmap texture. All meshes are manifold, genus-0 embeddings.
3DBenchy
2015
Creative Tools
cartoon boat
112,569 verts (225,154 tris)
CC By ND 4.0
Specifically designed for testing the accuracy and capabilities of 3D printers
Scanned
Includes photogrammetric methods; sorted by year of scanning.
Name and viewer
Render
Year of creation
Person/organisation responsible for the scan
Description of source object
Model size
License
Comments
Stanford bunny
1993-94
Greg Turk, Marc Levoy at Stanford University
Ceramic rabbit
69,451 triangles
Figurine of unknown authorship and licensing status, scan itself released under a two-clause BSD license.
A test of range scanning physical objects. Originally .ply file.
Stanford dragon
1996
Stanford University
Chinese dragon
1,132,830 triangles
Wooden Elk Toy
2000
Hans-Peter Seidel at Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik
Often used as an example of a non-trivial object with high genus.
Phlegmatic Dragon
Phlegmatic Dragon
2007
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Czech Technical University in PragueEurographics 2007 conference
667,214 faces (original)480,076 faces (smoothed)
Sticker on the bottom says "GRUNCH © PANTON '88 MADE IN ENGLAND"
Smoothed and nonsmoothed
David
2009
Stanford University
Michelangelo's 5-meter statue David
~1 billion polygons
Only available to established scholars and for non-commercial use only.
range data
Fertility
2009
AIM@SHAPE Repository (scanned at Utrecht University)
Small stone statue with two joined figures.
241,607 vertices483,226 triangles
Laser scan.
Nefertiti
2015
Nora Al-Badri and Jan Nikolai Nelles
A stoneworked bust of the Egyptian queen Nefertiti was created in 1345 BC by Thutmose
~2 million triangles
CC By SA 4.0
Surreptitiously scanned by Nora Al-Badri and Jan Nikolai Nelles, and subsequently separately by Scan the World with permission of the Neues Museum.
Gallery
The Utah teapot (1975) has a "hole" in it so it has a genus greater than zero.
The Cornell box (1985) tests lighting and rendering.
A 3D-printed reproduction of Stanford dragon (1996) physical model, made through rapid prototyping
Suzanne (2002) with wireframe
Spot (2012) shown homeomorphic to a sphere
3DBenchy (2015), designed to test 3D printing
Notes
See also
Standard test image, a digital image file to test image processing and compression
Catmull's hand, one of the original 3D models
Sutherland's Volkswagen, another early 3D model
References
^ "The Utah Teapot". www.holmes3d.net. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
^ Primitive instantiable by clicking Add → Mesh → Monkey
^ a b Morgan McGuire. "McGuire Computer Graphics Archive".
^ Jennifer O'Connor (1 July 2010). Mastering mental ray: Rendering Techniques for 3D and CAD Professionals. John Wiley & Sons. p. 175. ISBN 978-0470563854. The Sponza Palaze atrium scene has become a classic demonstration model for indirect illumination techniques in a wide variety of applications
^ Robert McMillan (24 September 2014). "Nvidia Proves We Walked on the Moon—Not That It Needed To". Wired. It cooked up a demo using a standard graphics simulation called the Sponza Atrium, a computer-generated stroll through a renaissance-style hallway.
^ Matt Pharr; Greg Humphreys (26 August 2010). Physically Based Rendering: From Theory to Implementation. Morgan Kaufmann. p. 493. ISBN 978-0123750792.
^ Jaroslav Krivanek; Pascal Gautron (2009). Practical Global Illumination with Irradiance Caching. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. p. 85. ISBN 978-1598296440.
^ Abecassis, Laurent (3 April 2001). "On The Web – RNA studio's GI architectural renderings". CGPress. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
^ "Sponza Atrium - Hatch Studios". Hatch Studios. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
^ "License - 3DBenchy.com". 7 April 2015. Retrieved 29 March 2022.
^ a b c "The Stanford 3D Scanning Repository". Stanford University. 22 Dec 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
^ Greg Turk (2000). "The Stanford Bunny". Retrieved 18 July 2011.
^ Michael Goesele; Wolfgang Heidrich; Hendrik P. A. Lensch; Hans-Peter Seidel (January 2000). "Building a Photo Studio for Measurement Purposes". Computer Graphics Group, Max-Planck-Institut fur Informatik. CiteSeerx: 10.1.1.18.3510.
^ "EG 2007 Phlegmatic Dragon". Eurographics 2007. 12 May 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
^ a b Levoy, Marc (August 11, 2009). "The Digital Michelangelo Project". Stanford University. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
^ a b c Levoy, Marc (August 19, 2014). "The Digital Michelangelo Project Archive of 3D Models". Stanford University. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
^ Levoy, Marc (November 27, 1998). "The Stanford Large Statue Scanner". Stanford University. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 3D test models.
Standard test models
The Stanford 3D Scanning Repository hosted by the Stanford University
Large Geometric Models Archive hosted by the Georgia Institute of Technology
Other repositories
The Utah 3D Animation Repository, a small collection of animated 3D models
scene collection, by Physically Based Rendering Toolkit: a number of interesting scenes to render with global illumination
MGF Example Scenes, a small collection of some indoor 3D scenes
archive3D, a collection of 3D models
Hum3D, a collection of vehicle 3D models
3DBar, a collection of free 3D models
NASA 3D Models, NASA 3D models to use for educational or informational purposes
VRML Models from ORC Incorporated, 3D models in VRML format
3dRender.com: Lighting Challenges, regularly held lighting challenges, complete with scene and models for each challenge
MPI Informatics Building Model, a virtual reconstruction of the Max Planck Institute for Informatics building in Saarbrücken
Princeton shape-based 3D model search engine
Keenan's 3D Model Repository hosted by the Carnegie Mellon University
HeiCuBeDa Hilprecht – Heidelberg Cuneiform Benchmark Dataset for the Hilprecht Collection a collection of almost 2.000 cuneiform tablets for bulk-download acquired with a high-resolution 3D-scanner. Available under a CC BY license and quotable by digital object identifiers. Datasets cleaned using the GigaMesh Software Framework.
HeiCu3Da Hilprecht – Heidelberg Cuneiform 3D Database - Hilprecht Collection browsable version of HeiCuBeDa allowing to download and quote single 3D models. | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of common 3D test models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"modelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_modeling"}],"text":"Designed using CAD software; sorted by year of modelling.","title":"Modelled"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Includes photogrammetric methods; sorted by year of scanning.","title":"Scanned"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Utah_teapot_simple_2.png"},{"link_name":"Utah teapot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah_teapot"},{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_(mathematics)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornell_box.png"},{"link_name":"Cornell box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_box"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Real_Stanford_Dragon.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stanford dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_dragon"},{"link_name":"rapid prototyping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_prototyping"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Suzanne.svg"},{"link_name":"Suzanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzanne_(3D_model)"},{"link_name":"wireframe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire-frame_model"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spot_the_cow.gif"},{"link_name":"homeomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeomorphic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3DBenchy_-_The_3D-printable_calibration_object_-_3DBenchy.com_v6.png"},{"link_name":"3DBenchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DBenchy"}],"text":"The Utah teapot (1975) has a \"hole\" in it so it has a genus greater than zero.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Cornell box (1985) tests lighting and rendering.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA 3D-printed reproduction of Stanford dragon (1996) physical model, made through rapid prototyping\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSuzanne (2002) with wireframe\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSpot (2012) shown homeomorphic to a sphere\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t3DBenchy (2015), designed to test 3D printing","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Utah_Teapot_mr_maya.jpg/160px-Utah_Teapot_mr_maya.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/BMRT_-_Cornell_box_radiosity.png/160px-BMRT_-_Cornell_box_radiosity.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/RenderResult.jpg/160px-RenderResult.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Spot_the_cow.png/160px-Spot_the_cow.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/3DBenchy_created_using_color_mixing_on_an_FDM_printer.jpg/160px-3DBenchy_created_using_color_mixing_on_an_FDM_printer.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mesh_bunny.png/160px-Mesh_bunny.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Stanford_Dragon.jpg/160px-Stanford_Dragon.jpg"},{"image_text":"Phlegmatic Dragon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Phlegmatic_Dragon.jpg/160px-Phlegmatic_Dragon.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Standard test image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_test_image"},{"title":"Catmull's hand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Computer_Animated_Hand"},{"title":"Sutherland's Volkswagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutherland%27s_Volkswagen"}] | [{"reference":"\"The Utah Teapot\". www.holmes3d.net. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Space_Wing | 50th Space Wing | ["1 Operations","2 Structure in 2020","3 Shield","4 History","4.1 50th Fighter Wing (1949–1950) and 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing (1950–1951)","4.2 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing (1953–1958) and 50th Tactical Fighter Wing (1958–1991)","4.3 50th Space Wing (1992–2020)","5 List of commanders","6 References","6.1 Bibliography","7 External links"] | Inactive United States Air Force wing
50th WingShield of the 50th WingActive1 June 1949 (as 50th Fighter Wing)–24 July 2020Country United StatesBranch United States Air ForceTypeWingMotto(s)"Master of the Air"Engagements Defense of Saudi ArabiaLiberation and Defense of Kuwait Operation Enduring FreedomOperation Iraqi FreedomOperation New DawnOperation Noble EagleOperation Inherent ResolveDecorations Distinguished Unit CitationAir Force Outstanding Unit AwardMilitary unit
The 50th Wing is an inactive United States Air Force wing.
It was activated in 1949 as the 50th Fighter Wing, serving as a reserve air defense unit, and was redesignated as the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing in 1950, before being inactivated in 1951. It was reactivated in 1953 as the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing, deploying to Europe to join NATO forces, and was redesignated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing in 1958. The wing operated for almost 40 years at Hahn Air Base in West Germany. In 1981 it became the first USAF overseas formation to operate the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon jet. It deployed for the Persian Gulf War of 1991, before being inactivated later that year. It was activated as a space wing on 30 January 1992, replacing the 2nd Space Wing. The 50th Space Wing was inactivated on 24 July 2020 and replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison, with the 50th Network Operations Group and its cyber and satellite control network units forming Space Delta 6, the 50th Operations Group and its satellite communications units forming Space Delta 8, and the 750th Operations Group and its orbital warfare units forming Space Delta 9.
Operations
The 50th Space Wing was the United States Space Force's space and cyberspace warfare. The 50th Space Wing operated the Global Positioning System (GPS), Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS), Wideband Global Satellite Communications system, Military Strategic and Tactical Relay, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, Space Based Space Surveillance system, Operationally Responsive Space satellite system, Advanced Extremely High Frequency satellite system, and the Boeing X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle. It also operated the Air Force Satellite Control Network. At the time of its inactivation on 24 July 2020, the 50th Space Wing had 8,000 space professionals and airmen under its command.
The 50th Space Wing was also the host unit for Schriever Air Force Base, providing base support for United States Strategic Command's Joint Functional Component Command for Integrated Missile Defense, the Army's 100th Missile Defense Brigade, and Air Force Reserve Command's 310th Space Wing.
Structure in 2020
50th Operations Group (50 OG)
2d Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS)
4th Space Operations Squadron (4 SOPS)
50th Operations Support Squadron (50 OSS)
Detachment 1, 50th Operations Group, Suitland, Maryland
50th Network Operations Group (50 NOG)
21st Space Operations Squadron (21 SOPS), Vandenberg Air Force Base
Detachment 1, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia
Detachment 2, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Andersen Air Force Base
Detachment 3, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Kaena Point Satellite Tracking Station
22nd Space Operations Squadron (22 SOPS)
23rd Space Operations Squadron (23 SOPS), New Boston Air Force Station
Detachment 1, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, Thule Air Base
OL-A, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, RAF Oakhanger
50th Space Communications Squadron (50 SCS)
50th Mission Support Group (50 MSG) - the 50th Support Group was formerly the 1002nd Space Support Group which was activated October 1, 1989.
50th Civil Engineer Squadron
50th Contracting Squadron
50th Force Support Squadron
50th Security Forces Squadron - formerly the 1002nd Special Security Squadron which was activated on October 1, 1985. The squadron was renamed the 1002d Security Police Squadron on October 1, 1989, as part of Air Force Space Command's support structure reorganization. 50th SFS activated 30 January 1992.
50th Logistics Readiness Flight (50 LRF)
750th Operations Group (750 OG)
1st Space Operations Squadron (1 SOPS)
3d Space Experimentation Squadron (3 SES)
750th Operations Support Squadron (750 OSS)
50th Comptroller Squadron (50 CPTS)
Shield
50th Space Wing shield
The 50th Space Wing shield was first approved for use on 15 July 1953, before being modified in 1956 and on 9 July 1992, and being approved in its final form on 27 July 2012. The blue background alludes to the vastness of space and the principal theater of the wing, while the yellow represents the sun and excellence required of its space professionals. The opinicus, with the strength of a lion and the bold flight of the eagle, symbolizes the functions of the 50th Space Wing. The motto of the 50th Space Wing, "Master of Space," was derived from the 50th Pursuit Group's motto "Master of Air" and approved in September 1992.
History
50th Fighter Wing (1949–1950) and 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing (1950–1951)
81st Fighter-Bomber Squadron North American F-86F Sabre in flight
On 1 June 1950, the 50th Fighter Wing (50 FW) was activated in the United States Air Force Reserve and operationally assigned to Tactical Air Command's First Air Force, supporting the active-duty 33rd Fighter Wing. It was stationed at Otis Air Force Base, Massachusetts, and consisted of the 50th Fighter Group, which included the 81st Fighter Squadron, 50th Air Base Group, and 50th Maintenance and Supply Group, which included the 50th Supply Squadron.
The 50th Fighter Wing was responsible for air defense on the eastern seaboard, flying the North American P-51 Mustang and Republic F-84 Thunderjet fighters, as well as the North American T-6 Texan and Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star trainers. In 1950, it started flying the North American F-86A Sabre fighter jet. On 1 March 1950, it was redesignated the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing (50 FIW), with the 50th Fighter Group also being redesignated the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Group and 81st Fighter Squadron also redesignated as the 81st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron. The 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, along with the 33rd Fighter-Interceptor Wing, were reassigned to Air Defense Command's Eastern Air Defense Force.
The advent of the Korean War resulted in a reevaluation of the posture of the American air forces. On 2 June 1951 the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing was inactivated, as part of an American realignment to support NATO forces in Europe to more directly counter the Soviet Union and Soviet Air Forces.
50th Fighter-Bomber Wing (1953–1958) and 50th Tactical Fighter Wing (1958–1991)
50th Fighter-Bomber Wing shield
On 1 January 1953, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing (50 FBW) was activated and assigned to Tactical Air Command's Ninth Air Force. Stationed at Clovis Air Force Base, New Mexico, the wing's operational component was the 50th Fighter-Bomber Group, which consisted of the 10th Fighter-Bomber Squadron and the 81st Fighter-Bomber Squadron. The wing initially flew F-51 Mustang fighters, before converting to the F-86F Sabre in 1953. The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing's support elements included the 50th Air Base Group, the 50th Maintenance and Supply Group, and the 50th Medical Group, which was later redesignated as the 50th Tactical Hospital. The 50th Air Base Group consisted of the 50th Air Police Squadron (later redesignated the 50th Security Police Squadron) and 50th Civil Engineering Squadron (later redesignated the 50th Civil Engineer Squadron), while the 50th Maintenance and Supply Group consisted of the 50th Supply Squadron.
In summer 1953, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was transferred to Europe, with much of the wing's personnel and equipment sailing across the Atlantic Ocean on the Military Sea Transportation Service's USNS General M. B. Stewart, while the aircrew flew across the North Atlantic. On 9 August 1953 it became part of United States Air Forces in Europe's Twelfth Air Force and was stationed at Hahn Air Base, Germany, where the wing assumed responsibility for the 7425th USAF Hospital from 1 May 1954 to 9 April 1956. The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also gained a third fighter-bomber squadron, assuming command of the 417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron and also became the first tactically operational wing in Twelfth Air Force.
81st Tactical Fighter Squadron F-100D Super Sabre being serviced at Wheelus AB
Almost immediately after arriving in Germany, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing participated in Exercise Monte Carlo, which was designed to demonstrate NATO air defense force capabilities. In 1954, elements of the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing spent six weeks at Wheelus Field, Libya, training in air-to-air and ground attack operations, scoring higher in both categories than any other unit in Twelfth Air Force. In 1955 the 21 FBW took top honors at the United States Air Forces in Europe aerial gunnery competition at Wheelus Field, and on 21 October 1955 it began to transition to the F-86H Sabre.
For brief period in 1955 and 1956, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also flew the ET-33 trainer. On 14 March 1955, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing gained the 69th Pilotless Bomber Squadron, which operated the MGM-1 Matador cruise missile system. On 8 June 1955, the 69th Pilotless Bomber Squadron was redesignated the 69th Tactical Missile Squadron, and on 15 April 1956, left the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing for the 7382d Guided Missile Group, which the 21 FBW provided support for.
On 15 April 1956, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing began to move to Toul-Rosiére Air Base, France, fully transitioning by 1 August 1956. On 8 August 1956, the 50the Fighter-Bomber Wing assumed responsibility for the 7352d USAF Hospital, before relinquishing command on 25 September 1957. United States Air Forces in Europe then sent the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing to represent it at the Air Force Fighter Weapons Meet at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. On 8 December 1957, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Group and 50th Maintenance and Supply Group were inactivated, with their squadrons reporting directly to the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing. On 8 December, the 50th Field Maintenance Squadron activated. The 50th Field Maintenance Squadron would later be redesignated the 50th Consolidated Aircraft Maintenance Squadron, before reassuming its designation as the 50th Field Maintenance Squadron, and was later redesignated the 50th Equipment Maintenance Squadron, before finally being designated the 50th Maintenance Squadron. On 15 November 1958, the 50th Armament and Electronics Maintenance Squadron was activated, later being redesignated the 50th Avionics Maintenance Squadron, before finally being designated the 50th Component Repair Squadron. In 1957 and 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing began transitioning to the North American F-100D Super Sabre. On 1 January 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was moved from Twelfth Air Force to directly report to United States Air Forces in Europe.
The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also had a number of Tactical Air Command squadrons temporarily attached to it, including the 428th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 1 April 1957 to 1 October 1957, the 429th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 7 October 1956 to 1 April 1957, the 430th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 20 April 1956 to 7 October 1956, the 457th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 20 March 1958 to 19 August 1958, and the 509th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 15 January 1958 to 24 March 1958.
50th Tactical Fighter Wing Shield
On 8 July 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was redesignated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing (50 TFW). The redesignation from fighter-bomber to tactical fighter also affected its subordinate units, including the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron, and the attached 457th Tactical Fighter Squadron. On 15 November 1959, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing was reassigned from USAFE to the Seventeenth Air Force
On 1 September 1959, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began to transition back to Hahn Air Base, Germany, with the exception of the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron, which was based at Ramstein Air Base, Germany. The 86th Fighter-Interceptor Wing's 496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which flew the F-86D Sabre, was also attached to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing under the duel-basing construct. In December 1959, the 496th Tactical Fighter Squadron began converting to Convair F-102 Delta Dagger interceptors. Due to the Cuban Missile Crisis and previous routine force movements, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing had the 435th Tactical Fighter Squadron from Morón Air Base, Spain attached to it from 24 October 1962 to 11 December 1962, the 355th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 5 September 1961 to 16 November 1961, the 458th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 13 August 1958 to 18 February 1959, and the 614th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 5 September 1961 to 14 November 1961.
On 8 April 1952, the 50th Air Base Wing was redesignated as the 50th Combat Support Wing. In a reorganization of the wing's maintenance squadrons, the 50th Armament and Electronics Maintenance Squadron was briefly inactivated on 8 April 1962, but reactivated on 1 July 1964. Several new maintenance squadrons were activated on 1 July 1964, including the 50th Flightline Maintenance Squadron, although it was detached until 1 October 1965 and was inactivated shortly after on 25 December 1965, 50th Organizational Maintenance Squadron, although it was inactivated on 1 January 1966, and 350th Munitions Maintenance Squadron. On 1 October 1967, the 7236th Ammunition Supply Squadron was activated, augmenting the maintenance and operational fighter-bomber squadrons.
Following the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing resumed normal operations with its own three tactical fighter squadrons, participating in exercises with other NATO air forces. On 8 October 1966 the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron, and 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron began converting from the F-100D Super Sabre to the McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II tactical fighter, after the wing briefly operated the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter in 1962. During the conversion, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron remained assigned to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing, but remained detached to the 86th Air Division at Ramstein Air Base.
313rd Tactical Fighter Squadron F-4E Phantom
On 1 July 1968, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron was removed from the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing, reassigned to Tactical Air Command's 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho. To replace the lost squadron, the 496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was permanently reassigned to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing from the 86th Air Division on 1 November 1968 and redesignated the 496th Tactical Fighter Squadron. Initially it continued flying the F-102 Delta Dagger, but within two years upgraded to the F-4E Phantom II. Soon after, United States Air Forces in Europe selected the 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron to be the first to assume the Wild Weasel Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses mission set, equipping it with the Wild Weasel variant of the F-4E, and later the F-F-4G Wild Weasel V. On 12 June 1971, the 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron was moved to Zweibrücken Air Base, Germany and operationally subordinated to the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing, although it administratively remained part of the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing until it fully transitioned over on 15 July 1971. On 1 July 1971, USAF Hospital, Hahn, later designated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing Hospital was assigned to the wing.
In 1972 another round of reorganization to the wing's maintenance squadrons occurred. On 1 January 1972, the 50th Organizational Maintenance Squadron, later redesignated the 50th Aircraft Generation Squadron, was reactivated. On 1 April 1972, the 7501st Munitions Support Squadron, 7502d Munitions Support Squadron, 7503d Munitions Support Squadron, and 7504th Munitions Support Squadron were all activated. On 7 October 1972, the 350th Munitions Maintenance Squadron and 7236th Ammunition Supply Squadron inactivated, with the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron, later redesignated as the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron (Theater), and 50th Ammunition Supply Squadron activated on 8 October 1972 to replace them. the 7504th Munitions Support Squadron was inactivated on 1 September 1972, with the 7503d Munitions Support Squadron inactivating on 1 October 1972.
In 1975, the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron began to utilize laser-guided bombs. It also hosted a number of attached Tactical Air Command squadrons, including the 8th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 8 March 1973 to 2 April 1973 and 6 September 1975 to 6 October 1975, 9th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 11 September 1971 to 7 October 1971 and 23 September 1976 to 24 October 1976, the 68th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 10 May 1977 to 7 June 1977, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron numerous times from 1968 to 1976, and the 421st Tactical Fighter Squadron from 5 August 1977 to 25 August 1977. The 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also hosted the first European deployment of Aerospace Defense Command fighters, hosting a detachment of six Convair F-106 Delta Dart interceptors from the 5th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron from 4 September 1975 to 25 September 1975.
In 1976, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began to fully convert its remaining squadrons to the F-4E Phantom II fighter and on 15 November 1976 it gained the newly activated 313th Tactical Fighter Squadron. The 50 TFW also began testing the Project Oriented Maintenance Organization for USAFE in 1977, testing the concept in the April 1978 Salty Rooster exercise. The success of the exercise resulted in the Project Oriented Maintenance Organization being rolled out across all of United States Air Forces in Europe. The 50 TFW also continued to exercise with allied partners, being the first U.S. Air Force unit to refuel with a KC-767 of the Imperial Iranian Air Force. The wing also activated the 7362d Munitions Support Squadron on 15 July 1976.
In 1978, United States Air Forces in Europe announced that the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing would be the first to test and field the General Dynamics F-16A Fighting Falcon, as well as its F-16B two-seater variant. The first F-16As arrived at Hahn Air Base on 19 April 1979 and began upgrading the airbase's facilities to accommodate the new aircraft. On 30 December 1981, the 313th Tactical Fighter Squadron accepted the 50 TFW's first operational F-16As, with the other squadrons following suit shortly and divesting the remaining F-4Es within six months. A number of changes to maintenance units happened in 1978, including the inactivation of the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron on 8 October 1978 and the activation of the 7015th Explosive Ordnance Disposal Flight on 1 October 1978.
496th Tactical Fighter Squadron F-16C
The 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also participated in a NATO gala on 9 July 1982, marking NATO's adoption of the F-16, where it participated along with F-16s from the Royal Norwegian Air Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, as well as other NATO air forces. 50th Tactical Fighter Wing F-16s frequently deployed to Zaragoza Air Base, Spain and Incirlik Air Base, Turkey to perform air-to-air and air-to-ground training to achieve full operational readiness, which was declared in April 1983. Shortly after, in July 1983, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing participated in a USAFE Operational Readiness Inspection and NATO Organizational Tactical Evaluation, and in October 1983, took first place in the U.S. Air Force's Gunsmoke bombing and gunnery competition.
Group of four 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron F-16s in flight over Southwest Asia in 1991
F-16C from the 10th tactical Fighter Squadron during the second wave of air attacks on Iraqi targets in support of Operation Desert Storm on 17 January 1991.
A number of changes to the 50th Combat Support Group and wing staff occurred in the 1980s and early 1990, with the 7150th Comptroller Squadron activating on 15 November 1983, before being inactivated and replaced by the newly established 50th Comptroller Squadron on 1 July 1985, the 50th Security Police Group activating on 21 October 1988, and 50th Support Squadron activating on 1 June 1989, and 2184th Communications Squadron activating on 1 October 1990. Maintenance squadrons also experienced structural changes, with the 7501st Munitions Support Squadron and 7502d Munitions Support Squadron inactivating on 15 November 1985, 7362d Munitions Support Squadron being inactivated on 1 January 1986, 50th Ammunition Supply Squadron being inactivated on 15 May 1986, being replaced by the reactivated 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron, the 7015th Explosive Ordnance Disposal Flight being inactivated on 1 November 1986. The 50th Tactical Hospital was also inactivated on 1 July 1986.
In March 1984, the 50 TFW participated in the Green Flag exercise at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, engaging in realistic combat training and participated in NATO exercises, with two F-16As conducting landings and takeoffs on the German Autobahn highways. Between April and June 1984, 50 TFW units forward deployed to Ramstein Air Base, Spangdahlem Air Base, and Pferdsfel Air Base due to repairs at Hahn Air Base. In 1986, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began replacing its F-16As and F-16Bs with the more advanced F-16Cs and F-16Ds, fully phasing out the first generation F-16s in less than a year. The 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also won the Daledalin Maintenance trophy in 1986 for both the numbered air force, major command, and air force level. It also won the Secretary of Defense's Phoenix Award for the best maintenance organization in the entire United States Department of Defense.
When Iraq executed its Invasion of Kuwait in 1991, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing quickly mobilized its forces for deployment, sending the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron and 30 F-16C Fighting Falcons as part of Operation Desert Shield on 29 December 1990. On 17 January 1991, 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron aircraft were among the first to strike Iraqi military positions as part of Operation Desert Storm, specifically bombing Al-Taqaddum Air Base, Iraq and gaining air supremacy over the Iraqi Air Force. The squadron was retasked to hunt down Scud missiles, which were striking coalition military targets and Israeli population centers. Throughout the entire campaign, the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron had only lost one aircraft, with its pilot being taken as a prisoner of war. After hostilities ceased, 10 TFS forces enforced the ceasefire accords through combat air patrols.
Due to the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States and NATO began to draw down its high posture in Europe, resulting in the inactivation of the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing and closure of Hahn Air Base on 30 September 1991.
50th Space Wing (1992–2020)
A Block IIIA GPS Spacecraft
On 30 January 1992, the 50th Space Wing (50 SW) was reactivated at Falcon Air Force Base, Colorado and assigned to Air Force Space Command. The 50th Space Wing replaced Air Force Space Command's 2nd Space Wing, flying its communications, navigation warfare, and space domain awareness spacecraft, as well as operating the Air Force Satellite Control Network and Global Broadcast Service. Replacing the 2nd Space Wing with the 50th Space Wing was part of a larger Air Force initiative designed to preserve early Air Force flying heritage, and bestowed upon the 50th Space Wing the history and honors of the World War II-era 50th Pursuit Group. On 20 September 1993, the 50th Space Wing was assigned to the Air Force Space Command's Fourteenth Air Force.
The 50th Operations Group served as the primary operations arm of the 50th Space Wing and operational units from the 2nd Space Wing were transferred to it, along with being redesignated from satellite control squadrons to space operations squadrons. Operations units included the 1st Space Operations Squadron, 2nd Space Operations Squadron, 3rd Space Operations Squadron, 4th Space Operations Squadron, 5th Space Operations Squadron, stationed at Onizuka Air Force Station, 50th Satellite Communications Squadron, 50th Crew Training Squadron, and 50th Operations Support Squadron. Spacecraft inherited from the 2nd Space Wing included the Defense Satellite Communications System II and Defense Satellite Communications System III constellations, the Defense Support Program missile warning constellation, the U.S. Navy's Fleet Satellite Communications System constellation, the Global Positioning System constellation, the NATO III and NATO IV satellite communications constellation, the British Armed Forces' Skynet satellite communications constellation, the U.S. Navy's Ultra High Frequency Follow-On satellite communications constellation.
A Block V Defense Meteorological Support Program spacecraft
The 1000th Satellite Operations Group which flew the Defense Meteorological Support Program constellation, briefly served as an operational group of the 50th Space Wing, before being redesignated as the 6th Space Operations Squadron and moved under the 50th Operations Group on 31 July 1992. On 30 April 1992, the 4th Space Operations Squadron was activated to fly the Military Strategic and Tactical Relay (Milstar) communications satellite constellation. On 1 July 1992, the 50th Satellite Communications Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Space Communications Squadron.
The 750th Space Group, redesignated from its previous name as the 2nd Satellite Training Group with the activation of the 50th Space Wing, was stationed at Onizuka Air Force Station, was responsible for the operations of the Air Force Satellite Control Network and provided base support to the 5th Space Operations Squadron. Its operational elements consisted of the 21st Space Operations Squadron, 22nd Space Operations Squadron, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, stationed at New Boston Air Force Station, and 750th Operations Support Squadron. Installation support squadrons included the 750th Mission Support Squadron and 750th Logistics Support Squadron. On 1 October 1994, the 750th Medical Squadron was activated to provide medical support to personnel at Onizuka AFS.
The 50th Maintenance Group was activated to support the operations groups, consisting of the 50th Maintenance Squadron, 50th Logistics Support Squadron, and 50th Space Systems Squadron. The 50th Combat Support Squadron, responsible for installation support, consisted of the 50th Security Police Squadron, redesignated as the 50th Security Forces Squadron in 1997, 50th Civil Engineer Squadron, and 50th Support Squadron.
A Military Strategic and Tactical Relay spacecraft
The 50th Space Wing conducted several significant orbital operations in support of terrestrial forces. In February 1992, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron won Air Force Space Command's Space Support Trophy and in November 1992 flew a Fleet Satellite Communications System spacecraft from an orbit above the Pacific Ocean to one above the Atlantic Ocean, the longest transfer orbit in the squadron's history. 3 SOPS later transferred a Defense Satellite Communications System spacecraft from its orbit over Europe to over Somalia, providing space support for the United Nations' Unified Task Force. These operations led to the 50th Space Wing winning United States Space Command's Herres Award. In 1994, the 50th Space Wing assumed full responsibility for the Global Positioning System from the Space and Missile Systems Center and the 4th Space Operations Squadron officially accepted Milstar on 15 November 1994.
On 1 October 1994, the 50th Crew Training Squadron was inactivated, with its space training functions transferred to Air Education and Training Command's 534th Training Squadron, organized under the 381st Training Group at Vandenberg Air Force Base. On the same date, the 50th Weather Squadron was activated and gained responsibility for monitoring space weather from the Air Force Space Forecast Center. On 14 August 1995, the 50th Contracting Squadron was activated under the 50th Combat Support Group. In 1996, the 50th Space Wing turned over full operations of the Fleet Satellite Communications System to the Naval Satellite Operations Center.
The wing began a series of reorganizations beginning in 1997, inactivating the 50th Maintenance Group, 50th Maintenance Squadron, and 50th Logistics Support Squadron on 1 December 1997. On the same day, the 50th Communications Group was activated to replace the 50th Maintenance Group's space support activities. Prior to the inactivation of the 50th Maintenance Group, the 50th Space Support Squadron was briefly inactivated on 23 June 1997, before being reactivated as the 850th Communications Squadron. The 50th Space Communications Squadron was redesignated the 50th Communications Squadron and transferred from the 50th Operations Group which, along with the 850th Communications Squadron, were assigned to the 50th Communications Group. On 6 March 1997, the 55th Space Weather Squadron replaced the 50th Space Weather Squadron, before itself inactivating on 1 October 1999. In June 1997, the 50th Space Wing began to consolidate its activities at Falcon AFB, reducing its presence at Onizuka Air Force Station, Fairchild Air Force Base, and Offutt Air Force Base. As part of this drawdown, the 750th Operations Support Squadron was inactivated on 23 June 1997 and the 750th Logistics Support Squadron was inactivated on 5 November 1997.
In On 5 June 1998, the 50th Space Wing renamed Falcon Air Force Base to Schriever Air Force Base, and began building a new satellite control facility, intending to transfer all functions from Onizuka AFS and shut down the base . It also closed the Defense Meteorological Support Program satellite operations centers at Fairchild AFB and Offutt AFB and transferred it to Suitland, Maryland, where the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration was establishing a new DMSP satellite operations facility. The DMSP was relinquished to NOAA later that year, resulting in the inactivation of the 6th Space Operations Squadron on 30 September 1998. The 8th Space Operations Squadron, a reserve unit, was activated to support NOAA operations of the DMSP and serve as the back-up satellite operations center at Schriever AFB. 8 SOPS began operations in September 1998, but was replaced by Air Force Reserve Command with a reactivated 6th Space Operations Squadron on 1 October 1998.
A Defense Satellite Communications System III spacecraft
On 21 October 1998, the 5th Space Operations Squadron placed the last Defense Satellite Communications System II spacecraft in a super synchronous orbit, retiring the system. In December 1998, the 1st Space Operations Squadron began to support the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization's Midcourse Space Experiment, which it assumed full control of on 1 October 2000.
On 25 June 1999, the 750th Space Group was inactivated, following the inactivation of the 750th Mission Support Squadron on 3 May 1999 and 750th Medical Squadron on 28 May 1999 due to the 1995 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission's recommendations to reduce presence at Onizuka AFS, leaving the 21st Space Operations Squadron as the host squadron for the base. The 50th Operations Group assumed responsibility for the 5th Space Operations Squadron, which was inactivated on 13 June 2000, the 21st Space Operations Squadron, the 22nd Space Operations Squadron, and the 23rd Space Operations Squadron.
On 10 February 2000, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron turned over operational control of the Ultra High Frequency Follow-On to the United States Navy's Naval Satellite Operations Center. On 11 October 2000, the Space Shuttle Discovery experienced a Ku-band antenna failure while flying STS-92. The 21st Space Operations Squadron provided communications support for the shuttle mission, relaying information to NASA mission control.
In response to the September 11 attacks, the United States and NATO forces initiated Operation Enduring Freedom. The 50th Space Wing provided satellite communications, global positioning system enhancements, and deployed personnel to support counterterrorism operations. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 50th Space Wing had on average 80 space operators deployed to forward operating bases in the Middle East. During the initial allied invasion of Iraq, the 2nd Space Operations Squadron developed new techniques for enhancing Global Positioning System accuracy over the Iraqi theater of operations, with the 3rd Satellite Operations Squadron and 4th Satellite Operations Squadron maximized communications coverage of the theater. The 1st Space Operations Squadron also set a new record for placing a GPS spacecraft in orbit and completing all early on-orbit checkout activities in 11 days, while also providing Defense support Program and GPS support. 3 SOPS' Defense Satellite Communications System Block III provided 80% of bandwidth for allied forces in theater, while 4 SOPS dedicated 85% of Milstar communications capacity to support tactical forces.
On 1 October 2002, the 50th Communications Group was inactivated, being briefly replaced by the 50th Maintenance Group, until the maintenance group was inactivated and communications group reactivated on 1 June 2003. On 1 October 2002, the 50th Communications Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Space Communications Squadron and 850th Communications Squadron redesignated as 850th Space Communications Squadron. On 10 March 2004, the 50th Communications Group was redesignated as the 50th Network Operations Group and given responsibility for the Air Force Satellite Control Network from the 50th Operations Group, with the 21st Space Operations Squadron, 22nd Space Operations Squadron, and 23rd Space Operations Squadron transferred to it. On 30 January 2006, the 850th Space Communications Squadron had its functions merged into the 50th Space Communications Squadron upon the 850 SCS's inactivation.
On 1 October 2002, the 50th Combat Support Group was redesignated the 50th Mission Support Group and the 50th Support Squadron was redesignated the 50th Mission Support Squadron. On 1 October 2003, the 50th Comptroller Squadron was activated, reporting directly to 50th Space Wing headquarters. On 1 June 2003, the 50th Logistics Readiness Flight, formerly the 50th Supply Squadron, was reactivated and assigned to the 50th Mission Support Group. On 20 June 2008, the 50th Mission Support Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Force Support Squadron.
On 3 September 2004, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron ceased operating the NATO III, NATO IV, and Skynet satellite systems and on 31 August 2006, the 1st Space Operations Squadron turned over operations of the Defense Support Program constellation to the 460th Space Wing's 2nd Space Warning Squadron. On 11 April 2008, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron accepted the first Wideband Global SATCOM spacecraft.
On 15 September 2011, the 21st Space Operations Squadron transitioned to Vandenberg Air Force Base's Ellison Onizuka Space Operations Facility and Onizuka Air Force Station closed. On 16 July 2008, the 1st Space Operations Squadron decommissioned and disposed of the Midcourse Space Experiment. In March 2009, the 21st Space Operations Squadron provided communications support for the Space Shuttle Discovery during STS-119.
A Wideband Global SATCOM spacecraft
1 SOPS assumed responsibility for TacSat-3, the Space Based Space Surveillance system, and the Operationally Responsive Space-1 spacecraft in 2010, retiring TACSAT-3 in 2012 and ORS-1 in 2017.
In 2010, the 50th Space Wing regained responsibility for the Defense Meteorological Support Program, standing up Detachment 1, 50th Operations Group at Suitland, Maryland. On 12 March 2012, 4 SOPS assumed satellite control authority for Advanced Extremely High Frequency-1. On 21 February 2011, the 50th Space Wing gained control authority for the Space Based Space Surveillance satellite.
On 1 April 2013, the Space Innovation and Development Center was inactivated, resulting in the 50th Space Wing gaining the 3rd Space Experimentation Squadron. On 29 September 2015, the Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program was transferred to the 1st Space Operations Squadron. The 50th Space Wing operated a number of other experimental systems, including the Boeing X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle, Automated Navigation and Guidance Experiment for Local Space (ANGELS) from 2016 to 2017, and ORS-5 and the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle Secondary Payload Adapter Augmented Geosynchronous Laboratory Experiment (EAGLE) in 2018. On 13 June 2017, the 3 Space Operations Squadron was inactivated, merging its functions into 4 SOPS. 4 SOPS provided communications support to hurricane relief efforts.
On 20 December 2019, the 50th Space Wing, along with the rest of Air Force Space Command, was transferred to the United States Space Force and on 19 June 2020, the 750th Operations Group was activated, centralizing orbital warfare functions represented by the 1st Space Operations Squadron, 3rd Space Experimentation Squadron, and 750th Operations Support Squadron under a single group. On 24 July 2020, the 50th Space Wing was inactivated for a final time, being replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison. Its units were divided between Space Delta 6, which is responsible for cyberspace operations and replaced the 50th Network Operations Group, Space Delta 8, which is responsible for satellite communications and navigation warfare and replaced the 50th Operations Group, and Space Delta 9, which is responsible for orbital warfare and replaced the 750th Operations Group.
List of commanders
No.
Commander
Term
Portrait
Name
Took office
Left office
Duration
1
DeKok, Roger G.Brigadier GeneralRoger G. DeKok30 January 199217 June 19931 year, 138 days
2
Gilles, Gregory L.ColonelGregory L. Gilles17 June 19934 November 19941 year, 140 days
3
Worden, Simon P.ColonelSimon P. Worden4 November 199422 March 19961 year, 139 days
4
Moorhead, Glenn W. IIIBrigadier GeneralGlen W. Moorhead III22 March 199625 April 19971 year, 34 days
5
Tircuit, Elwood C.ColonelElwood C. Tircuit25 April 19979 June 19992 years, 45 days
6
Webber, Richard E.ColonelRichard E. Webber9 June 199920 April 20011 year, 315 days
7
James, Larry D.ColonelLarry D. James20 April 20017 February 20031 year, 293 days
-
Selva, Michael D.ColonelMichael D. SelvaActing7 February 20039 June 2003122 days
8
Vautrinot, Suzanne M.ColonelSuzanne M. Vautrinot9 June 20034 April 20051 year, 299 days
9
Hyten, John E.ColonelJohn E. Hyten4 April 200515 May 20061 year, 41 days
-
Hutto, James C. Jr.ColonelJames C. Hutto Jr.Acting15 May 200614 October 2006152 days
9
Hyten, John E.ColonelJohn E. Hyten14 October 200622 May 2007220 days
10
Djuric, Teresa A.H.ColonelTeresa A.H. Djuric22 May 200712 June 20081 year, 21 days
11
Chun, CaryColonelCary C. Chun12 June 200820 August 20091 year, 69 days
12
Monteith, Wayne R.ColonelWayne Monteith20 August 20095 August 20111 year, 350 days
13
Ross, James P.ColonelJames P. Ross5 August 201111 July 20131 year, 340 days
14
Liquori, William J. Jr.ColonelWilliam J. Liquori Jr.11 July 201329 May 20151 year, 322 days
15
Burt, DeAnna M.ColonelDeAnna M. Burt29 May 201530 June 20172 years, 32 days
16
Grant, Jennifer L.ColonelJennifer L. Grant30 June 201724 June 20191 year, 359 days
17
Smith, James E.ColonelJames E. Smith24 June 201924 July 20201 year, 30 days
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^ "Schriever Space Force Base > Home" (PDF).
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Bibliography
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency
Endicott, Judy G. (1998). Active Air Force Wings as of 1 October 1995 and USAF Active Flying, Space, and Missile Squadrons as of 1 October 1995 (PDF). Air Force History and Museums Program. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ASIN B000113MB2. Retrieved 2 July 2014.
McAuliffe, Jerome J. (2005). "16, Toul-Rosieres Air Base". U.S. Air Force in France 1950–1967. San Diego, CA: Milspec Press. ISBN 978-0977037117.
Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947–1977. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-12-9.
Rogers, Brian. (2005). United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978. Hinkley, UK: Midland Publications. ISBN 1-85780-197-0.
External links
50th Space Wing Factsheet – Schriever AFB
50th Space Wing Factsheet – AFHRA
Schriever AFB website
Commanders lead in challenging times
50th Space Wing Heritage Site
USAF History and Chronology of 50th Space Wing
Falcon AFB: Tircuit Biography (archive.org)
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General Surveillance Radar Stations | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"Hahn Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hahn_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon"},{"link_name":"Persian Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"2nd Space Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Space_Wing"},{"link_name":"Peterson-Schriever Garrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson-Schriever_Garrison"},{"link_name":"Space Delta 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Delta_6"},{"link_name":"Space Delta 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Delta_8"},{"link_name":"Space Delta 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Delta_9"}],"text":"Military unitThe 50th Wing is an inactive United States Air Force wing.It was activated in 1949 as the 50th Fighter Wing, serving as a reserve air defense unit, and was redesignated as the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing in 1950, before being inactivated in 1951. It was reactivated in 1953 as the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing, deploying to Europe to join NATO forces, and was redesignated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing in 1958. The wing operated for almost 40 years at Hahn Air Base in West Germany. In 1981 it became the first USAF overseas formation to operate the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon jet. It deployed for the Persian Gulf War of 1991, before being inactivated later that year. It was activated as a space wing on 30 January 1992, replacing the 2nd Space Wing. The 50th Space Wing was inactivated on 24 July 2020 and replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison, with the 50th Network Operations Group and its cyber and satellite control network units forming Space Delta 6, the 50th Operations Group and its satellite communications units forming Space Delta 8, and the 750th Operations Group and its orbital warfare units forming Space Delta 9.","title":"50th Space Wing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Space Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Force"},{"link_name":"Global Positioning System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System"},{"link_name":"Defense Satellite Communications System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System"},{"link_name":"Wideband Global Satellite Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wideband_Global_SATCOM"},{"link_name":"Military Strategic and Tactical Relay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milstar"},{"link_name":"Defense Meteorological Satellite Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program"},{"link_name":"Space Based Space Surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Based_Space_Surveillance"},{"link_name":"Operationally Responsive Space satellite system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operationally_Responsive_Space_Office"},{"link_name":"Advanced Extremely High Frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Extremely_High_Frequency"},{"link_name":"Boeing X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_X-37"},{"link_name":"Air Force Satellite Control Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Network"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Schriever Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schriever_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"United States Strategic Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Command"},{"link_name":"Joint Functional Component Command for Integrated Missile Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Functional_Component_Command_for_Integrated_Missile_Defense"},{"link_name":"Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"100th Missile Defense Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100th_Missile_Defense_Brigade"},{"link_name":"Air Force Reserve Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Reserve_Command"},{"link_name":"310th Space Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/310th_Space_Wing"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The 50th Space Wing was the United States Space Force's space and cyberspace warfare. The 50th Space Wing operated the Global Positioning System (GPS), Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS), Wideband Global Satellite Communications system, Military Strategic and Tactical Relay, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, Space Based Space Surveillance system, Operationally Responsive Space satellite system, Advanced Extremely High Frequency satellite system, and the Boeing X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle. It also operated the Air Force Satellite Control Network. At the time of its inactivation on 24 July 2020, the 50th Space Wing had 8,000 space professionals and airmen under its command.[4]The 50th Space Wing was also the host unit for Schriever Air Force Base, providing base support for United States Strategic Command's Joint Functional Component Command for Integrated Missile Defense, the Army's 100th Missile Defense Brigade, and Air Force Reserve Command's 310th Space Wing.[5]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50thoperationsgroup-emblem.jpg"},{"link_name":"50th Operations Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Operations_Group"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2_SOPS_emblem.png"},{"link_name":"2d Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2d_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4th_Space_Operations_Squadron.png"},{"link_name":"4th Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50th_Operations_Support_Squadron.PNG"},{"link_name":"50th Operations Support Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Operations_Support_Squadron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50th_Network_Operations_Group.png"},{"link_name":"50th Network Operations Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Network_Operations_Group"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:21st_Space_Operations_Squadron.png"},{"link_name":"21st Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Vandenberg Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Support_Facility_Diego_Garcia"},{"link_name":"Andersen Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andersen_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Kaena Point Satellite Tracking Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaena_Point_Satellite_Tracking_Station"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:22d_Space_Operations_Squadron.png"},{"link_name":"22nd Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:23d_Space_Operations_Squadron.png"},{"link_name":"23rd Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"New Boston Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Boston_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"Thule Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thule_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"RAF Oakhanger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Oakhanger"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50th_Space_Communications_Squadron.png"},{"link_name":"50th Space Communications Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Space_Communications_Squadron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50th_Mission_Support_Group_emblem.jpg"},{"link_name":"50th Mission Support Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=50th_Mission_Support_Group&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"50th Contracting Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=50th_Contracting_Squadron&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"50th Force Support Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=50th_Force_Support_Squadron&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"50th Security Forces Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=50th_Security_Forces_Squadron&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"50th Logistics Readiness Flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=50th_Logistics_Readiness_Flight&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"750th Operations Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/750th_Operations_Group"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1st_Space_Operations_Squadron.png"},{"link_name":"1st Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3d_Space_Experimentation_Squadron_Patch.jpg"},{"link_name":"3d Space Experimentation Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3d_Space_Experimentation_Squadron"},{"link_name":"750th Operations Support Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/750th_Operations_Support_Squadron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50_Comptroller_Sq_emblem.png"},{"link_name":"50th Comptroller Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=50th_Comptroller_Squadron&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"50th Operations Group (50 OG)[6]2d Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS)\n 4th Space Operations Squadron (4 SOPS)\n 50th Operations Support Squadron (50 OSS)\nDetachment 1, 50th Operations Group, Suitland, Maryland50th Network Operations Group (50 NOG)21st Space Operations Squadron (21 SOPS), Vandenberg Air Force Base\nDetachment 1, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia\nDetachment 2, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Andersen Air Force Base\nDetachment 3, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Kaena Point Satellite Tracking Station\n 22nd Space Operations Squadron (22 SOPS)\n 23rd Space Operations Squadron (23 SOPS), New Boston Air Force Station\nDetachment 1, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, Thule Air Base\nOL-A, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, RAF Oakhanger\n 50th Space Communications Squadron (50 SCS)50th Mission Support Group (50 MSG) - the 50th Support Group was formerly the 1002nd Space Support Group which was activated October 1, 1989.50th Civil Engineer Squadron\n50th Contracting Squadron\n50th Force Support Squadron\n50th Security Forces Squadron - formerly the 1002nd Special Security Squadron which was activated on October 1, 1985. The squadron was renamed the 1002d Security Police Squadron on October 1, 1989, as part of Air Force Space Command's support structure reorganization. 50th SFS activated 30 January 1992.[7]\n50th Logistics Readiness Flight (50 LRF)750th Operations Group (750 OG)1st Space Operations Squadron (1 SOPS)\n 3d Space Experimentation Squadron (3 SES)\n750th Operations Support Squadron (750 OSS)50th Comptroller Squadron (50 CPTS)","title":"Structure in 2020"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50th_Space_Wing.png"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"50th Space Wing shieldThe 50th Space Wing shield was first approved for use on 15 July 1953, before being modified in 1956 and on 9 July 1992, and being approved in its final form on 27 July 2012.[8] The blue background alludes to the vastness of space and the principal theater of the wing, while the yellow represents the sun and excellence required of its space professionals. The opinicus, with the strength of a lion and the bold flight of the eagle, symbolizes the functions of the 50th Space Wing. The motto of the 50th Space Wing, \"Master of Space,\" was derived from the 50th Pursuit Group's motto \"Master of Air\" and approved in September 1992.[9]","title":"Shield"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:81st_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron_-_North_American_F-86F-30-NA_Sabre_-_52-4661.jpg"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Reserve"},{"link_name":"Tactical Air Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command"},{"link_name":"First Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"33rd Fighter Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd_Fighter_Wing"},{"link_name":"Otis Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otis_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"50th Fighter Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Fighter_Group"},{"link_name":"81st Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/81st_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"North American P-51 Mustang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang"},{"link_name":"Republic F-84 Thunderjet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_F-84_Thunderjet"},{"link_name":"North American T-6 Texan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_T-6_Texan"},{"link_name":"Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_T-33"},{"link_name":"North American F-86A Sabre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_F-86A_Sabre"},{"link_name":"Air Defense Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Defense_Command"},{"link_name":"Eastern Air Defense Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Air_Defense_Force"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"Soviet Air Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"50th Fighter Wing (1949–1950) and 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing (1950–1951)","text":"81st Fighter-Bomber Squadron North American F-86F Sabre in flightOn 1 June 1950, the 50th Fighter Wing (50 FW) was activated in the United States Air Force Reserve and operationally assigned to Tactical Air Command's First Air Force, supporting the active-duty 33rd Fighter Wing. It was stationed at Otis Air Force Base, Massachusetts, and consisted of the 50th Fighter Group, which included the 81st Fighter Squadron, 50th Air Base Group, and 50th Maintenance and Supply Group, which included the 50th Supply Squadron.[10]The 50th Fighter Wing was responsible for air defense on the eastern seaboard, flying the North American P-51 Mustang and Republic F-84 Thunderjet fighters, as well as the North American T-6 Texan and Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star trainers. In 1950, it started flying the North American F-86A Sabre fighter jet. On 1 March 1950, it was redesignated the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing (50 FIW), with the 50th Fighter Group also being redesignated the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Group and 81st Fighter Squadron also redesignated as the 81st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron. The 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, along with the 33rd Fighter-Interceptor Wing, were reassigned to Air Defense Command's Eastern Air Defense Force.[11]The advent of the Korean War resulted in a reevaluation of the posture of the American air forces. On 2 June 1951 the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing was inactivated, as part of an American realignment to support NATO forces in Europe to more directly counter the Soviet Union and Soviet Air Forces.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50th_Fighter-Bomber_Wing.png"},{"link_name":"Tactical Air Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command"},{"link_name":"Ninth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Clovis Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"10th Fighter-Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"81st Fighter-Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/81st_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Military Sea Transportation Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Sea_Transportation_Service"},{"link_name":"USNS General M. B. Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_General_M._B._Stewart_(AP-140)"},{"link_name":"United States Air Forces in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Forces_in_Europe"},{"link_name":"Twelfth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Hahn Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hahn_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/417th_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:81st_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron_-_North_American_F-100D-60-NA_Super_Sabre_-_56-2928.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wheelus Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelus_Field"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"69th Pilotless Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/69th_Pilotless_Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"MGM-1 Matador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM-1_Matador"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Toul-Rosiére Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toul-Rosi%C3%A9re_Air_Base&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nellis Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nellis_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"North American F-100D Super Sabre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_F-100D_Super_Sabre"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"428th Fighter-Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/428th_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"429th Fighter-Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/429th_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"430th Fighter-Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/430th_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"457th Fighter-Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/457th_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"509th Fighter-Bomber Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/509th_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:50th_Tactical_Fighter_Wing.png"},{"link_name":"10th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"81st Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/81st_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"417th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/417th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"457th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/457th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Seventeenth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventeenth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Hahn Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hahn_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Ramstein Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramstein_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"86th Fighter-Interceptor Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/86th_Fighter-Interceptor_Wing"},{"link_name":"496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/496th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Convair F-102 Delta Dagger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convair_F-102_Delta_Dagger"},{"link_name":"Cuban Missile Crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis"},{"link_name":"435th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/435th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Morón Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mor%C3%B3n_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"355th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/355th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"458th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/458th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"614th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/614th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_F-4D_Phantom_II"},{"link_name":"Lockheed F-104 Starfighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighter"},{"link_name":"86th Air Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/86th_Air_Division"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:313th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron_-_McDonnell_Douglas_F-4E-40-MC_Phantom_-_68-0467.jpg"},{"link_name":"67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/67th_Tactical_Reconnaissance_Wing"},{"link_name":"Mountain Home Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_Home_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/496th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron"},{"link_name":"496th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/496th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Wild Weasel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Weasel"},{"link_name":"Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suppression_of_Enemy_Air_Defenses"},{"link_name":"Zweibrücken Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zweibr%C3%BCcken_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"86th Tactical Fighter Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/86th_Tactical_Fighter_Wing"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"laser-guided bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser-guided_bombs"},{"link_name":"Tactical Air Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command"},{"link_name":"8th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"9th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"68th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/68th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"417th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/417th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"421st Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/421st_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Aerospace Defense Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_Defense_Command"},{"link_name":"Convair F-106 Delta Dart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convair_F-106_Delta_Dart"},{"link_name":"5th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Fighter-Interceptor_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"313th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/313th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"KC-767","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KC-767"},{"link_name":"Imperial Iranian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Iranian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"General Dynamics F-16A Fighting Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16A_Fighting_Falcon"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:496th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron_-_General_Dynamics_F-16C_Block_25E_Fighting_Falcon_-_84-1315.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Norwegian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Norwegian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Royal Netherlands Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Belgian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Royal Danish Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Danish_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Zaragoza Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaragoza_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Incirlik Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incirlik_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:10th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron_-_F-16_Group.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:10th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron_-_General_Dynamics_F-16C_Block_25F_Fighting_Falcon_-_85-1405.jpg"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Nellis Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nellis_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Autobahn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobahn"},{"link_name":"Ramstein Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramstein_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Spangdahlem Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spangdahlem_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Pferdsfel Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pferdsfel_Air_Base&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Secretary of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Invasion of Kuwait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait"},{"link_name":"10th Tactical Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_Tactical_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Operation Desert Shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Desert_Shield"},{"link_name":"Operation Desert Storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Desert_Storm"},{"link_name":"Al-Taqaddum Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Taqaddum_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Iraqi Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Scud missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scud_missile"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"50th Fighter-Bomber Wing (1953–1958) and 50th Tactical Fighter Wing (1958–1991)","text":"50th Fighter-Bomber Wing shieldOn 1 January 1953, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing (50 FBW) was activated and assigned to Tactical Air Command's Ninth Air Force. Stationed at Clovis Air Force Base, New Mexico, the wing's operational component was the 50th Fighter-Bomber Group, which consisted of the 10th Fighter-Bomber Squadron and the 81st Fighter-Bomber Squadron. The wing initially flew F-51 Mustang fighters, before converting to the F-86F Sabre in 1953. The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing's support elements included the 50th Air Base Group, the 50th Maintenance and Supply Group, and the 50th Medical Group, which was later redesignated as the 50th Tactical Hospital. The 50th Air Base Group consisted of the 50th Air Police Squadron (later redesignated the 50th Security Police Squadron) and 50th Civil Engineering Squadron (later redesignated the 50th Civil Engineer Squadron), while the 50th Maintenance and Supply Group consisted of the 50th Supply Squadron.[13]In summer 1953, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was transferred to Europe, with much of the wing's personnel and equipment sailing across the Atlantic Ocean on the Military Sea Transportation Service's USNS General M. B. Stewart, while the aircrew flew across the North Atlantic. On 9 August 1953 it became part of United States Air Forces in Europe's Twelfth Air Force and was stationed at Hahn Air Base, Germany, where the wing assumed responsibility for the 7425th USAF Hospital from 1 May 1954 to 9 April 1956. The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also gained a third fighter-bomber squadron, assuming command of the 417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron and also became the first tactically operational wing in Twelfth Air Force.[14]81st Tactical Fighter Squadron F-100D Super Sabre being serviced at Wheelus ABAlmost immediately after arriving in Germany, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing participated in Exercise Monte Carlo, which was designed to demonstrate NATO air defense force capabilities. In 1954, elements of the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing spent six weeks at Wheelus Field, Libya, training in air-to-air and ground attack operations, scoring higher in both categories than any other unit in Twelfth Air Force. In 1955 the 21 FBW took top honors at the United States Air Forces in Europe aerial gunnery competition at Wheelus Field, and on 21 October 1955 it began to transition to the F-86H Sabre.[15]For brief period in 1955 and 1956, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also flew the ET-33 trainer. On 14 March 1955, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing gained the 69th Pilotless Bomber Squadron, which operated the MGM-1 Matador cruise missile system. On 8 June 1955, the 69th Pilotless Bomber Squadron was redesignated the 69th Tactical Missile Squadron, and on 15 April 1956, left the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing for the 7382d Guided Missile Group, which the 21 FBW provided support for.[16]On 15 April 1956, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing began to move to Toul-Rosiére Air Base, France, fully transitioning by 1 August 1956. On 8 August 1956, the 50the Fighter-Bomber Wing assumed responsibility for the 7352d USAF Hospital, before relinquishing command on 25 September 1957. United States Air Forces in Europe then sent the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing to represent it at the Air Force Fighter Weapons Meet at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. On 8 December 1957, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Group and 50th Maintenance and Supply Group were inactivated, with their squadrons reporting directly to the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing. On 8 December, the 50th Field Maintenance Squadron activated. The 50th Field Maintenance Squadron would later be redesignated the 50th Consolidated Aircraft Maintenance Squadron, before reassuming its designation as the 50th Field Maintenance Squadron, and was later redesignated the 50th Equipment Maintenance Squadron, before finally being designated the 50th Maintenance Squadron. On 15 November 1958, the 50th Armament and Electronics Maintenance Squadron was activated, later being redesignated the 50th Avionics Maintenance Squadron, before finally being designated the 50th Component Repair Squadron. In 1957 and 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing began transitioning to the North American F-100D Super Sabre. On 1 January 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was moved from Twelfth Air Force to directly report to United States Air Forces in Europe.[17]The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also had a number of Tactical Air Command squadrons temporarily attached to it, including the 428th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 1 April 1957 to 1 October 1957, the 429th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 7 October 1956 to 1 April 1957, the 430th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 20 April 1956 to 7 October 1956, the 457th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 20 March 1958 to 19 August 1958, and the 509th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 15 January 1958 to 24 March 1958.[18]50th Tactical Fighter Wing ShieldOn 8 July 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was redesignated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing (50 TFW). The redesignation from fighter-bomber to tactical fighter also affected its subordinate units, including the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron, and the attached 457th Tactical Fighter Squadron. On 15 November 1959, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing was reassigned from USAFE to the Seventeenth Air Force[19]On 1 September 1959, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began to transition back to Hahn Air Base, Germany, with the exception of the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron, which was based at Ramstein Air Base, Germany. The 86th Fighter-Interceptor Wing's 496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which flew the F-86D Sabre, was also attached to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing under the duel-basing construct. In December 1959, the 496th Tactical Fighter Squadron began converting to Convair F-102 Delta Dagger interceptors. Due to the Cuban Missile Crisis and previous routine force movements, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing had the 435th Tactical Fighter Squadron from Morón Air Base, Spain attached to it from 24 October 1962 to 11 December 1962, the 355th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 5 September 1961 to 16 November 1961, the 458th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 13 August 1958 to 18 February 1959, and the 614th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 5 September 1961 to 14 November 1961.[20]On 8 April 1952, the 50th Air Base Wing was redesignated as the 50th Combat Support Wing. In a reorganization of the wing's maintenance squadrons, the 50th Armament and Electronics Maintenance Squadron was briefly inactivated on 8 April 1962, but reactivated on 1 July 1964. Several new maintenance squadrons were activated on 1 July 1964, including the 50th Flightline Maintenance Squadron, although it was detached until 1 October 1965 and was inactivated shortly after on 25 December 1965, 50th Organizational Maintenance Squadron, although it was inactivated on 1 January 1966, and 350th Munitions Maintenance Squadron. On 1 October 1967, the 7236th Ammunition Supply Squadron was activated, augmenting the maintenance and operational fighter-bomber squadrons.[21][22]Following the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing resumed normal operations with its own three tactical fighter squadrons, participating in exercises with other NATO air forces. On 8 October 1966 the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron, and 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron began converting from the F-100D Super Sabre to the McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II tactical fighter, after the wing briefly operated the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter in 1962. During the conversion, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron remained assigned to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing, but remained detached to the 86th Air Division at Ramstein Air Base.[23]313rd Tactical Fighter Squadron F-4E PhantomOn 1 July 1968, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron was removed from the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing, reassigned to Tactical Air Command's 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho. To replace the lost squadron, the 496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was permanently reassigned to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing from the 86th Air Division on 1 November 1968 and redesignated the 496th Tactical Fighter Squadron. Initially it continued flying the F-102 Delta Dagger, but within two years upgraded to the F-4E Phantom II. Soon after, United States Air Forces in Europe selected the 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron to be the first to assume the Wild Weasel Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses mission set, equipping it with the Wild Weasel variant of the F-4E, and later the F-F-4G Wild Weasel V. On 12 June 1971, the 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron was moved to Zweibrücken Air Base, Germany and operationally subordinated to the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing, although it administratively remained part of the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing until it fully transitioned over on 15 July 1971. On 1 July 1971, USAF Hospital, Hahn, later designated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing Hospital was assigned to the wing.[24]In 1972 another round of reorganization to the wing's maintenance squadrons occurred. On 1 January 1972, the 50th Organizational Maintenance Squadron, later redesignated the 50th Aircraft Generation Squadron, was reactivated. On 1 April 1972, the 7501st Munitions Support Squadron, 7502d Munitions Support Squadron, 7503d Munitions Support Squadron, and 7504th Munitions Support Squadron were all activated. On 7 October 1972, the 350th Munitions Maintenance Squadron and 7236th Ammunition Supply Squadron inactivated, with the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron, later redesignated as the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron (Theater), and 50th Ammunition Supply Squadron activated on 8 October 1972 to replace them. the 7504th Munitions Support Squadron was inactivated on 1 September 1972, with the 7503d Munitions Support Squadron inactivating on 1 October 1972.[25]In 1975, the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron began to utilize laser-guided bombs. It also hosted a number of attached Tactical Air Command squadrons, including the 8th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 8 March 1973 to 2 April 1973 and 6 September 1975 to 6 October 1975, 9th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 11 September 1971 to 7 October 1971 and 23 September 1976 to 24 October 1976, the 68th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 10 May 1977 to 7 June 1977, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron numerous times from 1968 to 1976, and the 421st Tactical Fighter Squadron from 5 August 1977 to 25 August 1977. The 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also hosted the first European deployment of Aerospace Defense Command fighters, hosting a detachment of six Convair F-106 Delta Dart interceptors from the 5th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron from 4 September 1975 to 25 September 1975.[26]In 1976, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began to fully convert its remaining squadrons to the F-4E Phantom II fighter and on 15 November 1976 it gained the newly activated 313th Tactical Fighter Squadron. The 50 TFW also began testing the Project Oriented Maintenance Organization for USAFE in 1977, testing the concept in the April 1978 Salty Rooster exercise. The success of the exercise resulted in the Project Oriented Maintenance Organization being rolled out across all of United States Air Forces in Europe. The 50 TFW also continued to exercise with allied partners, being the first U.S. Air Force unit to refuel with a KC-767 of the Imperial Iranian Air Force. The wing also activated the 7362d Munitions Support Squadron on 15 July 1976.[27]In 1978, United States Air Forces in Europe announced that the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing would be the first to test and field the General Dynamics F-16A Fighting Falcon, as well as its F-16B two-seater variant. The first F-16As arrived at Hahn Air Base on 19 April 1979 and began upgrading the airbase's facilities to accommodate the new aircraft. On 30 December 1981, the 313th Tactical Fighter Squadron accepted the 50 TFW's first operational F-16As, with the other squadrons following suit shortly and divesting the remaining F-4Es within six months. A number of changes to maintenance units happened in 1978, including the inactivation of the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron on 8 October 1978 and the activation of the 7015th Explosive Ordnance Disposal Flight on 1 October 1978.[28]496th Tactical Fighter Squadron F-16CThe 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also participated in a NATO gala on 9 July 1982, marking NATO's adoption of the F-16, where it participated along with F-16s from the Royal Norwegian Air Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, as well as other NATO air forces. 50th Tactical Fighter Wing F-16s frequently deployed to Zaragoza Air Base, Spain and Incirlik Air Base, Turkey to perform air-to-air and air-to-ground training to achieve full operational readiness, which was declared in April 1983. Shortly after, in July 1983, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing participated in a USAFE Operational Readiness Inspection and NATO Organizational Tactical Evaluation, and in October 1983, took first place in the U.S. Air Force's Gunsmoke bombing and gunnery competition. \n[29]Group of four 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron F-16s in flight over Southwest Asia in 1991F-16C from the 10th tactical Fighter Squadron during the second wave of air attacks on Iraqi targets in support of Operation Desert Storm on 17 January 1991.A number of changes to the 50th Combat Support Group and wing staff occurred in the 1980s and early 1990, with the 7150th Comptroller Squadron activating on 15 November 1983, before being inactivated and replaced by the newly established 50th Comptroller Squadron on 1 July 1985, the 50th Security Police Group activating on 21 October 1988, and 50th Support Squadron activating on 1 June 1989, and 2184th Communications Squadron activating on 1 October 1990. Maintenance squadrons also experienced structural changes, with the 7501st Munitions Support Squadron and 7502d Munitions Support Squadron inactivating on 15 November 1985, 7362d Munitions Support Squadron being inactivated on 1 January 1986, 50th Ammunition Supply Squadron being inactivated on 15 May 1986, being replaced by the reactivated 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron, the 7015th Explosive Ordnance Disposal Flight being inactivated on 1 November 1986. The 50th Tactical Hospital was also inactivated on 1 July 1986.[30]In March 1984, the 50 TFW participated in the Green Flag exercise at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, engaging in realistic combat training and participated in NATO exercises, with two F-16As conducting landings and takeoffs on the German Autobahn highways. Between April and June 1984, 50 TFW units forward deployed to Ramstein Air Base, Spangdahlem Air Base, and Pferdsfel Air Base due to repairs at Hahn Air Base. In 1986, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began replacing its F-16As and F-16Bs with the more advanced F-16Cs and F-16Ds, fully phasing out the first generation F-16s in less than a year. The 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also won the Daledalin Maintenance trophy in 1986 for both the numbered air force, major command, and air force level. It also won the Secretary of Defense's Phoenix Award for the best maintenance organization in the entire United States Department of Defense.[31]When Iraq executed its Invasion of Kuwait in 1991, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing quickly mobilized its forces for deployment, sending the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron and 30 F-16C Fighting Falcons as part of Operation Desert Shield on 29 December 1990. On 17 January 1991, 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron aircraft were among the first to strike Iraqi military positions as part of Operation Desert Storm, specifically bombing Al-Taqaddum Air Base, Iraq and gaining air supremacy over the Iraqi Air Force. The squadron was retasked to hunt down Scud missiles, which were striking coalition military targets and Israeli population centers. Throughout the entire campaign, the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron had only lost one aircraft, with its pilot being taken as a prisoner of war. After hostilities ceased, 10 TFS forces enforced the ceasefire accords through combat air patrols.[32]Due to the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States and NATO began to draw down its high posture in Europe, resulting in the inactivation of the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing and closure of Hahn Air Base on 30 September 1991.[33]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GPS_Block_IIIA.jpg"},{"link_name":"Falcon Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Air Force Space Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command"},{"link_name":"2nd Space Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Space_Wing"},{"link_name":"communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite"},{"link_name":"navigation warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navigation"},{"link_name":"space domain awareness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_domain_awareness"},{"link_name":"Air Force Satellite Control Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Network"},{"link_name":"Global Broadcast Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Broadcast_Service"},{"link_name":"Fourteenth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"1st Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"2nd Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"3rd Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"4th Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"5th Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Defense Satellite Communications System II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System"},{"link_name":"Defense Satellite Communications System III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System"},{"link_name":"Defense Support Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Support_Program"},{"link_name":"Fleet Satellite Communications System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_Satellite_Communications_System"},{"link_name":"Global Positioning System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System"},{"link_name":"British Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"Skynet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skynet_(satellite)"},{"link_name":"Ultra High Frequency Follow-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_High_Frequency_Follow-On"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DMSP_Block-5D2.jpg"},{"link_name":"1000th Satellite Operations Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000th_Satellite_Operations_Group"},{"link_name":"Defense Meteorological Support Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Support_Program"},{"link_name":"6th Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"4th Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Military Strategic and Tactical Relay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Strategic_and_Tactical_Relay"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"750th Space Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/750th_Space_Group"},{"link_name":"Onizuka Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onizuka_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"Air Force Satellite Control Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Network"},{"link_name":"21st Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"22nd Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"23rd Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"New Boston Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Boston_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milstar.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fleet Satellite Communications System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_Satellite_Communications_System"},{"link_name":"Defense Satellite Communications System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Unified Task Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Task_Force"},{"link_name":"United States Space Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Command"},{"link_name":"Global Positioning System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System"},{"link_name":"Space and Missile Systems Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Air Education and Training Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Education_and_Training_Command"},{"link_name":"534th Training Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/534th_Training_Squadron"},{"link_name":"381st Training Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/381st_Training_Group"},{"link_name":"Vandenberg Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"50th Communications Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Communications_Group"},{"link_name":"850th Communications Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/850th_Communications_Squadron"},{"link_name":"55th Space Weather Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55th_Space_Weather_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Fairchild Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Offutt Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offutt_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration"},{"link_name":"8th Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"6th Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DSCS-3_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Defense Satellite Communications System II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Satellite_Communications_System"},{"link_name":"Ballistic Missile Defense Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_Missile_Defense_Organization"},{"link_name":"Midcourse Space Experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midcourse_Space_Experiment"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Ultra High Frequency Follow-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_High_Frequency_Follow-On"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle Discovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery"},{"link_name":"STS-92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-92"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"September 11 attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"Operation Enduring Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom"},{"link_name":"Operation Iraqi Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"21st Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"22nd Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"23rd Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"850th Space Communications Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/850th_Space_Communications_Squadron"},{"link_name":"50th Space Communications Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Space_Communications_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"460th Space Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/460th_Space_Wing"},{"link_name":"2nd Space Warning Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Space_Warning_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Wideband Global SATCOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wideband_Global_SATCOM"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Vandenberg Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle Discovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery"},{"link_name":"STS-119","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-119"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wideband_Global_SATCOM_(3194626).jpg"},{"link_name":"TacSat-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TacSat-3"},{"link_name":"Space Based Space Surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Based_Space_Surveillance"},{"link_name":"Operationally Responsive Space-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operationally_Responsive_Space_Office"},{"link_name":"Advanced Extremely High Frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Extremely_High_Frequency"},{"link_name":"Space Based Space Surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Based_Space_Surveillance"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Space Innovation and Development Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Innovation_and_Development_Center"},{"link_name":"3rd Space Experimentation Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Space_Experimentation_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosynchronous_Space_Situational_Awareness_Program"},{"link_name":"Boeing X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_X-37"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Space Delta 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Delta_6"},{"link_name":"Space Delta 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Delta_8"},{"link_name":"Space Delta 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Delta_9"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"50th Space Wing (1992–2020)","text":"A Block IIIA GPS SpacecraftOn 30 January 1992, the 50th Space Wing (50 SW) was reactivated at Falcon Air Force Base, Colorado and assigned to Air Force Space Command. The 50th Space Wing replaced Air Force Space Command's 2nd Space Wing, flying its communications, navigation warfare, and space domain awareness spacecraft, as well as operating the Air Force Satellite Control Network and Global Broadcast Service. Replacing the 2nd Space Wing with the 50th Space Wing was part of a larger Air Force initiative designed to preserve early Air Force flying heritage, and bestowed upon the 50th Space Wing the history and honors of the World War II-era 50th Pursuit Group. On 20 September 1993, the 50th Space Wing was assigned to the Air Force Space Command's Fourteenth Air Force.[34]The 50th Operations Group served as the primary operations arm of the 50th Space Wing and operational units from the 2nd Space Wing were transferred to it, along with being redesignated from satellite control squadrons to space operations squadrons. Operations units included the 1st Space Operations Squadron, 2nd Space Operations Squadron, 3rd Space Operations Squadron, 4th Space Operations Squadron, 5th Space Operations Squadron, stationed at Onizuka Air Force Station, 50th Satellite Communications Squadron, 50th Crew Training Squadron, and 50th Operations Support Squadron. Spacecraft inherited from the 2nd Space Wing included the Defense Satellite Communications System II and Defense Satellite Communications System III constellations, the Defense Support Program missile warning constellation, the U.S. Navy's Fleet Satellite Communications System constellation, the Global Positioning System constellation, the NATO III and NATO IV satellite communications constellation, the British Armed Forces' Skynet satellite communications constellation, the U.S. Navy's Ultra High Frequency Follow-On satellite communications constellation.[35]A Block V Defense Meteorological Support Program spacecraftThe 1000th Satellite Operations Group which flew the Defense Meteorological Support Program constellation, briefly served as an operational group of the 50th Space Wing, before being redesignated as the 6th Space Operations Squadron and moved under the 50th Operations Group on 31 July 1992. On 30 April 1992, the 4th Space Operations Squadron was activated to fly the Military Strategic and Tactical Relay (Milstar) communications satellite constellation. On 1 July 1992, the 50th Satellite Communications Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Space Communications Squadron.[36]The 750th Space Group, redesignated from its previous name as the 2nd Satellite Training Group with the activation of the 50th Space Wing, was stationed at Onizuka Air Force Station, was responsible for the operations of the Air Force Satellite Control Network and provided base support to the 5th Space Operations Squadron. Its operational elements consisted of the 21st Space Operations Squadron, 22nd Space Operations Squadron, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, stationed at New Boston Air Force Station, and 750th Operations Support Squadron. Installation support squadrons included the 750th Mission Support Squadron and 750th Logistics Support Squadron. On 1 October 1994, the 750th Medical Squadron was activated to provide medical support to personnel at Onizuka AFS.[37]The 50th Maintenance Group was activated to support the operations groups, consisting of the 50th Maintenance Squadron, 50th Logistics Support Squadron, and 50th Space Systems Squadron. The 50th Combat Support Squadron, responsible for installation support, consisted of the 50th Security Police Squadron, redesignated as the 50th Security Forces Squadron in 1997, 50th Civil Engineer Squadron, and 50th Support Squadron.[38]A Military Strategic and Tactical Relay spacecraftThe 50th Space Wing conducted several significant orbital operations in support of terrestrial forces. In February 1992, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron won Air Force Space Command's Space Support Trophy and in November 1992 flew a Fleet Satellite Communications System spacecraft from an orbit above the Pacific Ocean to one above the Atlantic Ocean, the longest transfer orbit in the squadron's history. 3 SOPS later transferred a Defense Satellite Communications System spacecraft from its orbit over Europe to over Somalia, providing space support for the United Nations' Unified Task Force. These operations led to the 50th Space Wing winning United States Space Command's Herres Award. In 1994, the 50th Space Wing assumed full responsibility for the Global Positioning System from the Space and Missile Systems Center and the 4th Space Operations Squadron officially accepted Milstar on 15 November 1994.[39]On 1 October 1994, the 50th Crew Training Squadron was inactivated, with its space training functions transferred to Air Education and Training Command's 534th Training Squadron, organized under the 381st Training Group at Vandenberg Air Force Base. On the same date, the 50th Weather Squadron was activated and gained responsibility for monitoring space weather from the Air Force Space Forecast Center. On 14 August 1995, the 50th Contracting Squadron was activated under the 50th Combat Support Group. In 1996, the 50th Space Wing turned over full operations of the Fleet Satellite Communications System to the Naval Satellite Operations Center.[40]The wing began a series of reorganizations beginning in 1997, inactivating the 50th Maintenance Group, 50th Maintenance Squadron, and 50th Logistics Support Squadron on 1 December 1997. On the same day, the 50th Communications Group was activated to replace the 50th Maintenance Group's space support activities. Prior to the inactivation of the 50th Maintenance Group, the 50th Space Support Squadron was briefly inactivated on 23 June 1997, before being reactivated as the 850th Communications Squadron. The 50th Space Communications Squadron was redesignated the 50th Communications Squadron and transferred from the 50th Operations Group which, along with the 850th Communications Squadron, were assigned to the 50th Communications Group. On 6 March 1997, the 55th Space Weather Squadron replaced the 50th Space Weather Squadron, before itself inactivating on 1 October 1999. In June 1997, the 50th Space Wing began to consolidate its activities at Falcon AFB, reducing its presence at Onizuka Air Force Station, Fairchild Air Force Base, and Offutt Air Force Base. As part of this drawdown, the 750th Operations Support Squadron was inactivated on 23 June 1997 and the 750th Logistics Support Squadron was inactivated on 5 November 1997.[41]In On 5 June 1998, the 50th Space Wing renamed Falcon Air Force Base to Schriever Air Force Base, and began building a new satellite control facility, intending to transfer all functions from Onizuka AFS and shut down the base . It also closed the Defense Meteorological Support Program satellite operations centers at Fairchild AFB and Offutt AFB and transferred it to Suitland, Maryland, where the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration was establishing a new DMSP satellite operations facility. The DMSP was relinquished to NOAA later that year, resulting in the inactivation of the 6th Space Operations Squadron on 30 September 1998. The 8th Space Operations Squadron, a reserve unit, was activated to support NOAA operations of the DMSP and serve as the back-up satellite operations center at Schriever AFB. 8 SOPS began operations in September 1998, but was replaced by Air Force Reserve Command with a reactivated 6th Space Operations Squadron on 1 October 1998.[42]A Defense Satellite Communications System III spacecraftOn 21 October 1998, the 5th Space Operations Squadron placed the last Defense Satellite Communications System II spacecraft in a super synchronous orbit, retiring the system. In December 1998, the 1st Space Operations Squadron began to support the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization's Midcourse Space Experiment, which it assumed full control of on 1 October 2000.[43]On 25 June 1999, the 750th Space Group was inactivated, following the inactivation of the 750th Mission Support Squadron on 3 May 1999 and 750th Medical Squadron on 28 May 1999 due to the 1995 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission's recommendations to reduce presence at Onizuka AFS, leaving the 21st Space Operations Squadron as the host squadron for the base. The 50th Operations Group assumed responsibility for the 5th Space Operations Squadron, which was inactivated on 13 June 2000, the 21st Space Operations Squadron, the 22nd Space Operations Squadron, and the 23rd Space Operations Squadron.[44]On 10 February 2000, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron turned over operational control of the Ultra High Frequency Follow-On to the United States Navy's Naval Satellite Operations Center. On 11 October 2000, the Space Shuttle Discovery experienced a Ku-band antenna failure while flying STS-92. The 21st Space Operations Squadron provided communications support for the shuttle mission, relaying information to NASA mission control.[45]In response to the September 11 attacks, the United States and NATO forces initiated Operation Enduring Freedom. The 50th Space Wing provided satellite communications, global positioning system enhancements, and deployed personnel to support counterterrorism operations. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 50th Space Wing had on average 80 space operators deployed to forward operating bases in the Middle East. During the initial allied invasion of Iraq, the 2nd Space Operations Squadron developed new techniques for enhancing Global Positioning System accuracy over the Iraqi theater of operations, with the 3rd Satellite Operations Squadron and 4th Satellite Operations Squadron maximized communications coverage of the theater. The 1st Space Operations Squadron also set a new record for placing a GPS spacecraft in orbit and completing all early on-orbit checkout activities in 11 days, while also providing Defense support Program and GPS support. 3 SOPS' Defense Satellite Communications System Block III provided 80% of bandwidth for allied forces in theater, while 4 SOPS dedicated 85% of Milstar communications capacity to support tactical forces.[46]On 1 October 2002, the 50th Communications Group was inactivated, being briefly replaced by the 50th Maintenance Group, until the maintenance group was inactivated and communications group reactivated on 1 June 2003. On 1 October 2002, the 50th Communications Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Space Communications Squadron and 850th Communications Squadron redesignated as 850th Space Communications Squadron. On 10 March 2004, the 50th Communications Group was redesignated as the 50th Network Operations Group and given responsibility for the Air Force Satellite Control Network from the 50th Operations Group, with the 21st Space Operations Squadron, 22nd Space Operations Squadron, and 23rd Space Operations Squadron transferred to it. On 30 January 2006, the 850th Space Communications Squadron had its functions merged into the 50th Space Communications Squadron upon the 850 SCS's inactivation.[47]On 1 October 2002, the 50th Combat Support Group was redesignated the 50th Mission Support Group and the 50th Support Squadron was redesignated the 50th Mission Support Squadron. On 1 October 2003, the 50th Comptroller Squadron was activated, reporting directly to 50th Space Wing headquarters. On 1 June 2003, the 50th Logistics Readiness Flight, formerly the 50th Supply Squadron, was reactivated and assigned to the 50th Mission Support Group. On 20 June 2008, the 50th Mission Support Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Force Support Squadron.[48]On 3 September 2004, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron ceased operating the NATO III, NATO IV, and Skynet satellite systems and on 31 August 2006, the 1st Space Operations Squadron turned over operations of the Defense Support Program constellation to the 460th Space Wing's 2nd Space Warning Squadron. On 11 April 2008, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron accepted the first Wideband Global SATCOM spacecraft.[49]On 15 September 2011, the 21st Space Operations Squadron transitioned to Vandenberg Air Force Base's Ellison Onizuka Space Operations Facility and Onizuka Air Force Station closed. On 16 July 2008, the 1st Space Operations Squadron decommissioned and disposed of the Midcourse Space Experiment. In March 2009, the 21st Space Operations Squadron provided communications support for the Space Shuttle Discovery during STS-119.[50]A Wideband Global SATCOM spacecraft1 SOPS assumed responsibility for TacSat-3, the Space Based Space Surveillance system, and the Operationally Responsive Space-1 spacecraft in 2010, retiring TACSAT-3 in 2012 and ORS-1 in 2017.In 2010, the 50th Space Wing regained responsibility for the Defense Meteorological Support Program, standing up Detachment 1, 50th Operations Group at Suitland, Maryland. On 12 March 2012, 4 SOPS assumed satellite control authority for Advanced Extremely High Frequency-1. On 21 February 2011, the 50th Space Wing gained control authority for the Space Based Space Surveillance satellite.[51]On 1 April 2013, the Space Innovation and Development Center was inactivated, resulting in the 50th Space Wing gaining the 3rd Space Experimentation Squadron. On 29 September 2015, the Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program was transferred to the 1st Space Operations Squadron. The 50th Space Wing operated a number of other experimental systems, including the Boeing X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle, Automated Navigation and Guidance Experiment for Local Space (ANGELS) from 2016 to 2017, and ORS-5 and the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle Secondary Payload Adapter Augmented Geosynchronous Laboratory Experiment (EAGLE) in 2018. On 13 June 2017, the 3 Space Operations Squadron was inactivated, merging its functions into 4 SOPS. 4 SOPS provided communications support to hurricane relief efforts.[52]On 20 December 2019, the 50th Space Wing, along with the rest of Air Force Space Command, was transferred to the United States Space Force and on 19 June 2020, the 750th Operations Group was activated, centralizing orbital warfare functions represented by the 1st Space Operations Squadron, 3rd Space Experimentation Squadron, and 750th Operations Support Squadron under a single group.[53][54] On 24 July 2020, the 50th Space Wing was inactivated for a final time, being replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison. Its units were divided between Space Delta 6, which is responsible for cyberspace operations and replaced the 50th Network Operations Group, Space Delta 8, which is responsible for satellite communications and navigation warfare and replaced the 50th Operations Group, and Space Delta 9, which is responsible for orbital warfare and replaced the 750th Operations Group.[55]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of commanders"}] | [{"image_text":"50th Space Wing shield","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/50th_Space_Wing.png/220px-50th_Space_Wing.png"},{"image_text":"81st Fighter-Bomber Squadron North American F-86F Sabre in flight","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/81st_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron_-_North_American_F-86F-30-NA_Sabre_-_52-4661.jpg/220px-81st_Fighter-Bomber_Squadron_-_North_American_F-86F-30-NA_Sabre_-_52-4661.jpg"},{"image_text":"50th Fighter-Bomber Wing 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/65nm | 65 nm process | ["1 Process node","2 Example: Fujitsu 65 nm process","3 Processors using 65 nm manufacturing technology","4 References","5 Sources"] | Advanced lithographic node used in volume CMOS semiconductor fabrication
Semiconductordevicefabrication
MOSFET scaling(process nodes)
020 μm – 1968
010 μm – 1971
006 μm – 1974
003 μm – 1977
1.5 μm – 1981
001 μm – 1984
800 nm – 1987
600 nm – 1990
350 nm – 1993
250 nm – 1996
180 nm – 1999
130 nm – 2001
090 nm – 2003
065 nm – 2005
045 nm – 2007
032 nm – 2009
028 nm – 2010
022 nm – 2012
014 nm – 2014
010 nm – 2016
007 nm – 2018
005 nm – 2020
003 nm – 2022
Future
002 nm ~ 2024
Half-nodes
Density
CMOS
Device (multi-gate)
Moore's law
Transistor count
Semiconductor
Industry
Nanoelectronics
vte
The 65 nm process is an advanced lithographic node used in volume CMOS (MOSFET) semiconductor fabrication. Printed linewidths (i.e. transistor gate lengths) can reach as low as 25 nm on a nominally 65 nm process, while the pitch between two lines may be greater than 130 nm.
Process node
For comparison, cellular ribosomes are about 20 nm end-to-end. A crystal of bulk silicon has a lattice constant of 0.543 nm, so such transistors are on the order of 100 atoms across. By September 2007, Intel, AMD, IBM, UMC and Chartered were also producing 65 nm chips.
While feature sizes may be drawn as 65 nm or less, the wavelengths of light used for lithography are 193 nm and 248 nm. Fabrication of sub-wavelength features requires special imaging technologies, such as optical proximity correction and phase-shifting masks. The cost of these techniques adds substantially to the cost of manufacturing sub-wavelength semiconductor products, with the cost increasing exponentially with each advancing technology node. Furthermore, these costs are multiplied by an increasing number of mask layers that must be printed at the minimum pitch, and the reduction in yield from printing so many layers at the cutting edge of the technology. For new integrated-circuit designs, this factors into the costs of prototyping and production.
Gate thickness, another important dimension, is reduced to as little as 1.2 nm (Intel). Only a few atoms insulate the "switch" part of the transistor, causing charge to flow through it. This undesired leakage is caused by quantum tunneling. The new chemistry of high-κ gate dielectrics must be combined with existing techniques, including substrate bias and multiple threshold voltages, to prevent leakage from prohibitively consuming power.
IEDM papers from Intel in 2002, 2004, and 2005 illustrate the industry trend that the transistor sizes can no longer scale along with the rest of the feature dimensions (gate width only changed from 220 nm to 210 nm going from 90 nm to 65 nm technologies). However, the interconnects (metal and poly pitch) continue to shrink, thus reducing chip area and chip cost, as well as shortening the distance between transistors, leading to higher-performance devices of greater complexity when compared with earlier nodes. Intel's 65nm process has a transistor density of 2.08 million transistors per square milimeter (MTr/mm2).
Example: Fujitsu 65 nm process
Gate length: 30 nm (high-performance) to 50 nm (low-power)
Core voltage: 1.0 V
11 Cu interconnect layers using nano-clustering silica as ultralow κ dielectric (κ=2.25)
Metal 1 pitch: 180 nm
Nickel silicide source/drain
Gate oxide thickness: 1.9 nm (n), 2.1 nm (p)
There are actually two versions of the process: CS200, focusing on high performance, and CS200A, focusing on low power.
Processors using 65 nm manufacturing technology
Sony/Toshiba EE+GS (PStwo) - 2005
Intel Core – 2006-01-05
Intel Pentium 4 (Cedar Mill) – 2006-01-16
Intel Pentium D 900-series – 2006-01-16
Intel Xeon (Sossaman) – 2006-03-14
Intel Celeron D (Cedar Mill cores) – 2006-05-28
Intel Core 2 – 2006-07-27
AMD Athlon 64 series (starting from Lima) – 2007-02-20
AMD Turion 64 X2 series (starting from Tyler) – 2007-05-07
Microsoft Xbox 360 "Falcon" CPU – 2007–09
NVIDIA GeForce 8800GT GPU – 2007-10-29
Sony/Toshiba/IBM Cell (PlayStation 3) (updated) – 2007-10-30
Sun UltraSPARC T2 – 2007–10
AMD Phenom series
IBM's z10
Microsoft Xbox 360 "Opus" CPU – 2008
TI OMAP 3 Family – 2008-02
VIA Nano – 2008-05
AMD Turion Ultra – 2008-06
Microsoft Xbox 360 "Jasper" CPU – 2008–10
Loongson – 2009
Nikon Expeed 2 – 2010
MCST Elbrus 4C – 2014
SRISA 1890VM9Ya – 2016
References
^ 2006 industry roadmap Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Table 40a.
^ "Intel's 10nm Cannon Lake and Core i3-8121U Deep Dive Review".
^ "Fujitsu Introduces World-class 65-Nanometer Process Technology for Advanced Server, Mobile Applications". Fujitsu (Press release). Sunnyvale, CA. September 20, 2005. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
^ Kim, Paul (February 7, 2006). 65nm CMOS Process Technology (PDF). DesignCon. Fujitsu.
^ "ソニー、65nm対応の半導体設備を導入。3年間で2,000億円の投資". pc.watch.impress.co.jp. Archived from the original on August 13, 2016.
^ "OMAP 3 family of multimedia applications processors" (PDF). Texas Instruments. 2007. p. 1.
^ Gruener, Wolfgang (May 3, 2007). "AMD preps 65 nm Turion X2 processors". TG Daily. Archived from the original on September 13, 2007. Retrieved March 4, 2008.
^ "Microprocessor Elbrus-4C".
^ "ФГУ ФНЦ НИИСИ РАН: Разработка СБИС".
Sources
"Intel to cut Prescott leakage by 75% at 65nm". The Register. August 31, 2004. Retrieved August 25, 2007.
Engineering Sample of the "Yonah" core Pentium M, IDF Spring 2005, ExtremeTech
"AMD's 65 nano silicon ready to roll". The Inquirer. September 2, 2005. Archived from the original on November 25, 2005. Retrieved August 25, 2007.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
Preceded by90 nm
MOSFET manufacturing processes
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Retrieved August 10, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110927115254/http://www.fujitsu.com/us/news/pr/fma_20050920-1.html","url_text":"\"Fujitsu Introduces World-class 65-Nanometer Process Technology for Advanced Server, Mobile Applications\""},{"url":"http://www.fujitsu.com/us/news/pr/fma_20050920-1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kim, Paul (February 7, 2006). 65nm CMOS Process Technology (PDF). DesignCon. Fujitsu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fujitsu.com/downloads/MICRO/fma/pr/PressKit/65nmProcessTechnology.pdf","url_text":"65nm CMOS Process Technology"}]},{"reference":"\"ソニー、65nm対応の半導体設備を導入。3年間で2,000億円の投資\". pc.watch.impress.co.jp. Archived from the original on August 13, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://pc.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/2003/0421/sony1.htm","url_text":"\"ソニー、65nm対応の半導体設備を導入。3年間で2,000億円の投資\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160813020249/http://pc.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/2003/0421/sony1.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"OMAP 3 family of multimedia applications processors\" (PDF). Texas Instruments. 2007. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ti.com/pdfs/wtbu/ti_omap3family.pdf","url_text":"\"OMAP 3 family of multimedia applications processors\""}]},{"reference":"Gruener, Wolfgang (May 3, 2007). \"AMD preps 65 nm Turion X2 processors\". TG Daily. Archived from the original on September 13, 2007. Retrieved March 4, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070913021026/http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/31877/135/","url_text":"\"AMD preps 65 nm Turion X2 processors\""},{"url":"http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/31877/135/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microprocessor Elbrus-4C\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mcst.ru/mikroprocessor-elbrus4s","url_text":"\"Microprocessor Elbrus-4C\""}]},{"reference":"\"ФГУ ФНЦ НИИСИ РАН: Разработка СБИС\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.niisi.ru/devel.htm","url_text":"\"ФГУ ФНЦ НИИСИ РАН: Разработка СБИС\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel to cut Prescott leakage by 75% at 65nm\". The Register. August 31, 2004. Retrieved August 25, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/08/31/intel_65nm/","url_text":"\"Intel to cut Prescott leakage by 75% at 65nm\""}]},{"reference":"\"AMD's 65 nano silicon ready to roll\". The Inquirer. September 2, 2005. Archived from the original on November 25, 2005. Retrieved August 25, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051125062908/http://theinquirer.net/?article=25910","url_text":"\"AMD's 65 nano silicon ready to roll\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.itrs.net/Links/2006Update/FinalToPost/04_PIDS2006Update.pdf","external_links_name":"2006 industry roadmap"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927025913/http://www.itrs.net/Links/2006Update/FinalToPost/04_PIDS2006Update.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/13405/intel-10nm-cannon-lake-and-core-i3-8121u-deep-dive-review/3","external_links_name":"\"Intel's 10nm Cannon Lake and Core i3-8121U Deep Dive Review\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110927115254/http://www.fujitsu.com/us/news/pr/fma_20050920-1.html","external_links_name":"\"Fujitsu Introduces World-class 65-Nanometer Process Technology for Advanced Server, Mobile Applications\""},{"Link":"http://www.fujitsu.com/us/news/pr/fma_20050920-1.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.fujitsu.com/downloads/MICRO/fma/pr/PressKit/65nmProcessTechnology.pdf","external_links_name":"65nm CMOS Process Technology"},{"Link":"https://pc.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/2003/0421/sony1.htm","external_links_name":"\"ソニー、65nm対応の半導体設備を導入。3年間で2,000億円の投資\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160813020249/http://pc.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/2003/0421/sony1.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.ti.com/pdfs/wtbu/ti_omap3family.pdf","external_links_name":"\"OMAP 3 family of multimedia applications processors\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070913021026/http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/31877/135/","external_links_name":"\"AMD preps 65 nm Turion X2 processors\""},{"Link":"http://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/31877/135/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.mcst.ru/mikroprocessor-elbrus4s","external_links_name":"\"Microprocessor Elbrus-4C\""},{"Link":"https://www.niisi.ru/devel.htm","external_links_name":"\"ФГУ ФНЦ НИИСИ РАН: Разработка СБИС\""},{"Link":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/08/31/intel_65nm/","external_links_name":"\"Intel to cut Prescott leakage by 75% at 65nm\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070307121820/http://www.extremetech.com/slideshow_viewer/0%2C2393%2Cl%3D%26s%3D26720%26a%3D146996%26po%3D5%2C00.asp","external_links_name":"Engineering Sample of the \"Yonah\" core Pentium M"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051125062908/http://theinquirer.net/?article=25910","external_links_name":"\"AMD's 65 nano silicon ready to roll\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Field_Artillery_Regiment | 6th Field Artillery Regiment | ["1 1st Battalion","1.1 Campaign participation credit","1.2 Decorations","2 2nd Battalion","2.1 Campaign participation credit","2.2 Decorations","3 3rd Battalion","3.1 Campaign participation credit","3.2 Decorations","4 Distinctive unit insignia","4.1 Description","4.2 Symbolism","4.3 Background","5 Coat of arms","5.1 Blazon","5.2 Symbolism","6 References","7 External links"] | This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
6th Field Artillery RegimentCoat of armsActive1907Country United StatesBranchArmyTypeField artilleryMotto(s)Celer et Audax (Swift and Bold)CommandersNotablecommandersMontgomery M. MacombInsigniaDistinctive unit insignia6th Field Artillery Regiment Distinctive Unit InsigniaMilitary unit
U.S. Field Artillery Regiments
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The 6th Field Artillery Regiment is a Field Artillery Branch regiment of the United States Army first activated in 1907 from numbered companies of artillery. It was first organized with two battalions.
6th Field Artillery assigned 8 June 1917 to the 1st Expeditionary Division ; relieved 16 October 1939 from assignment to the 1st Division; assigned 22 June 1940 to the 8th Division; relieved 20 July 1940 from assignment to the 8th Division. The lineages of some of the units that make up the 6th Field Artillery include campaign credit for the War of 1812.
Note that the lineage of the "6th Regiment of Artillery" constituted 8 March 1898 is carried by the 6th Air Defense Artillery Regiment.
The regiment currently has five battalions.
1st Battalion
The 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery Regiment was constituted 27 April 1798 in the Regular Army as a company in the 3d Battalion, 2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers, and organized at Fort Jay, New York, as Captain James Stille's Company, 3d Battalion, 2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers.
Constituted 27 April 1798 in the Regular Army as a company in the 3d Battalion, 2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers, and organized at Fort Jay, New York, as Captain James Stille's Company, 3d Battalion, 2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers
Redesignated 1 April 1802 as Captain James Stille's Company, Regiment of Artillerists
Redesignated 9 June 1805 as Captain John Fergus's Company, Regiment of Artillerists
Redesignated 30 June 1808 as Captain William Wilson's Company, Regiment of Artillerists
Redesignated 3 June 1809 as Captain Enoch Humphrey's Company, Regiment of Artillerists
Redesignated 11 January 1812 as Captain Enoch Humphrey's Company, Corps of Artillery
Redesignated 17 May 1815 as Captain Enoch Humphrey's Company, Corps of Artillery, Southern Division
Redesignated 21 August 1816 as Company C, 3d Battalion, Corps of Artillery, Southern Division
Redesignated 1 June 1821 as Company B, 4th Regiment of Artillery
Reorganized and redesignated 13 February 1901 as the 7th Battery, Field Artillery, Artillery Corps
(6th Field Artillery Regiment organized in 1907, with Colonel Montgomery M. Macomb as its first commander.)
Battery reorganized and redesignated 11 June 1907 as Battery D, 6th Field Artillery
Inactivated 1 August 1940 at Fort Hoyle, Maryland
Absorbed 4 January 1941 by Battery A, 6th Field Artillery Battalion (active) (Battery A, 6th Field Artillery, reorganized and redesignated 4 January 1941 as Battery A, 6th Field Artillery Battalion; ; inactivated 13 December 1945 at Camp Anza, California; redesignated 24 July 1946 as Battery A, 6th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and relieved from assignment to the 37th Infantry Division; activated 1 August 1946 at Fort Sill, Oklahoma)
Former Battery D, 6th Field Artillery, reconstituted 15 February 1957 in the Regular Army and redesignated as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Howitzer Battalion, 6th Artillery, assigned to the 1st Armored Division, and activated at Fort Polk, Louisiana (organic elements concurrently constituted and activated)
Redesignated 3 February 1962 as the 1st Battalion, 6th Artillery (Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Battalion, 6th Artillery, concurrently consolidated with Battery D, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion , and consolidated unit designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Battalion, 6th Artillery)
Relieved 5 May 1971 from assignment to the 1st Armored Division and assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division
Redesignated (less former Battery D, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion) 1 September 1971 as the 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery (former Battery D, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion, concurrently redesignated as the 1st Battalion, 6th Air Defense Artillery – hereafter separate lineage)
1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, relieved 21 June 1975 from assignment to the 1st Cavalry Division, and assigned to the 18th Abn Corps Artillery, Ft Bragg, NC
Inactivated 1 October 1983 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina
Assigned 16 February 1996 to the 1st Infantry Division and activated in Germany. Assigned to the 3rd Brigade Combat team of the 1st Infantry Division and headquartered in Bamberg, Germany, 1–6 FA was only a short distance away from the wars in the former Yugoslavia. In 1997, 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina in support of Operation Joint Guard from 10 March 1997 until 10 October 1997. During this time they supported Task Force Eagle from a number of operating bases, providing convoy escorts, security and most importantly, fire support coverage of allied operations in the American area of responsibility. The excellence displayed by 1–6 FA resulted in the reception of the Army Superior Unit award upon return to Bamberg, Germany.
After their return from Bosnia, the Centaurs returned home and in early 1998, began to transition from the older M109A5 SP Howitzer to the highly advanced, highly accurate and extremely lethal M109A6 SP Howitzer, commonly referred to as the Paladin. In November 1999 the battalion was once again deployed, this time to Kosovo, where it pulled security at Camp Bondsteel and Camp Montieth until redeploying to Bamberg in the summer of 2000. They later deployed to Iraq as part of Multi-National Force - Iraq.
Redesignated 1 October 2005 as the 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery Regiment
Relieved 16 April 2007 from assignment to the 1st Infantry Division and assigned to the 3d Brigade Combat Team, 1st Infantry Division. 1-6 FA Deployed to Afghanistan June 2008 in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. They were deactivated along with 1st Infantry Division 3rd Brigade Combat Team after their deployment.
1-6 FA is now stationed in Grafenwoehr, Germany under the 41st Field Artillery Brigade since July 11, 2019 as an FAB MLRS unit.
Campaign participation credit
War of 1812: *New Orleans
Indian Wars: *Creeks; *Seminoles; *Modocs; *Bannocks; *Utah 1860
Mexican War: *Buena Vista
Civil War: *Peninsula; *Manassas; *Antietam; *Fredericksburg; *Chancellorsville; *Gettysburg; *Wilderness; *Spotsylvania; *Cold Harbor; *Petersburg; *Maryland 1863; *Virginia 1863
War with Spain: *Santiago; *Puerto Rico
Mexican Expedition: Mexico 1916–1917
World War I: *Montdidier-Noyon; *Aisne-Marne; *St. Mihiel; *Meuse-Argonne; *Lorraine 1917; *Lorraine 1918; *Picardy 1918
World War II: *Northern Solomons; *Luzon (with arrowhead)
War on Terrorism: *Iraq 2004 to 2005 Baqubah, Iraq.
Decorations
Valorous Unit Award for BAQUBAH, IRAQ, FEB 2004 to Feb 2005, Permanent Order # 104–08, 14 April 2005
Army Superior Unit Award for 1997
French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War I for LORRAINE-PICARDY
French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War I for AISNE-MARNE and MEUSE-ARGONNE
French Croix de Guerre, World War I, Fourragere
Philippine Presidential Unit Citation for 17 OCTOBER 1944 TO 4 JULY 1945
2nd Battalion
The 2nd Battalion, 6th Field Artillery was constituted 5 July 1838 in the regular army as Battery K, 1st regiment of artillery. It was organized 11 August 1838 at Fort Hamilton, New York.
Reorganized and redesignated 13 February 1901 as the 2d Battery, Field artillery, artillery Corps. reorganized and redesignated 11 June 1907 as Battery A, 6th Field Artillery.
6th Field Artillery was assigned 8 June 1917 to the 1st Expeditionary Division ; relieved 16 October 1939 from assignment to the 1st Division; assigned 22 June 1940 to the 8th division; relieved 20 July 1940 from assignment to the 8th division.) reorganized and redesignated on 4 January 1941 as Battery A, 6th Field artillery Battalion.
6th Field Artillery Battalion was assigned on 8 August 1942 to the 37th infantry division. It was inactivated on 13 December 1945 at Camp Anza, California.
Redesignated on 24 July 1946 as Battery A, 6th armored Field artillery Battalion, and relieved from assignment to the 37th infantry division.
Reorganized and redesignated on 1 October 1957 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 2d Howitzer Battalion, 6th artillery, and assigned to the 3d Armored Division (organic elements constituted 30 August 1957 and activated 1 October 1957).
Redesignated 1 September 1963 as the 2d Battalion, 6th Artillery (Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 2d Battalion, 6th artillery, concurrently consolidated with Battery A, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion , and consolidated unit designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 2d Battalion, 6th artillery). Reorganized and redesignated (less former Battery A, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion) on 1 September 1971 as the 2d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery (former Battery A, 6th Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion, concurrently redesignated as the 2d Battalion, 6th Air Defense Artillery—hereafter separate lineage).
2d Battalion, 6th Field artillery, inactivated 16 June 1988 in Germany and relieved from assignment to the 3d Armored Division. All personnel were assigned to the 4th Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery Regiment on 16 June 1988.
Campaign participation credit
Mexican War
Monterey
Vera Cruz
Cerro Gordo
Contreras
Churubusco
Chapultepec
Mexico 1847
Civil War
Peninsula
Manassas
Antietam
Fredericksburg
Chancellorsville
Gettysburg
Wilderness
Spotsylvania
Cold Harbor
Petersburg
Shenandoah
Maryland 1863
Virginia 1863
Indian Wars
Comanches
War with Spain
Santiago
Mexican expedition
Mexico 1916–1917
World War I
Montdidier-Noyon
Aisne-Marne
St. Mihiel
Meuse-Argonne
Lorraine 1917
Lorraine 1918
Picardy 1918
World War II
Northern Solomons
Luzon (with arrowhead)
Decorations
French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War i, Streamer embroidered Lorraine-Picardy (6th Field artillery cited; Wd GO 11, 1924)
French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War i, Streamer embroidered Aisne-Marne and Meuse-Argonne 6th Field artillery cited; Wd GO 11, 1924)
French Croix de Guerre, World War I, Fourragere (6th Field artillery cited; Wd GO 11, 1924)
Philippine Presidential Unit Citation, Streamer embroidered 17 October 1944 to 4 July 1945 (37th infantry division cited; da GO 47, 1950)
3rd Battalion
The 3rd Battalion, 6th Field Artillery was constituted 13 February 1901 in the Regular Army as the 22d Battery, Field Artillery, Artillery Corps. It was organized 5 October 1901 at Fort Douglas, Utah
Reorganized and redesignated 11 June 1907 as Battery B, 6th Field Artillery. It was inactivated 31 March 1930 at Fort Hoyle, Maryland. Activated 1 July 1940 at Fort Hoyle, Maryland
Reorganized and redesignated 4 January 1941 as Battery B, 6th Field Artillery Battalion (which was assigned on 8 August 1942 to the 37th Infantry Division).
Inactivated 13 December 1945 at Camp Anza, California
Redesignated 24 July 1946 as Battery B, 6th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and relieved from assignment to the 37th Infantry Division
Activated 1 August 1946 at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where it supported the Field Artillery School.
Reorganized and redesignated 25 June 1958 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 3d Howitzer Battalion, 6th Artillery. The 3rd of 6th Artillery was deployed to the Republic of Vietnam during the Vietnam War in 1966 equipped with the M108 Self-Propelled Howitzer. Based at Camp Saint Barbara (later Artillery Hill) outside of Pleiku, the 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, part of the 52nd Artillery Group, participated in 10 campaigns throughout the central highlands until it was redeployed to the United States in 1970 and inactivated on 10 April 1970. Between 1966 and 1970, the 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery participated in some of the most memorable & decisive events of the War in Vietnam.
Inactivated 10 April 1970 at Fort Lewis, Washington
3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, assigned 13 September 1972 to the 1st Infantry Division and activated at Fort Riley, Kansas
Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, reorganized and redesignated 16 March 1987 as Battery B, 6th Field Artillery, and remained assigned to the 1st Infantry Division.
Battery B, 6th Field Artillery, inactivated 15 September 1995 at Fort Riley, Kansas, and relieved from assignment to the 1st Infantry Division
Redesignated 16 December 1995 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, assigned to the 10th Mountain Division, and activated at Fort Drum, New York (organic elements concurrently activated)
Relieved 16 September 2004 from assignment to the 10th Mountain Division and assigned to the 1st Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division
In 2001 3/6 deployed to the Balkans
Redesignated 1 October 2005 as the 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery Regiment. In 2007–2008, 3rd of 6th Field Artillery was again deployed to northern Iraq with the "Warrior" Brigade, conducting combat patrols and artillery operations from FOB Warrior in Kirkuk, and FOB McHenry, just south of Kirkuk. Missions included the PEZ (Pipeline Exclusion Zone) security, training Iraqi army soldiers in urban warfare and joint security operations, as well as providing artillery support for sister infantry units 1st Bn 87th Infantry Regt and 2nd Bn 22nd Infantry Regt.
A, B and C Battery, 3rd Battalion, 6th Field Artillery have also deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq multiple times
Campaign participation credit
Civil War: Peninsula; Manassas; Antietam; Fredericksburg; Chancellorsville; Gettysburg; Wilderness; Spotsylvania; Cold Harbor; Petersburg; Maryland 1863; Virginia 1863
War with Spain: Santiago
Mexican Expedition: *Mexico 1916–1917
World War I: *Montdidier-Noyon; *Aisne-Marne; *St. Mihiel; *Meuse-Argonne; *Lorraine 1917; *Lorraine 1918; *Picardy 1918
World War II: *Northern Solomons; *Luzon (with arrowhead)
Vietnam: *Counteroffensive; *Counteroffensive, Phase II; *Counteroffensive, Phase III; *Tet Counteroffensive; *Counteroffensive, Phase IV; *Counteroffensive, Phase V; *Counteroffensive, Phase VI; *Tet 69/Counteroffensive; *Summer-Fall 1969; *Winter-Spring 1970
Southwest Asia: *Defense of Saudi Arabia; *Liberation and Defense of Kuwait; *Cease-Fire
War on Terrorism: Campaigns to be determined
Decorations
Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered CENTRAL AND SOUTHWEST ASIA 2003–2004
Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered IRAQ 2005–2006
French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War I, Streamer embroidered LORRAINE-PICARDY
French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War I, Streamer embroidered AISNE-MARNE and MEUSE-ARGONNE
French Croix de Guerre, World War I, Fourragere
Philippine Presidential Unit Citation, Streamer embroidered 17 OCTOBER 1944 TO 4 JULY 1945
Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1966–1967
Battery A additionally entitled to:
Valorous Unit Award, Streamer embroidered DAK TO-BEN HET
Distinctive unit insignia
Description
A Gold color metal and enamel device 1+1⁄16 inches (2.7 cm) in height overall consisting of a shield blazoned: Per fess Gules and a base per pale of the first and Azure, on a fess wavy Or two sabers in saltire of the first behind a mullet of the second, in base two fleurs-de-lis of the third, in chief a rattlesnake coiled Vert. Attached below and to the sides of the shield a Gold scroll inscribed “CELER ET AUDAX” in Red letters.
Symbolism
The symbolism and pictorial content of the original coat of arms of the former 6th Field Artillery and 6th Coast Artillery have been retained with as little change as possible. The order on the shield represents oldest service at the top and most recent at the bottom. The rattlesnake is for service in the Mexican War by the 6th Field Artillery. The six rattles represent the numerical designation of both units. The crossed sabers represent Civil War service in the Army of the Potomac. The star represents service in the Philippine Insurrection, being taken from the banner of Katipunan; the two fleurs-de-lis are used to represent service in World Wars I and II. The motto is appropriate both to the horse and snake and is used as belonging to the older arms of service and translates to “Swift and Bold.”
Background
The distinctive unit insignia was originally approved for the 6th Field Artillery Regiment on 1 April 1922. It was cancelled on 15 May 1959. The insignia was restored effective 1 September 1971.
The coat of arms was originally approved for the 6th Field Artillery Regiment on 29 August 1921. It was redesignated for the 6th Armored Field Artillery Battalion on 15 August 1946. It was cancelled on 15 May 1959. The insignia was restored and authorized for the 6th Field Artillery Regiment on 1 September 1971.
Coat of arms
Blazon
Shield – Per fess Gules and a base per pale of the first and Azure, on a fess wavy Or two sabers in saltire of the first behind a mullet of the second, fimbriated of the third in base two fleurs-de-lis of the last, in chief a rattlesnake coiled Proper.
Crest – On a wreath Or and Gules a winged centaur courant armed with a bow and arrow.
Motto – CELER ET AUDAX (Swift and Bold).
Symbolism
Shield – The symbolism and pictorial content of the original coat of arms of the former 6th Field Artillery and 6th Coast Artillery have been retained with as little change as possible. The order on the shield represents oldest service at the top and most recent at the bottom. The rattlesnake is for service in the Mexican War by the 6th Field Artillery. The six rattles represent the numerical designation of both units. The crossed sabers represent Civil War service in the Army of the Potomac. The star represents service in the Philippine Insurrection, being taken from the banner of Katipunan; the two fleurs-de-lis are used to represent service in World Wars I and II.
Crest – The crest is for service as the first horse artillery in the Army, by the 6th Field Artillery.
References
^ a b c d "1st BATTALION, 6th FIELD ARTILLERY REGIMENT (CENTAURS) - Lineage and Honors Information - U.S. Army Center of Military History". US Department of the Army. Retrieved 6 March 2019. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^ "Personal Matters". Army and Navy Register. LXIX (2133). Army and Navy Publishing Co.: 550 June 4, 1921. Retrieved 22 August 2014.
^ a b c d e "6th Artillery Regiment Heraldry". The Institute of Heraldry. Archived from the original on 2023-09-14. Retrieved 2023-09-14.
External links
This article incorporates public domain material from 6th Field Artillery Regiment. United States Army Institute of Heraldry.
http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/default.htm Archived 2011-05-22 at the Wayback Machine
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487th
623rd | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Field Artillery Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Artillery_Branch_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regiment"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"1st Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Infantry_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"8th Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"campaign credit for the War of 1812","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_regular_United_States_Army_units_with_campaign_credit_for_the_War_of_1812"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Army-1"},{"link_name":"6th Air Defense Artillery Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Air_Defense_Artillery_Regiment"}],"text":"Military unitThe 6th Field Artillery Regiment is a Field Artillery Branch regiment of the United States Army first activated in 1907 from numbered companies of artillery. It was first organized with two battalions.6th Field Artillery assigned 8 June 1917 to the 1st Expeditionary Division [later redesignated as the 1st Division]; relieved 16 October 1939 from assignment to the 1st Division; assigned 22 June 1940 to the 8th Division; relieved 20 July 1940 from assignment to the 8th Division. The lineages of some of the units that make up the 6th Field Artillery include campaign credit for the War of 1812.[1]Note that the lineage of the \"6th Regiment of Artillery\" constituted 8 March 1898 is carried by the 6th Air Defense Artillery Regiment.The regiment currently has five battalions.","title":"6th Field Artillery Regiment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_U.S._Artillery_formations"},{"link_name":"Fort Jay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Jay"},{"link_name":"Captain James Stille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Captain_James_Stille&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Army-1"},{"link_name":"4th Regiment of Artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Regiment_of_Artillery"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Army-1"},{"link_name":"Colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Montgomery M. Macomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery_M._Macomb"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Camp Anza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Anza"},{"link_name":"Fort Sill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Sill"},{"link_name":"Fort Polk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Polk"},{"link_name":"6th Regiment of Artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Air_Defense_Artillery_Regiment"},{"link_name":"6th Air Defense Artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Air_Defense_Artillery_Regiment"},{"link_name":"Fort Bragg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bragg_(North_Carolina)"},{"link_name":"wars in the former Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_in_the_former_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Bosnia and Herzegovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US_Army-1"},{"link_name":"Bosnia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia"},{"link_name":"Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq"},{"link_name":"Multi-National Force - Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-National_Force_-_Iraq"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"}],"text":"The 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery Regiment was constituted 27 April 1798 in the Regular Army as a company in the 3d Battalion, 2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers, and organized at Fort Jay, New York, as Captain James Stille's Company, 3d Battalion, 2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers.\nConstituted 27 April 1798 in the Regular Army as a company in the 3d Battalion, 2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers, and organized at Fort Jay, New York, as Captain James Stille's Company, 3d Battalion, 2d Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers[1]Redesignated 1 April 1802 as Captain James Stille's Company, Regiment of ArtilleristsRedesignated 9 June 1805 as Captain John Fergus's Company, Regiment of ArtilleristsRedesignated 30 June 1808 as Captain William Wilson's Company, Regiment of ArtilleristsRedesignated 3 June 1809 as Captain Enoch Humphrey's Company, Regiment of ArtilleristsRedesignated 11 January 1812 as Captain Enoch Humphrey's Company, Corps of ArtilleryRedesignated 17 May 1815 as Captain Enoch Humphrey's Company, Corps of Artillery, Southern DivisionRedesignated 21 August 1816 as Company C, 3d Battalion, Corps of Artillery, Southern DivisionRedesignated 1 June 1821 as Company B, 4th Regiment of ArtilleryReorganized and redesignated 13 February 1901 as the 7th Battery, Field Artillery, Artillery Corps[1](6th Field Artillery Regiment organized in 1907, with Colonel Montgomery M. Macomb as its first commander.)[2]Battery reorganized and redesignated 11 June 1907 as Battery D, 6th Field ArtilleryInactivated 1 August 1940 at Fort Hoyle, MarylandAbsorbed 4 January 1941 by Battery A, 6th Field Artillery Battalion (active) (Battery A, 6th Field Artillery, reorganized and redesignated 4 January 1941 as Battery A, 6th Field Artillery Battalion; [6th Field Artillery Battalion assigned 8 August 1942 to the 37th Infantry Division]; inactivated 13 December 1945 at Camp Anza, California; redesignated 24 July 1946 as Battery A, 6th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and relieved from assignment to the 37th Infantry Division; activated 1 August 1946 at Fort Sill, Oklahoma)Former Battery D, 6th Field Artillery, reconstituted 15 February 1957 in the Regular Army and redesignated as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Howitzer Battalion, 6th Artillery, assigned to the 1st Armored Division, and activated at Fort Polk, Louisiana (organic elements concurrently constituted and activated)Redesignated 3 February 1962 as the 1st Battalion, 6th Artillery (Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Battalion, 6th Artillery, concurrently consolidated with Battery D, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion [all organized in 1898 as the 6th Regiment of Artillery], and consolidated unit designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Battalion, 6th Artillery)Relieved 5 May 1971 from assignment to the 1st Armored Division and assigned to the 1st Cavalry DivisionRedesignated (less former Battery D, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion) 1 September 1971 as the 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery (former Battery D, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion, concurrently redesignated as the 1st Battalion, 6th Air Defense Artillery – hereafter separate lineage)1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, relieved 21 June 1975 from assignment to the 1st Cavalry Division, and assigned to the 18th Abn Corps Artillery, Ft Bragg, NCInactivated 1 October 1983 at Fort Bragg, North CarolinaAssigned 16 February 1996 to the 1st Infantry Division and activated in Germany. Assigned to the 3rd Brigade Combat team of the 1st Infantry Division and headquartered in Bamberg, Germany, 1–6 FA was only a short distance away from the wars in the former Yugoslavia. In 1997, 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina in support of Operation Joint Guard from 10 March 1997 until 10 October 1997. During this time they supported Task Force Eagle from a number of operating bases, providing convoy escorts, security and most importantly, fire support coverage of allied operations in the American area of responsibility. The excellence displayed by 1–6 FA resulted in the reception of the Army Superior Unit award upon return to Bamberg, Germany.[1]After their return from Bosnia, the Centaurs returned home and in early 1998, began to transition from the older M109A5 SP Howitzer to the highly advanced, highly accurate and extremely lethal M109A6 SP Howitzer, commonly referred to as the Paladin. In November 1999 the battalion was once again deployed, this time to Kosovo, where it pulled security at Camp Bondsteel and Camp Montieth until redeploying to Bamberg in the summer of 2000. They later deployed to Iraq as part of Multi-National Force - Iraq.Redesignated 1 October 2005 as the 1st Battalion, 6th Field Artillery RegimentRelieved 16 April 2007 from assignment to the 1st Infantry Division and assigned to the 3d Brigade Combat Team, 1st Infantry Division. 1-6 FA Deployed to Afghanistan June 2008 in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. They were deactivated along with 1st Infantry Division 3rd Brigade Combat Team after their deployment.1-6 FA is now stationed in Grafenwoehr, Germany under the 41st Field Artillery Brigade since July 11, 2019 as an FAB MLRS unit.","title":"1st Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Campaign participation credit","text":"War of 1812: *New OrleansIndian Wars: *Creeks; *Seminoles; *Modocs; *Bannocks; *Utah 1860Mexican War: *Buena VistaCivil War: *Peninsula; *Manassas; *Antietam; *Fredericksburg; *Chancellorsville; *Gettysburg; *Wilderness; *Spotsylvania; *Cold Harbor; *Petersburg; *Maryland 1863; *Virginia 1863War with Spain: *Santiago; *Puerto RicoMexican Expedition: Mexico 1916–1917World War I: *Montdidier-Noyon; *Aisne-Marne; *St. Mihiel; *Meuse-Argonne; *Lorraine 1917; *Lorraine 1918; *Picardy 1918World War II: *Northern Solomons; *Luzon (with arrowhead)War on Terrorism: *Iraq 2004 to 2005 Baqubah, Iraq.","title":"1st Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Decorations","text":"Valorous Unit Award for BAQUBAH, IRAQ, FEB 2004 to Feb 2005, Permanent Order # 104–08, 14 April 2005\nArmy Superior Unit Award for 1997\nFrench Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War I for LORRAINE-PICARDY\nFrench Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War I for AISNE-MARNE and MEUSE-ARGONNE\nFrench Croix de Guerre, World War I, Fourragere\nPhilippine Presidential Unit Citation for 17 OCTOBER 1944 TO 4 JULY 1945","title":"1st Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The 2nd Battalion, 6th Field Artillery was constituted 5 July 1838 in the regular army as Battery K, 1st regiment of artillery. It was organized 11 August 1838 at Fort Hamilton, New York.Reorganized and redesignated 13 February 1901 as the 2d Battery, Field artillery, artillery Corps. reorganized and redesignated 11 June 1907 as Battery A, 6th Field Artillery.6th Field Artillery was assigned 8 June 1917 to the 1st Expeditionary Division [later redesignated as the 1st Division]; relieved 16 October 1939 from assignment to the 1st Division; assigned 22 June 1940 to the 8th division; relieved 20 July 1940 from assignment to the 8th division.) reorganized and redesignated on 4 January 1941 as Battery A, 6th Field artillery Battalion.6th Field Artillery Battalion was assigned on 8 August 1942 to the 37th infantry division. It was inactivated on 13 December 1945 at Camp Anza, California.Redesignated on 24 July 1946 as Battery A, 6th armored Field artillery Battalion, and relieved from assignment to the 37th infantry division.Reorganized and redesignated on 1 October 1957 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 2d Howitzer Battalion, 6th artillery, and assigned to the 3d Armored Division (organic elements constituted 30 August 1957 and activated 1 October 1957).Redesignated 1 September 1963 as the 2d Battalion, 6th Artillery (Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 2d Battalion, 6th artillery, concurrently consolidated with Battery A, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion [organized in 1898], and consolidated unit designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 2d Battalion, 6th artillery). Reorganized and redesignated (less former Battery A, 6th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion) on 1 September 1971 as the 2d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery (former Battery A, 6th Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion, concurrently redesignated as the 2d Battalion, 6th Air Defense Artillery—hereafter separate lineage).2d Battalion, 6th Field artillery, inactivated 16 June 1988 in Germany and relieved from assignment to the 3d Armored Division. All personnel were assigned to the 4th Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery Regiment on 16 June 1988.","title":"2nd Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Campaign participation credit","text":"Mexican WarMonterey\nVera Cruz\nCerro Gordo\nContreras\nChurubusco\nChapultepec\nMexico 1847Civil WarPeninsula\nManassas\nAntietam\nFredericksburg\nChancellorsville\nGettysburg\nWilderness\nSpotsylvania\nCold Harbor\nPetersburg\nShenandoah\nMaryland 1863\nVirginia 1863Indian WarsComanchesWar with SpainSantiagoMexican expeditionMexico 1916–1917World War IMontdidier-Noyon\nAisne-Marne\nSt. Mihiel\nMeuse-Argonne\nLorraine 1917\nLorraine 1918\nPicardy 1918World War IINorthern Solomons\nLuzon (with arrowhead)","title":"2nd Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Decorations","text":"French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War i, Streamer embroidered Lorraine-Picardy (6th Field artillery cited; Wd GO 11, 1924)\nFrench Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War i, Streamer embroidered Aisne-Marne and Meuse-Argonne 6th Field artillery cited; Wd GO 11, 1924)\nFrench Croix de Guerre, World War I, Fourragere (6th Field artillery cited; Wd GO 11, 1924)\nPhilippine Presidential Unit Citation, Streamer embroidered 17 October 1944 to 4 July 1945 (37th infantry division cited; da GO 47, 1950)","title":"2nd Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fort Douglas, Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Douglas,_Utah"},{"link_name":"Fort Hoyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Hoyle"},{"link_name":"Camp Anza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Anza"},{"link_name":"Fort Sill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Sill"},{"link_name":"Republic of Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"M108 Self-Propelled Howitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M108_Howitzer"},{"link_name":"Camp Saint Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camp_Saint_Barbara&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pleiku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiku"},{"link_name":"Fort Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Lewis_(Washington)"},{"link_name":"Fort Riley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Riley"},{"link_name":"Fort Drum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Drum"}],"text":"The 3rd Battalion, 6th Field Artillery was constituted 13 February 1901 in the Regular Army as the 22d Battery, Field Artillery, Artillery Corps. It was organized 5 October 1901 at Fort Douglas, UtahReorganized and redesignated 11 June 1907 as Battery B, 6th Field Artillery. It was inactivated 31 March 1930 at Fort Hoyle, Maryland. Activated 1 July 1940 at Fort Hoyle, MarylandReorganized and redesignated 4 January 1941 as Battery B, 6th Field Artillery Battalion (which was assigned on 8 August 1942 to the 37th Infantry Division).Inactivated 13 December 1945 at Camp Anza, CaliforniaRedesignated 24 July 1946 as Battery B, 6th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and relieved from assignment to the 37th Infantry DivisionActivated 1 August 1946 at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where it supported the Field Artillery School.Reorganized and redesignated 25 June 1958 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 3d Howitzer Battalion, 6th Artillery. The 3rd of 6th Artillery was deployed to the Republic of Vietnam during the Vietnam War in 1966 equipped with the M108 Self-Propelled Howitzer. Based at Camp Saint Barbara (later Artillery Hill) outside of Pleiku, the 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, part of the 52nd Artillery Group, participated in 10 campaigns throughout the central highlands until it was redeployed to the United States in 1970 and inactivated on 10 April 1970. Between 1966 and 1970, the 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery participated in some of the most memorable & decisive events of the War in Vietnam.Inactivated 10 April 1970 at Fort Lewis, Washington3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, assigned 13 September 1972 to the 1st Infantry Division and activated at Fort Riley, KansasHeadquarters and Headquarters Battery, 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, reorganized and redesignated 16 March 1987 as Battery B, 6th Field Artillery, and remained assigned to the 1st Infantry Division.Battery B, 6th Field Artillery, inactivated 15 September 1995 at Fort Riley, Kansas, and relieved from assignment to the 1st Infantry DivisionRedesignated 16 December 1995 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, assigned to the 10th Mountain Division, and activated at Fort Drum, New York (organic elements concurrently activated)Relieved 16 September 2004 from assignment to the 10th Mountain Division and assigned to the 1st Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain DivisionIn 2001 3/6 deployed to the BalkansRedesignated 1 October 2005 as the 3d Battalion, 6th Field Artillery Regiment. In 2007–2008, 3rd of 6th Field Artillery was again deployed to northern Iraq with the \"Warrior\" Brigade, conducting combat patrols and artillery operations from FOB Warrior in Kirkuk, and FOB McHenry, just south of Kirkuk. Missions included the PEZ (Pipeline Exclusion Zone) security, training Iraqi army soldiers in urban warfare and joint security operations, as well as providing artillery support for sister infantry units 1st Bn 87th Infantry Regt and 2nd Bn 22nd Infantry Regt.A, B and C Battery, 3rd Battalion, 6th Field Artillery have also deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq multiple times","title":"3rd Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Campaign participation credit","text":"Civil War: Peninsula; Manassas; Antietam; Fredericksburg; Chancellorsville; Gettysburg; Wilderness; Spotsylvania; Cold Harbor; Petersburg; Maryland 1863; Virginia 1863War with Spain: SantiagoMexican Expedition: *Mexico 1916–1917World War I: *Montdidier-Noyon; *Aisne-Marne; *St. Mihiel; *Meuse-Argonne; *Lorraine 1917; *Lorraine 1918; *Picardy 1918World War II: *Northern Solomons; *Luzon (with arrowhead)Vietnam: *Counteroffensive; *Counteroffensive, Phase II; *Counteroffensive, Phase III; *Tet Counteroffensive; *Counteroffensive, Phase IV; *Counteroffensive, Phase V; *Counteroffensive, Phase VI; *Tet 69/Counteroffensive; *Summer-Fall 1969; *Winter-Spring 1970Southwest Asia: *Defense of Saudi Arabia; *Liberation and Defense of Kuwait; *Cease-FireWar on Terrorism: Campaigns to be determined","title":"3rd Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DAK TO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%AFk_T%C3%B4_Base_Camp"},{"link_name":"BEN HET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Het_Camp"}],"sub_title":"Decorations","text":"Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered CENTRAL AND SOUTHWEST ASIA 2003–2004\nMeritorious Unit Commendation (Army), Streamer embroidered IRAQ 2005–2006\nFrench Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War I, Streamer embroidered LORRAINE-PICARDY\nFrench Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War I, Streamer embroidered AISNE-MARNE and MEUSE-ARGONNE\nFrench Croix de Guerre, World War I, Fourragere\nPhilippine Presidential Unit Citation, Streamer embroidered 17 OCTOBER 1944 TO 4 JULY 1945\nRepublic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1966–1967Battery A additionally entitled to:Valorous Unit Award, Streamer embroidered DAK TO-BEN HET","title":"3rd Battalion"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Distinctive unit insignia"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Description","text":"A Gold color metal and enamel device 1+1⁄16 inches (2.7 cm) in height overall consisting of a shield blazoned: Per fess Gules and a base per pale of the first and Azure, on a fess wavy Or two sabers in saltire of the first behind a mullet of the second, in base two fleurs-de-lis of the third, in chief a rattlesnake coiled Vert. Attached below and to the sides of the shield a Gold scroll inscribed “CELER ET AUDAX” in Red letters.","title":"Distinctive unit insignia"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Symbolism","text":"The symbolism and pictorial content of the original coat of arms of the former 6th Field Artillery and 6th Coast Artillery have been retained with as little change as possible. The order on the shield represents oldest service at the top and most recent at the bottom. The rattlesnake is for service in the Mexican War by the 6th Field Artillery. The six rattles represent the numerical designation of both units. The crossed sabers represent Civil War service in the Army of the Potomac. The star represents service in the Philippine Insurrection, being taken from the banner of Katipunan; the two fleurs-de-lis are used to represent service in World Wars I and II. The motto is appropriate both to the horse and snake and is used as belonging to the older arms of service and translates to “Swift and Bold.”","title":"Distinctive unit insignia"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Background","text":"The distinctive unit insignia was originally approved for the 6th Field Artillery Regiment on 1 April 1922. It was cancelled on 15 May 1959. The insignia was restored effective 1 September 1971.The coat of arms was originally approved for the 6th Field Artillery Regiment on 29 August 1921. It was redesignated for the 6th Armored Field Artillery Battalion on 15 August 1946. It was cancelled on 15 May 1959. The insignia was restored and authorized for the 6th Field Artillery Regiment on 1 September 1971.","title":"Distinctive unit insignia"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Coat of arms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"sub_title":"Blazon","text":"Shield – Per fess Gules and a base per pale of the first and Azure, on a fess wavy Or two sabers in saltire of the first behind a mullet of the second, fimbriated of the third in base two fleurs-de-lis of the last, in chief a rattlesnake coiled Proper.[3]\nCrest – On a wreath Or and Gules a winged centaur courant armed with a bow and arrow.[3]\nMotto – CELER ET AUDAX (Swift and Bold).[3]","title":"Coat of arms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"sub_title":"Symbolism","text":"Shield – The symbolism and pictorial content of the original coat of arms of the former 6th Field Artillery and 6th Coast Artillery have been retained with as little change as possible. The order on the shield represents oldest service at the top and most recent at the bottom. The rattlesnake is for service in the Mexican War by the 6th Field Artillery. The six rattles represent the numerical designation of both units. The crossed sabers represent Civil War service in the Army of the Potomac. The star represents service in the Philippine Insurrection, being taken from the banner of Katipunan; the two fleurs-de-lis are used to represent service in World Wars I and II.[3]\nCrest – The crest is for service as the first horse artillery in the Army, by the 6th Field Artillery.[3]","title":"Coat of arms"}] | [{"image_text":"6th Field Artillery Regiment Distinctive Unit Insignia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/6th_FA_DUI.png/220px-6th_FA_DUI.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"1st BATTALION, 6th FIELD ARTILLERY REGIMENT (CENTAURS) - Lineage and Honors Information - U.S. Army Center of Military History\". US Department of the Army. Retrieved 6 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/0006fa01bn.htm","url_text":"\"1st BATTALION, 6th FIELD ARTILLERY REGIMENT (CENTAURS) - Lineage and Honors Information - U.S. Army Center of Military History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Personal Matters\". Army and Navy Register. LXIX (2133). Army and Navy Publishing Co.: 550 June 4, 1921. Retrieved 22 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CFM-AQAAMAAJ&q=macomb+%226th+field+artillery%22+first+commander&pg=PA550","url_text":"\"Personal Matters\""}]},{"reference":"\"6th Artillery Regiment Heraldry\". The Institute of Heraldry. Archived from the original on 2023-09-14. Retrieved 2023-09-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://tioh.army.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=8190","url_text":"\"6th Artillery Regiment Heraldry\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230914015213/https://tioh.army.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=8190","url_text":"Archived"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/0006fa01bn.htm","external_links_name":"\"1st BATTALION, 6th FIELD ARTILLERY REGIMENT (CENTAURS) - Lineage and Honors Information - U.S. Army Center of Military History\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CFM-AQAAMAAJ&q=macomb+%226th+field+artillery%22+first+commander&pg=PA550","external_links_name":"\"Personal Matters\""},{"Link":"https://tioh.army.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=8190","external_links_name":"\"6th Artillery Regiment Heraldry\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230914015213/https://tioh.army.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=8190","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://tioh.army.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=8190","external_links_name":"6th Field Artillery Regiment"},{"Link":"http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/default.htm","external_links_name":"http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/default.htm"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110522040340/http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/default.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7400-series_integrated_circuits | 7400-series integrated circuits | ["1 Overview","1.1 History","2 Families","3 Part numbering","4 Second sources from Europe and Eastern Bloc","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"] | Series of transistor–transistor logic integrated circuits
"8400 series", "7400 series", "6400 series", "5400 series", and "74 series" redirect here. For other uses, see 8400, 7400, 6400, 5400, and 74 (disambiguation).
"7402", "7404", and "7486" redirect here. For the highway, see Hawaii Route 7402. For the asteroids, see (7402) 1987 YH, (7404) 1988 AA5, and 7486 Hamabe. For the military unit, see 7486th Air Defense Group.
The SN7400N chip contains four two-input NAND gates. The SN prefix indicates it was manufactured by Texas Instruments The N suffix is a vendor-specific code indicating plastic DIP packaging. The second line of numbers (7645) is a date code; this chip was manufactured in the 45th week of 1976.
The 7400 series is a popular logic family of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) integrated circuits (ICs).
In 1964, Texas Instruments introduced the SN5400 series of logic chips, in a ceramic semiconductor package. A low-cost plastic package SN7400 series was introduced in 1966 which quickly gained over 50% of the logic chip market, and eventually becoming de facto standardized electronic components. Over the decades, many generations of pin-compatible descendant families evolved to include support for low power CMOS technology, lower supply voltages, and surface mount packages.
Overview
See also: Transistor–transistor logic § History
The 7400 series contains hundreds of devices that provide everything from basic logic gates, flip-flops, and counters, to special purpose bus transceivers and arithmetic logic units (ALU). Specific functions are described in a list of 7400 series integrated circuits. Some TTL logic parts were made with an extended military-specification temperature range. These parts are prefixed with 54 instead of 74 in the part number. The less-common 64 and 84 prefixes on Texas Instruments parts indicated an industrial temperature range. Since the 1970s, new product families have been released to replace the original 7400 series. More recent TTL-compatible logic families were manufactured using CMOS or BiCMOS technology rather than TTL.
Texas Instruments prefixes for TTL temperature ranges
Prefix
Name
Temperature range
Remarks
54
Military
-55 °C to +125 °C
64
Industrial
-40 °C to +85 °C
rare
74
Commercial
0 °C to +70 °C
most common
Today, surface-mounted CMOS versions of the 7400 series are used in various applications in electronics and for glue logic in computers and industrial electronics. The original through-hole devices in dual in-line packages (DIP/DIL) were the mainstay of the industry for many decades. They are useful for rapid breadboard-prototyping and for education and remain available from most manufacturers. The fastest types and very low voltage versions are typically surface-mount only, however.
Texas Instruments SN5451 in the original flat package
The first part number in the series, the 7400, is a 14-pin IC containing four two-input NAND gates. Each gate uses two input pins and one output pin, with the remaining two pins being power (+5 V) and ground. This part was made in various through-hole and surface-mount packages, including flat pack and plastic/ceramic dual in-line. Additional characters in a part number identify the package and other variations.
Unlike the older resistor-transistor logic integrated circuits, bipolar TTL gates were unsuitable to be used as analog devices, providing low gain, poor stability, and low input impedance. Special-purpose TTL devices were used to provide interface functions such as Schmitt triggers or monostable multivibrator timing circuits. Inverting gates could be cascaded as a ring oscillator, useful for purposes where high stability was not required.
History
Although the 7400 series was the first de facto industry standard TTL logic family (i.e. second-sourced by several semiconductor companies), there were earlier TTL logic families such as:
Sylvania Universal High-level Logic in 1963
Motorola MC4000 MTTL
National Semiconductor DM8000
Fairchild 9300 series
Signetics 8200 and 8T00
The 7400 quad 2-input NAND gate was the first product in the series, introduced by Texas Instruments in a military grade metal flat package (5400W) in October 1964. The pin assignment of this early series differed from the de facto standard set by the later series in DIP packages (in particular, ground was connected to pin 11 and the power supply to pin 4, compared to pins 7 and 14 for DIP packages). The extremely popular commercial grade plastic DIP (7400N) followed in the third quarter of 1966.
The 5400 and 7400 series were used in many popular minicomputers in the 1970s and early 1980s. Some models of the DEC PDP-series 'minis' used the 74181 ALU as the main computing element in the CPU. Other examples were the Data General Nova series and Hewlett-Packard 21MX, 1000, and 3000 series.
In 1965, typical quantity-one pricing for the SN5400 (military grade, in ceramic welded flat-pack) was around 22 USD. As of 2007, individual commercial-grade chips in molded epoxy (plastic) packages can be purchased for approximately US$0.25 each, depending on the particular chip.
Die of a 74AHC00D, manufactured by NXP
SN7400 die in the original flat package, manufactured by TI
Die vs Schematic of one gate in a 74H00
Schematic of one gate in a 7400
Schematic of one gate in a 74LS00
Schematic of one gate in a 74ALS00
Size comparison of 74HC00 in DIP vs TSSOP package
Families
Current (Amp) vs Speed (Hz) comparison of various 7400 families
7400 series parts were constructed using bipolar junction transistors (BJT), forming what is referred to as transistor–transistor logic or TTL. Newer series, more or less compatible in function and logic level with the original parts, use CMOS technology or a combination of the two (BiCMOS). Originally the bipolar circuits provided higher speed but consumed more power than the competing 4000 series of CMOS devices. Bipolar devices are also limited to a fixed power supply voltage, typically 5 V, while CMOS parts often support a range of supply voltages.
Milspec-rated devices for use in extended temperature conditions are available as the 5400 series. Texas Instruments also manufactured radiation-hardened devices with the prefix RSN, and the company offered beam-lead bare dies for integration into hybrid circuits with a BL prefix designation.
Regular-speed TTL parts were also available for a time in the 6400 series – these had an extended industrial temperature range of −40 °C to +85 °C. While companies such as Mullard listed 6400-series compatible parts in 1970 data sheets, by 1973 there was no mention of the 6400 family in the Texas Instruments TTL Data Book. Texas Instruments brought back the 6400 series in 1989 for the SN64BCT540. The SN64BCTxxx series is still in production as of 2023. Some companies have also offered industrial extended temperature range variants using the regular 7400-series part numbers with a prefix or suffix to indicate the temperature grade.
As integrated circuits in the 7400 series were made in different technologies, usually compatibility was retained with the original TTL logic levels and power supply voltages. An integrated circuit made in CMOS is not a TTL chip, since it uses field-effect transistors (FETs) and not bipolar junction transistors (BJT), but similar part numbers are retained to identify similar logic functions and electrical (power and I/O voltage) compatibility in the different subfamilies.
Over 40 different logic subfamilies use this standardized part number scheme. The headings in the following table are: Vcc – power supply voltage; tpd – maximum gate delay; IOL – maximum output current at low level; IOH – maximum output current at high level. tpd, IOL, and IOH apply to most gates in a given family. Driver or buffer gates have higher output currents.
Code
Family
Vcc
tpd
IOL
IOH
Year
Description
Bipolar TTL Families
74
Standard TTL
5 V ±5%
22 ns
16 mA
-0.4 mA
1966: 6–2
The original 7400 logic family. Contains no characters between the "74" and the part number.: 3–5
74H
High-Speed
5 V ±5%
10 ns
20 mA
-0.5 mA
1967: 72
Higher speed than the original 74 series, at the expense of power dissipation. TTL logic levels.: 6–2 : 3–6
74L
Low-Power
5 V ±5%
60 ns
3.6 mA
-0.2 mA
1967: 72
Same technology as the original 74 family, but with larger resistors to lower power consumption at the expense of gate speed. TTL logic levels. Now obsolete.: 6–2
74S
Schottky
5 V ±5%
5 ns
20 mA
-1 mA
1969: 72
Implemented using Schottky diode. High current draw. TTL logic levels.: 6–2 : 3–9
74LS
Low-Power Schottky
5 V ±5%
15 ns
8 mA
-0.4 mA
1971: 72
Same technology as the 74S family, but with lower power consumption (2 mW) at the expense of gate speed. TTL logic levels.: 6–2 : 3–8
74F
FAST
5 V ±5%
3.9 ns
20 mA
-1 mA
1978
Originally Fairchild's version of the 74AS family. TTL logic levels.: 2–9, 4–3
74ALS
Advanced Low-Power Schottky
5 V ±10%
11 ns
8 mA
-0.4 mA
1980: 72
Same technology as the 74AS family, but with lower power consumption at the expense of gate speed. TTL logic levels.: 2–4
74AS
Advanced Schottky
5 V ±10%
4.5 ns
20 mA
-2 mA
1982: 72
Same technology as the 74S family, but with "miller killer" circuitry to speed up low-to-high transitions. TTL logic levels.: 2–5
CMOS and BiCMOS Families
74C
CMOS
3.0–15 V
60 ns
0.36 mA
-0.36 mA
1975: 1
74C is standard CMOS, similar to buffered 4000 (4000B) series. Input levels not compatible with TTL families. The 4000A series was introduced in 1968, the 4000B around 1975.
74HC
High-Speed CMOS
2.0–6.0 V
15 ns
4 mA
-4 mA
1983?: 4–2
Similar performance to 74LS. CMOS logic levels.: 4–2
74HCT
High-Speed CMOS
5 V ±10%
15 ns
4.8 mA
-4.8 mA
1983?: 5–2
Similar performance to 74LS. TTL logic levels.: 5–2
74HCTLS
High-Speed CMOS
5 V ±10%
15 ns
8 mA
-4 mA
1988?: 417
Samsung's version of the 74HCT series. TTL logic levels.: 417
74HCS
Schmitt-Trigger Integrated High-Speed CMOS
2.0–6.0 V
13 ns
7.8 mA
-7.8 mA
2019?
Schmitt triggers on all inputs. CMOS logic levels.
74AHC
Advanced High-Speed CMOS
2.0–5.5 V
5.5 ns
8 mA
-8 mA
Up to three times as fast as the 74HC family. 5 V tolerant inputs. CMOS logic levels.: 3–5 Equivalent to 74VHC.: 6
74AHCT
Advanced High-Speed CMOS
5 V ±10%
6.9 ns
8 mA
-8 mA
1986?
Up to three times as fast as the 74HCT family. TTL logic levels.: 3–11 Equivalent to 74VHCT.: 6
74VHC
Very High-Speed CMOS
2.0–5.5 V
5.5 ns
8 mA
-8 mA
1992?
5 V tolerant inputs. Equivalent to 74AHC.: 6 CMOS logic levels.
74VHCT
Very High-Speed CMOS
5 V ±10%
6.9 ns
8 mA
-8 mA
1995?
Equivalent to 74AHCT.: 6 TTL logic levels.
74AC
Advanced CMOS
2.0–6.0 V
8 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1985: 1–3
CMOS logic levels.: 4–3 Outputs may cause ground bounce.
74ACT
Advanced CMOS
5 V ±10%
8 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1985: 1–3
TTL logic levels.: AC-15 Outputs may cause ground bounce.
74ACQ
Advanced CMOS with "quiet" outputs
2.0–6.0 V
6.5 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1989
Fairchild's "Quiet Series" offering lower ringing and ground bounce on state transitions. Bus interface circuits only in this family. CMOS logic levels.
74ACTQ
Advanced CMOS with "quiet" outputs
5 V ±10%
7.5 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1989
Fairchild's "Quiet Series" offering lower ringing and ground bounce on state transitions. TTL logic levels.
74ABT
Advanced BiCMOS
5 V ±10%
3.6 ns
20 mA
-15 mA
1991?
TTL logic levels.
74LVCE
Low-Voltage CMOS
1.4–5.5 V
3.6 ns
32 mA
-32 mA
2010?
CMOS logic levels. 5 V tolerant inputs. Extented supply voltage range and higher speed compared to 74LVC.
Low-Voltage CMOS and BiCMOS Families
74LVT
Low-Voltage BiCMOS
2.7–3.6 V
4.1 ns
32 mA
-20 mA
1992: 1
TTL logic levels, 5 V tolerant inputs and outputs. Note, original 1992 LVTs had bus-hold. However a 1996 redesign of LVT emphasized performance, so 1992 LVTs were renamed LVTH to denote the bus-hold feature explicitly in the device name. LVTH also added the high impedance during power up/down feature.
74LVQ
Low-Voltage Quiet CMOS
2.0–3.6 V
9.5 ns
12 mA
-12 mA
1992: 1–3
TTL logic levels. Guaranteed incident-wave switching for 75 Ω lines.: 1–3
74LV
Low-Voltage CMOS
2.7–3.6 V
18 ns
6 mA
-6 mA
1993?: 10–3
TTL logic levels.: 10–3
74LVC
Low-Voltage CMOS
2.0–3.6 V
6 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1993?: 8–5
TTL logic levels, 5 V tolerant inputs.: 8–5
74ALVC
Advanced Low-Voltage CMOS
1.65–3.6 V
3.0 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1994?: 3–21
3.3 V tolerant inputs and outputs.
74VCX
Advanced Low-Voltage CMOS
1.20–3.6 V
3.1 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1997
Fairchild's version of 74ALVC.: 6 3.3 V tolerant inputs and outputs.
74LCX
Low-Voltage High-Speed CMOS
2.0–3.6 V
4.3 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1994
Fairchild's version of 74LVC.: 6 TTL logic levels. 5 V tolerant inputs and outputs.
74LVX
Low-Voltage High-Speed CMOS
2.0–3.6 V
9.7 ns
4 mA
-4 mA
1994?
TTL logic levels. 5 V tolerant inputs. Faster than 74VHC at low voltages.
74AUP
Advanced Ultra-Low-Power
0.80–3.6 V
3.8 ns
4 mA
-4 mA
2004?
3.3 V tolerant hysteresis inputs.
74G
Gigahertz
1.65–3.6 V
1.5 ns
12 mA
-12 mA
2006
Speeds over 1 gigahertz with 5 V tolerant inputs.
Very-Low-Voltage CMOS Families
74AUC
Advanced Ultra-Low-Voltage CMOS
0.80–2.7 V
2.0 ns
9 mA
-9 mA
2002?
3.3 V tolerant inputs.
Limited Families for Special Applications
74SC
Standard CMOS
5 V ±5%
30 ns
10 mA
-10 mA
1981?
Performance like Standard TTL at lower power consumption (intermediate step between 74C and 74HC). No simple gates in this family.
74FCT
Fast CMOS
5 V ±5%
7 ns
64 mA
-15 mA
1986?
Manufactured in CMOS or BiCMOS technology. Performance like 74F at lower power consumption. No simple gates in this family.
74BCT
BiCMOS
5 V ±10%
6.6 ns
64 mA
-15 mA
1988?
TTL logic levels. Bus interface circuits only in this family.
74FBT
Fast BiCMOS
5 V ±10%
4.1 ns
64 mA
-24 mA
1990?: 6.59
Bus interface circuits only in this family.: 6.59
74FB
Futurebus
5 V ±5%
5 ns
80 mA
–
1992?: 7–3
Futurebus+ interface circuits only in this family.: 7–3
74GTL
Gunning transceiver logic
5 V ±5%
4 ns
64 mA
-32 mA
1993?: 12–17
Bus interface circuits only in this family.: 12–3
74GTLP
Gunning transceiver logic Plus
3.15–3.45 V
7.5 ns
50 mA
–
1996
Bus interface circuits only in this family. Fairchild's improved version of 74GTL (higher bus speed, lower ground bounce).: 3–3
74CBT
Crossbar Switch
5 V ±10%
0.25 ns
64 mA
-15 mA
1992?: 5–3
FET bus switches only in this family.: 5–3
74FST
Crossbar Switch
5 V ±5%
0.25 ns
30 mA
-15 mA
1995?: 10.1
FET bus switches only in this family.: 10.1 IDT's version of 74CBT.: 6
74CBTLV
Crossbar Switch Low-Voltage
2.3–3.6 V
0.25 ns
64 mA
-15 mA
1997?: 7–15
FET bus switches only in this family.: 7–15
74ALB
Advanced Low-Voltage BiCMOS
3.0–3.6 V
2.0 ns
25 mA
-25 mA
1996?: 2–3
Bus interface circuits only in this family.: 2–3
74LPT
Low-Voltage CMOS
2.7–3.6 V
4.1 ns
24 mA
-24 mA
1996?: 3–84
Bus interface circuits only in this family. 5 V tolerant inputs.: 3–84
74AVC
Advanced Very-Low-Voltage CMOS
1.40–3.6 V
1.7 ns
12 mA
-12 mA
1998?
3.3 V tolerant inputs. Bus interface circuits only in this family.
74ALVT
Advanced Low-Voltage BiCMOS
2.3–3.6 V
2.5 ns
64 mA
-32 mA
1999?
5 V tolerant inputs and outputs. Bus interface circuits only in this family.
74AHCV
Advanced High-Speed CMOS
1.8–5.5 V
7.5 ns
16 mA
-16 mA
2016?
CMOS logic levels. 5 V tolerant inputs. Extented supply voltage range and higher speed compared to 74AHC. Bus interface circuits only in this family. See also 74LVCE.
74AXC
Advanced Extremely-Low-Voltage CMOS
0.65–3.6 V
4 ns
12 mA
-12 mA
2018?
3.3 V tolerant inputs. Bus interface circuits only in this family.
74LXC
Low-Voltage CMOS
1.1–5.5 V
7 ns
32 mA
-32 mA
2019?
Extended supply voltage range compared to 74LVC. Bus interface circuits only in this family. See also 74LVCE.
^ A question mark indicates that the year of introduction is based on the earliest data sheet or the revision history in a data sheet.
^ a b Parameters are shown for the 2-input NAND gate (74x00 or 74x1G00) at Vcc = 5 V,Ta = 25 °C, CL = 50 pF.
^ a b c d e f g h The letter "U" when added to the family code (e.g. 74HCU) indicates an unbuffered CMOS circuit. Typically, there is only one unbuffered circuit in a family: the hex inverter (74x04). Unbuffered circuits are intended for analogue applications such as crystal oscillators.: 4–11 : 8–17, 10–15
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l The letter "H" when added to the family code (e.g. 74LVCH) indicates a circuit with a bus-hold feature. That is, if the input bus goes to a high-impendance or floating state then the outputs keep their state according to the last valid input state. This eliminates the need for pull-up resistors or pull-down resistors. "H" can also be combined with "R" (e.g. 74ALVCHR).: 1–5, 4–19 : 3–15, 8–103 : 3–3
^ a b c d e f The letter "R" when added to the family code (e.g. 74LCXR) indicates a circuit with integrated resistors at the outputs in order to reduce overshoot and undershoot of the output signal.: 1–5, 4–23 : 3–51 : 3–53
^ Parameters are shown for the 2-input NAND gate (74x00 or 74x1G00) at Vcc = 3.3 V,Ta = 25 °C, CL = 50 pF.
^ a b c The letter "Z" when added to the family code (e.g. 74LVTZ) indicates a circuit where a high-impedance state of all outputs is guaranteed when the power supply voltage drops below a certain threshold.
^ There are no simple gates in these families. Parameters are for a transceiver (74x245, 74x16245, or similar).
^ a b B-side outputs are all open-collector in this family.
Comparison of logic levels for various 7400 families
Many parts in the CMOS HC, AC, AHC, and VHC families are also offered in "T" versions (HCT, ACT, AHCT and VHCT) which have input thresholds that are compatible with both TTL and 3.3 V CMOS signals. The non-T parts have conventional CMOS input thresholds, which are more restrictive than TTL thresholds. Typically, CMOS input thresholds require high-level signals to be at least 70% of Vcc and low-level signals to be at most 30% of Vcc. (TTL has the input high level above 2.0 V and the input low level below 0.8 V, so a TTL high-level signal could be in the forbidden middle range for 5 V CMOS.)
The 74H family is the same basic design as the 7400 family with resistor values reduced. This reduced the typical propagation delay from 9 ns to 6 ns but increased the power consumption. The 74H family provided a number of unique devices for CPU designs in the 1970s. Many designers of military and aerospace equipment used this family over a long period and as they need exact replacements, this family is still produced by Lansdale Semiconductor.
The 74S family, using Schottky circuitry, uses more power than the 74, but is faster. The 74LS family of ICs is a lower-power version of the 74S family, with slightly higher speed but lower power dissipation than the original 74 family; it became the most popular variant once it was widely available. Many 74LS ICs can be found in microcomputers and digital consumer electronics manufactured in the 1980s and early 1990s.
The 74F family was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor and adopted by other manufacturers; it is faster than the 74, 74LS and 74S families.
Through the late 1980s and 1990s newer versions of this family were introduced to support the lower operating voltages used in newer CPU devices.
Characteristics of selected 7400 series families (VDD = 5 V)
Parameter
74C
74HC
74AC
74HCT
74ACT
Units
VIH (min)
3.5
2.0
V
VOH (min)
4.5
4.9
V
VIL (max)
1.5
1.0
1.5
0.8
V
VOL (max)
0.5
0.1
V
IIH (max)
1
μA
IIL (max)
1
μA
IOH (max)
0.4
4.0
24
4.0
24
mA
IOL (max)
0.4
4.0
24
4.0
24
mA
TP (max)
50
8
4.7
8
4.7
ns
Part numbering
Part numbering
Surface-mount 74HC595 shift registers on a PCB. This 74HC variant uses CMOS signalling voltage levels while the 74HCT595 variant uses TTL signalling levels.
Die of a 74HC595 8-bit shift register
See also: List of 7400-series integrated circuits
Part number schemes varied by manufacturer. The part numbers for 7400-series logic devices often use the following designators:
Often first, a two or three letter prefix, denoting the manufacturer and flow class of the device. These codes are no longer closely associated with a single manufacturer, for example, Fairchild Semiconductor manufactures parts with MM and DM prefixes, and no prefixes. Examples:
SN: Texas Instruments using a commercial processing
SNV: Texas Instruments using military processing
M: ST Microelectronics
DM: National Semiconductor
UT: Cobham PLC
SG: Sylvania
Two digits for temperature range. Examples:
54: military temperature range
64: short-lived historical series with intermediate "industrial" temperature range
74: commercial temperature range device
Zero to four letters denoting the logic subfamily. Examples:
zero letters: basic bipolar TTL
LS: low speed Schottky
HCT: High-speed CMOS compatible with TTL
Two or more arbitrarily assigned digits that identify the function of the device. There are hundreds of different devices in each family.
Additional suffix letters and numbers may be appended to denote the package type, quality grade, or other information, but this varies widely by manufacturer.
For example, "SN5400N" signifies that the part is a 7400-series IC probably manufactured by Texas Instruments ("SN" originally meaning "Semiconductor Network") using commercial processing, is of the military temperature rating ("54"), and is of the TTL family (absence of a family designator), its function being the quad 2-input NAND gate ("00") implemented in a plastic through-hole DIP package ("N").
Many logic families maintain a consistent use of the device numbers as an aid to designers. Often a part from a different 74x00 subfamily could be substituted ("drop-in replacement") in a circuit, with the same function and pin-out yet more appropriate characteristics for an application (perhaps speed or power consumption), which was a large part of the appeal of the 74C00 series over the competing CD4000B series, for example. But there are a few exceptions where incompatibilities (mainly in pin-out) across the subfamilies occurred, such as:
some flat-pack devices (e.g. 7400W) and surface-mount devices,
some of the faster CMOS series (for example 74AC),
a few low-power TTL devices (e.g. 74L86, 74L9 and 74L95) have a different pin-out than the regular (or even 74LS) series part.
five versions of the 74x54 (4-wide AND-OR-INVERT gates IC), namely 7454(N), 7454W, 74H54, 74L54W and 74L54N/74LS54, are different from each other in pin-out and/or function,
Second sources from Europe and Eastern Bloc
Soviet K131LA3, equivalent to 74H00
Czechoslovak MH74S00, Texas Instruments SN74S251N, East German DL004D (74LS04), Soviet K155LA13 (7438)
Romanian CDB493E, equivalent to SN7493
Some manufacturers, such as Mullard and Siemens, had pin-compatible TTL parts, but with a completely different numbering scheme; however, data sheets identified the 7400-compatible number as an aid to recognition.
At the time the 7400 series was being made, some European manufacturers (that traditionally followed the Pro Electron naming convention), such as Philips/Mullard, produced a series of TTL integrated circuits with part names beginning with FJ. Some examples of FJ series are:
FJH101 (=7430) single 8-input NAND gate,
FJH131 (=7400) quadruple 2-input NAND gate,
FJH181 (=7454N or J) 2+2+2+2 input AND-OR-NOT gate.
The Soviet Union started manufacturing TTL ICs with 7400-series pinout in the late 1960s and early 1970s, such as the K155ЛA3, which was pin-compatible with the 7400 part available in the United States, except for using a metric spacing of 2.5 mm between pins instead of the 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) pin-to-pin spacing used in the west.
Another peculiarity of the Soviet-made 7400 series was the packaging material used in the 1970s–1980s. Instead of the ubiquitous black resin, they had a brownish-green body colour with subtle swirl marks created during the moulding process. It was jokingly referred to in the Eastern Bloc electronics industry as the "elephant-dung packaging", due to its appearance.
The Soviet integrated circuit designation is different from the Western series:
the technology modifications were considered different series and were identified by different numbered prefixes – К155 series is equivalent to plain 74, К555 series is 74LS, К1533 is 74ALS, etc.;
the function of the unit is described with a two-letter code followed by a number:
the first letter represents the functional group – logical, triggers, counters, multiplexers, etc.;
the second letter shows the functional subgroup, making the distinction between logical NAND and NOR, D- and JK-triggers, decimal and binary counters, etc.;
the number distinguishes variants with different number of inputs or different number of elements within a die – ЛА1/ЛА2/ЛА3 (LA1/LA2/LA3) are 2 four-input / 1 eight-input / 4 two-input NAND elements respectively (equivalent to 7420/7430/7400).
Before July 1974 the two letters from the functional description were inserted after the first digit of the series. Examples: К1ЛБ551 and К155ЛА1 (7420), К1ТМ552 and К155ТМ2 (7474) are the same ICs made at different times.
Clones of the 7400 series were also made in other Eastern Bloc countries:
Bulgaria (Mikroelektronika Botevgrad) used a designation somewhat similar to that of the Soviet Union, e.g. 1ЛБ00ШМ (1LB00ShM) for a 74LS00. Some of the two-letter functional groups were borrowed from the Soviet designation, while others differed. Unlike the Soviet scheme, the two or three digit number after the functional group matched the western counterpart. The series followed at the end (i.e. ШМ for LS). Only the LS series is known to have been manufactured in Bulgaria.: 8–11
Czechoslovakia (TESLA) used the 7400 numbering scheme with manufacturer prefix MH. Example: MH7400. Tesla also produced industrial grade (8400, −25 ° to 85 °C) and military grade (5400, −55 ° to 125 °C) ones.
Poland (Unitra CEMI) used the 7400 numbering scheme with manufacturer prefixes UCA for the 5400 and 6400 series, as well as UCY for the 7400 series. Examples: UCA6400, UCY7400. Note that ICs with the prefix MCY74 correspond to the 4000 series (e.g. MCY74002 corresponds to 4002 and not to 7402).
Hungary (Tungsram, later Mikroelektronikai Vállalat / MEV) also used the 7400 numbering scheme, but with manufacturer suffix – 7400 is marked as 7400APC.
Romania (I.P.R.S.) used a trimmed 7400 numbering with the manufacturer prefix CDB (example: CDB4123E corresponds to 74123) for the 74 and 74H series, where the suffix H indicated the 74H series. For the later 74LS series, the standard numbering was used.
East Germany (HFO) also used trimmed 7400 numbering without manufacturer prefix or suffix. The prefix D (or E) designates digital IC, and not the manufacturer. Example: D174 is 7474. 74LS clones were designated by the prefix DL; e.g. DL000 = 74LS00. In later years East German made clones were also available with standard 74* numbers, usually for export.
A number of different technologies were available from the Soviet Union,
Czechoslovakia,
Poland, and East Germany. The 8400 series in the table below indicates an industrial temperature range from −25 °C to +85 °C (as opposed to −40 °C to +85 °C for the 6400 series).
Prefixes of Eastern European series
Soviet Union
Czechoslovakia
Poland
East Germany
5400
7400
5400
7400
8400
5400
6400
7400
6400
7400
8400
74
133
К155
MH54
MH74
MH84
UCA54
UCA64
UCY74
D1
E1
74L
134, 136
КР134, К158
74H
130
К131
UCA64H
UCY74H
D2
E2
74S
530
КР531
MH54S
MH74S
MH84S
UCY74S
DS
74LS
533
К555
UCY74LS
DL...D
DL...DG
74AS
1530
КР1530
74ALS
1533
КР1533
MH54ALS
MH74ALS
74F
1531
КР1531
74HC
1564
КР1564
74HCT
5564
U74HCT...DK
74AC
1554
КР1554
74ACT
1594
КР1594
74LVC
5574
74VHC
5584
^ The pin assignment of the 134 series mostly follows Texas Instruments' original flat-pack series, i.e. ground on pin 11 and power on pin 4.
Around 1990 the production of standard logic ceased in all Eastern European countries except the Soviet Union and later Russia and Belarus. As of 2016, the series 133, К155, 1533, КР1533, 1554, 1594, and 5584 were in production at "Integral" in Belarus,
as well as the series 130 and 530 at "NZPP-KBR",
134 and 5574 at "VZPP",
533 at "Svetlana",
1564, К1564, КР1564 at "NZPP",
1564, К1564 at "Voshod",
1564 at "Exiton",
and 133, 530, 533, 1533 at "Mikron" in Russia.
The Russian company Angstrem manufactures 54HC circuits as the 5514БЦ1 series, 54AC as the 5514БЦ2 series, and 54LVC as the 5524БЦ2 series.
See also
A 4-bit, 2 register, six-instruction computer made entirely of 74-series chips on a solderless breadboard
List of 7400-series integrated circuits
4000-series integrated circuits
List of 4000-series integrated circuits
Push–pull output
Open-collector/drain output
Three-state output
Schmitt trigger input
Logic gate
Logic family
Programmable logic device
Pin compatibility
References
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^ a b c d Low Voltage Databook (PDF). National Semiconductor. 1992.
^ a b Fairchild Advanced CMOS Technology Logic Data Book. Fairchild. 1985.
^ C2MOS Logic TC74AC/ACT Series TC74HC/HCT Series. Toshiba. 1990.
^ a b "74ACQ245 • 74ACTQ245 Quiet SeriesTM Octal Bidirectional Transceiver with 3-STATE Inputs/Outputs" (PDF). Fairchild. 1999. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
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^ "SN74LVCZ245A Octal bus transceiver with 3-state outputs". Texas Instruments. 2003. Retrieved 2023-07-21.
^ "74LCXZ16245 Low Voltage 16-Bit Bidirectional Transceiver with 5V Tolerant Inputs and Outputs" (PDF). Fairchild. Retrieved 2023-07-21.
^ a b c LVT-to-LVTH Conversion (PDF). Texas Instruments. 1999.
^ "74LVT00". Philips. 1996. Retrieved 2023-03-22.
^ a b c d CBT (5-V) and CBTLV (3.3-V) Bus Switches. Texas Instruments. 1998.
^ "SN74AVCH8T245 8-Bit Dual-Supply Bus Transceiver With Configurable Level-Shifting, Voltage Translation, and 3-State Outputs". Texas Instruments. 2016. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
^ "SN54ALVTH16245, SN74ALVTH16245 2.5-V/3.3-V 16-Bit Bus Transceivers With 3-State Outputs". Texas Instruments. 2002. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
^ "74LCXH16244 - Low Voltage 16-Bit Buffer/Line Driver with Bushold" (PDF). Fairchild. 2005. Retrieved 2023-05-03.
^ "SN54ABTH245, SN74ABTH245 Octal Bus Transceivers With 3-State Outputs". Texas Instruments. 1996. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
^ "SN74AUCH245 Octal Bus Transceiver With 3-State Outputs". Texas Instruments. 2003. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
^ a b GTL/GTLP Logic High-Performance Backplane Drivers Data Book. Texas Instruments. 2001.
^ a b "SN74AXCH8T245 8-Bit Dual-Supply Bus Transceiver with Configurable Voltage Translation, Tri-State Outputs, and Bus-Hold Circuitry". Texas Instruments. 2019. Retrieved 2023-07-19.
^ a b c "SN74LXCH8T245 8-bit Translating Transceiver with Configurable Level Shifting". Texas Instruments. 2021. Retrieved 2023-07-20.
^ LVC and LV Low-Voltage CMOS Logic Data Book. Texas Instruments. 1998.
^ "74LCXR2245 Low Voltage Bidirectional Transceiver with 5V Tolerant Inputs and Outputs and 26Ω Series Resistors on Both A and B Ports" (PDF). Fairchild. 2008. Retrieved 2023-05-03.
^ "SN54ABTR2245, SN74ABTR2245 Octal Transceivers and Line/Memory Drivers With 3-State Outputs". Texas Instruments. 1997. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
^ "ALVC - Advanced Low-Voltage CMOS ALVC(H)". Nexperia. Retrieved 2023-06-04.
^ "74ALVC00" (PDF). Nexperia. 2021. Retrieved 2023-03-29.
^ "74VCX00 - Low Voltage Quad 2-Input NAND Gate with 3.6V Tolerant Inputs and Outputs" (PDF). Fairchild. 2013. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
^ CROSSVOLTTM Low Voltage Logic Series. National Semiconductor. 1994.
^ "74LCX00" (PDF). STMicroelectronics. 2012. Retrieved 2023-03-24.
^ a b c Low Voltage C2MOS Logic IC (PDF). Toshiba. 1994.
^ "SN74AUP1G00 Low-Power Single 2-Input Positive-NAND Gate". Texas Instruments. 2016. Retrieved 2023-04-15.
^ a b "Logic Guide" (PDF). TI.
^ "Press Room". Potato Semiconductor. Archived from the original on 2008-02-01.
^ "PO54G00A, PO74G00A" (PDF). Potato Semiconductor. Retrieved 2023-04-15.
^ "SN74AUC16245 16-Bit Bus Transceiver with 3-State Outputs". Texas Instruments. 2002. Retrieved 2023-03-30.
^ "SN74AUC00 Quadruple 2-Input Positive-NAND Gate". Texas Instruments. 2005. Retrieved 2023-03-30.
^ a b "GTE G74SC245 G74SC545". GTE Microcircuits. 1981. Retrieved 2024-04-27.
^ "Supertex inc. HCT/SC245". Supertex inc. Retrieved 2024-04-27.
^ "CD74FCT245 BiCMOS Octal Bus Transceiver With 3-State Outputs" (PDF). Texas Instruments. 2000.
^ a b BiCMOS Bus Interface Logic. Texas Instruments. 1988.
^ a b 1990-91 Logic Data Book (PDF). IDT. 1990.
^ a b ABT Advanced BiCMOS Technology. Texas Instruments. 1992.
^ a b ABT Advanced BiCMOS Technology (PDF). Texas Instruments. 1994.
^ a b "GTLP Signal Level Background Information" (PDF). Texas Instruments. 2000. Retrieved 2023-07-17.
^ a b Advanced CMOS Logic Data Book. Texas Instruments. 1993.
^ a b High Performance Logic Data Book. IDT. 1995.
^ a b LPT/FCT CMOS Logic From Harris. Harris. 1997.
^ a b "SN74AVC16245 16-Bit Bus Transceiver with 3-State Outputs". Texas Instruments. 1998. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
^ Advanced Low-Voltage Technology (PDF). Texas Instruments. 1999.
^ "ALVT - Advanced Low-Voltage BiCMOS Technology (ALVT)". Nexperia. Retrieved 2023-06-04.
^ a b "74AHCV245A" (PDF). Nexperia. 2016. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
^ "SN74AXC2T245 2-Bit Dual-Supply Bus Transceiver with Configurable Voltage Translation and Tri-State Outputs". Texas Instruments. 2020. Retrieved 2023-04-15.
^ "Robust Voltage Level Translation with the LXC Family" (PDF). Texas Instruments. 2021. Retrieved 2023-07-20.
^ Lansdale Semiconductor home page
^ Maini, Anil (2007). Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-470-03214-5.
^ Morris, Robert L.; Miller, John R. (1971). Designing with TTL Integrated Circuits. p. 15. Bibcode:1971dwti.book.....M.
^ The Engineering Staff, Texas Instruments (1973). The TTL Data Book for Design Engineers (1st ed.). Dallas, Texas.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ The Engineering Staff, National Semiconductor Corporation (1976). National Semiconductor TTL DATA BOOK. Santa Clara California. pp. 1–14.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ a b "Relation between names of foreign and Russian logic chips" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2007.
^ a b c Hillebrand, Gerd (30 June 1980). Importbauelemente Integrierte Schaltungen (PDF). Information Applikation Mikroelektronik (in German). Vol. 6. Kammer der Technik, Vorstand des Bezirksverbandes Frankfurt (Oder). Retrieved 2 November 2016.
^ Техническа информация 1985 (in Bulgarian). NPSK Botevgrad. Retrieved 2017-11-11.
^ a b c Hillebrand, Gerd (12 September 1988). RGW-Typenübersicht + Vergleich — Teil 2: RGW (PDF). Information Applikation Mikroelektronik (in German). Vol. 50. Kammer der Technik, Vorstand des Bezirksverbandes Frankfurt (Oder). Retrieved 11 November 2017.
^ Digital Integrated Circuits (PDF). Bucharest: I.P.R.S. Băneasa. 1976. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
^ Full Line Condensed Catalog 1990 (PDF). Bucharest: I.P.R.S. Băneasa. 1990. Retrieved 2019-01-19.
^ a b GDR semiconductor datasheet comparison (in German).
^ Ниссельсон, Л. И. (1989). Цифровые и аналоговые интегральные микросхемы (in Russian). Радио и связь. ISBN 5256002597.
^ "Активные элементы" (in Russian). Музей электронных раритетов. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
^ Козак, Виктор Романович (24 May 2014). "Номенклатура и аналоги отечественных микросхем" (in Russian). Retrieved 24 March 2016.
^ "Integrované obvody" (in Czech). Retrieved 17 March 2016.
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^ "Каталог продукции" (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: ZAO Svetlana Semiconductors. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
^ "ПРОДУКЦИЯ" (in Russian). Novosibirsk: AO NZPP. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
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Further reading
Books
50 Circuits Using 7400 Series IC's; 1st Ed; R.N. Soar; Bernard Babani Publishing; 76 pages; 1979; ISBN 0900162775. (archive)
TTL Cookbook; 1st Ed; Don Lancaster; Sams Publishing; 412 pages; 1974; ISBN 978-0672210358. (archive)
Designing with TTL Integrated Circuits; 1st Ed; Robert Morris, John Miller; Texas Instruments and McGraw-Hill; 322 pages; 1971; ISBN 978-0070637450. (archive)
App Notes
Understanding and Interpreting Standard-Logic Data Sheets; Stephen Nolan, Jose Soltero, Shreyas Rao; Texas Instruments; 60 pages; 2016.
Comparison of 74HC / 74S / 74LS / 74ALS Logic; Fairchild; 6 pages, 1983.
Interfacing to 74HC Logic; Fairchild; 10 pages; 1998.
74AHC / 74AHCT Designer's Guide; TI; 53pages; 1998. Compares 74HC / 74AHC / 74AC (CMOS I/O) and 74HCT / 74AHCT / 74ACT (TTL I/O).
Fairchild Semiconductor / ON Semiconductor
Historical Data Books: TTL (1978, 752 pages), FAST (1981, 349 pages)
Logic Selection Guide (2008, 12 pages)
Nexperia / NXP Semiconductor
Logic Selection Guide (2020, 234 pages)
Logic Application Handbook Design Engineer's Guide' (2021, 157 pages)
Logic Translators' (2021, 62 pages)
Texas Instruments / National Semiconductor
Historical Catalog: (1967, 375 pages)
Historical Databooks: TTL Vol1 (1984, 339 pages), TTL Vol2 (1985, 1402 pages), TTL Vol3 (1984, 793 pages), TTL Vol4 (1986, 445 pages)
Digital Logic Pocket Data Book (2007, 794 pages), Logic Reference Guide (2004, 8 pages), Logic Selection Guide (1998, 215 pages)
Little Logic Guide (2018, 25 pages), Little Logic Selection Guide (2004, 24 pages)
Toshiba
General-Purpose Logic ICs (2012, 55 pages)
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 7400 Series.
Understanding 7400-series digital logic ICs - Nuts and Volts magazine
Thorough list of 7400-series ICs - Electronics Club
Authority control databases: National
Germany
Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"8400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8400_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"7400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7400_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"6400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6400_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"5400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5400_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"74 (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/74_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Hawaii Route 7402","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii_Route_7402"},{"link_name":"(7402) 1987 YH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/(7402)_1987_YH"},{"link_name":"(7404) 1988 AA5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/(7404)_1988_AA5"},{"link_name":"7486 Hamabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7486_Hamabe"},{"link_name":"7486th Air Defense Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7486th_Air_Defense_Group"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TexasInstruments_7400_chip,_view_and_element_placement.jpg"},{"link_name":"NAND gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_gate"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"DIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_package"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"logic family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_family"},{"link_name":"transistor–transistor logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logic"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"semiconductor package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_package"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TI_1967_Databook-5"},{"link_name":"pin-compatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin-compatibility"},{"link_name":"CMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS"},{"link_name":"lower supply voltages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LVCMOS"},{"link_name":"surface mount packages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TI_2004_LRG-6"}],"text":"\"8400 series\", \"7400 series\", \"6400 series\", \"5400 series\", and \"74 series\" redirect here. For other uses, see 8400, 7400, 6400, 5400, and 74 (disambiguation).\"7402\", \"7404\", and \"7486\" redirect here. For the highway, see Hawaii Route 7402. For the asteroids, see (7402) 1987 YH, (7404) 1988 AA5, and 7486 Hamabe. For the military unit, see 7486th Air Defense Group.The SN7400N chip contains four two-input NAND gates. The SN prefix indicates it was manufactured by Texas Instruments[1] The N suffix is a vendor-specific code indicating plastic DIP packaging. The second line of numbers (7645) is a date code; this chip was manufactured in the 45th week of 1976.[2]The 7400 series is a popular logic family of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) integrated circuits (ICs).[3]In 1964, Texas Instruments introduced the SN5400 series of logic chips, in a ceramic semiconductor package. A low-cost plastic package SN7400 series was introduced in 1966 which quickly gained over 50% of the logic chip market, and eventually becoming de facto standardized electronic components.[4][5] Over the decades, many generations of pin-compatible descendant families evolved to include support for low power CMOS technology, lower supply voltages, and surface mount packages.[6]","title":"7400-series integrated circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Transistor–transistor logic § History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logic#History"},{"link_name":"logic gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate"},{"link_name":"flip-flops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"arithmetic logic units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit"},{"link_name":"list of 7400 series integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_7400_series_integrated_circuits"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"CMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS"},{"link_name":"BiCMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BiCMOS"},{"link_name":"surface-mounted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount"},{"link_name":"glue logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glue_logic"},{"link_name":"through-hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-hole"},{"link_name":"dual in-line packages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_package"},{"link_name":"breadboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadboard"},{"link_name":"surface-mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KL_TI_SN5451_Logic_IC_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"NAND gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_gate"},{"link_name":"resistor-transistor logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor-transistor_logic"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Schmitt triggers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmitt_trigger"},{"link_name":"monostable multivibrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monostable_multivibrator"},{"link_name":"ring oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_oscillator"}],"text":"See also: Transistor–transistor logic § HistoryThe 7400 series contains hundreds of devices that provide everything from basic logic gates, flip-flops, and counters, to special purpose bus transceivers and arithmetic logic units (ALU). Specific functions are described in a list of 7400 series integrated circuits. Some TTL logic parts were made with an extended military-specification temperature range. These parts are prefixed with 54 instead of 74 in the part number. The less-common 64 and 84 prefixes on Texas Instruments parts indicated an industrial temperature range. Since the 1970s, new product families have been released to replace the original 7400 series. More recent TTL-compatible logic families were manufactured using CMOS or BiCMOS technology rather than TTL.Today, surface-mounted CMOS versions of the 7400 series are used in various applications in electronics and for glue logic in computers and industrial electronics. The original through-hole devices in dual in-line packages (DIP/DIL) were the mainstay of the industry for many decades. They are useful for rapid breadboard-prototyping and for education and remain available from most manufacturers. The fastest types and very low voltage versions are typically surface-mount only, however.[citation needed]Texas Instruments SN5451 in the original flat packageThe first part number in the series, the 7400, is a 14-pin IC containing four two-input NAND gates. Each gate uses two input pins and one output pin, with the remaining two pins being power (+5 V) and ground. This part was made in various through-hole and surface-mount packages, including flat pack and plastic/ceramic dual in-line. Additional characters in a part number identify the package and other variations.Unlike the older resistor-transistor logic integrated circuits, bipolar TTL gates were unsuitable to be used as analog devices, providing low gain, poor stability, and low input impedance.[7] Special-purpose TTL devices were used to provide interface functions such as Schmitt triggers or monostable multivibrator timing circuits. Inverting gates could be cascaded as a ring oscillator, useful for purposes where high stability was not required.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvania_Electric_Products"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Motorola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-13"},{"link_name":"National Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"Fairchild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Signetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signetics"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-13"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-15"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"NAND gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_gate"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"flat package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatpack_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TI_1967_Databook-5"},{"link_name":"DIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_package"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"minicomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"PDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_Data_Processor"},{"link_name":"74181","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/74181"},{"link_name":"ALU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"Data General Nova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_General_Nova"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"flat-pack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatpack_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"USD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USD"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NXP-74AHC00D-HD-HQ.jpg"},{"link_name":"Die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)"},{"link_name":"NXP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NXP_Semiconductors"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SN7400_1965.jpg"},{"link_name":"TI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TTL-00-die-schema.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:7400_Circuit.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:74LS00_Circuit.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sch%C3%A9ma_DM74ALS00.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Logic_ICs_in_size_comparison.JPG"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"Although the 7400 series was the first de facto industry standard TTL logic family (i.e. second-sourced by several semiconductor companies), there were earlier TTL logic families such as:Sylvania Universal High-level Logic in 1963[8][9][10]\nMotorola MC4000 MTTL[11][12][13]\nNational Semiconductor DM8000[14][better source needed]\nFairchild 9300 series[15][16]\nSignetics 8200 and 8T00[13][15][17]The 7400 quad 2-input NAND gate was the first product in the series, introduced by Texas Instruments in a military grade metal flat package (5400W) in October 1964. The pin assignment of this early series differed from the de facto standard set by the later series in DIP packages (in particular, ground was connected to pin 11 and the power supply to pin 4, compared to pins 7 and 14 for DIP packages).[5] The extremely popular commercial grade plastic DIP (7400N) followed in the third quarter of 1966.[18]The 5400 and 7400 series were used in many popular minicomputers in the 1970s and early 1980s. Some models of the DEC PDP-series 'minis' used the 74181 ALU as the main computing element in the CPU. Other examples were the Data General Nova series and Hewlett-Packard 21MX, 1000, and 3000 series.In 1965, typical quantity-one pricing for the SN5400 (military grade, in ceramic welded flat-pack) was around 22 USD.[19] As of 2007, individual commercial-grade chips in molded epoxy (plastic) packages can be purchased for approximately US$0.25 each, depending on the particular chip.Die of a 74AHC00D, manufactured by NXP\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSN7400 die in the original flat package, manufactured by TI\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDie vs Schematic of one gate in a 74H00\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSchematic of one gate in a 7400\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSchematic of one gate in a 74LS00\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSchematic of one gate in a 74ALS00\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSize comparison of 74HC00 in DIP vs TSSOP package","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Consommations_TTL-HC.png"},{"link_name":"Amp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere"},{"link_name":"Hz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz"},{"link_name":"bipolar junction transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor"},{"link_name":"transistor–transistor logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logic"},{"link_name":"CMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS"},{"link_name":"BiCMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BiCMOS"},{"link_name":"4000 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4000_series"},{"link_name":"Milspec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milspec"},{"link_name":"radiation-hardened","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation-hardened"},{"link_name":"beam-lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam-lead"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Mullard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullard"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"field-effect transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TI_2004_LRG-6"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-std5v_25-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-std5v_25-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-u04_40-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-u04_40-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-u04_40-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-u04_40-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-u04_40-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-u04_40-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-u04_40-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-u04_40-7"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-natsemi_74hc_1983-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-st_74vhcu04-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_lv_1996-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-st_74lcxu04-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-st_74lvxu04-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diodes_74ahcu04-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74aucu04-39"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-7"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-8"},{"link_name":"j","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-9"},{"link_name":"k","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-10"},{"link_name":"l","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hbus_56-11"},{"link_name":"pull-up resistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pull-up_resistor"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rout-57"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_cbtlv_1998-68"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_lv_1996-35"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_lvth_1999-66"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74avch8t245-69"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74alvth16245-70"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fairchild_74lcxh16244-71"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74abth245-72"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74auch245-73"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_gtlp_2001-74"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74axch8t245-75"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74lxch8t245-76"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-rout_57-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-rout_57-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-rout_57-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-rout_57-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-rout_57-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-rout_57-5"},{"link_name":"overshoot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(signal)"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_cbtlv_1998-68"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_lvc_1998-77"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fairchild_74lcxr2245-78"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_lv_1996-35"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74abtr2245-79"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-61"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-zbus_65-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-zbus_65-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-zbus_65-2"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74lvtz244-62"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ti_74lvcz245-63"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fairchild_74lcxz16245-64"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-92"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-oconly_98-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-oconly_98-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Niveaux_logiques_CMOS-TTL-LVTTL.png"},{"link_name":"propagation delay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagation_delay"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LansdaleSemi-111"},{"link_name":"Schottky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_diode"},{"link_name":"Fairchild Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"}],"text":"Current (Amp) vs Speed (Hz) comparison of various 7400 families7400 series parts were constructed using bipolar junction transistors (BJT), forming what is referred to as transistor–transistor logic or TTL. Newer series, more or less compatible in function and logic level with the original parts, use CMOS technology or a combination of the two (BiCMOS). Originally the bipolar circuits provided higher speed but consumed more power than the competing 4000 series of CMOS devices. Bipolar devices are also limited to a fixed power supply voltage, typically 5 V, while CMOS parts often support a range of supply voltages.Milspec-rated devices for use in extended temperature conditions are available as the 5400 series. Texas Instruments also manufactured radiation-hardened devices with the prefix RSN, and the company offered beam-lead bare dies for integration into hybrid circuits with a BL prefix designation.[20]Regular-speed TTL parts were also available for a time in the 6400 series – these had an extended industrial temperature range of −40 °C to +85 °C. While companies such as Mullard listed 6400-series compatible parts in 1970 data sheets,[21] by 1973 there was no mention of the 6400 family in the Texas Instruments TTL Data Book. Texas Instruments brought back the 6400 series in 1989 for the SN64BCT540.[22] The SN64BCTxxx series is still in production as of 2023.[23] Some companies have also offered industrial extended temperature range variants using the regular 7400-series part numbers with a prefix or suffix to indicate the temperature grade.As integrated circuits in the 7400 series were made in different technologies, usually compatibility was retained with the original TTL logic levels and power supply voltages. An integrated circuit made in CMOS is not a TTL chip, since it uses field-effect transistors (FETs) and not bipolar junction transistors (BJT), but similar part numbers are retained to identify similar logic functions and electrical (power and I/O voltage) compatibility in the different subfamilies.\nOver 40 different logic subfamilies use this standardized part number scheme.[6][page needed] The headings in the following table are: Vcc – power supply voltage; tpd – maximum gate delay; IOL – maximum output current at low level; IOH – maximum output current at high level. tpd, IOL, and IOH apply to most gates in a given family. Driver or buffer gates have higher output currents.^ A question mark indicates that the year of introduction is based on the earliest data sheet or the revision history in a data sheet.\n\n^ a b Parameters are shown for the 2-input NAND gate (74x00 or 74x1G00) at Vcc = 5 V,Ta = 25 °C, CL = 50 pF.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h The letter \"U\" when added to the family code (e.g. 74HCU) indicates an unbuffered CMOS circuit. Typically, there is only one unbuffered circuit in a family: the hex inverter (74x04). Unbuffered circuits are intended for analogue applications such as crystal oscillators.[31]: 4–11 [32][33]: 8–17, 10–15 [34][35][36][37]\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l The letter \"H\" when added to the family code (e.g. 74LVCH) indicates a circuit with a bus-hold feature. That is, if the input bus goes to a high-impendance or floating state then the outputs keep their state according to the last valid input state. This eliminates the need for pull-up resistors or pull-down resistors. \"H\" can also be combined with \"R\"[e] (e.g. 74ALVCHR).[61]: 1–5, 4–19 [33]: 3–15, 8–103 [59][62][63][64][65][66][67]: 3–3 [68][69]\n\n^ a b c d e f The letter \"R\" when added to the family code (e.g. 74LCXR) indicates a circuit with integrated resistors at the outputs in order to reduce overshoot and undershoot of the output signal.[61]: 1–5, 4–23 [70]: 3–51 [71][33]: 3–53 [72]\n\n^ Parameters are shown for the 2-input NAND gate (74x00 or 74x1G00) at Vcc = 3.3 V,Ta = 25 °C, CL = 50 pF.\n\n^ a b c The letter \"Z\" when added to the family code (e.g. 74LVTZ) indicates a circuit where a high-impedance state of all outputs is guaranteed when the power supply voltage drops below a certain threshold.[56][57][58]\n\n^ There are no simple gates in these families. Parameters are for a transceiver (74x245, 74x16245, or similar).\n\n^ a b B-side outputs are all open-collector in this family.Comparison of logic levels for various 7400 familiesMany parts in the CMOS HC, AC, AHC, and VHC families are also offered in \"T\" versions (HCT, ACT, AHCT and VHCT) which have input thresholds that are compatible with both TTL and 3.3 V CMOS signals. The non-T parts have conventional CMOS input thresholds, which are more restrictive than TTL thresholds. Typically, CMOS input thresholds require high-level signals to be at least 70% of Vcc and low-level signals to be at most 30% of Vcc. (TTL has the input high level above 2.0 V and the input low level below 0.8 V, so a TTL high-level signal could be in the forbidden middle range for 5 V CMOS.)The 74H family is the same basic design as the 7400 family with resistor values reduced. This reduced the typical propagation delay from 9 ns to 6 ns but increased the power consumption. The 74H family provided a number of unique devices for CPU designs in the 1970s. Many designers of military and aerospace equipment used this family over a long period and as they need exact replacements, this family is still produced by Lansdale Semiconductor.[102]The 74S family, using Schottky circuitry, uses more power than the 74, but is faster. The 74LS family of ICs is a lower-power version of the 74S family, with slightly higher speed but lower power dissipation than the original 74 family; it became the most popular variant once it was widely available. Many 74LS ICs can be found in microcomputers and digital consumer electronics manufactured in the 1980s and early 1990s.The 74F family was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor and adopted by other manufacturers; it is faster than the 74, 74LS and 74S families.Through the late 1980s and 1990s newer versions of this[which?] family were introduced to support the lower operating voltages used in newer CPU devices.","title":"Families"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:74_Series_Code.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:74HC595.jpg"},{"link_name":"Surface-mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"link_name":"shift registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_register"},{"link_name":"PCB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:74HC595-HD.jpg"},{"link_name":"Die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)"},{"link_name":"shift register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_register"},{"link_name":"List of 7400-series integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_7400-series_integrated_circuits"},{"link_name":"Fairchild Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"ST Microelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STMicroelectronics"},{"link_name":"National Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"Cobham PLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobham_plc"},{"link_name":"Sylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvania_Electric_Products"},{"link_name":"hundreds of different devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_7400_series_integrated_circuits"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"DIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_package"},{"link_name":"logic families","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_family"},{"link_name":"drop-in replacement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin-compatibility"},{"link_name":"pin-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin-out"},{"link_name":"CD4000B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4000_series"},{"link_name":"pin-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin-out"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"IC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Circuit"},{"link_name":"pin-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin-out"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"}],"text":"Part numberingSurface-mount 74HC595 shift registers on a PCB. This 74HC variant uses CMOS signalling voltage levels while the 74HCT595 variant uses TTL signalling levels.Die of a 74HC595 8-bit shift registerSee also: List of 7400-series integrated circuitsPart number schemes varied by manufacturer. The part numbers for 7400-series logic devices often use the following designators:Often first, a two or three letter prefix, denoting the manufacturer and flow class of the device. These codes are no longer closely associated with a single manufacturer, for example, Fairchild Semiconductor manufactures parts with MM and DM prefixes, and no prefixes. Examples:\nSN: Texas Instruments using a commercial processing\nSNV: Texas Instruments using military processing\nM: ST Microelectronics\nDM: National Semiconductor\nUT: Cobham PLC\nSG: Sylvania\nTwo digits for temperature range. Examples:\n54: military temperature range\n64: short-lived historical series with intermediate \"industrial\" temperature range\n74: commercial temperature range device\nZero to four letters denoting the logic subfamily. Examples:\nzero letters: basic bipolar TTL\nLS: low speed Schottky\nHCT: High-speed CMOS compatible with TTL\nTwo or more arbitrarily assigned digits that identify the function of the device. There are hundreds of different devices in each family.\nAdditional suffix letters and numbers may be appended to denote the package type, quality grade, or other information, but this varies widely by manufacturer.For example, \"SN5400N\" signifies that the part is a 7400-series IC probably manufactured by Texas Instruments (\"SN\" originally meaning \"Semiconductor Network\"[104]) using commercial processing, is of the military temperature rating (\"54\"), and is of the TTL family (absence of a family designator), its function being the quad 2-input NAND gate (\"00\") implemented in a plastic through-hole DIP package (\"N\").Many logic families maintain a consistent use of the device numbers as an aid to designers. Often a part from a different 74x00 subfamily could be substituted (\"drop-in replacement\") in a circuit, with the same function and pin-out yet more appropriate characteristics for an application (perhaps speed or power consumption), which was a large part of the appeal of the 74C00 series over the competing CD4000B series, for example. But there are a few exceptions where incompatibilities (mainly in pin-out) across the subfamilies occurred, such as:some flat-pack devices (e.g. 7400W) and surface-mount devices,\nsome of the faster CMOS series (for example 74AC),\na few low-power TTL devices (e.g. 74L86, 74L9 and 74L95) have a different pin-out than the regular (or even 74LS) series part.[105]\nfive versions of the 74x54 (4-wide AND-OR-INVERT gates IC), namely 7454(N), 7454W, 74H54, 74L54W and 74L54N/74LS54, are different from each other in pin-out and/or function,[106]","title":"Part numbering"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:K131la3.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electronic_component_ttl.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CDB493E.jpg"},{"link_name":"pin-compatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin-compatibility"},{"link_name":"Pro Electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Electron#Digital_logic_families"},{"link_name":"Philips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips"},{"link_name":"Mullard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullard"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ussr-116"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Soviet integrated circuit designation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_integrated_circuit_designation"},{"link_name":"Eastern Bloc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ia6-117"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Botevgrad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botevgrad"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ia50-119"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"TESLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_(Czechoslovak_company)"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Unitra CEMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEMI"},{"link_name":"4000 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4000_series"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Tungsram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsram"},{"link_name":"Romania (I.P.R.S.)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_industry_in_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"HFO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halbleiterwerk_Frankfurt_(Oder)"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ddr-122"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ussr-116"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-museum-124"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kozak-125"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ia6-117"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ia50-119"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ia6-117"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ia50-119"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ddr-122"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-127"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-integral-128"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nzpp-kbr-129"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vzpp-130"},{"link_name":"\"Svetlana\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetlana_(company)"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-svetlana-131"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nzpp-132"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-voskhod-133"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-exiton-134"},{"link_name":"\"Mikron\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikron_Group"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mikron2020-135"},{"link_name":"Angstrem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angstrem_(company)"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-angstrem-136"}],"text":"Soviet K131LA3, equivalent to 74H00Czechoslovak MH74S00, Texas Instruments SN74S251N, East German DL004D (74LS04), Soviet K155LA13 (7438)Romanian CDB493E, equivalent to SN7493Some manufacturers, such as Mullard and Siemens, had pin-compatible TTL parts, but with a completely different numbering scheme; however, data sheets identified the 7400-compatible number as an aid to recognition.At the time the 7400 series was being made, some European manufacturers (that traditionally followed the Pro Electron naming convention), such as Philips/Mullard, produced a series of TTL integrated circuits with part names beginning with FJ. Some examples of FJ series are:FJH101 (=7430) single 8-input NAND gate,\nFJH131 (=7400) quadruple 2-input NAND gate,\nFJH181 (=7454N or J) 2+2+2+2 input AND-OR-NOT gate.The Soviet Union started manufacturing TTL ICs with 7400-series pinout in the late 1960s and early 1970s, such as the K155ЛA3, which was pin-compatible with the 7400 part available in the United States, except for using a metric spacing of 2.5 mm between pins instead of the 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) pin-to-pin spacing used in the west.[107]\nAnother peculiarity of the Soviet-made 7400 series was the packaging material used in the 1970s–1980s. Instead of the ubiquitous black resin, they had a brownish-green body colour with subtle swirl marks created during the moulding process. It was jokingly referred to in the Eastern Bloc electronics industry as the \"elephant-dung packaging\", due to its appearance.[citation needed]The Soviet integrated circuit designation is different from the Western series:the technology modifications were considered different series and were identified by different numbered prefixes – К155 series is equivalent to plain 74, К555 series is 74LS, К1533 is 74ALS, etc.;\nthe function of the unit is described with a two-letter code followed by a number:\nthe first letter represents the functional group – logical, triggers, counters, multiplexers, etc.;\nthe second letter shows the functional subgroup, making the distinction between logical NAND and NOR, D- and JK-triggers, decimal and binary counters, etc.;\nthe number distinguishes variants with different number of inputs or different number of elements within a die – ЛА1/ЛА2/ЛА3 (LA1/LA2/LA3) are 2 four-input / 1 eight-input / 4 two-input NAND elements respectively (equivalent to 7420/7430/7400).Before July 1974 the two letters from the functional description were inserted after the first digit of the series. Examples: К1ЛБ551 and К155ЛА1 (7420), К1ТМ552 and К155ТМ2 (7474) are the same ICs made at different times.Clones of the 7400 series were also made in other Eastern Bloc countries:[108]Bulgaria (Mikroelektronika Botevgrad) used a designation somewhat similar to that of the Soviet Union, e.g. 1ЛБ00ШМ (1LB00ShM) for a 74LS00. Some of the two-letter functional groups were borrowed from the Soviet designation, while others differed. Unlike the Soviet scheme, the two or three digit number after the functional group matched the western counterpart. The series followed at the end (i.e. ШМ for LS). Only the LS series is known to have been manufactured in Bulgaria.[109][110]: 8–11 \nCzechoslovakia (TESLA) used the 7400 numbering scheme with manufacturer prefix MH. Example: MH7400. Tesla also produced industrial grade (8400, −25 ° to 85 °C) and military grade (5400, −55 ° to 125 °C) ones.\nPoland (Unitra CEMI) used the 7400 numbering scheme with manufacturer prefixes UCA for the 5400 and 6400 series, as well as UCY for the 7400 series. Examples: UCA6400, UCY7400. Note that ICs with the prefix MCY74 correspond to the 4000 series (e.g. MCY74002 corresponds to 4002 and not to 7402).\nHungary (Tungsram, later Mikroelektronikai Vállalat / MEV) also used the 7400 numbering scheme, but with manufacturer suffix – 7400 is marked as 7400APC.\nRomania (I.P.R.S.) used a trimmed 7400 numbering with the manufacturer prefix CDB (example: CDB4123E corresponds to 74123) for the 74 and 74H series, where the suffix H indicated the 74H series.[111] For the later 74LS series, the standard numbering was used.[112]\nEast Germany (HFO) also used trimmed 7400 numbering without manufacturer prefix or suffix. The prefix D (or E) designates digital IC, and not the manufacturer. Example: D174 is 7474. 74LS clones were designated by the prefix DL; e.g. DL000 = 74LS00. In later years East German made clones were also available with standard 74* numbers, usually for export.[113]A number of different technologies were available from the Soviet Union,[107][114]\n[115]\n[116]\n[108]\nCzechoslovakia,[117]\n[110]\nPoland,[108][110] and East Germany.[113] The 8400 series in the table below indicates an industrial temperature range from −25 °C to +85 °C (as opposed to −40 °C to +85 °C for the 6400 series).^ The pin assignment of the 134 series mostly follows Texas Instruments' original flat-pack series, i.e. ground on pin 11 and power on pin 4.Around 1990 the production of standard logic ceased in all Eastern European countries except the Soviet Union and later Russia and Belarus. As of 2016, the series 133, К155, 1533, КР1533, 1554, 1594, and 5584 were in production at \"Integral\" in Belarus,[118]\nas well as the series 130 and 530 at \"NZPP-KBR\",[119]\n134 and 5574 at \"VZPP\",[120]\n533 at \"Svetlana\",[121]\n1564, К1564, КР1564 at \"NZPP\",[122]\n1564, К1564 at \"Voshod\",[123]\n1564 at \"Exiton\",[124]\nand 133, 530, 533, 1533 at \"Mikron\" in Russia.[125]\nThe Russian company Angstrem manufactures 54HC circuits as the 5514БЦ1 series, 54AC as the 5514БЦ2 series, and 54LVC as the 5524БЦ2 series.[126]","title":"Second sources from Europe and Eastern Bloc"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0900162775","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0900162775"},{"link_name":"(archive)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//worldradiohistory.com/UK/Bernards-And-Babani/Bernards/Babani-58-50-Circuits-Using-7400-ICs.pdf"},{"link_name":"Don Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0672210358","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0672210358"},{"link_name":"(archive)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20190311005416/https://www.tinaja.com/ebooks/TTLCB1.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0070637450","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0070637450"},{"link_name":"(archive)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bitsavers_tiTexasInsSeriesMorrisDesigningWithTTLIntegratedCi_11927910"},{"link_name":"Understanding and Interpreting Standard-Logic Data Sheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ti.com/lit/SZZA036"},{"link_name":"Comparison of 74HC / 74S / 74LS / 74ALS Logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/AN-319.pdf"},{"link_name":"Interfacing to 74HC Logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/AN-314.pdf"},{"link_name":"74AHC / 74AHCT Designer's Guide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ti.com/lit/ml/scla013d/scla013d.pdf"},{"link_name":"TTL (1978, 752 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bitsavers_fairchilddldTTLDataBook_39509923"},{"link_name":"FAST (1981, 349 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bitsavers_fairchilddldFASTDataBook_20099339"},{"link_name":"Logic Selection Guide (2008, 12 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170629224843/https://www.fairchildsemi.com/collateral/Logic-Selection-Guide.pdf"},{"link_name":"Logic Selection Guide (2020, 234 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//assets.nexperia.com/documents/selection-guide/Nexperia_Selection_guide_2020.pdf"},{"link_name":"Logic Application Handbook Design Engineer's Guide' (2021, 157 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//assets.nexperia.com/documents/brochure/Nexperia_LOGIC_Handbook_201029.pdf"},{"link_name":"Logic Translators' (2021, 62 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//assets.nexperia.com/documents/brochure/Nexperia_document_guide_Logic_translators.pdf"},{"link_name":"(1967, 375 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bitsavers_tidataBookts196768_16942634"},{"link_name":"TTL Vol1 (1984, 339 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bitsavers_tidataBookVol1_11973959"},{"link_name":"TTL Vol2 (1985, 1402 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bitsavers_tidataBookVol2_45945352"},{"link_name":"TTL Vol3 (1984, 793 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bitsavers_tidataBookVol3_25840031"},{"link_name":"TTL Vol4 (1986, 445 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bitsavers_tidataBookVol4_14886851"},{"link_name":"Digital Logic Pocket Data Book (2007, 794 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/TexasInstruments_SCYD013B"},{"link_name":"Logic Reference Guide (2004, 8 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110604202009/https://focus.ti.com/lit/ml/scyb004b/scyb004b.pdf"},{"link_name":"Logic Selection Guide (1998, 215 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160118225253/https://my.ece.msstate.edu/faculty/reese/EE4743/data_sheets/sdyu001k.pdf"},{"link_name":"Little Logic Guide (2018, 25 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ti.com/lit/sg/scyt129g/scyt129g.pdf"},{"link_name":"Little Logic Selection Guide (2004, 24 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160429220820/https://focus.ti.com/pdfs/logic/littlelogicsg1.pdf"},{"link_name":"General-Purpose Logic ICs (2012, 55 pages)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170919062250/https://toshiba.semicon-storage.com/info/docget.jsp?did=7426"}],"text":"Books50 Circuits Using 7400 Series IC's; 1st Ed; R.N. Soar; Bernard Babani Publishing; 76 pages; 1979; ISBN 0900162775. (archive)\nTTL Cookbook; 1st Ed; Don Lancaster; Sams Publishing; 412 pages; 1974; ISBN 978-0672210358. (archive)\nDesigning with TTL Integrated Circuits; 1st Ed; Robert Morris, John Miller; Texas Instruments and McGraw-Hill; 322 pages; 1971; ISBN 978-0070637450. (archive)App NotesUnderstanding and Interpreting Standard-Logic Data Sheets; Stephen Nolan, Jose Soltero, Shreyas Rao; Texas Instruments; 60 pages; 2016.\nComparison of 74HC / 74S / 74LS / 74ALS Logic; Fairchild; 6 pages, 1983.\nInterfacing to 74HC Logic; Fairchild; 10 pages; 1998.\n74AHC / 74AHCT Designer's Guide; TI; 53pages; 1998. Compares 74HC / 74AHC / 74AC (CMOS I/O) and 74HCT / 74AHCT / 74ACT (TTL I/O).Fairchild Semiconductor / ON SemiconductorHistorical Data Books: TTL (1978, 752 pages), FAST (1981, 349 pages)\nLogic Selection Guide (2008, 12 pages)Nexperia / NXP SemiconductorLogic Selection Guide (2020, 234 pages)\nLogic Application Handbook Design Engineer's Guide' (2021, 157 pages)\nLogic Translators' (2021, 62 pages)Texas Instruments / National SemiconductorHistorical Catalog: (1967, 375 pages)\nHistorical Databooks: TTL Vol1 (1984, 339 pages), TTL Vol2 (1985, 1402 pages), TTL Vol3 (1984, 793 pages), TTL Vol4 (1986, 445 pages)\nDigital Logic Pocket Data Book (2007, 794 pages), Logic Reference Guide (2004, 8 pages), Logic Selection Guide (1998, 215 pages)\nLittle Logic Guide (2018, 25 pages), Little Logic Selection Guide (2004, 24 pages)ToshibaGeneral-Purpose Logic ICs (2012, 55 pages)","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"The SN7400N chip contains four two-input NAND gates. The SN prefix indicates it was manufactured by Texas Instruments[1] The N suffix is a vendor-specific code indicating plastic DIP packaging. The second line of numbers (7645) is a date code; this chip was manufactured in the 45th week of 1976.[2]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/TexasInstruments_7400_chip%2C_view_and_element_placement.jpg/220px-TexasInstruments_7400_chip%2C_view_and_element_placement.jpg"},{"image_text":"Texas Instruments SN5451 in the original flat package","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/KL_TI_SN5451_Logic_IC_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-KL_TI_SN5451_Logic_IC_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Current (Amp) vs Speed (Hz) comparison of various 7400 families","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Consommations_TTL-HC.png/220px-Consommations_TTL-HC.png"},{"image_text":"Comparison of logic levels for various 7400 families","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Niveaux_logiques_CMOS-TTL-LVTTL.png/220px-Niveaux_logiques_CMOS-TTL-LVTTL.png"},{"image_text":"Part numbering","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/74_Series_Code.svg/220px-74_Series_Code.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Surface-mount 74HC595 shift registers on a PCB. This 74HC variant uses CMOS signalling voltage levels while the 74HCT595 variant uses TTL signalling levels.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/74HC595.jpg/220px-74HC595.jpg"},{"image_text":"Die of a 74HC595 8-bit shift register","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/74HC595-HD.jpg/220px-74HC595-HD.jpg"},{"image_text":"Soviet K131LA3, equivalent to 74H00","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/K131la3.jpg/220px-K131la3.jpg"},{"image_text":"Czechoslovak MH74S00, Texas Instruments SN74S251N, East German DL004D (74LS04), Soviet K155LA13 (7438)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Electronic_component_ttl.jpg/220px-Electronic_component_ttl.jpg"},{"image_text":"Romanian CDB493E, equivalent to SN7493","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/CDB493E.jpg/220px-CDB493E.jpg"},{"image_text":"A 4-bit, 2 register, six-instruction computer made entirely of 74-series chips on a solderless breadboard","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/YUNTEN.gif/220px-YUNTEN.gif"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:YUNTEN.gif"},{"title":"solderless breadboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solderless_breadboard"},{"title":"List of 7400-series integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_7400-series_integrated_circuits"},{"title":"4000-series integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4000-series_integrated_circuits"},{"title":"List of 4000-series integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_4000-series_integrated_circuits"},{"title":"Push–pull output","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push%E2%80%93pull_output"},{"title":"Open-collector/drain output","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_collector"},{"title":"Three-state output","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-state_logic"},{"title":"Schmitt trigger input","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmitt_trigger"},{"title":"Logic gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate"},{"title":"Logic family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_family"},{"title":"Programmable logic device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_device"},{"title":"Pin compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_compatibility"}] | [{"reference":"R. M. Marston (31 October 1996). Digital Logic IC. Newnes. p. 21. ISBN 9780750630184. Retrieved October 14, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cjt462Rr90wC&q=7400+manufacturer+codes+texas+instruments&pg=PA21","url_text":"Digital Logic IC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750630184","url_text":"9780750630184"}]},{"reference":"Wylie, Andrew (2013). \"The first monolithic integrated circuits\". Archived from the original on May 4, 2018. Retrieved 2019-01-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180504074623/http://homepages.nildram.co.uk/~wylie/ICs/monolith.htm","url_text":"\"The first monolithic integrated circuits\""},{"url":"http://homepages.nildram.co.uk/~wylie/ICs/monolith.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"1963: Standard Logic IC Families Introduced\". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on July 23, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/standard-logic-ic-families-introduced/","url_text":"\"1963: Standard Logic IC Families Introduced\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190723094744/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/standard-logic-ic-families-introduced/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"1967-68 Integrated Circuits Catalog. Texas Instruments. Retrieved July 23, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_tidataBookts196768_16942634","url_text":"1967-68 Integrated Circuits Catalog"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments","url_text":"Texas Instruments"}]},{"reference":"\"Logic Reference Guide: Bipolar, BiCMOS, and CMOS Logic Technology\" (PDF). Texas Instruments. 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 23, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://focus.ti.com/lit/ml/scyb004b/scyb004b.pdf","url_text":"\"Logic Reference Guide: Bipolar, BiCMOS, and CMOS Logic Technology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments","url_text":"Texas Instruments"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190723105156/http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/scyb004b/scyb004b.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Rise of TTL: How Fairchild Won a Battle But Lost the War | Computer History Museum\". computerhistory.org. 13 July 2015. See section: \"The Rise of TTL\". Retrieved 2018-06-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/the-rise-of-ttl-how-fairchild-won-a-battle-but-lost-the-war/","url_text":"\"The Rise of TTL: How Fairchild Won a Battle But Lost the War | Computer History Museum\""}]},{"reference":"SM2927 Sylvania Universal High Level Logic May66. 1966.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_sylvaniadaiaUniversalHighLevelLogicMay66_3459527","url_text":"SM2927 Sylvania Universal High Level Logic May66"}]},{"reference":"\"Digital ICs: Standard Logic\". Electronic Design. 2002-01-07. Retrieved 2018-06-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.electronicdesign.com/boards/digital-ics-standard-logic","url_text":"\"Digital ICs: Standard Logic\""}]},{"reference":"TTL Integrated Circuits Data Book (PDF). Motoroloa Semiconductor Products Inc. 1971.","urls":[{"url":"http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/components/motorola/_dataBooks/1971_Motorola_TTL_Integrated_Circuits_Data_Book.pdf","url_text":"TTL Integrated Circuits Data Book"}]},{"reference":"Lancaster, Don (1974). TTL Cookbook. H. W. Sams. p. 8. ISBN 9780672210358.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nv9SAAAAMAAJ&q=mc4000","url_text":"TTL Cookbook"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780672210358","url_text":"9780672210358"}]},{"reference":"Lancaster, Don (1974). TTL Cookbook. Sams / Prentice Hall Computer Publishing. pp. 9. ISBN 0-672-21035-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ttlcookbook00lanc/page/9","url_text":"TTL Cookbook"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ttlcookbook00lanc/page/9","url_text":"9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-672-21035-5","url_text":"0-672-21035-5"}]},{"reference":"\"DM8000 series TTL – andys-arcade\". andysarcade.net. Retrieved 2018-06-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.andysarcade.net/store2/dm8000-series-ttl.html","url_text":"\"DM8000 series TTL – andys-arcade\""}]},{"reference":"\"1963: Standard Logic IC Families Introduced | The Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum\". computerhistory.org. 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ISBN 978-0-470-03214-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/digitalelectroni00main_995","url_text":"Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/digitalelectroni00main_995/page/n188","url_text":"168"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-03214-5","url_text":"978-0-470-03214-5"}]},{"reference":"Morris, Robert L.; Miller, John R. (1971). Designing with TTL Integrated Circuits. p. 15. Bibcode:1971dwti.book.....M.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_tiTexasInsSeriesMorrisDesigningWithTTLIntegratedCi_11927910","url_text":"Designing with TTL Integrated Circuits"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_tiTexasInsSeriesMorrisDesigningWithTTLIntegratedCi_11927910/page/n25","url_text":"15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971dwti.book.....M","url_text":"1971dwti.book.....M"}]},{"reference":"The Engineering Staff, Texas Instruments (1973). The TTL Data Book for Design Engineers (1st ed.). Dallas, Texas.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas","url_text":"Dallas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas","url_text":"Texas"}]},{"reference":"The Engineering Staff, National Semiconductor Corporation (1976). National Semiconductor TTL DATA BOOK. Santa Clara California. pp. 1–14.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara,_California","url_text":"Santa Clara"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California","url_text":"California"}]},{"reference":"\"Relation between names of foreign and Russian logic chips\" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gaw.ru/html.cgi/txt/doc/marker/logic.htm","url_text":"\"Relation between names of foreign and Russian logic chips\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070228032645/http://www.gaw.ru/html.cgi/txt/doc/marker/logic.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hillebrand, Gerd (30 June 1980). Importbauelemente Integrierte Schaltungen [Imported integrated circuits] (PDF). Information Applikation Mikroelektronik (in German). Vol. 6. Kammer der Technik, Vorstand des Bezirksverbandes Frankfurt (Oder). Retrieved 2 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://datasheet.datasheetarchive.com/originals/scans/Scans-048/DSAGER00098.pdf","url_text":"Importbauelemente Integrierte Schaltungen"}]},{"reference":"Техническа информация 1985 [Technical information 1985] (in Bulgarian). NPSK Botevgrad. Retrieved 2017-11-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sandacite.bg/%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0-%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA-%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4-%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA/","url_text":"Техническа информация 1985"}]},{"reference":"Hillebrand, Gerd (12 September 1988). RGW-Typenübersicht + Vergleich — Teil 2: RGW [Comecon type overview + comparison — Part 2: Comecon] (PDF). Information Applikation Mikroelektronik (in German). Vol. 50. Kammer der Technik, Vorstand des Bezirksverbandes Frankfurt (Oder). Retrieved 11 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://datasheet.datasheetarchive.com/originals/scans/Scans-048/DSAGER000142.pdf","url_text":"RGW-Typenübersicht + Vergleich — Teil 2: RGW"}]},{"reference":"Digital Integrated Circuits (PDF). Bucharest: I.P.R.S. Băneasa. 1976. Retrieved 2019-01-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://yo3kxl.netxpert.ro/docs/cataloage_IPRS/Circuite%20Integrate%20Digitale%20-%20Catalog%20IPRS.pdf","url_text":"Digital Integrated Circuits"}]},{"reference":"Full Line Condensed Catalog 1990 (PDF). Bucharest: I.P.R.S. Băneasa. 1990. Retrieved 2019-01-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://yo3kxl.netxpert.ro/docs/cataloage_IPRS/FULL_LINE_CONDENSED_CATALOG%201990%20IPRS.pdf","url_text":"Full Line Condensed Catalog 1990"}]},{"reference":"Ниссельсон, Л. И. (1989). Цифровые и аналоговые интегральные микросхемы (in Russian). Радио и связь. ISBN 5256002597.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5256002597","url_text":"5256002597"}]},{"reference":"\"Активные элементы\" (in Russian). Музей электронных раритетов. Retrieved 24 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.155la3.ru/aktiv.htm","url_text":"\"Активные элементы\""}]},{"reference":"Козак, Виктор Романович (24 May 2014). \"Номенклатура и аналоги отечественных микросхем\" (in Russian). Retrieved 24 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.inp.nsk.su/~kozak/adv/advh0.htm","url_text":"\"Номенклатура и аналоги отечественных микросхем\""}]},{"reference":"\"Integrované obvody\" (in Czech). Retrieved 17 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.teslakatalog.cz/io.php","url_text":"\"Integrované obvody\""}]},{"reference":"\"Интегральные микросхемы\" [Integrated circuits] (in Russian). Minsk: OAO \"Integral\". Retrieved 24 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.integral.by/ru/products/integrated-circuits","url_text":"\"Интегральные микросхемы\""}]},{"reference":"\"Продукция\" [Products] (in Russian). Nalchik: OAO \"NZPP-KBR\" (former \"Elkor\"). Retrieved 5 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nzpp-kbr.ru/index.php?Page=page_212","url_text":"\"Продукция\""}]},{"reference":"\"Каталог изделий\" [Product catalog] (PDF) (in Russian). Voronezh: OAO \"VZPP-S\". Retrieved 30 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vzpp-s.ru/production/catalog.pdf","url_text":"\"Каталог изделий\""}]},{"reference":"\"Каталог продукции\" [Product catalog] (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: ZAO Svetlana Semiconductors. Retrieved 30 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://svetpol.ru/produktsiya/","url_text":"\"Каталог продукции\""}]},{"reference":"\"ПРОДУКЦИЯ\" [Products] (in Russian). Novosibirsk: AO NZPP. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_(topology) | Surface (topology) | ["1 In general","2 Definitions and first examples","3 Extrinsically defined surfaces and embeddings","4 Construction from polygons","5 Connected sums","6 Closed surfaces","6.1 Classification of closed surfaces","6.2 Monoid structure","6.3 Proof","7 Surfaces with boundary","8 Non-compact surfaces","9 Assumption of second-countability","10 Surfaces in geometry","11 See also","12 Notes","13 References","13.1 Simplicial proofs of classification up to homeomorphism","13.2 Morse theoretic proofs of classification up to diffeomorphism","13.3 Other proofs","14 External links"] | Two-dimensional manifold
For broader coverage of this topic, see Surface (mathematics).
An open surface with x-, y-, and z-contours shown.
In the part of mathematics referred to as topology, a surface is a two-dimensional manifold. Some surfaces arise as the boundaries of three-dimensional solid figures; for example, the sphere is the boundary of the solid ball. Other surfaces arise as graphs of functions of two variables; see the figure at right. However, surfaces can also be defined abstractly, without reference to any ambient space. For example, the Klein bottle is a surface that cannot be embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space.
Topological surfaces are sometimes equipped with additional information, such as a Riemannian metric or a complex structure, that connects them to other disciplines within mathematics, such as differential geometry and complex analysis. The various mathematical notions of surface can be used to model surfaces in the physical world.
In general
Further information: Surface (mathematics)
In mathematics, a surface is a geometrical shape that resembles a deformed plane. The most familiar examples arise as boundaries of solid objects in ordinary three-dimensional Euclidean space R3, such as spheres. The exact definition of a surface may depend on the context. Typically, in algebraic geometry, a surface may cross itself (and may have other singularities), while, in topology and differential geometry, it may not.
A surface is a two-dimensional space; this means that a moving point on a surface may move in two directions (it has two degrees of freedom). In other words, around almost every point, there is a coordinate patch on which a two-dimensional coordinate system is defined. For example, the surface of the Earth resembles (ideally) a two-dimensional sphere, and latitude and longitude provide two-dimensional coordinates on it (except at the poles and along the 180th meridian).
The concept of surface is widely used in physics, engineering, computer graphics, and many other disciplines, primarily in representing the surfaces of physical objects. For example, in analyzing the aerodynamic properties of an airplane, the central consideration is the flow of air along its surface.
Definitions and first examples
A (topological) surface is a topological space in which every point has an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to some open subset of the Euclidean plane E2. Such a neighborhood, together with the corresponding homeomorphism, is known as a (coordinate) chart. It is through this chart that the neighborhood inherits the standard coordinates on the Euclidean plane. These coordinates are known as local coordinates and these homeomorphisms lead us to describe surfaces as being locally Euclidean.
In most writings on the subject, it is often assumed, explicitly or implicitly, that as a topological space a surface is also nonempty, second-countable, and Hausdorff. It is also often assumed that the surfaces under consideration are connected.
The rest of this article will assume, unless specified otherwise, that a surface is nonempty, Hausdorff, second-countable, and connected.
More generally, a (topological) surface with boundary is a Hausdorff topological space in which every point has an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to some open subset of the closure of the upper half-plane H2 in C. These homeomorphisms are also known as (coordinate) charts. The boundary of the upper half-plane is the x-axis. A point on the surface mapped via a chart to the x-axis is termed a boundary point. The collection of such points is known as the boundary of the surface which is necessarily a one-manifold, that is, the union of closed curves. On the other hand, a point mapped to above the x-axis is an interior point. The collection of interior points is the interior of the surface which is always non-empty. The closed disk is a simple example of a surface with boundary. The boundary of the disc is a circle.
The term surface used without qualification refers to surfaces without boundary. In particular, a surface with empty boundary is a surface in the usual sense. A surface with empty boundary which is compact is known as a 'closed' surface. The two-dimensional sphere, the two-dimensional torus, and the real projective plane are examples of closed surfaces.
The Möbius strip is a surface on which the distinction between clockwise and counterclockwise can be defined locally, but not globally. In general, a surface is said to be orientable if it does not contain a homeomorphic copy of the Möbius strip; intuitively, it has two distinct "sides". For example, the sphere and torus are orientable, while the real projective plane is not (because the real projective plane with one point removed is homeomorphic to the open Möbius strip).
In differential and algebraic geometry, extra structure is added upon the topology of the surface. This added structure can be a smoothness structure (making it possible to define differentiable maps to and from the surface), a Riemannian metric (making it possible to define length and angles on the surface), a complex structure (making it possible to define holomorphic maps to and from the surface—in which case the surface is called a Riemann surface), or an algebraic structure (making it possible to detect singularities, such as self-intersections and cusps, that cannot be described solely in terms of the underlying topology).
Extrinsically defined surfaces and embeddings
A sphere can be defined parametrically (by x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ) or implicitly (by x2 + y2 + z2 − r2 = 0.)
Historically, surfaces were initially defined as subspaces of Euclidean spaces. Often, these surfaces were the locus of zeros of certain functions, usually polynomial functions. Such a definition considered the surface as part of a larger (Euclidean) space, and as such was termed extrinsic.
In the previous section, a surface is defined as a topological space with certain properties, namely Hausdorff and locally Euclidean. This topological space is not considered a subspace of another space. In this sense, the definition given above, which is the definition that mathematicians use at present, is intrinsic.
A surface defined as intrinsic is not required to satisfy the added constraint of being a subspace of Euclidean space. It may seem possible for some surfaces defined intrinsically to not be surfaces in the extrinsic sense. However, the Whitney embedding theorem asserts every surface can in fact be embedded homeomorphically into Euclidean space, in fact into E4: The extrinsic and intrinsic approaches turn out to be equivalent.
In fact, any compact surface that is either orientable or has a boundary can be embedded in E3; on the other hand, the real projective plane, which is compact, non-orientable and without boundary, cannot be embedded into E3 (see Gramain). Steiner surfaces, including Boy's surface, the Roman surface and the cross-cap, are models of the real projective plane in E3, but only the Boy surface is an immersed surface. All these models are singular at points where they intersect themselves.
The Alexander horned sphere is a well-known pathological embedding of the two-sphere into the three-sphere.
A knotted torus.
The chosen embedding (if any) of a surface into another space is regarded as extrinsic information; it is not essential to the surface itself. For example, a torus can be embedded into E3 in the "standard" manner (which looks like a bagel) or in a knotted manner (see figure). The two embedded tori are homeomorphic, but not isotopic: They are topologically equivalent, but their embeddings are not.
The image of a continuous, injective function from R2 to higher-dimensional Rn is said to be a parametric surface. Such an image is so-called because the x- and y- directions of the domain R2 are 2 variables that parametrize the image. A parametric surface need not be a topological surface. A surface of revolution can be viewed as a special kind of parametric surface.
If f is a smooth function from R3 to R whose gradient is nowhere zero, then the locus of zeros of f does define a surface, known as an implicit surface. If the condition of non-vanishing gradient is dropped, then the zero locus may develop singularities.
Construction from polygons
Each closed surface can be constructed from an oriented polygon with an even number of sides, called a fundamental polygon of the surface, by pairwise identification of its edges. For example, in each polygon below, attaching the sides with matching labels (A with A, B with B), so that the arrows point in the same direction, yields the indicated surface.
sphere
real projective plane
torus
Klein bottle
Any fundamental polygon can be written symbolically as follows. Begin at any vertex, and proceed around the perimeter of the polygon in either direction until returning to the starting vertex. During this traversal, record the label on each edge in order, with an exponent of -1 if the edge points opposite to the direction of traversal. The four models above, when traversed clockwise starting at the upper left, yield
sphere:
A
B
B
−
1
A
−
1
{\displaystyle ABB^{-1}A^{-1}}
real projective plane:
A
B
A
B
{\displaystyle ABAB}
torus:
A
B
A
−
1
B
−
1
{\displaystyle ABA^{-1}B^{-1}}
Klein bottle:
A
B
A
B
−
1
{\displaystyle ABAB^{-1}}
.
Note that the sphere and the projective plane can both be realized as quotients of the 2-gon, while the torus and Klein bottle require a 4-gon (square).
The expression thus derived from a fundamental polygon of a surface turns out to be the sole relation in a presentation of the fundamental group of the surface with the polygon edge labels as generators. This is a consequence of the Seifert–van Kampen theorem.
Gluing edges of polygons is a special kind of quotient space process. The quotient concept can be applied in greater generality to produce new or alternative constructions of surfaces. For example, the real projective plane can be obtained as the quotient of the sphere by identifying all pairs of opposite points on the sphere. Another example of a quotient is the connected sum.
Connected sums
The connected sum of two surfaces M and N, denoted M # N, is obtained by removing a disk from each of them and gluing them along the boundary components that result. The boundary of a disk is a circle, so these boundary components are circles. The Euler characteristic
χ
{\displaystyle \chi }
of M # N is the sum of the Euler characteristics of the summands, minus two:
χ
(
M
#
N
)
=
χ
(
M
)
+
χ
(
N
)
−
2.
{\displaystyle \chi (M{\mathbin {\#}}N)=\chi (M)+\chi (N)-2.\,}
The sphere S is an identity element for the connected sum, meaning that S # M = M. This is because deleting a disk from the sphere leaves a disk, which simply replaces the disk deleted from M upon gluing.
Connected summation with the torus T is also described as attaching a "handle" to the other summand M. If M is orientable, then so is T # M. The connected sum is associative, so the connected sum of a finite collection of surfaces is well-defined.
The connected sum of two real projective planes, P # P, is the Klein bottle K. The connected sum of the real projective plane and the Klein bottle is homeomorphic to the connected sum of the real projective plane with the torus; in a formula, P # K = P # T. Thus, the connected sum of three real projective planes is homeomorphic to the connected sum of the real projective plane with the torus. Any connected sum involving a real projective plane is nonorientable.
Closed surfaces
"Open surface" redirects here. Not to be confused with Free surface.
A closed surface is a surface that is compact and without boundary. Examples of closed surfaces include the sphere, the torus and the Klein bottle. Examples of non-closed surfaces include an open disk (which is a sphere with a puncture), a cylinder (which is a sphere with two punctures), and the Möbius strip.
A surface embedded in three-dimensional space is closed if and only if it is the boundary of a solid. As with any closed manifold, a surface embedded in Euclidean space that is closed with respect to the inherited Euclidean topology is not necessarily a closed surface; for example, a disk embedded in
R
3
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}
that contains its boundary is a surface that is topologically closed but not a closed surface.
Classification of closed surfaces
Some examples of orientable closed surfaces (left) and surfaces with boundary (right). Left: Some orientable closed surfaces are the surface of a sphere, the surface of a torus, and the surface of a cube. (The cube and the sphere are topologically equivalent to each other.) Right: Some surfaces with boundary are the disk surface, square surface, and hemisphere surface. The boundaries are shown in red. All three of these are topologically equivalent to each other.
The classification theorem of closed surfaces states that any connected closed surface is homeomorphic to some member of one of these three families:
the sphere,
the connected sum of g tori for g ≥ 1,
the connected sum of k real projective planes for k ≥ 1.
The surfaces in the first two families are orientable. It is convenient to combine the two families by regarding the sphere as the connected sum of 0 tori. The number g of tori involved is called the genus of the surface. The sphere and the torus have Euler characteristics 2 and 0, respectively, and in general the Euler characteristic of the connected sum of g tori is 2 − 2g.
The surfaces in the third family are nonorientable. The Euler characteristic of the real projective plane is 1, and in general the Euler characteristic of the connected sum of k of them is 2 − k.
It follows that a closed surface is determined, up to homeomorphism, by two pieces of information: its Euler characteristic, and whether it is orientable or not. In other words, Euler characteristic and orientability completely classify closed surfaces up to homeomorphism.
Closed surfaces with multiple connected components are classified by the class of each of their connected components, and thus one generally assumes that the surface is connected.
Monoid structure
Relating this classification to connected sums, the closed surfaces up to homeomorphism form a commutative monoid under the operation of connected sum, as indeed do manifolds of any fixed dimension. The identity is the sphere, while the real projective plane and the torus generate this monoid, with a single relation P # P # P = P # T, which may also be written P # K = P # T, since K = P # P. This relation is sometimes known as Dyck's theorem after Walther von Dyck, who proved it in (Dyck 1888), and the triple cross surface P # P # P is accordingly called Dyck's surface.
Geometrically, connect-sum with a torus (# T) adds a handle with both ends attached to the same side of the surface, while connect-sum with a Klein bottle (# K) adds a handle with the two ends attached to opposite sides of an orientable surface; in the presence of a projective plane (# P), the surface is not orientable (there is no notion of side), so there is no difference between attaching a torus and attaching a Klein bottle, which explains the relation.
Proof
The classification of closed surfaces has been known since the 1860s, and today a number of proofs exist.
Topological and combinatorial proofs in general rely on the difficult result that every compact 2-manifold is homeomorphic to a simplicial complex, which is of interest in its own right. The most common proof of the classification is (Seifert & Threlfall 1980), which brings every triangulated surface to a standard form. A simplified proof, which avoids a standard form, was discovered by John H. Conway circa 1992, which he called the "Zero Irrelevancy Proof" or "ZIP proof" and is presented in (Francis & Weeks 1999).
A geometric proof, which yields a stronger geometric result, is the uniformization theorem. This was originally proven only for Riemann surfaces in the 1880s and 1900s by Felix Klein, Paul Koebe, and Henri Poincaré.
Surfaces with boundary
Compact surfaces, possibly with boundary, are simply closed surfaces with a finite number of holes (open discs that have been removed). Thus, a connected compact surface is classified by the number of boundary components and the genus of the corresponding closed surface – equivalently, by the number of boundary components, the orientability, and Euler characteristic. The genus of a compact surface is defined as the genus of the corresponding closed surface.
This classification follows almost immediately from the classification of closed surfaces: removing an open disc from a closed surface yields a compact surface with a circle for boundary component, and removing k open discs yields a compact surface with k disjoint circles for boundary components. The precise locations of the holes are irrelevant, because the homeomorphism group acts k-transitively on any connected manifold of dimension at least 2.
Conversely, the boundary of a compact surface is a closed 1-manifold, and is therefore the disjoint union of a finite number of circles; filling these circles with disks (formally, taking the cone) yields a closed surface.
The unique compact orientable surface of genus g and with k boundary components is often denoted
Σ
g
,
k
,
{\displaystyle \Sigma _{g,k},}
for example in the study of the mapping class group.
Non-compact surfaces
Non-compact surfaces are more difficult to classify. As a simple example, a non-compact surface can be obtained by puncturing (removing a finite set of points from) a closed manifold. On the other hand, any open subset of a compact surface is itself a non-compact surface; consider, for example, the complement of a Cantor set in the sphere, otherwise known as the Cantor tree surface. However, not every non-compact surface is a subset of a compact surface; two canonical counterexamples are the Jacob's ladder and the Loch Ness monster, which are non-compact surfaces with infinite genus.
A non-compact surface M has a non-empty space of ends E(M), which informally speaking describes the ways that the surface "goes off to infinity". The space E(M) is always topologically equivalent to a closed subspace of the Cantor set. M may have a finite or countably infinite number Nh of handles, as well as a finite or countably infinite number Np of projective planes. If both Nh and Np are finite, then these two numbers, and the topological type of space of ends, classify the surface M up to topological equivalence. If either or both of Nh and Np is infinite, then the topological type of M depends not only on these two numbers but also on how the infinite one(s) approach the space of ends. In general the topological type of M is determined by the four subspaces of E(M) that are limit points of infinitely many handles and infinitely many projective planes, limit points of only handles, limit points of only projective planes, and limit points of neither.
Assumption of second-countability
If one removes the assumption of second-countability from the definition of a surface, there exist (necessarily non-compact) topological surfaces having no countable base for their topology. Perhaps the simplest example is the Cartesian product of the long line with the space of real numbers.
Another surface having no countable base for its topology, but not requiring the Axiom of Choice to prove its existence, is the Prüfer manifold, which can be described by simple equations that show it to be a real-analytic surface. The Prüfer manifold may be thought of as the upper half plane together with one additional "tongue" Tx hanging down from it directly below the point (x,0), for each real x.
In 1925, Tibor Radó proved that all Riemann surfaces (i.e., one-dimensional complex manifolds) are necessarily second-countable (Radó's theorem). By contrast, if one replaces the real numbers in the construction of the Prüfer surface by the complex numbers, one obtains a two-dimensional complex manifold (which is necessarily a 4-dimensional real manifold) with no countable base.
Surfaces in geometry
Main article: Differential geometry of surfaces
Polyhedra, such as the boundary of a cube, are among the first surfaces encountered in geometry. It is also possible to define smooth surfaces, in which each point has a neighborhood diffeomorphic to some open set in E2. This elaboration allows calculus to be applied to surfaces to prove many results.
Two smooth surfaces are diffeomorphic if and only if they are homeomorphic. (The analogous result does not hold for higher-dimensional manifolds.) Thus closed surfaces are classified up to diffeomorphism by their Euler characteristic and orientability.
Smooth surfaces equipped with Riemannian metrics are of foundational importance in differential geometry. A Riemannian metric endows a surface with notions of geodesic, distance, angle, and area. It also gives rise to Gaussian curvature, which describes how curved or bent the surface is at each point. Curvature is a rigid, geometric property, in that it is not preserved by general diffeomorphisms of the surface. However, the famous Gauss–Bonnet theorem for closed surfaces states that the integral of the Gaussian curvature K over the entire surface S is determined by the Euler characteristic:
∫
S
K
d
A
=
2
π
χ
(
S
)
.
{\displaystyle \int _{S}K\;dA=2\pi \chi (S).}
This result exemplifies the deep relationship between the geometry and topology of surfaces (and, to a lesser extent, higher-dimensional manifolds).
Another way in which surfaces arise in geometry is by passing into the complex domain. A complex one-manifold is a smooth oriented surface, also called a Riemann surface. Any complex nonsingular algebraic curve viewed as a complex manifold is a Riemann surface. In fact, every compact orientable surface is realizable as a Riemann surface. Thus compact Riemann surfaces are characterized topologically by their genus: 0, 1, 2, .... On the other hand, the genus does not characterize the complex structure. For example, there are uncountably many non-isomorphic compact Riemann surfaces of genus 1 (the elliptic curves).
Complex structures on a closed oriented surface correspond to conformal equivalence classes of Riemannian metrics on the surface. One version of the uniformization theorem (due to Poincaré) states that any Riemannian metric on an oriented, closed surface is conformally equivalent to an essentially unique metric of constant curvature. This provides a starting point for one of the approaches to Teichmüller theory, which provides a finer classification of Riemann surfaces than the topological one by Euler characteristic alone.
A complex surface is a complex two-manifold and thus a real four-manifold; it is not a surface in the sense of this article. Neither are algebraic curves defined over fields other than the complex numbers,
nor are algebraic surfaces defined over fields other than the real numbers.
See also
Boundary (topology)
Volume form, for volumes of surfaces in En
Poincaré metric, for metric properties of Riemann surfaces
Roman surface
Boy's surface
Tetrahemihexahedron
Crumpled surface, a non-differentiable surface obtained by deforming (crumpling) a differentiable surface
Notes
^ a b c (Francis & Weeks 1999)
^ Altınok, Selma; Bhupal, Mohan (2008), "Minimal page-genus of Milnor open books on links of rational surface singularities", Singularities II, Contemp. Math., vol. 475, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, pp. 1–10, doi:10.1090/conm/475/09272, ISBN 978-0-8218-4717-6, MR 2454357; see p.2: "Recall that the genus of a compact surface S with boundary is defined to be the genus of the associated closed surface obtained ... by sewing a disc onto each boundary circle"
^ Richards, Ian (1963). "On the classification of noncompact surfaces". Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 106 (2): 259–269. doi:10.2307/1993768. JSTOR 1993768.
References
Dyck, Walther (1888), "Beiträge zur Analysis situs I", Math. Ann., 32 (4): 459–512, doi:10.1007/bf01443580, S2CID 118123073
Simplicial proofs of classification up to homeomorphism
Seifert, Herbert; Threlfall, William (1980), A textbook of topology, Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 89, Academic Press, ISBN 0126348502, English translation of 1934 classic German textbook
Ahlfors, Lars V.; Sario, Leo (1960), Riemann surfaces, Princeton Mathematical Series, vol. 26, Princeton University Press, Chapter I
Maunder, C. R. F. (1996), Algebraic topology, Dover Publications, ISBN 0486691314, Cambridge undergraduate course
Massey, William S. (1991). A Basic Course in Algebraic Topology. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-97430-X.
Bredon, Glen E. (1993). Topology and Geometry. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-97926-3.
Jost, Jürgen (2006), Compact Riemann surfaces: an introduction to contemporary mathematics (3rd ed.), Springer, ISBN 3540330658, for closed oriented Riemannian manifolds
Morse theoretic proofs of classification up to diffeomorphism
Hirsch, M. (1994), Differential topology (2nd ed.), Springer
Gauld, David B. (1982), Differential topology: an introduction, Monographs and Textbooks in Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 72, Marcel Dekker, ISBN 0824717090
Shastri, Anant R. (2011), Elements of differential topology, CRC Press, ISBN 9781439831601, careful proof aimed at undergraduates
Gramain, André (1984). Topology of Surfaces. BCS Associates. ISBN 0-914351-01-X. (Original 1969-70 Orsay course notes in French for "Topologie des Surfaces")
A. Champanerkar; et al., Classification of surfaces via Morse Theory (PDF), an exposition of Gramain's notes{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
Other proofs
Lawson, Terry (2003), Topology: a geometric approach, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-851597-9, similar to Morse theoretic proof using sliding of attached handles
Francis, George K.; Weeks, Jeffrey R. (May 1999), "Conway's ZIP Proof" (PDF), American Mathematical Monthly, 106 (5): 393, doi:10.2307/2589143, JSTOR 2589143; page discussing the paper: On Conway's ZIP Proof
Thomassen, Carsten (1992), "The Jordan-Schönflies theorem and the classification of surfaces", Amer. Math. Monthly, 99 (2): 116–13, doi:10.2307/2324180, JSTOR 2324180, short elementary proof using spanning graphs
Prasolov, V.V. (2006), Elements of combinatorial and differential topology, Graduate Studies in Mathematics, vol. 74, American Mathematical Society, ISBN 0821838091, contains short account of Thomassen's proof
External links
Look up surface in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Classification of Compact Surfaces in Mathifold Project
The Classification of Surfaces and the Jordan Curve Theorem in Home page of Andrew Ranicki
Math Surfaces Gallery, with 60 ~surfaces and Java Applet for live rotation viewing
Math Surfaces Animation, with JavaScript (Canvas HTML) for tens surfaces rotation viewing
The Classification of Surfaces Lecture Notes by Z.Fiedorowicz
History and Art of Surfaces and their Mathematical Models
2-manifolds at the Manifold Atlas
Authority control databases: National
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Japan | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Surface (mathematics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_(mathematics)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saddle_Point.png"},{"link_name":"open surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_surface"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"},{"link_name":"manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold"},{"link_name":"boundaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold#Manifold_with_boundary"},{"link_name":"three-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional"},{"link_name":"solid figures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_figure"},{"link_name":"ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"ambient space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_space"},{"link_name":"Klein bottle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein_bottle"},{"link_name":"embedded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedding"},{"link_name":"Euclidean space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_space"},{"link_name":"Riemannian metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_metric"},{"link_name":"differential geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry"},{"link_name":"complex analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_analysis"},{"link_name":"mathematical notions of surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"surfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface"}],"text":"For broader coverage of this topic, see Surface (mathematics).An open surface with x-, y-, and z-contours shown.In the part of mathematics referred to as topology, a surface is a two-dimensional manifold. Some surfaces arise as the boundaries of three-dimensional solid figures; for example, the sphere is the boundary of the solid ball. Other surfaces arise as graphs of functions of two variables; see the figure at right. However, surfaces can also be defined abstractly, without reference to any ambient space. For example, the Klein bottle is a surface that cannot be embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space.Topological surfaces are sometimes equipped with additional information, such as a Riemannian metric or a complex structure, that connects them to other disciplines within mathematics, such as differential geometry and complex analysis. The various mathematical notions of surface can be used to model surfaces in the physical world.","title":"Surface (topology)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Surface (mathematics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"Euclidean space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_space"},{"link_name":"spheres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"singularities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_point_of_an_algebraic_variety"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"},{"link_name":"differential geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry"},{"link_name":"two-dimensional space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension"},{"link_name":"degrees of freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom"},{"link_name":"coordinate patch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_patch"},{"link_name":"coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"latitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude"},{"link_name":"longitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude"},{"link_name":"180th meridian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/180th_meridian"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"aerodynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics"},{"link_name":"airplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airplane"}],"text":"Further information: Surface (mathematics)In mathematics, a surface is a geometrical shape that resembles a deformed plane. The most familiar examples arise as boundaries of solid objects in ordinary three-dimensional Euclidean space R3, such as spheres. The exact definition of a surface may depend on the context. Typically, in algebraic geometry, a surface may cross itself (and may have other singularities), while, in topology and differential geometry, it may not.A surface is a two-dimensional space; this means that a moving point on a surface may move in two directions (it has two degrees of freedom). In other words, around almost every point, there is a coordinate patch on which a two-dimensional coordinate system is defined. For example, the surface of the Earth resembles (ideally) a two-dimensional sphere, and latitude and longitude provide two-dimensional coordinates on it (except at the poles and along the 180th meridian).The concept of surface is widely used in physics, engineering, computer graphics, and many other disciplines, primarily in representing the surfaces of physical objects. For example, in analyzing the aerodynamic properties of an airplane, the central consideration is the flow of air along its surface.","title":"In general"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"topological space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_space"},{"link_name":"neighbourhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_neighbourhood"},{"link_name":"homeomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeomorphism"},{"link_name":"open subset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_set"},{"link_name":"second-countable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-countable_space"},{"link_name":"Hausdorff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausdorff_space"},{"link_name":"Hausdorff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausdorff_space"},{"link_name":"topological space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_space"},{"link_name":"neighbourhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_neighbourhood"},{"link_name":"homeomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeomorphism"},{"link_name":"open subset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_set"},{"link_name":"upper half-plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_half-plane"},{"link_name":"empty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_set"},{"link_name":"disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"torus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus"},{"link_name":"real projective plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_projective_plane"},{"link_name":"Möbius strip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6bius_strip"},{"link_name":"differential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry"},{"link_name":"algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"Riemannian metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_metric"},{"link_name":"Riemann surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_surface"},{"link_name":"singularities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_point_of_an_algebraic_variety"}],"text":"A (topological) surface is a topological space in which every point has an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to some open subset of the Euclidean plane E2. Such a neighborhood, together with the corresponding homeomorphism, is known as a (coordinate) chart. It is through this chart that the neighborhood inherits the standard coordinates on the Euclidean plane. These coordinates are known as local coordinates and these homeomorphisms lead us to describe surfaces as being locally Euclidean.In most writings on the subject, it is often assumed, explicitly or implicitly, that as a topological space a surface is also nonempty, second-countable, and Hausdorff. It is also often assumed that the surfaces under consideration are connected.The rest of this article will assume, unless specified otherwise, that a surface is nonempty, Hausdorff, second-countable, and connected.More generally, a (topological) surface with boundary is a Hausdorff topological space in which every point has an open neighbourhood homeomorphic to some open subset of the closure of the upper half-plane H2 in C. These homeomorphisms are also known as (coordinate) charts. The boundary of the upper half-plane is the x-axis. A point on the surface mapped via a chart to the x-axis is termed a boundary point. The collection of such points is known as the boundary of the surface which is necessarily a one-manifold, that is, the union of closed curves. On the other hand, a point mapped to above the x-axis is an interior point. The collection of interior points is the interior of the surface which is always non-empty. The closed disk is a simple example of a surface with boundary. The boundary of the disc is a circle.The term surface used without qualification refers to surfaces without boundary. In particular, a surface with empty boundary is a surface in the usual sense. A surface with empty boundary which is compact is known as a 'closed' surface. The two-dimensional sphere, the two-dimensional torus, and the real projective plane are examples of closed surfaces.The Möbius strip is a surface on which the distinction between clockwise and counterclockwise can be defined locally, but not globally. In general, a surface is said to be orientable if it does not contain a homeomorphic copy of the Möbius strip; intuitively, it has two distinct \"sides\". For example, the sphere and torus are orientable, while the real projective plane is not (because the real projective plane with one point removed is homeomorphic to the open Möbius strip).In differential and algebraic geometry, extra structure is added upon the topology of the surface. This added structure can be a smoothness structure (making it possible to define differentiable maps to and from the surface), a Riemannian metric (making it possible to define length and angles on the surface), a complex structure (making it possible to define holomorphic maps to and from the surface—in which case the surface is called a Riemann surface), or an algebraic structure (making it possible to detect singularities, such as self-intersections and cusps, that cannot be described solely in terms of the underlying topology).","title":"Definitions and first examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sphere_wireframe.svg"},{"link_name":"locus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"zeros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"Whitney embedding theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_embedding_theorem"},{"link_name":"Steiner surfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steiner_surface"},{"link_name":"Boy's surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boy%27s_surface"},{"link_name":"Roman surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_surface"},{"link_name":"cross-cap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cap"},{"link_name":"immersed surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immersion_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Alexander horned sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_horned_sphere"},{"link_name":"pathological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_(mathematics)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KnottedTorus.svg"},{"link_name":"bagel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagel"},{"link_name":"knotted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knot_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"isotopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy#Isotopy"},{"link_name":"image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"injective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"parametric surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_surface"},{"link_name":"surface of revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_of_revolution"},{"link_name":"gradient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient"},{"link_name":"locus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"zeros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"implicit surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_surface"}],"text":"A sphere can be defined parametrically (by x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ) or implicitly (by x2 + y2 + z2 − r2 = 0.)Historically, surfaces were initially defined as subspaces of Euclidean spaces. Often, these surfaces were the locus of zeros of certain functions, usually polynomial functions. Such a definition considered the surface as part of a larger (Euclidean) space, and as such was termed extrinsic.In the previous section, a surface is defined as a topological space with certain properties, namely Hausdorff and locally Euclidean. This topological space is not considered a subspace of another space. In this sense, the definition given above, which is the definition that mathematicians use at present, is intrinsic.A surface defined as intrinsic is not required to satisfy the added constraint of being a subspace of Euclidean space. It may seem possible for some surfaces defined intrinsically to not be surfaces in the extrinsic sense. However, the Whitney embedding theorem asserts every surface can in fact be embedded homeomorphically into Euclidean space, in fact into E4: The extrinsic and intrinsic approaches turn out to be equivalent.In fact, any compact surface that is either orientable or has a boundary can be embedded in E3; on the other hand, the real projective plane, which is compact, non-orientable and without boundary, cannot be embedded into E3 (see Gramain). Steiner surfaces, including Boy's surface, the Roman surface and the cross-cap, are models of the real projective plane in E3, but only the Boy surface is an immersed surface. All these models are singular at points where they intersect themselves.The Alexander horned sphere is a well-known pathological embedding of the two-sphere into the three-sphere.A knotted torus.The chosen embedding (if any) of a surface into another space is regarded as extrinsic information; it is not essential to the surface itself. For example, a torus can be embedded into E3 in the \"standard\" manner (which looks like a bagel) or in a knotted manner (see figure). The two embedded tori are homeomorphic, but not isotopic: They are topologically equivalent, but their embeddings are not.The image of a continuous, injective function from R2 to higher-dimensional Rn is said to be a parametric surface. Such an image is so-called because the x- and y- directions of the domain R2 are 2 variables that parametrize the image. A parametric surface need not be a topological surface. A surface of revolution can be viewed as a special kind of parametric surface.If f is a smooth function from R3 to R whose gradient is nowhere zero, then the locus of zeros of f does define a surface, known as an implicit surface. If the condition of non-vanishing gradient is dropped, then the zero locus may develop singularities.","title":"Extrinsically defined surfaces and embeddings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fundamental polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_polygon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SphereAsSquare.svg"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ProjectivePlaneAsSquare.svg"},{"link_name":"real projective plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_projective_plane"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TorusAsSquare.svg"},{"link_name":"torus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KleinBottleAsSquare.svg"},{"link_name":"Klein bottle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein_bottle"},{"link_name":"presentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_of_a_group"},{"link_name":"fundamental group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_group"},{"link_name":"Seifert–van Kampen theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seifert%E2%80%93van_Kampen_theorem"},{"link_name":"quotient space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_space_(topology)"}],"text":"Each closed surface can be constructed from an oriented polygon with an even number of sides, called a fundamental polygon of the surface, by pairwise identification of its edges. For example, in each polygon below, attaching the sides with matching labels (A with A, B with B), so that the arrows point in the same direction, yields the indicated surface.sphere\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\treal projective plane\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\ttorus\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKlein bottleAny fundamental polygon can be written symbolically as follows. Begin at any vertex, and proceed around the perimeter of the polygon in either direction until returning to the starting vertex. During this traversal, record the label on each edge in order, with an exponent of -1 if the edge points opposite to the direction of traversal. The four models above, when traversed clockwise starting at the upper left, yieldsphere: \n \n \n \n A\n B\n \n B\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ABB^{-1}A^{-1}}\n \n\nreal projective plane: \n \n \n \n A\n B\n A\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ABAB}\n \n\ntorus: \n \n \n \n A\n B\n \n A\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n B\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ABA^{-1}B^{-1}}\n \n\nKlein bottle: \n \n \n \n A\n B\n A\n \n B\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ABAB^{-1}}\n \n.Note that the sphere and the projective plane can both be realized as quotients of the 2-gon, while the torus and Klein bottle require a 4-gon (square).The expression thus derived from a fundamental polygon of a surface turns out to be the sole relation in a presentation of the fundamental group of the surface with the polygon edge labels as generators. This is a consequence of the Seifert–van Kampen theorem.Gluing edges of polygons is a special kind of quotient space process. The quotient concept can be applied in greater generality to produce new or alternative constructions of surfaces. For example, the real projective plane can be obtained as the quotient of the sphere by identifying all pairs of opposite points on the sphere. Another example of a quotient is the connected sum.","title":"Construction from polygons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"connected sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_sum"},{"link_name":"Euler characteristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_characteristic"},{"link_name":"identity element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_element"},{"link_name":"Klein bottle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein_bottle"}],"text":"The connected sum of two surfaces M and N, denoted M # N, is obtained by removing a disk from each of them and gluing them along the boundary components that result. The boundary of a disk is a circle, so these boundary components are circles. The Euler characteristic \n \n \n \n χ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\chi }\n \n of M # N is the sum of the Euler characteristics of the summands, minus two:χ\n (\n M\n \n \n #\n \n \n N\n )\n =\n χ\n (\n M\n )\n +\n χ\n (\n N\n )\n −\n 2.\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\chi (M{\\mathbin {\\#}}N)=\\chi (M)+\\chi (N)-2.\\,}The sphere S is an identity element for the connected sum, meaning that S # M = M. This is because deleting a disk from the sphere leaves a disk, which simply replaces the disk deleted from M upon gluing.Connected summation with the torus T is also described as attaching a \"handle\" to the other summand M. If M is orientable, then so is T # M. The connected sum is associative, so the connected sum of a finite collection of surfaces is well-defined.The connected sum of two real projective planes, P # P, is the Klein bottle K. The connected sum of the real projective plane and the Klein bottle is homeomorphic to the connected sum of the real projective plane with the torus; in a formula, P # K = P # T. Thus, the connected sum of three real projective planes is homeomorphic to the connected sum of the real projective plane with the torus. Any connected sum involving a real projective plane is nonorientable.","title":"Connected sums"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Free surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_surface"},{"link_name":"compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_space"},{"link_name":"boundary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_of_a_manifold"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"torus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus"},{"link_name":"Klein bottle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein_bottle"},{"link_name":"open disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"puncture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puncturing_(topology)"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"Möbius strip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6bius_strip"},{"link_name":"three-dimensional space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional_space"},{"link_name":"closed manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed_manifold"},{"link_name":"Euclidean topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_topology"}],"text":"\"Open surface\" redirects here. Not to be confused with Free surface.A closed surface is a surface that is compact and without boundary. Examples of closed surfaces include the sphere, the torus and the Klein bottle. Examples of non-closed surfaces include an open disk (which is a sphere with a puncture), a cylinder (which is a sphere with two punctures), and the Möbius strip.A surface embedded in three-dimensional space is closed if and only if it is the boundary of a solid. As with any closed manifold, a surface embedded in Euclidean space that is closed with respect to the inherited Euclidean topology is not necessarily a closed surface; for example, a disk embedded in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{3}}\n \n that contains its boundary is a surface that is topologically closed but not a closed surface.","title":"Closed surfaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SurfacesWithAndWithoutBoundary.svg"},{"link_name":"torus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus"},{"link_name":"disk surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"connected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_(topology)"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"connected sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_sum"},{"link_name":"connected sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_sum"},{"link_name":"projective planes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_plane"},{"link_name":"orientable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientability"},{"link_name":"connected components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_component_(topology)"}],"sub_title":"Classification of closed surfaces","text":"Some examples of orientable closed surfaces (left) and surfaces with boundary (right). Left: Some orientable closed surfaces are the surface of a sphere, the surface of a torus, and the surface of a cube. (The cube and the sphere are topologically equivalent to each other.) Right: Some surfaces with boundary are the disk surface, square surface, and hemisphere surface. The boundaries are shown in red. All three of these are topologically equivalent to each other.The classification theorem of closed surfaces states that any connected closed surface is homeomorphic to some member of one of these three families:the sphere,\nthe connected sum of g tori for g ≥ 1,\nthe connected sum of k real projective planes for k ≥ 1.The surfaces in the first two families are orientable. It is convenient to combine the two families by regarding the sphere as the connected sum of 0 tori. The number g of tori involved is called the genus of the surface. The sphere and the torus have Euler characteristics 2 and 0, respectively, and in general the Euler characteristic of the connected sum of g tori is 2 − 2g.The surfaces in the third family are nonorientable. The Euler characteristic of the real projective plane is 1, and in general the Euler characteristic of the connected sum of k of them is 2 − k.It follows that a closed surface is determined, up to homeomorphism, by two pieces of information: its Euler characteristic, and whether it is orientable or not. In other words, Euler characteristic and orientability completely classify closed surfaces up to homeomorphism.Closed surfaces with multiple connected components are classified by the class of each of their connected components, and thus one generally assumes that the surface is connected.","title":"Closed surfaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"commutative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative"},{"link_name":"monoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoid"},{"link_name":"Walther von Dyck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_von_Dyck"},{"link_name":"Dyck 1888","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDyck1888"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fw-1"}],"sub_title":"Monoid structure","text":"Relating this classification to connected sums, the closed surfaces up to homeomorphism form a commutative monoid under the operation of connected sum, as indeed do manifolds of any fixed dimension. The identity is the sphere, while the real projective plane and the torus generate this monoid, with a single relation P # P # P = P # T, which may also be written P # K = P # T, since K = P # P. This relation is sometimes known as Dyck's theorem after Walther von Dyck, who proved it in (Dyck 1888), and the triple cross surface P # P # P is accordingly called Dyck's surface.[1]Geometrically, connect-sum with a torus (# T) adds a handle with both ends attached to the same side of the surface, while connect-sum with a Klein bottle (# K) adds a handle with the two ends attached to opposite sides of an orientable surface; in the presence of a projective plane (# P), the surface is not orientable (there is no notion of side), so there is no difference between attaching a torus and attaching a Klein bottle, which explains the relation.","title":"Closed surfaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fw-1"},{"link_name":"simplicial complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicial_complex"},{"link_name":"Seifert & Threlfall 1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSeifertThrelfall1980"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fw-1"},{"link_name":"John H. Conway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_H._Conway"},{"link_name":"Francis & Weeks 1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFrancisWeeks1999"},{"link_name":"uniformization theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformization_theorem"},{"link_name":"Felix Klein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Klein"},{"link_name":"Paul Koebe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Koebe"},{"link_name":"Henri Poincaré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9"}],"sub_title":"Proof","text":"The classification of closed surfaces has been known since the 1860s,[1] and today a number of proofs exist.Topological and combinatorial proofs in general rely on the difficult result that every compact 2-manifold is homeomorphic to a simplicial complex, which is of interest in its own right. The most common proof of the classification is (Seifert & Threlfall 1980),[1] which brings every triangulated surface to a standard form. A simplified proof, which avoids a standard form, was discovered by John H. Conway circa 1992, which he called the \"Zero Irrelevancy Proof\" or \"ZIP proof\" and is presented in (Francis & Weeks 1999).A geometric proof, which yields a stronger geometric result, is the uniformization theorem. This was originally proven only for Riemann surfaces in the 1880s and 1900s by Felix Klein, Paul Koebe, and Henri Poincaré.","title":"Closed surfaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_manifold"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"homeomorphism group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeomorphism_group"},{"link_name":"k-transitively","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_action"},{"link_name":"cone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_(topology)"},{"link_name":"mapping class group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapping_class_group"}],"text":"Compact surfaces, possibly with boundary, are simply closed surfaces with a finite number of holes (open discs that have been removed). Thus, a connected compact surface is classified by the number of boundary components and the genus of the corresponding closed surface – equivalently, by the number of boundary components, the orientability, and Euler characteristic. The genus of a compact surface is defined as the genus of the corresponding closed surface.[2]This classification follows almost immediately from the classification of closed surfaces: removing an open disc from a closed surface yields a compact surface with a circle for boundary component, and removing k open discs yields a compact surface with k disjoint circles for boundary components. The precise locations of the holes are irrelevant, because the homeomorphism group acts k-transitively on any connected manifold of dimension at least 2.Conversely, the boundary of a compact surface is a closed 1-manifold, and is therefore the disjoint union of a finite number of circles; filling these circles with disks (formally, taking the cone) yields a closed surface.The unique compact orientable surface of genus g and with k boundary components is often denoted \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n g\n ,\n k\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Sigma _{g,k},}\n \n for example in the study of the mapping class group.","title":"Surfaces with boundary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cantor set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor_set"},{"link_name":"Cantor tree surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor_tree_surface"},{"link_name":"Jacob's ladder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob%27s_ladder_(manifold)"},{"link_name":"Loch Ness monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loch_Ness_monster_surface"},{"link_name":"space of ends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_(topology)"},{"link_name":"Cantor set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor_set"},{"link_name":"projective planes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_plane"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Non-compact surfaces are more difficult to classify. As a simple example, a non-compact surface can be obtained by puncturing (removing a finite set of points from) a closed manifold. On the other hand, any open subset of a compact surface is itself a non-compact surface; consider, for example, the complement of a Cantor set in the sphere, otherwise known as the Cantor tree surface. However, not every non-compact surface is a subset of a compact surface; two canonical counterexamples are the Jacob's ladder and the Loch Ness monster, which are non-compact surfaces with infinite genus.A non-compact surface M has a non-empty space of ends E(M), which informally speaking describes the ways that the surface \"goes off to infinity\". The space E(M) is always topologically equivalent to a closed subspace of the Cantor set. M may have a finite or countably infinite number Nh of handles, as well as a finite or countably infinite number Np of projective planes. If both Nh and Np are finite, then these two numbers, and the topological type of space of ends, classify the surface M up to topological equivalence. If either or both of Nh and Np is infinite, then the topological type of M depends not only on these two numbers but also on how the infinite one(s) approach the space of ends. In general the topological type of M is determined by the four subspaces of E(M) that are limit points of infinitely many handles and infinitely many projective planes, limit points of only handles, limit points of only projective planes, and limit points of neither.[3]","title":"Non-compact surfaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"long line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_line_(topology)"},{"link_name":"Prüfer manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%BCfer_manifold"},{"link_name":"real-analytic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_analytic"},{"link_name":"complex manifolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_manifolds"},{"link_name":"Radó's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rad%C3%B3%27s_theorem_(Riemann_surfaces)"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"}],"text":"If one removes the assumption of second-countability from the definition of a surface, there exist (necessarily non-compact) topological surfaces having no countable base for their topology. Perhaps the simplest example is the Cartesian product of the long line with the space of real numbers.Another surface having no countable base for its topology, but not requiring the Axiom of Choice to prove its existence, is the Prüfer manifold, which can be described by simple equations that show it to be a real-analytic surface. The Prüfer manifold may be thought of as the upper half plane together with one additional \"tongue\" Tx hanging down from it directly below the point (x,0), for each real x.In 1925, Tibor Radó proved that all Riemann surfaces (i.e., one-dimensional complex manifolds) are necessarily second-countable (Radó's theorem). By contrast, if one replaces the real numbers in the construction of the Prüfer surface by the complex numbers, one obtains a two-dimensional complex manifold (which is necessarily a 4-dimensional real manifold) with no countable base.","title":"Assumption of second-countability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Polyhedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedron"},{"link_name":"cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube"},{"link_name":"diffeomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffeomorphism"},{"link_name":"calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus"},{"link_name":"closed surfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Closed_surface"},{"link_name":"Riemannian metrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_metric"},{"link_name":"differential geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry"},{"link_name":"geodesic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesic"},{"link_name":"distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance"},{"link_name":"angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle"},{"link_name":"Gaussian curvature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_curvature"},{"link_name":"Gauss–Bonnet theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Bonnet_theorem"},{"link_name":"Riemann surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_surface"},{"link_name":"algebraic curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_curve"},{"link_name":"elliptic curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve#Elliptic_curves_over_the_complex_numbers"},{"link_name":"conformal equivalence classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformally_equivalent"},{"link_name":"uniformization theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformization_theorem"},{"link_name":"Poincaré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Riemannian metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_metric"},{"link_name":"constant curvature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_curvature"},{"link_name":"Teichmüller theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teichm%C3%BCller_theory"},{"link_name":"fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"}],"text":"Polyhedra, such as the boundary of a cube, are among the first surfaces encountered in geometry. It is also possible to define smooth surfaces, in which each point has a neighborhood diffeomorphic to some open set in E2. This elaboration allows calculus to be applied to surfaces to prove many results.Two smooth surfaces are diffeomorphic if and only if they are homeomorphic. (The analogous result does not hold for higher-dimensional manifolds.) Thus closed surfaces are classified up to diffeomorphism by their Euler characteristic and orientability.Smooth surfaces equipped with Riemannian metrics are of foundational importance in differential geometry. A Riemannian metric endows a surface with notions of geodesic, distance, angle, and area. It also gives rise to Gaussian curvature, which describes how curved or bent the surface is at each point. Curvature is a rigid, geometric property, in that it is not preserved by general diffeomorphisms of the surface. However, the famous Gauss–Bonnet theorem for closed surfaces states that the integral of the Gaussian curvature K over the entire surface S is determined by the Euler characteristic:∫\n \n S\n \n \n K\n \n d\n A\n =\n 2\n π\n χ\n (\n S\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\int _{S}K\\;dA=2\\pi \\chi (S).}This result exemplifies the deep relationship between the geometry and topology of surfaces (and, to a lesser extent, higher-dimensional manifolds).Another way in which surfaces arise in geometry is by passing into the complex domain. A complex one-manifold is a smooth oriented surface, also called a Riemann surface. Any complex nonsingular algebraic curve viewed as a complex manifold is a Riemann surface. In fact, every compact orientable surface is realizable as a Riemann surface. Thus compact Riemann surfaces are characterized topologically by their genus: 0, 1, 2, .... On the other hand, the genus does not characterize the complex structure. For example, there are uncountably many non-isomorphic compact Riemann surfaces of genus 1 (the elliptic curves).Complex structures on a closed oriented surface correspond to conformal equivalence classes of Riemannian metrics on the surface. One version of the uniformization theorem (due to Poincaré) states that any Riemannian metric on an oriented, closed surface is conformally equivalent to an essentially unique metric of constant curvature. This provides a starting point for one of the approaches to Teichmüller theory, which provides a finer classification of Riemann surfaces than the topological one by Euler characteristic alone.A complex surface is a complex two-manifold and thus a real four-manifold; it is not a surface in the sense of this article. Neither are algebraic curves defined over fields other than the complex numbers,\nnor are algebraic surfaces defined over fields other than the real numbers.","title":"Surfaces in geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-fw_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-fw_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-fw_1-2"},{"link_name":"Francis & Weeks 1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFrancisWeeks1999"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1090/conm/475/09272","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1090%2Fconm%2F475%2F09272"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8218-4717-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8218-4717-6"},{"link_name":"MR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2454357","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2454357"},{"link_name":"p.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=uc4bCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"On the classification of noncompact surfaces\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1993768"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/1993768","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1993768"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1993768","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1993768"}],"text":"^ a b c (Francis & Weeks 1999)\n\n^ Altınok, Selma; Bhupal, Mohan (2008), \"Minimal page-genus of Milnor open books on links of rational surface singularities\", Singularities II, Contemp. Math., vol. 475, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, pp. 1–10, doi:10.1090/conm/475/09272, ISBN 978-0-8218-4717-6, MR 2454357; see p.2: \"Recall that the genus of a compact surface S with boundary is defined to be the genus of the associated closed surface obtained ... by sewing a disc onto each boundary circle\"\n\n^ Richards, Ian (1963). \"On the classification of noncompact surfaces\". Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 106 (2): 259–269. doi:10.2307/1993768. JSTOR 1993768.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"An open surface with x-, y-, and z-contours shown.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Saddle_Point.png/300px-Saddle_Point.png"},{"image_text":"A sphere can be defined parametrically (by x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ) or implicitly (by x2 + y2 + z2 − r2 = 0.)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sphere_wireframe.svg/250px-Sphere_wireframe.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A knotted torus.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/KnottedTorus.svg/220px-KnottedTorus.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Some examples of orientable closed surfaces (left) and surfaces with boundary (right). Left: Some orientable closed surfaces are the surface of a sphere, the surface of a torus, and the surface of a cube. (The cube and the sphere are topologically equivalent to each other.) Right: Some surfaces with boundary are the disk surface, square surface, and hemisphere surface. The boundaries are shown in red. All three of these are topologically equivalent to each other.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/SurfacesWithAndWithoutBoundary.svg/200px-SurfacesWithAndWithoutBoundary.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Boundary (topology)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(topology)"},{"title":"Volume form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_form"},{"title":"Poincaré metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_metric"},{"title":"Roman surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_surface"},{"title":"Boy's surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boy%27s_surface"},{"title":"Tetrahemihexahedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahemihexahedron"},{"title":"Crumpled surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crumpling"}] | [{"reference":"Altınok, Selma; Bhupal, Mohan (2008), \"Minimal page-genus of Milnor open books on links of rational surface singularities\", Singularities II, Contemp. Math., vol. 475, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, pp. 1–10, doi:10.1090/conm/475/09272, ISBN 978-0-8218-4717-6, MR 2454357","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fconm%2F475%2F09272","url_text":"10.1090/conm/475/09272"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8218-4717-6","url_text":"978-0-8218-4717-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2454357","url_text":"2454357"}]},{"reference":"Richards, Ian (1963). \"On the classification of noncompact surfaces\". Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 106 (2): 259–269. doi:10.2307/1993768. JSTOR 1993768.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1993768","url_text":"\"On the classification of noncompact surfaces\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1993768","url_text":"10.2307/1993768"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1993768","url_text":"1993768"}]},{"reference":"Dyck, Walther (1888), \"Beiträge zur Analysis situs I\", Math. Ann., 32 (4): 459–512, doi:10.1007/bf01443580, S2CID 118123073","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_von_Dyck","url_text":"Dyck, Walther"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01443580","url_text":"10.1007/bf01443580"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118123073","url_text":"118123073"}]},{"reference":"Seifert, Herbert; Threlfall, William (1980), A textbook of topology, Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 89, Academic Press, ISBN 0126348502","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/seifertthrelfall0000seif","url_text":"A textbook of topology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0126348502","url_text":"0126348502"}]},{"reference":"Ahlfors, Lars V.; Sario, Leo (1960), Riemann surfaces, Princeton Mathematical Series, vol. 26, Princeton University Press","urls":[]},{"reference":"Maunder, C. R. F. (1996), Algebraic topology, Dover Publications, ISBN 0486691314","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0486691314","url_text":"0486691314"}]},{"reference":"Massey, William S. (1991). A Basic Course in Algebraic Topology. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-97430-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-97430-X","url_text":"0-387-97430-X"}]},{"reference":"Bredon, Glen E. (1993). Topology and Geometry. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-97926-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Bredon","url_text":"Bredon, Glen E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-97926-3","url_text":"0-387-97926-3"}]},{"reference":"Jost, Jürgen (2006), Compact Riemann surfaces: an introduction to contemporary mathematics (3rd ed.), Springer, ISBN 3540330658","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3540330658","url_text":"3540330658"}]},{"reference":"Hirsch, M. (1994), Differential topology (2nd ed.), Springer","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gauld, David B. (1982), Differential topology: an introduction, Monographs and Textbooks in Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 72, Marcel Dekker, ISBN 0824717090","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/differentialtopo0000gaul","url_text":"Differential topology: an introduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824717090","url_text":"0824717090"}]},{"reference":"Shastri, Anant R. (2011), Elements of differential topology, CRC Press, ISBN 9781439831601","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439831601","url_text":"9781439831601"}]},{"reference":"Gramain, André (1984). Topology of Surfaces. BCS Associates. ISBN 0-914351-01-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-914351-01-X","url_text":"0-914351-01-X"}]},{"reference":"A. Champanerkar; et al., Classification of surfaces via Morse Theory (PDF), an exposition of Gramain's notes","urls":[{"url":"http://www.math.csi.cuny.edu/abhijit/papers/classification.pdf","url_text":"Classification of surfaces via Morse Theory"}]},{"reference":"Lawson, Terry (2003), Topology: a geometric approach, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-851597-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-851597-9","url_text":"0-19-851597-9"}]},{"reference":"Francis, George K.; Weeks, Jeffrey R. (May 1999), \"Conway's ZIP Proof\" (PDF), American Mathematical Monthly, 106 (5): 393, doi:10.2307/2589143, JSTOR 2589143","urls":[{"url":"http://new.math.uiuc.edu/zipproof/zipproof.pdf","url_text":"\"Conway's ZIP Proof\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Monthly","url_text":"American Mathematical Monthly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2589143","url_text":"10.2307/2589143"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2589143","url_text":"2589143"}]},{"reference":"Thomassen, Carsten (1992), \"The Jordan-Schönflies theorem and the classification of surfaces\", Amer. Math. Monthly, 99 (2): 116–13, doi:10.2307/2324180, JSTOR 2324180","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2324180","url_text":"10.2307/2324180"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2324180","url_text":"2324180"}]},{"reference":"Prasolov, V.V. (2006), Elements of combinatorial and differential topology, Graduate Studies in Mathematics, vol. 74, American Mathematical Society, ISBN 0821838091","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0821838091","url_text":"0821838091"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fconm%2F475%2F09272","external_links_name":"10.1090/conm/475/09272"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2454357","external_links_name":"2454357"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=uc4bCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2","external_links_name":"p.2"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1993768","external_links_name":"\"On the classification of noncompact surfaces\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1993768","external_links_name":"10.2307/1993768"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1993768","external_links_name":"1993768"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01443580","external_links_name":"10.1007/bf01443580"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118123073","external_links_name":"118123073"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/seifertthrelfall0000seif","external_links_name":"A textbook of topology"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/differentialtopo0000gaul","external_links_name":"Differential topology: an introduction"},{"Link":"http://www.math.u-psud.fr/~biblio/numerisation/docs/G_GRAMAIN-55/pdf/G_GRAMAIN-55.pdf","external_links_name":"(Original 1969-70 Orsay course notes in French for \"Topologie des Surfaces\")"},{"Link":"http://www.math.csi.cuny.edu/abhijit/papers/classification.pdf","external_links_name":"Classification of surfaces via Morse Theory"},{"Link":"http://new.math.uiuc.edu/zipproof/zipproof.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Conway's ZIP Proof\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2589143","external_links_name":"10.2307/2589143"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2589143","external_links_name":"2589143"},{"Link":"http://new.math.uiuc.edu/zipproof/","external_links_name":"On Conway's ZIP Proof"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2324180","external_links_name":"10.2307/2324180"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2324180","external_links_name":"2324180"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161228032041/http://mathifold.org/chapters/en/compact_surfaces.html","external_links_name":"Classification of Compact Surfaces"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160204170745/http://mathifold.org/","external_links_name":"Mathifold Project"},{"Link":"http://www.maths.ed.ac.uk/~aar/jordan/","external_links_name":"The Classification of Surfaces and the Jordan Curve Theorem"},{"Link":"http://xahlee.org/surface/gallery.html","external_links_name":"Math Surfaces Gallery, with 60 ~surfaces and Java Applet for live rotation viewing"},{"Link":"http://wokos.nethium.pl/surfaces_en.net","external_links_name":"Math Surfaces Animation, with JavaScript (Canvas HTML) for tens surfaces rotation viewing"},{"Link":"http://www.math.ohio-state.edu/~fiedorow/math655/classification.html","external_links_name":"The Classification of Surfaces"},{"Link":"http://maxwelldemon.com/2009/03/21/surfaces-1-the-ooze-of-the-past/","external_links_name":"History and Art of Surfaces and their Mathematical Models"},{"Link":"http://www.map.mpim-bonn.mpg.de/2-manifolds","external_links_name":"2-manifolds"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007292879305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh00005762","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567234","external_links_name":"Japan"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_general | Surgeon general | ["1 See also"] | Not to be confused with General surgery.
Surgeon general (pl.: surgeons general) is a title used in several Commonwealth countries and most NATO nations to refer either to a senior military medical officer or to a senior uniformed physician commissioned by the government and entrusted with public health responsibilities. The title originated in the 17th century, as military units acquired their own physicians.
In the United Kingdom, the Surgeon-General is the head of the military medical services. The post is held by the senior of the three individual service medical directors and carries the rank of vice admiral, lieutenant general, or air marshal.
In the United States, the chief public health officer is the Surgeon General of the United States, and a small number of states have state surgeons general. Moreover, three of the U.S. military services have their own surgeon general, namely the Surgeon General of the United States Army, Surgeon General of the United States Navy, and Surgeon General of the United States Air Force.
See also
Chief Medical Officer (Ireland)
Chief Medical Officer (United Kingdom)
Committee of Chiefs of Military Medical Services in NATO
Generalarzt
Generaloberstabsarzt
Surgeon General (Canada)
Surgeon General of the United States
Surgeon General of the United States Air Force
Surgeon General of the United States Army
Surgeon General of the United States Navy
Surgeon-General of the Swedish Armed Forces
Surgeon-General (United Kingdom)
Index of articles associated with the same name
This article includes a list of related items that share the same name (or similar names). If an internal link incorrectly led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"General surgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_surgery"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"Surgeon-General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon-General_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"vice admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_admiral"},{"link_name":"lieutenant general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general"},{"link_name":"air marshal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_marshal"},{"link_name":"Surgeon General of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"state surgeons general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Surgeon_General"},{"link_name":"U.S. military services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"Surgeon General of the United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Surgeon General of the United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Surgeon General of the United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Air_Force"}],"text":"Not to be confused with General surgery.Surgeon general (pl.: surgeons general) is a title used in several Commonwealth countries and most NATO nations to refer either to a senior military medical officer or to a senior uniformed physician commissioned by the government and entrusted with public health responsibilities. The title originated in the 17th century, as military units acquired their own physicians.In the United Kingdom, the Surgeon-General is the head of the military medical services. The post is held by the senior of the three individual service medical directors and carries the rank of vice admiral, lieutenant general, or air marshal.In the United States, the chief public health officer is the Surgeon General of the United States, and a small number of states have state surgeons general. Moreover, three of the U.S. military services have their own surgeon general, namely the Surgeon General of the United States Army, Surgeon General of the United States Navy, and Surgeon General of the United States Air Force.","title":"Surgeon general"}] | [] | [{"title":"Chief Medical Officer (Ireland)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer_(Ireland)"},{"title":"Chief Medical Officer (United Kingdom)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer_(United_Kingdom)"},{"title":"Committee of Chiefs of Military Medical Services in NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_of_Chiefs_of_Military_Medical_Services_in_NATO"},{"title":"Generalarzt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalarzt"},{"title":"Generaloberstabsarzt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generaloberstabsarzt"},{"title":"Surgeon General (Canada)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_(Canada)"},{"title":"Surgeon General of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States"},{"title":"Surgeon General of the United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Air_Force"},{"title":"Surgeon General of the United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Army"},{"title":"Surgeon General of the United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Navy"},{"title":"Surgeon-General of the Swedish Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon-General_of_the_Swedish_Armed_Forces"},{"title":"Surgeon-General (United Kingdom)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon-General_(United_Kingdom)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DAB_list_gray.svg"},{"title":"article","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Set_index_articles"},{"title":"internal link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere/Surgeon_general&namespace=0"}] | [] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere/Surgeon_general&namespace=0","external_links_name":"internal link"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Institute_of_Computer_Science | Swedish Institute of Computer Science | ["1 Software","2 Academic output","3 Notable spin-off companies","4 Funding","5 History","6 References","7 External links"] | Coordinates: 59°24′18″N 17°56′59″E / 59.4049°N 17.9496°E / 59.4049; 17.9496Swedish Institute of Computer ScienceEstablished1985; 39 years ago (1985)FocusApplied computer scienceHeadIngrid NordmarkFaculty160 researchersStaff200 employees totalAddressBox 1263,SE-164 29 Kista,SwedenLocationKista district, Stockholm, Södermanland and Uppland, SwedenCoordinates59°24′18″N 17°56′59″E / 59.4049°N 17.9496°E / 59.4049; 17.9496Websitewww.sics.se
RISE SICS (previously Swedish Institute of Computer Science) is a leading research institute for applied information and communication technology in Sweden, founded in 1985.
It explores the digitalization of products, services and businesses.
In January 2005, SICS had about 88 employees, of which 77 were researchers, 30 with PhD degrees. As of April 2016, SICS had about 200 employees, of which 160 were researchers, 83 with PhD degrees. The institute is headquartered in the Kista district of Stockholm, with the main office in the Electrum building.
Software
Several well-known software packages have been developed at SICS:
Contiki, an operating system for small-memory embedded devices
Delegent, an authorization server
Distributed Interactive Virtual Environment or DIVE in short
lwIP, a TCP/IP stack for embedded systems
Oz-Mozart, a multi-platform programming system
Nemesis, a concept exokernel operating system
Protothreads, light-weight stackless threads
Quintus Prolog and SICStus Prolog, Prolog implementations
Simics, a full-system simulator originally developed at SICS
uIP, a TCP/IP stack for embedded systems
Academic output
The research at SICS results in approximately 100 refereed publications in academic journals, conferences and workshops per year. Around 2-4 SICS researchers receive higher academic degrees per year, and 1-3 persons move to academia for tenured positions.
SICS was ranked as the 15th most acknowledged computer science research institution in the world in an article in the December 2004 issue of the highly esteemed journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). SICS is the only Swedish institution included in the list, and is one of two European institutions (the other one is INRIA) alongside 13 well-known American institutions, several of them larger than SICS.
Notable spin-off companies
Dynarc (1997)
Effnet (1997)
Virtutech (1998)
PipeBeach (1998)
Tacton Systems (1998) - knowledge based solutions for sales and product configuration
BotBox (1999)
Voxi (1999)
VerySolid (2004)
Axiomatics (2006) - security solutions for digital data assets
Asimus (2006) - search technology
Peerialism (2007) - scalable and flexible file storage and video streaming solutions
Gavagai (2008) - scalable and robust representation of semantics of linguistic data
Funding
SICS is owned jointly, 60% by the Swedish government, and 40% by Swedish industry. The government owners are the Research Institutes of Sweden (RISE), Swedish ICT, and the Defence Materiel Administration (FMV). The industry owners are a consortium of Ericsson, Asea Brown Boveri (ABB), Saab Group, Green Cargo, Bombardier Transportation, and TeliaSonera.
SICS research is funded by the owners, by national funding sources, often Vinnova (the Swedish Government Agency for Innovation Systems) and the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF), and by industrial collaboration partners. SICS also participates in several European research projects funded by the European Commission.
History
RISE SICS was formed in 1985 and is owned by the Swedish Government.
References
^ Giles, C. L.; Councill, I. G. (December 15, 2004). "Who gets acknowledged: Measuring scientific contributions through automatic acknowledgment indexing" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 (51): 17599–17604. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10117599G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407743101. PMC 539757. PMID 15601767.
External links
Official website
Tacton home page
Axiomatics homepage
Gavagai homepage
Peerialism home page
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
United States
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swedish_Institute_of_Computer_Science&action=edit"},{"link_name":"PhD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhD"},{"link_name":"Kista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kista"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"}],"text":"RISE SICS (previously Swedish Institute of Computer Science) is a leading research institute for applied information and communication technology in Sweden, founded in 1985.It explores the digitalization of products, services and businesses.In January 2005, SICS had about 88 employees, of which 77 were researchers, 30 with PhD degrees. As of April 2016[update], SICS had about 200 employees, of which 160 were researchers, 83 with PhD degrees. The institute is headquartered in the Kista district of Stockholm, with the main office in the Electrum building.","title":"Swedish Institute of Computer Science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Contiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contiki"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Delegent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delegent&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Distributed Interactive Virtual Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distributed_Interactive_Virtual_Environment&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"lwIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LwIP"},{"link_name":"TCP/IP stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP_stack"},{"link_name":"embedded systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"Oz-Mozart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oz_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Nemesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemesis_(computing)"},{"link_name":"exokernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exokernel"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Protothreads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protothreads"},{"link_name":"threads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Quintus Prolog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Prolog"},{"link_name":"SICStus Prolog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SICStus_Prolog"},{"link_name":"Prolog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog"},{"link_name":"Simics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simics"},{"link_name":"uIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UIP_(micro_IP)"},{"link_name":"TCP/IP stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP_stack"},{"link_name":"embedded systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"}],"text":"Several well-known software packages have been developed at SICS:Contiki, an operating system for small-memory embedded devices\nDelegent, an authorization server\nDistributed Interactive Virtual Environment or DIVE in short\nlwIP, a TCP/IP stack for embedded systems\nOz-Mozart, a multi-platform programming system\nNemesis, a concept exokernel operating system\nProtothreads, light-weight stackless threads\nQuintus Prolog and SICStus Prolog, Prolog implementations\nSimics, a full-system simulator originally developed at SICS\nuIP, a TCP/IP stack for embedded systems","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"academic journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal"},{"link_name":"academic degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degree"},{"link_name":"tenured","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenure"},{"link_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"INRIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INRIA"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The research at SICS results in approximately 100 refereed publications in academic journals, conferences and workshops per year. Around 2-4 SICS researchers receive higher academic degrees per year, and 1-3 persons move to academia for tenured positions.SICS was ranked as the 15th most acknowledged computer science research institution in the world in an article in the December 2004 issue of the highly esteemed journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). SICS is the only Swedish institution included in the list, and is one of two European institutions (the other one is INRIA) alongside 13 well-known American institutions, several of them larger than SICS.[1]","title":"Academic output"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dynarc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynarc&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Effnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Effnet&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Virtutech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtutech"},{"link_name":"PipeBeach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PipeBeach&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tacton Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tacton_Systems&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BotBox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BotBox&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Voxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Voxi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"VerySolid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VerySolid&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Axiomatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axiomatics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Asimus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asimus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Peerialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peerialism&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gavagai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavagai"}],"text":"Dynarc (1997)\nEffnet (1997)\nVirtutech (1998)\nPipeBeach (1998)\nTacton Systems (1998) - knowledge based solutions for sales and product configuration\nBotBox (1999)\nVoxi (1999)\nVerySolid (2004)\nAxiomatics (2006) - security solutions for digital data assets\nAsimus (2006) - search technology\nPeerialism (2007) - scalable and flexible file storage and video streaming solutions\nGavagai (2008) - scalable and robust representation of semantics of linguistic data","title":"Notable spin-off companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swedish government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_government"},{"link_name":"Research Institutes of Sweden (RISE)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Institutes_of_Sweden_(RISE)"},{"link_name":"Defence Materiel Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Materiel_Administration_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Ericsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ericsson"},{"link_name":"Asea Brown Boveri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asea_Brown_Boveri"},{"link_name":"Saab Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saab_Group"},{"link_name":"Green Cargo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Cargo"},{"link_name":"Bombardier Transportation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Transportation"},{"link_name":"TeliaSonera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TeliaSonera"},{"link_name":"Vinnova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinnova"},{"link_name":"Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Foundation_for_Strategic_Research"},{"link_name":"European Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission"}],"text":"SICS is owned jointly, 60% by the Swedish government, and 40% by Swedish industry. The government owners are the Research Institutes of Sweden (RISE), Swedish ICT, and the Defence Materiel Administration (FMV). The industry owners are a consortium of Ericsson, Asea Brown Boveri (ABB), Saab Group, Green Cargo, Bombardier Transportation, and TeliaSonera.SICS research is funded by the owners, by national funding sources, often Vinnova (the Swedish Government Agency for Innovation Systems) and the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF), and by industrial collaboration partners. SICS also participates in several European research projects funded by the European Commission.","title":"Funding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swedish Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Sweden"}],"text":"RISE SICS was formed in 1985 and is owned by the Swedish Government.","title":"History"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Giles, C. L.; Councill, I. G. (December 15, 2004). \"Who gets acknowledged: Measuring scientific contributions through automatic acknowledgment indexing\" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 (51): 17599–17604. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10117599G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407743101. PMC 539757. PMID 15601767.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Giles","url_text":"Giles, C. L."},{"url":"http://clgiles.ist.psu.edu/papers/PNAS-2004-Acknowledgements.pdf","url_text":"\"Who gets acknowledged: Measuring scientific contributions through automatic acknowledgment indexing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America","url_text":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_National_Museum_of_Science_and_Technology | National Museum of Science and Technology (Sweden) | ["1 History","2 Gallery","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 59°19′57″N 18°07′07″E / 59.33250°N 18.11861°E / 59.33250; 18.1186159°19′57″N 18°07′07″E / 59.33250°N 18.11861°E / 59.33250; 18.11861
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Technology museum in Stockholm, SwedenTekniska museetSwedish National Museum of Science and TechnologyThe National Museum of Technology (main entrance)Established1923LocationTekniska museet, Djurgården, Stockholm, SwedenTypeTechnology museumVisitors301,937 (2022)DirectorPeter SkoghPublic transit accessBus No. 69 to MuseiparkenWebsitewww.tekniskamuseet.se
The National Museum of Science and Technology (Swedish: Tekniska museet) is a museum in Stockholm. It is Sweden’s largest museum of technology, and has a national charter to be responsible for preserving the Swedish cultural heritage related to technological and industrial history. Its galleries comprise around 10,000 square meters, and the museum attracts annually about 350,000 visitors. The collections consist of more than 55,000 objects and artifacts, 1 200 shelf metres of archival records and documents, 200,000 drawings, 800,000 images and about 40,000 books. The National Museum of Science and Technology also documents technologies, processes, stories and memoirs in order to preserve them for generations to come.
History
The National Museum of Science and Technology was founded in 1924 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences, the Confederation of Swedish Enterprise (formerly the Federation of Swedish Industries), the Swedish Inventors' Association and the Swedish Association of Graduate Engineers (formerly Svenska Teknologföreningen – roughly, the Swedish Association of Technologists). Its present building is designed in the functionalistic style by architect Ragnar Hjorth , and was opened in 1936. The museum became a foundation in 1947; and has been operated with government funding since 1964.
In 2016, the museum received the Museum of the Year Award, which is awarded by the Swedish branch of International Council of Museums and by the Swedish Riksförbundet Sveriges museer (National Association of Museums.) The jury cited the museum's focus on inclusivity, calling it "the favorite place of all small geniuses."
In 2017, the Museum received the Children in Museums Award from the International Association of Children in Museums. The jury particularly cited the exhibition Megamind, for "its high quality design, total accessibility and basis of serious research and development of contents reaches a new level in children’s museums."
Gallery
The National Museum of Science and Technology.
The Machine Hall
Philips demonstration of television, November 1952.
Museum's amateur radio station.
See also
List of museums in Stockholm
References
^ About us, National Museum of Science and Technology website.
^ a b "Tekniska museet är Årets museum 2016!"
^ "The Children in Museums Award 2017"
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tekniska museet.
Official website
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"59°19′57″N 18°07′07″E / 59.33250°N 18.11861°E / 59.33250; 18.11861","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=National_Museum_of_Science_and_Technology_(Sweden)¶ms=59_19_57_N_18_07_07_E_type:landmark"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology"}],"text":"59°19′57″N 18°07′07″E / 59.33250°N 18.11861°E / 59.33250; 18.11861Technology museum in Stockholm, SwedenThe National Museum of Science and Technology (Swedish: Tekniska museet) is a museum in Stockholm. It is Sweden’s largest museum of technology, and has a national charter to be responsible for preserving the Swedish cultural heritage related to technological and industrial history. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adopted | The Adopted | ["1 Cast","2 References","3 External links"] | 2011 film directed by Mélanie Laurent
The AdoptedFilm posterFrenchLes adoptés
Directed byMélanie LaurentWritten byMélanie LaurentMorgan PerezChristophe DeslandesProduced byBruno LevyStarringMarie Denarnaud Denis MénochetMélanie LaurentClémentine CélariéCinematographyArnaud PotierEdited byGuerric CatalaMusic byJonathan MoraliProductioncompaniesMove Movie StudioCanalTF1 Films ProductionRhône-Alpes CinémaDistributed byStudioCanalRelease date
23 November 2011 (2011-11-23)
Running time100 minutesCountryFranceLanguageFrenchBudget$4 millionBox office$2.5 million
The Adopted (French: Les adoptés) is a 2011 French drama film directed and co-written by Mélanie Laurent. It stars Marie Denarnaud, Denis Ménochet, Laurent and Clémentine Célarié. Denis Ménochet won a Lumières Award for Most Promising Actor for his performance in the film.
Cast
Marie Denarnaud as Marine
Denis Ménochet as Alex
Clémentine Célarié as Millie
Mélanie Laurent as Lisa
Audrey Lamy as Clémence
Théodore Maquet-Foucher as Léo
Morgan Perez as Philippe
References
^ JP. "Les Adoptés (2011)- JPBox-Office". jpbox-office.com.
^ "The Adopted – review". The Guardian.
^ "'The Artist' Named Best Film at France's Lumiere Awards". The Hollywood Reporter.
External links
The Adopted at IMDb
vteFilms directed by Mélanie Laurent
The Adopted (2011)
Breathe (2014)
Tomorrow (2015)
Plonger (2017)
Galveston (2018)
The Mad Women's Ball (2021)
Wingwomen (2023)
This article related to a French film of the 2010s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"drama film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama_film"},{"link_name":"Mélanie Laurent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9lanie_Laurent"},{"link_name":"Marie Denarnaud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Denarnaud"},{"link_name":"Denis Ménochet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_M%C3%A9nochet"},{"link_name":"Clémentine Célarié","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A9mentine_C%C3%A9lari%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Lumières Award for Most Promising Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res_Award_for_Most_Promising_Actor"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The Adopted (French: Les adoptés) is a 2011 French drama film directed and co-written by Mélanie Laurent. It stars Marie Denarnaud, Denis Ménochet, Laurent and Clémentine Célarié.[2] Denis Ménochet won a Lumières Award for Most Promising Actor for his performance in the film.[3]","title":"The Adopted"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marie Denarnaud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Denarnaud"},{"link_name":"Denis Ménochet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_M%C3%A9nochet"},{"link_name":"Clémentine Célarié","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A9mentine_C%C3%A9lari%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Mélanie Laurent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9lanie_Laurent"},{"link_name":"Audrey Lamy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audrey_Lamy"},{"link_name":"Théodore Maquet-Foucher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Th%C3%A9odore_Maquet-Foucher&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Morgan Perez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morgan_Perez&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Marie Denarnaud as Marine\nDenis Ménochet as Alex\nClémentine Célarié as Millie\nMélanie Laurent as Lisa\nAudrey Lamy as Clémence\nThéodore Maquet-Foucher as Léo\nMorgan Perez as Philippe","title":"Cast"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"JP. \"Les Adoptés (2011)- JPBox-Office\". jpbox-office.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://jpbox-office.com/fichfilm.php?id=12365","url_text":"\"Les Adoptés (2011)- JPBox-Office\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Adopted – review\". The Guardian.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/feb/26/the-adopted-review-melanie-laurent","url_text":"\"The Adopted – review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"\"'The Artist' Named Best Film at France's Lumiere Awards\". The Hollywood Reporter.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/the-artist-lumiere-awards-281420","url_text":"\"'The Artist' Named Best Film at France's Lumiere Awards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter","url_text":"The Hollywood Reporter"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://jpbox-office.com/fichfilm.php?id=12365","external_links_name":"\"Les Adoptés (2011)- JPBox-Office\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/feb/26/the-adopted-review-melanie-laurent","external_links_name":"\"The Adopted – review\""},{"Link":"http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/the-artist-lumiere-awards-281420","external_links_name":"\"'The Artist' Named Best Film at France's Lumiere Awards\""},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2004279/","external_links_name":"The Adopted"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Adopted&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_McQuilken | Michael McQuilken | ["1 Early life","2 Education","3 Post-university career","4 References"] | American director, filmmaker, and musician
Michael McQuilkenBornBeaverton, Oregon, USAEducationYale School of DramaOccupation(s)Director, filmmaker, musician, composer, sound designerNotable workMachine Makes ManSpouseAdina VersonChildren1
Michael McQuilken is an American, New York-based theater and opera director, filmmaker, and musician.
Early life
Born and raised in Beaverton, Oregon, McQuilken moved to Seattle, Washington in 1997. He began creating fringe theatre while earning a living as a street musician on a homemade junk drum kit. His avant-garde musical Ballyhoo, co-created with John Osebold, won "best play" at the 2000 Seattle Fringe Festival, and his multi-media one-man show A Day in Dignation won him the Seattle Times' Sammy Davis Jr. Award. It was also performed at the Fringe Festivals of Edinburgh, Prague, and Amsterdam, and at PS122 in New York City.
In 2002, McQuilken began working as a sound designer, composer, and onstage musician for several productions at the Intiman Theatre, including Bartlett Sher's production of Nickel and Dimed, which transferred to the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles and earned McQuilken the 2002 Backstage West Garland Award for composition. McQuilken continued to write, score, and perform, creating Paper Airplane and Extropia with Collaborator, the Seattle art collective, the latter of which was named one of the best three shows of 2004 by Seattle Weekly. In 2008, McQuilken debuted the album His Forearms Were Tanks Now, which McQuilken wrote, recorded, and performed on a self-made, loop-based composition and performance station called "the RIG", under the band name The Few Moments. Artist Ira Marcks drew a 50-foot illustration to accompany the album, McQuilken also played as the touring drummer for experimental folk musician Jason Webley.
Education
In 2008, McQuilken was accepted to the Yale School of Drama for graduate studies in theatrical directing. During his time there he directed and scored numerous productions, including Shakespeare's Othello and Gary Henderson's Skin Tight. Also during this time, he recorded The Few Moments' second album, The Celebritist, and scored filmmaker Sarah Lasley's short film Eve. For his thesis project, McQuilken wrote, scored, and directed an original play with music, JIB.
Post-university career
Upon graduating, McQuilken began collaborating with musician Amanda Palmer. He co-produced the recording and directed the music video of her cover of Nirvana's ' Polly' for SPIN Magazine. In 2011, McQuilken joined Palmer's Grand Theft Orchestra as the studio and touring drummer for the album Theatre is Evil, also acting as producer, production designer, and theatrical director for the 2012 World Tour. He co-directed the music video "Do It With A Rockstar" with Palmer, Wayne Coyne, and George Salisbury, and in 2013 he directed the music video for "The Bed Song". McQuilken left the Grand Theft Orchestra in April 2013.
McQuilken continues to make music with his solo project, The Few Moments, and runs his own film company, Q Motion Pictures, for which he has filmed numerous music videos for bands such as Jaggery and Leisure Cruise. As a founding member of the New York-based theatre company OldSoundRoom, he has directed numerous productions including an adaptation of Neil Gaiman's short stories, October in the Chair, and an original play with music, Machine Makes Man, co-created and performed with Adina Verson, which won Best International Performance at the 2013 Amsterdam Fringe Festival and subsequently ran at the National Arts Festival in Grahamstown, South Africa.
In 2014, McQuilken directed Room No. 35, a concerto installation composed by Paola Prestini, performed by cellist Maya Beiser, with projections by artist Erika Harrsch. For BAM's 2015 Next Wave Festival, he directed Epiphany: The Cycle of Life, a new music installation, and then directed the world premiere of Angel's Bone, a new opera by composer Du Yun and librettist Royce Vavrek, for the 2016 Prototype Festival. He writes music and tours with David Van Witt for their band, Odysseus Finn, and composes for new musical theatre commissions at various theaters, including Ars Nova.
References
^ "'Only Murders in the Building' Cast's Dating History: Selena Gomez, Steve Martin and More Stars' Love Lives". Yahoo!. 2023-03-28. Retrieved 2024-01-08.
^ "Helga Davis and Michael McQuilken". Kimmel Cultural Campus. 2019-06-29. Retrieved 2024-01-08.
^ a b c "The Few Moments » Converse". converse.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ a b c "'A Day In Dig Night' Opens at Performance Space 122 8/13". BroadwayWorld.com. 15 July 2008. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "And the Footlight Awards for Seattle theater go to …". The Seattle Times. 25 December 2005. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "SeattleActor.com - RECENT REGIONAL TONY WINNER INTIMAN TO PRODUCE RICHARD III". seattleactor.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "'A Day In Dig Night' Opens at Performance Space 122 8/13". BroadwayWorld.com. 15 July 2008. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Everett's Jason Webley gets the band back together". The Daily Herald. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Othello". yale.edu. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ a b "'Jib' sets sail at Iseman Theater". nhregister.com. 20 January 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ ""Skin Tight"". yale.edu. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Yale School of Drama Closes Jib 1/28". BroadwayWorld.com. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ a b "Epiphany : The Cycle of Life" (PDF). Bam.org. Retrieved December 24, 2020.
^ "Watch: Amanda Palmer Brings Nirvana's 'Polly' To Life". Prefixmag. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Michael McQuilken". IMVDb. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Amanda Palmer & The Grand Theft Orchestra Announce "Theater Is Evil" - Under the Radar - Music Magazine". undertheradarmag.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "VIdeo: Amanda Palmer's "Polly"". NBC New York. 8 February 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Watch Amanda Palmer's "Do It With a Rockstar" Video, Co-Directed by and Featuring Wayne Coyne - Pitchfork". pitchfork.com. 9 November 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Amanda Palmer 'The Bed Song': Singer Releases New Video For Latest Single From 'Theatre Is Evil' (VIDEO)". The Huffington Post. 14 February 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ Barry Lenny (30 September 2013). "BWW Reviews: AMANDA PALMER Brought Her Unique Style to Her Many Adelaide Fans". BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ a b "Uncharted". ARS NOVA. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ Marc Levy (22 July 2013). "In lush Jaggery video, Galbraith mansion becomes setting for mystery, foreboding". cambridgeday.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ Jacob Brown (18 December 2015). "Julia Stiles Stars in Leisure Cruise Music Video - Vogue". Vogue. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "On & Off York Street". yale.edu. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "OldSoundRoom's OCTOBER IN THE CHAIR AND OTHER FRAGILE THINGS Begins 10/29". BroadwayWorld.com. 22 September 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^
^ "Labyrinth Installation Concertos: House of Solitude and Room No. 35 | Krannert Center for the Performing Arts | U of I". Archived from the original on 2015-12-29. Retrieved 2016-05-07.
^ "BAM - Epiphany: The Cycle of Life". BAM.org. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Prototype". prototypefestival.org. Archived from the original on 14 June 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
^ "Distraction is the Devil - Best of New York Fringe - Amsterdam Fringe Festival - Amsterdam Fringe Festival". Archived from the original on 2015-09-12. Retrieved 2016-05-07. | [{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Michael McQuilken is an American, New York-based theater and opera director, filmmaker, and musician.","title":"Michael McQuilken"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Beaverton, Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaverton,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"Seattle, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-converse.com-3"},{"link_name":"avant-garde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avant-garde"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bwwnewsdesk-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"PS122","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_Space_122"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bwwnewsdesk-4"},{"link_name":"Intiman Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intiman_Theatre_Festival"},{"link_name":"Bartlett Sher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartlett_Sher"},{"link_name":"Mark Taper Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Taper_Forum"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bwwnewsdesk-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-converse.com-3"},{"link_name":"Jason Webley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Webley"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Born and raised in Beaverton, Oregon, McQuilken moved to Seattle, Washington in 1997. He began creating fringe theatre while earning a living as a street musician on a homemade junk drum kit.[3] His avant-garde musical Ballyhoo, co-created with John Osebold, won \"best play\" at the 2000 Seattle Fringe Festival, and his multi-media one-man show A Day in Dignation won him the Seattle Times' Sammy Davis Jr. Award.[4][5] It was also performed at the Fringe Festivals of Edinburgh, Prague, and Amsterdam, and at PS122 in New York City.[4]In 2002, McQuilken began working as a sound designer, composer, and onstage musician for several productions at the Intiman Theatre, including Bartlett Sher's production of Nickel and Dimed, which transferred to the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles and earned McQuilken the 2002 Backstage West Garland Award for composition.[6][4] McQuilken continued to write, score, and perform, creating Paper Airplane and Extropia with Collaborator, the Seattle art collective, the latter of which was named one of the best three shows of 2004 by Seattle Weekly.[7] In 2008, McQuilken debuted the album His Forearms Were Tanks Now, which McQuilken wrote, recorded, and performed on a self-made, loop-based composition and performance station called \"the RIG\", under the band name The Few Moments. Artist Ira Marcks drew a 50-foot illustration to accompany the album,[3] McQuilken also played as the touring drummer for experimental folk musician Jason Webley.[8]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yale School of Drama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Drama"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-converse.com-3"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nhregister.com-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nhregister.com-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bam.org-13"}],"text":"In 2008, McQuilken was accepted to the Yale School of Drama for graduate studies in theatrical directing. [3] During his time there he directed and scored numerous productions, including Shakespeare's Othello and Gary Henderson's Skin Tight. [9][10][11] Also during this time, he recorded The Few Moments' second album, The Celebritist, and scored filmmaker Sarah Lasley's short film Eve.[12] For his thesis project, McQuilken wrote, scored, and directed an original play with music, JIB. [10] [13]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amanda Palmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda_Palmer"},{"link_name":"Nirvana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana_(band)"},{"link_name":"Polly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polly_(Nirvana_song)"},{"link_name":"SPIN Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Grand Theft Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Theft_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Theatre is Evil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre_is_Evil&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Wayne Coyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Coyne"},{"link_name":"George Salisbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Salisbury_(director)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bam.org-13"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arsnovanyc.com-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Neil Gaiman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Gaiman"},{"link_name":"Adina Verson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adina_Verson"},{"link_name":"National Arts Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Arts_Festival"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Maya Beiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Beiser"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"BAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Academy_of_Music"},{"link_name":"Angel's Bone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel%27s_Bone"},{"link_name":"Du Yun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_Yun"},{"link_name":"Royce Vavrek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royce_Vavrek"},{"link_name":"Prototype Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype_Festival"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Ars Nova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ars_Nova_(theatre)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arsnovanyc.com-21"}],"text":"Upon graduating, McQuilken began collaborating with musician Amanda Palmer. He co-produced the recording and directed the music video of her cover of Nirvana's ' Polly' for SPIN Magazine. [14][15] In 2011, McQuilken joined Palmer's Grand Theft Orchestra as the studio and touring drummer for the album Theatre is Evil, also acting as producer, production designer, and theatrical director for the 2012 World Tour. [16][17] He co-directed the music video \"Do It With A Rockstar\" with Palmer, Wayne Coyne, and George Salisbury, and in 2013 he directed the music video for \"The Bed Song\".[18][19] McQuilken left the Grand Theft Orchestra in April 2013. [20]McQuilken continues to make music with his solo project, The Few Moments, and runs his own film company, Q Motion Pictures, for which he has filmed numerous music videos for bands such as Jaggery and Leisure Cruise. [13] [21][22][23] As a founding member of the New York-based theatre company OldSoundRoom, he has directed numerous productions including an adaptation of Neil Gaiman's short stories, October in the Chair, and an original play with music, Machine Makes Man, co-created and performed with Adina Verson, which won Best International Performance at the 2013 Amsterdam Fringe Festival and subsequently ran at the National Arts Festival in Grahamstown, South Africa. [24][25][26]In 2014, McQuilken directed Room No. 35, a concerto installation composed by Paola Prestini, performed by cellist Maya Beiser, with projections by artist Erika Harrsch. [27] For BAM's 2015 Next Wave Festival, he directed Epiphany: The Cycle of Life, a new music installation, and then directed the world premiere of Angel's Bone, a new opera by composer Du Yun and librettist Royce Vavrek, for the 2016 Prototype Festival. [28][29] He writes music and tours with David Van Witt for their band, Odysseus Finn, and composes for new musical theatre commissions at various theaters, including Ars Nova. [30][21]","title":"Post-university career"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"'Only Murders in the Building' Cast's Dating History: Selena Gomez, Steve Martin and More Stars' Love Lives\". Yahoo!. 2023-03-28. Retrieved 2024-01-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/only-murders-building-cast-dating-200936243.html","url_text":"\"'Only Murders in the Building' Cast's Dating History: Selena Gomez, Steve Martin and More Stars' Love Lives\""}]},{"reference":"\"Helga Davis and Michael McQuilken\". Kimmel Cultural Campus. 2019-06-29. Retrieved 2024-01-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kimmelculturalcampus.org/community-programs/kimmel-center-artist-residencies/theater-residency/2018---2019-theater-residency/helga-davis-and-michael-mcquilken/","url_text":"\"Helga Davis and Michael McQuilken\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Few Moments » Converse\". converse.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://play.converse.com/blog/2010/06/11/the-few-moments/","url_text":"\"The Few Moments » Converse\""}]},{"reference":"\"'A Day In Dig Night' Opens at Performance Space 122 8/13\". BroadwayWorld.com. 15 July 2008. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/off-off-broadway/article/A-Day-In-Dig-Night-Opens-at-Performance-Space-122-813-20080715","url_text":"\"'A Day In Dig Night' Opens at Performance Space 122 8/13\""}]},{"reference":"\"And the Footlight Awards for Seattle theater go to …\". The Seattle Times. 25 December 2005. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.seattletimes.com/entertainment/and-the-footlight-awards-for-seattle-theater-go-to/","url_text":"\"And the Footlight Awards for Seattle theater go to …\""}]},{"reference":"\"SeattleActor.com - RECENT REGIONAL TONY WINNER INTIMAN TO PRODUCE RICHARD III\". seattleactor.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.seattleactor.com/news/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=512","url_text":"\"SeattleActor.com - RECENT REGIONAL TONY WINNER INTIMAN TO PRODUCE RICHARD III\""}]},{"reference":"\"'A Day In Dig Night' Opens at Performance Space 122 8/13\". BroadwayWorld.com. 15 July 2008. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/off-off-broadway/article/A-Day-In-Dig-Night-Opens-at-Performance-Space-122-813-20080715#","url_text":"\"'A Day In Dig Night' Opens at Performance Space 122 8/13\""}]},{"reference":"\"Everett's Jason Webley gets the band back together\". The Daily Herald. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.heraldnet.com/article/20150508/ENT/150509278","url_text":"\"Everett's Jason Webley gets the band back together\""}]},{"reference":"\"Othello\". yale.edu. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://drama.yale.edu/onstage/studio-series-production/othello","url_text":"\"Othello\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Jib' sets sail at Iseman Theater\". nhregister.com. 20 January 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nhregister.com/general-news/20110120/jib-sets-sail-at-iseman-theater","url_text":"\"'Jib' sets sail at Iseman Theater\""}]},{"reference":"\"\"Skin Tight\"\". yale.edu. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://calendar.yale.edu/cal/opa/month/20091029/Performances_Theater/[email protected]/20091030T000000Z?showDetails=yes","url_text":"\"\"Skin Tight\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Yale School of Drama Closes Jib 1/28\". BroadwayWorld.com. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/connecticut/article/Yale-School-of-Drama-Closes-Jib-128-20110128","url_text":"\"Yale School of Drama Closes Jib 1/28\""}]},{"reference":"\"Epiphany : The Cycle of Life\" (PDF). Bam.org. Retrieved December 24, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bam.org/media/4853524/Epiphany-The-Cycle-of-Life.pdf","url_text":"\"Epiphany : The Cycle of Life\""}]},{"reference":"\"Watch: Amanda Palmer Brings Nirvana's 'Polly' To Life\". Prefixmag. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.prefixmag.com/news/watch-amanda-palmer-brings-nirvanas-polly-to-life/61593/","url_text":"\"Watch: Amanda Palmer Brings Nirvana's 'Polly' To Life\""}]},{"reference":"\"Michael McQuilken\". IMVDb. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://imvdb.com/n/michael-mcquilken","url_text":"\"Michael McQuilken\""}]},{"reference":"\"Amanda Palmer & The Grand Theft Orchestra Announce \"Theater Is Evil\" - Under the Radar - Music Magazine\". undertheradarmag.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.undertheradarmag.com/news/amanda_palmer_the_grand_theft_orchestra_announce_theater_is_evil/","url_text":"\"Amanda Palmer & The Grand Theft Orchestra Announce \"Theater Is Evil\" - Under the Radar - Music Magazine\""}]},{"reference":"\"VIdeo: Amanda Palmer's \"Polly\"\". NBC New York. 8 February 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nbcnewyork.com/blogs/nonstop-sound/VIdeo-Amanda-Palmer-Polly-138910689.html","url_text":"\"VIdeo: Amanda Palmer's \"Polly\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Watch Amanda Palmer's \"Do It With a Rockstar\" Video, Co-Directed by and Featuring Wayne Coyne - Pitchfork\". pitchfork.com. 9 November 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://pitchfork.com/news/48531-watch-amanda-palmers-do-it-with-a-rockstar-video-co-directed-by-and-featuring-wayne-coyne/","url_text":"\"Watch Amanda Palmer's \"Do It With a Rockstar\" Video, Co-Directed by and Featuring Wayne Coyne - Pitchfork\""}]},{"reference":"\"Amanda Palmer 'The Bed Song': Singer Releases New Video For Latest Single From 'Theatre Is Evil' (VIDEO)\". The Huffington Post. 14 February 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/14/amanda-palmer-releases-new-video-the-bed-song-latest-single_n_2688579.html","url_text":"\"Amanda Palmer 'The Bed Song': Singer Releases New Video For Latest Single From 'Theatre Is Evil' (VIDEO)\""}]},{"reference":"Barry Lenny (30 September 2013). \"BWW Reviews: AMANDA PALMER Brought Her Unique Style to Her Many Adelaide Fans\". BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/adelaide/article/BWW-Reviews-AMANDA-PALMER-Brought-Her-Unique-Style-to-Her-Many-Adelaide-Fans-20130930#","url_text":"\"BWW Reviews: AMANDA PALMER Brought Her Unique Style to Her Many Adelaide Fans\""}]},{"reference":"\"Uncharted\". ARS NOVA. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://arsnovanyc.com/uncharted","url_text":"\"Uncharted\""}]},{"reference":"Marc Levy (22 July 2013). \"In lush Jaggery video, Galbraith mansion becomes setting for mystery, foreboding\". cambridgeday.com. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cambridgeday.com/2013/07/21/in-lush-jaggery-video-galbraith-mansion-becomes-setting-for-mystery-foreboding/","url_text":"\"In lush Jaggery video, Galbraith mansion becomes setting for mystery, foreboding\""}]},{"reference":"Jacob Brown (18 December 2015). \"Julia Stiles Stars in Leisure Cruise Music Video - Vogue\". Vogue. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vogue.com/13381606/julia-stiles-leisure-cruise-music-video/","url_text":"\"Julia Stiles Stars in Leisure Cruise Music Video - Vogue\""}]},{"reference":"\"On & Off York Street\". yale.edu. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.yale.edu/drama/email_link/1415email/devo/1114-enews/1114onoffyorkst_web.html","url_text":"\"On & Off York Street\""}]},{"reference":"\"OldSoundRoom's OCTOBER IN THE CHAIR AND OTHER FRAGILE THINGS Begins 10/29\". BroadwayWorld.com. 22 September 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/article/OldSoundRooms-OCTOBER-IN-THE-CHAIR-AND-OTHER-FRAGILE-THINGS-Begins-1029-20140922","url_text":"\"OldSoundRoom's OCTOBER IN THE CHAIR AND OTHER FRAGILE THINGS Begins 10/29\""}]},{"reference":"\"Labyrinth Installation Concertos: House of Solitude and Room No. 35 | Krannert Center for the Performing Arts | U of I\". Archived from the original on 2015-12-29. 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Retrieved 2016-05-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150912090644/http://amsterdamfringefestival.nl/en/programma/distraction-is-the-devil/","url_text":"\"Distraction is the Devil - Best of New York Fringe - Amsterdam Fringe Festival - Amsterdam Fringe Festival\""},{"url":"http://amsterdamfringefestival.nl/en/programma/distraction-is-the-devil/","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/only-murders-building-cast-dating-200936243.html","external_links_name":"\"'Only Murders in the Building' Cast's Dating History: Selena Gomez, Steve Martin and More Stars' Love Lives\""},{"Link":"https://www.kimmelculturalcampus.org/community-programs/kimmel-center-artist-residencies/theater-residency/2018---2019-theater-residency/helga-davis-and-michael-mcquilken/","external_links_name":"\"Helga Davis and Michael McQuilken\""},{"Link":"http://play.converse.com/blog/2010/06/11/the-few-moments/","external_links_name":"\"The Few Moments » Converse\""},{"Link":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/off-off-broadway/article/A-Day-In-Dig-Night-Opens-at-Performance-Space-122-813-20080715","external_links_name":"\"'A Day In Dig Night' Opens at Performance Space 122 8/13\""},{"Link":"http://www.seattletimes.com/entertainment/and-the-footlight-awards-for-seattle-theater-go-to/","external_links_name":"\"And the Footlight Awards for Seattle theater go to …\""},{"Link":"http://www.seattleactor.com/news/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=512","external_links_name":"\"SeattleActor.com - 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Under the Radar - Music Magazine\""},{"Link":"http://www.nbcnewyork.com/blogs/nonstop-sound/VIdeo-Amanda-Palmer-Polly-138910689.html","external_links_name":"\"VIdeo: Amanda Palmer's \"Polly\"\""},{"Link":"http://pitchfork.com/news/48531-watch-amanda-palmers-do-it-with-a-rockstar-video-co-directed-by-and-featuring-wayne-coyne/","external_links_name":"\"Watch Amanda Palmer's \"Do It With a Rockstar\" Video, Co-Directed by and Featuring Wayne Coyne - Pitchfork\""},{"Link":"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/14/amanda-palmer-releases-new-video-the-bed-song-latest-single_n_2688579.html","external_links_name":"\"Amanda Palmer 'The Bed Song': Singer Releases New Video For Latest Single From 'Theatre Is Evil' (VIDEO)\""},{"Link":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/adelaide/article/BWW-Reviews-AMANDA-PALMER-Brought-Her-Unique-Style-to-Her-Many-Adelaide-Fans-20130930#","external_links_name":"\"BWW Reviews: AMANDA PALMER Brought Her Unique Style to Her Many Adelaide Fans\""},{"Link":"http://arsnovanyc.com/uncharted","external_links_name":"\"Uncharted\""},{"Link":"http://www.cambridgeday.com/2013/07/21/in-lush-jaggery-video-galbraith-mansion-becomes-setting-for-mystery-foreboding/","external_links_name":"\"In lush Jaggery video, Galbraith mansion becomes setting for mystery, foreboding\""},{"Link":"http://www.vogue.com/13381606/julia-stiles-leisure-cruise-music-video/","external_links_name":"\"Julia Stiles Stars in Leisure Cruise Music Video - Vogue\""},{"Link":"http://www.yale.edu/drama/email_link/1415email/devo/1114-enews/1114onoffyorkst_web.html","external_links_name":"\"On & Off York Street\""},{"Link":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/article/OldSoundRooms-OCTOBER-IN-THE-CHAIR-AND-OTHER-FRAGILE-THINGS-Begins-1029-20140922","external_links_name":"\"OldSoundRoom's OCTOBER IN THE CHAIR AND OTHER FRAGILE THINGS Begins 10/29\""},{"Link":"http://cue.ru.ac.za/2014/07/the-mechanic-who-knows-too-much/","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151229021928/http://www.krannertcenter.com/performance.aspx?id=201371895910460128174106178","external_links_name":"\"Labyrinth Installation Concertos: House of Solitude and Room No. 35 | Krannert Center for the Performing Arts | U of I\""},{"Link":"http://www.krannertcenter.com/performance.aspx?id=201371895910460128174106178","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.bam.org/music/2015/epiphany-the-cycle-of-life","external_links_name":"\"BAM - Epiphany: The Cycle of Life\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160614192242/http://prototypefestival.org/show/angels-bone1/","external_links_name":"\"Prototype\""},{"Link":"http://prototypefestival.org/show/angels-bone1/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150912090644/http://amsterdamfringefestival.nl/en/programma/distraction-is-the-devil/","external_links_name":"\"Distraction is the Devil - Best of New York Fringe - Amsterdam Fringe Festival - Amsterdam Fringe Festival\""},{"Link":"http://amsterdamfringefestival.nl/en/programma/distraction-is-the-devil/","external_links_name":"the original"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Tanzania | Prime Minister of Tanzania | [] | Head of Government in Tanzania
Prime Minister of theUnited Republic of TanzaniaWaziri Mkuu wa TanzaniaCoat of arms of TanzaniaFlag of TanzaniaIncumbentKassim Majaliwasince 20 November 2015StyleThe HonourableMember ofCabinetSeatDodoma, TanzaniaAppointerPresident of TanzaniaConstituting instrument1977 ConstitutionInaugural holderRashidi KawawaFormation17 February 1972; 52 years ago (1972-02-17)SalaryUS$3,750 monthlyWebsitewww.pmo.go.tz
Politics of Tanzania
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Samia Suluhu Hassan
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Philip Mpango
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Kassim Majaliwa
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Job Ndugai
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Ibrahim Hamis Juma
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Hussein Mwinyi
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First: Othman Masoud Sharif
Second: Hemed Suleiman Abdalla
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vte
The prime minister of Tanzania is the leader of government business in the National Assembly of the United Republic of Tanzania. The position is subordinated to the president, who is the actual head of government.
The functions and powers of the prime minister are described in the Constitution of Tanzania:
Article 52
The Prime Minister shall have authority over the control, supervision and execution of the day-to-day functions and affairs of the Government of the United Republic.
The Prime Minister shall be the Leader of Government Business in the National Assembly.
In the exercise of his authority, the Prime Minister shall perform or cause to be performed any matter or matters which the President directs to be done.
The incumbent prime minister, Kassim Majaliwa was appointed by the president John Magufuli. He took the office on 20 November 2015.
List
Main article: List of prime ministers of Tanzania
Deputy Prime Minister
The position of Vice Prime Minister in Tanzania is not a constitutionally recognized position, however, under article Section 36 (1) “the President shall have authority to constitute and to abolish any office in the service of the Government of the United Republic”. This discretion has led to the position of vice prime minister to be established several times throughout history. Typically the role has been established for political reasons to exceptional service members of the cabinet.
See also
Tanzania
Politics of Tanzania
List of governors of Tanganyika
President of Tanzania
List of heads of state of Tanzania
List of prime ministers of Tanzania
List of sultans of Zanzibar
President of Zanzibar
List of heads of government of Zanzibar
Lists of incumbents
References
^ wa Simbiye, Finnigan (6 December 2013). "PM scoffs at super salary rumour". Daily News (Tanzania). Dodoma. Archived from the original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
^ "Biteko and the history of Deputy Prime Ministers in Tanzania". The Citizen. 2023-08-31. Retrieved 2023-09-02.
External links
Official website
vteTanzania articlesHistory
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OutlineIndex
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vtePrime ministers of Tanzania
Kawawa
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vtePrime ministersPrime ministersby country
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Zimbabwe | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Assembly_(Tanzania)"},{"link_name":"United Republic of Tanzania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Republic_of_Tanzania"},{"link_name":"head of government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_government"},{"link_name":"Constitution of Tanzania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Tanzania"},{"link_name":"Kassim Majaliwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassim_Majaliwa"},{"link_name":"John Magufuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Magufuli"}],"text":"The prime minister of Tanzania is the leader of government business in the National Assembly of the United Republic of Tanzania. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard_(website) | Vice (magazine) | ["1 History","2 Staff","3 Content","3.1 Scope","3.2 Politics","3.3 Website","3.4 Book","4 Reputation","4.1 Sexual harassment at parent company","5 Awards","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"] | Magazine focused on international arts and culture
ViceThe Syria Issue (November 2012)Editor-in-chiefEllis JonesCategoriesLifestyleFrequencyMonthlyCirculation900,000 (worldwide)80,000 (UK)PublisherVice MediaFounder
Gavin McInnes
Shane Smith
Suroosh Alvi
FoundedMontreal, CanadaFirst issueOctober 1994; 29 years ago (1994-10) (as Voice of Montreal)Based inNew York City, United StatesWebsitevice.comISSN1077-6788OCLC30856250 (Online Computer Library Center)
Vice (stylized in all caps) is a Canadian-American magazine focused on lifestyle, arts, culture, and news/politics. It was founded in 1994 in Montreal as an alternative punk magazine, and its founders later launched the youth media company Vice Media, which consists of divisions including the printed magazine as well as a website, broadcast news unit, a film production company, a record label, and a publishing imprint. As of February 2015, the magazine's editor-in-chief is Ellis Jones.
On 15 May 2023, Vice Media formally filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, as part of a possible sale to a consortium of lenders including Fortress Investment Group, which will, alongside Soros Fund Management and Monroe Capital, invest $225 million as a credit bid for nearly all of its assets. In February 2024, CEO Bruce Dixon announced additional layoffs and that the website Vice.com will no longer publish content. However this decision was later reversed on June 2024.
History
Founded by Suroosh Alvi, Gavin McInnes, and Shane Smith (the latter two being childhood friends), the magazine was launched in October 1994 as a spin-out of the English-language portion of the Revue Images, a multicultural publication founded in the early 1990s by Dominique Ollivier with Alix Laurent, under the name Voice of Montreal. Voice of Montreal was split out from Revue Images with salary assistance through a Quebec welfare grant. The intention of the founders was to provide work and a community service. When the editors later sought to dissolve their commitments with the original publisher, Images Interculturelles (represented by Alix Laurent), they bought out the publisher and changed the magazine's name to Vice in 1996.
Richard Szalwinski, a Canadian software millionaire, acquired the magazine and relocated the operation to New York City in the late 1990s. Following the relocation, the magazine quickly developed a reputation for provocative and politically incorrect content. Under Szalwinski's ownership, a few retail stores were opened in New York City and customers could purchase fashion items that were advertised in the magazine. However, due to the end of the dot-com bubble, the three founders eventually regained ownership of the Vice brand, followed by closure of the stores.
The British edition of Vice was launched in 2002 and Andy Capper was its first editor. Capper explained in an interview shortly after the UK debut that the publication's remit was to cover "the things we're meant to be ashamed of", and articles were published on topics such as bukkake and bodily functions.
By the end of 2007, 13 foreign editions of Vice magazine were published, the Vice independent record label was functional, and the online video channel VBS.com had 184,000 unique viewers from the U.S. during the month of August. The media company was still based in New York City, but the magazine began featuring articles on topics that were considered more serious, such as armed conflict in Iraq, than previous content. Alvi explained to The New York Times in November 2007: "The world is much bigger than the Lower East Side and the East Village."
McInnes left the publication in 2008, citing "creative differences" as the primary issue. In an email communication dated 23 January, McInnes explained: "I no longer have anything to do with Vice or VBS or DOs & DON'Ts or any of that. It's a long story but we've all agreed to leave it at 'creative differences,' so please don't ask me about it."
At the commencement of 2012, an article in Forbes magazine referred to the Vice company as "Vice Media", but the precise time when this title development occurred is not public knowledge. Vice acquired the fashion magazine i-D in December 2012 and, by February 2013, Vice produced 24 global editions of the magazine, with a global circulation of 1,147,000 (100,000 in the UK). By this stage, Alex Miller had replaced Capper as the editor-in-chief of the UK edition. Furthermore, Vice consisted of 800 worldwide employees, including 100 in London, and around 3,500 freelancers also produced content for the company.
In February 2015, Vice Media named Ellis Jones editor-in-chief of Vice magazine and former UK editor-in-chief, Alex Miller, was appointed to the position of global head of content.
In 2023, Vice filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. The company's lenders—Fortress Investment Group, Soros Fund Management and Monroe Capital—agreed to purchase the company for $225 million. In February 2024, The New York Times highlighted that "over the past half-decade, Vice has had near annual layoffs and mounting losses, and has filed for bankruptcy, making it the poster child for the battered digital-media industry" and that while "some observers hoped its new owners would reinvest" in the company, Fortress Investment Group has instead "decided to make sweeping cuts".
Staff
Shane Smith – co-founder
Suroosh Alvi – co-founder
Ellis Jones – editor-in-chief
Content
Scope
Vice magazine includes the work of journalists, columnists, fiction writers, graphic artists and cartoonists, and photographers. Both Vice's online and magazine content has shifted from dealing mostly with independent arts and pop cultural matters to covering more serious news topics. Due to the large array of contributors and the fact that often writers will only submit a small number of articles with the publication, Vice's content varies dramatically and its political and cultural stance is often unclear or contradictory. Articles on the site feature a range of subjects, often things not covered as by mainstream media. The magazine's editors have championed the immersionist school of journalism, which has been passed to other properties of Vice Media such as the documentary television show Balls Deep on the Viceland Channel. This style of journalism is regarded as something of a DIY antithesis to the methods practiced by mainstream news outlets, and has published an entire issue of articles written in accordance with this ethos. Entire issues of the magazine have also been dedicated to the concerns of Iraqi people, Native Americans, Russian people, people with mental disorders, and people with mental disabilities. Vice also publishes an annual guide for students in the United Kingdom.
In 2007, a Vice announcement was published on the Internet: After umpteen years of putting out what amounted to a reference book every month, we started to get bored with it. Besides, too many other magazines have ripped it and started doing their own lame take on themes. So we're going to do some issues, starting now, that have whatever we feel like putting in them.
Politics
In a March 2008 interview with The Guardian, Smith was asked about the magazine's political allegiances and he stated, "We're not trying to say anything politically in a paradigmatic left/right way… We don't do that because we don't believe in either side. Are my politics Democrat or Republican? I think both are horrific. And it doesn't matter anyway. Money runs America; money runs everywhere."
Website
"Noisey" redirects here. For the concept, see Noise. For the TV series, see Noisey (TV series).
Vice.comOwnerVice MediaURLvice.comLaunched2011; 13 years ago (2011)Current statusActive
Vice founded its website as Viceland.com in 1996, as Vice.com was already owned. In 2007, it started VBS.tv as a domain, which prioritized videos over print, and had a number of shows for free such as The Vice Guide to Travel. In 2011, Viceland.com and VBS.tv were combined into Vice.com, also the host of the Vice Motherboard website at motherboard.vice.com.
In 2012, Vice Media was created as the parent company for Vice magazine and other properties including Vice News on HBO and the Vice.com website. The company has since expanded and diversified to include a network of online channels, including Munchies.tv, Motherboard.tv, Noisey.com, Thu.mp, and Broadly.
On 22 February 2024, Vice Media CEO Bruce Dixon announced "several hundred" additional layoffs as the company restructures, and that the website Vice.com would no longer publish content. However, this decision was later reversed as new content has been posted to the website in June 2024.
Book
In 2007, Vice published The Vice Photo Book (ISBN 1576874109), with a collection of photos of Jaimie Warren, Jerry Hsu, Michael Rababy and Patrick O’Dell. The book is divided in five parts: "Vice Photographers", "Vice's Photojournalism", "Vice Fashion", and the final two sections are a collage of previously published VICE photos. The book also contains interviews with some of the photographers.
Jill Abramson: Merchants of Truth: The Business of News and the Fight for Facts. Simon & Schuster, New York 2019, (ISBN 978-1-5011-2320-7), S. 42–61, 147–181, 346–369 (= Chapter 2, 6 and 11).
Reputation
From its beginnings as Voice of Montreal, Vice had a "reputation for provocation". In 2010, Vice was described as "gonzo journalism for the YouTube generation". As the magazine grew into a broader media brand, it struggled with "how to distance itself from its crude past, yet hold on to enough of that reputation to cement, and grow, its authority with its core audience". Nevertheless, the magazine has continued to face controversy. In 2013, the magazine retracted parts of a fashion spread entitled 'Last Words' which depicted "female writers killing themselves". Also in 2013, Vice again gained unwelcome attention when the then-editor of the magazine joined millionaire software mogul John McAfee as he evaded authorities to avoid being questioned about a murder case.
Sexual harassment at parent company
Main article: Vice Media § Sexual harassment
In the late 2017, multiple stories were published citing allegations of sexual misconduct and a general "boys club" culture at Vice magazine's parent company, Vice Media.
Awards
Wins
ASME Reader's Choice Best Cover Contest for "Best Travel and Adventure" for June 2017 issue
ASME Reader's Choice Best Cover Contest for "Most Delicious" for March 2016 issue
ASME Anthology of Best American Magazine Writing for "Fixing the System" interview, 2016
ASME Reader's Choice Award for New and Politics Cover, 2015
ASME Reader's Choice Award for Business and Tech Cover, 2015
Ranked number 9 on Ad Age Magazine A-list (first free publication to be recognized), 2010
Nominations
GLAAD Media Award, Outstanding Magazine Article for "On the Run", 2017
ASME Single Topic Issue for the Prison Issue, 2016
ASME Feature Photography for "Deep-Fried America on a Stick", 2014
ASME General Excellence for July, November and December issues, 2012
See also
Journalism portal
Creative nonfiction
The Sacrament, a 2013 film about fictional Vice journalists
References
^ Horan, Tom (15 July 2006). "From chic to cheek". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 11 November 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
^ "Online magazine Vice closes Montreal office". Montreal. 22 June 2019. Archived from the original on 19 February 2024. Retrieved 19 February 2024.
^ Sterne, Peter (11 February 2015). "Vice E.I.C. Rocco Castoro out at Vice". Capital New York. Archived from the original on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
^ a b Jarvey, Natalie (23 December 2017). "Vice Media Settled With 4 Women Over Sexual Harassment, Defamation". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 24 June 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2019.
^ Whittock, Jesse (15 May 2023). "Vice Media Files For Chapter 11 Bankruptcy". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
^ a b c Spangler, Todd (22 February 2024). "Vice Will Cease Publishing on Vice.com and Lay Off 'Several Hundred' Staffers, CEO Says". Variety. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
^ a b Saeedy, Alexander; Bruell, Alexandra (22 February 2024). "Vice Media to Stop Publishing on Vice.com, Plans to Cut Hundreds of Jobs". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
^ a b Mullin, Benjamin (22 February 2024). "Vice's New Owners Prepare to Slash What's Left of Its Work Force". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
^ a b c Robert Levine (19 November 2007). "A Guerrilla Video Site Meets MTV". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
^ "Revue Images (selected issues)". Internet Archive.
^ "Notons principalement la disparition du volet anglophone de notre magazine. Cette séparation (signe des temps?) n'a pour but que la création d'une publication soeur: VOICE OF MONTREAL, qui a vu le jour en octobre dernier. Ce divorce à l'amiable devenait nécessaire pour permettre plus de liberté aux deux groupes linguistiques et pour assurer une meilleure représentativité." Boisclair, Denis (November 1994). "Le nouvel Images s'améliore !". Revue Images. 4 (1): 1.
^ "#18 VICE: An Oral History" Archived 25 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine (podcast), Canadaland, 3 February 2014.
^ a b Wilkinson, Carl (30 March 2008). "The Vice Squad". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
^ Jeff Bercovici (3 January 2012). "Vice's Shane Smith on What's Wrong With Canada, Facebook and Occupy Wall Street". Forbes. Archived from the original on 29 April 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
^ "On leaving Images Interculturelles" Alvi, Suroosh (2003). texts The Vice guide to sex and drugs and rock and roll. Warner Books. p. 5. ISBN 9780446692816.
^ a b Andrew Pugh (28 February 2013). "'Maybe we've grown up': Ten years on, how Vice magazine got serious". Press Gazette. Progressive Media International. Archived from the original on 23 November 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
^ Pareene (23 January 2008). "Co-Founder Gavin McInnes Finally Leaves 'Vice'". Gawker. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
^ Jeff Bercovici (3 January 2012). "Tom Freston's $1 Billion Revenge: Ex-Viacom Chief Helps Vice Become the Next MTV". Forbes. Forbes, LLC. Archived from the original on 8 November 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
^ Baird, Dugald (12 February 2015). "Vice announces new global head of content and editor-in-chief". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
^ Silberling, Amanda (15 May 2023). "After a 29-year run, Vice files for bankruptcy". Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
^ Warren, James (22 February 2017). "Shane Smith sees a 'perfect storm' coming for the press". Poynter. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
^ Arkin, Daniel (13 March 2018). "Vice Media's brash CEO resigns, A+E Networks chief steps up". NBC News. Archived from the original on 23 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
^ Battan, Carrie (1 April 2015). "Is Vice Getting Nice?". Daily Intelligencer. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
^ "The Iraq Issue". Vice. Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
^ "The Native Issue". Vice. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
^ "The Russia Issue". Vice. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
^ "The Mentally Ill Issue". Vice. Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
^ "The Special Issue". Vice. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
^ "Student Guide". Vice. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2009.
^ "Dear Vice Readers!". Vice. 11 April 2007. Archived from the original on 23 August 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2008.
^ Castoro, Rocco (15 September 2011). "Finally, All Our Crap Is in One Place". Vice. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
^ "About Motherboard". Vice Media. Archived from the original on 11 February 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
^ Gardner, Eriq (12 April 2013). "Vice's Shane Smith and Tom Freston on Sending Dennis Rodman to North Korea for HBO". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
^ "Broadly – About". Archived from the original on 7 January 2018. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
^ Pearson, Jesse (2007). The Vice Photo Book. New York, NY: Vice Books. p. 263. ISBN 978-1576874103.
^ "The Vice Photo Book". Vice. 14 December 2007. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2020.
^ a b Widdicombe, Lizzie (1 April 2013). "The Bad-Boy Brand". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^ Williams, Alex (16 August 2010). "Up Close With Shane Smith". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 20 November 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^ a b Ip, Chris (6 July 2015). "The cult of Vice". Columbia Journalism Review. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^ "'Last Words': A Statement from VICE". Vice. 13 June 2013. Archived from the original on 17 March 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^ Steel, Emily (23 December 2017). "At Vice, Cutting-Edge Media and Allegations of Old-School Sexual Harassment". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
^ Wallenstein, Andrew (23 December 2017). "Vice Media Admits 'We Failed' to Curb Sexual Harassment at Company". Variety. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
^ "ASME Best Cover Contest 2018 Winners & Finalists | ASME". www.magazine.org. Archived from the original on 28 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "Best Cover Contest 2017 Winners & Finalists | ASME". www.magazine.org. Archived from the original on 28 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "Best American Magazine Writing | ASME". www.magazine.org. Archived from the original on 30 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "Best Cover Contest 2015 Winners & Finalists | ASME". www.magazine.org. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "Best Cover Contest 2015 Winners & Finalists | ASME". www.magazine.org. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "Magazine A-List 2010 - AdAge". adage.com. Archived from the original on 28 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "Moonlight, The OA, and Frank Ocean Among GLAAD Media Awards Nominees". Vulture. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "Ellies 2016 Finalists Announced | ASME". www.magazine.org. 14 January 2016. Archived from the original on 9 May 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "National Magazine Awards 2014 Finalists Announced | ASME". www.magazine.org. 27 March 2014. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
^ "National Magazine Awards 2012 Finalists Announced | ASME". www.magazine.org. 3 April 2012. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
Further reading
Widdicombe, Lizzie (8 April 2013). "The bad-boy brand". The Wayward Press. The New Yorker. Vol. 89, no. 8. pp. 60–69. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vice Media.
Official website
Vice's channel on YouTube
Archive of issues since 2000
Motherboard website
IMDB – Noisey distributions list
vteVice MediaKey peopleCurrent
Suroosh Alvi (founder)
Shane Smith (founder)
Spike Jonze (creative director)
Past
Gavin McInnes (founder)
Jesse Pearson (editor)
Andy Capper (editor)
Adam Gollner (editor)
Alyssa Mastromonaco (Chief Operating Officer)
Michael C. Moynihan (editor)
Rocco Castoro (editor)
Properties
Vice
VBS.tv
Vice News
Viceland / Vice TV
Programs
United States
Australia (SBS Viceland)
Canada (defunct)
Fightland
Garage Magazine
i-D Magazine
Refinery29
FilmographyOriginalproductions
The Vice Guide to Travel (2006)
True Norwegian Black Metal (2007)
Heavy Metal in Baghdad (2007)
White Lightnin' (2009)
Rule Britannia (2009)
The Ride (2010)
The Fourth Dimension (2012)
Lil Bub & Friendz (2013)
Reincarnated (2013)
Current Vice on TV programming
Dark Side of Comedy (since 2022)
Dark Side of the 2000s (since 2023)
Dark Side of the Ring (since 2019)
Former Vice on TV programming
Beerland (2017)
Balls Deep (2016)
Black Market with Michael K. Williams (2016–22)
Dark Side of the 90's (2021-22)
Desus & Mero (2016–18)
Fuck, That's Delicious (2016–18)
Gaycation (2016–17)
Hamilton's Pharmacopeia (2017–21)
Huang's World (2016–17)
My House (2018)
Nirvanna the Band the Show (2017–18)
Slutever (2018–19)
Traveling the Stars: Action Bronson and Friends Watch Ancient Aliens (2016–19)
The Trixie & Katya Show (2017–18)
Vice News Tonight (2020–23)
Weediquette (2016–17)
HBO shows
Vice (2013–18)
Vice News Tonight (2016–19)
Showtime shows
Vice (2020-23)
Category
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz label | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"all caps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_caps"},{"link_name":"Montreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal"},{"link_name":"punk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Vice Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_Media"},{"link_name":"imprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imprint_(trade_name)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vice_Media_Settled-4"},{"link_name":"Chapter 11 bankruptcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_11,_Title_11,_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"Soros Fund Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soros_Fund_Management"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c11-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"}],"text":"Vice (stylized in all caps) is a Canadian-American magazine focused on lifestyle, arts, culture, and news/politics. It was founded in 1994 in Montreal as an alternative punk magazine,[2] and its founders later launched the youth media company Vice Media, which consists of divisions including the printed magazine as well as a website, broadcast news unit, a film production company, a record label, and a publishing imprint. As of February 2015, the magazine's editor-in-chief is Ellis Jones.[3][4]On 15 May 2023, Vice Media formally filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, as part of a possible sale to a consortium of lenders including Fortress Investment Group, which will, alongside Soros Fund Management and Monroe Capital, invest $225 million as a credit bid for nearly all of its assets.[5] In February 2024, CEO Bruce Dixon announced additional layoffs and that the website Vice.com will no longer publish content.[6][7][8] However this decision was later reversed on June 2024.","title":"Vice (magazine)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Suroosh Alvi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suroosh_Alvi"},{"link_name":"Gavin McInnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_McInnes"},{"link_name":"Shane Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_Smith_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rob-9"},{"link_name":"Dominique Ollivier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Ollivier"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gua-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Richard Szalwinski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Szalwinski"},{"link_name":"politically incorrect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politically_incorrect"},{"link_name":"dot-com bubble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-com_bubble"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rob-9"},{"link_name":"Andy Capper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Capper"},{"link_name":"bukkake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukkake"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pug-16"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rob-9"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"i-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-D"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pug-16"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Chapter 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_11"},{"link_name":"Fortress Investment Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortress_Investment_Group"},{"link_name":"Soros Fund Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soros_Fund_Management"},{"link_name":"Monroe Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monroe_Capital&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"}],"text":"Founded by Suroosh Alvi, Gavin McInnes, and Shane Smith (the latter two being childhood friends),[9] the magazine was launched in October 1994 as a spin-out of the English-language portion of the Revue Images, a multicultural publication founded in the early 1990s by Dominique Ollivier with Alix Laurent,[10] under the name Voice of Montreal.[11] Voice of Montreal was split out from Revue Images with salary assistance through a Quebec welfare grant.[12] The intention of the founders was to provide work and a community service.[13] When the editors later sought to dissolve their commitments with the original publisher, Images Interculturelles (represented by Alix Laurent), they bought out the publisher and changed the magazine's name to Vice in 1996.[14][15]Richard Szalwinski, a Canadian software millionaire, acquired the magazine and relocated the operation to New York City in the late 1990s. Following the relocation, the magazine quickly developed a reputation for provocative and politically incorrect content. Under Szalwinski's ownership, a few retail stores were opened in New York City and customers could purchase fashion items that were advertised in the magazine. However, due to the end of the dot-com bubble, the three founders eventually regained ownership of the Vice brand, followed by closure of the stores.[9]The British edition of Vice was launched in 2002 and Andy Capper was its first editor. Capper explained in an interview shortly after the UK debut that the publication's remit was to cover \"the things we're meant to be ashamed of\", and articles were published on topics such as bukkake and bodily functions.[16]By the end of 2007, 13 foreign editions of Vice magazine were published, the Vice independent record label was functional, and the online video channel VBS.com had 184,000 unique viewers from the U.S. during the month of August. The media company was still based in New York City, but the magazine began featuring articles on topics that were considered more serious, such as armed conflict in Iraq, than previous content. Alvi explained to The New York Times in November 2007: \"The world is much bigger than the Lower East Side and the East Village.\"[9]McInnes left the publication in 2008, citing \"creative differences\" as the primary issue. In an email communication dated 23 January, McInnes explained: \"I no longer have anything to do with Vice or VBS or DOs & DON'Ts or any of that. It's a long story but we've all agreed to leave it at 'creative differences,' so please don't ask me about it.\"[17]At the commencement of 2012, an article in Forbes magazine referred to the Vice company as \"Vice Media\", but the precise time when this title development occurred is not public knowledge.[18] Vice acquired the fashion magazine i-D in December 2012 and, by February 2013, Vice produced 24 global editions of the magazine, with a global circulation of 1,147,000 (100,000 in the UK). By this stage, Alex Miller had replaced Capper as the editor-in-chief of the UK edition. Furthermore, Vice consisted of 800 worldwide employees, including 100 in London, and around 3,500 freelancers also produced content for the company.[16]In February 2015, Vice Media named Ellis Jones editor-in-chief of Vice magazine and former UK editor-in-chief, Alex Miller, was appointed to the position of global head of content.[19]In 2023, Vice filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. The company's lenders—Fortress Investment Group, Soros Fund Management and Monroe Capital—agreed to purchase the company for $225 million.[20] In February 2024, The New York Times highlighted that \"over the past half-decade, Vice has had near annual layoffs and mounting losses, and has filed for bankruptcy, making it the poster child for the battered digital-media industry\" and that while \"some observers hoped its new owners [...] would reinvest\" in the company, Fortress Investment Group has instead \"decided to make sweeping cuts\".[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shane Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_Smith_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Suroosh Alvi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suroosh_Alvi"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Shane Smith – co-founder[21]\nSuroosh Alvi – co-founder[22]\nEllis Jones – editor-in-chief[23]","title":"Staff"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pop cultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_culture"},{"link_name":"immersionist school of journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immersion_journalism"},{"link_name":"Balls Deep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balls_Deep_(TV_Series)"},{"link_name":"Viceland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viceland"},{"link_name":"Iraqi people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_people"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iraqissue-24"},{"link_name":"Native Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nativeissue-25"},{"link_name":"Russian people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_people"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ru-26"},{"link_name":"mental disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorders"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ill-27"},{"link_name":"mental disabilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disabilities"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-special-28"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-student-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dearreaders-30"}],"sub_title":"Scope","text":"Vice magazine includes the work of journalists, columnists, fiction writers, graphic artists and cartoonists, and photographers. Both Vice's online and magazine content has shifted from dealing mostly with independent arts and pop cultural matters to covering more serious news topics. Due to the large array of contributors and the fact that often writers will only submit a small number of articles with the publication, Vice's content varies dramatically and its political and cultural stance is often unclear or contradictory. Articles on the site feature a range of subjects, often things not covered as by mainstream media. The magazine's editors have championed the immersionist school of journalism, which has been passed to other properties of Vice Media such as the documentary television show Balls Deep on the Viceland Channel. This style of journalism is regarded as something of a DIY antithesis to the methods practiced by mainstream news outlets, and has published an entire issue of articles written in accordance with this ethos. Entire issues of the magazine have also been dedicated to the concerns of Iraqi people,[24] Native Americans,[25] Russian people,[26] people with mental disorders,[27] and people with mental disabilities.[28] Vice also publishes an annual guide for students in the United Kingdom.[29]In 2007, a Vice announcement was published on the Internet:After umpteen years of putting out what amounted to a reference book every month, we started to get bored with it. Besides, too many other magazines have ripped it and started doing their own lame take on themes. So we're going to do some issues, starting now, that have whatever we feel like putting in them.[30]","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"Democrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gua-13"}],"sub_title":"Politics","text":"In a March 2008 interview with The Guardian, Smith was asked about the magazine's political allegiances and he stated, \"We're not trying to say anything politically in a paradigmatic left/right way… We don't do that because we don't believe in either side. Are my politics Democrat or Republican? I think both are horrific. And it doesn't matter anyway. Money runs America; money runs everywhere.\"[13]","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise"},{"link_name":"Noisey (TV series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noisey_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"VBS.tv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VBS.tv"},{"link_name":"The Vice Guide to Travel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vice_Guide_to_Travel"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vicecome-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-broadly-34"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-7"}],"sub_title":"Website","text":"\"Noisey\" redirects here. For the concept, see Noise. For the TV series, see Noisey (TV series).Vice founded its website as Viceland.com in 1996, as Vice.com was already owned. In 2007, it started VBS.tv as a domain, which prioritized videos over print, and had a number of shows for free such as The Vice Guide to Travel. In 2011, Viceland.com and VBS.tv were combined into Vice.com,[31] also the host of the Vice Motherboard website at motherboard.vice.com.[32]In 2012, Vice Media was created as the parent company for Vice magazine and other properties including Vice News on HBO and the Vice.com website.[33] The company has since expanded and diversified to include a network of online channels, including Munchies.tv, Motherboard.tv, Noisey.com, Thu.mp, and Broadly.[34]On 22 February 2024, Vice Media CEO Bruce Dixon announced \"several hundred\" additional layoffs as the company restructures,[6] and that the website Vice.com would no longer publish content.[6][7] However, this decision was later reversed as new content has been posted to the website in June 2024.","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1576874109","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1576874109"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vicephotobook-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thevicephotobook-36"},{"link_name":"Jaimie Warren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaimie_Warren"},{"link_name":"Jerry Hsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Hsu"},{"link_name":"Jill Abramson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Abramson"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-5011-2320-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-2320-7"}],"sub_title":"Book","text":"In 2007, Vice published The Vice Photo Book (ISBN 1576874109),[35][36] with a collection of photos of Jaimie Warren, Jerry Hsu, Michael Rababy and Patrick O’Dell. The book is divided in five parts: \"Vice Photographers\", \"Vice's Photojournalism\", \"Vice Fashion\", and the final two sections are a collage of previously published VICE photos. The book also contains interviews with some of the photographers.\nJill Abramson: Merchants of Truth: The Business of News and the Fight for Facts. Simon & Schuster, New York 2019, (ISBN 978-1-5011-2320-7), S. 42–61, 147–181, 346–369 (= Chapter 2, 6 and 11).","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-37"},{"link_name":"gonzo journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzo_journalism"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-39"},{"link_name":"John McAfee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McAfee"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-37"}],"text":"From its beginnings as Voice of Montreal, Vice had a \"reputation for provocation\".[37] In 2010, Vice was described as \"gonzo journalism for the YouTube generation\".[38] As the magazine grew into a broader media brand, it struggled with \"how to distance itself from its crude past, yet hold on to enough of that reputation to cement, and grow, its authority with its core audience\".[39] Nevertheless, the magazine has continued to face controversy. In 2013, the magazine retracted parts of a fashion spread entitled 'Last Words' which depicted \"female writers killing themselves\".[40][39] Also in 2013, Vice again gained unwelcome attention when the then-editor of the magazine joined millionaire software mogul John McAfee as he evaded authorities to avoid being questioned about a murder case.[37]","title":"Reputation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vice_Media_Settled-4"}],"sub_title":"Sexual harassment at parent company","text":"In the late 2017, multiple stories were published citing allegations of sexual misconduct and a general \"boys club\" culture at Vice magazine's parent company, Vice Media.[41][42][4]","title":"Reputation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ASME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_of_Magazine_Editors"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Ad Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising_Age"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"GLAAD Media Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GLAAD_Media_Award"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"text":"Wins\nASME Reader's Choice Best Cover Contest for \"Best Travel and Adventure\" for June 2017 issue[43]\nASME Reader's Choice Best Cover Contest for \"Most Delicious\" for March 2016 issue[44]\nASME Anthology of Best American Magazine Writing for \"Fixing the System\" interview, 2016[45]\nASME Reader's Choice Award for New and Politics Cover, 2015[46]\nASME Reader's Choice Award for Business and Tech Cover, 2015[47]\nRanked number 9 on Ad Age Magazine A-list (first free publication to be recognized), 2010[48]\nNominations\nGLAAD Media Award, Outstanding Magazine Article for \"On the Run\", 2017[49]\nASME Single Topic Issue for the Prison Issue, 2016[50]\nASME Feature Photography for \"Deep-Fried America on a Stick\", 2014[51]\nASME General Excellence for July, November and December issues, 2012[52]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The bad-boy brand\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/04/08/the-bad-boy-brand"},{"link_name":"The New Yorker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker"}],"text":"Widdicombe, Lizzie (8 April 2013). \"The bad-boy brand\". The Wayward Press. The New Yorker. Vol. 89, no. 8. pp. 60–69. Retrieved 22 December 2015.","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | [{"title":"Journalism portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Journalism"},{"title":"Creative nonfiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_nonfiction"},{"title":"The Sacrament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sacrament_(2013_film)"}] | [{"reference":"Horan, Tom (15 July 2006). \"From chic to cheek\". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 11 November 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/3653808/From-chic-to-cheek.html","url_text":"\"From chic to cheek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121111040315/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/3653808/From-chic-to-cheek.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Online magazine Vice closes Montreal office\". Montreal. 22 June 2019. Archived from the original on 19 February 2024. Retrieved 19 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://montreal.ctvnews.ca/online-magazine-vice-closes-montreal-office-1.4478207","url_text":"\"Online magazine Vice closes Montreal office\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240219191252/https://montreal.ctvnews.ca/online-magazine-vice-closes-montreal-office-1.4478207","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sterne, Peter (11 February 2015). \"Vice E.I.C. Rocco Castoro out at Vice\". Capital New York. Archived from the original on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150212125902/http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/media/2015/02/8562160/vice-eic-rocco-castoro-out-vice","url_text":"\"Vice E.I.C. Rocco Castoro out at Vice\""},{"url":"http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/media/2015/02/8562160/vice-eic-rocco-castoro-out-vice","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jarvey, Natalie (23 December 2017). \"Vice Media Settled With 4 Women Over Sexual Harassment, Defamation\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 24 June 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/vice-media-settles-4-women-sexual-harassment-defamation-report-1070260","url_text":"\"Vice Media Settled With 4 Women Over Sexual Harassment, Defamation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter","url_text":"The Hollywood Reporter"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190624000549/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/vice-media-settles-4-women-sexual-harassment-defamation-report-1070260","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Whittock, Jesse (15 May 2023). \"Vice Media Files For Chapter 11 Bankruptcy\". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2023/05/vice-media-chapter-11-bankruptcy-1235366640/","url_text":"\"Vice Media Files For Chapter 11 Bankruptcy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood","url_text":"Deadline Hollywood"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230515081704/https://deadline.com/2023/05/vice-media-chapter-11-bankruptcy-1235366640/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Spangler, Todd (22 February 2024). \"Vice Will Cease Publishing on Vice.com and Lay Off 'Several Hundred' Staffers, CEO Says\". Variety. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2024/digital/news/vice-cease-publishing-layoff-hundreds-ceo-1235919843/","url_text":"\"Vice Will Cease Publishing on Vice.com and Lay Off 'Several Hundred' Staffers, CEO Says\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240222224948/https://variety.com/2024/digital/news/vice-cease-publishing-layoff-hundreds-ceo-1235919843/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Saeedy, Alexander; Bruell, Alexandra (22 February 2024). \"Vice Media to Stop Publishing on Vice.com, Plans to Cut Hundreds of Jobs\". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/business/media/vice-media-to-stop-publishing-on-vice-com-plans-to-cut-hundreds-of-jobs-1121c8d1","url_text":"\"Vice Media to Stop Publishing on Vice.com, Plans to Cut Hundreds of Jobs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal","url_text":"The Wall Street Journal"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240222224948/https://www.wsj.com/business/media/vice-media-to-stop-publishing-on-vice-com-plans-to-cut-hundreds-of-jobs-1121c8d1","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Mullin, Benjamin (22 February 2024). \"Vice's New Owners Prepare to Slash What's Left of Its Work Force\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/22/business/vices-new-layoffs.html","url_text":"\"Vice's New Owners Prepare to Slash What's Left of Its Work Force\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240222205538/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/22/business/vices-new-layoffs.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Robert Levine (19 November 2007). \"A Guerrilla Video Site Meets MTV\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/19/business/media/19vice.html?hp&_r=0","url_text":"\"A Guerrilla Video Site Meets MTV\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141107145350/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/19/business/media/19vice.html?hp&_r=0","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Revue Images (selected issues)\". Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Dominique+Ollivier%2C+Alix+Laurent%2C+Nathalie+Bloomfield%22","url_text":"\"Revue Images (selected issues)\""}]},{"reference":"Boisclair, Denis (November 1994). \"Le nouvel Images s'améliore !\". Revue Images. 4 (1): 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/images-v-04-n-01-complete-red/page/n1/mode/2up?q=%22voice+of+montreal%22+AND+%22dominique+ollivier%22","url_text":"\"Le nouvel Images s'améliore !\""}]},{"reference":"Wilkinson, Carl (30 March 2008). \"The Vice Squad\". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/media/2008/mar/30/pressandpublishing.tvandradioarts?gusrc=rss&feed=media","url_text":"\"The Vice Squad\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208225631/http://www.theguardian.com/media/2008/mar/30/pressandpublishing.tvandradioarts?gusrc=rss&feed=media","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jeff Bercovici (3 January 2012). \"Vice's Shane Smith on What's Wrong With Canada, Facebook and Occupy Wall Street\". Forbes. Archived from the original on 29 April 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffbercovici/2012/01/03/vices-shane-smith-on-whats-wrong-with-canada-facebook-and-occupy-wall-street/","url_text":"\"Vice's Shane Smith on What's Wrong With Canada, Facebook and Occupy Wall Street\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes","url_text":"Forbes"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130429021606/http://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffbercovici/2012/01/03/vices-shane-smith-on-whats-wrong-with-canada-facebook-and-occupy-wall-street/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Alvi, Suroosh (2003). texts The Vice guide to sex and drugs and rock and roll. Warner Books. p. 5. ISBN 9780446692816.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780446692816/mode/2up?q=%22images+interculturelles%22","url_text":"texts The Vice guide to sex and drugs and rock and roll"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780446692816","url_text":"9780446692816"}]},{"reference":"Andrew Pugh (28 February 2013). \"'Maybe we've grown up': Ten years on, how Vice magazine got serious\". Press Gazette. Progressive Media International. Archived from the original on 23 November 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141123191001/http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/%E2%80%98maybe-we%E2%80%99ve-grown-up%E2%80%99-ten-years-how-vice-magazine-got-serious","url_text":"\"'Maybe we've grown up': Ten years on, how Vice magazine got serious\""},{"url":"http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/%E2%80%98maybe-we%E2%80%99ve-grown-up%E2%80%99-ten-years-how-vice-magazine-got-serious","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pareene (23 January 2008). \"Co-Founder Gavin McInnes Finally Leaves 'Vice'\". Gawker. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://gawker.com/348019/co-founder-gavin-mcinnes-finally-leaves-vice","url_text":"\"Co-Founder Gavin McInnes Finally Leaves 'Vice'\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161010093200/http://gawker.com/348019/co-founder-gavin-mcinnes-finally-leaves-vice","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jeff Bercovici (3 January 2012). \"Tom Freston's $1 Billion Revenge: Ex-Viacom Chief Helps Vice Become the Next MTV\". Forbes. Forbes, LLC. Archived from the original on 8 November 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffbercovici/2012/01/03/tom-frestons-1-billion-revenge-ex-viacom-chief-helps-vice-become-the-next-mtv/","url_text":"\"Tom Freston's $1 Billion Revenge: Ex-Viacom Chief Helps Vice Become the Next MTV\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141108083023/http://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffbercovici/2012/01/03/tom-frestons-1-billion-revenge-ex-viacom-chief-helps-vice-become-the-next-mtv/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Baird, Dugald (12 February 2015). \"Vice announces new global head of content and editor-in-chief\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/feb/12/vice-media-alex-miller-ellis-jones","url_text":"\"Vice announces new global head of content and editor-in-chief\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200205152848/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/feb/12/vice-media-alex-miller-ellis-jones","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Silberling, Amanda (15 May 2023). \"After a 29-year run, Vice files for bankruptcy\". Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2023/05/15/after-a-29-year-run-vice-files-for-bankruptcy/","url_text":"\"After a 29-year run, Vice files for bankruptcy\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230515153501/https://techcrunch.com/2023/05/15/after-a-29-year-run-vice-files-for-bankruptcy/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Warren, James (22 February 2017). \"Shane Smith sees a 'perfect storm' coming for the press\". Poynter. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.poynter.org/news/shane-smith-sees-perfect-storm-coming-press","url_text":"\"Shane Smith sees a 'perfect storm' coming for the press\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180424071612/https://www.poynter.org/news/shane-smith-sees-perfect-storm-coming-press","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Arkin, Daniel (13 March 2018). \"Vice Media's brash CEO resigns, A+E Networks chief steps up\". NBC News. Archived from the original on 23 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/pop-culture-news/vice-chief-executive-shane-smith-resigns-n856271","url_text":"\"Vice Media's brash CEO resigns, A+E Networks chief steps up\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180423165046/https://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/pop-culture-news/vice-chief-executive-shane-smith-resigns-n856271","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Battan, Carrie (1 April 2015). \"Is Vice Getting Nice?\". Daily Intelligencer. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2015/03/vice-getting-nice.html","url_text":"\"Is Vice Getting Nice?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180424072226/https://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2015/03/vice-getting-nice.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Iraq Issue\". Vice. Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110523234349/http://www.viceland.com/int/v14n3/htdocs/","url_text":"\"The Iraq Issue\""},{"url":"http://www.viceland.com/int/v14n3/htdocs/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Native Issue\". Vice. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080725082420/http://www.viceland.com/int/v13n1/htdocs/","url_text":"\"The Native Issue\""},{"url":"http://www.viceland.com/int/v13n1/htdocs/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Russia Issue\". Vice. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009. Retrieved 28 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090107154849/http://www.viceland.com/int/v13n4/htdocs/","url_text":"\"The Russia Issue\""},{"url":"http://www.viceland.com/int/v13n4/htdocs/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Mentally Ill Issue\". Vice. Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110523234458/http://www.viceland.com/int/v12n2/htdocs/","url_text":"\"The Mentally Ill Issue\""},{"url":"http://www.viceland.com/int/v12n2/htdocs/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Special Issue\". Vice. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081121183544/http://www.viceland.com/int/v9n11/htdocs/","url_text":"\"The Special Issue\""},{"url":"http://www.viceland.com/int/v9n11/htdocs/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Student Guide\". Vice. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081006215440/http://www.viceland.com/issues_uk/guide_student/htdocs/","url_text":"\"Student Guide\""},{"url":"http://www.viceland.com/issues_uk/guide_student/htdocs/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Dear Vice Readers!\". Vice. 11 April 2007. Archived from the original on 23 August 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080823180024/http://vice.typepad.com/vice_magazine/2007/04/dear_vice_reade.html","url_text":"\"Dear Vice Readers!\""},{"url":"http://vice.typepad.com/vice_magazine/2007/04/dear_vice_reade.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Castoro, Rocco (15 September 2011). \"Finally, All Our Crap Is in One Place\". Vice. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vice.com/read/finally-all-our-crap-in-one-place-v18n9","url_text":"\"Finally, All Our Crap Is in One Place\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042930/http://www.vice.com/read/finally-all-our-crap-in-one-place-v18n9","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"About Motherboard\". Vice Media. Archived from the original on 11 February 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/page/about-motherboard","url_text":"\"About Motherboard\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180211131235/https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/page/about-motherboard","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gardner, Eriq (12 April 2013). \"Vice's Shane Smith and Tom Freston on Sending Dennis Rodman to North Korea for HBO\". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/vices-shane-smith-tom-freston-434990","url_text":"\"Vice's Shane Smith and Tom Freston on Sending Dennis Rodman to North Korea for HBO\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073416/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/vices-shane-smith-tom-freston-434990","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Broadly – About\". Archived from the original on 7 January 2018. Retrieved 6 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://broadly.vice.com/en_us/page/broadly-about-en","url_text":"\"Broadly – About\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180107054238/https://broadly.vice.com/en_us/page/broadly-about-en","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Pearson, Jesse (2007). The Vice Photo Book. New York, NY: Vice Books. p. 263. ISBN 978-1576874103.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1576874103","url_text":"978-1576874103"}]},{"reference":"\"The Vice Photo Book\". Vice. 14 December 2007. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brampton_Assembly | Brampton Assembly | ["1 History","1.1 American Motors","1.2 Chrysler - Stellantis","1.3 Current production","1.4 Former products","1.5 Annual production","2 Notes","3 External links"] | Automobile factory
Not to be confused with Brampton Assembly (AMC).
Brampton Assembly PlantOperated1986–presentLocationBrampton, OntarioCoordinates43°45′07″N 79°43′05″W / 43.752°N 79.718°W / 43.752; -79.718IndustryAutomotiveProductsAutomobilesEmployees3,045 (2022)Area269 acres (1.09 km2)Volume2,950,000 sq ft (274,000 m2)Address2000 Williams Parkway EastOwner(s)
American Motors Corporation (1986–1987)
Chrysler (1987–1998)
DaimlerChrysler (1998–2007)
Chrysler (2007–2014)
Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (2014–2021)
Stellantis (2021–present)
Brampton Assembly Plant is a Stellantis Canada automobile factory located at 2000 Williams Parkway East Brampton, Ontario, Canada. Originally built by American Motors Corporation (AMC) for US$260 million, in the former Bramalea area of Brampton, the manufacturing plant was specially designed for building the Eagle Premier. Its role since has primarily been to assemble full-sized Chrysler products.
It was originally opened as the "Bramalea Assembly" under American Motors. At the time, AMC had another facility that was known as "Brampton Assembly" which was located at Kennedy Road/Steeles Avenue in Brampton. It had been built and operated from 1961 until 1992 under American Motors and later Chrysler, assembling American Motors and Jeep vehicles. As the previous facility was shut down and sold off for warehouse use in 1992, Chrysler called the new Bramalea Assembly the Brampton Assembly.
History
American Motors
In June 1984, American Motors (AMC) established an agreement with the governments of Ontario and Canada to build a new assembly plant. Both the national and provincial governments loaned AMC CA$100 million each to build the CA$764 million facility. The agreement also included a royalty to the government equal to 1% of the sales price of every vehicle produced at the facility.
The infrastructure builder EllisDon Construction completed the US$260 million (US$762,511,211 in 2023 dollars ) plant and associated buildings. The factory was opened by AMC in 1986 as "Bramalea Assembly", a state-of-the-art robotics-based assembly facility with 2,950,000 square feet (274,000 m2) of floor space located on 269 acres (108.9 ha) specifically designed to produce the Eagle Premier.
The production line speed was initially about 400 cars per shift (54 jobs per hour) with only one shift scheduled. There were frequent layoffs at this new factory, while AMC's old Brampton plant, located at Kennedy Road, worked steadily to produce Jeep Wranglers.
Chrysler - Stellantis
This facility was acquired (along with the rest of AMC) by Chrysler in August 1987. The factory was ranked top in Chrysler's 1988 quality audit of cars produced in each of the automaker's plants.
Production of the Chrysler LH platform cars began in June 1992 and continued with the updated LH cars in 1997. Production switched to the rear-wheel drive Chrysler LX platform cars in January 2004. The retooling for the LX platform was described as "a low-budget effort", as Chrysler was experiencing some hardships at the time. Robots in the body shop were hand-me-downs from other plants. The paint shop was said to be the oldest FiatChrysler had in North America at that time.
The attached "Brampton Satellite Stamping", which opened in 1991, was built for the launch of the Chrysler LH platform. At that time, Brampton Assembly operated with three shifts of production. It is the city of Brampton's largest employer, with over 4,200 people working there.
On 19 July 2007, Chrysler Group announced an investment of US$1.2 billion in the Brampton plant for upgrades to the Chrysler 300 series, Dodge Magnum, and Dodge Charger, as well as a $500 million manufacturing investment to prepare for European-market LX platform product loading.
On 16 August 2007, the one-millionth LX rear-wheel-drive vehicle platform rolled-off Brampton Assembly's production line.
On 1 November 2007, Chrysler announced that it was ending the third shift in Brampton, with the loss of 1,000 direct jobs, and declared that production of the Dodge Magnum in Brampton would end in early 2008.
On 1 May 2009, both the Brampton Assembly and Windsor Assembly plants were shut down as a result of Chrysler's bankruptcy protection filing on 30 April 2009, in the United States, affecting about 2,700 employees at the Brampton Assembly and 4,400 at the Windsor Assembly. A Chrysler parts plant in Etobicoke, Toronto operated until 10 May 2009, when it was closed down for 30 to 60 days, affecting 300 employees, while the company through restructuring under court-ordered creditor protection.
After the reorganization, Chrysler announced the launch of new models of the 300 and Charger to be produced in the Brampton assembly plant, beginning in 2010.
The factory began production of the redesigned 2011 Chrysler 300 in January 2011. At this time, total employment was 2,871 (2,733 hourly; 138 salaried), working two shifts.
In 2012, employees at the Chrysler factories in Windsor and Brampton, Ontario ratified the CAW's labor agreement by an overwhelming majority, without any information from the automaker about plans for new products or investment at either plant. As of December 2012, the Brampton Assembly Plant is the single largest employer in Canada's 11th largest city.
On 19 August 2014, the first Challenger SRT Hellcat (VIN #700001) rolled off the assembly line. It sold at the Barrett-Jackson auction in Las Vegas auction for $825,000 to benefit Opportunity Village, a non-profit charity for those with intellectual disabilities in the Las Vegas area. Rick Hendrick, owner of Hendrick Motorsports, bought the 707-hp "pony car" for his collection.
The plant earned "bronze status" in 2015 for its work in implementing "World Class Manufacturing" (WCM), a "methodology that focuses on eliminating waste, increasing productivity, and improving quality and safety in a systematic and organized way."
Fiat Chrysler Automobiles announced in May 2019 plans for investments in new and existing assembly plants in Michigan "after intense political pressure in the U.S. to increase domestic manufacturing." This strategy could be an opportunity for Canadian parts suppliers, but also mean cuts in production at FCA's facilities in Ontario that include Brampton Assembly. Although there is still demand for the models produced by Brampton Assembly, "the market has gone really soft for cars, especially for sedans" and future FCA products may not use the platform currently made for the Chrysler 300, Dodge Charger, and Dodge Challenger.
As of 2021, the facility may see a new generation of the LX platform or be converted to making batteries for the automaker given its proximity to other Stellantis facilities. Because the property is in a rapidly expanding suburb of Toronto, the increasing traffic congestion impeeds shipments while the outright sale of the land would make it excellent for housing development.
In 2022, Stellantis announced a $2.8 billion (3.6 billion Canadian dollars) investment, thus preserving the futures of its Canadian operations in Windsor and Brampton assembly plants. This includes Brampton Assembly Plant making a transition to new "flexible architecture" for the company's electrification plans. Further changes were released that production of its new STLA Large platform cars will be in Windsor with Chrysler 300, Dodge Charger, and Dodge Challenger assembly ending at Brampton in 2024." The Brampton plant will then undergo retooling and modernizing to be "flexible, multi-energy vehicle assembly facilities" to "produce the electric vehicles of the future."
During August 2023, Stellantis held an event for select visitors to provide a final tour of the Brampton Assembly Plant. This open house by invitation commemorated the "birthplace of automotive legends for decades" starting from 1986 and Chrysler's purchase of the factory in 1987. The facility will transform in 2024 with the production of flexible electrified automobile designs scheduled in 2025. Professional automotive journalists were able to order vehicles and see them being built.
The ratification of the contract with Stellantis by the Canadian Auto Workers calls for Brampton Assembly to be retooled for the next-generation Jeep Compass that has been built in Toluca, Mexico. Stellantis is planning a US$970 million (1.32 billion Canadian-dollar) investment so that Brampton can build cars with internal combustion engines as well as battery-electric vehicles. Plans are for the plant to start building the new Jeep Compass on a single shift in the fourth quarter of 2025. The union agreement also includes the installation of air conditioning systems for the plant, a requirement that mandatory shift changes be announced by Wednesday of the week before the change, and also study the possibility of having day-care on-site.
Current production
2025–present Jeep Compass
Former products
Eagle Premier
1994 Chrysler LHS
1996 Chrysler Concorde
Dodge Magnum
2007 Dodge SuperBee number 0004 of 1000 and 0427 of 1000
2009 Dodge Challenger
1988–1992 Eagle Premier
1990–1992 Dodge Monaco
1993–1997 Eagle Vision
1993–2004 Chrysler Concorde
1993–2004 Dodge Intrepid
1994–1996 Chrysler New Yorker
1994–2001 Chrysler LHS
1999–2004 Chrysler 300M
2005–2008 Dodge Magnum
2011–2014 Lancia Thema
2005–2023 Chrysler 300
2006–2023 Dodge Charger
2008–2023 Dodge Challenger
Annual production
1988 = 59,068
1989 = 33,904
1990 = 24,676
1991 = 18,133
1992 = 50,660
1993 = 256,754
1994 = 256,211
1995 = 188,782
1996 = 238,965
1997 = 204,137
1998 = 300,866
1999 = 338,921
2000 = 291,884
2001 = 198,965
2002 = 201,723
2003 = 140,642
2004 = 209,045
2005 = 318,536
2006 = 314,161
2007 = 273,285
2008 = 210,704
2009 = 121,715 (reduced numbers due to Chrysler's bankruptcy that Year)
2010 = 163,257
2011 = 194,631
2012 = 240,193
2013 = 244,771
2014 = 222,829
2015 = 253,230
2016 = 237,483
2017 = 231,816
2018 = 233,261
2019 = 202,447
2020 = 155,552 (reduced numbers due to COVID-19 pandemic)
2021 = 146,423 (reduced numbers due to global microchip shortage)
2022 = 165,819 (reduced numbers due to global microchip shortage)
2023 = 204,439
Total production through 2023 = 7,147,888
Notes
^ a b "Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant". Stellantis NA. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
^ a b c d Rubenstein, James M. (1992). The changing US auto industry: a geographical analysis. Taylor & Francis. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-415-05544-4. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
^ "Chrysler Corporation Assembly Plant AMC". EllisDon Corporation. Archived from the original on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ a b "The History of Bramptons Largest Union Local". Canadian Auto Workers Local 1285. 18 May 2008. Archived from the original on 15 April 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ a b c Boudette, Neal. "'Do or die' time as FCA's Brampton plant awaits investment". Autonmotive News. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
^ "Chrysler Group to invest $1.2 bln in Brampton assembly plant". Reuters. 19 July 2007. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ "Brampton sets production milestone". Wheels Canada. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ "Chrysler Brampton Assembly Plant Job Cuts". The Brampton News. 1 November 2007. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ "Chrysler Canada assembly plants shut down". CBC News. 1 May 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ "New Chrysler Business Plan Promising News for Canadian Workers, CAW President says". Canadian Auto Workers. 4 November 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ Fact Sheet: Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant, Chrysler Corporate, January 2011
^ Kreindler, Derek (1 October 2012). "CAW Workers Ratify Chrysler Agreement As The Countdown To 2016 Begins". The Truth About Cars. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ "Units". Canadian Auto Workers Local 1285. 14 December 2012. Archived from the original on 16 September 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^ a b Lingeman, Jake (29 September 2014). "First Challenger SRT Hellcat Sells for $825,000". Autoweek. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
^ Vijayenthiran, Viknesh (29 September 2014). "First production 2015 Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat". Motor Authority. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
^ "The FCA Brampton Assembly plant awarded bronze status". Canadian Metalworking. 21 December 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
^ Bickis, Ian (28 February 2019). "FCA invests big in Michigan as analysts question future of Brampton plant". The Star. Toronto. The Canadian Press. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
^ a b Flavelle, Dana (15 May 2019). "FCA's U.S. expansion stokes fears for Brampton". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
^ a b Irwin, John (22 August 2021). "Stellantis Brampton now at a crossroads". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
^ a b "Stellantis' $2.8 billion investment secures future for Brampton, Windsor plants". Greater Milwaukee Today. Associated Press. 3 May 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
^ a b "Stellantis details production changes at its Brampton and Windsor assembly plants". CBC/Radio-Canada. 3 June 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
^ a b c Miller, Robert S. (10 August 2023). "Last Glimpse: Brampton Assembly Plant Open House". MoparInsiders. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
^ Wallcraft, Stephanie (8 September 2023). "Closing a chapter on Dodge muscle—and a long family history — at Brampton Assembly". d/driving.ca. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
^ a b Noble, Breana (4 November 2023). "Unifor: Brampton gets Jeep Compass, Windsor first in line for Dodge muscle cars". The Detroit News. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
^ "Stellantis plans 3-shift operations at Ontario plants, but not soon". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 11 April 2024. But the plant will not start output of the new Jeep Compass on a single shift until the fourth quarter of 2025, leading to layoffs for some staff in excess of two years.
^ Ensing, Chris (3 November 2023). "Dodge muscle cars to be built in Windsor and Jeep Compass coming to Brampton, Unifor-Stellantis deal says". CBC News. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
^ Boshouwers, Derek (9 July 2021). "Stellantis to idle Ontario plants in July and August". auto123.com. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
External links
Official website
"AMC-Chrysler plants in Brampton, Ontario". allpar.com. 16 November 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
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Commons | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brampton Assembly (AMC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brampton_Assembly_(AMC)"},{"link_name":"Stellantis Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FCA_Canada"},{"link_name":"automobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile"},{"link_name":"Brampton, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brampton,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"American Motors Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Motors_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Bramalea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramalea,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Eagle Premier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Premier"},{"link_name":"Brampton Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brampton_Assembly_(AMC)"},{"link_name":"Jeep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeep"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Brampton Assembly (AMC).Brampton Assembly Plant is a Stellantis Canada automobile factory located at 2000 Williams Parkway East Brampton, Ontario, Canada. Originally built by American Motors Corporation (AMC) for US$260 million, in the former Bramalea area of Brampton, the manufacturing plant was specially designed for building the Eagle Premier. Its role since has primarily been to assemble full-sized Chrysler products.It was originally opened as the \"Bramalea Assembly\" under American Motors. At the time, AMC had another facility that was known as \"Brampton Assembly\" which was located at Kennedy Road/Steeles Avenue in Brampton. It had been built and operated from 1961 until 1992 under American Motors and later Chrysler, assembling American Motors and Jeep vehicles. As the previous facility was shut down and sold off for warehouse use in 1992, Chrysler called the new Bramalea Assembly the Brampton Assembly.","title":"Brampton Assembly"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Motors_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rubenstein-2"},{"link_name":"CA$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_dollar"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rubenstein-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rubenstein-2"},{"link_name":"EllisDon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EllisDon"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inflation-US-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"robotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot"},{"link_name":"Eagle Premier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Premier"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cawlocal-5"},{"link_name":"Jeep Wranglers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeep_Wrangler"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cawlocal-5"}],"sub_title":"American Motors","text":"In June 1984, American Motors (AMC) established an agreement with the governments of Ontario and Canada to build a new assembly plant.[2] Both the national and provincial governments loaned AMC CA$100 million each to build the CA$764 million facility.[2] The agreement also included a royalty to the government equal to 1% of the sales price of every vehicle produced at the facility.[2]The infrastructure builder EllisDon Construction completed the US$260 million (US$762,511,211 in 2023 dollars [3]) plant and associated buildings.[4] The factory was opened by AMC in 1986 as \"Bramalea Assembly\", a state-of-the-art robotics-based assembly facility with 2,950,000 square feet (274,000 m2) of floor space located on 269 acres (108.9 ha) specifically designed to produce the Eagle Premier.The production line speed was initially about 400 cars per shift (54 jobs per hour) with only one shift scheduled.[5] There were frequent layoffs at this new factory, while AMC's old Brampton plant, located at Kennedy Road, worked steadily to produce Jeep Wranglers.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rubenstein-2"},{"link_name":"Chrysler LH platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_LH_platform"},{"link_name":"rear-wheel drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear-wheel_drive"},{"link_name":"Chrysler LX platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_LX_platform"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DoorDie061515-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DoorDie061515-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DoorDie061515-6"},{"link_name":"Chrysler LH platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_LH_platform"},{"link_name":"US$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Windsor Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Chrysler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Etobicoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etobicoke"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lingeman-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lingeman-15"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Flavelle-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Flavelle-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Irwin-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Irwin-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2.8-billion-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2.8-billion-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2022-future-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2022-future-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Last-Glimpse-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Last-Glimpse-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Last-Glimpse-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Canadian Auto Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Auto_Workers"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Noble-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Noble-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Chrysler - Stellantis","text":"This facility was acquired (along with the rest of AMC) by Chrysler in August 1987. The factory was ranked top in Chrysler's 1988 quality audit of cars produced in each of the automaker's plants.[2]Production of the Chrysler LH platform cars began in June 1992 and continued with the updated LH cars in 1997. Production switched to the rear-wheel drive Chrysler LX platform cars in January 2004. The retooling for the LX platform was described as \"a low-budget effort\", as Chrysler was experiencing some hardships at the time.[6] Robots in the body shop were hand-me-downs from other plants.[6] The paint shop was said to be the oldest FiatChrysler had in North America at that time.[6]The attached \"Brampton Satellite Stamping\", which opened in 1991, was built for the launch of the Chrysler LH platform. At that time, Brampton Assembly operated with three shifts of production. It is the city of Brampton's largest employer, with over 4,200 people working there.On 19 July 2007, Chrysler Group announced an investment of US$1.2 billion in the Brampton plant for upgrades to the Chrysler 300 series, Dodge Magnum, and Dodge Charger, as well as a $500 million manufacturing investment to prepare for European-market LX platform product loading.[7]On 16 August 2007, the one-millionth LX rear-wheel-drive vehicle platform rolled-off Brampton Assembly's production line.[8]On 1 November 2007, Chrysler announced that it was ending the third shift in Brampton, with the loss of 1,000 direct jobs, and declared that production of the Dodge Magnum in Brampton would end in early 2008.[9]On 1 May 2009, both the Brampton Assembly and Windsor Assembly plants were shut down as a result of Chrysler's bankruptcy protection filing on 30 April 2009, in the United States, affecting about 2,700 employees at the Brampton Assembly and 4,400 at the Windsor Assembly. A Chrysler parts plant in Etobicoke, Toronto operated until 10 May 2009, when it was closed down for 30 to 60 days, affecting 300 employees, while the company through restructuring under court-ordered creditor protection.[10]After the reorganization, Chrysler announced the launch of new models of the 300 and Charger to be produced in the Brampton assembly plant, beginning in 2010.[11]The factory began production of the redesigned 2011 Chrysler 300 in January 2011. At this time, total employment was 2,871 (2,733 hourly; 138 salaried), working two shifts.[12]In 2012, employees at the Chrysler factories in Windsor and Brampton, Ontario ratified the CAW's labor agreement by an overwhelming majority, without any information from the automaker about plans for new products or investment at either plant.[13] As of December 2012, the Brampton Assembly Plant is the single largest employer in Canada's 11th largest city.[14]On 19 August 2014, the first Challenger SRT Hellcat (VIN #700001) rolled off the assembly line.[15] It sold at the Barrett-Jackson auction in Las Vegas auction for $825,000 to benefit Opportunity Village, a non-profit charity for those with intellectual disabilities in the Las Vegas area.[16] Rick Hendrick, owner of Hendrick Motorsports, bought the 707-hp \"pony car\" for his collection.[15]The plant earned \"bronze status\" in 2015 for its work in implementing \"World Class Manufacturing\" (WCM), a \"methodology that focuses on eliminating waste, increasing productivity, and improving quality and safety in a systematic and organized way.\"[17]Fiat Chrysler Automobiles announced in May 2019 plans for investments in new and existing assembly plants in Michigan \"after intense political pressure in the U.S. to increase domestic manufacturing.\"[18] This strategy could be an opportunity for Canadian parts suppliers, but also mean cuts in production at FCA's facilities in Ontario that include Brampton Assembly.[19] Although there is still demand for the models produced by Brampton Assembly, \"the market has gone really soft for cars, especially for sedans\" and future FCA products may not use the platform currently made for the Chrysler 300, Dodge Charger, and Dodge Challenger.[19]As of 2021, the facility may see a new generation of the LX platform or be converted to making batteries for the automaker given its proximity to other Stellantis facilities.[20] Because the property is in a rapidly expanding suburb of Toronto, the increasing traffic congestion impeeds shipments while the outright sale of the land would make it excellent for housing development.[20]In 2022, Stellantis announced a $2.8 billion (3.6 billion Canadian dollars) investment, thus preserving the futures of its Canadian operations in Windsor and Brampton assembly plants.[21] This includes Brampton Assembly Plant making a transition to new \"flexible architecture\" for the company's electrification plans.[21] Further changes were released that production of its new STLA Large platform cars will be in Windsor with Chrysler 300, Dodge Charger, and Dodge Challenger assembly ending at Brampton in 2024.\"[22] The Brampton plant will then undergo retooling and modernizing to be \"flexible, multi-energy vehicle assembly facilities\" to \"produce the electric vehicles of the future.\"[22]During August 2023, Stellantis held an event for select visitors to provide a final tour of the Brampton Assembly Plant.[23] This open house by invitation commemorated the \"birthplace of automotive legends for decades\" starting from 1986 and Chrysler's purchase of the factory in 1987.[23] The facility will transform in 2024 with the production of flexible electrified automobile designs scheduled in 2025.[23] Professional automotive journalists were able to order vehicles and see them being built.[24]The ratification of the contract with Stellantis by the Canadian Auto Workers calls for Brampton Assembly to be retooled for the next-generation Jeep Compass that has been built in Toluca, Mexico.[25] Stellantis is planning a US$970 million (1.32 billion Canadian-dollar) investment so that Brampton can build cars with internal combustion engines as well as battery-electric vehicles.[25] Plans are for the plant to start building the new Jeep Compass on a single shift in the fourth quarter of 2025.[26] The union agreement also includes the installation of air conditioning systems for the plant, a requirement that mandatory shift changes be announced by Wednesday of the week before the change, and also study the possibility of having day-care on-site.[27]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jeep Compass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeep_Compass"}],"sub_title":"Current production","text":"2025–present Jeep Compass","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eagle_Premier.jpg"},{"link_name":"Eagle Premier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Premier"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1994_Chrysler_LHS_(6254988407).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1996_Chrysler_Concorde_LXi_white.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dodge--Magnum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2007_Dodge_Charger_SRT8_Super_Bee.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mopar_Underground_5.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dodge Challenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Challenger_(2008)"},{"link_name":"Eagle Premier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Premier"},{"link_name":"Dodge Monaco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Monaco"},{"link_name":"Eagle Vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Vision"},{"link_name":"Chrysler Concorde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Concorde"},{"link_name":"Dodge Intrepid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Intrepid"},{"link_name":"Chrysler New Yorker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_New_Yorker"},{"link_name":"Chrysler LHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_LHS"},{"link_name":"Chrysler 300M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_300M"},{"link_name":"Dodge Magnum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Magnum"},{"link_name":"Lancia Thema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancia_Thema"},{"link_name":"Chrysler 300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_300"},{"link_name":"Dodge Charger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Charger_(2005)"},{"link_name":"Dodge Challenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Challenger_(2008)"}],"sub_title":"Former products","text":"Eagle Premier1994 Chrysler LHS1996 Chrysler ConcordeDodge Magnum2007 Dodge SuperBee number 0004 of 1000 and 0427 of 10002009 Dodge Challenger1988–1992 Eagle Premier\n1990–1992 Dodge Monaco\n1993–1997 Eagle Vision\n1993–2004 Chrysler Concorde\n1993–2004 Dodge Intrepid\n1994–1996 Chrysler New Yorker\n1994–2001 Chrysler LHS\n1999–2004 Chrysler 300M\n2005–2008 Dodge Magnum\n2011–2014 Lancia Thema\n2005–2023 Chrysler 300\n2006–2023 Dodge Charger\n2008–2023 Dodge Challenger","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Annual production","text":"1988 = 59,068\n1989 = 33,904\n1990 = 24,676\n1991 = 18,133\n1992 = 50,660\n1993 = 256,754\n1994 = 256,211\n1995 = 188,782\n1996 = 238,965\n1997 = 204,137\n1998 = 300,866\n1999 = 338,921\n2000 = 291,884\n2001 = 198,965\n2002 = 201,723\n2003 = 140,642\n2004 = 209,045\n2005 = 318,536\n2006 = 314,161\n2007 = 273,285\n2008 = 210,704\n2009 = 121,715 (reduced numbers due to Chrysler's bankruptcy that Year)\n2010 = 163,257\n2011 = 194,631\n2012 = 240,193\n2013 = 244,771\n2014 = 222,829\n2015 = 253,230\n2016 = 237,483\n2017 = 231,816\n2018 = 233,261\n2019 = 202,447\n2020 = 155,552 (reduced numbers due to COVID-19 pandemic)\n2021 = 146,423 (reduced numbers due to global microchip shortage)[28]\n2022 = 165,819 (reduced numbers due to global microchip shortage)\n2023 = 204,439Total production through 2023 = 7,147,888","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-offic_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-offic_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//media.stellantisnorthamerica.com/newsrelease.do?id=332&mid="},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Rubenstein_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Rubenstein_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Rubenstein_2-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Rubenstein_2-3"},{"link_name":"Rubenstein, James M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_M._Rubenstein"},{"link_name":"The changing US auto industry: a geographical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5C8ZFcvKOwMC&dq=AMC+Brampton+plant+June+1984&pg=PA264"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-05544-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05544-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-inflation-US_3-0"},{"link_name":"McCusker, J. J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._McCusker"},{"link_name":"How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf"},{"link_name":"American Antiquarian Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society"},{"link_name":"McCusker, J. J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._McCusker"},{"link_name":"How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf"},{"link_name":"American Antiquarian Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society"},{"link_name":"\"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Chrysler Corporation Assembly Plant AMC\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080917055828/http://www.ellisdon.com/ed/projects/view/?id=3088665"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ellisdon.com/ed/projects/view/?id=3088665"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-cawlocal_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-cawlocal_5-1"},{"link_name":"\"The History of Bramptons Largest Union Local\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140415003713/http://www.cawlocal.ca/1285/history.asp"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cawlocal.ca/1285/history.asp"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DoorDie061515_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DoorDie061515_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DoorDie061515_6-2"},{"link_name":"\"'Do or die' time as FCA's Brampton plant awaits investment\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.autonews.com/article/20150615/OEM/306159949/do-or-die-time-as-fcas-brampton-plant-awaits-investment"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Chrysler Group to invest $1.2 bln in Brampton assembly plant\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.reuters.com/article/tnBasicIndustries-SP/idUSWNAS668320070719"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Brampton sets production milestone\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.wheels.ca/brampton-sets-production-milestone/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Chrysler Brampton Assembly Plant Job Cuts\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20141107011202/http://www.thebramptonnews.com/articles/2770/1/Chrysler-Brampton-Assembly-Plant-Job-Cuts/Page1.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.thebramptonnews.com/articles/2770/1/Chrysler-Brampton-Assembly-Plant-Job-Cuts/Page1.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Chrysler Canada assembly plants shut down\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cbc.ca/news/business/story/2009/05/01/chrysler-factories.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"New Chrysler Business Plan Promising News for Canadian Workers, CAW President says\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/November2009/04/c6072.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"\"CAW Workers Ratify Chrysler Agreement As The Countdown To 2016 Begins\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2012/10/caw-workers-ratify-chrysler-agreement-as-the-countdown-to-2016-begins/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"Units\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120916034610/http://www.cawlocal.ca/1285/units.asp"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cawlocal.ca/1285/units.asp"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Lingeman_15-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Lingeman_15-1"},{"link_name":"\"First Challenger SRT Hellcat Sells for $825,000\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//autoweek.com/article/car-life/first-challenger-srt-hellcat-sells-825000"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"\"First production 2015 Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.motorauthority.com/news/1016921_first-production-2015-dodge-challenger-srt-hellcat-sells-for-825000"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"\"The FCA Brampton Assembly plant awarded bronze status\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.canadianmetalworking.com/canadianmetalworking/news/metalworking/the-fca-brampton-assembly-plant-awarded-bronze-status"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"\"FCA invests big in Michigan as analysts question future of Brampton plant\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.thestar.com/business/2019/02/28/fca-invests-big-in-michigan-as-analysts-question-future-of-brampton-plant.html"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Flavelle_19-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Flavelle_19-1"},{"link_name":"\"FCA's U.S. expansion stokes fears for Brampton\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//canada.autonews.com/automakers/fcas-us-expansion-stokes-fears-brampton"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Irwin_20-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Irwin_20-1"},{"link_name":"\"Stellantis Brampton now at a crossroads\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//canada.autonews.com/manufacturing/stellantis-brampton-now-crossroads"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2.8-billion_21-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2.8-billion_21-1"},{"link_name":"\"Stellantis' $2.8 billion investment secures future for Brampton, Windsor plants\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gmtoday.com/business/stellantis-2-8-billion-investment-secures-future-for-brampton-windsor-plants/article_967ef286-cb08-11ec-8fc5-0bf03f0a1b4e.html"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2022-future_22-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2022-future_22-1"},{"link_name":"\"Stellantis details production changes at its Brampton and Windsor assembly plants\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/stellantis-car-production-brampton-windsor-ontario-1.6476348"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Last-Glimpse_23-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Last-Glimpse_23-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Last-Glimpse_23-2"},{"link_name":"\"Last Glimpse: Brampton Assembly Plant Open House\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//moparinsiders.com/last-glimpse-brampton-assembly-plant-open-house/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"\"Closing a chapter on Dodge muscle—and a long family history — at Brampton Assembly\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//driving.ca/feature/dodge-charger-hellcat-muscle-long-family-history-brampton-assembly"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Noble_25-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Noble_25-1"},{"link_name":"\"Unifor: Brampton gets Jeep Compass, Windsor first in line for Dodge muscle cars\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/chrysler/2023/11/04/unifor-stellantis-tentative-agreement-dodge-charge-muscle-car-windsor-jeep-compass-brampton/71452942007/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"\"Stellantis plans 3-shift operations at Ontario plants, but not soon\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//canada.autonews.com/manufacturing/stellantis-plans-3-shift-operations-ontario-plants-not-soon"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"\"Dodge muscle cars to be built in Windsor and Jeep Compass coming to Brampton, Unifor-Stellantis deal says\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/windsor-stellantis-unifor-brampton-1.7018571"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"\"Stellantis to idle Ontario plants in July and August\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.auto123.com/en/news/stellantis-plants-ontario-chip-shortage/68290/"}],"text":"^ a b \"Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant\". Stellantis NA. Retrieved 16 December 2023.\n\n^ a b c d Rubenstein, James M. (1992). The changing US auto industry: a geographical analysis. Taylor & Francis. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-415-05544-4. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. \"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–\". Retrieved 29 February 2024.\n\n^ \"Chrysler Corporation Assembly Plant AMC\". EllisDon Corporation. Archived from the original on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ a b \"The History of Bramptons Largest Union Local\". Canadian Auto Workers Local 1285. 18 May 2008. Archived from the original on 15 April 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ a b c Boudette, Neal. \"'Do or die' time as FCA's Brampton plant awaits investment\". Autonmotive News. Retrieved 9 November 2021.\n\n^ \"Chrysler Group to invest $1.2 bln in Brampton assembly plant\". Reuters. 19 July 2007. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ \"Brampton sets production milestone\". Wheels Canada. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ \"Chrysler Brampton Assembly Plant Job Cuts\". The Brampton News. 1 November 2007. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ \"Chrysler Canada assembly plants shut down\". CBC News. 1 May 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ \"New Chrysler Business Plan Promising News for Canadian Workers, CAW President says\". Canadian Auto Workers. 4 November 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ Fact Sheet: Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant, Chrysler Corporate, January 2011\n\n^ Kreindler, Derek (1 October 2012). \"CAW Workers Ratify Chrysler Agreement As The Countdown To 2016 Begins\". The Truth About Cars. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ \"Units\". Canadian Auto Workers Local 1285. 14 December 2012. Archived from the original on 16 September 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2014.\n\n^ a b Lingeman, Jake (29 September 2014). \"First Challenger SRT Hellcat Sells for $825,000\". Autoweek. Retrieved 22 January 2020.\n\n^ Vijayenthiran, Viknesh (29 September 2014). \"First production 2015 Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat\". Motor Authority. Retrieved 22 January 2020.\n\n^ \"The FCA Brampton Assembly plant awarded bronze status\". Canadian Metalworking. 21 December 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2020.\n\n^ Bickis, Ian (28 February 2019). \"FCA invests big in Michigan as analysts question future of Brampton plant\". The Star. Toronto. The Canadian Press. Retrieved 22 January 2020.\n\n^ a b Flavelle, Dana (15 May 2019). \"FCA's U.S. expansion stokes fears for Brampton\". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 22 January 2020.\n\n^ a b Irwin, John (22 August 2021). \"Stellantis Brampton now at a crossroads\". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 9 November 2021.\n\n^ a b \"Stellantis' $2.8 billion investment secures future for Brampton, Windsor plants\". Greater Milwaukee Today. Associated Press. 3 May 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.\n\n^ a b \"Stellantis details production changes at its Brampton and Windsor assembly plants\". CBC/Radio-Canada. 3 June 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.\n\n^ a b c Miller, Robert S. (10 August 2023). \"Last Glimpse: Brampton Assembly Plant Open House\". MoparInsiders. Retrieved 16 December 2023.\n\n^ Wallcraft, Stephanie (8 September 2023). \"Closing a chapter on Dodge muscle—and a long family history — at Brampton Assembly\". d/driving.ca. Retrieved 16 December 2023.\n\n^ a b Noble, Breana (4 November 2023). \"Unifor: Brampton gets Jeep Compass, Windsor first in line for Dodge muscle cars\". The Detroit News. Retrieved 16 December 2023.\n\n^ \"Stellantis plans 3-shift operations at Ontario plants, but not soon\". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 11 April 2024. But the plant will not start output of the new Jeep Compass on a single shift until the fourth quarter of 2025, leading to layoffs for some staff in excess of two years.\n\n^ Ensing, Chris (3 November 2023). \"Dodge muscle cars to be built in Windsor and Jeep Compass coming to Brampton, Unifor-Stellantis deal says\". CBC News. Retrieved 16 December 2023.\n\n^ Boshouwers, Derek (9 July 2021). \"Stellantis to idle Ontario plants in July and August\". auto123.com. Retrieved 4 August 2022.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Eagle Premier","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Eagle_Premier.jpg/220px-Eagle_Premier.jpg"},{"image_text":"1994 Chrysler LHS","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/1994_Chrysler_LHS_%286254988407%29.jpg/220px-1994_Chrysler_LHS_%286254988407%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"1996 Chrysler Concorde","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/1996_Chrysler_Concorde_LXi_white.jpg/220px-1996_Chrysler_Concorde_LXi_white.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dodge Magnum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Dodge--Magnum.jpg/220px-Dodge--Magnum.jpg"},{"image_text":"2007 Dodge SuperBee number 0004 of 1000 and 0427 of 1000","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/2007_Dodge_Charger_SRT8_Super_Bee.jpg/220px-2007_Dodge_Charger_SRT8_Super_Bee.jpg"},{"image_text":"2009 Dodge Challenger","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Mopar_Underground_5.jpg/220px-Mopar_Underground_5.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant\". Stellantis NA. Retrieved 16 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://media.stellantisnorthamerica.com/newsrelease.do?id=332&mid=","url_text":"\"Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant\""}]},{"reference":"Rubenstein, James M. (1992). The changing US auto industry: a geographical analysis. Taylor & Francis. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-415-05544-4. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_M._Rubenstein","url_text":"Rubenstein, James M."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5C8ZFcvKOwMC&dq=AMC+Brampton+plant+June+1984&pg=PA264","url_text":"The changing US auto industry: a geographical analysis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05544-4","url_text":"978-0-415-05544-4"}]},{"reference":"McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? 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J."},{"url":"https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf","url_text":"How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society","url_text":"American Antiquarian Society"}]},{"reference":"Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. \"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–\". Retrieved 29 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-","url_text":"\"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chrysler Corporation Assembly Plant AMC\". EllisDon Corporation. Archived from the original on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080917055828/http://www.ellisdon.com/ed/projects/view/?id=3088665","url_text":"\"Chrysler Corporation Assembly Plant AMC\""},{"url":"http://www.ellisdon.com/ed/projects/view/?id=3088665","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The History of Bramptons Largest Union Local\". Canadian Auto Workers Local 1285. 18 May 2008. Archived from the original on 15 April 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140415003713/http://www.cawlocal.ca/1285/history.asp","url_text":"\"The History of Bramptons Largest Union Local\""},{"url":"http://www.cawlocal.ca/1285/history.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Boudette, Neal. \"'Do or die' time as FCA's Brampton plant awaits investment\". Autonmotive News. Retrieved 9 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.autonews.com/article/20150615/OEM/306159949/do-or-die-time-as-fcas-brampton-plant-awaits-investment","url_text":"\"'Do or die' time as FCA's Brampton plant awaits investment\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chrysler Group to invest $1.2 bln in Brampton assembly plant\". Reuters. 19 July 2007. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/tnBasicIndustries-SP/idUSWNAS668320070719","url_text":"\"Chrysler Group to invest $1.2 bln in Brampton assembly plant\""}]},{"reference":"\"Brampton sets production milestone\". Wheels Canada. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wheels.ca/brampton-sets-production-milestone/","url_text":"\"Brampton sets production milestone\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chrysler Brampton Assembly Plant Job Cuts\". The Brampton News. 1 November 2007. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141107011202/http://www.thebramptonnews.com/articles/2770/1/Chrysler-Brampton-Assembly-Plant-Job-Cuts/Page1.html","url_text":"\"Chrysler Brampton Assembly Plant Job Cuts\""},{"url":"http://www.thebramptonnews.com/articles/2770/1/Chrysler-Brampton-Assembly-Plant-Job-Cuts/Page1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Chrysler Canada assembly plants shut down\". CBC News. 1 May 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/story/2009/05/01/chrysler-factories.html","url_text":"\"Chrysler Canada assembly plants shut down\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Chrysler Business Plan Promising News for Canadian Workers, CAW President says\". Canadian Auto Workers. 4 November 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/November2009/04/c6072.html","url_text":"\"New Chrysler Business Plan Promising News for Canadian Workers, CAW President says\""}]},{"reference":"Fact Sheet: Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant, Chrysler Corporate, January 2011","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kreindler, Derek (1 October 2012). \"CAW Workers Ratify Chrysler Agreement As The Countdown To 2016 Begins\". The Truth About Cars. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2012/10/caw-workers-ratify-chrysler-agreement-as-the-countdown-to-2016-begins/","url_text":"\"CAW Workers Ratify Chrysler Agreement As The Countdown To 2016 Begins\""}]},{"reference":"\"Units\". Canadian Auto Workers Local 1285. 14 December 2012. Archived from the original on 16 September 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120916034610/http://www.cawlocal.ca/1285/units.asp","url_text":"\"Units\""},{"url":"http://www.cawlocal.ca/1285/units.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lingeman, Jake (29 September 2014). \"First Challenger SRT Hellcat Sells for $825,000\". Autoweek. Retrieved 22 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://autoweek.com/article/car-life/first-challenger-srt-hellcat-sells-825000","url_text":"\"First Challenger SRT Hellcat Sells for $825,000\""}]},{"reference":"Vijayenthiran, Viknesh (29 September 2014). \"First production 2015 Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat\". Motor Authority. Retrieved 22 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.motorauthority.com/news/1016921_first-production-2015-dodge-challenger-srt-hellcat-sells-for-825000","url_text":"\"First production 2015 Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat\""}]},{"reference":"\"The FCA Brampton Assembly plant awarded bronze status\". Canadian Metalworking. 21 December 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.canadianmetalworking.com/canadianmetalworking/news/metalworking/the-fca-brampton-assembly-plant-awarded-bronze-status","url_text":"\"The FCA Brampton Assembly plant awarded bronze status\""}]},{"reference":"Bickis, Ian (28 February 2019). \"FCA invests big in Michigan as analysts question future of Brampton plant\". The Star. Toronto. The Canadian Press. Retrieved 22 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thestar.com/business/2019/02/28/fca-invests-big-in-michigan-as-analysts-question-future-of-brampton-plant.html","url_text":"\"FCA invests big in Michigan as analysts question future of Brampton plant\""}]},{"reference":"Flavelle, Dana (15 May 2019). \"FCA's U.S. expansion stokes fears for Brampton\". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 22 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://canada.autonews.com/automakers/fcas-us-expansion-stokes-fears-brampton","url_text":"\"FCA's U.S. expansion stokes fears for Brampton\""}]},{"reference":"Irwin, John (22 August 2021). \"Stellantis Brampton now at a crossroads\". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 9 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://canada.autonews.com/manufacturing/stellantis-brampton-now-crossroads","url_text":"\"Stellantis Brampton now at a crossroads\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stellantis' $2.8 billion investment secures future for Brampton, Windsor plants\". Greater Milwaukee Today. Associated Press. 3 May 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gmtoday.com/business/stellantis-2-8-billion-investment-secures-future-for-brampton-windsor-plants/article_967ef286-cb08-11ec-8fc5-0bf03f0a1b4e.html","url_text":"\"Stellantis' $2.8 billion investment secures future for Brampton, Windsor plants\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stellantis details production changes at its Brampton and Windsor assembly plants\". CBC/Radio-Canada. 3 June 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/stellantis-car-production-brampton-windsor-ontario-1.6476348","url_text":"\"Stellantis details production changes at its Brampton and Windsor assembly plants\""}]},{"reference":"Miller, Robert S. (10 August 2023). \"Last Glimpse: Brampton Assembly Plant Open House\". MoparInsiders. Retrieved 16 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://moparinsiders.com/last-glimpse-brampton-assembly-plant-open-house/","url_text":"\"Last Glimpse: Brampton Assembly Plant Open House\""}]},{"reference":"Wallcraft, Stephanie (8 September 2023). \"Closing a chapter on Dodge muscle—and a long family history — at Brampton Assembly\". d/driving.ca. Retrieved 16 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://driving.ca/feature/dodge-charger-hellcat-muscle-long-family-history-brampton-assembly","url_text":"\"Closing a chapter on Dodge muscle—and a long family history — at Brampton Assembly\""}]},{"reference":"Noble, Breana (4 November 2023). \"Unifor: Brampton gets Jeep Compass, Windsor first in line for Dodge muscle cars\". The Detroit News. Retrieved 16 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/chrysler/2023/11/04/unifor-stellantis-tentative-agreement-dodge-charge-muscle-car-windsor-jeep-compass-brampton/71452942007/","url_text":"\"Unifor: Brampton gets Jeep Compass, Windsor first in line for Dodge muscle cars\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stellantis plans 3-shift operations at Ontario plants, but not soon\". Automotive News Canada. Retrieved 11 April 2024. But the plant will not start output of the new Jeep Compass on a single shift until the fourth quarter of 2025, leading to layoffs for some staff in excess of two years.","urls":[{"url":"https://canada.autonews.com/manufacturing/stellantis-plans-3-shift-operations-ontario-plants-not-soon","url_text":"\"Stellantis plans 3-shift operations at Ontario plants, but not soon\""}]},{"reference":"Ensing, Chris (3 November 2023). \"Dodge muscle cars to be built in Windsor and Jeep Compass coming to Brampton, Unifor-Stellantis deal says\". CBC News. Retrieved 16 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/windsor-stellantis-unifor-brampton-1.7018571","url_text":"\"Dodge muscle cars to be built in Windsor and Jeep Compass coming to Brampton, Unifor-Stellantis deal says\""}]},{"reference":"Boshouwers, Derek (9 July 2021). \"Stellantis to idle Ontario plants in July and August\". auto123.com. Retrieved 4 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.auto123.com/en/news/stellantis-plants-ontario-chip-shortage/68290/","url_text":"\"Stellantis to idle Ontario plants in July and August\""}]},{"reference":"\"AMC-Chrysler plants in Brampton, Ontario\". allpar.com. 16 November 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allpar.com/threads/amc-chrysler-plants-in-brampton-ontario.229388","url_text":"\"AMC-Chrysler plants in Brampton, Ontario\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Brampton_Assembly¶ms=43.752_N_79.718_W_type:landmark","external_links_name":"43°45′07″N 79°43′05″W / 43.752°N 79.718°W / 43.752; -79.718"},{"Link":"https://media.stellantisnorthamerica.com/newsrelease.do?id=332&mid=","external_links_name":"\"Brampton Assembly Plant and Brampton Satellite Stamping Plant\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5C8ZFcvKOwMC&dq=AMC+Brampton+plant+June+1984&pg=PA264","external_links_name":"The changing US auto industry: a geographical analysis"},{"Link":"https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf","external_links_name":"How Much Is That in Real Money? 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for Canadian Workers, CAW President says\""},{"Link":"http://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2012/10/caw-workers-ratify-chrysler-agreement-as-the-countdown-to-2016-begins/","external_links_name":"\"CAW Workers Ratify Chrysler Agreement As The Countdown To 2016 Begins\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120916034610/http://www.cawlocal.ca/1285/units.asp","external_links_name":"\"Units\""},{"Link":"http://www.cawlocal.ca/1285/units.asp","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://autoweek.com/article/car-life/first-challenger-srt-hellcat-sells-825000","external_links_name":"\"First Challenger SRT Hellcat Sells for $825,000\""},{"Link":"https://www.motorauthority.com/news/1016921_first-production-2015-dodge-challenger-srt-hellcat-sells-for-825000","external_links_name":"\"First production 2015 Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat\""},{"Link":"https://www.canadianmetalworking.com/canadianmetalworking/news/metalworking/the-fca-brampton-assembly-plant-awarded-bronze-status","external_links_name":"\"The FCA Brampton Assembly plant awarded bronze status\""},{"Link":"https://www.thestar.com/business/2019/02/28/fca-invests-big-in-michigan-as-analysts-question-future-of-brampton-plant.html","external_links_name":"\"FCA invests big in Michigan as analysts question future of Brampton plant\""},{"Link":"https://canada.autonews.com/automakers/fcas-us-expansion-stokes-fears-brampton","external_links_name":"\"FCA's U.S. expansion stokes fears for Brampton\""},{"Link":"https://canada.autonews.com/manufacturing/stellantis-brampton-now-crossroads","external_links_name":"\"Stellantis Brampton now at a crossroads\""},{"Link":"https://www.gmtoday.com/business/stellantis-2-8-billion-investment-secures-future-for-brampton-windsor-plants/article_967ef286-cb08-11ec-8fc5-0bf03f0a1b4e.html","external_links_name":"\"Stellantis' $2.8 billion investment secures future for Brampton, Windsor plants\""},{"Link":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/stellantis-car-production-brampton-windsor-ontario-1.6476348","external_links_name":"\"Stellantis details production changes at its Brampton and Windsor assembly plants\""},{"Link":"https://moparinsiders.com/last-glimpse-brampton-assembly-plant-open-house/","external_links_name":"\"Last Glimpse: Brampton Assembly Plant Open House\""},{"Link":"https://driving.ca/feature/dodge-charger-hellcat-muscle-long-family-history-brampton-assembly","external_links_name":"\"Closing a chapter on Dodge muscle—and a long family history — at Brampton Assembly\""},{"Link":"https://www.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/chrysler/2023/11/04/unifor-stellantis-tentative-agreement-dodge-charge-muscle-car-windsor-jeep-compass-brampton/71452942007/","external_links_name":"\"Unifor: Brampton gets Jeep Compass, Windsor first in line for Dodge muscle cars\""},{"Link":"https://canada.autonews.com/manufacturing/stellantis-plans-3-shift-operations-ontario-plants-not-soon","external_links_name":"\"Stellantis plans 3-shift operations at Ontario plants, but not soon\""},{"Link":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/windsor-stellantis-unifor-brampton-1.7018571","external_links_name":"\"Dodge muscle cars to be built in Windsor and Jeep Compass coming to Brampton, Unifor-Stellantis deal says\""},{"Link":"https://www.auto123.com/en/news/stellantis-plants-ontario-chip-shortage/68290/","external_links_name":"\"Stellantis to idle Ontario plants in July and August\""},{"Link":"https://media.stellantisnorthamerica.com/newsrelease.do?id=332","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://www.allpar.com/threads/amc-chrysler-plants-in-brampton-ontario.229388","external_links_name":"\"AMC-Chrysler plants in Brampton, Ontario\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny_Lind,_Glasgow | Jenny Lind, Glasgow | ["1 Historical","2 Transport","3 References","4 External links"] | Coordinates: 55°48′03″N 4°19′36″W / 55.800799°N 4.326789°W / 55.800799; -4.326789This article is about the district in Glasgow. For other uses, see Jenny Lind (disambiguation).
Human settlement in ScotlandJenny LindLoganswell Road entrance to Jenny Lind from the A727 (with the Loganswell phase of Deaconsbank in the background)Jenny LindLocation within GlasgowOS grid referenceNS543587Council areaGlasgowLieutenancy areaGlasgowCountryScotlandSovereign stateUnited KingdomPost townGLASGOWPostcode districtG46 8Dialling code0141PoliceScotlandFireScottishAmbulanceScottish
UK ParliamentGlasgow South WestScottish ParliamentGlasgow Pollok
List of places
UK
Scotland
Glasgow
55°48′03″N 4°19′36″W / 55.800799°N 4.326789°W / 55.800799; -4.326789
Jenny Lind is a small neighbourhood in the Scottish city of Glasgow. It is situated south of the River Clyde, contiguous with the larger Deaconsbank neighbourhood and across a dual carriageway (A727 Nitshill Road) from the Arden and Thornliebank Industrial Estate. It was extended slightly in the 21st century by the addition of Jenny Lind Court. Jenny Lind falls under the Glasgow City Council Greater Pollok ward and has a short border with Deaconsbank Golf Club and Rouken Glen Park in the East Renfrewshire council region.
Historical
The area, with the housing mainly constructed in the late 1930s by The Corporation of the City of Glasgow, is named after the famous Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind apparently due to there having been an inn on the site at one point which had renamed itself in the singer's honour after she stayed there.
Before housing was constructed in the area, the land was used primarily for farming and was part of the Maxwell family's Pollok Estate. An area of land which is located between present day Deaconsbank and Jenny Lind is featured in a painting titled "The Clogholes" (painted in 1830 by an unknown artist working for the Maxwells) which hangs in Pollok House, the ancestral home of the family. In the painting a farmstead is shown featuring grazing cattle and ruined farm buildings.
Transport
Road: A727, M77 motorway Junction 3, B769 road
Railway: Patterton railway station to the south, or Thornliebank railway station slightly further out to the north
First Bus Services: 10, 29, 57
References
^ "Jenny Lind Court, Glasgow", RobertsonFrame.com, 2011, accessed 28 September 2016
^ http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/8EA12881-BDC3-4E39-8B7F-90E96B70AAE0/0/great_pollok_ahp_plan.pdf
^ "Glasgow Guide: Glasgow Info: Glasgow Population and Size". www.glasgowguide.co.uk. Archived from the original on 5 October 1999. Retrieved 6 August 2007.
^ Nitshill and Arden (West of Scotland Archaeology Service, 1959), The Glasgow Story
^ 'The Clogholes', The Glasgow Story
External links
D.A.C.K. Community Council
vteAreas of GlasgowNorth of theRiver ClydeEast End
Auchenshuggle
Baillieston
Barlanark
Barrachnie
Barrowfield
Blackhill
Braidfauld
Bridgeton
Broomhouse
Budhill
Calton
Camlachie
Carmyle
Carntyne
Craigend
Cranhill
Daldowie
Dalmarnock
Dennistoun
Easterhouse
Easthall
Gallowgate
Garrowhill
Garthamlock
Gartloch
Greenfield
Haghill
Hogganfield
Lightburn
Lilybank
Millerston
Mount Vernon
Newbank
Parkhead
Provanhall
Provanmill
Queenslie
Riddrie
Ruchazie
Sandyhills
Shettleston
Springboig
Springhill
Swinton
Tollcross
Wellhouse
North and Centre
Anderston
Balornock
Barmulloch
Blochairn
Blythswood Hill
Cadder
City centre
Colston
Cowcaddens
Cowlairs
Charing Cross
Garnethill
Germiston
Gilshochill
Hamiltonhill
IFSD
Lambhill
Maryhill
Maryhill Park
Merchant City
Milton
North Kelvinside
Parkhouse
Port Dundas
Possilpark
Robroyston
Royston
Ruchill
Sighthill
Springburn
Summerston
Townhead
Woodside
Wyndford
West End
Anniesland
Blairdardie
Broomhill
Dowanhill
Drumchapel
Finnieston
Garscadden
Glasgow Harbour
Hillhead
Hyndland
Jordanhill
Kelvinbridge
Kelvindale
Kelvingrove
Kelvinhaugh
Kelvinside
Knightswood
Netherton
Old Drumchapel
Park District
Partick
Partickhill
Sandyford
Scotstoun
Scotstounhill
Temple
Thornwood
Whiteinch
Woodlands
Yorkhill
Yoker
South of theRiver ClydeSouth-west
Bellahouston
Cardonald
Cessnock
Corkerhill
Cowglen
Craigton
Crookston
Darnley
Drumoyne
Dumbreck
Govan
Halfway
Hillington
Househillwood
Hurlet
Ibrox
Kingston
Kinning Park
Linthouse
Moorepark
Nitshill
Parkhouse
Penilee
Plantation
Pollok
Priesthill
Rosshall
Roughmussel
Shieldhall
South Nitshill
Southpark Village
South-centre
and South-east
Arden
Auldhouse
Battlefield
Carmunnock
Carnwadric
Castlemilk
Cathcart
Croftfoot
Crosshill
Crossmyloof
Deaconsbank
Eastwood
Govanhill
Gorbals
Hillpark
Hutchesontown
Jenny Lind
Kennishead
King's Park
Langside
Laurieston
Mansewood
Merrylee
Mount Florida
Muirend
Newlands
Oatlands
Pollokshaws
Pollokshields
Polmadie
Port Eglinton
Queen's Park
Shawlands
Simshill
Strathbungo
Toryglen
Tradeston
This Glasgow location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jenny Lind (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny_Lind_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"River Clyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Clyde"},{"link_name":"Deaconsbank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaconsbank"},{"link_name":"Arden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arden,_Glasgow"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Glasgow City Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_City_Council"},{"link_name":"ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wards_of_Glasgow"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Rouken Glen Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouken_Glen_Park"},{"link_name":"East Renfrewshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Renfrewshire"}],"text":"This article is about the district in Glasgow. For other uses, see Jenny Lind (disambiguation).Human settlement in ScotlandJenny Lind is a small neighbourhood in the Scottish city of Glasgow. It is situated south of the River Clyde, contiguous with the larger Deaconsbank neighbourhood and across a dual carriageway (A727 Nitshill Road) from the Arden and Thornliebank Industrial Estate. It was extended slightly in the 21st century by the addition of Jenny Lind Court.[1] Jenny Lind falls under the Glasgow City Council Greater Pollok ward[2] and has a short border with Deaconsbank Golf Club and Rouken Glen Park in the East Renfrewshire council region.","title":"Jenny Lind, Glasgow"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jenny Lind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny_Lind"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Pollok House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollok_House"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The area, with the housing mainly constructed in the late 1930s by The Corporation of the City of Glasgow, is named after the famous Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind[3] apparently due to there having been an inn on the site at one point which had renamed itself in the singer's honour after she stayed there.Before housing was constructed in the area, the land was used primarily for farming[4] and was part of the Maxwell family's Pollok Estate. An area of land which is located between present day Deaconsbank and Jenny Lind is featured in a painting titled \"The Clogholes\" (painted in 1830 by an unknown artist working for the Maxwells) which hangs in Pollok House, the ancestral home of the family. In the painting a farmstead is shown featuring grazing cattle and ruined farm buildings.[5]","title":"Historical"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A727","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A727_Road"},{"link_name":"M77 motorway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M77_motorway"},{"link_name":"B769 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B769_road"},{"link_name":"Patterton railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterton_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Thornliebank railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornliebank_railway_station"},{"link_name":"First Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Glasgow"}],"text":"Road: A727, M77 motorway Junction 3, B769 road\nRailway: Patterton railway station to the south, or Thornliebank railway station slightly further out to the north\nFirst Bus Services: 10, 29, 57","title":"Transport"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Glasgow Guide: Glasgow Info: Glasgow Population and Size\". www.glasgowguide.co.uk. Archived from the original on 5 October 1999. Retrieved 6 August 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/19991005005820/http://www.glasgowguide.co.uk/info-facts1.html","url_text":"\"Glasgow Guide: Glasgow Info: Glasgow Population and Size\""},{"url":"http://www.glasgowguide.co.uk/info-facts1.html","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jenny_Lind,_Glasgow¶ms=55.800799_N_4.326789_W_region:GB_type:city","external_links_name":"55°48′03″N 4°19′36″W / 55.800799°N 4.326789°W / 55.800799; -4.326789"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jenny_Lind,_Glasgow¶ms=55.799530_N_4.325861_W_region:GB_scale:25000&title=Jenny+Lind","external_links_name":"NS543587"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jenny_Lind,_Glasgow¶ms=55.800799_N_4.326789_W_region:GB_type:city","external_links_name":"55°48′03″N 4°19′36″W / 55.800799°N 4.326789°W / 55.800799; -4.326789"},{"Link":"http://www.robertsonframe.com/developments/jenny-lind-court.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Jenny Lind Court, Glasgow\""},{"Link":"http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/8EA12881-BDC3-4E39-8B7F-90E96B70AAE0/0/great_pollok_ahp_plan.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/8EA12881-BDC3-4E39-8B7F-90E96B70AAE0/0/great_pollok_ahp_plan.pdf"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/19991005005820/http://www.glasgowguide.co.uk/info-facts1.html","external_links_name":"\"Glasgow Guide: Glasgow Info: Glasgow Population and Size\""},{"Link":"http://www.glasgowguide.co.uk/info-facts1.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSE00508","external_links_name":"Nitshill and Arden (West of Scotland Archaeology Service, 1959)"},{"Link":"https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSH00020","external_links_name":"'The Clogholes'"},{"Link":"https://dackcc.wordpress.com/about/about-our-area/","external_links_name":"D.A.C.K. Community Council"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jenny_Lind,_Glasgow&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpeck,_Ohio | Overpeck, Ohio | ["1 Notable person","2 References"] | Coordinates: 39°27′03″N 84°30′53″W / 39.45083°N 84.51472°W / 39.45083; -84.51472
Unincorporated community in Ohio, United StatesOverpeckUnincorporated communityNickname(s): Overpeck Station, Overpecks, Overpecks Station, Overpeck ParkLocation of Overpeck, OhioCoordinates: 39°27′03″N 84°30′53″W / 39.45083°N 84.51472°W / 39.45083; -84.51472CountryUnited StatesStateOhioCountiesButlerElevation633 ft (193 m)Time zoneUTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) • Summer (DST)UTC-4 (EDT)ZIP code45055Area code513FIPS code39017GNIS feature ID1065226
Overpeck (other names: Overpeck Station, Overpecks, Overpecks Station) is an unincorporated community in central St. Clair Township, Butler County, Ohio, United States. It has a post office with the ZIP code 45055. It lies between New Miami and Trenton.
Overpeck is a part of the Cincinnati-Middletown-Wilmington, OH-KY-IN Combined Statistical Area.
A post office called Overpecks Station was established in 1860, and the name was changed to Overpeck in 1882. The community has the name of Isaac Overpeck, an early resident.
Notable person
Charles Francis Richter, seismologist and eponym of Richter scale
References
^ "USGS detail on Overpeck". Retrieved April 3, 2009.
^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
^ "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. October 25, 2007. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
^ GNIS
^ USPS – Cities by ZIP Code
^ "Post offices". Jim Forte Postal History. Retrieved June 19, 2016.
^ Overman, William Daniel (1958). Ohio Town Names. Akron, OH: Atlantic Press. p. 106.
vteMunicipalities and communities of Butler County, Ohio, United StatesCounty seat: HamiltonCities
Fairfield‡
Hamilton
Middletown‡
Monroe‡
Oxford
Sharonville‡
Trenton
Map of Ohio highlighting Butler CountyVillages
College Corner‡
Jacksonburg
Millville
New Miami
Seven Mile
Townships
Fairfield
Hanover
Lemon
Liberty
Madison
Milford
Morgan
Oxford
Reily
Ross
St. Clair
Wayne
West Chester
CDPs
Beckett Ridge
Darrtown
Four Bridges
Olde West Chester
Ross
Somerville
Wetherington
Williamsdale
Woodsdale
Unincorporatedcommunities
Alert
Bethany
Collinsville
Excello
Gano
Layhigh
Maud
Miltonville
McGonigle
Okeana
Overpeck
Pisgah
Poast Town
Port Union
Saint Charles
Scipio‡
Shandon
Tylersville
West Middletown
Footnotes‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
Ohio portal
United States portal
This Butler County, Ohio state location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"unincorporated community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_area"},{"link_name":"St. Clair Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Clair_Township,_Butler_County,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Butler County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butler_County,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio"},{"link_name":"post office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office"},{"link_name":"ZIP code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIP_code"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"New Miami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Miami,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Trenton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenton,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Cincinnati-Middletown-Wilmington, OH-KY-IN Combined Statistical Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati-Northern_Kentucky_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Unincorporated community in Ohio, United StatesOverpeck (other names: Overpeck Station, Overpecks, Overpecks Station)[4] is an unincorporated community in central St. Clair Township, Butler County, Ohio, United States. It has a post office with the ZIP code 45055.[5] It lies between New Miami and Trenton.Overpeck is a part of the Cincinnati-Middletown-Wilmington, OH-KY-IN Combined Statistical Area.A post office called Overpecks Station was established in 1860, and the name was changed to Overpeck in 1882.[6] The community has the name of Isaac Overpeck, an early resident.[7]","title":"Overpeck, Ohio"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Francis Richter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Francis_Richter"},{"link_name":"Richter scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_scale"}],"text":"Charles Francis Richter, seismologist and eponym of Richter scale","title":"Notable person"}] | [{"image_text":"Map of Ohio highlighting Butler County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Map_of_Ohio_highlighting_Butler_County.svg/80px-Map_of_Ohio_highlighting_Butler_County.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"USGS detail on Overpeck\". Retrieved April 3, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/search/names/1065226","url_text":"\"USGS detail on Overpeck\""}]},{"reference":"\"U.S. Census website\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/","url_text":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"US Board on Geographic Names\". United States Geological Survey. October 25, 2007. Retrieved January 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://geonames.usgs.gov/","url_text":"\"US Board on Geographic Names\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey","url_text":"United States Geological Survey"}]},{"reference":"\"Post offices\". Jim Forte Postal History. Retrieved June 19, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.postalhistory.com/postoffices.asp?state=OH","url_text":"\"Post offices\""}]},{"reference":"Overman, William Daniel (1958). Ohio Town Names. Akron, OH: Atlantic Press. p. 106.","urls":[{"url":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015015361465;view=1up;seq=122","url_text":"Ohio Town Names"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Overpeck,_Ohio¶ms=39_27_03_N_84_30_53_W_region:US-OH_type:city","external_links_name":"39°27′03″N 84°30′53″W / 39.45083°N 84.51472°W / 39.45083; -84.51472"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Overpeck,_Ohio¶ms=39_27_03_N_84_30_53_W_region:US-OH_type:city","external_links_name":"39°27′03″N 84°30′53″W / 39.45083°N 84.51472°W / 39.45083; -84.51472"},{"Link":"https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/search/names/1065226","external_links_name":"\"USGS detail on Overpeck\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/","external_links_name":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"Link":"https://geonames.usgs.gov/","external_links_name":"\"US Board on Geographic Names\""},{"Link":"https://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:2622503135777918::NO::P3_FID:1065226","external_links_name":"GNIS"},{"Link":"https://tools.usps.com/zip-code-lookup.htm?citybyzipcode","external_links_name":"USPS – Cities by ZIP Code"},{"Link":"http://www.postalhistory.com/postoffices.asp?state=OH","external_links_name":"\"Post offices\""},{"Link":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015015361465;view=1up;seq=122","external_links_name":"Ohio Town Names"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Overpeck,_Ohio&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povarovo,_Vologda_Oblast | Povarovo, Vologda Oblast | ["1 Geography","2 References"] | Village in Vologda Oblast, RussiaPovarovo
ПоваровоVillagePovarovoShow map of Vologda OblastPovarovoShow map of RussiaCoordinates: 58°55′N 38°44′E / 58.917°N 38.733°E / 58.917; 38.733CountryRussiaRegionVologda OblastDistrictCherepovetsky DistrictTime zoneUTC+3:00
Povarovo (Russian: Поварово) is a rural locality (a village) in Yugskoye Rural Settlement, Cherepovetsky District, Vologda Oblast, Russia. The population was 4 as of 2002.
Geography
Povarovo is located 66 km (41 mi) southeast of Cherepovets (the district's administrative centre) by road. Arkhangelskoye is the nearest rural locality.
References
^ Деревня Поварово на карте
^ Данные переписи 2002 года: таблица 2С. М.: Федеральная служба государственной статистики, 2004.
^ Расстояние от Поварова до Череповеца
vteRural localities in Cherepovetsky DistrictA-M
Abakanovo
Afanasovo
Akinkhovo
Anashkino
Andogsky
Anfalovo
Anisimovka
Annino
Antonovo
Arkhangelskoye
Avdeyevskaya
Baranovo
Barskoye Pole
Baskakovo
Batran
Batransky
Bavlenskoye
Beketovo
Belavino
Berezovik
Bocheyno
Bolshaya Dora
Bolshaya Dubrovka
Bolshaya Novinka
Bolshaya Shormanga
Bolshiye Strazhi
Bolshiye Ugly
Bolshoy Istok
Bolshoye Kalinnikovo
Bolshoye Krasnovo
Bolshoye Novo
Bor
Borok
Botilo
Botovo
Braslavl
Brod
Burtsevo
Buzakovo
Bykovo
Bystrino
Chabino
Chastobovo
Chayevo
Chechino
Chernevo
Chikeyevo
Chikovo
Chuksha
Dargun
Davydovo
Dementyevo
Demidovo
Deminskaya
Demyanka
Derevnishcha
Dermyaninskoye
Dmitriyevo
Dobrynskoye
Dolgusha
Dora
Dorka
Dorki
Dorofeyevo
Doronino
Dubnishnoye
Dubrovo
Fedorkovo
Fedosovo
Fenevo
Filippovo
Firyutino
Fokino
Fominskoye
Frolkovo
Galinskoye
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This Cherepovetsky District location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"rural locality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_inhabited_localities_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village#Russia"},{"link_name":"Cherepovetsky District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherepovetsky_District"},{"link_name":"Vologda Oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vologda_Oblast"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Povarovo (Russian: Поварово) is a rural locality (a village) in Yugskoye Rural Settlement, Cherepovetsky District, Vologda Oblast, Russia. The population was 4 as of 2002.[2]","title":"Povarovo, Vologda Oblast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cherepovets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherepovets"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Povarovo is located 66 km (41 mi) southeast of Cherepovets (the district's administrative centre) by road. Arkhangelskoye is the nearest rural locality.[3]","title":"Geography"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Povarovo,_Vologda_Oblast¶ms=58_55_N_38_44_E_type:city_region:RU-VLG","external_links_name":"58°55′N 38°44′E / 58.917°N 38.733°E / 58.917; 38.733"},{"Link":"https://mapdata.ru/vologodskaya-oblast/cherepoveckiy-rayon/derevnya-povarovo/","external_links_name":"Деревня Поварово на карте"},{"Link":"http://allroutes.ru/rasstoyanie_povarovo-35_cherepovec","external_links_name":"Расстояние от Поварова до Череповеца"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Povarovo,_Vologda_Oblast&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgewood,_Florida | Edgewood, Florida | ["1 Geography","2 Climate","3 Demographics","3.1 2010 and 2020 census","3.2 2000 census","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 28°29′13″N 81°22′24″W / 28.48694°N 81.37333°W / 28.48694; -81.37333
City in Florida, United StatesEdgewood, FloridaCityCity of EdgewoodLocation in Orange County and the state of FloridaCoordinates: 28°29′13″N 81°22′24″W / 28.48694°N 81.37333°W / 28.48694; -81.37333Country United StatesState FloridaCounty OrangeIncorporated (town)1924Incorporated (city)1973Government • TypeMayor–Council • MayorJohn Dowless • Council PresidentRichard A. Horn • Council MembersSusan Lomas,Ben Pierce,Lee Chotas, andChris Rader • Administrative Project ManagerBrett Sollazzo • City ClerkSandy RiffleArea • Total1.54 sq mi (3.98 km2) • Land1.24 sq mi (3.20 km2) • Water0.30 sq mi (0.77 km2)Elevation89 ft (27 m)Population (2020) • Total2,685 • Density2,170.57/sq mi (837.84/km2)Time zoneUTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) • Summer (DST)UTC-4 (EDT)ZIP codes32809, 32839Area code(s)407, 689FIPS code12-19900GNIS feature ID2403543Websitewww.edgewood-fl.gov
Edgewood is a city in Orange County, Florida, United States. It is part of the Orlando–Kissimmee–Sanford Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 2,685 at the 2020 census.
Geography
Edgewood is located at 28°29′13″N 81°22′24″W / 28.486831°N 81.373279°W / 28.486831; -81.373279.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.5 square miles (3.9 km2), of which 1.2 square miles (3.1 km2) is land and 0.3 square miles (0.78 km2) (18.24%) is water.
Climate
The climate for the City of Edgewood is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Edgewood has a humid subtropical climate zone, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.
Demographics
Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
1930103—194034−67.0%1950217538.2%1960436100.9%1970392−10.1%19801,034163.8%19901,0622.7%20001,90179.0%20102,50331.7%20202,6857.3%U.S. Decennial Census
2010 and 2020 census
Edgewood racial composition (Hispanics excluded from racial categories) (NH = Non-Hispanic)
Race
Pop 2010
Pop 2020
% 2010
% 2020
White (NH)
1,748
1,660
69.84%
61.82%
Black or African American (NH)
251
242
10.03%
9.01%
Native American or Alaska Native (NH)
6
8
0.24%
0.30%
Asian (NH)
109
204
4.35%
7.60%
Pacific Islander or Native Hawaiian (NH)
0
7
0.00%
0.26%
Some other race (NH)
7
22
0.28%
0.82%
Two or more races/Multiracial (NH)
47
142
1.88%
5.29%
Hispanic or Latino (any race)
335
400
13.38%
14.90%
Total
2,503
2,685
100.00%
100.00%
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 2,685 people, 1,076 households, and 782 families residing in the city.
As of the 2010 United States census, there were 2,503 people, 960 households, and 633 families residing in the city.
2000 census
At the 2000 census there were 1,901 people in 798 households, including 549 families, in the city. The population density was 1,566.1 inhabitants per square mile (604.7/km2). There were 847 housing units at an average density of 697.8 per square mile (269.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 89.69% White, 4.63% African American, 0.37% Native American, 2.26% Asian, 1.32% from other races, and 1.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.63%.
Of the 798 households in 2000, 24.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.2% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.1% were non-families. 25.9% of households were one person and 8.9% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.80.
The age distribution in 2000 was 20.4% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, and 16.8% 65 or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.7 males.
In 2000, the median household income was $56,528 and the median family income was $68,977. Males had a median income of $39,250 versus $30,263 for females. The per capita income for the city was $33,452. About 2.9% of families and 6.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.7% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over.
References
^ "2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 31, 2021.
^ a b U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Edgewood, Florida
^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Archived from the original on October 3, 2014. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
^ "P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE - 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) - Edgewood city, Florida". United States Census Bureau.
^ "P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE - 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) - Edgewood city, Florida". United States Census Bureau.
^ "S1101 HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES - 2020: Edgewood city, Florida". United States Census Bureau.
^ "S1101 HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES - 2010: Edgewood city, Florida". United States Census Bureau.
External links
City of Edgewood official website
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Florida portal | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Orange County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_County,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"Orlando–Kissimmee–Sanford Metropolitan Statistical Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Orlando"}],"text":"City in Florida, United StatesEdgewood is a city in Orange County, Florida, United States. It is part of the Orlando–Kissimmee–Sanford Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 2,685 at the 2020 census.","title":"Edgewood, Florida"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"28°29′13″N 81°22′24″W / 28.486831°N 81.373279°W / 28.486831; -81.373279","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Edgewood,_Florida¶ms=28.486831_N_81.373279_W_type:city_region:US"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR1-3"},{"link_name":"United States Census Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau"}],"text":"Edgewood is located at 28°29′13″N 81°22′24″W / 28.486831°N 81.373279°W / 28.486831; -81.373279.[3]According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.5 square miles (3.9 km2), of which 1.2 square miles (3.1 km2) is land and 0.3 square miles (0.78 km2) (18.24%) is water.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Köppen Climate Classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_Climate_Classification"},{"link_name":"humid subtropical climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate"}],"text":"The climate for the City of Edgewood is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. 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The population density was 1,566.1 inhabitants per square mile (604.7/km2). There were 847 housing units at an average density of 697.8 per square mile (269.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 89.69% White, 4.63% African American, 0.37% Native American, 2.26% Asian, 1.32% from other races, and 1.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.63%.Of the 798 households in 2000, 24.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.2% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.1% were non-families. 25.9% of households were one person and 8.9% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.80.The age distribution in 2000 was 20.4% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, and 16.8% 65 or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.7 males.In 2000, the median household income was $56,528 and the median family income was $68,977. Males had a median income of $39,250 versus $30,263 for females. The per capita income for the city was $33,452. About 2.9% of families and 6.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.7% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over.","title":"Demographics"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Map_of_Florida_highlighting_Orange_County.svg/75px-Map_of_Florida_highlighting_Orange_County.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 31, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_12.txt","url_text":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\""}]},{"reference":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratnapur,_Gandaki | Ratnapur, Syangja | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Coordinates: 27°54′N 83°51′E / 27.90°N 83.85°E / 27.90; 83.85Place in Gandaki Zone, NepalRatnapur, Gandaki
रत्नपुरRatnapur, GandakiLocation in NepalShow map of Gandaki ProvinceRatnapur, GandakiRatnapur, Gandaki (Nepal)Show map of NepalCoordinates: 27°54′N 83°51′E / 27.90°N 83.85°E / 27.90; 83.85Country NepalZoneGandaki ZoneDistrictSyangja DistrictPopulation (1991) • Total3,194Time zoneUTC+5:45 (Nepal Time)
Ratnapur, Gandaki is a Market center in Chapakot Municipality in Syangja District in the Gandaki Zone of central Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 3194 people living in 608 individual households.
References
^ "Nepal Census 2001", Nepal's Village Development Committees, Digital Himalaya, retrieved 15 November 2009.
External links
UN map of the municipalities of Syangja District
This article about a location in Syangja District, Nepal is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chapakot Municipality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chapakot,_Syangja&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Syangja District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syangja_District"},{"link_name":"Gandaki Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandaki_Zone"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"1991 Nepal census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Nepal_census"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Place in Gandaki Zone, NepalRatnapur, Gandaki is a Market center in Chapakot Municipality in Syangja District in the Gandaki Zone of central Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 3194 people living in 608 individual households.[1]","title":"Ratnapur, Syangja"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Nepal Census 2001\", Nepal's Village Development Committees, Digital Himalaya, retrieved 15 November 2009","urls":[{"url":"http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/nepalcensus/form.php?selection=1","url_text":"\"Nepal Census 2001\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Himalaya","url_text":"Digital Himalaya"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ratnapur,_Syangja¶ms=27.9_N_83.85_E_type:adm2nd_region:NP_source:unmaps-enwiki","external_links_name":"27°54′N 83°51′E / 27.90°N 83.85°E / 27.90; 83.85"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ratnapur,_Syangja¶ms=27.9_N_83.85_E_type:adm2nd_region:NP_source:unmaps-enwiki","external_links_name":"27°54′N 83°51′E / 27.90°N 83.85°E / 27.90; 83.85"},{"Link":"http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/nepalcensus/form.php?selection=1","external_links_name":"\"Nepal Census 2001\""},{"Link":"http://www.un.org.np/maps/district-maps/western/Syangja.pdf","external_links_name":"UN map of the municipalities of Syangja District"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ratnapur,_Syangja&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Martin%27s_School,_Rosettenville | St. Martin's School (Rosettenville) | ["1 History","1.1 Headmasters","1.2 Heads of St Martin's Preparatory School","1.3 Visitors to the School","2 Notable alumni","3 Notable staff","4 Notes and references","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 26°15′01″S 28°03′38″E / 26.25028°S 28.06056°E / -26.25028; 28.06056
Private school in Johannesburg, South AfricaSaint Martin's SchoolAddress114 Victoria StreetKlipriviersberg Johannesburg 2190South AfricaInformationTypePrivateMottoLatin: Non Recuso Laborem(I do not shirk work)Established1908LocaleSuburbanActing HeadmasterWarren VenterGrades000 - 12Color(s)Blue, Maroon and WhiteFeesR 115 000 p.a. (boarding) R 65 000 to R120 000 p.a. (tuition)Websitestmartin.co.za
St Martin's School is an Anglican private co-educational school in The Hill, Johannesburg, South Africa.
History
St. Martin’s School traces its origins back to the foundation of St. Agnes School for the training of domestic helpers in 1908. A few years later in 1911, St. Peter’s Priory and College were added, offering a boarding-based high school education to the young men who came from all over South Africa. The College was run by the Anglican Order of the Community of the Resurrection. Trevor Huddleston, one of the priests of the community was based at St Peter's for a number of years, and it was he who gave Hugh Masekela his first trumpet, which he acquired from Louis Armstrong whilst on a trip to the USA.
St. Peter's College soon became known as the "Black Eton" where academic achievements were espoused. The list of the early alumni includes Oliver Tambo, Fikile Bam and Masekela.
The apartheid policies of the National Party regime, specifically the Bantu Education Act put pressure on the school and it was closed in 1956. However, the Anglican Church ensured that education continued and the school reopened in 1958 as St. Martin's School.
Founded as a boys' school, St Martin's became the established Anglican Diocesan School for the south of Johannesburg. In 1978, the school became a co-educational institution.
A Preparatory School was opened in 1971, and is situated on a picturesque campus in The Hill, overlooking Moffat Park. In December 2022, the High School was relocated from the Rosettenville campus to the Preparatory School campus at East Road in the Hill, which is now home to both the Preparatory School and High School.
Since the multiplication of the Anglican Diocese of Johannesburg in 1990, the school has been the Diocesan School for the Diocese of Christ the King. The bishop of the diocese is the visitor to the School.
The school celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in 2018.
Headmasters
Michael Stern, OBE (1958–1963)
Michael de Lisle (1963–1971)
Oliver Wigmore (1972–1984)
Peter Vieyra (1985–1990)
James Welsh (1990–2016)
Thomas Hagspihl (2017–2022)
Heads of St Martin's Preparatory School
Mrs P. H. Bestelink (1971–1983); founding headmistress
Mr F. G. Keon (1976–1984) (Senior Prep School)
Mrs R. Y. McAlister (1984–1986) (Junior Prep School)
Mr G. M. Greenway (1986–1997)
Mr B. E. Crouser (1997–1999)
Mr L. Jacobs (1999–2001)
Mr D. I. Maritz (2001–2012)
The Revd M. M. Chalmers (2012–2019)
Mrs M. Myburgh (2019-2022)
Visitors to the School
The bishop of Johannesburg was the visitor to the school until 1990, and these were:
Rt Revd Ambrose Reeves (1958 - 1961)
Rt Revd Leslie Stradling (1961 - 1974)
Rt Revd Timothy Bavin (1974 - 1985)
Most Revd Desmond Tutu (1985 - 1987)
Rt Revd Duncan Buchanan (1987 - 1990)
From 1990 onwards the visitor to the school is the bishop of the Diocese of Christ the King.
Rt Revd Peter Lee (1990 - 2016)
Rt Revd William Mostert (2017 - 2023)
The Venerable Mkhuseli Harrison Sobantwana was elected to be the 3rd Bishop of the Diocese of Christ the King on the 26th of July 2023, at the Diocesan Elective Assembly, and will thus become the Visitor to the School when Consecrated and Enthroned.
Notable alumni
Wayne Ferreira
Peter Hatendi
Peter Klatzow
Hugh Masekela
Todd Matshikiza
Richard Masemola
Es'kia Mphahlele
Tony Peake
Oliver Tambo
Notable staff
Trevor Huddleston
Rowan Smith
Michael Stern, OBE
Jeremy Taylor (singer)
Notes and references
^ Hinchliff 1963, p. 236.
^ Worsnip 1991, p. 132.
^ Starfield, Jane (2009). "Es'kia Mphahlele (1919-2008)". English in Africa. 36 (1): 7–11. JSTOR 40239119.
Hinchliff, Peter Bingham (1963). The Anglican Church in South Africa: An Account of the History and Development of the Church of the Province of South Africa. Darton, Longman & Todd.
Worsnip, Michael E. (1991). Between the two fires: the Anglican Church and apartheid : 1948-1957. University of Natal Press. ISBN 978-0-86980-795-8.
External links
Official website
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vteGreater JohannesburgNatural environment
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Human impact
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CommunitiesInner City
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Mohlakeng
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Munsieville
Oberholzer
Randfontein
Rietvallei
Roodepoort
Sophiatown
Venterspos
Weltevredenpark
Welverdiend
West Driefontein
Westdene
Westonaria
Zuurbekom
Cityscape
Constitution Hill
Beyers Naudé Square
Fordsburg Square
Gandhi Square
Mary Fitzgerald Square
Walter Sisulu Square
7th Street
Commissioner Street
Munro Drive
Beyers Naudé Drive
Jan Smuts Avenue
Louis Botha Avenue
Malibongwe Drive
Metropolitan routes
M1
M2
Provincial routes
R24
R25
R29
R41
R55
R82
R564
Johannesburg Ring Road
N1
Western Bypass
N3
Eastern Bypass
N12
Southern Bypass
N17
Landmarks
Tallest buildings
Public art
Fire Walker
Flame of Democracy
Nelson Mandela Mural
Orlando Power Station cooling towers
Statues
Mahatma Gandhi
Nelson Mandela
Civicbuildings
Johannesburg City Hall
Johannesburg Central Police Station
Officebuildings
11 Diagonal Street
Chamber of Mines Building
Chancellor House
Consolidated Building
Corner House
Corona Lodge
Cuthberts Building
Eskom Centre
Johannesburg Trades Hall
Kimberley House
Logistics House
London House
Luthuli House
Markham Building
Megawatt Park
Natal Bank Building
National Bank Building
Shell House
Standard Bank Building
Victory House
Skyscrapers
Absa Tower
Carlton Centre
Carlton Hotel
Exchange Square
Hekro Towers
Johannesburg Sun Hotel
Kine Centre
The Leonardo
Marble Towers
Mariston Hotel
Michelangelo Towers
Radiopark
Schlesinger Building
Southern Life Centre
Standard Bank Centre
Trust Bank Building
UCS Building
Residentialbuildings
Ansteys Building
Arop House
Astor Mansions
Beacon Royal
Circle Court
Dorkay House
Houghton Heights
Kingsway Mansions
Lauriston Court
Manners Mansions
Radoma Court
Skyscrapers
120 End Street
Highpoint Hillbrow
Ponte City
Tygerberg Building
Structures
Brixton Tower
Hillbrow Tower
Nelson Mandela Bridge
Grayston Pedestrian and Cycle Bridge
Urban planning
Alexandra Renewal Project
GovernmentNational governmentCourts
Constitutional Court of South Africa
South Gauteng High Court
Labour Court
Labour Appeal Court
Chapter nine institutions
Commission for Gender Equality
CRL Rights Commission
Human Rights Commission
Provincial government
Gauteng Provincial Legislature
Executive Council of Gauteng
Municipalities
City of Johannesburg
Seat: Johannesburg
Mayor: Kabelo Gwamanda
Elections
Flag
Coat of arms
City of Ekurhuleni
Seat: Germiston
Mayor: Sivuyile Ngodwana
Elections
West Rand
Merafong
Seat: Carletonville
Mogale
Seat: Krugersdorp
Rand West
Seat: Randfontein
African Union
Pan-African Parliament
Bureau
Secretariat
NEPAD Secretariat
PoliticsGoverning parties
Johannesburg: Al Jama-ah
Ekurhuleni: AIC
West Rand: ANC
Merafong: ANC
Mogale: DA
Rand West: ANC
Political organisationsand parties based inGreater JohannesburgPolitical parties
ActionSA
African Christian Democratic Party
African National Congress
Veteran's League
Women's League
Youth League
African People's Convention
Agang
Azanian People's Organisation
Capitalist Party
Congress of the People
Dagga Party
Economic Freedom Fighters
Pan Africanist Congress
South African Communist Party
Socialist Revolutionary Workers Party
Workers and Socialist Party
Trade unions
COSATU
AFADWU
CEPPWAWU
CWU
NEHAWU
NUM
POPCRU
SAAPAWU
SACCAWU
SADNU
SADTU
SAFPU
SAMWU
SASAWU
SASBO
SATAWU
FEDUSA
UASA
NACTU
SAFTU
NUMSA
Other politicalorganisations
Afrikanerbond
Ahmed Kathrada Foundation
Civicus
COSAS
Dagga Couple
Earthlife Africa
Free Market Foundation
Helen Suzman Foundation
Jacob Zuma Foundation
Keep Left
Landless People's Movement
OUTA
PASMA
SASCO
South African Institute of Race Relations
South African Zionist Federation
Tripartite Alliance
Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front
History
Timeline
Kweneng' Ruins
Tlokwe Ruins
Witwatersrand Gold Rush
Mineral Revolution
Transvaal gold fields
Randlord
Uitlander
Ferreira's Camp
Second Boer War
Fortifications
Johannesburg Fort
Blockhouses
Monumentsand memorials
Anglo-Boer War Memorial
Chris Hani Memorial
Constitution Hill
Hector Pieterson Memorial
Observatory Ridge
Scottish Horse War Memorial
Walter Sisulu Square
Cemeteries
Avalon Cemetery
Juliwe Cemetery
Westpark Cemetery
Historicalsites
Bantu Men's Social Centre
Kirchoff's Building
Langlaagte Stamp Mill
OK Bazaars
Rand Water Board Building
Red Square
Rissik Street Post Office
Shlom Native Eating House
Union Observatory
Houses
36 Houghton Drive
David Webster House
Dr Xuma House
Endstead
House Brunton
House Hains
James Mpanza House
Kholvad House
Lindfield House
Mandela House
Parktown mansions
Villa Arcadia
Pullinger Kop
Rahima Moosa House
Satyagraha House
Tutu House
Villa d'Este
Historicalcompanies andorganisationsCompanies
Bosasa
Deneys Reitz
Edcon
Lema
Mandela and Tambo
Simmer and Jack
VBS Mutual Bank
Politicalorganisations
Anti-Privatisation Forum
Black Sash
Democratic Left Front
Gay and Lesbian Organization of Witwatersrand
Industrial Workers of the World
MK Military Veterans' Association
Reform Committee
Socialist Party of Azania
Other organisations
Witwatersrand Native Labour Association
Events
Jameson Raid
Braamfontein explosion
Battle of Doornkop
Battle of Witpoort
Rand Rebellion
Empire Exhibition
Schlesinger African Air Race
1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike
Sophiatown forced removals
Congress of the People
Freedom Charter
Treason Trial
1957 Alexandra bus boycott
Soweto uprising
Concert in the Park
Westdene dam disaster
Eerste Alternatiewe Afrikaanse Rockkonsert
Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre
Shell House massacre
Ellis Park Stadium disaster
Bredell land occupation
World Summit on Sustainable Development
Johannesburg Declaration
2002 Soweto bombings
Jacob Zuma rape trial
Live 8 concert
Live Earth concert
Occupy Johannesburg
Murder of Mido Macia
Death and state memorial service of Nelson Mandela
2015 train crash
#FeesMustFall
Life Esidimeni scandal
10th BRICS summit
Zondo Commission
2019 riots
Shooting of Nathaniel Julies
Zuma riots
Murder of Babita Deokaran
2022 Soweto shooting
Boksburg explosion
2023 Boksburg gas leak
15th BRICS summit
2023 building fire
CultureCultural heritage
Architecture
Gumboot dancing
amaKota
Kwaito
Performance art
Joburg Ballet
Musical ensembles
Johannesburg Philharmonic Orchestra
Johannesburg Youth Orchestra
Soweto Gospel Choir
Soweto String Quartet
Theatres
Alexander Theatre
Alhambra Theatre
Johannesburg Civic Theatre
Market Theatre
Wits Theatre
Events and festivals
Abantu Book Festival
Encounters South African International Documentary Festival
Joburg Art Fair
In the City
Johannesburg International Motor Show
Johannesburg Pride
Jozi Book Fair
Naledi Theatre Awards
Out In Africa South African Gay and Lesbian Film Festival
RAMFest
Rand Show
South Africa’s Children’s Book Fair
Transforming Stories International Christian Film Festival
Ultra South Africa
Museums and artgalleries
Apartheid Museum
Constitution Hill Museum
Fietas Museum
Gold Reef City
Goodman Gallery
Hector Pieterson Museum
James Hall Transport Museum
Johannesburg Art Gallery
Sober & Lonely Institute for Contemporary Art
South African Airways Museum
Mandela House
Market Photo Workshop
Maropeng
Military History Museum
Museum Africa
Photo:
Satyagraha House
Workers' Museum
Defunct
SAB World of Beer
South African National Railway And Steam Museum
Clubs and societies
Afrikaanse Taal- en Kultuurvereniging
Automobile Association
Nippon Club
Rand Club
SAA Museum Society
South African Radio League
Southern African Vexillological Association
Religion
SACC
Anglican
Diocese of Johannesburg
Diocese of the Highveld
Diocese of Christ the King
Catholic
Archdiocese of Johannesburg
Knights of Da Gama
Protestant
Baptist Union
Presbytery of Egoli
Jewish
Union of Orthodox Synagogues
Johannesburg Beth Din
Ohr Somayach
SAUPJ
Islamic
Jamiatul Ulama
Places ofworshipChurchesAnglican
Cathedral Church of Saint Mary the Virgin
Cathedral Church of Saint Dunstan
St Aidan's Anglican Church
St Boniface Church
St Mary's Anglican Church
St Michael and All Angels' Anglican Church
Baptist
Troyeville Baptist Church
Calvinist
Brixton Reformed Church
Fordsburg Reformed Church
Johanesburg East Reformed Church
Johannesburg North Reformed Church
Johannesburg Reformed Church
Johannesburg Reformed Church (GKSA)
Langlaagte Reformed Church
Linden Reformed Church
Parkhurst Reformed Church
Turffontein Reformed Church
Catholic
Cathedral of Christ the King
Holy Trinity Catholic Church
Regina Mundi Catholic Church
Maronite
Shrine of Our Lady of the Cedars
GreekOrthodox
Cathedral of Saints Constantine and Helen
Latter-daySaints
Johannesburg South Africa Temple
Lutheran
Friedenskirche
SynagoguesOrthodox
Chassidim Shul
Doornfontein Synagogue
Great Synagogue
Oxford Shul
Historical
President Street Synagogue
Progressive
Beit Emanuel Progressive Synagogue
Temple Israel
Mosques
Jumah Mosque
Nizamiye Mosque
Hindu temples
Madhya Kailash Shiva Temple
Scientology centres
Castle Kyalami
Media
South African National Editors' Forum
Southern African Music Rights Organisation
AmaBhungane
Mass mediaMagazines
African Communist
Drum
Financial Mail
Mining Weekly
Music Industry Online
Nomad Africa Magazine
SA Flyer
Defunct
Die Arbeider en Arm Boer
Style
Top 40 Music Magazine
Newspapers
Caxton local newspapers (various)
Beeld
Business Day
The Citizen
City Press
Daily Maverick
Daily Sun
Jewish Report
Mail & Guardian
Mayihlome News
Rapport
The South African
The Sowetan
The Star
The Sunday Independent
Sunday Times
TimesLIVE
Wits Vuvuzela
Defunct
New Age
The New Age
The World
Radio stations
5FM
702
947
ArrowLine Chinese Radio
Boervolk Radio
ChaiFM
Channel Africa
Ekurhuleni FM
Hot 1027
Jozi FM
Kasie FM
Kaya FM
Metro FM
Munghana Lonene FM
Power FM
Radio 2000
Radio Sonder Grense
Rock FM 91.9
SAfm
UJFM
YFM
Television channels
CNBC Africa
eNCA
M-Net
Me
SABC 1
SABC 2
SABC 3
SABC Children
SABC Education
SABC News
SABC Sport
Soweto TV
Defunct
M-Net Series
Film studios
Film Resource Unit
Quizzical Pictures
Defunct
Killarney Film Studios
Record labels
Ambitiouz Entertainment
CCP Records
Family Tree Records
Gallo Records
Kalawa Jazmee Records
Game studios
Celestial Games
Cultural references
District 9
Egoli: Place of Gold
"Gimme Hope Jo'anna"
Johannesburg Festival Overture
The Real Housewives of Johannesburg
Sarafina!
"Soweto Blues"
Welcome to Our Hillbrow
Zoo City
Economy
Johannesburg Stock Exchange
AltX
Safex
companies traded
A2X Markets
Brenthurst Foundation
CompaniesvteCompanies based in Greater JohannesburgDiversifiedconglomerates
Aveng
Barloworld
Bidvest
Chancellor House
Famous Brands
Airlines
Aerolift
Airlink
Cargo
CemAir
Egoli Air
Federal Air
Global Aviation
National Airways
Norse Air
Phoebus Apollo Aviation
SAA
Safair
FlySafair
Solenta Aviation
Defunct
1time
African International Airways
AirQuarius Aviation
Avia
Comair
Command Airways
Executive Aerospace
Fly Blue Crane
Imperial Air Cargo
Interair South Africa
Interlink Airlines
kulula.com
Mango
Nationwide Airlines
Rossair Executive Air Charter
Rovos Air
Skywise
South African Express
Constructionand engineering
Concor
Murray & Roberts
Energy
DLO Energy Resources
Total South Africa
Financial
Absa Group
ACM Gold & Forex
Alexforbes
Discovery
Evolution Group
Hollard Group
Investec
Liberty Holdings
Livestock Wealth
MiWay Insurance
Lesaka Technologies
Old Mutual
Riovic Capital Group
RMB Holdings
RMI Holdings
STANLIB
Venmyn Rand
Banks
Absa Bank
Access Bank South Africa
African Alliance Investment Bank
African Bank
Bank Zero
Bidvest Bank
DBSA
First National Bank
FirstRand Bank
Imperial Bank South Africa
Mercantile Bank
Nedbank
Rand Merchant Bank
Sasfin Bank
Stanchart South Africa
Standard Bank
TymeBank
Ubank
Wizzit
Defunct
VBS Mutual Bank
Hospitality
Southern Sun Hotels
Sun International
Tsogo Sun
ICT
Afrihost
BCX
Cell C
Cybatar
Datatec
Dimension Data
EOH Holdings
iVeri Payment Technologies
MTN
Neotel
OTEL Telecoms
Rain
Sybrin
Teraco Data Environments
Vodacom
Defunct
Internet Solutions
Luma Arcade
Vision Software
Legal
Bowman Gilfillan
ENSafrica
Webber Wentzel
Werksmans
Defunct
Deneys Reitz
Mandela and Tambo
Manufacturing
Adcock Ingram
AECI
African Explosives
All Joy Foods
Bakers
Clover Industries
FEW
IWC
Isuzu Trucks South Africa
Land Systems OMC
Nampak
Paramount Group
PPC
Premier FMCG
Rand Refinery
Rembrandt Group
Sappi
Simba
SkyReach Aircraft
Sling Aircraft
South African Breweries
Tiger Brands
Truvelo Armoury
Union Carriage & Wagon
Defunct
Basil Green Motors
New PowerChutes
Media
Arena Holdings
Caxton and CTP Publishers and Printers
MultiChoice
Nu Metro Cinemas
Primedia
SABC
StarSat
Ster-Kinekor
Mining
Alexkor
Asa Resources
African Rainbow Minerals
AngloGold Ashanti
DRDGOLD
ERPM
Gold Fields
Harmony Gold
Impala Platinum
JCI
Metorex
Northam Platinum
Sibanye-Stillwater
Defunct
Simmer and Jack
Retail andmarketing
AutoTrader
Bidorbuy
Cadac
CNA
The Creative Counsel
Dis-Chem
Exclusive Books
Hyundai South Africa
Incredible Connection
Massmart
Wantitall
Defunct
Edcon
OK Bazaars
Restaurantfranchises
Chicken Licken
Debonairs Pizza
Mugg & Bean
Nando's
Roman's Pizza
Steers
Wimpy
Services
Netcare
SA Waste Holdings
Defunct
Bosasa
Education Facilitators
Transport
Avis Southern Africa
Comazar
PUTCO
Surtees Rail Group
State-ownedenterprises
Airports Company South Africa
Denel Aeronautics
Development Bank of Southern Africa
Eskom
Rand Water
South African Broadcasting Corporation
Sasol
Sentech
South African Airways
Transnet
Freightdynamics
Defunct
Lema
Companies based in Ekurhuleni
Companies based in Johannesburg
Professionalassociations
Gauteng Institute for Architecture
South African Institute of Chartered Accountants
South African Institute of Electrical Engineers
South African Institute of Professional Accountants
Mining
Minerals Council South Africa
Rand Refinery
Mines
Blyvooruitzicht
Driefontein
ERPM
KDC
Kopanang
Kusasalethu
Mintails
Mponeng
Old Randfontein
Randfontein
South Deep
TauTona
West Wits
Shopping centres
Carlton Centre
Cresta Mall
Dobsonville Mall
Eastgate
Fourways Mall
Hyde Park Corner
Mall of Africa
Maponya Mall
Nelson Mandela Square
Northgate
Northmead Square
Oriental City
Oriental Plaza
Protea Glen Mall
Sandton City
Southgate
Hotels and resorts
The Leonardo
Michelangelo Towers
Montecasino
Venues
The Bassline
Ellis Park Arena
Gallagher Convention Centre
Restaurants,bars and cafés
The Radium
Tourism
Gold Reef City
Cultural villages
Ke-Ditselana Cultural Village
Kwa-Khaya Lendaba Cultural Village
Lesedi Cultural Village
TransportCivil aviation
South African Civil Aviation Authority
Airports
Grand Central Airport
Lanseria International Airport
O. R. Tambo International Airport
Rand Airport
Defunct
Palmietfontein Airport
Road transport
Gauteng Department of Roads and Transport
Johannesburg Roads Agency
Roads
Freeways
e-tolling
Buses and taxis
PUTCO
Trolleybuses
Rail transport
Gautrain
Metrorail Gauteng
Johannesburg–Durban high speed rail (proposed)
Trams
Train stations
Johannesburg Park Station
Marlboro Station
Midrand Station
Rhodesfield Station
Rosebank Station
Sandton Station
SportsSports governingbodies based inGreater Johannesburg
SASCOC
Athletics South Africa
Basketball South Africa
Bowls South Africa
Cricket South Africa
Mind Sports South Africa
South African Baseball Union
South African Confederation of Cue Sport
South African Equestrian Federation
South African Football Association
South African Handball Federation
South African Hockey Association
South African National Climbing Federation
South African Sailing
Squash South Africa
Volleyball South Africa
TeamsSoccer
Atlie
Bidvest Wits
Jomo Cosmos
JVW
Kaizer Chiefs
Lusitano
Mahlangu Tigers
Moroka Swallows
Orlando Pirates
Wits University
Yebo Yes United
Former
Germiston Callies
Giant Blackpool
Rugby
Golden Lions
Lions
Falcons
Jozi Cats
Cricket
Central Gauteng Lions
Easterns
Easterns Women
Highveld Lions
Imperial Lions
Joburg Super Kings
Titans
Basketball
Egoli Magic
Jozi Nuggets
Soweto Panthers
UJ men's basketball team
Equestrian sports
National Horseracing Authority
South African Lipizzaners
Sports events
1992 Return Test
1995 Rugby World Cup
Final
2003 Cricket World Cup
Final
2010 FIFA World Cup
Final
Joburg Open
Joburg Ladies Open
South African Derby
South African PGA Championship
Soweto Derby
Sports venuesStadia andarenas
Alexandra Stadium
Arthur Block Park Stadium
Barnard Stadium
Bidvest Stadium
Bosman Stadium
Cecil Payne Stadium
Dobsonville Stadium
Ellis Park Arena
Ellis Park Stadium
Germiston Stadium
Huntersfield Stadium
Johannesburg Stadium
KwaThema Stadium
Lenasia Stadium
Makhulong Stadium
Mehlareng Stadium
Modderfontein Stadium
Mohlakeng Stadium
Orlando Stadium
Potgietersrus Rugby Stadium
Rabie Ridge Stadium
Rand Stadium
Randburg Hockey Stadium
Ruimsig Stadium
Sinaba Stadium
Soccer City
Soweto Cricket Oval
UJ Stadium
Union Stadium
Wanderers Stadium
Willowmoore Park Stadium
Defunct
Old Wanderers
PAM Brink Stadium
WeBuyCars Dome
Golf courses
Glendower Golf Club
Randpark Golf Club
Royal Johannesburg & Kensington Golf Club
Equestrianvenues
Turffontein Racecourse
Motorsportsvenues
Kyalami Grand Prix Circuit
Defunct
WesBank Raceway
Education and research
GDE
CIDA
FOTIM
Geological Society of South Africa
Mandela Institute for Development Studies
SAARF
South African Institute for Heritage Science and Conservation
Student Sponsorship Programme South Africa
Libraries
Brenthurst Library
Buckland Library
Johannesburg Public Library
Orlando East Public Library
UJ Libraries
University of the Witwatersrand Libraries
UniversitiesUniversity of Johannesburg
Johannesburg Institute for Advanced Study
UJFM
Campuses
APB Campus
APK Campus
Doornfontein Campus
Soweto Campus
Faculties
Art, Design and Architecture
Business and Economics
Education
Engineering and the Built Environment
Health Sciences
Humanities
Law
Science
University of the Witwatersrand
Campuses
Evolutionary Studies Institute
Global Change Institute
Industrial and Mining Water Research Unit
Johannesburg Planetarium
Philosophical Papers
Wits Theatre Complex
Wits Vuvuzela
Faculties
Commerce, Law and Management
Engineering and the Built Environment
School of Architecture and Planning
School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Health Sciences
Humanities
Science
CIDA City Campus
IIE MSAOther tertiaryinstitutions
AFDA
Central Johannesburg College
CityVarsity
Damelin
Damelin Correspondence College
Inscape Design College
Lyceum College
Midrand Graduate Institute
Business schools
Gordon Institute of Business Science
IMM Graduate School
Independent Institute of Education
Milpark Business School
Regenesys Business School
Religious institutions
Auckland Park Theological Seminary
Baptist Theological College of Southern Africa
Kollel Bet Mordechai
Kollel Yad Shaul
Lubavitch Yeshiva Gedolah
St Augustine College
South African Theological Seminary
Yeshiva Gedolah
State schools
Hoërskool Alberton
Allen Glen High School
Athlone Boys' High School
Barnato Park High School
Boksburg High School
Bopasenatla Secondary School
Bryanston High School
Hoërskool Dinamika
Hoërskool Florida
The Glen High School
Germiston High School
Greenside High School
Hyde Park High School
Jeppe High School for Boys
Jeppe High School for Girls
King Edward VII School
Hoërskool Marais Viljoen
Meadowlands Secondary School
Moletsane High School
Hoërskool Monument
Morris Isaacson High School
Naledi High School
Northcliff High School
Orchards Primary School
Parktown Boys' High School
Parkview Senior Primary School
Sandown High School
Sandringham High School
Sir John Adamson High School
Springs Boys' High School
Thutolore Secondary School
Hoërskool Voortrekker
Waverley Girls' High School
Westbury Secondary School
Private schools
Ashton International College
Auckland Park Academy of Excellence
Aurora Private School
Beaulieu College
Charter College
Christian Brothers' College
Crawford College, Lonehill
Crawford College, Sandton
Helpmekaar Kollege
Holy Family College
Japari School
Johannesburg Muslim School
King David Schools
Kingsmead College
Lenasia Muslim School
Marist Brothers College
Redhill School
The Ridge School
Roedean School
Sacred Heart College
St Andrew's School for Girls
St Barnabas College
St Benedict's College
St Catherine's School
St David's Marist College
St Dominic's Catholic School for Girls
St Dunstan's College
St John's College
St Martin's School
St Mary's School
St Peter's College
St Stithians College
Torah Academy School
Yeshiva College of South Africa
Yeshiva Maharsha Beis Aharon
Alternative schools
African Leadership Academy
Branson School of Entrepreneurship
Khanya College
Michael Mount Waldorf School
International schools
American International School
Deutsche Internationale Schule
Japanese School
Lycée Jules Verne
Services
Johannesburg City Parks
Hospitals
Charlotte Maxeke Hospital
Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital
Helen Joseph Hospital
Leratong Hospital
Milpark Hospital
Nelson Mandela Children's Hospital
Pholosong Hospital
Rahima Moosa Mother and Child Hospital
Tambo Memorial Hospital
Historical
Imperial Military Hospital, Baragwanath
Queen Victoria Hospital
Transvaal Memorial Hospital for Children
Water supplyand sanitation
Rand Water
Lesotho Highlands Water Project
Dams
Vaal Dam
Vaal Barrage
Water towers
Grand Central Water Tower
Yeoville Water Tower
Electricity supply
Eskom
City Power
Kelvin Power Station
Kibo Gauteng Thermal Power Station (planned)
Defunct power stations
Orlando Power Station
President Street Power Station
Law enforcement andemergency services
Johannesburg Central Police Station
Metro Police departments
Johannesburg Emergency Services
Berea Fire Station
Ekurhuleni Disaster & Emergency Management Services
Charities and NGOs
ActionAid
Africa's Young Entrepreneurs
African Parks
Bigshoes Foundation
Camp Sizanani
Children of Fire International
Global Water Foundation
LoveLife South Africa
Nelson Mandela Children's Fund
Never Ending Gardens
Nkosi's Haven
POLAF
Woman Against Rape
Military units and formationsArmy unitsRegular
46 South African Brigade
21 South African Infantry Battalion
35 Engineer Support Regiment
Sekhukhune Anti-Aircraft Regiment
Reserve
Andrew Mlangeni Regiment
Bambatha Rifles
Johannesburg Light Horse Regiment
Johannesburg Regiment
Lenong Regiment
OR Tambo Regiment
Rand Light Infantry
Sandfontein Artillery Regiment
Solomon Mahlangu Regiment
iWombe Anti-Aircraft Regiment
SAMHS units
6 Medical Battalion Group
Disbanded unitsArmy
Witwatersrand Command
SA Army Troop Information Unit
2 Locating Regiment
3 Armoured Personnel Carrier Squadron
7 South African Infantry Division
15 Reception Depot
72 Motorised Brigade
73 Motorised Brigade
Regiment University of the Witwatersrand
Commandos
Alberton
Atlas
Benoni
Boksburg
Brakpan
Edenvale
East Park
Germiston
Johannesburg East
Johannesburg West
Kempton Park
Krugersdorp
Modderfontein
Nigel
Randburg
Roodepoort
Sandton
Springs
Wemmerpan
West Park
West Rand
Special Forces
Hunter Group
SAAF
4 Squadron SAAF
10 Squadron SAAF
Category
Johannesburg
26°15′01″S 28°03′38″E / 26.25028°S 28.06056°E / -26.25028; 28.06056 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican"},{"link_name":"The Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hill,_Gauteng"}],"text":"Private school in Johannesburg, South AfricaSt Martin's School is an Anglican private co-educational school in The Hill, Johannesburg, South Africa.","title":"St. Martin's School (Rosettenville)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Community of the Resurrection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_the_Resurrection"},{"link_name":"Trevor Huddleston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Huddleston"},{"link_name":"Hugh Masekela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Masekela"},{"link_name":"Louis Armstrong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armstrong"},{"link_name":"Oliver Tambo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Tambo"},{"link_name":"apartheid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apartheid"},{"link_name":"National Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)"},{"link_name":"Bantu Education Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantu_Education_Act"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinchliff1963236-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorsnip1991132-2"},{"link_name":"Anglican Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_Southern_Africa"},{"link_name":"Diocese of Christ the King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Christ_the_King"},{"link_name":"visitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visitor"}],"text":"St. Martin’s School traces its origins back to the foundation of St. Agnes School for the training of domestic helpers in 1908. A few years later in 1911, St. Peter’s Priory and College were added, offering a boarding-based high school education to the young men who came from all over South Africa. The College was run by the Anglican Order of the Community of the Resurrection. Trevor Huddleston, one of the priests of the community was based at St Peter's for a number of years, and it was he who gave Hugh Masekela his first trumpet, which he acquired from Louis Armstrong whilst on a trip to the USA.St. Peter's College soon became known as the \"Black Eton\" where academic achievements were espoused. The list of the early alumni includes Oliver Tambo, Fikile Bam and Masekela.The apartheid policies of the National Party regime, specifically the Bantu Education Act put pressure on the school and it was closed in 1956.[1][2] However, the Anglican Church ensured that education continued and the school reopened in 1958 as St. Martin's School.Founded as a boys' school, St Martin's became the established Anglican Diocesan School for the south of Johannesburg. In 1978, the school became a co-educational institution.A Preparatory School was opened in 1971, and is situated on a picturesque campus in The Hill, overlooking Moffat Park. In December 2022, the High School was relocated from the Rosettenville campus to the Preparatory School campus at East Road in the Hill, which is now home to both the Preparatory School and High School.Since the multiplication of the Anglican Diocese of Johannesburg in 1990, the school has been the Diocesan School for the Diocese of Christ the King. The bishop of the diocese is the visitor to the School.The school celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in 2018.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Stern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Stern_(educator)"},{"link_name":"OBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBE"}],"sub_title":"Headmasters","text":"Michael Stern, OBE (1958–1963)\nMichael de Lisle (1963–1971)\nOliver Wigmore (1972–1984)\nPeter Vieyra (1985–1990)\nJames Welsh (1990–2016)\nThomas Hagspihl (2017–2022)","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Heads of St Martin's Preparatory School","text":"Mrs P. H. Bestelink (1971–1983); founding headmistress\nMr F. G. Keon (1976–1984) (Senior Prep School)\nMrs R. Y. McAlister (1984–1986) (Junior Prep School)\nMr G. M. Greenway (1986–1997)\nMr B. E. Crouser (1997–1999)\nMr L. Jacobs (1999–2001)\nMr D. I. Maritz (2001–2012)\nThe Revd M. M. Chalmers (2012–2019)\nMrs M. Myburgh (2019-2022)","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Johannesburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Johannesburg"},{"link_name":"visitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visitor"},{"link_name":"Ambrose Reeves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_Reeves"},{"link_name":"Leslie Stradling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Stradling"},{"link_name":"Timothy Bavin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Bavin"},{"link_name":"Desmond Tutu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond_Tutu"},{"link_name":"visitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visitor"},{"link_name":"Diocese of Christ the King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Christ_the_King"},{"link_name":"Peter Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lee_(bishop_of_Christ_the_King)"}],"sub_title":"Visitors to the School","text":"The bishop of Johannesburg was the visitor to the school until 1990, and these were:Rt Revd Ambrose Reeves (1958 - 1961)\nRt Revd Leslie Stradling (1961 - 1974)\nRt Revd Timothy Bavin (1974 - 1985)\nMost Revd Desmond Tutu (1985 - 1987)\nRt Revd Duncan Buchanan (1987 - 1990)From 1990 onwards the visitor to the school is the bishop of the Diocese of Christ the King.Rt Revd Peter Lee (1990 - 2016)\nRt Revd William Mostert (2017 - 2023)\nThe Venerable Mkhuseli Harrison Sobantwana was elected to be the 3rd Bishop of the Diocese of Christ the King on the 26th of July 2023, at the Diocesan Elective Assembly, and will thus become the Visitor to the School when Consecrated and Enthroned.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wayne Ferreira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Ferreira"},{"link_name":"Peter Hatendi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Hatendi"},{"link_name":"Peter Klatzow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Klatzow"},{"link_name":"Hugh Masekela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Masekela"},{"link_name":"Todd Matshikiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_Matshikiza"},{"link_name":"Richard Masemola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Masemola"},{"link_name":"Es'kia Mphahlele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Es%27kia_Mphahlele"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-starfield-3"},{"link_name":"Tony Peake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Peake"},{"link_name":"Oliver Tambo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Tambo"}],"text":"Wayne Ferreira\nPeter Hatendi\nPeter Klatzow\nHugh Masekela\nTodd Matshikiza\nRichard Masemola\nEs'kia Mphahlele[3]\nTony Peake\nOliver Tambo","title":"Notable alumni"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trevor Huddleston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Huddleston"},{"link_name":"Rowan Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowan_Smith"},{"link_name":"Michael Stern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Stern_(educator)"},{"link_name":"OBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBE"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Taylor (singer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Taylor_(singer)"}],"text":"Trevor Huddleston\nRowan Smith\nMichael Stern, OBE\nJeremy Taylor (singer)","title":"Notable staff"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinchliff1963236_1-0"},{"link_name":"Hinchliff 1963","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHinchliff1963"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorsnip1991132_2-0"},{"link_name":"Worsnip 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWorsnip1991"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-starfield_3-0"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"40239119","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/40239119"},{"link_name":"The Anglican Church in South Africa: An Account of the History and Development of the Church of the Province of South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5-sQAQAAIAAJ"},{"link_name":"Between the two fires: the Anglican Church and apartheid : 1948-1957","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Y-gbAAAAIAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-86980-795-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86980-795-8"}],"text":"^ Hinchliff 1963, p. 236.\n\n^ Worsnip 1991, p. 132.\n\n^ Starfield, Jane (2009). \"Es'kia Mphahlele (1919-2008)\". English in Africa. 36 (1): 7–11. JSTOR 40239119.Hinchliff, Peter Bingham (1963). The Anglican Church in South Africa: An Account of the History and Development of the Church of the Province of South Africa. Darton, Longman & Todd.\nWorsnip, Michael E. (1991). Between the two fires: the Anglican Church and apartheid : 1948-1957. University of Natal Press. ISBN 978-0-86980-795-8.","title":"Notes and references"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Starfield, Jane (2009). \"Es'kia Mphahlele (1919-2008)\". English in Africa. 36 (1): 7–11. JSTOR 40239119.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40239119","url_text":"40239119"}]},{"reference":"Hinchliff, Peter Bingham (1963). The Anglican Church in South Africa: An Account of the History and Development of the Church of the Province of South Africa. Darton, Longman & Todd.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5-sQAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"The Anglican Church in South Africa: An Account of the History and Development of the Church of the Province of South Africa"}]},{"reference":"Worsnip, Michael E. (1991). Between the two fires: the Anglican Church and apartheid : 1948-1957. University of Natal Press. ISBN 978-0-86980-795-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-gbAAAAIAAJ","url_text":"Between the two fires: the Anglican Church and apartheid : 1948-1957"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86980-795-8","url_text":"978-0-86980-795-8"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=St._Martin%27s_School_(Rosettenville)¶ms=26_15_01_S_28_03_38_E_","external_links_name":"26°15′01″S 28°03′38″E / 26.25028°S 28.06056°E / -26.25028; 28.06056"},{"Link":"http://stmartin.co.za/","external_links_name":"stmartin.co.za"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40239119","external_links_name":"40239119"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5-sQAQAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"The Anglican Church in South Africa: An Account of the History and Development of the Church of the Province of South Africa"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-gbAAAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Between the two fires: the Anglican Church and apartheid : 1948-1957"},{"Link":"http://www.stmartin.co.za/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=St._Martin%27s_School_(Rosettenville)¶ms=26_15_01_S_28_03_38_E_","external_links_name":"26°15′01″S 28°03′38″E / 26.25028°S 28.06056°E / -26.25028; 28.06056"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Albert,_Duke_of_Teschen | Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen | ["1 Early life","2 Military campaigns","3 Inspector General","4 Later life","5 Family and children","6 Honours","7 Namesake","8 Ancestry","9 References","10 Bibliography","11 See also"] | Not to be confused with his grand-nephew, Archduke Albrecht Franz, Duke of Teschen.
Duke of Teschen
Archduke AlbrechtArchduke Albrecht, c. 1890sDuke of TeschenReign30 April 1847 – 18 February 1895PredecessorCharlesSuccessorFriedrichBorn(1817-08-03)3 August 1817Vienna, Austrian EmpireDied18 February 1895(1895-02-18) (aged 77)Arco, Austria-HungaryBurialImperial CryptSpousePrincess Hildegard of BavariaIssueMaria Theresa, Duchess of WürttembergArchduke KarlArchduchess MathildaNamesAlbrecht Friedrich Rudolf DominikHouseHabsburg-LorraineFatherArchduke Charles, Duke of TeschenMotherPrincess Henrietta of Nassau-WeilburgReligionRoman Catholicism
Archduke Albrecht Friedrich Rudolf Dominik of Austria, Duke of Teschen (3 August 1817 – 18 February 1895), was an Austrian Habsburg general. He was the grandson of Emperor Leopold II and one of the chief military advisors of Emperor Francis Joseph I. As Inspector General for 36 years, he was an old-fashioned bureaucrat who largely controlled the Austro-Hungarian Army and delayed modernization. He was honored with the rank of Field Marshal in the armies of Austria-Hungary (1863) and Germany (1893).
According to historians John Keegan and Andrew Wheatcroft:
He was a firm conservative in all matters, military and civil, and took to writing pamphlets lamenting the state of the Army’s morale as well as fighting a fierce rearguard action against all forms of innovation…. Much of the Austrian failure in the First World War can be traced back to his long period of power…. His power was that of the bureaucrat, not the fighting soldier, and his thirty years of command over the peacetime Habsburg Army made it a flabby instrument of war.
Early life
A grandson of the Emperor Leopold II, he was the eldest son of Archduke Charles of Austria, who defeated French Emperor Napoleon I at Aspern-Essling (1809), and Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg. He was the nephew of the Emperor Francis I, and cousin to Emperor Franz Joseph I's father Archduke Franz Karl of Austria, and served under Franz Joseph.
Born in Vienna, from an early age he had a military disposition, which his father encouraged. Albrecht was subject to a mild form of epilepsy, according to report, but this did not visibly interfere with his military career.
He entered the Austrian army in 1837 with Feldmarshal Joseph Radetzky as his military governor. Having received a thorough military education, Albrecht was named a Generalmajor in 1840 and promoted to Feldmarschall-Leutnant in 1843.
Military campaigns
Promoted to General der Kavallerie in 1845, Albrecht was given command of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, and Salzburg. Upon the death of his father in 1847, he inherited the Palais Weilburg in Baden bei Wien, which became the family's summer home. In the winter the family lived in Vienna in the Palais Erzherzog Albrecht (the modern Albertina museum).
As the commandant of Vienna, Albrecht was wounded in the street fighting on 13 March 1848 at the start of the revolutionary disturbances. He issued live ammunition to his soldiers and secured the inner city, but was unable to suppress the disorder in the outlying districts. With the fall of Metternich and the formation of a city guard led by students, Albrecht pulled his troops into barracks. Radicals resented his attempt to quell the revolution while some fellow officers thought he showed a lack of resolve. Unsatisfactory to both factions and under pressure from city authorities, Albrecht was replaced by Count Auersperg.
Albrecht was sent south to command a division under Radetzky, who faced a coalition of states of the Italian peninsula led by King Charles Albert of Sardinia. Albrecht personally supervised the crossing of the Ticino and by the handling of his division ensuring victory at Novara on 23 March 1849.
He became civil and military governor of Hungary in 1851, serving until his recall in 1860. When Albrecht's wife, Archduchess Hildegard, went to Munich in March 1864 for the funeral of her brother, King Maximilian II, she became ill with a lung inflammation and pleurisy. She died in Vienna on 2 April 1864, two months short of her 38th birthday.
At the outbreak of the Seven Weeks' War in June 1866, Albrecht was named commander of the southern army facing the Italian forces of King Victor Emmanuel II. Albrecht was decisively victorious in the Battle of Custoza (24 June 1866), but failed to exploit his victory when he neglected to pursue the beaten Italian Army of the Mincio. Any advantages for the Austrians however were canceled out by the crushing defeat on 3 July at Königgrätz, where Ludwig von Benedek was surprised by the speed of Helmuth von Moltke's concentric advance into Bohemia.
Albrecht was named Oberkommandeur (Commander-in-Chief) on 10 July 1866. Benedek's defeat made any further action against Prussia impossible, however, and peace was shortly concluded with both Prussia and Italy. Besides the loss of Holstein to Prussia and Venetia to Italy in 1866, the war resulted in the transformation of the Austrian realm in 1867 as the Dual Monarchy – the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Inspector General
Albrecht remained Oberkommandeur until 1869; when Kaiser Franz Josef I assumed the title that year, Albrecht became Generalinspekteur (Inspector General), the post he occupied until his death. In 1869 he published Über die Verantwortlichkeit im Kriege (On Responsibility in War). His reform of the Austro-Hungarian Army was based on the Prussian model: development of railways and manufacturing, adoption of short-service conscription, procurement of modern weapons and reform of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Albrecht's program upgraded the army but he then froze it in place for the next three decades as it declined in quality. He fought liberals (including Crown Prince Rudolf) claiming their reforms would be too expensive and disruptive.
In public affairs, he was leader of the conservative Court Party, and opposed the ministry of Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust at every point, expressing the most inexorably reactionary views. As such he was an absolutist and opposed any liberal ideas and any weakening of the imperial power. He was somewhat more courteous to Beust's successors, though he remained given to bombastic pronouncements that may not have reflected his actual sentiments. He was widely thought, for instance, to be antipathetic toward Prussia after 1866, yet he modeled his military reforms on those of Prussia and even attended a parade of the Prussian Royal Guard in Berlin at the invitation of Emperor William I. In December 1876 Albrecht advocated a preventive war against Italy on the grounds that of all Austria's neighbors, Italy was the most hostile, could be beaten most easily, and be forced to pay compensation to Austria-Hungary, whose victory would establish it as a Great Power.
At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy, in addition to the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika, supported by Albrecht, that "would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence." "High military authorities desired immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective."
On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The motion was lost by 179 to 95. By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy.
Reputed to be the wealthiest of the Habsburgs, Albrecht owned some 300,000 acres (1,200 km2) in Hungary. He also owned a fine collection of paintings and engravings, later the nucleus of the Albertina museum. His popularity was profound, for his generosity to the poor was genuine and unfeigned; he was widely known as Engelsherz (Angel's-heart).
When Albrecht was made a Feldmarschall in March 1888, Crown Prince Rudolf was appointed his subordinate as Generalinspekteur der Infanterie (Inspector General of Infantry). The new Inspector found any move toward liberal reform blocked by the War Minister, Feldzeugmeister Ferdinand von Bauer, the Chief of the General Staff, Feldzeugmeister Friedrich von Beck-Rzikowsky – and by Albrecht himself. Senior officers deferred to Albrecht who, after all, had laboriously modernized the Army after the disaster of 1866. However, the anomalous situation in the military administration was undoubtedly only one of many factors that contributed to Rudolf's suicide at Mayerling on 30 January 1889.
Later life
Statue of Archduke Albrecht outside the Albertina, Vienna
Having been made a Feldmarschall in his own army in 1863, Albrecht was the recipient of the equivalent rank of Generalfeldmarschall in the Imperial German Army in 1893, Wilhelm II, German Emperor sending General Walther von Loë to deliver the baton to Albrecht.
Archduke Albrecht continued to serve as Generalinspekteur even into advanced age - a situation not uncommon in Austria-Hungary where many commanders retained posts and commissions into old age. By 1895, though still holding his office, he was partially blind and his horse had to be led by an adjutant.
When he died in Arco on 18 February 1895, Archduke Albrecht received a state funeral and was buried in tomb 128 of the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. His fortune and his title of Duke of Teschen were inherited by his nephew, Archduke Friedrich, who served as Oberkommandeur in 1914–17.
Today, an equestrian statue of Archduke Albrecht stands near the entrance to the Albertina museum, his former city residence in Vienna.
Family and children
On 1 May 1844 Albrecht married in Munich Princess Hildegard of Bavaria, daughter of King Ludwig I and Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Albrecht and Hildegard had 3 children:
Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Teschen (15 July 1845, Vienna – 8 October 1927, Tübingen), married at Vienna on 18 January 1865 Duke Philipp of Württemberg (1838, Neuilly-sur-Seine – 1917, Stuttgart) and had five children:
Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg (1865–1939), commander on the Western Front of the German Fourth Army, 1914–17, and Army Group Duke Albrecht, 1917–18; like his grandfather, he was made a German Field Marshal in 1916.
Marie Amelie of Württemberg (1865–1883)
Isabelle of Württemberg (1871–1904)
Robert of Württemberg (1873-1947)
Ulrich of Württemberg (1877–1944)
Archduke Karl of Austria-Teschen (3 January 1847, Vienna – 19 July 1848), died of smallpox and buried in tomb 131 of the Imperial Crypt.
Archduchess Mathilda of Austria-Teschen (25 January 1849, Vienna – 6 June 1867, Schloss Hetzendorf, near Vienna), buried in tomb 130 of the Imperial Crypt.
Honours
Albrecht received the following decorations and awards:
Austria:
Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1830
Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 1852
Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1866
Military Merit Cross with War Decoration
Long Service Cross for Officers, 1st Class
Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion
Tuscany: Grand Cross of St. Joseph
Russia:
Knight of St. George, 1st Class
Knight of St. Andrew
Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky
Knight of the White Eagle
Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class
Knight of St. Vladimir, 1st Class
Prussia:
Knight of the Black Eagle, with Collar 1891
Knight of the Red Eagle, 1st Class
Grand Commander of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern
Pour le Mérite (military), 10 April 1849
France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Brazil: Grand Cross of the Southern Cross
Ottoman Empire: Order of Osmanieh, 1st Class in Diamonds
Italy: Knight of the Annunciation, 21 September 1873
Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 19 September 1881
Portugal: Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword
Spain:
Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, with Collar, 25 June 1883
Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Ferdinand
Bavaria:
Knight of St. Hubert, 1843
Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph
Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown, 1851
Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1856
Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Seraphim, 20 April 1885
Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold, 1 August 1856
Greece: Grand Cross of the Redeemer
Hanover:
Knight of St. George, 1843
Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 1843
Two Sicilies:
Grand Cross of the Constantinian Order of St. George
Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit
Romania: Grand Cross of the Star of Romania, with War Insignia
Serbia:
Grand Cross of the White Eagle
Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo
Baden:
Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1856
Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1856
Grand Duchy of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 7 September 1843
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 22 October 1859
Nassau: Knight of the Gold Lion of Nassau, June 1858
Brunswick: Grand Cross of Henry the Lion
Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I
Netherlands: Commander of the Military William Order, 27 June 1856
Holy See: Knight of the Supreme Order of Christ
Namesake
Albrecht's name was given to a Panzerschiff (armorclad, later battleship) launched in 1872 as Erzherzog Albrecht. Renamed Feuerspeier in 1908, she was ceded to Italy in 1920 and renamed Buttafuoco. The old ironclad survived as a hulk until she was scrapped in 1947.
Ancestry
Ancestors of Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen 8. Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor 4. Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor 9. Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary 2. Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen 10. Charles III of Spain 5. Infanta Maria Louisa of Spain 11. Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony 1. Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen 12. Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 6. Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 13. Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau 3. Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg 14. Wilhelm Georg, Burgrave of Kirchberg 7. Burgravine Louise Isabella of Kirchberg 15. Princess Isabelle Auguste Reuss of Greiz
References
^ John Keegan and Andrew Wheatcroft, Who's Who in Military History: From 1453 to the Present Day (2001) p, 12.
^ Rothenburg 1976, p. 3.
^ Rothenburg 1976, p. 23.
^ Rothenburg 1976, p. 99.
^ Albertini, Luigi (1952). The Origins of the War of 1914. Vol. I. Oxford University Press. p. 19.
^ a b Albertini, Luigi (1952). The Origins of the War of 1914. Vol. I. Oxford University Press. p. 33.
^ a b Rothenburg 1976, p. 122.
^ Hof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie (1895), Genealogy p. 8
^ Hof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie (1895), Orders of Knighthood pp. 62, 64-65
^ Lehmann, Gustaf (1913). Die Ritter des Ordens pour le mérite 1812–1913 (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn. p. 421.
^ Italia : Ministero dell'interno (1884). Calendario generale del Regno d'Italia. Unione tipografico-editrice. p. 47.
^ Jørgen Pedersen (2009). Riddere af Elefantordenen, 1559–2009 (in Danish). Syddansk Universitetsforlag. p. 472. ISBN 978-87-7674-434-2.
^ "Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III". Guía Oficial de España (in Spanish). 1887. p. 149. Retrieved 21 March 2019.
^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreichs Bayern (in German). Königl. Oberpostamt. 1867. p. 9. Retrieved 2019-07-15.
^ Sachsen (1866). Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen: 1865/66. Heinrich. p. 4.
^ Württemberg (1869). Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreichs Württemberg: 1869. p. 32.
^ Per Nordenvall (1998). "Kungl. Maj:ts Orden". Kungliga Serafimerorden: 1748–1998 (in Swedish). Stockholm. ISBN 91-630-6744-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Ferdinand Veldekens (1858). Le livre d'or de l'ordre de Léopold et de la croix de fer. lelong. p. 174.
^ Staat Hannover (1865). Hof- und Staatshandbuch für das Königreich Hannover: 1865. Berenberg. pp. 37, 76.
^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden (1858), "Großherzogliche Orden" pp. 34, 48
^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Hessen (1879), "Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen" p. 10
^ Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach (1869), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 12 Archived 2020-06-08 at the Wayback Machine
^ Staats- und Adreß-Handbuch des Herzogthums Nassau (1866), "Herzogliche Orden" p. 7
^ "Militaire Willems-Orde: Österreich-Teschen, Albrecht Friedrich Rudolf Erzherzog von" . Ministerie van Defensie (in Dutch). 27 June 1856. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
Bibliography
"Death of Archduke Albrecht", The New York Times, 19 February 1895
Robert Gardiner (editorial director), Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1985. ISBN 0-85177-245-5
Robert A. Kann, A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526–1918. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.
George R. Marek, The Eagles Die: Franz Joseph, Elisabeth, and Their Austria. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. ISBN 978-0-246-10880-7
Frederic Morton, A Nervous Splendour. Vienna 1888–1889. London: The Folio Society, 2006 (first published in 1979).
Alan Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs. The life and times of the Emperor Francis Joseph. New York: Grove Press, 1994.
Rothenburg, G. (1976). The Army of Francis Joseph. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen.
Erzherzog-Albrecht-Marsch
Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen House of HabsburgBorn: 3 August 1817 Died: 18 February 1895
Titles of nobility
Preceded byArchduke Karl
Duke of Teschen 1847–1895
Succeeded byArchduke Friedrich
vteAustrian archdukesGenerations are numbered by male-line descent from the first archdukes. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919.1st generation
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Wenceslaus
Ferdinand III
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7th generation
Philip IV of SpainSP
CharlesSP
FerdinandSP
AlonsoSP
Ferdinand IV
Leopold Wilhelm
Ferdinand Charles
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Philip Prospero, Prince of AsturiasS
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Karl Ambrosius, Primate of HungaryM
13th generation
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Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of TuscanyT
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LorenzB
Karl Philipp
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19th generationCharles
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Archduke Albrecht Franz, Duke of Teschen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Albrecht_Franz,_Duke_of_Teschen"},{"link_name":"Duke of Teschen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Teschen"},{"link_name":"Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"Leopold II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Francis Joseph I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Joseph_I"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army"},{"link_name":"Austria-Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"John Keegan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Keegan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Not to be confused with his grand-nephew, Archduke Albrecht Franz, Duke of Teschen.Duke of TeschenArchduke Albrecht Friedrich Rudolf Dominik of Austria, Duke of Teschen (3 August 1817 – 18 February 1895), was an Austrian Habsburg general. He was the grandson of Emperor Leopold II and one of the chief military advisors of Emperor Francis Joseph I. As Inspector General for 36 years, he was an old-fashioned bureaucrat who largely controlled the Austro-Hungarian Army and delayed modernization. He was honored with the rank of Field Marshal in the armies of Austria-Hungary (1863) and Germany (1893).According to historians John Keegan and Andrew Wheatcroft:He was a firm conservative in all matters, military and civil, and took to writing pamphlets lamenting the state of the Army’s morale as well as fighting a fierce rearguard action against all forms of innovation…. Much of the Austrian failure in the First World War can be traced back to his long period of power…. His power was that of the bureaucrat, not the fighting soldier, and his thirty years of command over the peacetime Habsburg Army made it a flabby instrument of war.[1]","title":"Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Leopold II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Charles of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen"},{"link_name":"Napoleon I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I"},{"link_name":"Aspern-Essling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aspern-Essling"},{"link_name":"Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Henrietta_of_Nassau-Weilburg"},{"link_name":"Francis I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Franz Joseph I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I"},{"link_name":"Archduke Franz Karl of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Franz_Karl_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"epilepsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy"},{"link_name":"Austrian army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Austrian_Army_(1806-1867)"},{"link_name":"Joseph Radetzky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Radetzky_von_Radetz"}],"text":"A grandson of the Emperor Leopold II, he was the eldest son of Archduke Charles of Austria, who defeated French Emperor Napoleon I at Aspern-Essling (1809), and Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg. He was the nephew of the Emperor Francis I, and cousin to Emperor Franz Joseph I's father Archduke Franz Karl of Austria, and served under Franz Joseph.Born in Vienna, from an early age he had a military disposition, which his father encouraged. Albrecht was subject to a mild form of epilepsy, according to report, but this did not visibly interfere with his military career.He entered the Austrian army in 1837 with Feldmarshal Joseph Radetzky as his military governor. Having received a thorough military education, Albrecht was named a Generalmajor in 1840 and promoted to Feldmarschall-Leutnant in 1843.","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Upper Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Austria"},{"link_name":"Lower Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Austria"},{"link_name":"Salzburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Salzburg"},{"link_name":"Baden bei Wien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden_bei_Wien"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Albertina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertina"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archduke_Albrecht_of_Austria,_Duke_of_Teschen.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenburg19763-2"},{"link_name":"revolutionary disturbances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Austrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Metternich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metternich"},{"link_name":"barracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barracks"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenburg197623-3"},{"link_name":"coalition of states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"Charles Albert of Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Albert_of_Sardinia"},{"link_name":"Ticino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticino"},{"link_name":"Novara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Novara_(1849)"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526-1867)"},{"link_name":"Hildegard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Hildegard_of_Bavaria"},{"link_name":"Maximilian II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_II_of_Bavaria"},{"link_name":"pleurisy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleurisy"},{"link_name":"Seven Weeks' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War"},{"link_name":"Victor Emmanuel II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II"},{"link_name":"Battle of Custoza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Custoza_(1866)"},{"link_name":"Königgrätz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6niggr%C3%A4tz"},{"link_name":"Ludwig von Benedek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_von_Benedek"},{"link_name":"Helmuth von Moltke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Bohemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Holstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Holstein"},{"link_name":"Venetia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneto"},{"link_name":"Dual Monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_Monarchy"}],"text":"Promoted to General der Kavallerie in 1845, Albrecht was given command of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, and Salzburg. Upon the death of his father in 1847, he inherited the Palais Weilburg in Baden bei Wien, which became the family's summer home. In the winter the family lived in Vienna in the Palais Erzherzog Albrecht (the modern Albertina museum).As the commandant of Vienna,[2] Albrecht was wounded in the street fighting on 13 March 1848 at the start of the revolutionary disturbances. He issued live ammunition to his soldiers and secured the inner city, but was unable to suppress the disorder in the outlying districts. With the fall of Metternich and the formation of a city guard led by students, Albrecht pulled his troops into barracks. Radicals resented his attempt to quell the revolution while some fellow officers thought he showed a lack of resolve. Unsatisfactory to both factions and under pressure from city authorities, Albrecht was replaced by Count Auersperg.[3]Albrecht was sent south to command a division under Radetzky, who faced a coalition of states of the Italian peninsula led by King Charles Albert of Sardinia. Albrecht personally supervised the crossing of the Ticino and by the handling of his division ensuring victory at Novara on 23 March 1849.He became civil and military governor of Hungary in 1851, serving until his recall in 1860. When Albrecht's wife, Archduchess Hildegard, went to Munich in March 1864 for the funeral of her brother, King Maximilian II, she became ill with a lung inflammation and pleurisy. She died in Vienna on 2 April 1864, two months short of her 38th birthday.At the outbreak of the Seven Weeks' War in June 1866, Albrecht was named commander of the southern army facing the Italian forces of King Victor Emmanuel II. Albrecht was decisively victorious in the Battle of Custoza (24 June 1866), but failed to exploit his victory when he neglected to pursue the beaten Italian Army of the Mincio. Any advantages for the Austrians however were canceled out by the crushing defeat on 3 July at Königgrätz, where Ludwig von Benedek was surprised by the speed of Helmuth von Moltke's concentric advance into Bohemia.Albrecht was named Oberkommandeur (Commander-in-Chief) on 10 July 1866. Benedek's defeat made any further action against Prussia impossible, however, and peace was shortly concluded with both Prussia and Italy. Besides the loss of Holstein to Prussia and Venetia to Italy in 1866, the war resulted in the transformation of the Austrian realm in 1867 as the Dual Monarchy – the Austro-Hungarian Empire.","title":"Military campaigns"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian General Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_General_Staff"},{"link_name":"Rudolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf,_Crown_Prince_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Ferdinand_von_Beust"},{"link_name":"William I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Great Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Power"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenburg197699-4"},{"link_name":"Congress of Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin"},{"link_name":"Gyula Andrássy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyula_Andr%C3%A1ssy"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_occupation_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina"},{"link_name":"Sanjak of Novi Pazar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia"},{"link_name":"Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Salonika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salonika"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LA33-6"},{"link_name":"Hungarian Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LA33-6"},{"link_name":"Albertina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertina"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand von Bauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Bauer"},{"link_name":"Friedrich von Beck-Rzikowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_von_Beck-Rzikowsky"},{"link_name":"Mayerling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayerling"},{"link_name":"original research?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research"}],"text":"Albrecht remained Oberkommandeur until 1869; when Kaiser Franz Josef I assumed the title that year, Albrecht became Generalinspekteur (Inspector General), the post he occupied until his death. In 1869 he published Über die Verantwortlichkeit im Kriege (On Responsibility in War). His reform of the Austro-Hungarian Army was based on the Prussian model: development of railways and manufacturing, adoption of short-service conscription, procurement of modern weapons and reform of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Albrecht's program upgraded the army but he then froze it in place for the next three decades as it declined in quality. He fought liberals (including Crown Prince Rudolf) claiming their reforms would be too expensive and disruptive.In public affairs, he was leader of the conservative Court Party, and opposed the ministry of Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust at every point, expressing the most inexorably reactionary views. As such he was an absolutist and opposed any liberal ideas and any weakening of the imperial power. He was somewhat more courteous to Beust's successors, though he remained given to bombastic pronouncements that may not have reflected his actual sentiments. He was widely thought, for instance, to be antipathetic toward Prussia after 1866, yet he modeled his military reforms on those of Prussia and even attended a parade of the Prussian Royal Guard in Berlin at the invitation of Emperor William I. In December 1876 Albrecht advocated a preventive war against Italy on the grounds that of all Austria's neighbors, Italy was the most hostile, could be beaten most easily, and be forced to pay compensation to Austria-Hungary, whose victory would establish it as a Great Power.[4]At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy, in addition to the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika, supported by Albrecht, that \"would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence.\"[5] \"High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired [an ...] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective.\"[6]On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The motion was lost by 179 to 95. By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy.[6]Reputed to be the wealthiest of the Habsburgs, Albrecht owned some 300,000 acres (1,200 km2) in Hungary. He also owned a fine collection of paintings and engravings, later the nucleus of the Albertina museum. His popularity was profound, for his generosity to the poor was genuine and unfeigned; he was widely known as Engelsherz (Angel's-heart).When Albrecht was made a Feldmarschall in March 1888, Crown Prince Rudolf was appointed his subordinate as Generalinspekteur der Infanterie (Inspector General of Infantry). The new Inspector found any move toward liberal reform blocked by the War Minister, Feldzeugmeister Ferdinand von Bauer, the Chief of the General Staff, Feldzeugmeister Friedrich von Beck-Rzikowsky – and by Albrecht himself. Senior officers deferred to Albrecht who, after all, had laboriously modernized the Army after the disaster of 1866. However, the anomalous situation in the military administration was undoubtedly only one of many factors that contributed to Rudolf's suicide at Mayerling on 30 January 1889.[original research?]","title":"Inspector General"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wien_-_Erzherzog-Albrecht-Denkmal.JPG"},{"link_name":"Albertina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertina"},{"link_name":"Imperial German Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_German_Army"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm II, German Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Walther von Loë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_von_Lo%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenburg1976122-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothenburg1976122-7"},{"link_name":"Arco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arco,_Trentino"},{"link_name":"Imperial Crypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Crypt"},{"link_name":"Friedrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Friedrich,_Duke_of_Teschen"}],"text":"Statue of Archduke Albrecht outside the Albertina, ViennaHaving been made a Feldmarschall in his own army in 1863, Albrecht was the recipient of the equivalent rank of Generalfeldmarschall in the Imperial German Army in 1893, Wilhelm II, German Emperor sending General Walther von Loë to deliver the baton to Albrecht.Archduke Albrecht continued to serve as Generalinspekteur even into advanced age - a situation not uncommon in Austria-Hungary where many commanders retained posts and commissions into old age.[7] By 1895, though still holding his office, he was partially blind and his horse had to be led by an adjutant.[7]When he died in Arco on 18 February 1895, Archduke Albrecht received a state funeral and was buried in tomb 128 of the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. His fortune and his title of Duke of Teschen were inherited by his nephew, Archduke Friedrich, who served as Oberkommandeur in 1914–17.Today, an equestrian statue of Archduke Albrecht stands near the entrance to the Albertina museum, his former city residence in Vienna.","title":"Later life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Princess Hildegard of Bavaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Hildegard_of_Bavaria"},{"link_name":"Ludwig I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_I_of_Bavaria"},{"link_name":"Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therese_of_Saxe-Hildburghausen"},{"link_name":"Maria Theresa of Austria-Teschen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduchess_Maria_Theresa_of_Austria_(1845%E2%80%931927)"},{"link_name":"Duke Philipp of Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Philipp_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg"},{"link_name":"Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht,_Duke_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg"},{"link_name":"Fourth Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Army_(German_Empire)"},{"link_name":"Field Marshal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Marshal"},{"link_name":"Isabelle of Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchess_Maria_Isabella_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg"},{"link_name":"Robert of Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Robert_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg"},{"link_name":"Archduchess Mathilda of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduchess_Mathilda_of_Austria"}],"text":"On 1 May 1844 Albrecht married in Munich Princess Hildegard of Bavaria, daughter of King Ludwig I and Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Albrecht and Hildegard had 3 children:Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Teschen (15 July 1845, Vienna – 8 October 1927, Tübingen), married at Vienna on 18 January 1865 Duke Philipp of Württemberg (1838, Neuilly-sur-Seine – 1917, Stuttgart) and had five children:\nAlbrecht, Duke of Württemberg (1865–1939), commander on the Western Front of the German Fourth Army, 1914–17, and Army Group Duke Albrecht, 1917–18; like his grandfather, he was made a German Field Marshal in 1916.\nMarie Amelie of Württemberg (1865–1883)\nIsabelle of Württemberg (1871–1904)\nRobert of Württemberg (1873-1947)\nUlrich of Württemberg (1877–1944)\nArchduke Karl of Austria-Teschen (3 January 1847, Vienna – 19 July 1848), died of smallpox and buried in tomb 131 of the Imperial Crypt.\nArchduchess Mathilda of Austria-Teschen (25 January 1849, Vienna – 6 June 1867, Schloss Hetzendorf, near Vienna), buried in tomb 130 of the Imperial Crypt.","title":"Family and children"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Golden Fleece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Golden_Fleece"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of St. Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_St._Stephen_of_Hungary"},{"link_name":"Military Order of Maria Theresa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Order_of_Maria_Theresa"},{"link_name":"Military Merit Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Merit_Cross_(Austria-Hungary)"},{"link_name":"Sovereign Military Order of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscany"},{"link_name":"Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of St. Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Joseph"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Knight of St. George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_St._George"},{"link_name":"Knight of St. Andrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_St._Andrew"},{"link_name":"Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_St._Alexander_Nevsky"},{"link_name":"Knight of the White Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_White_Eagle_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"Knight of St. Anna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Anna"},{"link_name":"Knight of St. Vladimir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_St._Vladimir"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Black Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Black_Eagle"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Red Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Red_Eagle"},{"link_name":"House Order of Hohenzollern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_Order_of_Hohenzollern"},{"link_name":"Pour le Mérite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pour_le_M%C3%A9rite"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Empire"},{"link_name":"Legion of Honour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_Honour"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Southern Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Southern_Cross"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Order of Osmanieh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Osmanieh"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Annunciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Order_of_the_Most_Holy_Annunciation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dell'interno1884-11"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Elephant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Elephant"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Tower_and_Sword"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"Order of Charles III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Charles_III"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Ferdinand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laureate_Cross_of_Saint_Ferdinand"},{"link_name":"Bavaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria"},{"link_name":"Knight of St. Hubert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_St._Hubert"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Military Order of Max Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Order_of_Max_Joseph"},{"link_name":"Saxony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Rue Crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Rue_Crown"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sachsen1866-15"},{"link_name":"Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Crown_(W%C3%BCrttemberg)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-W%C3%BCrttemberg1869-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Sweden-Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden-Norway"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Seraphim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Seraphim"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Order of Leopold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Leopold_(Belgium)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Veldekens1858-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Redeemer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Redeemer"},{"link_name":"Hanover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hannover1865-19"},{"link_name":"Knight of St. George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_St._George_(Hanover)"},{"link_name":"Royal Guelphic Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Guelphic_Order"},{"link_name":"Two Sicilies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Constantinian Order of St. George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Military_Constantinian_Order_of_Saint_George"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Ferdinand_and_of_Merit"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Star of Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Star_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the White Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_White_Eagle_(Serbia)"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Cross_of_Takovo"},{"link_name":"Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"House Order of Fidelity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_Order_of_Fidelity"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Z%C3%A4hringer_Lion"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Hesse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Order"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of the White Falcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_White_Falcon"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Nassau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Nassau"},{"link_name":"Knight of the Gold Lion of Nassau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Gold_Lion_of_the_House_of_Nassau"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick"},{"link_name":"Grand Cross of Henry the Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Henry_the_Lion"},{"link_name":"Montenegro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro"},{"link_name":"Order of Prince Danilo I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Prince_Danilo_I"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Military William Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_William_Order"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Military_William_Order-24"},{"link_name":"Holy See","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See"},{"link_name":"Supreme Order of Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Order_of_Christ"}],"text":"Albrecht received the following decorations and awards:[8]Austria:[9]\nKnight of the Golden Fleece, 1830\nGrand Cross of St. Stephen, 1852\nGrand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1866\nMilitary Merit Cross with War Decoration\nLong Service Cross for Officers, 1st Class\n Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion\n Tuscany: Grand Cross of St. Joseph\n Russia:\nKnight of St. George, 1st Class\nKnight of St. Andrew\nKnight of St. Alexander Nevsky\nKnight of the White Eagle\nKnight of St. Anna, 1st Class\nKnight of St. Vladimir, 1st Class\n Prussia:\nKnight of the Black Eagle, with Collar 1891\nKnight of the Red Eagle, 1st Class\nGrand Commander of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern\nPour le Mérite (military), 10 April 1849[10]\n France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour\n Brazil: Grand Cross of the Southern Cross\n Ottoman Empire: Order of Osmanieh, 1st Class in Diamonds\n Italy: Knight of the Annunciation, 21 September 1873[11]\n Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 19 September 1881[12]\n Portugal: Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword\n Spain:\nGrand Cross of the Order of Charles III, with Collar, 25 June 1883[13]\nGrand Cross of the Military Order of St. Ferdinand\n Bavaria:\nKnight of St. Hubert, 1843[14]\nGrand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph\n Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown, 1851[15]\n Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1856[16]\n Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Seraphim, 20 April 1885[17]\n Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold, 1 August 1856[18]\n Greece: Grand Cross of the Redeemer\n Hanover:[19]\nKnight of St. George, 1843\nGrand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 1843\n Two Sicilies:\nGrand Cross of the Constantinian Order of St. George\nGrand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit\n Romania: Grand Cross of the Star of Romania, with War Insignia\n Serbia:\nGrand Cross of the White Eagle\nGrand Cross of the Cross of Takovo\n Baden:[20]\nKnight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1856\nGrand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1856\n Grand Duchy of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 7 September 1843[21]\n Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 22 October 1859[22]\n Nassau: Knight of the Gold Lion of Nassau, June 1858[23]\n Brunswick: Grand Cross of Henry the Lion\n Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I\n Netherlands: Commander of the Military William Order, 27 June 1856[24]\n Holy See: Knight of the Supreme Order of Christ","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Albrecht's name was given to a Panzerschiff (armorclad, later battleship) launched in 1872 as Erzherzog Albrecht. Renamed Feuerspeier in 1908, she was ceded to Italy in 1920 and renamed Buttafuoco. The old ironclad survived as a hulk until she was scrapped in 1947.","title":"Namesake"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Maria Theresa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Theresa"},{"link_name":"Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen"},{"link_name":"Charles III of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Infanta Maria Louisa of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Louisa_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Amalia_of_Saxony"},{"link_name":"Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Christian,_Prince_of_Nassau-Weilburg"},{"link_name":"Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William,_Prince_of_Nassau-Weilburg"},{"link_name":"Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Carolina_of_Orange-Nassau"},{"link_name":"Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Henrietta_of_Nassau-Weilburg"},{"link_name":"Burgravine Louise Isabella of Kirchberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgravine_Louise_Isabella_of_Kirchberg"}],"text":"Ancestors of Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen 8. Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor 4. Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor 9. Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary 2. Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen 10. Charles III of Spain 5. Infanta Maria Louisa of Spain 11. Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony 1. Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen 12. Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 6. Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg 13. Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau 3. Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg 14. Wilhelm Georg, Burgrave of Kirchberg 7. Burgravine Louise Isabella of Kirchberg 15. Princess Isabelle Auguste Reuss of Greiz","title":"Ancestry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-85177-245-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85177-245-5"},{"link_name":"University of California Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press"},{"link_name":"George R. Marek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_R._Marek"},{"link_name":"Harper & Row","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_%26_Row"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-246-10880-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-246-10880-7"}],"text":"\"Death of Archduke Albrecht\", The New York Times, 19 February 1895\nRobert Gardiner (editorial director), Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1985. ISBN 0-85177-245-5\nRobert A. Kann, A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526–1918. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.\nGeorge R. Marek, The Eagles Die: Franz Joseph, Elisabeth, and Their Austria. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. ISBN 978-0-246-10880-7\nFrederic Morton, A Nervous Splendour. Vienna 1888–1889. London: The Folio Society, 2006 (first published in 1979).\nAlan Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs. The life and times of the Emperor Francis Joseph. New York: Grove Press, 1994.\nRothenburg, G. (1976). The Army of Francis Joseph. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press.","title":"Bibliography"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Archduke_Albrecht_of_Austria%2C_Duke_of_Teschen.jpg/200px-Archduke_Albrecht_of_Austria%2C_Duke_of_Teschen.jpg"},{"image_text":"Statue of Archduke Albrecht outside the Albertina, Vienna","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wien_-_Erzherzog-Albrecht-Denkmal.JPG/170px-Wien_-_Erzherzog-Albrecht-Denkmal.JPG"}] | [{"title":"Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Archduke_Albrecht,_Duke_of_Teschen"},{"title":"Erzherzog-Albrecht-Marsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erzherzog-Albrecht-Marsch"},{"title":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Austrian_archdukes"},{"title":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Austrian_archdukes"},{"title":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Austrian_archdukes"},{"title":"Austrian archdukes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke#Other_dynastic_Habsburg_use"},{"title":"Frederick V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Albert VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_VI,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Sigismund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Maximilian I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Philip I of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_I_of_Castile"},{"title":"Charles I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Ferdinand I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Philip II of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain"},{"title":"Maximilian II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Ferdinand II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Charles II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Charles, Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"title":"Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"title":"Diego, Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"title":"Philip III of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain"},{"title":"Rudolf V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Ernest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Ernest_of_Austria"},{"title":"Matthias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Maximilian III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_III,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Albert VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_VII,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Wenceslaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Wenceslaus_of_Austria"},{"title":"Ferdinand III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Maximilian Ernest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Maximilian_Ernest_of_Austria"},{"title":"Leopold V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_V,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Charles, Bishop of Wroclaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_of_Austria,_Bishop_of_Wroclaw"},{"title":"Philip IV of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain"},{"title":"Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Carlos_of_Spain_(1607%E2%80%931632)"},{"title":"Ferdinand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal-Infante_Ferdinand_of_Austria"},{"title":"Alonso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Alonso_of_Spain"},{"title":"Ferdinand IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Leopold Wilhelm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Leopold_Wilhelm_of_Austria"},{"title":"Ferdinand Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Charles,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Sigismund Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund_Francis,_Archduke_of_Austria"},{"title":"Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balthasar_Charles,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"title":"Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Prospero,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"title":"Charles II of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain"},{"title":"Ferdinand IV of Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_IV,_King_of_the_Romans"},{"title":"Leopold VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Charles Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles_Joseph_of_Austria"},{"title":"Joseph I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Leopold Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Leopold_Joseph_of_Austria_(1682%E2%80%931684)"},{"title":"Charles III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_VI,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Joseph II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Charles Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles_Joseph_of_Austria_(born_1745)"},{"title":"Leopold VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Ferdinand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Karl,_Archduke_of_Austria-Este"},{"title":"Maximilian Franz, Archbishop-Elector of Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Maximilian_Francis_of_Austria"},{"title":"Emperor Francis I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"title":"Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_III,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany"},{"title":"Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen"},{"title":"Alexander Leopold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Alexander_Leopold_of_Austria"},{"title":"Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Joseph_of_Austria_(Palatine_of_Hungary)"},{"title":"Anton Victor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Anton_Victor_of_Austria"},{"title":"John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_John_of_Austria"},{"title":"Rainer Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Rainer_Joseph_of_Austria"},{"title":"Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Louis_of_Austria"},{"title":"Cardinal Rudolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Rudolf_of_Austria"},{"title":"Francis IV, Duke of Modena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_IV,_Duke_of_Modena"},{"title":"Ferdinand Karl Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Ferdinand_Karl_Joseph_of_Austria-Este"},{"title":"Maximilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Maximilian_of_Austria-Este"},{"title":"Karl Ambrosius, Primate of Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Karl_Ambrosius_of_Austria-Este"},{"title":"Emperor Ferdinand I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Austria"},{"title":"Joseph Franz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Joseph_Franz_of_Austria"},{"title":"Franz Karl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Franz_Karl_of_Austria"},{"title":"Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_II,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany"},{"title":"Albrecht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"title":"Karl Ferdinand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Karl_Ferdinand_of_Austria"},{"title":"Frederick Ferdinand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Friedrich_of_Austria_(1821%E2%80%931847)"},{"title":"Wilhelm Franz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Wilhelm_Franz_of_Austria"},{"title":"Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Stephen_of_Austria_(Palatine_of_Hungary)"},{"title":"Joseph 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavi,_Estonia | Lavi, Estonia | ["1 References"] | Coordinates: 59°18′N 26°38′E / 59.300°N 26.633°E / 59.300; 26.633Village in Estonia
Village in Lääne-Viru County, EstoniaLaviVillageCountry EstoniaCountyLääne-Viru CountyParishVinni ParishPopulation • Total42Time zoneUTC+2 (EET) • Summer (DST)UTC+3 (EEST)
Lavi is a village in Vinni Parish, Lääne-Viru County, in northeastern Estonia. Prior to the 2017 administrative reform of Estonian local governments, the village was located in Rägavere Parish.
vteSettlements in Vinni ParishSmall boroughs
Laekvere
Pajusti
Roela
Tudu
Vinni
Viru-Jaagupi
Villages
Aarla
Aasuvälja
Alavere
Alekvere
Allika
Anguse
Aravuse
Arukse
Aruküla
Aruvälja
Ilistvere
Inju
Kaasiksaare
Kadila
Kakumäe
Kannastiku
Karkuse
Kantküla
Kaukvere
Kehala
Kellavere
Koeravere
Kõrma
Kulina
Küti
Lähtse
Lavi
Lepiku
Luusika
Mäetaguse
Männikvälja
Miila
Mõdriku
Mõedaka
Moora
Muuga
Nõmmise
Nurkse
Nurmetu
Obja
Paasvere
Padu
Palasi
Piira
Põlula
Puka
Rahkla
Rajaküla
Rasivere
Ristiküla
Rohu
Rünga
Sae
Saara
Salutaguse
Sirevere
Soonuka
Sootaguse
Suigu
Tammiku
Uljaste
Ulvi
Vana-Vinni
Vassivere
Veadla
Venevere
Vetiku
Viru-Kabala
Võhu
Voore
59°18′N 26°38′E / 59.300°N 26.633°E / 59.300; 26.633
References
^ a b "Statistika andmebaas - Vali tabel". Retrieved 27 March 2016.
This Lääne-Viru County location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vinni Parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"Lääne-Viru County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"},{"link_name":"Rägavere Parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A4gavere_Parish"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stat-1"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"Settlements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populated_places_in_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Vinni Parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"Laekvere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laekvere"},{"link_name":"Pajusti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pajusti"},{"link_name":"Roela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roela"},{"link_name":"Tudu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudu,_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Vinni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinni,_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Viru-Jaagupi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viru-Jaagupi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vinni_valla_vapp.svg"},{"link_name":"Aarla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarla"},{"link_name":"Aasuvälja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aasuv%C3%A4lja,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Alavere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alavere,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Alekvere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alekvere"},{"link_name":"Allika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allika,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Anguse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguse"},{"link_name":"Aravuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aravuse"},{"link_name":"Arukse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arukse"},{"link_name":"Aruküla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruk%C3%BCla,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Aruvälja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruv%C3%A4lja,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Ilistvere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilistvere"},{"link_name":"Inju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inju"},{"link_name":"Kaasiksaare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaasiksaare"},{"link_name":"Kadila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadila"},{"link_name":"Kakumäe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakum%C3%A4e,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Kannastiku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannastiku"},{"link_name":"Karkuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karkuse,_Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"Kantküla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantk%C3%BCla,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Kaukvere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaukvere"},{"link_name":"Kehala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kehala"},{"link_name":"Kellavere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kellavere"},{"link_name":"Koeravere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koeravere"},{"link_name":"Kõrma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B5rma"},{"link_name":"Kulina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulina,_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Küti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCti,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Lähtse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4htse,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Lavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Lepiku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepiku,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Luusika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luusika"},{"link_name":"Mäetaguse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A4etaguse,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Männikvälja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A4nnikv%C3%A4lja"},{"link_name":"Miila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miila"},{"link_name":"Mõdriku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B5driku"},{"link_name":"Mõedaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B5edaka"},{"link_name":"Moora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moora,_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Muuga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muuga,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Nõmmise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B5mmise"},{"link_name":"Nurkse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurkse"},{"link_name":"Nurmetu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurmetu"},{"link_name":"Obja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obja"},{"link_name":"Paasvere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paasvere"},{"link_name":"Padu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padu"},{"link_name":"Palasi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palasi,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Piira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piira"},{"link_name":"Põlula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B5lula"},{"link_name":"Puka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puka,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Rahkla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahkla,_Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"Rajaküla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajak%C3%BCla,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Rasivere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasivere,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Ristiküla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ristik%C3%BCla,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Rohu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohu,_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Rünga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCnga"},{"link_name":"Sae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sae,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Saara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saara,_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Salutaguse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salutaguse,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Sirevere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirevere"},{"link_name":"Soonuka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soonuka"},{"link_name":"Sootaguse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sootaguse,_Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"Suigu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suigu,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Tammiku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tammiku,_Vinni_Parish"},{"link_name":"Uljaste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uljaste,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Ulvi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulvi,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Vana-Vinni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Vinni"},{"link_name":"Vassivere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassivere"},{"link_name":"Veadla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veadla"},{"link_name":"Venevere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venevere,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"Vetiku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetiku"},{"link_name":"Viru-Kabala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viru-Kabala"},{"link_name":"Võhu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B5hu"},{"link_name":"Voore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voore,_L%C3%A4%C3%A4ne-Viru_County"},{"link_name":"59°18′N 26°38′E / 59.300°N 26.633°E / 59.300; 26.633","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Lavi,_Estonia¶ms=59_18_N_26_38_E_region:EE_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki"}],"text":"Village in EstoniaVillage in Lääne-Viru County, EstoniaLavi is a village in Vinni Parish, Lääne-Viru County, in northeastern Estonia. Prior to the 2017 administrative reform of Estonian local governments, the village was located in Rägavere Parish.[1]vteSettlements in Vinni ParishSmall boroughs\nLaekvere\nPajusti\nRoela\nTudu\nVinni\nViru-Jaagupi\nVillages\nAarla\nAasuvälja\nAlavere\nAlekvere\nAllika\nAnguse\nAravuse\nArukse\nAruküla\nAruvälja\nIlistvere\nInju\nKaasiksaare\nKadila\nKakumäe\nKannastiku\nKarkuse\nKantküla\nKaukvere\nKehala\nKellavere\nKoeravere\nKõrma\nKulina\nKüti\nLähtse\nLavi\nLepiku\nLuusika\nMäetaguse\nMännikvälja\nMiila\nMõdriku\nMõedaka\nMoora\nMuuga\nNõmmise\nNurkse\nNurmetu\nObja\nPaasvere\nPadu\nPalasi\nPiira\nPõlula\nPuka\nRahkla\nRajaküla\nRasivere\nRistiküla\nRohu\nRünga\nSae\nSaara\nSalutaguse\nSirevere\nSoonuka\nSootaguse\nSuigu\nTammiku\nUljaste\nUlvi\nVana-Vinni\nVassivere\nVeadla\nVenevere\nVetiku\nViru-Kabala\nVõhu\nVoore59°18′N 26°38′E / 59.300°N 26.633°E / 59.300; 26.633","title":"Lavi, Estonia"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Statistika andmebaas - Vali tabel\". Retrieved 27 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC003&lang=1","url_text":"\"Statistika andmebaas - Vali tabel\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Lavi,_Estonia¶ms=59_18_N_26_38_E_region:EE_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki","external_links_name":"59°18′N 26°38′E / 59.300°N 26.633°E / 59.300; 26.633"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Lavi,_Estonia¶ms=59_18_N_26_38_E_region:EE_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki","external_links_name":"59°18′N 26°38′E / 59.300°N 26.633°E / 59.300; 26.633"},{"Link":"http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC003&lang=1","external_links_name":"\"Statistika andmebaas - Vali tabel\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lavi,_Estonia&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Street,_Perth | William Street, Perth | ["1 Route description","1.1 Public transport","1.2 Buildings","2 History","2.1 Traffic direction","3 See also","4 Notes","5 External links"] | Route map: Street in CBD Perth, Western Australia
William StreetWestern AustraliaWilliam Street running through NorthbridgeGeneral informationTypeRoadLength3.5 km (2.2 mi)Route number(s) State Route 5 (Mounts Bay Road/The Esplanade to Birdiya Drive)
State Route 53 southbound (Brisbane Street to Birdiya Drive, former)Major junctionsNorth end Walcott Street (State Route 75), Mount Lawley
Vincent Street
Wellington Street (State Route 65)
St Georges Terrace
South end Birdiya Drive (State Route 5), PerthLocation(s)Major suburbsNorthbridge, Perth
William Street is a suburban distributor and one of two major cross-streets in the central business district of Perth, Western Australia. Commencing in western Mount Lawley, its route takes it through the Northbridge café and nightclub district as well as the CBD.
Route description
William Street runs along the Horseshoe Bridge which connects Northbridge with the Perth CBD
William Street's northern end is at Walcott Street in Mount Lawley and commences as a four-lane single carriageway. It travels southwest along one block, for 130 metres (430 ft), before turning southwards. After 600 metres (2,000 ft) it reaches Vincent Street, and the southern edge of Mount Lawley. The road continues in a south-south-westerly direction, at the eastern edge of Hyde Park and the western edge of Highgate. One block beyond the park, within the suburb of Perth, William Street intersects Bulwer Street, which connects to three parallel arterial roads – Lord Street Beaufort Street, and Fitzgerald Street – as well as the major north–south road, Charles Street.
William Street realigns itself one block further east through a 220-metre-long (720 ft) reverse curve. At this point, it intersects Brisbane Street. Beyond Brisbane Street, the road reduces from four lanes to two and continues in a straight line for 900 metres (3,000 ft) to Roe Street, and is at the eastern edge of Northbridge from Newcastle Street to that point.
The Horseshoe Bridge takes the road between the Perth railway station and Yagan Square. Beyond the bridge, the road continues in its south-south-westerly direction through the Perth CBD. It intersects all the major east–west routes. At the southern end of the bridge is Wellington Street. This is followed by Murray and Hay streets, which are pedestrian malls to the east; and then St Georges Terrace, which is a through-route for vehicular traffic. One more block takes it to an intersection with Mounts Bay Road, to the west, and the Esplanade to east. After one more block, alongside the Elizabeth Quay Bus Station and railway station, the road ends at Birdiya Drive. This intersection also connects a Mitchell Freeway exit ramp and Kwinana Freeway southbound entrance ramp, components of the Narrows Interchange.
Public transport
William Street is serviced by buses running through Northbridge. Most of these services deviate via Elizabeth Quay Bus Station before continuing to their destination.
Buildings
There is an entrance to 108 St Georges Terrace (formerly the Bankwest Tower) on William Street. Wesley Church is on the corner of William Street and Hay Street. At 427 William St is the Perth Mosque, the oldest mosque in Perth, which opened in 1906. Australia Place is further down William Street. There is a 24-hour McDonald's, as well as a KFC and Hungry Jack's. Both sides of William Street between Wellington Street and Hay Street have recently been redeveloped, Raine Square on the west and Gordon Stephenson House on the east side of the street.
Although their addresses are on adjacent streets, 108 St Georges Terrace, the Gledden Building, the Palace Hotel and Walsh's Building are all on the corners along William Street. Wentworth Hotel is on the corner with Murray Street
In 2009 the East Perth Redevelopment Authority was involved in redeveloping six properties on the eastern side of William Street, between Roe and Newcastle Streets.
St George's Anglican Grammar School is at 50 William Street.
History
This section needs expansion with: construction, naming, extensions/works. You can help by adding to it. (August 2013)
William Street by Albert Henry Fullwood (1911/1912)
The street formerly directly passed over the Fremantle and Joondalup railway lines at the Horseshoe Bridge. These lines were later sunk as part of the Perth City Link project but the bridge remains. A ramp which took William Street traffic from The Esplanade onto the southbound Kwinana Freeway was closed in 2004 during the construction of the Esplanade railway station.
Traffic direction
William Street began as a two-way street, and during the era of trams in Perth, there were tram lines along it. In the late 20th century and early 21st century, William Street was two-way north of Brisbane Street, and one-way southbound on the other side. All southbound traffic from Beaufort Street was redirected via Brisbane Street to William Street as the southbound component of State Route 53. In 2008, the section between The Esplanade and Wellington Street returned to two-way traffic. Further conversion occurred in 2010, when the Horseshoe Bridge was changed back to two-way traffic, and in 2013 the section between the bridge and Newcastle Street was converted. The final section, between Newcastle and Brisbane Streets, was converted to two-way in late 2019. As a result of the conversion both directions of State Route 53 were transferred to Beaufort and Barrack Streets. Since 2014, William Street now carries State Route 5 south of The Esplanade due to the Elizabeth Quay development.
See also
Australian roads portal
Notes
^ a b c d Google (23 August 2013). "William Street, Perth" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
^ ""The Oldest Mosque in Perth" - Review of Perth Mosque, Perth, Western Australia". TripAdvisor. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
^ Western Australia. East Perth Development Authority (2009), Take a walk down William Street, retrieved 10 April 2012
^ "Two-way traffic returns to the heart of the city". City of Perth. 6 July 2008. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
^ "TWO WAY WILLIAM STREET". City of Vincent. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
External links
KML file (edit • help)
Template:Attached KML/William Street, PerthKML is from Wikidata
OnWilliam – Association of William Street art and retail proprietors
Media related to William Street, Perth at Wikimedia Commons
vteRoad routes in Western Australia State Route 5
Stirling Highway
Mounts Bay Road
Birdiya Drive
William Street
The Esplanade
Barrack Street
Riverside Drive
The Causeway
National Highways
1
94
95
National Routes
1
Alt 94
State Routes
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
13
14
18
19
20
21
22
26
27
30
Alt 30
31
36
40
41
50
51
52
53
55
56
60
61
64
65
66
71
72
75
76
77
78
81
82
83
84
85
87
102
104
107
115
116
120
123
136
138
139
Tourist Drives
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
250
251
252
254
255
256
257
258
259
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
List of road routes in Western Australia
vteStreets of the Perth central business districtMain Grid Latitudinal streetsWest to East:MilliganKingWilliamBarrackPierLordVictoriaHillBennettPlainMain Grid Longitudinal streetsNorth to South:RoeMooreWellingtonMurrayGoderichHaySt GeorgesAdelaideMounts BayThe EsplanadeTerraceRiversideOther streets and thoroughfaresCathedralElderForrestGovernorsHowardIrwinMillQueenSherwoodSpringElizabeth Quay (incl. Duchess, Enchantress & Geoffrey Bolton)Perth CBD lanes and arcades | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"central business district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth_central_business_district"},{"link_name":"Perth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth"},{"link_name":"Mount Lawley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Lawley,_Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"Northbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northbridge,_Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"nightclub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightclub"}],"text":"Street in CBD Perth, Western AustraliaWilliam Street is a suburban distributor and one of two major cross-streets in the central business district of Perth, Western Australia. Commencing in western Mount Lawley, its route takes it through the Northbridge café and nightclub district as well as the CBD.","title":"William Street, Perth"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horseshoe_Bridge,_looking_north-east.jpg"},{"link_name":"Horseshoe Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseshoe_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Walcott Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walcott_Street"},{"link_name":"Mount Lawley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Lawley,_Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"Vincent Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_Street,_North_Perth"},{"link_name":"Hyde Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyde_Park,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Highgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highgate,_Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"Perth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth_(suburb)"},{"link_name":"Lord Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Street,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Beaufort Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_Street"},{"link_name":"Fitzgerald Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitzgerald_Street"},{"link_name":"Charles Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Street_(Perth)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gmaps-1"},{"link_name":"reverse curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_curve"},{"link_name":"Northbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northbridge,_Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gmaps-1"},{"link_name":"Horseshoe Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseshoe_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Perth railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Yagan Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yagan_Square"},{"link_name":"Wellington Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_Street,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Street,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Hay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay_Street,_Perth"},{"link_name":"St Georges Terrace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Georges_Terrace"},{"link_name":"Mounts Bay Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mounts_Bay_Road"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Quay Bus Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Quay_Bus_Station"},{"link_name":"railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Quay_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Birdiya Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverside_Drive,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Mitchell Freeway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitchell_Freeway"},{"link_name":"Kwinana Freeway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwinana_Freeway"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gmaps-1"}],"text":"William Street runs along the Horseshoe Bridge which connects Northbridge with the Perth CBDWilliam Street's northern end is at Walcott Street in Mount Lawley and commences as a four-lane single carriageway. It travels southwest along one block, for 130 metres (430 ft), before turning southwards. After 600 metres (2,000 ft) it reaches Vincent Street, and the southern edge of Mount Lawley. The road continues in a south-south-westerly direction, at the eastern edge of Hyde Park and the western edge of Highgate. One block beyond the park, within the suburb of Perth, William Street intersects Bulwer Street, which connects to three parallel arterial roads – Lord Street Beaufort Street, and Fitzgerald Street – as well as the major north–south road, Charles Street.[1]William Street realigns itself one block further east through a 220-metre-long (720 ft) reverse curve. At this point, it intersects Brisbane Street. Beyond Brisbane Street, the road reduces from four lanes to two and continues in a straight line for 900 metres (3,000 ft) to Roe Street, and is at the eastern edge of Northbridge from Newcastle Street to that point.[1]The Horseshoe Bridge takes the road between the Perth railway station and Yagan Square. Beyond the bridge, the road continues in its south-south-westerly direction through the Perth CBD. It intersects all the major east–west routes. At the southern end of the bridge is Wellington Street. This is followed by Murray and Hay streets, which are pedestrian malls to the east; and then St Georges Terrace, which is a through-route for vehicular traffic. One more block takes it to an intersection with Mounts Bay Road, to the west, and the Esplanade to east. After one more block, alongside the Elizabeth Quay Bus Station and railway station, the road ends at Birdiya Drive. This intersection also connects a Mitchell Freeway exit ramp and Kwinana Freeway southbound entrance ramp, components of the Narrows Interchange.[1]","title":"Route description"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Public transport","text":"William Street is serviced by buses running through Northbridge. Most of these services deviate via Elizabeth Quay Bus Station before continuing to their destination.","title":"Route description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"108 St Georges Terrace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/108_St_Georges_Terrace"},{"link_name":"Wesley Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wesley_Church,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Hay Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay_Street,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Perth Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth_Mosque"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TripAdvisor-2"},{"link_name":"McDonald's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonald%27s"},{"link_name":"KFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KFC"},{"link_name":"Hungry Jack's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungry_Jack%27s"},{"link_name":"Wellington Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_Street,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Raine Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raine_Square"},{"link_name":"Gordon Stephenson House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Stephenson_House"},{"link_name":"Gledden Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gledden_Building"},{"link_name":"Palace Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_Hotel,_Perth"},{"link_name":"Walsh's Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsh%27s_Building"},{"link_name":"Wentworth Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wentworth_Hotel,_Perth"},{"link_name":"East Perth Redevelopment Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Perth_Redevelopment_Authority"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"St George's Anglican Grammar School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_George%27s_Anglican_Grammar_School"}],"sub_title":"Buildings","text":"There is an entrance to 108 St Georges Terrace (formerly the Bankwest Tower) on William Street. Wesley Church is on the corner of William Street and Hay Street. At 427 William St is the Perth Mosque, the oldest mosque in Perth, which opened in 1906.[2] Australia Place is further down William Street. There is a 24-hour McDonald's, as well as a KFC and Hungry Jack's. Both sides of William Street between Wellington Street and Hay Street have recently been redeveloped, Raine Square on the west and Gordon Stephenson House on the east side of the street.Although their addresses are on adjacent streets, 108 St Georges Terrace, the Gledden Building, the Palace Hotel and Walsh's Building are all on the corners along William Street. Wentworth Hotel is on the corner with Murray StreetIn 2009 the East Perth Redevelopment Authority was involved in redeveloping six properties on the eastern side of William Street, between Roe and Newcastle Streets.[3]St George's Anglican Grammar School is at 50 William Street.","title":"Route description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WILLIAM_ST._(camels_on_street),_PERTH,_W._AUSTRALIA.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albert Henry Fullwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Henry_Fullwood"},{"link_name":"Fremantle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremantle_railway_line"},{"link_name":"Joondalup railway lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joondalup_railway_line"},{"link_name":"Perth City Link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth_City_Link"},{"link_name":"Kwinana Freeway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwinana_Freeway"},{"link_name":"Esplanade railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Quay_railway_station"}],"text":"William Street by Albert Henry Fullwood (1911/1912)The street formerly directly passed over the Fremantle and Joondalup railway lines at the Horseshoe Bridge. These lines were later sunk as part of the Perth City Link project but the bridge remains. A ramp which took William Street traffic from The Esplanade onto the southbound Kwinana Freeway was closed in 2004 during the construction of the Esplanade railway station.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trams in Perth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trams_in_Perth"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"The Esplanade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Esplanade_(Perth)"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Quay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Quay"}],"sub_title":"Traffic direction","text":"William Street began as a two-way street, and during the era of trams in Perth, there were tram lines along it. In the late 20th century and early 21st century, William Street was two-way north of Brisbane Street, and one-way southbound on the other side. All southbound traffic from Beaufort Street was redirected via Brisbane Street to William Street as the southbound component of State Route 53. In 2008, the section between The Esplanade and Wellington Street returned to two-way traffic.[4] Further conversion occurred in 2010, when the Horseshoe Bridge was changed back to two-way traffic, and in 2013 the section between the bridge and Newcastle Street was converted. The final section, between Newcastle and Brisbane Streets, was converted to two-way in late 2019.[5] As a result of the conversion both directions of State Route 53 were transferred to Beaufort and Barrack Streets. Since 2014, William Street now carries State Route 5 south of The Esplanade due to the Elizabeth Quay development.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-gmaps_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-gmaps_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-gmaps_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-gmaps_1-3"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"\"William Street, Perth\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//maps.google.com.au/maps?saddr=William+St&daddr=William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+5%2FState+Route+53&hl=en&ll=-31.946336,115.86555&spn=0.035505,0.052314&sll=-31.957337,115.85628&sspn=0.004438,0.006539&geocode=FZfHGP4dA__nBg%3BFTvEGP4dlvvnBg%3BFeCvGP4dKvvnBg%3BFVyeGP4dWvDnBg%3BFfyWGP4dnu7nBg%3BFWZ7GP4dTN3nBg%3BFYR2GP4dvtrnBg%3BFapjGP4dJtLnBg%3BFfpaGP4dl83nBg&oq=Riverside+Drive&mra=mi&mrsp=8&sz=18&t=m&z=15"},{"link_name":"Google Maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-TripAdvisor_2-0"},{"link_name":"\"\"The Oldest Mosque in Perth\" - Review of Perth Mosque, Perth, Western Australia\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.tripadvisor.co.nz/ShowUserReviews-g255103-d565251-r385081215-Perth_Mosque-Perth_Greater_Perth_Western_Australia.html"},{"link_name":"TripAdvisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TripAdvisor"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Take a walk down William Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//trove.nla.gov.au/work/28034990"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Two-way traffic returns to the heart of the city\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120325130255/http://perth.wa.gov.au/web/Media-Centre/?article=159"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//perth.wa.gov.au/web/Media-Centre/?article=159"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"TWO WAY WILLIAM STREET\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.vincent.wa.gov.au/develop-build/engineering/two-way-william.aspx"}],"text":"^ a b c d Google (23 August 2013). \"William Street, Perth\" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 23 August 2013.\n\n^ \"\"The Oldest Mosque in Perth\" - Review of Perth Mosque, Perth, Western Australia\". TripAdvisor. Retrieved 20 January 2018.\n\n^ Western Australia. East Perth Development Authority (2009), Take a walk down William Street, retrieved 10 April 2012\n\n^ \"Two-way traffic returns to the heart of the city\". City of Perth. 6 July 2008. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2013.\n\n^ \"TWO WAY WILLIAM STREET\". City of Vincent. Retrieved 27 November 2020.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"William Street runs along the Horseshoe Bridge which connects Northbridge with the Perth CBD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Horseshoe_Bridge%2C_looking_north-east.jpg/220px-Horseshoe_Bridge%2C_looking_north-east.jpg"},{"image_text":"William Street by Albert Henry Fullwood (1911/1912)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/WILLIAM_ST._%28camels_on_street%29%2C_PERTH%2C_W._AUSTRALIA.jpg/220px-WILLIAM_ST._%28camels_on_street%29%2C_PERTH%2C_W._AUSTRALIA.jpg"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Australia_road_sign_W5-29.svg"},{"title":"Australian roads portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Australian_roads"}] | [{"reference":"Google (23 August 2013). \"William Street, Perth\" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 23 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google","url_text":"Google"},{"url":"https://maps.google.com.au/maps?saddr=William+St&daddr=William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+5%2FState+Route+53&hl=en&ll=-31.946336,115.86555&spn=0.035505,0.052314&sll=-31.957337,115.85628&sspn=0.004438,0.006539&geocode=FZfHGP4dA__nBg%3BFTvEGP4dlvvnBg%3BFeCvGP4dKvvnBg%3BFVyeGP4dWvDnBg%3BFfyWGP4dnu7nBg%3BFWZ7GP4dTN3nBg%3BFYR2GP4dvtrnBg%3BFapjGP4dJtLnBg%3BFfpaGP4dl83nBg&oq=Riverside+Drive&mra=mi&mrsp=8&sz=18&t=m&z=15","url_text":"\"William Street, Perth\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps","url_text":"Google Maps"}]},{"reference":"\"\"The Oldest Mosque in Perth\" - Review of Perth Mosque, Perth, Western Australia\". TripAdvisor. Retrieved 20 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tripadvisor.co.nz/ShowUserReviews-g255103-d565251-r385081215-Perth_Mosque-Perth_Greater_Perth_Western_Australia.html","url_text":"\"\"The Oldest Mosque in Perth\" - Review of Perth Mosque, Perth, Western Australia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TripAdvisor","url_text":"TripAdvisor"}]},{"reference":"Western Australia. East Perth Development Authority (2009), Take a walk down William Street, retrieved 10 April 2012","urls":[{"url":"http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/28034990","url_text":"Take a walk down William Street"}]},{"reference":"\"Two-way traffic returns to the heart of the city\". City of Perth. 6 July 2008. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120325130255/http://perth.wa.gov.au/web/Media-Centre/?article=159","url_text":"\"Two-way traffic returns to the heart of the city\""},{"url":"http://perth.wa.gov.au/web/Media-Centre/?article=159","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"TWO WAY WILLIAM STREET\". City of Vincent. Retrieved 27 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vincent.wa.gov.au/develop-build/engineering/two-way-william.aspx","url_text":"\"TWO WAY WILLIAM STREET\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Street,_Perth&action=edit§ion=","external_links_name":"adding to it"},{"Link":"https://maps.google.com.au/maps?saddr=William+St&daddr=William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+53+to:William+St%2FState+Route+5%2FState+Route+53&hl=en&ll=-31.946336,115.86555&spn=0.035505,0.052314&sll=-31.957337,115.85628&sspn=0.004438,0.006539&geocode=FZfHGP4dA__nBg%3BFTvEGP4dlvvnBg%3BFeCvGP4dKvvnBg%3BFVyeGP4dWvDnBg%3BFfyWGP4dnu7nBg%3BFWZ7GP4dTN3nBg%3BFYR2GP4dvtrnBg%3BFapjGP4dJtLnBg%3BFfpaGP4dl83nBg&oq=Riverside+Drive&mra=mi&mrsp=8&sz=18&t=m&z=15","external_links_name":"\"William Street, Perth\""},{"Link":"https://www.tripadvisor.co.nz/ShowUserReviews-g255103-d565251-r385081215-Perth_Mosque-Perth_Greater_Perth_Western_Australia.html","external_links_name":"\"\"The Oldest Mosque in Perth\" - Review of Perth Mosque, Perth, Western Australia\""},{"Link":"http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/28034990","external_links_name":"Take a walk down William Street"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120325130255/http://perth.wa.gov.au/web/Media-Centre/?article=159","external_links_name":"\"Two-way traffic returns to the heart of the city\""},{"Link":"http://perth.wa.gov.au/web/Media-Centre/?article=159","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.vincent.wa.gov.au/develop-build/engineering/two-way-william.aspx","external_links_name":"\"TWO WAY WILLIAM STREET\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Attached_KML/William_Street,_Perth&action=raw","external_links_name":"KML file"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Attached_KML/William_Street,_Perth&action=edit","external_links_name":"edit"},{"Link":"http://www.onwilliam.com.au/","external_links_name":"OnWilliam"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_education_department_(Punjab,_Pakistan) | School education department (Punjab, Pakistan) | ["1 Attached Departments","1.1 Punjab Education Assessment System","2 Autonomous Bodies","2.1 Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board","2.2 Punjab Examination Commission","2.3 Punjab Education Foundation","2.4 The Punjab Daanish Schools and Centers of Excellence Authority","3 Special Institutions","3.1 Sadiq Public School","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | School Education Department is a department of Government of Punjab, Pakistan. The functions of the department are to perform legislation, policy formulation and planning of primary, middle, secondary and higher secondary education and maintain standards of education in these fields.
Attached Departments
Punjab Education Assessment System
Punjab Education Assessment System (PEAS) assess student's learning outcomes and produces evidence on the key factors that impact learning.
Autonomous Bodies
Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board
Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board was established in 1962 as West Pakistan Textbook Board. Its functions are curriculum development, implementation of educational policies of the Government, publication of textbooks and production of supplementary reading material relating to textbooks.
Punjab Examination Commission
Main article: Punjab Examination Commission
Punjab Examination Commission is an autonomous to assess and examine students’ learning achievements particularly of grade 5 and 8.
Punjab Education Foundation
Main article: Punjab Education Foundation
The Punjab Education Foundation was established in 1991 as an autonomous statutory body to encourage and promote education in the private sector operating on non-profit basis.
The Punjab Daanish Schools and Centers of Excellence Authority
Main article: Daanish Schools
Management of Daanish Schools.
Special Institutions
Sadiq Public School
Main article: Sadiq Public School
See also
Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training
Education in Pakistan
Higher education department (Punjab, Pakistan)
Special education department (Punjab, Pakistan)
Literacy & non-formal basic education department (Punjab, Pakistan)
Punjab Education Foundation
References
^ Functions | schools.punjab.gov.pk
^ Overview | peas.punjab.gov.pk
^ Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board History
^ Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board Functions
^ What We Do | Punjab Examination Commission
^ Welcome to Punjab Education Foundation
^ The Idea | Daanish Schools - Empowering the Poorest of the Poor through Quality Education
External links
School Education Department
Punjab Education Foundation
Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board
Punjab Examination Commission
HED launched e-registration portal for colleges
Punjab Examination Commission
Daanish Schools
Punjab Education Assessment System
Ar Carrier Point official website.
Sadiq Public School
This article about government in Pakistan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"School education department (Punjab, Pakistan)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Attached Departments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Punjab Education Assessment System","text":"Punjab Education Assessment System (PEAS) assess student's learning outcomes and produces evidence on the key factors that impact learning.[2]","title":"Attached Departments"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Autonomous Bodies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board","text":"Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board was established in 1962 as West Pakistan Textbook Board.[3] Its functions are curriculum development, implementation of educational policies of the Government, publication of textbooks and production of supplementary reading material relating to textbooks.[4]","title":"Autonomous Bodies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Punjab Examination Commission","text":"Punjab Examination Commission is an autonomous to assess and examine students’ learning achievements particularly of grade 5 and 8.[5]","title":"Autonomous Bodies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Punjab Education Foundation","text":"The Punjab Education Foundation was established in 1991 as an autonomous statutory body to encourage and promote education in the private sector operating on non-profit basis.[6]","title":"Autonomous Bodies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"The Punjab Daanish Schools and Centers of Excellence Authority","text":"Management of Daanish Schools.\n[7]","title":"Autonomous Bodies"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Special Institutions"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Sadiq Public School","title":"Special Institutions"}] | [] | [{"title":"Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Federal_Education_and_Professional_Training"},{"title":"Education in Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Pakistan"},{"title":"Higher education department (Punjab, Pakistan)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_department_(Punjab,_Pakistan)"},{"title":"Special education department (Punjab, Pakistan)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_education_department_(Punjab,_Pakistan)"},{"title":"Literacy & non-formal basic education department (Punjab, Pakistan)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_%26_non-formal_basic_education_department_(Punjab,_Pakistan)"},{"title":"Punjab Education Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_Education_Foundation"}] | [] | [{"Link":"http://schools.punjab.gov.pk/?q=ourfunctions","external_links_name":"Functions | schools.punjab.gov.pk"},{"Link":"http://peas.punjab.gov.pk/overview","external_links_name":"Overview | peas.punjab.gov.pk"},{"Link":"https://pctb.punjab.gov.pk/history","external_links_name":"Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board History"},{"Link":"https://pctb.punjab.gov.pk/functions","external_links_name":"Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board Functions"},{"Link":"http://pec.edu.pk/what_we_do","external_links_name":"What We Do | Punjab Examination Commission"},{"Link":"http://www.pef.edu.pk/about-pef-history.html","external_links_name":"Welcome to Punjab Education Foundation"},{"Link":"http://daanishschools.edu.pk/?q=theidea","external_links_name":"The Idea | Daanish Schools - Empowering the Poorest of the Poor through Quality Education"},{"Link":"http://schools.punjab.gov.pk/","external_links_name":"School Education Department"},{"Link":"http://pef.edu.pk.pefsis.edu.pk/","external_links_name":"Punjab Education Foundation"},{"Link":"https://pctb.punjab.gov.pk/","external_links_name":"Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board"},{"Link":"http://pec.edu.pk/","external_links_name":"Punjab Examination Commission"},{"Link":"https://blogpayouts.pk/hed-launched-e-registration-portal-of-colleges/","external_links_name":"HED launched e-registration portal for colleges"},{"Link":"http://pec.resultonline.pk/","external_links_name":"Punjab Examination Commission"},{"Link":"http://daanishschools.edu.pk/","external_links_name":"Daanish Schools"},{"Link":"http://peas.punjab.gov.pk/","external_links_name":"Punjab Education Assessment System"},{"Link":"https://arcarrierpoint.net/","external_links_name":"Ar Carrier Point"},{"Link":"http://sps.edu.pk/","external_links_name":"Sadiq Public School"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=School_education_department_(Punjab,_Pakistan)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamayani | Kamayani | ["1 Theme","2 Structure","3 Adaptations","4 Translations","5 See also","6 References","7 External links","8 Further reading"] | An epic in Hindi language written by Jaishankar Prasad
Kamayani Front CoverAuthorJaishankar PrasadOriginal titleकामायनीCountryIndiaLanguageHindiGenreEpic poetryPublication date1936Media typePrint (hardback & paperback)Preceded byLehar Original textकामायनी at Hindi Wikisource
Kamayani (Hindi : कामायनी) (1936) is a Hindi epic poem (Mahakavya) by Jaishankar Prasad (1889–1937). It is considered one of the greatest literary works written in modern times in Hindi literature. It also signifies the epitome of Chhayavadi school of Hindi poetry which gained popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Theme
Kamayani depicts the interplay of human emotions, thoughts, and actions by taking mythological metaphors. Kamayani has personalities like Manu, Ida and Śraddhā who are mentioned in the Vedic literature. The great deluge described in the poem has its origin in Satapatha Brahmana. Explaining his metaphorical presentation of Vedic characters, the poet said:
Ida was the sister of the gods, giving consciousness to the entire mankind. For this reason, there is an Ida Karma in the Yagnas. This erudition of Ida created a rift between Shraddha and Manu. Then with the progressive intelligence searching for unbridled pleasures, the impasse was inevitable. This story is so very ancient that metaphor has wonderfully mingled with history. Therefore Manu, Shraddha, and Ida while maintaining their historical importance may also express the symbolic import. Manu represents the mind with its faculties of the head and heart and these are again symbolized as Faith (Shraddha) and Intelligence (Ida) respectively. On this data is based the story of Kamayani.
Structure
The storyline originates from the Vedic tale of Manu Manu, the lone survivor post the deluge, initially devoid of emotions. As the narrative unfolds, he becomes entangled in a spectrum of emotions, thoughts, and actions, each chapter named after these elements. Shraddha, Ida, Kilaat, and other characters sequentially contribute to this portrayal. Some scholars interpret the chapter sequence as reflective of the development of a person's emotions through different stages of a mortal life. Following is the sequence:
Canto
Title
Context
Verses
1
Chinta
Anxiety
80
2
Asha
Hope
80
3
Shraddha
Faith, Reverential belief
63
4
Kama
Eros
67
5
Vasana
Passion for materialism
53
6
Lajja
Shyness
47
7
Karma
Action
128
8
Irshya
Jealousy
71
9
Ida
Intellect
31
10
Swapna
Dream
55
11
Sangharsh
Conflict, Struggle
122
12
Nirved
Renunciation
103
13
Darshan
Philosophy, Vision of Shiva
44
14
Rahasya
Mystique, Secret
77
15
Anand
Bliss, Self-realization
80
Total
1101
Adaptations
Tumul kolahal kalah me, an excerpt from the 12th canto 'Nirved' (निर्वेद) was set to tune by the music composer Jaidev and sung by Asha Bhosle. It was released by The Gramophone Company of India in 1971 under the title 'An Unforgettable Treat Asha Bhosle'.
In 1999, the Films Division produced a short biographical film on Jaishankar Prasad. The film depicted his literary works as a novelist, story writer, poet, and essay writer. A Kathak musical of some verses from Kamayani was the highlight of the film. It was choreographed by the famous exponent of Kathak Uma Dogra, who also portrayed the role of Shraddha in it.
Doordarshan, the national broadcaster of India produced a six-part musical on Kamayani.
Shakuntala Shukla and Vyomesh Shukla adapted Kamayani into a musical play. It was produced under the banner of Roopvani, Varanasi.
Translations
Kamayani has been translated into various languages. There exists a number of English translations of the book. Other languages into which it has been translated include Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, and Tamil. Some specific cantos of Kamayani have been translated into English and Russian as well.
Language
Translator
Publication Year
Publisher
Note(s)
Bengali
Nachiketa Bhardwaj
1996
Rabindra Bharti Society
English
BL Sahney
1956 (Serialised), 1971 (Book)
Yugbodh Prakashan
Free verses
Jagat Bhardwaj
1974
Jagat Jagrit Kendra
Rhymed verses, Titled as Cupid-Maid
Jai Kishan Das Sadani
1975
Rupa and Co.
Free verses
Manohar Bandhopadyay
1978
Ankur Publishing House
Rhymed verses
Harichand Bansal
1987
Saraswati House Educational Publishers
Rhymed verses
Parmanand Sharma
National Publishing House
Free verses
Pratibha Vinod Kumar
2013
Pratham Manjari Books Pte. Ltd.
Free verses
Ratan Chouhan
2016
Bodhi Prakashan
Mohammed Mazhar
2022
Sahitya Sarovar
French
Jagbans Kishore Balbir
1997
L'Asiathèque
Free verses
Kumaoni
Mohan Chandra Joshi
2014
Gyanarjan Printers and Publishers
Rhymed verses
Marathi
Vishwanath Vithal Patwardhan
2005
Sahitya Akademi
Meitei
Laishram Kamal
2022
Manipuri Literary Society
Malayalam
TM Sreedhara Paniker
1968
Nepali
Dhundiraj Bhandari
2003 and 2011
Nagari Pracharini Sabha Varanasi and Sahitya Akademi
Printed by two publishing houses
Odiya
Minati Patnaik
Kavyalok Publications
Sanskrit
Bhagwan Dutta Shastri 'Rakesh'
1950s
Jan Vani Printers and Publishers
Preface by Rahul Sankrityayan
See also
Shatapatha Brahmana
Chhayavad
Flood myth
References
^ "Jaishankar Prasad".
^ "'Our Dreams Like Trees': Vyomesh Shukla And The Possibilities Of Expression".
^ "Selections from Kamayani". JSTOR 40872265.
^ Sharma, V. P. (1981). "Translations of Kamayani". Indian Literature. 24 (4): 140–144. JSTOR 23330218.
External links
Hindi Wikisource has original text related to this article: कामायनी
Kamayani at Google Books (English translation)
Kamayani at Kavita Kosh (in Hindi)
Further reading
Kamayani of Jai Shankar Prasad - As I saw It and Understood It by Dr.Girish Bihari 1st Edition 2006, Published by Film Institute, Lucknow (U.P.) - INDIA | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hindi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi"},{"link_name":"epic poem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry"},{"link_name":"Mahakavya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahakavya"},{"link_name":"Jaishankar Prasad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaishankar_Prasad"},{"link_name":"Hindi literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi_literature"},{"link_name":"Chhayavadi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhayavaad"}],"text":"Kamayani (Hindi : कामायनी) (1936) is a Hindi epic poem (Mahakavya) by Jaishankar Prasad (1889–1937). It is considered one of the greatest literary works written in modern times in Hindi literature. It also signifies the epitome of Chhayavadi school of Hindi poetry which gained popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.","title":"Kamayani"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Manu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manu_(Hinduism)"},{"link_name":"Ida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"Śraddhā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Araddh%C4%81"},{"link_name":"great deluge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deluge_mythology#India"},{"link_name":"Satapatha Brahmana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satapatha_Brahmana"},{"link_name":"Yagnas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yagna"}],"text":"Kamayani depicts the interplay of human emotions, thoughts, and actions by taking mythological metaphors. Kamayani has personalities like Manu, Ida and Śraddhā who are mentioned in the Vedic literature. The great deluge described in the poem has its origin in Satapatha Brahmana. Explaining his metaphorical presentation of Vedic characters, the poet said:Ida was the sister of the gods, giving consciousness to the entire mankind. For this reason, there is an Ida Karma in the Yagnas. This erudition of Ida created a rift between Shraddha and Manu. Then with the progressive intelligence searching for unbridled pleasures, the impasse was inevitable. This story is so very ancient that metaphor has wonderfully mingled with history. Therefore Manu, Shraddha, and Ida while maintaining their historical importance may also express the symbolic import. Manu represents the mind with its faculties of the head and heart and these are again symbolized as Faith (Shraddha) and Intelligence (Ida) respectively. On this data is based the story of Kamayani.","title":"Theme"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Manu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manu_(Hinduism)"},{"link_name":"Shraddha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatarupa"}],"text":"The storyline originates from the Vedic tale of Manu Manu, the lone survivor post the deluge, initially devoid of emotions. As the narrative unfolds, he becomes entangled in a spectrum of emotions, thoughts, and actions, each chapter named after these elements. Shraddha, Ida, Kilaat, and other characters sequentially contribute to this portrayal. Some scholars interpret the chapter sequence as reflective of the development of a person's emotions through different stages of a mortal life. Following is the sequence:","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jaidev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaidev"},{"link_name":"Asha Bhosle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asha_Bhosle"},{"link_name":"The Gramophone Company of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saregama"},{"link_name":"Films Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Films_Division"},{"link_name":"Uma Dogra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uma_Dogra"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Doordarshan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doordarshan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Tumul kolahal kalah me, an excerpt from the 12th canto 'Nirved' (निर्वेद) was set to tune by the music composer Jaidev and sung by Asha Bhosle. It was released by The Gramophone Company of India in 1971 under the title 'An Unforgettable Treat Asha Bhosle'.In 1999, the Films Division produced a short biographical film on Jaishankar Prasad. The film depicted his literary works as a novelist, story writer, poet, and essay writer. A Kathak musical of some verses from Kamayani was the highlight of the film. It was choreographed by the famous exponent of Kathak Uma Dogra, who also portrayed the role of Shraddha in it. [1]Doordarshan, the national broadcaster of India produced a six-part musical on Kamayani.Shakuntala Shukla and Vyomesh Shukla adapted Kamayani into a musical play. It was produced under the banner of Roopvani, Varanasi.[2]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nepali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepali_language"},{"link_name":"Odia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriya_language"},{"link_name":"Punjabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_language"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_language"},{"link_name":"Tamil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Kamayani has been translated into various languages. There exists a number of English translations of the book. Other languages into which it has been translated include Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, and Tamil. [3] Some specific cantos of Kamayani have been translated into English and Russian as well.[4]","title":"Translations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jai Shankar Prasad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jai_Shankar_Prasad"},{"link_name":"Dr.Girish Bihari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dr.Girish_Bihari&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Kamayani of Jai Shankar Prasad - As I saw It and Understood It by Dr.Girish Bihari 1st Edition 2006, Published by Film Institute, Lucknow (U.P.) - INDIA","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | [{"title":"Shatapatha Brahmana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana"},{"title":"Chhayavad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhayavad"},{"title":"Flood myth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_myth"}] | [{"reference":"\"Jaishankar Prasad\".","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dli.MoI.films.008388","url_text":"\"Jaishankar Prasad\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Our Dreams Like Trees': Vyomesh Shukla And The Possibilities Of Expression\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.outlookindia.com/culture-society/-our-dreams-like-trees-vyomesh-shukla-and-the-possibilities-of-expression-news-188749","url_text":"\"'Our Dreams Like Trees': Vyomesh Shukla And The Possibilities Of Expression\""}]},{"reference":"\"Selections from Kamayani\". JSTOR 40872265.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40872265","url_text":"\"Selections from Kamayani\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40872265","url_text":"40872265"}]},{"reference":"Sharma, V. P. (1981). \"Translations of Kamayani\". Indian Literature. 24 (4): 140–144. JSTOR 23330218.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23330218","url_text":"\"Translations of Kamayani\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23330218","url_text":"23330218"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/dli.MoI.films.008388","external_links_name":"\"Jaishankar Prasad\""},{"Link":"https://www.outlookindia.com/culture-society/-our-dreams-like-trees-vyomesh-shukla-and-the-possibilities-of-expression-news-188749","external_links_name":"\"'Our Dreams Like Trees': Vyomesh Shukla And The Possibilities Of Expression\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40872265","external_links_name":"\"Selections from Kamayani\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40872265","external_links_name":"40872265"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23330218","external_links_name":"\"Translations of Kamayani\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23330218","external_links_name":"23330218"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=v6hjAAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"Kamayani"},{"Link":"http://www.kavitakosh.org/kk/index.php?title=%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_/_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6","external_links_name":"Kamayani"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabir,_Mafizullah | Mafizullah Kabir | ["1 Early life","2 Career","3 Bibliography","4 Death","5 References"] | Mafizullah Kabir was a Bangladeshi historian and researcher. He was a professor of history at the University of Dhaka.
Early life
Kabir was born on 28 February 1925 in Noakhali District, Bengal Presidency, British India. In 1941, he finished his High Madrasah and in 1943, his Intermediate Examinations. He learned Arabic and Persian while studying at the madrassah. He did his undergraduate in 1946 and graduate studies in 1947 in history from the University of Dhaka. He completed his Ph.D. at the SOAS University of London in 1953 with his thesis on Buyid dynasty. The Iran Society of Calcutta published his thesis in 1964.
Career
In 1950, Kabir joined the University of Dhaka as a lecturer. In the early 1960s, he was part of a study trip of history masters students from the University of Dhaka to India. In 1972, he published his book, Experiences of an exile at home: Life in Occupied Bangladesh, on his experiences during the Bangladesh Liberation War which became an important source on that time in Bangladesh.
Kabir was the first pro-Vice Chancellor of the University of Dhaka from 1976 to 1981. He served as the treasurer, vice-president, and general secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh for various terms.
Kabir worked as the honorary curator of Dhaka City Museum. He wrote extensively on Islam and Muslim history. He served as the president of Bangladesh Itihas Samiti (Bangladesh History Society).
Bibliography
Outline of Islamic History (1963)
The Buwayhid Dynasty of Baghdad (1964)
Muslim Rule under the Sultans (1967, sponsored by the government of Pakistan)
Experiences of an exile at home: Life in Occupied Bangladesh
Islam and the Khilafat (1974)
Golden Era of Muslim Civilization (1987)
Death
Kabir died in 1986.
References
^ Malik, Hamza (2018-10-02). The Grey Falcon: The Life and Teaching of Shaykh ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī. BRILL. p. 38. ISBN 978-90-04-38369-2.
^ Kalam, Abul (2022-09-16). Diplomacy And The Independence Of Bangladesh: Portrayal Of Mujib's Statesmanship. World Scientific. pp. xii. ISBN 978-981-12-5554-0.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Hussain, M Delwar (18 June 2021). "Kabir, Mafizullah". Banglapedia. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
^ "Kabir, Mafizullah (1953) The Buwayhid Dynasty of Baghdad from the accession of Izz al-Dawla to its extinction, A.H. 356-447/A.D. 967-1055. PhD thesis. SOAS University of London". eprints.soas.ac.uk. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
^ Kennedy, Rebecca Futo; Jones-Lewis, Molly (2016-01-08). The Routledge Handbook of Identity and the Environment in the Classical and Medieval Worlds. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-41569-5.
^ Chowdhury, Abdul Momin (2022-12-14). "My three martyred teachers". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
^ Sofa, Ahmed (2014-03-26). "What I saw and heard in Dhaka". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
^ "Pro Vice Chancellors || University of Dhaka". 2013-06-14. Archived from the original on 2013-06-14. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
^ Marcinkowski, Christoph (2010). Shi'ite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 73. ISBN 978-3-643-80049-7.
^ Karakaya-Stump, Ayfer (2020-01-10). Kizilbash-Alevis in Ottoman Anatolia: Sufism, Politics and Community. Edinburgh University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4744-3270-2.
^ "Mafizullah Kabir - AbeBooks". www.abebooks.com. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Germany | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mafizullah Kabir"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Noakhali District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noakhali_District"},{"link_name":"Bengal Presidency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Presidency"},{"link_name":"British India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"University of Dhaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Dhaka"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"SOAS University of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAS_University_of_London"},{"link_name":"Buyid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Kabir was born on 28 February 1925 in Noakhali District, Bengal Presidency, British India.[3] In 1941, he finished his High Madrasah and in 1943, his Intermediate Examinations.[3] He learned Arabic and Persian while studying at the madrassah.[3] He did his undergraduate in 1946 and graduate studies in 1947 in history from the University of Dhaka.[3] He completed his Ph.D. at the SOAS University of London in 1953 with his thesis on Buyid dynasty.[3][4] The Iran Society of Calcutta published his thesis in 1964.[3][5]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh Liberation War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"Dhaka City Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaka_City_Museum"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh Itihas Samiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Itihas_Samiti"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"text":"In 1950, Kabir joined the University of Dhaka as a lecturer.[3] In the early 1960s, he was part of a study trip of history masters students from the University of Dhaka to India.[6] In 1972, he published his book, Experiences of an exile at home: Life in Occupied Bangladesh, on his experiences during the Bangladesh Liberation War which became an important source on that time in Bangladesh.[3][7]Kabir was the first pro-Vice Chancellor of the University of Dhaka from 1976 to 1981.[3][8] He served as the treasurer, vice-president, and general secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh for various terms.[3]Kabir worked as the honorary curator of Dhaka City Museum.[3] He wrote extensively on Islam and Muslim history.[3] He served as the president of Bangladesh Itihas Samiti (Bangladesh History Society).[3]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"text":"Outline of Islamic History (1963)[3]\nThe Buwayhid Dynasty of Baghdad (1964)[9]\nMuslim Rule under the Sultans (1967, sponsored by the government of Pakistan)[3][10]\nExperiences of an exile at home: Life in Occupied Bangladesh[11]\nIslam and the Khilafat (1974)[3]\nGolden Era of Muslim Civilization (1987)[3]","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"text":"Kabir died in 1986.[3]","title":"Death"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Malik, Hamza (2018-10-02). 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SOAS University of London\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cLFYCwAAQBAJ&dq=Mafizullah+Kabir&pg=PT352","external_links_name":"The Routledge Handbook of Identity and the Environment in the Classical and Medieval Worlds"},{"Link":"https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/martyred-intellectuals-day-2022/news/my-three-martyred-teachers-3195776","external_links_name":"\"My three martyred teachers\""},{"Link":"https://www.thedailystar.net/what-i-saw-and-heard-in-dhaka-17325","external_links_name":"\"What I saw and heard in Dhaka\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130614005225/http://dunew2.du.ac.bd/template/provc","external_links_name":"\"Pro Vice Chancellors || University of Dhaka\""},{"Link":"http://dunew2.du.ac.bd/template/provc","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=F9khRsDDuX8C&dq=Mafizullah+Kabir&pg=PA73","external_links_name":"Shi'ite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=daMxEAAAQBAJ&dq=Mafizullah+Kabir&pg=PA77","external_links_name":"Kizilbash-Alevis in Ottoman Anatolia: Sufism, Politics and Community"},{"Link":"https://www.abebooks.com/book-search/author/mafizullah-kabir/","external_links_name":"\"Mafizullah Kabir - AbeBooks\""},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/4163332474502642911","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1241919658","external_links_name":"Germany"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer,_North_Carolina | Farmer, North Carolina | ["1 References"] | Coordinates: 35°39′12″N 79°58′37″W / 35.65333°N 79.97694°W / 35.65333; -79.97694
Unincorporated community in North Carolina, United StatesFarmer, North CarolinaUnincorporated communityLocation of Farmer in North CarolinaShow map of North CarolinaFarmer, North Carolina (the United States)Show map of the United StatesCoordinates: 35°39′12″N 79°58′37″W / 35.65333°N 79.97694°W / 35.65333; -79.97694CountryUnited StatesStateNorth CarolinaCountyRandolphIncorporated1897 (inactive)Elevation538 ft (164 m)Time zoneUTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) • Summer (DST)UTC-4 (EDT)Area code336GNIS feature ID1011180Other nameFormer
Farmer is an unincorporated community in Randolph County, North Carolina, United States.
It is located off NC 49, southwest of the highway's intersection with U.S. 64 in Asheboro.
References
^ "North Carolina Gazetteer". Retrieved November 24, 2023.
^ a b c U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Farmer, North Carolina. Retrieved on 2008-05-04.
vteMunicipalities and communities of Randolph County, North Carolina, United StatesCounty seat: AsheboroCities
Archdale‡
Asheboro
High Point‡
Randleman
Thomasville‡
Trinity
Towns
Franklinville
Liberty
Ramseur
Seagrove
Staley
Unincorporatedcommunities
Cedar Falls
Cedar Grove
Climax‡
Coleridge
Erect
Farmer
Level Cross
Pisgah
Sophia
Ulah
Whynot
Footnotes‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
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This article about a location in Randolph County, North Carolina is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unincorporated community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_area"},{"link_name":"Randolph County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randolph_County,_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"NC 49","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina_Highway_49"},{"link_name":"U.S. 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_64_in_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Asheboro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asheboro,_North_Carolina"}],"text":"Unincorporated community in North Carolina, United StatesFarmer is an unincorporated community in Randolph County, North Carolina, United States.It is located off NC 49, southwest of the highway's intersection with U.S. 64 in Asheboro.","title":"Farmer, North Carolina"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/North_Carolina_Map_Highlighting_Randolph_County.PNG/180px-North_Carolina_Map_Highlighting_Randolph_County.PNG"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"North Carolina Gazetteer\". Retrieved November 24, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncpedia.org/gazetteer/search/farmer/0","url_text":"\"North Carolina Gazetteer\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Farmer,_North_Carolina¶ms=35_39_12_N_79_58_37_W_region:US-NC_type:city","external_links_name":"35°39′12″N 79°58′37″W / 35.65333°N 79.97694°W / 35.65333; -79.97694"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Farmer,_North_Carolina¶ms=35_39_12_N_79_58_37_W_region:US-NC_type:city","external_links_name":"35°39′12″N 79°58′37″W / 35.65333°N 79.97694°W / 35.65333; -79.97694"},{"Link":"https://www.ncpedia.org/gazetteer/search/farmer/0","external_links_name":"\"North Carolina Gazetteer\""},{"Link":"https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/search/names/1011180","external_links_name":"U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Farmer, North Carolina"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Farmer,_North_Carolina&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westhaven,_Fresno_County,_California | Westhaven, Fresno County, California | ["1 References"] | Coordinates: 36°13′36″N 119°59′41″W / 36.22667°N 119.99472°W / 36.22667; -119.99472
Unincorporated community in California, United States
36°13′36″N 119°59′41″W / 36.22667°N 119.99472°W / 36.22667; -119.99472
Unincorporated community in California, United StatesWesthavenUnincorporated communityWesthavenLocation in CaliforniaShow map of CaliforniaWesthavenWesthaven (the United States)Show map of the United StatesCoordinates: 36°13′36″N 119°59′41″W / 36.22667°N 119.99472°W / 36.22667; -119.99472CountryUnited StatesStateCaliforniaCountyFresno CountyElevation279 ft (85 m)
Westhaven is an unincorporated community in Fresno County, California. It is located 16 miles (26 km) south-southwest of Riverdale, at an elevation of 279 feet (85 m).
A post office operated at Westhaven from 1918 to 1958.
During World War II was the site of a training landing strip called Boston Field, part of Lemoore Army Air Field.
References
^ a b c U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Westhaven, Fresno County, California
^ a b Durham, David L. (1998). California's Geographic Names: A Gazetteer of Historic and Modern Names of the State. Clovis, Calif.: Word Dancer Press. p. 1125. ISBN 1-884995-14-4.
vteMunicipalities and communities of Fresno County, California, United StatesCounty seat: FresnoCities
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This Fresno County, California-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"36°13′36″N 119°59′41″W / 36.22667°N 119.99472°W / 36.22667; -119.99472","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Westhaven,_Fresno_County,_California¶ms=36_13_36_N_119_59_41_W_"},{"link_name":"unincorporated community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_area"},{"link_name":"Fresno County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresno_County,_California"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gnis-1"},{"link_name":"Riverdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverdale,_California"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGN-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gnis-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGN-2"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Boston Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Field"},{"link_name":"Lemoore Army Air Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemoore_Army_Air_Field"}],"text":"Unincorporated community in California, United States36°13′36″N 119°59′41″W / 36.22667°N 119.99472°W / 36.22667; -119.99472Unincorporated community in California, United StatesWesthaven is an unincorporated community in Fresno County, California.[1] It is located 16 miles (26 km) south-southwest of Riverdale,[2] at an elevation of 279 feet (85 m).[1]A post office operated at Westhaven from 1918 to 1958.[2]During World War II was the site of a training landing strip called Boston Field, part of Lemoore Army Air Field.","title":"Westhaven, Fresno County, California"}] | [{"image_text":"Fresno County map","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Map_of_California_highlighting_Fresno_County.svg/87px-Map_of_California_highlighting_Fresno_County.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"Durham, David L. (1998). California's Geographic Names: A Gazetteer of Historic and Modern Names of the State. Clovis, Calif.: Word Dancer Press. p. 1125. ISBN 1-884995-14-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-884995-14-4","url_text":"1-884995-14-4"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Westhaven,_Fresno_County,_California¶ms=36_13_36_N_119_59_41_W_","external_links_name":"36°13′36″N 119°59′41″W / 36.22667°N 119.99472°W / 36.22667; -119.99472"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Westhaven,_Fresno_County,_California¶ms=36_13_36_N_119_59_41_W_","external_links_name":"36°13′36″N 119°59′41″W / 36.22667°N 119.99472°W / 36.22667; -119.99472"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Westhaven,_Fresno_County,_California¶ms=36_13_36_N_119_59_41_W_region:US-CA_type:city","external_links_name":"36°13′36″N 119°59′41″W / 36.22667°N 119.99472°W / 36.22667; -119.99472"},{"Link":"https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/search/names/251403","external_links_name":"U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Westhaven, Fresno County, California"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westhaven,_Fresno_County,_California&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestville,_New_York | Forestville, New York | ["1 History","2 Notable people","3 Geography","4 Demographics","5 Events","6 References","7 External links"] | Coordinates: 42°28′18″N 79°10′27″W / 42.47167°N 79.17417°W / 42.47167; -79.17417
Hamlet and CDP in New York, United StatesForestville, New YorkHamlet and CDPThe former Erie Railroad station in Forestville, seen in August 2015.ForestvilleLocation within the state of New YorkCoordinates: 42°28′18″N 79°10′27″W / 42.47167°N 79.17417°W / 42.47167; -79.17417CountryUnited StatesStateNew YorkCountyChautauquaTownHanoverSettled1808Incorporated1848DissolvedDecember 31, 2016Area • Total1.06 sq mi (2.73 km2) • Land1.06 sq mi (2.73 km2) • Water0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2)Elevation932 ft (284 m)Population (2020) • Total704 • Density666.67/sq mi (257.52/km2)Time zoneUTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) • Summer (DST)UTC-4 (EDT)ZIP code14062Area code716FIPS code36-26649GNIS feature ID0950437
Forestville is a hamlet (and census-designated place) in Chautauqua County, New York, United States. The population was 697 at the 2010 census. The hamlet is within the town of Hanover and in the northeast part of the county. It was an incorporated village from 1848 to 2016.
History
The first settlers were the Tupper brothers in 1805. The community began in 1808 as "Walnut Falls". Also known as "Moore's Hills," the name was changed to "Forestville" in 1820. The village was incorporated in 1848.
The "Bell Tower" at the high school is the oldest standing brick structure in the north county. The Bell Tower landmark was re-constructed in the early 2000s by Forestville Central School, led by then-Facilities Manager and longtime resident Steve Arnold (class of ‘55). A barn or carriage house located at 29 Lodi Street is the oldest standing wooden structure in northern Chautauqua County.
In 2015, following emergency loans from the county, the inhabitants were called to vote on the dissolution of the village. Dissolution was approved by a 137–97 vote. The Village of Forestville was officially dissolved on December 31, 2016.
Notable people
George Abbott, Broadway producer and playwright, was born in Forestville on June 25, 1887. A New York State historical marker honoring Abbott was placed on Main Street and unveiled by the Hanover Historian Vincent P. Martonis on June 25, 2008.
Edgar Anderson, botanist
Cyrus D. Angell, major landowner in Forestville and surrounding area in the 19th century; noted for developing the Belt Theory of oil discovery, that oil existed in "belts" akin to underground rivers, giving rise to the practice of "Yardstick Geology". A number of local landmarks along Angell Road are named after Cyrus D. Angell.
Emily Montague Mulkin Bishop (1858-1916), Delsartean lecturer, instructor, author
William J. Colvill, Union colonel in the American Civil War who led the 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry in the Battle of Gettysburg, former Minnesota Attorney General and US congressman from Minnesota
Les Dye, former NFL player
Geography
Forestville is in the southwest part of the town of Hanover at 42°28′18″N 79°10′27″W / 42.47167°N 79.17417°W / 42.47167; -79.17417 (42.471658, -79.174028).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the hamlet has a total area of 0.97 square miles (2.5 km2), all land. Walnut Creek is joined by Tupper B rook north of the hamlet and flows northward to Lake Erie.
CR 85 at the Forestville-Hanover line
New York State Route 39 passes east–west through the hamlet as its main street and intersects county routes 85, 87, and 89. Route 39 leads east 12 miles (19 km) to Gowanda. Fredonia is 8 miles (13 km) to the west via Route 39 and U.S. Route 20.
Demographics
Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
1860574—187072225.8%18807240.3%18907888.8%1900623−20.9%191072115.7%1920620−14.0%19306779.2%19406922.2%195078613.6%196090515.1%19709080.3%1980804−11.5%1990738−8.2%20007704.3%2010697−9.5%20207041.0%U.S. Decennial Census
As of the census of 2000, there were 770 people, 304 households, and 209 families residing in what was then a village. The population density was 787.9123 inhabitants per square mile (304.2146/km2). There were 324 housing units at an average density of 331.5 per square mile (128.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 95.45% White, 0.26% African American, 1.04% Native American, 1.43% from other races, and 1.82% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.47% of the population. Of note, there is an estimated 91% of the population that is classified as "white".
There were 304 households, out of which 30.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.0% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.3% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.99.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 25.5% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 14.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.9 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $32,778, and the median income for a family was $41,042. Males had a median income of $32,159 versus $25,139 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,993. About 4.8% of families and 10.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.0% of those under age 18 and 18.1% of those age 65 or over.
Events
The Forestville Fall Festival, formerly known as the Forestville Apple Festival, is held yearly, the first weekend in October. It features products from the apple harvest, a craft fair, parade, special events, and a harvest dinner.
References
^ a b Time Warner Cable News, Village of Forestville Set to Dissolve and Transition Into Town of Hanover by Mark Goshgarian, November 17, 2016, Retrieved Jan. 21, 2017.
^ "ArcGIS REST Services Directory". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved September 20, 2022.
^ a b "Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Forestville village, New York". U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved November 10, 2014.
^ Pamphlet, "Welcome to Chautauqua!", Visitors' Bureau, 1972
^ Gugino, Nicole (October 21, 2015). "Dissolution in Forestville". Observer. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ Anstey, Evan (November 5, 2015). "Village of Forestville to be dissolved". WIVB-TV. Retrieved November 5, 2015.
^ Hinton & Olien, Oil in Texas: The Gusher Age, 1895-1945, University of Texas Press, 2002, page 17, ISBN 9780292760561
^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ 1942 business map of Forestville; Water Supply 1964 US Gov't Printing Office; Floods 1965 U. S. Gov't Printing Office
^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
External links
Village of Forestville government
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hamlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet_(New_York)"},{"link_name":"census-designated place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census-designated_place"},{"link_name":"Chautauqua County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chautauqua_County,_New_York"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census_2010-3"},{"link_name":"Hanover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanover,_New_York"},{"link_name":"village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village_(New_York)"}],"text":"Hamlet and CDP in New York, United StatesForestville is a hamlet (and census-designated place) in Chautauqua County, New York, United States. The population was 697 at the 2010 census.[3] The hamlet is within the town of Hanover and in the northeast part of the county. It was an incorporated village from 1848 to 2016.","title":"Forestville, New York"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"barn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barn"},{"link_name":"carriage house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carriage_house"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TWC-1"}],"text":"The first settlers were the Tupper brothers in 1805. The community began in 1808 as \"Walnut Falls\". Also known as \"Moore's Hills,\" the name was changed to \"Forestville\" in 1820. The village was incorporated in 1848.The \"Bell Tower\" at the high school is the oldest standing brick structure in the north county. The Bell Tower landmark was re-constructed in the early 2000s by Forestville Central School, led by then-Facilities Manager and longtime resident Steve Arnold (class of ‘55). A barn or carriage house located at 29 Lodi Street is the oldest standing wooden structure in northern Chautauqua County.[4]In 2015, following emergency loans from the county, the inhabitants were called to vote on the dissolution of the village.[5] Dissolution was approved by a 137–97 vote.[6] The Village of Forestville was officially dissolved on December 31, 2016.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Abbott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Abbott"},{"link_name":"Edgar Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Anderson"},{"link_name":"Cyrus D. Angell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyrus_D._Angell&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Belt Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Belt_Theory&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Emily Montague Mulkin Bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Montague_Mulkin_Bishop"},{"link_name":"William J. Colvill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Colvill"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Battle of Gettysburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg"},{"link_name":"Les Dye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Dye"}],"text":"George Abbott, Broadway producer and playwright, was born in Forestville on June 25, 1887. A New York State historical marker honoring Abbott was placed on Main Street and unveiled by the Hanover Historian Vincent P. Martonis on June 25, 2008.\nEdgar Anderson, botanist\nCyrus D. Angell, major landowner in Forestville and surrounding area in the 19th century; noted for developing the Belt Theory of oil discovery, that oil existed in \"belts\" akin to underground rivers, giving rise to the practice of \"Yardstick Geology\".[7] A number of local landmarks along Angell Road are named after Cyrus D. Angell.\nEmily Montague Mulkin Bishop (1858-1916), Delsartean lecturer, instructor, author\nWilliam J. Colvill, Union colonel in the American Civil War who led the 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry in the Battle of Gettysburg, former Minnesota Attorney General and US congressman from Minnesota\nLes Dye, former NFL player","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"42°28′18″N 79°10′27″W / 42.47167°N 79.17417°W / 42.47167; -79.17417","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Forestville,_New_York¶ms=42_28_18_N_79_10_27_W_type:city"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR1-8"},{"link_name":"United States Census Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census_2010-3"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Lake Erie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Erie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CR_85_at_Forestville-Hanover_line.jpg"},{"link_name":"New York State Route 39","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Route_39"},{"link_name":"85","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Route_85_(Chautauqua_County,_New_York)"},{"link_name":"Gowanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gowanda,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Fredonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredonia,_New_York"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_20_in_New_York"}],"text":"Forestville is in the southwest part of the town of Hanover at 42°28′18″N 79°10′27″W / 42.47167°N 79.17417°W / 42.47167; -79.17417 (42.471658, -79.174028).[8]According to the United States Census Bureau, the hamlet has a total area of 0.97 square miles (2.5 km2), all land.[3] Walnut Creek is joined by Tupper B[9] rook north of the hamlet and flows northward to Lake Erie.CR 85 at the Forestville-Hanover lineNew York State Route 39 passes east–west through the hamlet as its main street and intersects county routes 85, 87, and 89. Route 39 leads east 12 miles (19 km) to Gowanda. Fredonia is 8 miles (13 km) to the west via Route 39 and U.S. Route 20.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR2-11"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"other races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(United_States_Census)"},{"link_name":"Hispanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_(U.S._Census)"}],"text":"As of the census[11] of 2000, there were 770 people, 304 households, and 209 families residing in what was then a village. The population density was 787.9123 inhabitants per square mile (304.2146/km2). There were 324 housing units at an average density of 331.5 per square mile (128.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 95.45% White, 0.26% African American, 1.04% Native American, 1.43% from other races, and 1.82% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.47% of the population. Of note, there is an estimated 91% of the population that is classified as \"white\".There were 304 households, out of which 30.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.0% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.3% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.99.In the village, the population was spread out, with 25.5% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 14.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.9 males.The median income for a household in the village was $32,778, and the median income for a family was $41,042. Males had a median income of $32,159 versus $25,139 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,993. About 4.8% of families and 10.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.0% of those under age 18 and 18.1% of those age 65 or over.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The Forestville Fall Festival, formerly known as the Forestville Apple Festival, is held yearly, the first weekend in October. It features products from the apple harvest, a craft fair, parade, special events, and a harvest dinner.","title":"Events"}] | [{"image_text":"CR 85 at the Forestville-Hanover line","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/CR_85_at_Forestville-Hanover_line.jpg/220px-CR_85_at_Forestville-Hanover_line.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Map_of_New_York_highlighting_Chautauqua_County.svg/180px-Map_of_New_York_highlighting_Chautauqua_County.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"ArcGIS REST Services Directory\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved September 20, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/arcgis/rest/services/TIGERweb/Places_CouSub_ConCity_SubMCD/MapServer","url_text":"\"ArcGIS REST Services Directory\""}]},{"reference":"\"Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Forestville village, New York\". U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved November 10, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20200212185708/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_DP/G001/1600000US3626649","url_text":"\"Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Forestville village, New York\""},{"url":"http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_DP/G001/1600000US3626649","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gugino, Nicole (October 21, 2015). \"Dissolution in Forestville\". Observer. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092444/http://www.observertoday.com/page/content.detail/id/619320/Dissolution-in-Forestville.html","url_text":"\"Dissolution in Forestville\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer_(Dunkirk)","url_text":"Observer"}]},{"reference":"Anstey, Evan (November 5, 2015). \"Village of Forestville to be dissolved\". WIVB-TV. Retrieved November 5, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://wivb.com/2015/11/04/village-of-forestville-to-be-dissolved/","url_text":"\"Village of Forestville to be dissolved\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIVB-TV","url_text":"WIVB-TV"}]},{"reference":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html","url_text":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"Census of Population and Housing\". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html","url_text":"\"Census of Population and Housing\""}]},{"reference":"\"U.S. Census website\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/","url_text":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Forestville,_New_York¶ms=42_28_18_N_79_10_27_W_region:US_type:city","external_links_name":"42°28′18″N 79°10′27″W / 42.47167°N 79.17417°W / 42.47167; -79.17417"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Forestville,_New_York¶ms=42_28_18_N_79_10_27_W_region:US_type:city","external_links_name":"42°28′18″N 79°10′27″W / 42.47167°N 79.17417°W / 42.47167; -79.17417"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Forestville,_New_York¶ms=42_28_18_N_79_10_27_W_type:city","external_links_name":"42°28′18″N 79°10′27″W / 42.47167°N 79.17417°W / 42.47167; -79.17417"},{"Link":"http://www.twcnews.com/nys/jamestown/news/2016/11/17/village-of-forestville-set-to-dissolve-and-transition-into-town-of-hanover-.html","external_links_name":"Time Warner Cable News, Village of Forestville Set to Dissolve and Transition Into Town of Hanover by Mark Goshgarian, November 17, 2016"},{"Link":"https://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/arcgis/rest/services/TIGERweb/Places_CouSub_ConCity_SubMCD/MapServer","external_links_name":"\"ArcGIS REST Services Directory\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20200212185708/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_DP/G001/1600000US3626649","external_links_name":"\"Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (G001): Forestville village, New York\""},{"Link":"http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_DP/G001/1600000US3626649","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092444/http://www.observertoday.com/page/content.detail/id/619320/Dissolution-in-Forestville.html","external_links_name":"\"Dissolution in Forestville\""},{"Link":"http://wivb.com/2015/11/04/village-of-forestville-to-be-dissolved/","external_links_name":"\"Village of Forestville to be dissolved\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html","external_links_name":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html","external_links_name":"\"Census of Population and Housing\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/","external_links_name":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060803103312/http://www.co.chautauqua.ny.us/municipal/forestville.htm","external_links_name":"Village of Forestville government"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/152451026","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555054905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81031401","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Consulate_General,_Atlanta | Consulate General of France, Atlanta | ["1 Services","2 Location","3 Past and present Consuls General","4 France-Atlanta","5 Honorary Consuls","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"] | Consulate General of France in AtlantaConsulat Général de France à AtlantaLocationBuckhead Tower at Lenox Square, Suite 567, 3399 Peachtree Road
Atlanta GA 30326Coordinates33°45′18″N 84°23′24″W / 33.75500°N 84.39000°W / 33.75500; -84.39000Consul GeneralAnne-Laure DesjonquèresWebsiteatlanta.consulfrance.org/-english-
The Consulate General of France in Atlanta is the French diplomatic outpost to the U.S Southeast. Its jurisdiction covers the states of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The mission of the Consulate is to provide protection and administrative services to French citizens living or traveling within the region. It also seeks to promote French-American cooperation and exchange. It is one of the ten consulates of the French diplomatic network in the United States.
Services
Source:
The Chancellery provides administrative services to French nationals including social aid, scholarships, help for French travelers in difficulty, assistance to incarcerated French citizens, etc. It serves as an intermediary between the French administration and French nationals, helping the latter to maintain ties and exercise their rights as citizens.
The Office of Cultural Services facilitates cooperation and French-American dialogue in the U.S. Southeast in the educational, university and artistic fields. Alongside its partners, it supports numerous projects and initiatives in the arts, literature, cinema, the digital sphere, the French language and higher education.
The Office for Science and Technology seeks to actively participate in the scientific and technological dynamism of the U.S. Southeast by identifying new possibilities for research partnerships between local public or private institutions and French organizations. Among its missions, the Office monitors local scientific innovations; initiates and reinforces scientific and technological partnerships; encourages exchanges of doctoral students and researchers between the two countries; and supports French and American innovation through accompanying young start-ups in their discovery of the U.S. ecosystem as well as through promoting the France’s attractiveness to young innovative American companies.
The Press and Communications Office oversees the Consulate’s external communication. It is in charge of maintaining close relations with the local media and institutions, explaining the policies of the French Government in foreign and domestic affairs. The Office also manages the Consulate’s website, e-newsletter, and social media accounts.
Location
Previously located in the Prominence in Buckhead building, the Consulate General of France in Atlanta moved to the 5th floor of Buckhead Towers at Lenox Square in Buckhead on May 17, 2010. The building can be found at the intersection of Lenox Road and E. Paces Ferry Road NE, behind Lenox Mall and adjacent to the J.W. Marriott Hotel.
The space was inaugurated on June 30, 2010 as the "Maison de France" complex. At that time, it also included the French-American Chamber of Commerce of Atlanta, the French Trade Commission-Ubifrance, and the Atlanta-Accueil association. As of summer 2021, the space is exclusively occupied by the Consulate.
Past and present Consuls General
The first French Consul arrived in Atlanta in 1989, and as of 2022, there have been ten French Consuls:
Anne-Laure Desjonquères - 2022-Present
Vincent Hommeril - 2019-2022
Louis de Corail - 2016–2019
Denis Barbet - 2012–2016
Pascal le Deunff - 2009–2012
Philippe Ardanaz – 2005-2009
René-Serge Marty – 2001-2005
Jean-Paul Moncheau – 1997-2001
Gérard Blanchot – 1993-1997
Jacky Musnier – 1989-1993
France-Atlanta
In 2010, the Consulate and the Georgia Institute of Technology launched France-Atlanta, with the purpose of breathing new life into the French-American relationship in the U.S. Southeast. The inaugural edition featured 20 events attended by over 3,500 participants, including delegations from Paris and Metz, France.
Since then, the initiative has transformed into an annual, multidisciplinary affair featuring French and American business leaders, scientists, artists, and humanitarian experts. Through its programming, it seeks to showcase the best ideas and innovations on both sides of the Atlantic as well as to encourage partnerships between French and American scholars, artists and visionaries.
Honorary Consuls
The consul general supervises and works closely with eight honorary consuls based in the following locations within the consulate’s jurisdiction:
Mobile (Alabama)
Savannah (Georgia)
Hattiesburg (Mississippi)
Charlotte (North Carolina)
Raleigh (North Carolina)
Charleston (South Carolina)
Greenville (South Carolina)
Nashville (Tennessee)
See also
Embassy of France in Washington, D.C.
Franco-American relations
References
^ "The Consulate - France in the Southeast region". atlanta.consulfrance.org.
^ "France in the United States/ Embassy of France in Washington". Archived from the original on 2009-04-19. Retrieved 2009-04-27.
^ "Jurisdiction and services". France in the Southeast region. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
^ "Visas to France - France in the Southeast region". atlanta.consulfrance.org.
^ "Culture - France in the Southeast region". atlanta.consulfrance.org.
^ "Office for Science and Technology". France in the Southeast region. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
^ "France-Atlanta". France in the Southeast region. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
^ "About France-Atlanta". France in the Southeast region. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
External links
Official Website
Official Website (in French)
France-Atlanta
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San Francisco | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Atlanta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta"},{"link_name":"French diplomatic outpost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_France"},{"link_name":"U.S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US"},{"link_name":"Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama"},{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)"},{"link_name":"Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi"},{"link_name":"North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"South Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Tennessee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"The Consulate General of France in Atlanta is the French diplomatic outpost to the U.S Southeast. Its jurisdiction covers the states of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The mission of the Consulate is to provide protection and administrative services to French citizens living or traveling within the region. It also seeks to promote French-American cooperation and exchange.[1] It is one of the ten consulates of the French diplomatic network in the United States. [2]","title":"Consulate General of France, Atlanta"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Source:[3]The Chancellery provides administrative services to French nationals including social aid, scholarships, help for French travelers in difficulty, assistance to incarcerated French citizens, etc. It serves as an intermediary between the French administration and French nationals, helping the latter to maintain ties and exercise their rights as citizens.[4]\nThe Office of Cultural Services facilitates cooperation and French-American dialogue in the U.S. Southeast in the educational, university and artistic fields. Alongside its partners, it supports numerous projects and initiatives in the arts, literature, cinema, the digital sphere, the French language and higher education.[5]\nThe Office for Science and Technology seeks to actively participate in the scientific and technological dynamism of the U.S. Southeast by identifying new possibilities for research partnerships between local public or private institutions and French organizations. Among its missions, the Office monitors local scientific innovations; initiates and reinforces scientific and technological partnerships; encourages exchanges of doctoral students and researchers between the two countries; and supports French and American innovation through accompanying young start-ups in their discovery of the U.S. ecosystem as well as through promoting the France’s attractiveness to young innovative American companies.[6]\nThe Press and Communications Office oversees the Consulate’s external communication. It is in charge of maintaining close relations with the local media and institutions, explaining the policies of the French Government in foreign and domestic affairs. The Office also manages the Consulate’s website, e-newsletter, and social media accounts.","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Buckhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckhead,_Atlanta"}],"text":"Previously located in the Prominence in Buckhead building, the Consulate General of France in Atlanta moved to the 5th floor of Buckhead Towers at Lenox Square in Buckhead on May 17, 2010. The building can be found at the intersection of Lenox Road and E. Paces Ferry Road NE, behind Lenox Mall and adjacent to the J.W. Marriott Hotel.The space was inaugurated on June 30, 2010 as the \"Maison de France\" complex. At that time, it also included the French-American Chamber of Commerce of Atlanta, the French Trade Commission-Ubifrance, and the Atlanta-Accueil association. As of summer 2021, the space is exclusively occupied by the Consulate.","title":"Location"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The first French Consul arrived in Atlanta in 1989, and as of 2022, there have been ten French Consuls:Anne-Laure Desjonquères - 2022-Present\nVincent Hommeril - 2019-2022\nLouis de Corail - 2016–2019\nDenis Barbet - 2012–2016\nPascal le Deunff - 2009–2012\nPhilippe Ardanaz – 2005-2009\nRené-Serge Marty – 2001-2005\nJean-Paul Moncheau – 1997-2001\nGérard Blanchot – 1993-1997\nJacky Musnier – 1989-1993","title":"Past and present Consuls General"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Georgia Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Tech"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In 2010, the Consulate and the Georgia Institute of Technology launched France-Atlanta, with the purpose of breathing new life into the French-American relationship in the U.S. Southeast. The inaugural edition featured 20 events attended by over 3,500 participants, including delegations from Paris and Metz, France.[7]Since then, the initiative has transformed into an annual, multidisciplinary affair featuring French and American business leaders, scientists, artists, and humanitarian experts. Through its programming, it seeks to showcase the best ideas and innovations on both sides of the Atlantic as well as to encourage partnerships between French and American scholars, artists and visionaries.[8]","title":"France-Atlanta"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The consul general supervises and works closely with eight honorary consuls based in the following locations within the consulate’s jurisdiction:Mobile (Alabama)\nSavannah (Georgia)\nHattiesburg (Mississippi)\nCharlotte (North Carolina)\nRaleigh (North Carolina)\nCharleston (South Carolina)\nGreenville (South Carolina)\nNashville (Tennessee)","title":"Honorary Consuls"}] | [] | [{"title":"Embassy of France in Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_France_in_Washington,_D.C."},{"title":"Franco-American relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-American_relations"}] | [{"reference":"\"The Consulate - France in the Southeast region\". atlanta.consulfrance.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/spip.php?rubrique74","url_text":"\"The Consulate - France in the Southeast region\""}]},{"reference":"\"France in the United States/ Embassy of France in Washington\". Archived from the original on 2009-04-19. Retrieved 2009-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090419184609/http://www.ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?rubrique=2","url_text":"\"France in the United States/ Embassy of France in Washington\""},{"url":"http://www.ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?rubrique=2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Jurisdiction and services\". France in the Southeast region. Retrieved 2021-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/jurisdiction-and-services","url_text":"\"Jurisdiction and services\""}]},{"reference":"\"Visas to France - France in the Southeast region\". atlanta.consulfrance.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/spip.php?rubrique118","url_text":"\"Visas to France - France in the Southeast region\""}]},{"reference":"\"Culture - France in the Southeast region\". atlanta.consulfrance.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/spip.php?rubrique119","url_text":"\"Culture - France in the Southeast region\""}]},{"reference":"\"Office for Science and Technology\". France in the Southeast region. Retrieved 2021-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/office-for-science-and-technology","url_text":"\"Office for Science and Technology\""}]},{"reference":"\"France-Atlanta\". France in the Southeast region. Retrieved 2021-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/france-atlanta-6034","url_text":"\"France-Atlanta\""}]},{"reference":"\"About France-Atlanta\". France in the Southeast region. Retrieved 2021-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/about-france-atlanta","url_text":"\"About France-Atlanta\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Consulate_General_of_France,_Atlanta¶ms=33_45_18_N_84_23_24_W_","external_links_name":"33°45′18″N 84°23′24″W / 33.75500°N 84.39000°W / 33.75500; -84.39000"},{"Link":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/-english-","external_links_name":"atlanta.consulfrance.org/-english-"},{"Link":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/spip.php?rubrique74","external_links_name":"\"The Consulate - France in the Southeast region\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090419184609/http://www.ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?rubrique=2","external_links_name":"\"France in the United States/ Embassy of France in Washington\""},{"Link":"http://www.ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?rubrique=2","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/jurisdiction-and-services","external_links_name":"\"Jurisdiction and services\""},{"Link":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/spip.php?rubrique118","external_links_name":"\"Visas to France - France in the Southeast region\""},{"Link":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/spip.php?rubrique119","external_links_name":"\"Culture - France in the Southeast region\""},{"Link":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/office-for-science-and-technology","external_links_name":"\"Office for Science and Technology\""},{"Link":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/france-atlanta-6034","external_links_name":"\"France-Atlanta\""},{"Link":"https://atlanta.consulfrance.org/about-france-atlanta","external_links_name":"\"About France-Atlanta\""},{"Link":"http://www.consulfrance-atlanta.org/spip.php?rubrique=7","external_links_name":"Official Website"},{"Link":"http://www.consulfrance-atlanta.org/spip.php?rubrique1","external_links_name":"Official Website"},{"Link":"https://france-atlanta.org/","external_links_name":"France-Atlanta"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northfield,_Illinois | Northfield, Illinois | ["1 Geography","2 Demographics","3 Government","4 Education","5 Public safety","5.1 Northfield Fire-Rescue Department","5.2 Northfield Police Department","6 Economy","6.1 Top employers","7 Transportation","8 Notable residents","9 References","10 External links"] | Coordinates: 42°6′N 87°46′W / 42.100°N 87.767°W / 42.100; -87.767Village in Illinois, United States
Village in Illinois, United StatesNorthfield, IllinoisVillageVillage of Northfield
logoMotto: The comfortable corner of the North ShoreLocation of Northfield in Cook County, Illinois.Location of Illinois in the United StatesCoordinates: 42°6′N 87°46′W / 42.100°N 87.767°W / 42.100; -87.767CountryUnited StatesStateIllinoisCountyCookArea • Total3.23 sq mi (8.37 km2) • Land3.23 sq mi (8.37 km2) • Water0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2)Population (2020) • Total5,751 • Density1,780.50/sq mi (687.44/km2)Time zoneUTC-6 (CST) • Summer (DST)UTC-5 (CDT)ZIP Code(s)60063, 60093Area codes847 and 224FIPS code17-53663Wikimedia CommonsNorthfield, IllinoisWebsitewww.northfieldil.org
Northfield is a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States, located approximately 19 miles (31 km) north of downtown Chicago. As of the 2020 census, the village's population was 5,751. It is part of a collection of upscale residential communities north of Chicago that belong to New Trier and Northfield Townships and the greater North Shore.
Geography
Northfield is located in Northfield Township, Cook County at 42°6'N 87°46'W (42.10,-87.77).
According to the 2021 census gazetteer files, Northfield has a total area of 3.23 square miles (8.37 km2), all land.
Demographics
Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
1930311—1940739137.6%19501,42693.0%19604,005180.9%19705,01025.1%19804,887−2.5%19904,635−5.2%20005,38916.3%20105,4200.6%20205,7516.1%U.S. Decennial Census 2010 2020
As of the 2020 census there were 5,751 people, 2,407 households, and 1,710 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,780.50 inhabitants per square mile (687.45/km2). There were 2,420 housing units at an average density of 749.23 per square mile (289.28/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 82.84% White, 0.47% African American, 0.16% Native American, 9.23% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.78% from other races, and 6.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.83% of the population.
There were 2,407 households, out of which 23.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.53% were married couples living together, 9.35% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.96% were non-families. 27.30% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 2.36.
The village's age distribution consisted of 18.8% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 16.3% from 25 to 44, 32.1% from 45 to 64, and 28.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 52.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.4 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $143,661, and the median income for a family was $200,132. Males had a median income of $89,089 versus $56,364 for females. The per capita income for the village was $103,893. About 8.7% of families and 8.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.6% of those under age 18 and 4.7% of those age 65 or over.
Northfield village, Illinois – Demographic Profile (NH = Non-Hispanic)
Race / Ethnicity
Pop 2010
Pop 2020
% 2010
% 2020
White alone (NH)
4,824
4,706
89.00%
81.83%
Black or African American alone (NH)
26
25
0.48%
0.43%
Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)
2
1
0.04%
0.02%
Asian alone (NH)
364
529
6.72%
9.20%
Pacific Islander alone (NH)
2
0
0.04%
0.00%
Some Other Race alone (NH)
7
7
0.13%
0.12%
Mixed Race/Multi-Racial (NH)
36
205
0.66%
3.56%
Hispanic or Latino (any race)
159
278
2.93%
4.83%
Total
5,420
5,751
100.00%
100.00%
Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.
Government
Northfield is represented by Democrat Jan Schakowsky of Illinois's 9th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives, Democrat Tammy Duckworth and Democrat Dick Durbin in the United States Senate, State Representative Robyn Gabel, State Senator Laura Fine and Northfield Village President Greg Lungmus.
Education
Northfield is home to New Trier High School's freshman campus.
Northfield houses Middlefork (K–3) and Sunset Ridge School (4–8). It shares its ZIP code (60093) with Winnetka. The high school is New Trier High School.
A small part of Northfield (east of the former Chicago and Northwestern train tracks) is served by Avoca School District 37 in Wilmette. An even smaller part (south of Winnetka Avenue between Sunset Ridge Road and the Forest Preserve) is served by Glenview School District 34 in Glenview.
Christian Heritage Academy is a private school in Northfield that serves students in preschool through twelfth grade. It offers a Christian-based education, equipping students to be lifetime followers of Jesus Christ.
Northfield is also home to Glenview Montessori School, a fully accredited, non-sectarian school for 2-6 year olds. The Glenview Montessori School is part of the Deerfield Montessori Schools, one of the first Montessori schools established in Illinois.
Saint Louise de Marillac High School was an all-girls Catholic secondary school in Northfield from 1967 to 1994, run by the Daughters of Charity. In 1994, Marillac merged with Loyola Academy. The campus was sold to Christian Heritage Academy.
The local Catholic parish, St. Phillip the Apostle, ran an elementary school which closed in 2004. The facility is currently leased by the Hyde Park Day School, a University of Chicago laboratory school for students with learning disabilities.
Public safety
Northfield Fire-Rescue Department
The Northfield Fire-Rescue Department, headed by Chief Michael Nystrand, is a combination department. They respond to fire related emergencies, medical emergencies, and specialized rescue situations. The department operates out of one station, centrally located at 1800 Winnetka Avenue. The Northfield Fire Rescue Department's Paramedic program is overseen by Saint Francis Hospital in Evanston, as part of Illinois EMS Region X.
Northfield Police Department
The Northfield Police Department, headed by Chief William Lustig, is responsible for all law enforcement operations in Northfield as well as emergency communications (E-911) for the Village. The police department, operated out of one station within the city hall complex, is well known for professionalism and good community relations. This department is Accredited by CALEA, and was one of the first in the State of Illinois to become so accredited.
Economy
The headquarters of Kraft Foods was formerly located in Northfield. Medline Industries now occupies Kraft's former office location. The Stepan Company, a manufacturer of specialty chemicals, is also headquartered in Northfield.
Top employers
According to Northfield's 2018 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
Employer
# of Employees
1
Medline Industries
1,600
2
New Trier High School District No. 203
800
3
College of American Pathologists
635
4
Stepan Company
350
5
Mariano's Fresh Market
151
6
Sunset Ridge Country Club
150
7
Fields Auto Group
144
8
North Shore Senior Center
120
9
Village of Northfield
103
10
Sunset Ridge School District 29
100
Transportation
Pace provides bus service on multiple routes connecting Northfield to destinations across the region.
Notable residents
Lance Briggs, linebacker in the National Football League; former resident
Stephen Calk (born 1965), banker, economic advisor to Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, and convicted felon. He was a resident of Northfield until his incarceration.
Tyson Chandler, center in the national basketball association; former resident
Chief Keef, rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer; former resident
Luke Donald, professional golfer and former Northfield resident.
Pat Fitzgerald, head football coach for the Northwestern Wildcats
Robert Leo Hulseman (1932–2016), inventor of the red solo cup and CEO of the Solo Cup Company from 1980 to 2006. He was a Northfield resident at the time of his death.
Jerry Reinsdorf (born 1936), owner of the Chicago Bulls and the Chicago White Sox; he was a resident of Northfield until 2016.
References
^ "2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 15, 2022.
^ "Northfield village, Illinois". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved April 15, 2022.
^ Bureau, US Census. "Gazetteer Files". Census.gov. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
^ "Decennial Census of Population and Housing by Decades". US Census Bureau.
^ a b "P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Northfield village, Illinois". United States Census Bureau.
^ a b "P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Northfield village, Illinois". United States Census Bureau.
^ "Explore Census Data". data.census.gov. Retrieved June 28, 2022.
^ "2009 Fact Sheet Archived 2012-05-24 at the Wayback Machine." Kraft Foods. 6/7. Retrieved on January 30, 2011. "Corporate Offices Kraft Foods Inc. Three Lakes Drive Northfield, IL 60093"
^ Village of Northfield CAFR
^ "RTA System Map" (PDF). Retrieved February 1, 2024.
^ Kim, Connie (January 20, 2022). "Price drops for Northfield home of convicted former Chicago bank executive tied to Donald Trump". The Real Deal. Retrieved August 28, 2023.
^ Marotti, Ally (December 29, 2016). "Robert L. Hulseman, Chicago-area creator of famed red Solo Cup, dies at 84". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
^ Goldsborough, Bob (April 20, 2016). "Jerry Reinsdorf sells Northfield home". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved August 28, 2023.
External links
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Northfield (Illinois).
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Village of Northfield official website
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Northbrook
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MusicBrainz area | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cook County, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"2020 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Village in Illinois, United StatesVillage in Illinois, United StatesNorthfield is a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States, located approximately 19 miles (31 km) north of downtown Chicago. As of the 2020 census, the village's population was 5,751.[2] It is part of a collection of upscale residential communities north of Chicago that belong to New Trier and Northfield Townships and the greater North Shore.","title":"Northfield, Illinois"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Northfield Township, Cook County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northfield_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2021-3"}],"text":"Northfield is located in Northfield Township, Cook County at 42°6'N 87°46'W (42.10,-87.77).According to the 2021 census gazetteer files, Northfield has a total area of 3.23 square miles (8.37 km2), all land.[3]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2020 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_census"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Pacific Islander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Islander_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"other races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(United_States_Census)"},{"link_name":"Hispanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"per capita income","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_capita_income"},{"link_name":"poverty line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_line"}],"text":"As of the 2020 census[7] there were 5,751 people, 2,407 households, and 1,710 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,780.50 inhabitants per square mile (687.45/km2). There were 2,420 housing units at an average density of 749.23 per square mile (289.28/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 82.84% White, 0.47% African American, 0.16% Native American, 9.23% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.78% from other races, and 6.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.83% of the population.There were 2,407 households, out of which 23.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.53% were married couples living together, 9.35% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.96% were non-families. 27.30% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 2.36.The village's age distribution consisted of 18.8% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 16.3% from 25 to 44, 32.1% from 45 to 64, and 28.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 52.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.4 males.The median income for a household in the village was $143,661, and the median income for a family was $200,132. Males had a median income of $89,089 versus $56,364 for females. The per capita income for the village was $103,893. About 8.7% of families and 8.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.6% of those under age 18 and 4.7% of those age 65 or over.Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jan Schakowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Schakowsky"},{"link_name":"Illinois's 9th congressional district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois%27s_9th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"Tammy Duckworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tammy_Duckworth"},{"link_name":"Dick Durbin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Durbin"}],"text":"Northfield is represented by Democrat Jan Schakowsky of Illinois's 9th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives, Democrat Tammy Duckworth and Democrat Dick Durbin in the United States Senate, State Representative Robyn Gabel, State Senator Laura Fine and Northfield Village President Greg Lungmus.","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New Trier High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Trier_High_School"},{"link_name":"Sunset Ridge School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_Ridge_School"},{"link_name":"Winnetka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnetka,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"New Trier High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Trier_High_School"},{"link_name":"Wilmette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmette,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Christian Heritage Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_Heritage_Academy_(Northfield,_Illinois)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saint Louise de Marillac High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Louise_de_Marillac_High_School"},{"link_name":"Daughters of Charity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daughters_of_Charity_of_Saint_Vincent_de_Paul"},{"link_name":"Loyola Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola_Academy"},{"link_name":"Hyde Park Day School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyde_Park_Day_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"laboratory school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_school"}],"text":"Northfield is home to New Trier High School's freshman campus.Northfield houses Middlefork (K–3) and Sunset Ridge School (4–8). It shares its ZIP code (60093) with Winnetka. The high school is New Trier High School.A small part of Northfield (east of the former Chicago and Northwestern train tracks) is served by Avoca School District 37 in Wilmette. An even smaller part (south of Winnetka Avenue between Sunset Ridge Road and the Forest Preserve) is served by Glenview School District 34 in Glenview.Christian Heritage Academy is a private school in Northfield that serves students in preschool through twelfth grade. It offers a Christian-based education, equipping students to be lifetime followers of Jesus Christ.Northfield is also home to Glenview Montessori School, a fully accredited, non-sectarian school for 2-6 year olds. The Glenview Montessori School is part of the Deerfield Montessori Schools, one of the first Montessori schools established in Illinois.Saint Louise de Marillac High School was an all-girls Catholic secondary school in Northfield from 1967 to 1994, run by the Daughters of Charity. In 1994, Marillac merged with Loyola Academy. The campus was sold to Christian Heritage Academy.The local Catholic parish, St. Phillip the Apostle, ran an elementary school which closed in 2004. The facility is currently leased by the Hyde Park Day School, a University of Chicago laboratory school for students with learning disabilities.","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Public safety"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Northfield Fire-Rescue Department","text":"The Northfield Fire-Rescue Department, headed by Chief Michael Nystrand, is a combination department. They respond to fire related emergencies, medical emergencies, and specialized rescue situations. The department operates out of one station, centrally located at 1800 Winnetka Avenue. The Northfield Fire Rescue Department's Paramedic program is overseen by Saint Francis Hospital in Evanston, as part of Illinois EMS Region X.","title":"Public safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CALEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Accreditation_for_Law_Enforcement_Agencies"}],"sub_title":"Northfield Police Department","text":"The Northfield Police Department, headed by Chief William Lustig, is responsible for all law enforcement operations in Northfield as well as emergency communications (E-911) for the Village. The police department, operated out of one station within the city hall complex, is well known for professionalism and good community relations. This department is Accredited by CALEA, and was one of the first in the State of Illinois to become so accredited.","title":"Public safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kraft Foods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraft_Foods"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Medline Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medline_Industries"},{"link_name":"Stepan Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepan_Company"},{"link_name":"specialty chemicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialty_chemicals"}],"text":"The headquarters of Kraft Foods was formerly located in Northfield.[8] Medline Industries now occupies Kraft's former office location. The Stepan Company, a manufacturer of specialty chemicals, is also headquartered in Northfield.","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Top employers","text":"According to Northfield's 2018 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,[9] the top employers in the city are:","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pace_(transit)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Pace provides bus service on multiple routes connecting Northfield to destinations across the region.[10]","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lance Briggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance_Briggs"},{"link_name":"Stephen Calk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Calk"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Tyson Chandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Chandler"},{"link_name":"Chief Keef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Keef"},{"link_name":"Luke Donald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke_Donald"},{"link_name":"Pat Fitzgerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_Fitzgerald"},{"link_name":"Northwestern Wildcats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Wildcats_football"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Robert Leo Hulseman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Leo_Hulseman"},{"link_name":"Solo Cup Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solo_Cup_Company"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Jerry Reinsdorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Reinsdorf"},{"link_name":"Chicago Bulls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Bulls"},{"link_name":"Chicago White Sox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Lance Briggs, linebacker in the National Football League; former resident\nStephen Calk (born 1965), banker, economic advisor to Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, and convicted felon. He was a resident of Northfield until his incarceration.[11]\nTyson Chandler, center in the national basketball association; former resident\nChief Keef, rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer; former resident\nLuke Donald, professional golfer and former Northfield resident.\nPat Fitzgerald, head football coach for the Northwestern Wildcats[citation needed]\nRobert Leo Hulseman (1932–2016), inventor of the red solo cup and CEO of the Solo Cup Company from 1980 to 2006. He was a Northfield resident at the time of his death.[12]\nJerry Reinsdorf (born 1936), owner of the Chicago Bulls and the Chicago White Sox; he was a resident of Northfield until 2016.[13]","title":"Notable residents"}] | [{"image_text":"Map of Illinois highlighting Cook County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Map_of_Illinois_highlighting_Cook_County.svg/42px-Map_of_Illinois_highlighting_Cook_County.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 15, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_17.txt","url_text":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\""}]},{"reference":"\"Northfield village, Illinois\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved April 15, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=1600000US1753663","url_text":"\"Northfield village, Illinois\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"Bureau, US Census. \"Gazetteer Files\". Census.gov. Retrieved June 29, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html","url_text":"\"Gazetteer Files\""}]},{"reference":"\"Decennial Census of Population and Housing by Decades\". US Census Bureau.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade.html","url_text":"\"Decennial Census of Population and Housing by Decades\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Census_Bureau","url_text":"US Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Northfield village, Illinois\". United States Census Bureau.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=p2&g=1600000US1753663&tid=DECENNIALPL2010.P2","url_text":"\"P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Northfield village, Illinois\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Northfield village, Illinois\". United States Census Bureau.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=p2&g=1600000US1753663&tid=DECENNIALPL2020.P2","url_text":"\"P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Northfield village, Illinois\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"Explore Census Data\". data.census.gov. Retrieved June 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=1600000US1753663","url_text":"\"Explore Census Data\""}]},{"reference":"\"RTA System Map\" (PDF). Retrieved February 1, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rtachicago.org/uploads/files/general/RTA-System-Map.pdf","url_text":"\"RTA System Map\""}]},{"reference":"Kim, Connie (January 20, 2022). \"Price drops for Northfield home of convicted former Chicago bank executive tied to Donald Trump\". The Real Deal. Retrieved August 28, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://therealdeal.com/chicago/2022/01/20/price-drops-for-northfield-home-of-convicted-former-chicago-bank-executive-tied-to-donald-trump/","url_text":"\"Price drops for Northfield home of convicted former Chicago bank executive tied to Donald Trump\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Deal_(magazine)","url_text":"The Real Deal"}]},{"reference":"Marotti, Ally (December 29, 2016). \"Robert L. Hulseman, Chicago-area creator of famed red Solo Cup, dies at 84\". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 20, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-hulseman-solo-cup-inventor-dies-1230-biz-20161229-story.html","url_text":"\"Robert L. Hulseman, Chicago-area creator of famed red Solo Cup, dies at 84\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune","url_text":"Chicago Tribune"}]},{"reference":"Goldsborough, Bob (April 20, 2016). \"Jerry Reinsdorf sells Northfield home\". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved August 28, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/real-estate/elite-street/ct-elite-street-jerry-reinsdorf-0421-biz-20160420-column.html","url_text":"\"Jerry Reinsdorf sells Northfield home\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune","url_text":"Chicago Tribune"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Northfield,_Illinois¶ms=42_6_N_87_46_W_type:city(5751)_region:US-IL","external_links_name":"42°6′N 87°46′W / 42.100°N 87.767°W / 42.100; -87.767"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Northfield,_Illinois¶ms=42_6_N_87_46_W_type:city(5751)_region:US-IL","external_links_name":"42°6′N 87°46′W / 42.100°N 87.767°W / 42.100; -87.767"},{"Link":"http://www.northfieldil.org/","external_links_name":"www.northfieldil.org"},{"Link":"https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_17.txt","external_links_name":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\""},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=1600000US1753663","external_links_name":"\"Northfield village, Illinois\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html","external_links_name":"\"Gazetteer Files\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade.html","external_links_name":"\"Decennial Census of Population and Housing by Decades\""},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=p2&g=1600000US1753663&tid=DECENNIALPL2010.P2","external_links_name":"\"P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Northfield village, Illinois\""},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=p2&g=1600000US1753663&tid=DECENNIALPL2020.P2","external_links_name":"\"P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Northfield village, Illinois\""},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=1600000US1753663","external_links_name":"\"Explore Census Data\""},{"Link":"http://www.kraftfoodscompany.com/assets/pdf/kraft_foods_fact_sheet.pdf","external_links_name":"2009 Fact Sheet"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120524131630/http://www.kraftfoodscompany.com/assets/pdf/kraft_foods_fact_sheet.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.northfieldil.org/DocumentCenter/View/1467/2017-2018-CAFR","external_links_name":"Village of Northfield CAFR"},{"Link":"https://www.rtachicago.org/uploads/files/general/RTA-System-Map.pdf","external_links_name":"\"RTA System Map\""},{"Link":"https://therealdeal.com/chicago/2022/01/20/price-drops-for-northfield-home-of-convicted-former-chicago-bank-executive-tied-to-donald-trump/","external_links_name":"\"Price drops for Northfield home of convicted former Chicago bank executive tied to Donald Trump\""},{"Link":"http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-hulseman-solo-cup-inventor-dies-1230-biz-20161229-story.html","external_links_name":"\"Robert L. Hulseman, Chicago-area creator of famed red Solo Cup, dies at 84\""},{"Link":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/real-estate/elite-street/ct-elite-street-jerry-reinsdorf-0421-biz-20160420-column.html","external_links_name":"\"Jerry Reinsdorf sells Northfield home\""},{"Link":"http://www.northfieldil.org/","external_links_name":"Village of Northfield official website"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/123189941","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007566941205171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n83028868","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/area/d56d0242-8a29-4c5b-9420-faa962fa5e56","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz area"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Hotel,_Maryborough | Royal Hotel, Maryborough | ["1 History","2 Description","3 Heritage listing","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 25°32′20″S 152°42′13″E / 25.5389°S 152.7035°E / -25.5389; 152.7035
Historic site in Queensland, AustraliaRoyal Hotel, MaryboroughRoyal Hotel, 2008LocationKent Street, Maryborough, Fraser Coast Region, Queensland, AustraliaCoordinates25°32′20″S 152°42′13″E / 25.5389°S 152.7035°E / -25.5389; 152.7035Design period1870s–1890s (late 19th century)Built1892–1930sArchitectEaton & BatesArchitectural style(s)Classicism
Queensland Heritage RegisterOfficial nameRoyal HotelTypestate heritage (built)Designated21 October 1992Reference no.600700Significant period1890s, 1900s, 1930s (fabric)1902–ongoing (historical use as hotel)Significant componentsloggia/s, shop/s
Location of Royal Hotel, Maryborough in Queensland
Royal Hotel is a heritage-listed hotel on the corner of Kent Street and Bazaar Street, Maryborough, Fraser Coast Region, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by Eaton & Bates and built from 1892 to 1930s. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.
History
The Royal Hotel in Maryborough is a substantial rendered brick building, constructed in 1902 to designs of Messrs Eaton and Bates, architects of Rockhampton. The present hotel was built for Richard Hyne, a local pioneer who developed many local manufacturing and community initiatives.
The original township of Maryborough was situated, not in its current place, but on the north of the Mary River, after wharves were established in 1847–1848, to provide transport for wool from sheep stations on the Burnett River. In 1852 the growing town was gradually transferred further north where ships were able to better navigate the river. Development followed and by March 1861, Maryborough was declared a municipality, the Borough of Maryborough.
One of the early settlers in the area, Mr ET Aldridge established a hotel, apparently first known as the Victoria but later named the Bush Inn, in the old town in 1848. In 1856, Aldridge moved the hotel to the south of the River in Kent Street, where the present Royal Hotel is situated, with the shifting of the focus of development. This was a large two storeyed timber building.
During the 1860s Maryborough flourished as a result of the gold discoveries in Gympie, for which it became the primary port. In 1870 a first floor timber balcony with cross-braced balustrade was added to the Bush Inn, which was to become known as the Royal Hotel in the next few years, by the owner, Mr Cooper. In 1873, Richard Hyne took over the licence.
Prior to establishing himself in Maryborough, Hyne engaged in various businesses in Gympie, including the running of the Mining Exchange Hotel. Astutely, he realised that Maryborough would become a permanent centre and port for the Wide Bay–Burnett district and moved to the town, where he immediately became involved with the running of the Bush Inn/Royal Hotel. Hyne was interested in establishing Maryborough as a major respected centre, and worked towards improving health, education, welfare and recreation facilities. He was mayor for a term in 1878.
Upon arriving in Maryborough, Hyne acquired the lease of the Royal Hotel in mid 1873 and purchased the hotel soon after. Hyne busied himself with improving the hotel, he added bathrooms and replaced the timber balustrading on the balconies with a cast iron balustrade and established a driveway where he planted several Bunya Pines in 1878. This former Royal Hotel did not occupy the site immediately adjacent to the corner, and a two storeyed masonry building was constructed by Hyne on this corner site in 1892–1893. This two storeyed building, which was to be incorporated into the current Royal Hotel, was designed by William Devon, a local architect as a shop for Hanleys, drapers in the town. Hanleys remained in the shop for about five years, when Finlaysons took over the lease until the shop became the public bar of the new Royal Hotel in 1902.
As the town continued to prosper, the Royal Hotel soon became the leading hotel establishment, and many important civic functions were held there. By 1900 the question of modernising the hotel arose. In a letter to Hyne from a relative in Glasgow, the latter suggests that plans be acquired for the best use of the site, with a corner bar, sitting rooms and an imposing front entrance, preferably further away from the public bar, as "this area is always objectionable to Ladies". Other suggestions included the filling in of the front with shops and the provision of accommodation for 40 on the first floor.
A decision was duly taken to rebuild the Royal Hotel, and a competition of Queensland architects was held, from which eight entries were received and Messrs Eaton and Bates were chosen. The design competition specified that the new hotel was to incorporate "the best features of the Oriental Hotel in Colombo and Shepheards Hotel in Cairo". Though the final design was obviously not as elaborate as either of the hotels cited, it does have many features which could be loosely described as having eastern origin, in particular the open entrance, first floor loggias and the stair hall with their openness, arcades and tiling. The drawings which survive from this competition, now in the hands of the Hyne family, are signed by Messrs Eaton, Bates and Garlick.
When constructed the Royal Hotel was described as one of the finest hotels north of Sydney and the most complete in Australia. It incorporated the building on the corner of Kent and Bazaar Streets and extended along Kent Street with the principal entrance on this facade. Through this was a large entrance vestibule, open to the street through wide archways, beyond which was the extravagant stair hall. A large dining room, to the right of the stair hall, extended through two stories, with a gallery encircling the room at the first floor level and a large clerestoried ceiling section. Elsewhere on the ground floor was a large billiard room, the bar area, on the corner of the streets, and sample rooms for the requirements of commercial travellers. The bar area incorporated a public bar, two parlours and two private bars, all of which could be served from the same counter. On the first floor accommodation facilities were provided, those facing Kent Street opening onto a long arched loggia. Shops were found on the ground floor of the Kent Street elevation.
The hotel was not fully completed when Richard Hyne died on 5 July 1902, but action had been taken by this stage to move to the new hotel.
Many parts of the hotel was refurbished during the 1930s. The lounge was renovated in 1932, under the supervision of local architect POE Hawkes, when a timber floor and wall panelling was introduced, and fibrous cement was used to clad the ceiling. A variety of locally grown hardwood timbers, including mountain ash, red gum, spotted gum and iron bark supplied by Hyne and Son timber merchants, were used to create the striking parquetry floor. Tenders were called, again by architect Philip Oliver Ellard Hawkes, on 21 September 1934 for the erection of a cantilevered awning clad with Wunderlich pressed metal panels to the front of the hotel, though this was not erected until 1939, when the shop fronts were modernised. This work was completed by local contractor, SV Stevens, and a stipulation of the contract was the employment of only local labour.
The hotel remained in the ownership of the Hyne family until 1960, when it was sold to another established Maryborough family, the Williams. The shops to the Kent Street elevation remain, and a family restaurant is situated in the entrance and dining room.
Description
The Royal Hotel is a substantial two-storeyed rendered masonry building on a prominent intersection on the corner of Kent and Bazaar Streets, Maryborough. The hipped corrugated iron roof, featuring a prominent glazed roof lantern, is concealed by a rendered masonry parapet of Italianate balusters, punctuated by a series of moulded panels.
The principal facade, from Kent Street, is symmetrically composed around a central bay surmounted by a curved pediment above a moulded panel projecting above the parapet, emphasising the entrance. The symmetrical quality of the facade is offset by the addition of a cantilevered awning which features an arched detail, not over the principal entrance designated by the central bay, but over on an arched opening to the right of this. The central bay is flanked by a series of arcaded bays, divided by pilasters rendered to imitate vermiculated stonework. The ground floor features a series of large arched openings, some of which are balustraded, and flanking these are bipartite round headed arched windows to the public bar toward Bazaar Street, and modernised shop fronts in the other direction. The central bay is flanked on the first floor by five bay arched loggias terminated by the end wings of the building which feature three arched window openings, over an italianate baluster panel. The first floor loggia provides an indication of the original open character of the central section of the ground floor.
The cantilevered awning which is attached to the building with a series of iron tie-backs, has an elaborate soffit of coffered pressed metal panels and a reeded pressed metal fascia. The awning extends the whole distance of the Kent Street facade, is curved around the corner and extends only a short distance on the Bazaar Street facade. Surmounted on the Kent and Bazaar Street corner of the hotel is an illuminated sign supported on metal framework with lettering, "ROYAL".
Windows to the first floor nearest the corner of Kent and Bazaar Streets retain double hung sashes, though most other openings in the building have been glazed with aluminium-framed windows. Leadlight glazing survives on the upper sashes of several arched windows of the public bar. Window joinery to the Bazaar Street elevation is generally more intact. The building has a rear first floor verandah, access from which is gained by a straight timber stair.
The building is accessed via the centrally located principal entrance, originally an open loggia entrance vestibule, but now closed with glazing. This space features a fine tessellated and encaustic tiled floor, which continues in less decorative form into the entrance hall and dining room. The entrance hall is punctuated by an arcade supported on heavy masonry columns with stylised ionic capitals, initiating the stair and forming a walkway through the space, indicating the entrances to other rooms. The bifurcating dog leg stair features very fine cedar joinery of carved timber balusters joined by a carved panel below the handrail. Heavy columns flanking the stair are met by the expanding lower treads and the wreathed handrail.
The dining room, originally extending through two storeys with gallery above, is now ceiled at the first floor. The coved ceiling of the gallery space features a large central clerestory, now boarded below the windows. Reeded pilasters line the plaster walls, and access to the loggia is given through a number of half glazed french doors.
The upper floor has a number of accommodation rooms, all with access to the loggia or rear verandah. The timber framed and boarded rooms retain original detailing including four panel doors, with timber fretwork transoms above and timber skirting and architraves. A large clerestory in the corridor provides natural lighting.
The public bar and subsidiary ground floor rooms have been substantially altered. A one storeyed concrete block extension has been added to the south of the Bazaar Street elevation. To the rear of the early building is an area of partially surfaced car parking.
Heritage listing
Royal Hotel was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.
The Royal Hotel is important in demonstrating the pattern of development in Maryborough. A hotel has been on the site since the initial stages of the development of the new town of Maryborough, and the subsequent rebuildings indicate various phases of the town's prosperity.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.
The hotel demonstrates the principal characteristics of a large hotel in a Queensland country town, designed to provide superior accommodation to attract travellers and local clientele. The hotel is influenced by eastern design traditions, appropriate in the sub-tropical climate of Maryborough.
The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.
The well composed exterior employing classically derived features and the finely detailed interior, of high quality planning, joinery, tiling and plaster work, contribute to an impressive building, of value for its aesthetic characteristics.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
The building is important to the local community and recognised as the premier hotel in Maryborough, and a centre of the town's social life since its construction in 1902.
The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.
The building is associated with the Hyne family, important pioneers of Maryborough and in particular with Mr RM Hyne, and also the Queensland architects, Eaton and Bates.
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa "Royal Hotel (entry 600700)". Queensland Heritage Register. Queensland Heritage Council. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
^ "MARYBOROUGH ROYAL HOTEL". The Morning Bulletin. Rockhampton, Qld. 4 February 1902. p. 6. Retrieved 31 July 2013 – via National Library of Australia.
This Wikipedia article incorporates text from "The Queensland heritage register" published by the State of Queensland under CC-BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 7 July 2014, archived on 8 October 2014). The geo-coordinates were computed from the "Queensland heritage register boundaries" published by the State of Queensland under CC-BY 3.0 AU licence (accessed on 5 September 2014, archived on 15 October 2014).
External links
Media related to Royal Hotel, Maryborough at Wikimedia Commons | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel"},{"link_name":"Maryborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryborough,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Fraser Coast Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraser_Coast_Region"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"Eaton & Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eaton_%26_Bates"},{"link_name":"Queensland Heritage Register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Historic site in Queensland, AustraliaRoyal Hotel is a heritage-listed hotel on the corner of Kent Street and Bazaar Street, Maryborough, Fraser Coast Region, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by Eaton & Bates and built from 1892 to 1930s. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.[1][2]","title":"Royal Hotel, Maryborough"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rockhampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockhampton"},{"link_name":"Richard Hyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Hyne"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"original township of Maryborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Maryborough_Town_Site"},{"link_name":"Mary River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_River_(Queensland)"},{"link_name":"Burnett River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnett_River"},{"link_name":"Borough of Maryborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borough_of_Maryborough"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"Gympie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gympie"},{"link_name":"balcony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balcony"},{"link_name":"balustrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balustrade"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"Wide Bay–Burnett district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_Bay%E2%80%93Burnett"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"cast iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron"},{"link_name":"Bunya Pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunya_pines"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"Oriental Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Oriental_Hotel"},{"link_name":"Colombo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombo"},{"link_name":"Shepheards Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepheard%27s_Hotel"},{"link_name":"Cairo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"vestibule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibule_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"clerestoried","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerestory"},{"link_name":"billiard room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billiard_room"},{"link_name":"parlours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlour"},{"link_name":"loggia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loggia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"Philip Oliver Ellard Hawkes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Oliver_Ellard_Hawkes"},{"link_name":"cantilevered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantilever"},{"link_name":"awning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awning"},{"link_name":"Wunderlich pressed metal panels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wunderlich_(panels)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"}],"text":"The Royal Hotel in Maryborough is a substantial rendered brick building, constructed in 1902 to designs of Messrs Eaton and Bates, architects of Rockhampton. The present hotel was built for Richard Hyne, a local pioneer who developed many local manufacturing and community initiatives.[1]The original township of Maryborough was situated, not in its current place, but on the north of the Mary River, after wharves were established in 1847–1848, to provide transport for wool from sheep stations on the Burnett River. In 1852 the growing town was gradually transferred further north where ships were able to better navigate the river. Development followed and by March 1861, Maryborough was declared a municipality, the Borough of Maryborough.[1]One of the early settlers in the area, Mr ET Aldridge established a hotel, apparently first known as the Victoria but later named the Bush Inn, in the old town in 1848. In 1856, Aldridge moved the hotel to the south of the River in Kent Street, where the present Royal Hotel is situated, with the shifting of the focus of development. This was a large two storeyed timber building.[1]During the 1860s Maryborough flourished as a result of the gold discoveries in Gympie, for which it became the primary port. In 1870 a first floor timber balcony with cross-braced balustrade was added to the Bush Inn, which was to become known as the Royal Hotel in the next few years, by the owner, Mr Cooper. In 1873, Richard Hyne took over the licence.[1]Prior to establishing himself in Maryborough, Hyne engaged in various businesses in Gympie, including the running of the Mining Exchange Hotel. Astutely, he realised that Maryborough would become a permanent centre and port for the Wide Bay–Burnett district and moved to the town, where he immediately became involved with the running of the Bush Inn/Royal Hotel. Hyne was interested in establishing Maryborough as a major respected centre, and worked towards improving health, education, welfare and recreation facilities. He was mayor for a term in 1878.[1]Upon arriving in Maryborough, Hyne acquired the lease of the Royal Hotel in mid 1873 and purchased the hotel soon after. Hyne busied himself with improving the hotel, he added bathrooms and replaced the timber balustrading on the balconies with a cast iron balustrade and established a driveway where he planted several Bunya Pines in 1878. This former Royal Hotel did not occupy the site immediately adjacent to the corner, and a two storeyed masonry building was constructed by Hyne on this corner site in 1892–1893. This two storeyed building, which was to be incorporated into the current Royal Hotel, was designed by William Devon, a local architect as a shop for Hanleys, drapers in the town. Hanleys remained in the shop for about five years, when Finlaysons took over the lease until the shop became the public bar of the new Royal Hotel in 1902.[1]As the town continued to prosper, the Royal Hotel soon became the leading hotel establishment, and many important civic functions were held there. By 1900 the question of modernising the hotel arose. In a letter to Hyne from a relative in Glasgow, the latter suggests that plans be acquired for the best use of the site, with a corner bar, sitting rooms and an imposing front entrance, preferably further away from the public bar, as \"this area is always objectionable to Ladies\". Other suggestions included the filling in of the front with shops and the provision of accommodation for 40 on the first floor.[1]A decision was duly taken to rebuild the Royal Hotel, and a competition of Queensland architects was held, from which eight entries were received and Messrs Eaton and Bates were chosen. The design competition specified that the new hotel was to incorporate \"the best features of the Oriental Hotel in Colombo and Shepheards Hotel in Cairo\". Though the final design was obviously not as elaborate as either of the hotels cited, it does have many features which could be loosely described as having eastern origin, in particular the open entrance, first floor loggias and the stair hall with their openness, arcades and tiling. The drawings which survive from this competition, now in the hands of the Hyne family, are signed by Messrs Eaton, Bates and Garlick.[1]When constructed the Royal Hotel was described as one of the finest hotels north of Sydney and the most complete in Australia. It incorporated the building on the corner of Kent and Bazaar Streets and extended along Kent Street with the principal entrance on this facade. Through this was a large entrance vestibule, open to the street through wide archways, beyond which was the extravagant stair hall. A large dining room, to the right of the stair hall, extended through two stories, with a gallery encircling the room at the first floor level and a large clerestoried ceiling section. Elsewhere on the ground floor was a large billiard room, the bar area, on the corner of the streets, and sample rooms for the requirements of commercial travellers. The bar area incorporated a public bar, two parlours and two private bars, all of which could be served from the same counter. On the first floor accommodation facilities were provided, those facing Kent Street opening onto a long arched loggia. Shops were found on the ground floor of the Kent Street elevation.[1]The hotel was not fully completed when Richard Hyne died on 5 July 1902, but action had been taken by this stage to move to the new hotel.[1]Many parts of the hotel was refurbished during the 1930s. The lounge was renovated in 1932, under the supervision of local architect POE Hawkes, when a timber floor and wall panelling was introduced, and fibrous cement was used to clad the ceiling. A variety of locally grown hardwood timbers, including mountain ash, red gum, spotted gum and iron bark supplied by Hyne and Son timber merchants, were used to create the striking parquetry floor. Tenders were called, again by architect Philip Oliver Ellard Hawkes, on 21 September 1934 for the erection of a cantilevered awning clad with Wunderlich pressed metal panels to the front of the hotel, though this was not erected until 1939, when the shop fronts were modernised. This work was completed by local contractor, SV Stevens, and a stipulation of the contract was the employment of only local labour.[1]The hotel remained in the ownership of the Hyne family until 1960, when it was sold to another established Maryborough family, the Williams. The shops to the Kent Street elevation remain, and a family restaurant is situated in the entrance and dining room.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hipped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipped_roof"},{"link_name":"corrugated iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrugated_iron"},{"link_name":"roof lantern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_lantern"},{"link_name":"parapet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapet"},{"link_name":"Italianate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italianate_architecture"},{"link_name":"balusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balusters"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"facade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facade"},{"link_name":"bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"pediment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediment"},{"link_name":"pilasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilasters"},{"link_name":"vermiculated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustication_(architecture)#Variations"},{"link_name":"balustraded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balustrade"},{"link_name":"loggias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loggia"},{"link_name":"baluster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baluster"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"soffit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soffit"},{"link_name":"fascia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"sashes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sash_window"},{"link_name":"Leadlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadlight"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"tessellated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessellated"},{"link_name":"encaustic tiled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encaustic_tile"},{"link_name":"arcade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"columns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columns"},{"link_name":"dog leg stair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog-leg_(stairs)"},{"link_name":"handrail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handrail"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"clerestory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerestory"},{"link_name":"french doors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_doors"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"transoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transom_(architectural)"},{"link_name":"architraves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architraves"},{"link_name":"lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"}],"text":"The Royal Hotel is a substantial two-storeyed rendered masonry building on a prominent intersection on the corner of Kent and Bazaar Streets, Maryborough. The hipped corrugated iron roof, featuring a prominent glazed roof lantern, is concealed by a rendered masonry parapet of Italianate balusters, punctuated by a series of moulded panels.[1]The principal facade, from Kent Street, is symmetrically composed around a central bay surmounted by a curved pediment above a moulded panel projecting above the parapet, emphasising the entrance. The symmetrical quality of the facade is offset by the addition of a cantilevered awning which features an arched detail, not over the principal entrance designated by the central bay, but over on an arched opening to the right of this. The central bay is flanked by a series of arcaded bays, divided by pilasters rendered to imitate vermiculated stonework. The ground floor features a series of large arched openings, some of which are balustraded, and flanking these are bipartite round headed arched windows to the public bar toward Bazaar Street, and modernised shop fronts in the other direction. The central bay is flanked on the first floor by five bay arched loggias terminated by the end wings of the building which feature three arched window openings, over an italianate baluster panel. The first floor loggia provides an indication of the original open character of the central section of the ground floor.[1]The cantilevered awning which is attached to the building with a series of iron tie-backs, has an elaborate soffit of coffered pressed metal panels and a reeded pressed metal fascia. The awning extends the whole distance of the Kent Street facade, is curved around the corner and extends only a short distance on the Bazaar Street facade. Surmounted on the Kent and Bazaar Street corner of the hotel is an illuminated sign supported on metal framework with lettering, \"ROYAL\".[1]Windows to the first floor nearest the corner of Kent and Bazaar Streets retain double hung sashes, though most other openings in the building have been glazed with aluminium-framed windows. Leadlight glazing survives on the upper sashes of several arched windows of the public bar. Window joinery to the Bazaar Street elevation is generally more intact. The building has a rear first floor verandah, access from which is gained by a straight timber stair.[1]The building is accessed via the centrally located principal entrance, originally an open loggia entrance vestibule, but now closed with glazing. This space features a fine tessellated and encaustic tiled floor, which continues in less decorative form into the entrance hall and dining room. The entrance hall is punctuated by an arcade supported on heavy masonry columns with stylised ionic capitals, initiating the stair and forming a walkway through the space, indicating the entrances to other rooms. The bifurcating dog leg stair features very fine cedar joinery of carved timber balusters joined by a carved panel below the handrail. Heavy columns flanking the stair are met by the expanding lower treads and the wreathed handrail.[1]The dining room, originally extending through two storeys with gallery above, is now ceiled at the first floor. The coved ceiling of the gallery space features a large central clerestory, now boarded below the windows. Reeded pilasters line the plaster walls, and access to the loggia is given through a number of half glazed french doors.[1]The upper floor has a number of accommodation rooms, all with access to the loggia or rear verandah. The timber framed and boarded rooms retain original detailing including four panel doors, with timber fretwork transoms above and timber skirting and architraves. A large clerestory in the corridor provides natural lighting.[1]The public bar and subsidiary ground floor rooms have been substantially altered. A one storeyed concrete block extension has been added to the south of the Bazaar Street elevation. To the rear of the early building is an area of partially surfaced car parking.[1]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Queensland Heritage Register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qhr-1"}],"text":"Royal Hotel was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.[1]The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.The Royal Hotel is important in demonstrating the pattern of development in Maryborough. A hotel has been on the site since the initial stages of the development of the new town of Maryborough, and the subsequent rebuildings indicate various phases of the town's prosperity.[1]The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.The hotel demonstrates the principal characteristics of a large hotel in a Queensland country town, designed to provide superior accommodation to attract travellers and local clientele. The hotel is influenced by eastern design traditions, appropriate in the sub-tropical climate of Maryborough.[1]The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.The well composed exterior employing classically derived features and the finely detailed interior, of high quality planning, joinery, tiling and plaster work, contribute to an impressive building, of value for its aesthetic characteristics.[1]The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.The building is important to the local community and recognised as the premier hotel in Maryborough, and a centre of the town's social life since its construction in 1902.[1]The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.The building is associated with the Hyne family, important pioneers of Maryborough and in particular with Mr RM Hyne, and also the Queensland architects, Eaton and Bates.[1]","title":"Heritage listing"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Royal Hotel (entry 600700)\". Queensland Heritage Register. Queensland Heritage Council. Retrieved 1 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://environment.ehp.qld.gov.au/heritage-register/detail/?id=600700","url_text":"\"Royal Hotel (entry 600700)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Heritage_Register","url_text":"Queensland Heritage Register"}]},{"reference":"\"MARYBOROUGH ROYAL HOTEL\". The Morning Bulletin. Rockhampton, Qld. 4 February 1902. p. 6. Retrieved 31 July 2013 – via National Library of Australia.","urls":[{"url":"http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article52752198","url_text":"\"MARYBOROUGH ROYAL HOTEL\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Morning_Bulletin","url_text":"The Morning Bulletin"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Royal_Hotel,_Maryborough¶ms=25.5389_S_152.7035_E_region:AU-QLD_type:landmark","external_links_name":"25°32′20″S 152°42′13″E / 25.5389°S 152.7035°E / -25.5389; 152.7035"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Royal_Hotel,_Maryborough¶ms=25.5389_S_152.7035_E_region:AU-QLD_type:landmark","external_links_name":"25°32′20″S 152°42′13″E / 25.5389°S 152.7035°E / -25.5389; 152.7035"},{"Link":"https://environment.ehp.qld.gov.au/heritage-register/detail/?id=600700","external_links_name":"\"Royal Hotel (entry 600700)\""},{"Link":"http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article52752198","external_links_name":"\"MARYBOROUGH ROYAL HOTEL\""},{"Link":"https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/the-queensland-heritage-register","external_links_name":"\"The Queensland heritage register\""},{"Link":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/","external_links_name":"CC-BY 3.0 AU"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141008094804/https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/the-queensland-heritage-register","external_links_name":"archived"},{"Link":"https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/queensland-heritage-register-boundaries","external_links_name":"\"Queensland heritage register boundaries\""},{"Link":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/","external_links_name":"CC-BY 3.0 AU"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141015223514/https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/queensland-heritage-register-boundaries","external_links_name":"archived"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Nevill,_5th_Baron_Bergavenny | George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny | ["1 Origins","2 Career","3 Marriages and children","4 Arms","5 Ancestry","6 Notes","7 References"] | English courtier (1469–1535)
The Right HonourableThe Lord BergavennyKG PCGeorge Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny, by Hans Holbein the Younger (collection of the Earls of Pembroke)Lord Warden of the Cinque PortsIn office1534–1534Preceded bySir Edward PoyningSucceeded bySir Edward Guilford
Personal detailsBornc.1469DiedJune 1535 (about 66)Resting placeBirling, KentSpouse(s)Joan FitzAlanMargaret BrentMary StaffordMary BrookeChildrenHenry Nevill, 6th Baron BergavennyJohn NevillThomas NevillElizabeth NevillJane NevillMary NevillKatherine NevillMargaret NevillDorothy NevillUrsula Nevilldaughter whose name is unknownParentsGeorge Nevill, 4th Baron Bergavenny (father)Margaret Fenn (mother)
Miniature by Hans Holbein the Younger (Duke of Buccleuch collection)
George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny KG, PC (c.1469 – 1535), the family name often written Neville, was an English nobleman and courtier who held the office of Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.
Origins
He was the son of George Nevill, 4th Baron Bergavenny (died 20 September 1492) and his first wife, Margaret (died 28 September 1485), daughter of Hugh Fenn, Under-Treasurer of England.
His younger brother Sir Thomas Nevill was a trusted councillor of King Henry VIII and Speaker of the House of Commons. His youngest brother, the courtier Sir Edward Nevill, was executed by Henry in 1538 for treason.
Career
As a second cousin of the new Queen, Anne Nevill, he attended the coronation of King Richard III in 1483 when, despite his young age, he was knighted. Having succeeded to his father's peerage and estates in 1492, he achieved prominence fighting against the Cornish rebels in 1497 at the Battle of Blackheath. In 1497 he took his place in the House of Lords and became involved in national affairs, being appointed to the privy council and in regular attendance at court. However, in 1506 he fell into serious trouble for keeping an illegal private army, being fined the immense amount of £100,000 and subjected to a travel ban. When Henry VIII became king in 1509, the fine was cancelled and a pardon granted. By 1512, he was back on the council and in 1513 was elected to the Order of the Garter. In that year he served in the expedition to capture Tournai and then to relieve Guînes.
At the coronation of Henry VIII, he held the office of Chief Larderer and in 1512 he was granted the castle and lands of Abergavenny. He was a keen jouster and accompanied both King Henry VII and King Henry VIII on state occasions, including the meetings in 1520 with King Francis I of France at the Field of Cloth of Gold and with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, at Gravelines.
The trial and execution in 1521 of his father-in-law Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, led to his own imprisonment for a year in the Tower of London. After admitting he had concealed the duke's treason, he was stripped of all his offices, fined 10,000 marks and had to sell his house to the king. He was then pardoned, being allowed to continue serving at court, in Parliament and in war, but regarded with suspicion. In 1530 he signed the petition asking Pope Clement VII to dissolve Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and was allowed to buy back his house. At the coronation of Anne Boleyn in 1533, he once again was Chief Larderer and was allowed to officiate.
On 4 June 1535, he made his will at Eridge in Sussex and died on 13 or 14 June. He was buried at Birling, Kent, with his heart interred at Mereworth.
Marriages and children
He first married Joan (died 14 November 1508), the daughter of Thomas FitzAlan, 17th Earl of Arundel, and his wife Margaret, the second daughter of Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers and younger sister of Queen Elizabeth, wife of King Edward IV. According to Hawkyard, the marriage was childless; however according to Cokayne, Richardson and Cracroft, there were one or two daughters:
Elizabeth Nevill, who married Henry Daubeney, 1st Earl of Bridgewater.
Jane Nevill, who married Henry Pole, 1st Baron Montagu, elder brother of Cardinal Reginald Pole, executed for treason on 9 January 1539.
He married secondly, before 5 September 1513, Margaret, daughter of William Brent of Charing in Kent, without any children.
He married thirdly, about June 1519, Mary, youngest daughter of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, and his wife Eleanor Percy, with whom he had three sons and five daughters:
Henry Nevill, 6th Baron Bergavenny.
John Nevill.
Thomas Nevill.
Mary Nevill, who married first Thomas Fiennes, 9th Baron Dacre; secondly John Wootton, of Tuddenham; and thirdly Francis Thursby, of Congham.
Catherine Nevill, who married Sir John St Leger.
Margaret Nevill, who married first John Cheyne (died 1544), eldest son of Sir Thomas Cheyne, and secondly Henry Poole, of Ditchling.
Dorothy Nevill (died 1559), who married, as his first wife, William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham, with whom she had a daughter, Frances Brooke, who married first Thomas Coppinger (1546–1580), and secondly Edward Becher.
Ursula Nevill, who married Sir Warham St Leger, second cousin once removed of her brother-in-law Sir John St Leger.
Mary, Catherine, Margaret and Dorothy were married to heirs, whose wardships their father had acquired.
He married fourthly his mistress Mary Brooke, the aunt of his son-in-law William Brooke, who was pregnant at his death. with a daughter whose name is unknown. Mary was the daughter of Thomas Brooke, 8th Baron Cobham, and his first wife Dorothy, daughter of Sir Henry Heydon, of Baconsthorpe, and his wife Anne, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, of Hever. This made her a second cousin of Queen Anne Boleyn.
Arms
Arms of Sir George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny, KG, PC, as displayed on his stall plate in St. George's chapel - 1st, Nevill; 2nd, Warren; 3rd, quarterly Clare and Despencer; 4th, Beauchamp
Arms of Nevill, Barons Bergavenny: Gules, a saltire argent charged with a rose of the field (barbed and seeded proper). These are the ancient arms of Nevill differenced by a rose, the symbol of a 7th son, in reference to Sir Edward Nevill, 1st Baron Bergavenny (d.1476), husband of Elizabeth Beauchamp & 7th son of Ralph Nevill, 1st Earl of Westmorland. These arms have descended to the Nevill Marquesses of Abergavenny
Ancestry
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Ancestors of George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny 16. John Nevill, 3rd Baron Nevill de Raby 8. Ralph Nevill, 1st Earl of Westmorland 17. Maud Percy 4. Edward Nevill, 3rd Baron Bergavenny 18. John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster 9. Joan Beaufort 19. Katherine Roet 2. George Nevill, 4th Baron Bergavenny 20. William de Beauchamp, 1st Baron Bergavenny 10. Richard de Beauchamp, 1st Earl of Worcester 21. Joan FitzAlan 5. Elizabeth Beauchamp 22. Thomas le Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester 11. Isabel Despenser 23. Constance of York 1. George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny 24. Hugh Fenn 12. Thomas Fenn 25. Christine 6. Hugh Fenn 3. Margaret Fenn 7. Eleanor
Notes
^ a b c d e f g Hawkyard, Alasdair (January 2008). "Nevill, George, third Baron Bergavenny (c.1469–1535)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/19935. Retrieved 16 March 2017. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Subscription or UK public library membership needed
^ Burke 1832, pp. 8–9.
^ a b Cokayne 1910, p. 31.
^ Charles Mosley, editor, Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, 106th edition, 2 volumes (Crans, Switzerland: Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 1999), volume 1, page 17.
^ Cokayne 1910, p. 32.
^ a b c Cokayne 1910, p. 33.
^ Hawkyard 2004.
^ a b c Cokayne 1916, p. 105.
^ Richardson I 2011, pp. 37–8, 170.
^ a b c Cracroft, archived from the original on 6 May 2012, retrieved 16 March 2017
^ Richardson III 2011, pp. 377.
^ Richardson I 2011, pp. 170–1.
^ McKeen 1986, p. 700.
^ "East Sussex Archive ABE/20T/1". Retrieved 15 January 2024.
^ Richardson I 2011, p. 170.
^ Blazon per Debrett's Peerage, 1968, "Marquess of Abergavenny", with extra details of rose as stated for the Nevill Barons Braybrooke
References
Burke, John (1832). A General and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire. Vol. I. London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley. pp. 8–9. Retrieved 23 May 2013.
Cokayne, George Edward (1910). The Complete Peerage, edited by Vicary Gibbs. Vol. I. London: St. Catherine Press.
Cokayne, George Edward (1916). The Complete Peerage, edited by the Honourable Vicary Gibbs. Vol. IV. London: St. Catherine Press.
Hawkyard, Alasdair (2004). "Neville, George, third Baron Bergavenny (c.1469–1535)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/19935. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
McKeen, David (1986). A Memory of Honour; The Life of William Brooke, Lord Cobham. Vol. I. Salzburg: Universitat Salzburg. p. 700.
Richardson, Douglas (2011). Everingham, Kimball G. (ed.). Magna Carta Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families. Vol. I (2nd ed.). Salt Lake City. ISBN 978-1449966379.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Richardson, Douglas (2011). Everingham, Kimball G. (ed.). Magna Carta Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families. Vol. III (2nd ed.). Salt Lake City. ISBN 978-1449966393.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Honorary titles
Preceded bySir Edward Poyning
Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports 1534
Succeeded bySir Edward Guilford
Peerage of England
Preceded byGeorge Nevill
Baron Bergavenny 1492–1535
Succeeded byHenry Nevill | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:George_Neville,_Lord_Abergavenny_(miniature)_by_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger.jpg"},{"link_name":"Duke of Buccleuch collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Buccleuch_collection"},{"link_name":"KG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_of_the_Garter"},{"link_name":"PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England"},{"link_name":"Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Warden_of_the_Cinque_Ports"}],"text":"Miniature by Hans Holbein the Younger (Duke of Buccleuch collection)George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny KG, PC (c.1469 – 1535), the family name often written Neville, was an English nobleman and courtier who held the office of Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.","title":"George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Nevill, 4th Baron Bergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Nevill,_4th_Baron_Bergavenny"},{"link_name":"Hugh Fenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Fenn_(died_1476)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurke18328%E2%80%939-2"},{"link_name":"Thomas Nevill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Nevill"},{"link_name":"King Henry VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England"},{"link_name":"Speaker of the House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Speakers_of_the_House_of_Commons_of_England"},{"link_name":"Edward Nevill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Neville_(courtier)"}],"text":"He was the son of George Nevill, 4th Baron Bergavenny (died 20 September 1492) and his first wife, Margaret (died 28 September 1485), daughter of Hugh Fenn, Under-Treasurer of England.[2]His younger brother Sir Thomas Nevill was a trusted councillor of King Henry VIII and Speaker of the House of Commons. His youngest brother, the courtier Sir Edward Nevill, was executed by Henry in 1538 for treason.","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anne Nevill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Neville"},{"link_name":"Richard III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_III_of_England"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Battle of Blackheath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Blackheath"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne191031-3"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"Order of the Garter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Garter"},{"link_name":"Tournai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournai"},{"link_name":"Guînes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%AEnes"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mosley-4"},{"link_name":"Abergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abergavenny"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne191032-5"},{"link_name":"Francis I of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_I_of_France"},{"link_name":"Field of Cloth of Gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_of_Cloth_of_Gold"},{"link_name":"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Gravelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravelines"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Stafford,_3rd_Duke_of_Buckingham"},{"link_name":"Tower of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_London"},{"link_name":"Pope Clement VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_VII"},{"link_name":"Catherine of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Anne Boleyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Boleyn"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne191031-3"},{"link_name":"Eridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"Birling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birling,_Kent"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne191033-6"},{"link_name":"Mereworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mereworth"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne191033-6"}],"text":"As a second cousin of the new Queen, Anne Nevill, he attended the coronation of King Richard III in 1483 when, despite his young age, he was knighted. Having succeeded to his father's peerage and estates in 1492,[1] he achieved prominence fighting against the Cornish rebels in 1497 at the Battle of Blackheath.[3] In 1497 he took his place in the House of Lords and became involved in national affairs, being appointed to the privy council and in regular attendance at court. However, in 1506 he fell into serious trouble for keeping an illegal private army, being fined the immense amount of £100,000 and subjected to a travel ban. When Henry VIII became king in 1509, the fine was cancelled and a pardon granted. By 1512, he was back on the council and in 1513 was elected to the Order of the Garter. In that year he served in the expedition to capture Tournai and then to relieve Guînes.[1]At the coronation of Henry VIII, he held the office of Chief Larderer[4] and in 1512 he was granted the castle and lands of Abergavenny.[5] He was a keen jouster and accompanied both King Henry VII and King Henry VIII on state occasions, including the meetings in 1520 with King Francis I of France at the Field of Cloth of Gold and with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, at Gravelines.[1]The trial and execution in 1521 of his father-in-law Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, led to his own imprisonment for a year in the Tower of London. After admitting he had concealed the duke's treason, he was stripped of all his offices, fined 10,000 marks and had to sell his house to the king. He was then pardoned, being allowed to continue serving at court, in Parliament and in war, but regarded with suspicion. In 1530 he signed the petition asking Pope Clement VII to dissolve Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and was allowed to buy back his house.[1] At the coronation of Anne Boleyn in 1533, he once again was Chief Larderer and was allowed to officiate.[3]On 4 June 1535, he made his will at Eridge in Sussex and died on 13 or 14 June.[1] He was buried at Birling, Kent,[6] with his heart interred at Mereworth.[6]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thomas FitzAlan, 17th Earl of Arundel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_FitzAlan,_17th_Earl_of_Arundel"},{"link_name":"Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Woodville,_1st_Earl_Rivers"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville"},{"link_name":"Edward IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkyard2004-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne191033-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1916105-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson_I201137%E2%80%938,_170-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cracroft-10"},{"link_name":"Henry Daubeney, 1st Earl of Bridgewater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Daubeney,_1st_Earl_of_Bridgewater"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1916105-8"},{"link_name":"Henry Pole, 1st Baron Montagu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Pole,_1st_Baron_Montagu"},{"link_name":"Reginald Pole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Pole"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson_III2011377-11"},{"link_name":"Charing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charing"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1916105-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cracroft-10"},{"link_name":"Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Stafford,_3rd_Duke_of_Buckingham"},{"link_name":"Eleanor Percy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Percy,_Duchess_of_Buckingham"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson_I2011170%E2%80%931-12"},{"link_name":"Henry Nevill, 6th Baron Bergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Nevill,_6th_Baron_Bergavenny"},{"link_name":"Mary Nevill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Fiennes,_Baroness_Dacre"},{"link_name":"Thomas Fiennes, 9th Baron Dacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fiennes,_9th_Baron_Dacre"},{"link_name":"Tuddenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuddenham"},{"link_name":"Congham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congham"},{"link_name":"John St Leger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_St._Leger_(died_1596)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Cheyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cheney"},{"link_name":"Henry Poole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Poole_(died_1580)"},{"link_name":"Ditchling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditchling"},{"link_name":"William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Brooke,_10th_Baron_Cobham"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKeen1986700-13"},{"link_name":"Warham St Leger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warham_St_Leger"},{"link_name":"wardships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_(law)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson_I2011170-15"},{"link_name":"Thomas Brooke, 8th Baron Cobham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brooke,_8th_Baron_Cobham"},{"link_name":"Henry Heydon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Heydon"},{"link_name":"Baconsthorpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconsthorpe"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Boleyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Boleyn"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cracroft-10"}],"text":"He first married Joan (died 14 November 1508), the daughter of Thomas FitzAlan, 17th Earl of Arundel, and his wife Margaret, the second daughter of Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers and younger sister of Queen Elizabeth, wife of King Edward IV. According to Hawkyard, the marriage was childless; however according to Cokayne, Richardson and Cracroft, there were one or two daughters:[7][6][8][9][10]Elizabeth Nevill, who married Henry Daubeney, 1st Earl of Bridgewater.[8]\nJane Nevill, who married Henry Pole, 1st Baron Montagu, elder brother of Cardinal Reginald Pole, executed for treason on 9 January 1539.[11]He married secondly, before 5 September 1513, Margaret, daughter of William Brent of Charing in Kent, without any children.[8][10]He married thirdly, about June 1519, Mary, youngest daughter of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, and his wife Eleanor Percy, with whom he had three sons and five daughters:[12]Henry Nevill, 6th Baron Bergavenny.\nJohn Nevill.\nThomas Nevill.\nMary Nevill, who married first Thomas Fiennes, 9th Baron Dacre; secondly John Wootton, of Tuddenham; and thirdly Francis Thursby, of Congham.\nCatherine Nevill, who married Sir John St Leger.\nMargaret Nevill, who married first John Cheyne (died 1544), eldest son of Sir Thomas Cheyne, and secondly Henry Poole, of Ditchling.\nDorothy Nevill (died 1559), who married, as his first wife, William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham, with whom she had a daughter, Frances Brooke, who married first Thomas Coppinger (1546–1580), and secondly Edward Becher.[13]\nUrsula Nevill, who married Sir Warham St Leger, second cousin once removed of her brother-in-law Sir John St Leger.Mary, Catherine, Margaret and Dorothy were married to heirs, whose wardships their father had acquired.[14]He married fourthly his mistress Mary Brooke, the aunt of his son-in-law William Brooke, who was pregnant at his death.[1] with a daughter whose name is unknown.[15] Mary was the daughter of Thomas Brooke, 8th Baron Cobham, and his first wife Dorothy, daughter of Sir Henry Heydon, of Baconsthorpe, and his wife Anne, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, of Hever. This made her a second cousin of Queen Anne Boleyn.[10]","title":"Marriages and children"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Sir_George_Nevill,_5th_Baron_Bergavenny,_KG.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arms_of_Neville,_Marquess_of_Abergavenny.svg"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Nevill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Neville"},{"link_name":"differenced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_(heraldry)"},{"link_name":"Edward Nevill, 1st Baron Bergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Nevill,_3rd_Baron_Bergavenny"},{"link_name":"Ralph Nevill, 1st Earl of Westmorland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Nevill,_1st_Earl_of_Westmorland"},{"link_name":"Marquesses of Abergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquess_of_Abergavenny"}],"text":"Arms of Sir George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny, KG, PC, as displayed on his stall plate in St. George's chapel - 1st, Nevill; 2nd, Warren; 3rd, quarterly Clare and Despencer; 4th, Beauchamp\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tArms of Nevill, Barons Bergavenny: Gules, a saltire argent charged with a rose of the field (barbed and seeded proper).[16] These are the ancient arms of Nevill differenced by a rose, the symbol of a 7th son, in reference to Sir Edward Nevill, 1st Baron Bergavenny (d.1476), husband of Elizabeth Beauchamp & 7th son of Ralph Nevill, 1st Earl of Westmorland. These arms have descended to the Nevill Marquesses of Abergavenny","title":"Arms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Nevill, 3rd Baron Nevill de Raby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Nevill,_3rd_Baron_Nevill_de_Raby&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ralph Nevill, 1st Earl of Westmorland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Nevill,_1st_Earl_of_Westmorland"},{"link_name":"Edward Nevill, 3rd Baron Bergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Nevill,_3rd_Baron_Bergavenny"},{"link_name":"John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Gaunt,_1st_Duke_of_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"Joan Beaufort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Beaufort,_Countess_of_Westmorland"},{"link_name":"Katherine Roet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Swynford"},{"link_name":"George Nevill, 4th Baron Bergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Nevill,_4th_Baron_Bergavenny"},{"link_name":"William de Beauchamp, 1st Baron Bergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_de_Beauchamp,_1st_Baron_Bergavenny"},{"link_name":"Richard de Beauchamp, 1st Earl of Worcester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_de_Beauchamp,_1st_Earl_of_Worcester"},{"link_name":"Joan FitzAlan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Joan_FitzAlan"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Beauchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_de_Beauchamp,_Lady_of_Abergavenny"},{"link_name":"Thomas le Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_le_Despenser,_1st_Earl_of_Gloucester"},{"link_name":"Isabel Despenser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_le_Despenser,_Countess_of_Worcester_and_Warwick"},{"link_name":"Constance of York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance_of_York"},{"link_name":"Hugh Fenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Fenn_(died_1409)"},{"link_name":"Hugh Fenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Fenn_(died_1476)"}],"text":"Ancestors of George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny 16. John Nevill, 3rd Baron Nevill de Raby 8. Ralph Nevill, 1st Earl of Westmorland 17. Maud Percy 4. Edward Nevill, 3rd Baron Bergavenny 18. John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster 9. Joan Beaufort 19. Katherine Roet 2. George Nevill, 4th Baron Bergavenny 20. William de Beauchamp, 1st Baron Bergavenny 10. Richard de Beauchamp, 1st Earl of Worcester 21. Joan FitzAlan 5. Elizabeth Beauchamp 22. Thomas le Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester 11. Isabel Despenser 23. Constance of York 1. George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny 24. Hugh Fenn 12. Thomas Fenn 25. Christine 6. Hugh Fenn 3. Margaret Fenn 7. Eleanor","title":"Ancestry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_1-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_1-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_1-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_1-6"},{"link_name":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19935"},{"link_name":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/ref:odnb/19935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F19935"},{"link_name":"UK public library membership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurke18328%E2%80%939_2-0"},{"link_name":"Burke 1832","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBurke1832"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne191031_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne191031_3-1"},{"link_name":"Cokayne 1910","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCokayne1910"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mosley_4-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne191032_5-0"},{"link_name":"Cokayne 1910","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCokayne1910"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne191033_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne191033_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne191033_6-2"},{"link_name":"Cokayne 1910","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCokayne1910"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawkyard2004_7-0"},{"link_name":"Hawkyard 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHawkyard2004"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne1916105_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne1916105_8-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne1916105_8-2"},{"link_name":"Cokayne 1916","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCokayne1916"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson_I201137%E2%80%938,_170_9-0"},{"link_name":"Richardson I 2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRichardson_I2011"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cracroft_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cracroft_10-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Cracroft_10-2"},{"link_name":"Cracroft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cracroftspeerage.co.uk/abergavenny1450.htm"},{"link_name":"archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120506184119/http://www.cracroftspeerage.co.uk/online/content/Abergavenny1450.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson_III2011377_11-0"},{"link_name":"Richardson III 2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRichardson_III2011"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson_I2011170%E2%80%931_12-0"},{"link_name":"Richardson I 2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRichardson_I2011"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKeen1986700_13-0"},{"link_name":"McKeen 1986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMcKeen1986"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"East Sussex Archive ABE/20T/1\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/e321d185-5efa-44ab-8b0e-0cba71280f9a"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson_I2011170_15-0"},{"link_name":"Richardson I 2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRichardson_I2011"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"}],"text":"^ a b c d e f g Hawkyard, Alasdair (January 2008). \"Nevill, George, third Baron Bergavenny (c.1469–1535)\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/19935. Retrieved 16 March 2017. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Subscription or UK public library membership needed\n\n^ Burke 1832, pp. 8–9.\n\n^ a b Cokayne 1910, p. 31.\n\n^ Charles Mosley, editor, Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, 106th edition, 2 volumes (Crans, Switzerland: Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 1999), volume 1, page 17.\n\n^ Cokayne 1910, p. 32.\n\n^ a b c Cokayne 1910, p. 33.\n\n^ Hawkyard 2004.\n\n^ a b c Cokayne 1916, p. 105.\n\n^ Richardson I 2011, pp. 37–8, 170.\n\n^ a b c Cracroft, archived from the original on 6 May 2012, retrieved 16 March 2017\n\n^ Richardson III 2011, pp. 377.\n\n^ Richardson I 2011, pp. 170–1.\n\n^ McKeen 1986, p. 700.\n\n^ \"East Sussex Archive ABE/20T/1\". Retrieved 15 January 2024.\n\n^ Richardson I 2011, p. 170.\n\n^ Blazon per Debrett's Peerage, 1968, \"Marquess of Abergavenny\", with extra details of rose as stated for the Nevill Barons Braybrooke","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Miniature by Hans Holbein the Younger (Duke of Buccleuch collection)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/George_Neville%2C_Lord_Abergavenny_%28miniature%29_by_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger.jpg/220px-George_Neville%2C_Lord_Abergavenny_%28miniature%29_by_Hans_Holbein_the_Younger.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Hawkyard, Alasdair (January 2008). \"Nevill, George, third Baron Bergavenny (c.1469–1535)\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/19935. Retrieved 16 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19935","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F19935","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/19935"}]},{"reference":"Cracroft, archived from the original on 6 May 2012, retrieved 16 March 2017","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cracroftspeerage.co.uk/abergavenny1450.htm","url_text":"Cracroft"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120506184119/http://www.cracroftspeerage.co.uk/online/content/Abergavenny1450.htm","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"\"East Sussex Archive ABE/20T/1\". Retrieved 15 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/e321d185-5efa-44ab-8b0e-0cba71280f9a","url_text":"\"East Sussex Archive ABE/20T/1\""}]},{"reference":"Burke, John (1832). A General and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire. Vol. I. London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley. pp. 8–9. Retrieved 23 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Cq8KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8","url_text":"A General and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire"}]},{"reference":"Cokayne, George Edward (1910). The Complete Peerage, edited by Vicary Gibbs. Vol. I. London: St. Catherine Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Cokayne, George Edward (1916). The Complete Peerage, edited by the Honourable Vicary Gibbs. Vol. IV. London: St. Catherine Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hawkyard, Alasdair (2004). \"Neville, George, third Baron Bergavenny (c.1469–1535)\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/19935.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F19935","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/19935"}]},{"reference":"McKeen, David (1986). A Memory of Honour; The Life of William Brooke, Lord Cobham. Vol. I. Salzburg: Universitat Salzburg. p. 700.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Richardson, Douglas (2011). Everingham, Kimball G. (ed.). Magna Carta Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families. Vol. I (2nd ed.). Salt Lake City. ISBN 978-1449966379.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1449966379","url_text":"978-1449966379"}]},{"reference":"Richardson, Douglas (2011). Everingham, Kimball G. (ed.). Magna Carta Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families. Vol. III (2nd ed.). Salt Lake City. ISBN 978-1449966393.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1449966393","url_text":"978-1449966393"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Nevill,_5th_Baron_Bergavenny&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this section"},{"Link":"http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19935","external_links_name":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F19935","external_links_name":"10.1093/ref:odnb/19935"},{"Link":"https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public","external_links_name":"UK public library membership"},{"Link":"http://www.cracroftspeerage.co.uk/abergavenny1450.htm","external_links_name":"Cracroft"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120506184119/http://www.cracroftspeerage.co.uk/online/content/Abergavenny1450.htm","external_links_name":"archived"},{"Link":"https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/e321d185-5efa-44ab-8b0e-0cba71280f9a","external_links_name":"\"East Sussex Archive ABE/20T/1\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Cq8KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA8","external_links_name":"A General and Heraldic Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F19935","external_links_name":"10.1093/ref:odnb/19935"},{"Link":"https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public","external_links_name":"UK public library membership"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healy,_Queensland | Healy, Queensland | ["1 Geography","2 History","3 Education","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 20°44′54″S 139°30′03″E / 20.7482°S 139.5009°E / -20.7482; 139.5009 (Healy (centre of suburb))
Suburb of Mount Isa, Queensland, AustraliaHealyMount Isa, QueenslandHealyCoordinates20°44′54″S 139°30′03″E / 20.7482°S 139.5009°E / -20.7482; 139.5009 (Healy (centre of suburb))Population1,878 (2016 census) • Density671/km2 (1,737/sq mi)Postcode(s)4825Area2.8 km2 (1.1 sq mi)Time zoneAEST (UTC+10:00)Location 2.5 km (2 mi) SSE of Mount Isa CBD 905 km (562 mi) WSW of Townsville 1,826 km (1,135 mi) NW of Brisbane LGA(s)City of Mount IsaState electorate(s)TraegerFederal division(s)Kennedy
Suburbs around Healy:
ParksideMornington
Townview
Fisher
Happy Valley
Healy
Fisher
Mica Creek
Spreadborough
Fisher
Healy is a suburb of Mount Isa in the City of Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia. In the 2016 census, Healy had a population of 1,878 people.
Geography
The Leichhardt River flows north–south through the town of Mount Isa, dividing the suburbs of the town into "mineside" (west of the Leichhardt River) and "townside" (east of the Leichhardt River). Healy is a "townside" suburb.
History
On 1 September 1973 the suburb was named after Edward Kevin Emmett Healy, Under Secretary in the Queensland Department of Mines.
Healy State School opened on 24 January 1972.
In the 2016 census, Healy had a population of 1,878 people.
Education
Healy State School is a government primary (Prep-6) school for boys and girls at 5-9 Thomson Road (20°44′31″S 139°30′01″E / 20.7419°S 139.5002°E / -20.7419; 139.5002 (Healy State School)). In 2016 the school had an enrolment of 163 students (83 of whom identify as Indigenous) with 12 teachers (11 full-time equivalent) and 13 non-teaching staff (10 full-time equivalent). In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 152 students with 12 teachers (11 full-time equivalent) and 11 non-teaching staff (9 full-time equivalent).
There is no secondary school in Healy. The nearest government secondary school is Spinifex State College which has its junior campus in neighbouring Parkside to the north-west and its senior campus in Pioneer to the north-east. The residential facility (boarding school) of Spinifex State College is at 83-85 Transmission Street in Healy (20°44′14″S 139°30′19″E / 20.7371°S 139.5054°E / -20.7371; 139.5054 (Spinifex State College - Mount Isa - Student Residential)).
References
^ a b c Australian Bureau of Statistics (27 June 2017). "Healy (SSC)". 2016 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
^ a b "Healy – suburb in City of Mount Isa (entry 42460)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
^ "Mount Isa". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2 January 2017. Archived from the original on 19 December 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
^ "This Mining Life: Mount Isa, QLD". Mining People International. Archived from the original on 19 December 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
^ "Queensland Globe". State of Queensland. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
^ Queensland Family History Society (2010), Queensland schools past and present (Version 1.01 ed.), Queensland Family History Society, ISBN 978-1-921171-26-0
^ a b "State and non-state school details". Queensland Government. 9 July 2018. Archived from the original on 21 November 2018. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
^ "Healy State School". Archived from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
^ "2016 Annual Report" (PDF). Healy State School. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2017.
^ "ACARA School Profile 2018". Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. Archived from the original on 27 August 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
^ "Queensland Globe". State of Queensland. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
^ "Spinifex State College Mount Isa Residential Campus" (PDF). Spinifex State College. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
External links
"Mount Isa suburbs". Queensland Places. Centre for the Government of Queensland, University of Queensland.
vteTowns, suburbs and localities in the City of Mount Isa, QueenslandSuburbs of Mount IsaMineside
Happy Valley
Kalkadoon
Mica Creek
Miles End
Parkside
Soldiers Hill
Townside
Breakaway
Fisher
Healy
Lanskey
Menzies
Mornington
Mount Isa City (suburb)
Pioneer
Ryan
Spreadborough
Sunset
The Gap
Townview
Winston
Rural towns and localities
Barkly
Camooweal
Gunpowder
Lawn Hill
Mount Isa (locality)
Main Article: Local government areas of Queensland | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"suburb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbs_and_localities_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Mount Isa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Isa"},{"link_name":"City of Mount Isa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Mount_Isa"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qpnl-2"},{"link_name":"2016 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Australian_census"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census2016-1"}],"text":"Suburb of Mount Isa, Queensland, AustraliaHealy is a suburb of Mount Isa in the City of Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia.[2] In the 2016 census, Healy had a population of 1,878 people.[1]","title":"Healy, Queensland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Leichhardt River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leichhardt_River"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globe-5"}],"text":"The Leichhardt River flows north–south through the town of Mount Isa, dividing the suburbs of the town into \"mineside\" (west of the Leichhardt River) and \"townside\" (east of the Leichhardt River).[3][4] Healy is a \"townside\" suburb.[5]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-qpnl-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"2016 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Australian_census"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census2016-1"}],"text":"On 1 September 1973 the suburb was named after Edward Kevin Emmett Healy, Under Secretary in the Queensland Department of Mines.[2]Healy State School opened on 24 January 1972.[6]In the 2016 census, Healy had a population of 1,878 people.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"20°44′31″S 139°30′01″E / 20.7419°S 139.5002°E / -20.7419; 139.5002 (Healy State School)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Healy,_Queensland¶ms=20.7419_S_139.5002_E_type:edu_region:AU-QLD&title=Healy+State+School"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchoolList2018-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACARA2018-10"},{"link_name":"Spinifex State College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinifex_State_College"},{"link_name":"Parkside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkside,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Pioneer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"20°44′14″S 139°30′19″E / 20.7371°S 139.5054°E / -20.7371; 139.5054 (Spinifex State College - Mount Isa - Student Residential)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Healy,_Queensland¶ms=20.7371_S_139.5054_E_type:edu_region:AU-QLD&title=Spinifex+State+College+-+Mount+Isa+-+Student+Residential"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchoolList2018-7"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Healy State School is a government primary (Prep-6) school for boys and girls at 5-9 Thomson Road (20°44′31″S 139°30′01″E / 20.7419°S 139.5002°E / -20.7419; 139.5002 (Healy State School)).[7][8] In 2016 the school had an enrolment of 163 students (83 of whom identify as Indigenous) with 12 teachers (11 full-time equivalent) and 13 non-teaching staff (10 full-time equivalent).[9] In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 152 students with 12 teachers (11 full-time equivalent) and 11 non-teaching staff (9 full-time equivalent).[10]There is no secondary school in Healy. The nearest government secondary school is Spinifex State College which has its junior campus in neighbouring Parkside to the north-west and its senior campus in Pioneer to the north-east.[11] The residential facility (boarding school) of Spinifex State College is at 83-85 Transmission Street in Healy (20°44′14″S 139°30′19″E / 20.7371°S 139.5054°E / -20.7371; 139.5054 (Spinifex State College - Mount Isa - Student Residential)).[7][12]","title":"Education"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Australian Bureau of Statistics (27 June 2017). \"Healy (SSC)\". 2016 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 20 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Bureau_of_Statistics","url_text":"Australian Bureau of Statistics"},{"url":"https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2016/SSC31322","url_text":"\"Healy (SSC)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Healy – suburb in City of Mount Isa (entry 42460)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 20 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Healy&types=0&place=Healy42460","url_text":"\"Healy – suburb in City of Mount Isa (entry 42460)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Mount Isa\". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2 January 2017. Archived from the original on 19 December 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/events/onenightstand/17/location/default.htm","url_text":"\"Mount Isa\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Australian Broadcasting Corporation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201219064015/https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/events/onenightstand/17/location/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"This Mining Life: Mount Isa, QLD\". Mining People International. Archived from the original on 19 December 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.miningpeople.com.au/news/this-mining-life-mount-isa-qld","url_text":"\"This Mining Life: Mount Isa, QLD\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201219064156/https://www.miningpeople.com.au/news/this-mining-life-mount-isa-qld","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Queensland Globe\". State of Queensland. Retrieved 19 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://qldglobe.information.qld.gov.au/","url_text":"\"Queensland Globe\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Queensland","url_text":"State of Queensland"}]},{"reference":"Queensland Family History Society (2010), Queensland schools past and present (Version 1.01 ed.), Queensland Family History Society, ISBN 978-1-921171-26-0","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Family_History_Society","url_text":"Queensland Family History Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-921171-26-0","url_text":"978-1-921171-26-0"}]},{"reference":"\"State and non-state school details\". Queensland Government. 9 July 2018. Archived from the original on 21 November 2018. Retrieved 21 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/state-and-non-state-school-details/resource/5b39065c-df32-415c-994c-5ff12f8de997","url_text":"\"State and non-state school details\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181121065959/https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/state-and-non-state-school-details/resource/5b39065c-df32-415c-994c-5ff12f8de997","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Healy State School\". Archived from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 21 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.healyss.eq.edu.au/","url_text":"\"Healy State School\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200327093047/https://healyss.eq.edu.au/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2016 Annual Report\" (PDF). Healy State School. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://healyss.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Annual%20reports/0232_Healy_SS_sar2016V2.pdf","url_text":"\"2016 Annual Report\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171018191400/https://healyss.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Annual%20reports/0232_Healy_SS_sar2016V2.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"ACARA School Profile 2018\". Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. Archived from the original on 27 August 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.acara.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/school-profile-2018.xlsx","url_text":"\"ACARA School Profile 2018\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Curriculum,_Assessment_and_Reporting_Authority","url_text":"Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200827085246/https://www.acara.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/school-profile-2018.xlsx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Queensland Globe\". State of Queensland. Retrieved 17 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://qldglobe.information.qld.gov.au/","url_text":"\"Queensland Globe\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Queensland","url_text":"State of Queensland"}]},{"reference":"\"Spinifex State College Mount Isa Residential Campus\" (PDF). Spinifex State College. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://spinifexsc.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Documents/Policies%20and%20Procedures/residential-prospectus-2015.pdf","url_text":"\"Spinifex State College Mount Isa Residential Campus\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190815073816/https://spinifexsc.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Documents/Policies%20and%20Procedures/residential-prospectus-2015.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Mount Isa suburbs\". Queensland Places. Centre for the Government of Queensland, University of Queensland.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.queenslandplaces.com.au/mount-isa-suburbs","url_text":"\"Mount Isa suburbs\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Healy,_Queensland¶ms=20.7482_S_139.5009_E_type:city_region:AU-QLD&title=Healy+%28centre+of+suburb%29","external_links_name":"20°44′54″S 139°30′03″E / 20.7482°S 139.5009°E / -20.7482; 139.5009 (Healy (centre of suburb))"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Healy,_Queensland¶ms=20.7482_S_139.5009_E_type:city_region:AU-QLD&title=Healy+%28centre+of+suburb%29","external_links_name":"20°44′54″S 139°30′03″E / 20.7482°S 139.5009°E / -20.7482; 139.5009 (Healy (centre of suburb))"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Healy,_Queensland¶ms=20.7419_S_139.5002_E_type:edu_region:AU-QLD&title=Healy+State+School","external_links_name":"20°44′31″S 139°30′01″E / 20.7419°S 139.5002°E / -20.7419; 139.5002 (Healy State School)"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Healy,_Queensland¶ms=20.7371_S_139.5054_E_type:edu_region:AU-QLD&title=Spinifex+State+College+-+Mount+Isa+-+Student+Residential","external_links_name":"20°44′14″S 139°30′19″E / 20.7371°S 139.5054°E / -20.7371; 139.5054 (Spinifex State College - Mount Isa - Student Residential)"},{"Link":"https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2016/SSC31322","external_links_name":"\"Healy (SSC)\""},{"Link":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Healy&types=0&place=Healy42460","external_links_name":"\"Healy – suburb in City of Mount Isa (entry 42460)\""},{"Link":"https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/events/onenightstand/17/location/default.htm","external_links_name":"\"Mount Isa\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201219064015/https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/events/onenightstand/17/location/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.miningpeople.com.au/news/this-mining-life-mount-isa-qld","external_links_name":"\"This Mining Life: Mount Isa, QLD\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201219064156/https://www.miningpeople.com.au/news/this-mining-life-mount-isa-qld","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://qldglobe.information.qld.gov.au/","external_links_name":"\"Queensland Globe\""},{"Link":"https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/state-and-non-state-school-details/resource/5b39065c-df32-415c-994c-5ff12f8de997","external_links_name":"\"State and non-state school details\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181121065959/https://data.qld.gov.au/dataset/state-and-non-state-school-details/resource/5b39065c-df32-415c-994c-5ff12f8de997","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.healyss.eq.edu.au/","external_links_name":"\"Healy State School\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200327093047/https://healyss.eq.edu.au/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://healyss.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Annual%20reports/0232_Healy_SS_sar2016V2.pdf","external_links_name":"\"2016 Annual Report\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171018191400/https://healyss.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Annual%20reports/0232_Healy_SS_sar2016V2.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.acara.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/school-profile-2018.xlsx","external_links_name":"\"ACARA School Profile 2018\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200827085246/https://www.acara.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/school-profile-2018.xlsx","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://qldglobe.information.qld.gov.au/","external_links_name":"\"Queensland Globe\""},{"Link":"https://spinifexsc.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Documents/Policies%20and%20Procedures/residential-prospectus-2015.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Spinifex State College Mount Isa Residential Campus\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190815073816/https://spinifexsc.eq.edu.au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Documents/Policies%20and%20Procedures/residential-prospectus-2015.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.queenslandplaces.com.au/mount-isa-suburbs","external_links_name":"\"Mount Isa suburbs\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley,_Nebraska | Valley, Nebraska | ["1 History","2 Geography","3 Demographics","3.1 2010 census","3.2 2000 census","4 Education","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Coordinates: 41°18′53″N 96°21′22″W / 41.31472°N 96.35611°W / 41.31472; -96.35611City in Douglas County, Nebraska, United States
Not to be confused with Valley County, Nebraska.
City in Nebraska, United StatesValley, NebraskaCityDowntown Valley, March 2017
FlaglogoLocation of Valley, NebraskaCoordinates: 41°18′53″N 96°21′22″W / 41.31472°N 96.35611°W / 41.31472; -96.35611CountryUnited StatesStateNebraskaCountyDouglasGovernment • MayorCindy GroveArea • Total6.06 sq mi (15.69 km2) • Land4.86 sq mi (12.58 km2) • Water1.20 sq mi (3.11 km2)Elevation1,139 ft (347 m)Population (2020) • Total3,037 • Density625.15/sq mi (241.39/km2)Time zoneUTC-6 (Central (CST)) • Summer (DST)UTC-5 (CDT)ZIP code68064Area code402FIPS code31-50020GNIS feature ID2397110Websitehttp://www.valleyne.org/
Valley is a city in Douglas County, Nebraska, United States. The population was 3,037 at the 2020 census.
Valley is also home to the area's National Weather Service office, serving portions of eastern Nebraska and southwestern Iowa.
History
Valley was laid out as a town in 1864 when it was certain that the Union Pacific Transcontinental Railroad would be extended to that point. It was named for the Platte River valley.
Geography
Valley is located at 41°18′51″N 96°20′54″W / 41.31417°N 96.34833°W / 41.31417; -96.34833 (41.314199, -96.348250).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.62 square miles (9.38 km2), of which 3.56 square miles (9.22 km2) is land and 0.06 square miles (0.16 km2) is water.
Demographics
Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
188042—1890378800.0%190053441.3%191081051.7%1920764−5.7%19301,03936.0%1940985−5.2%19501,11313.0%19601,45230.5%19701,5959.8%19801,7167.6%19901,7753.4%20001,7880.7%20101,8754.9%20203,03762.0%U.S. Decennial Census2013 Estimate
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,875 people, 804 households, and 489 families living in the city. The population density was 526.7 inhabitants per square mile (203.4/km2). There were 871 housing units at an average density of 244.7 per square mile (94.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.3% White, 1.3% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 1.1% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.1% of the population.
There were 804 households, of which 29.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.3% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39.2% were non-families. 34.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.90.
The median age in the city was 42.3 years. 23.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.2% were from 25 to 44; 28.6% were from 45 to 64; and 17.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.8% male and 52.2% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,788 people, 696 households, and 455 families living in the city. The population density was 1,180.2 inhabitants per square mile (455.7/km2). There were 760 housing units at an average density of 501.6 per square mile (193.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.81% White, 0.56% African American, 0.50% Native American, 0.34% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.95% from other races, and 0.78% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.79% of the population.
There were 696 households, out of which 35.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.4% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.6% were non-families. 30.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.14.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 28.4% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 28.4% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.3 males.
As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $36,949, and the median income for a family was $47,596. Males had a median income of $35,847 versus $24,792 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,508. About 7.7% of families and 11.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.1% of those under age 18 and 13.2% of those age 65 or over.
Education
Valley and neighboring Waterloo operate a consolidated school system, Douglas County West Community Schools. Douglas County West (DC West) was formed in August 2005 by the merger of Waterloo Public Schools and Valley Public Schools. Douglas County West provides an extensive education from pre-school through the 12th grade. DC West Community Schools, as it is commonly called used to have two campuses in which the high school and middle school were separate. The main campus is now located at 401 S. Pine Street in Valley.
See also
Nebraska portal
List of municipalities in Nebraska
First Nebraska Bank
References
^ "ArcGIS REST Services Directory". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
^ a b U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Valley, Nebraska
^ "Valley city, Nebraska - Census Bureau Tables". census.gov. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 6, 2024.
^ "Valley, Douglas County". Center for Advanced Land Management Information Technologies. University of Nebraska. Retrieved August 8, 2014.
^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ "US Gazetteer files 2010". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on January 25, 2012. Retrieved June 24, 2012.
^ United States Census Bureau. "Census of Population and Housing". Retrieved June 22, 2013.
^ "Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved June 24, 2012.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Valley, Nebraska.
Official website
Douglas County West Community Schools
Historical images of Valley - Nebraska Memories
vteMunicipalities and communities of Douglas County, Nebraska, United StatesCounty seat: OmahaCities
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Pottawattamie | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Valley County, Nebraska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_County,_Nebraska"},{"link_name":"Douglas County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_County,_Nebraska"},{"link_name":"Nebraska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebraska"},{"link_name":"2020 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2020_Census-3"},{"link_name":"Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa"}],"text":"City in Douglas County, Nebraska, United StatesNot to be confused with Valley County, Nebraska.City in Nebraska, United StatesValley is a city in Douglas County, Nebraska, United States. The population was 3,037 at the 2020 census.[3]Valley is also home to the area's National Weather Service office, serving portions of eastern Nebraska and southwestern Iowa.","title":"Valley, Nebraska"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Platte River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platte_River"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Valley was laid out as a town in 1864 when it was certain that the Union Pacific Transcontinental Railroad would be extended to that point. It was named for the Platte River valley.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"41°18′51″N 96°20′54″W / 41.31417°N 96.34833°W / 41.31417; -96.34833","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Valley,_Nebraska¶ms=41_18_51_N_96_20_54_W_type:city"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR1-5"},{"link_name":"United States Census Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gazetteer_files-6"}],"text":"Valley is located at 41°18′51″N 96°20′54″W / 41.31417°N 96.34833°W / 41.31417; -96.34833 (41.314199, -96.348250).[5]According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.62 square miles (9.38 km2), of which 3.56 square miles (9.22 km2) is land and 0.06 square miles (0.16 km2) is water.[6]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wwwcensusgov-9"},{"link_name":"population density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"other races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Hispanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"married couples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage"}],"sub_title":"2010 census","text":"As of the census[9] of 2010, there were 1,875 people, 804 households, and 489 families living in the city. 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The population density was 1,180.2 inhabitants per square mile (455.7/km2). There were 760 housing units at an average density of 501.6 per square mile (193.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.81% White, 0.56% African American, 0.50% Native American, 0.34% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.95% from other races, and 0.78% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.79% of the population.There were 696 households, out of which 35.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.4% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.6% were non-families. 30.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.14.In the city, the population was spread out, with 28.4% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 28.4% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.3 males.As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $36,949, and the median income for a family was $47,596. Males had a median income of $35,847 versus $24,792 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,508. About 7.7% of families and 11.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.1% of those under age 18 and 13.2% of those age 65 or over.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Waterloo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterloo,_Nebraska"}],"text":"Valley and neighboring Waterloo operate a consolidated school system, Douglas County West Community Schools. Douglas County West (DC West) was formed in August 2005 by the merger of Waterloo Public Schools and Valley Public Schools. Douglas County West provides an extensive education from pre-school through the 12th grade. DC West Community Schools, as it is commonly called used to have two campuses in which the high school and middle school were separate. The main campus is now located at 401 S. Pine Street in Valley.","title":"Education"}] | [{"image_text":"Map of Nebraska highlighting Douglas County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Map_of_Nebraska_highlighting_Douglas_County.svg/100px-Map_of_Nebraska_highlighting_Douglas_County.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Nebraska portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Nebraska"},{"title":"List of municipalities in Nebraska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_municipalities_in_Nebraska"},{"title":"First Nebraska Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nebraska_Bank"}] | [{"reference":"\"ArcGIS REST Services Directory\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved September 18, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/arcgis/rest/services/TIGERweb/Places_CouSub_ConCity_SubMCD/MapServer","url_text":"\"ArcGIS REST Services Directory\""}]},{"reference":"\"Valley city, Nebraska - Census Bureau Tables\". census.gov. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 6, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.census.gov/table?q=Valley%20city,%20Nebraska","url_text":"\"Valley city, Nebraska - Census Bureau Tables\""}]},{"reference":"\"Valley, Douglas County\". Center for Advanced Land Management Information Technologies. University of Nebraska. Retrieved August 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.casde.unl.edu/history/counties/douglas/valley/","url_text":"\"Valley, Douglas County\""}]},{"reference":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html","url_text":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"US Gazetteer files 2010\". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on January 25, 2012. Retrieved June 24, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120125061959/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt","url_text":"\"US Gazetteer files 2010\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"},{"url":"https://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"United States Census Bureau. \"Census of Population and Housing\". Retrieved June 22, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"},{"url":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html","url_text":"\"Census of Population and Housing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Population Estimates\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 17, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2013/SUB-EST2013-3.html","url_text":"\"Population Estimates\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"U.S. Census website\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved June 24, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/","url_text":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Valley,_Nebraska¶ms=41_18_53_N_96_21_22_W_region:US_type:city","external_links_name":"41°18′53″N 96°21′22″W / 41.31472°N 96.35611°W / 41.31472; -96.35611"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Valley,_Nebraska¶ms=41_18_53_N_96_21_22_W_region:US_type:city","external_links_name":"41°18′53″N 96°21′22″W / 41.31472°N 96.35611°W / 41.31472; -96.35611"},{"Link":"http://www.valleyne.org/","external_links_name":"http://www.valleyne.org/"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Valley,_Nebraska¶ms=41_18_51_N_96_20_54_W_type:city","external_links_name":"41°18′51″N 96°20′54″W / 41.31417°N 96.34833°W / 41.31417; -96.34833"},{"Link":"https://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/arcgis/rest/services/TIGERweb/Places_CouSub_ConCity_SubMCD/MapServer","external_links_name":"\"ArcGIS REST Services Directory\""},{"Link":"https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/search/names/2397110","external_links_name":"U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Valley, Nebraska"},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/table?q=Valley%20city,%20Nebraska","external_links_name":"\"Valley city, Nebraska - Census Bureau Tables\""},{"Link":"http://www.casde.unl.edu/history/counties/douglas/valley/","external_links_name":"\"Valley, Douglas County\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html","external_links_name":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120125061959/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt","external_links_name":"\"US Gazetteer files 2010\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html","external_links_name":"\"Census of Population and Housing\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/popest/data/cities/totals/2013/SUB-EST2013-3.html","external_links_name":"\"Population Estimates\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/","external_links_name":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"Link":"http://www.valleyne.org/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://www.dcwest.org/","external_links_name":"Douglas County West Community Schools"},{"Link":"http://memories.nebraska.gov/cdm/search/searchterm/Valley%20(Neb.)!Platte/field/all!subjec/mode/exact!none/conn/and!and/order/nosort/page/1","external_links_name":"Historical images of Valley"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainik_School,_Goalpara | Sainik School, Goalpara | ["1 House system","2 Sub Junior Houses","3 Junior Houses","4 Senior Houses","5 House Days","6 Structure","7 Activities","7.1 Sporting activities","7.2 Academic events","7.3 Other events","8 National Cadet Corps","9 Admissions","10 References","11 External links"] | Coordinates: 26°5′21″N 90°44′15″E / 26.08917°N 90.73750°E / 26.08917; 90.73750This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Sainik School, Goalpara" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Sainik school in Goalpara, Assam, IndiaSainik School, GoalparaSainik School, Goalpara, AssamLocationGoalpara, AssamIndiaInformationTypeSainik SchoolMottoEverything Is AchievableEstablished12 November 1964GradesClass VI up to XIIGenderMaleAge range10 to 18CampusRuralHousesAbhimanyu, Bhaskar, Aniruddha, Chilarai, Lachit, Lohit, Udaygiri, Ekalavya and Chandraprabha(Girls Hostel for new entrant's)AffiliationsCentral Board of Secondary EducationWebsitenewskit.social/blog/posts/Sainik-school-Goalpara
Sainik School Goalpara, Assam, India, was established on 12 November 1964, under the Sainik Schools Society, New Delhi under the Ministry of Defence (India). The idea of Sainik schools were presented by the then Defence Minister V.K.Menon in 1961. The school was initially established in the town of Goalpara which is a district headquarter. Subsequently, the school was shifted to its present location at Rajapara Village in Mornai in Goalpara District. Initially 18 Sainik schools were founded.
Sainik School Goalpara celebrated its Golden Jubilee on 12 Nov 2014. It was a year-long celebration, celebrated with great gusto with the involvement of its Old Boys Association (OBA).
The school is located in the north-eastern part of India. Sainik school Goalpara is extended in almost 2,100 acres (850 ha). In this north eastern region of India, there are two more Sainik Schools, one at Imphal, Manipur and the other one at Punglwa in Nagaland. The school is situated 18 km from Goalpara town en route capital Guwahati. The nearest police station is Mornoi and railway station is Goalpara. It is a fully residential school having classes from standard 6th to 12th. Besides the school there is a kindergarten school.
Admission to the school is done for two standards - 6th and 9th. The average strength of each class is 90. The aim of the school is to prepare students for the National Defence Academy exam. Till date more than 200 students have joined NDA and around 500 joined the armed forces through other exams like CDS.
Sainik School, Goalpara, at Night
House system
There are eight houses for accommodation. These are divided into three groups- sub-junior, junior, senior. Class VI and VII are sub-juniors. Class VIII and IX are juniors. Class X to XII is seniors. 2 Sub Junior, 3 Junior and 3 Senior Houses.
Sub Junior Houses
Abhimanyu House is named after Arjun's son Abhimanyu, accommodating Class VI and VII.
Bhaskar House is named after the mighty sun and accommodates Class VI and VII students.
Junior Houses
Anirudhha House is named after Lord Krishna's Grandson Aniruddha and it accommodates VIII and IX students.
Eklavya House is named after a young prince of the Nishadha and accommodates class VIII and IX boys.
Chilarai House is named after a General of Nara Narayan who was known for his swiftness and his birthday is celebrated as Chilarai Diwas in Assam. It previously was a senior house but in 2018 it made as a junior house. It accommodates class VIII and IX boys.
Senior Houses
Udaygiri House is named after an imaginary hill and accommodates class X and XII boys.
Lohit House is named after the Brahmaputra which is the lifeline of Assam and accommodates class X and XII boys.
Lachit House is named after a Ahom general Lachit Borphukan and accommodates class X and XII boys.
Besides these eight houses there is a mess and auditorium. The school building is in two parts- the Main building and the Science Block. The main block is a 3-story building having classes for class VI to X. All offices of the school are situated in this block. Science block has classrooms for class XI-XII. The block has science laboratories.
House Days
House Days are the major events for cadets of Sainik School. House Days are celebrated because their house was inaugurated. House Days are the most awaited activity throughout the year. On house day we have a big feast which is organised by the cadets. On the Feast, every teacher of the school is invited. The Houses on House Days look different, The houses are painted and lighted by the cadets only. On House Day we have certain programmes like a cultural Show followed by some games and many more. House Days of different houses:-
Udaygiri House on 5 September
Lohit House on 5 September
Lachit House on 13 November
Chilarai House on 13 November
Anniruddha House on 13 August
Eklavya House on 11 November
Structure
Sainik Schools have three officers from the defence forces. They are Principal, Headmaster and Registrar.
The Principal is the supreme authority of the school, appointed by the Ministry of Defence. The duration of the principal's tenure is not fixed but is generally 2–3 years.
The Vice Principal is the head of academic affairs. There are around 50 teaching staff along with 35 subordinates. There is a Senior Master whose work is to manage all academic activities and act as a liaison between teachers and Headmaster.
The Adm. officer is chief of all activities except academics. He is responsible for the infrastructure development of the school.
Side view
Activities
School
Sporting activities
There are sports grounds inside the school campus. There are five football fields, eight basketball courts, six volleyball courts, two lawn tennis courts, two cricket grounds, four handball grounds; besides these there is an eight-lane 400-meter track for athletics which includes venues for other track and field events like high jump, triple jump, long jump, disc throw, shot put throw, javelin throw, and pole-vault. The annual sports meet is held in December in which the best house for athletics meet is judged on the basis of all track and field events. School also is equipped with the best-designed swimming pool.
PT display
In each session, activities are organised. Each sport has a championship and the winner is called the champion of that sport. A trophy is given to each champion at the Annual Prize Distribution ceremony being held before winter break.
Academic events
Events like debate, extempore, recitation, general knowledge quiz, and essay writing are organised in three languages - English, Hindi, Assamese at each three levels - senior, junior, sub-junior.
Other events
Obstacles competition
Cross Country Running
Obstacles competition
Drills competition
Mass PT competition
National Cadet Corps
Rifle drill
Sainik School Goalpara has a wing of the NCC. The 27th Company of the NCC is located inside the school premises to train the cadets. Each Friday afternoon there are NCC classes for 90 minutes. The school participates in the Republic Day Parade, New Delhi. The cadets receive an NCC 'A' certificate after class X and NCC 'B'certificate after class XII.
Admissions
Cadets in mufti
Boys are admitted to class VI and IX, between the ages of 10–11 years for class VI and 13–14 years for class IX as of 2 July of the year of admission. Admission is through the all India Entrance Examination which is held in the third week of January. This is followed by an interview and medical examination in April/May.
Boys selected are called for admission in June.
References
^ "Sainik Schools Society". sainikschoolsociety.org. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
^ "Sainik School Imphal, Sainik Schools Society, Ministry of Defence". www.ssimphal.nic.in. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
^ Ahanthem, Mr Khogendro. "SSPN-Home". www.sainikschoolpunglwa.nic.in. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
External links
School website
OBASSG Website
vte Indian military academies and collegesEducation & training
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Armed Forces Medical College
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"Sainik School Goalpara is at 26°5′21″N 90°44′15″E / 26.08917°N 90.73750°E / 26.08917; 90.73750" | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Assam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence (India)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(India)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Sainik schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainik_School"},{"link_name":"V.K.Menon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._K._Krishna_Menon"},{"link_name":"Imphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imphal"},{"link_name":"Manipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Nagaland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagaland"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Goalpara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goalpara"},{"link_name":"Guwahati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guwahati"},{"link_name":"police station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_station"},{"link_name":"railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_station"},{"link_name":"residential school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boarding_school"},{"link_name":"kindergarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten"},{"link_name":"National Defence Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defence_Academy_(India)"},{"link_name":"armed forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_forces"},{"link_name":"CDS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Defence_Services_Examination"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sainik_School_Goalpara_003.jpg"}],"text":"Sainik school in Goalpara, Assam, IndiaSainik School Goalpara, Assam, India, was established on 12 November 1964, under the Sainik Schools Society, New Delhi under the Ministry of Defence (India).[1] The idea of Sainik schools were presented by the then Defence Minister V.K.Menon in 1961. The school was initially established in the town of Goalpara which is a district headquarter. Subsequently, the school was shifted to its present location at Rajapara Village in Mornai in Goalpara District. Initially 18 Sainik schools were founded.Sainik School Goalpara celebrated its Golden Jubilee on 12 Nov 2014. It was a year-long celebration, celebrated with great gusto with the involvement of its Old Boys Association (OBA).The school is located in the north-eastern part of India. Sainik school Goalpara is extended in almost 2,100 acres (850 ha). In this north eastern region of India, there are two more Sainik Schools, one at Imphal, Manipur[2] and the other one at Punglwa in Nagaland.[3] The school is situated 18 km from Goalpara town en route capital Guwahati. The nearest police station is Mornoi and railway station is Goalpara. It is a fully residential school having classes from standard 6th to 12th. Besides the school there is a kindergarten school.Admission to the school is done for two standards - 6th and 9th. The average strength of each class is 90. The aim of the school is to prepare students for the National Defence Academy exam. Till date more than 200 students have joined NDA and around 500 joined the armed forces through other exams like CDS.Sainik School, Goalpara, at Night","title":"Sainik School, Goalpara"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"There are eight houses for accommodation. These are divided into three groups- sub-junior, junior, senior. Class VI and VII are sub-juniors. Class VIII and IX are juniors. Class X to XII is seniors. 2 Sub Junior, 3 Junior and 3 Senior Houses.","title":"House system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arjun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arjuna"},{"link_name":"Abhimanyu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhimanyu"}],"text":"Abhimanyu House is named after Arjun's son Abhimanyu, accommodating Class VI and VII.\nBhaskar House is named after the mighty sun and accommodates Class VI and VII students.","title":"Sub Junior Houses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aniruddha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniruddha"}],"text":"Anirudhha House is named after Lord Krishna's Grandson Aniruddha and it accommodates VIII and IX students.\nEklavya House is named after a young prince of the Nishadha and accommodates class VIII and IX boys.\nChilarai House is named after a General of Nara Narayan who was known for his swiftness and his birthday is celebrated as Chilarai Diwas in Assam. It previously was a senior house but in 2018 it made as a junior house. It accommodates class VIII and IX boys.","title":"Junior Houses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brahmaputra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaputra_River"},{"link_name":"Lachit Borphukan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lachit_Borphukan"},{"link_name":"auditorium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditorium"},{"link_name":"classrooms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classroom"}],"text":"Udaygiri House is named after an imaginary hill and accommodates class X and XII boys.\nLohit House is named after the Brahmaputra which is the lifeline of Assam and accommodates class X and XII boys.\nLachit House is named after a Ahom general Lachit Borphukan and accommodates class X and XII boys.Besides these eight houses there is a mess and auditorium. The school building is in two parts- the Main building and the Science Block. The main block is a 3-story building having classes for class VI to X. All offices of the school are situated in this block. Science block has classrooms for class XI-XII. The block has science laboratories.","title":"Senior Houses"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"House Days are the major events for cadets of Sainik School. House Days are celebrated because their house was inaugurated. House Days are the most awaited activity throughout the year. On house day we have a big feast which is organised by the cadets. On the Feast, every teacher of the school is invited. The Houses on House Days look different, The houses are painted and lighted by the cadets only. On House Day we have certain programmes like a cultural Show followed by some games and many more. House Days of different houses:-Udaygiri House on 5 September\nLohit House on 5 September\nLachit House on 13 November\nChilarai House on 13 November\nAnniruddha House on 13 August\nEklavya House on 11 November","title":"House Days"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sainik_school_goalpara.jpg"}],"text":"Sainik Schools have three officers from the defence forces. They are Principal, Headmaster and Registrar.The Principal is the supreme authority of the school, appointed by the Ministry of Defence. The duration of the principal's tenure is not fixed but is generally 2–3 years.\nThe Vice Principal is the head of academic affairs. There are around 50 teaching staff along with 35 subordinates. There is a Senior Master whose work is to manage all academic activities and act as a liaison between teachers and Headmaster.\nThe Adm. officer is chief of all activities except academics. He is responsible for the infrastructure development of the school.Side view","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sainik_school_goalpara_aerial_view.jpg"}],"text":"School","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"football fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football_pitch"},{"link_name":"basketball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball"},{"link_name":"volleyball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volleyball"},{"link_name":"lawn tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawn_tennis"},{"link_name":"cricket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket"},{"link_name":"handball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_handball"},{"link_name":"high jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_jump"},{"link_name":"triple jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_jump"},{"link_name":"long jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_jump"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pt_display.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Sporting activities","text":"There are sports grounds inside the school campus. There are five football fields, eight basketball courts, six volleyball courts, two lawn tennis courts, two cricket grounds, four handball grounds; besides these there is an eight-lane 400-meter track for athletics which includes venues for other track and field events like high jump, triple jump, long jump, disc throw, shot put throw, javelin throw, and pole-vault. The annual sports meet is held in December in which the best house for athletics meet is judged on the basis of all track and field events. School also is equipped with the best-designed swimming pool.PT displayIn each session, activities are organised. Each sport has a championship and the winner is called the champion of that sport. A trophy is given to each champion at the Annual Prize Distribution ceremony being held before winter break.","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Academic events","text":"Events like debate, extempore, recitation, general knowledge quiz, and essay writing are organised in three languages - English, Hindi, Assamese at each three levels - senior, junior, sub-junior.","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obstacle_compitition.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cross Country Running","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_Country_Running"}],"sub_title":"Other events","text":"Obstacles competitionCross Country Running\nObstacles competition\nDrills competition\nMass PT competition","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ssg_cadets.jpg"}],"text":"Rifle drillSainik School Goalpara has a wing of the NCC. The 27th Company of the NCC is located inside the school premises to train the cadets. Each Friday afternoon there are NCC classes for 90 minutes. The school participates in the Republic Day Parade, New Delhi. The cadets receive an NCC 'A' certificate after class X and NCC 'B'certificate after class XII.","title":"National Cadet Corps"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanik_school_goalpara.JPG"}],"text":"Cadets in muftiBoys are admitted to class VI and IX, between the ages of 10–11 years for class VI and 13–14 years for class IX as of 2 July of the year of admission. Admission is through the all India Entrance Examination which is held in the third week of January. This is followed by an interview and medical examination in April/May.Boys selected are called for admission in June.","title":"Admissions"}] | [{"image_text":"Sainik School, Goalpara, at Night","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sainik_School_Goalpara_003.jpg/220px-Sainik_School_Goalpara_003.jpg"},{"image_text":"Side view","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Sainik_school_goalpara.jpg/220px-Sainik_school_goalpara.jpg"},{"image_text":"School","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Sainik_school_goalpara_aerial_view.jpg/220px-Sainik_school_goalpara_aerial_view.jpg"},{"image_text":"PT display","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Pt_display.jpg/220px-Pt_display.jpg"},{"image_text":"Obstacles competition","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Obstacle_compitition.jpg/220px-Obstacle_compitition.jpg"},{"image_text":"Rifle drill","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ssg_cadets.jpg/220px-Ssg_cadets.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cadets in mufti","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Sanik_school_goalpara.JPG/220px-Sanik_school_goalpara.JPG"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Sainik Schools Society\". sainikschoolsociety.org. Retrieved 8 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://sainikschoolsociety.org/introduction.html","url_text":"\"Sainik Schools Society\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sainik School Imphal, Sainik Schools Society, Ministry of Defence\". www.ssimphal.nic.in. Retrieved 8 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ssimphal.nic.in/","url_text":"\"Sainik School Imphal, Sainik Schools Society, Ministry of Defence\""}]},{"reference":"Ahanthem, Mr Khogendro. \"SSPN-Home\". www.sainikschoolpunglwa.nic.in. Retrieved 8 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sainikschoolpunglwa.nic.in/","url_text":"\"SSPN-Home\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sainik_School,_Goalpara¶ms=26_5_21_N_90_44_15_E_region:IN-AS_type:edu","external_links_name":"26°5′21″N 90°44′15″E / 26.08917°N 90.73750°E / 26.08917; 90.73750"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Sainik+School%2C+Goalpara%22","external_links_name":"\"Sainik School, Goalpara\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Sainik+School%2C+Goalpara%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Sainik+School%2C+Goalpara%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Sainik+School%2C+Goalpara%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Sainik+School%2C+Goalpara%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Sainik+School%2C+Goalpara%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://newskit.social/blog/posts/Sainik-school-Goalpara","external_links_name":"newskit.social/blog/posts/Sainik-school-Goalpara"},{"Link":"http://sainikschoolsociety.org/introduction.html","external_links_name":"\"Sainik Schools Society\""},{"Link":"http://www.ssimphal.nic.in/","external_links_name":"\"Sainik School Imphal, Sainik Schools Society, Ministry of Defence\""},{"Link":"http://www.sainikschoolpunglwa.nic.in/","external_links_name":"\"SSPN-Home\""},{"Link":"http://www.cic.nic.in/cicwebpages/Assam/Matia/sainik_school.htm","external_links_name":"School website"},{"Link":"http://www.obassg.com/","external_links_name":"OBASSG Website"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sainik_School,_Goalpara¶ms=26_5_21_N_90_44_15_E_region:IN-AS_type:edu","external_links_name":"26°5′21″N 90°44′15″E / 26.08917°N 90.73750°E / 26.08917; 90.73750"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois | Thornton Township, Cook County, Illinois | ["1 Geography","1.1 Boundaries","1.2 Cities and villages","1.3 Unincorporated Towns","1.4 Adjacent townships","1.5 Cemeteries","1.6 Major highways","1.7 Airports and landing strips","1.8 Lakes","1.9 Forest Preserves","1.10 Colleges","2 Demographics","3 Political districts","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 41°35′00″N 87°37′00″W / 41.58333°N 87.61667°W / 41.58333; -87.61667
Township in Illinois, United StatesThornton TownshipTownship
SealLocation in Cook CountyCook County's location in IllinoisCoordinates: 41°35′00″N 87°37′00″W / 41.58333°N 87.61667°W / 41.58333; -87.61667Country United StatesState IllinoisCountyCookEstablished1850Government • TypeTownship • BodyTownship Board • SupervisorTiffany A. Henyard (Democrat) • TrusteeGerald “Jerry” Jones • TrusteeDarlene Gray Everett • TrusteeChristopher D. Gonzalez • TrusteeCarmen CarlisleArea • Total122.8 km2 (47.42 sq mi) • Land121.5 km2 (46.93 sq mi) • Water1.3 km2 (0.49 sq mi)Elevation189 m (620 ft)Population (2020) • Total157,865 • Density1,300/km2 (3,300/sq mi)Time zoneUTC-6 (CST) • Summer (DST)UTC-5 (CDT)ZIP codes60406, 60409, 60419, 60425, 60426, 60429, 60430, 60438, 60469, 60473, 60476, 60633, 60827Area code708FIPS code17-031-75198GNIS feature ID0422238Websitethorntontownship.com
Thornton Township is one of 29 townships in Cook County, Illinois. As of the 2020 census, its population was 157,865.
Incorporated in 1850, it is located immediately south of the city of Chicago. It is the second most populous township in Illinois as of the 2020 census, after Rockford Township (pop. 170,478) in Winnebago County.
The village of South Holland serves as the governmental seat of Thornton Township. The township is named after the village of Thornton, located in the south central portion of the township. Many parts of the township carry names inspired by the village's name, including the three high schools of Thornton Township District 205: Thornton Township High School in Harvey; Thornwood High School in South Holland; Thornridge High School in Dolton; Thornton Fractional South High School in Lansing; Thornton Fractional North High School in Calumet City and Thornton Fractional Center for Academics and Technology also in Calumet City.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, Thornton Township covers an area of 47.42 square miles (122.81 km2); of this, 46.93 square miles (121.54 km2) is land and 0.49 square miles (1.27 km2) (1.03 percent) is water.
Boundaries
Thornton Township is bordered by Western Avenue on the west, 138th Street on the north, the Indiana state line on the east, and 183rd/186th Street on the south.
Cities and villages
Blue Island (southern edge)
Burnham
Calumet City
Dixmoor
Dolton
East Hazel Crest
Glenwood (northern quarter)
Harvey (vast majority)
Hazel Crest (small portion)
Homewood (northeast half)
Lansing (northern half)
Markham (eastern quarter)
Phoenix
Posen (eastern edge)
Riverdale (southern half)
South Holland
Thornton
Unincorporated Towns
Berger at 41°37′25″N 87°35′31″W / 41.623646°N 87.591988°W / 41.623646; -87.591988
Bernice at 41°34′45″N 87°32′53″W / 41.579201°N 87.548096°W / 41.579201; -87.548096
Globe at 41°35′51″N 87°33′34″W / 41.597504°N 87.559311°W / 41.597504; -87.559311
Greenwood at 41°36′51″N 87°35′21″W / 41.614201°N 87.589211°W / 41.614201; -87.589211
North Harvey at 41°37′32″N 87°38′12″W / 41.625591°N 87.636711°W / 41.625591; -87.636711
Oakglen at 41°33′47″N 87°33′30″W / 41.563091°N 87.558372°W / 41.563091; -87.558372
Schrum at 41°36′04″N 87°32′56″W / 41.601147°N 87.548935°W / 41.601147; -87.548935
South Harvey at 41°34′57″N 87°39′47″W / 41.582535°N 87.663101°W / 41.582535; -87.663101
Thornton Junction at 41°35′21″N 87°36′25″W / 41.589198°N 87.606994°W / 41.589198; -87.606994
West Harvey at 41°37′21″N 87°39′33″W / 41.622536°N 87.65921°W / 41.622536; -87.65921
Adjacent townships
North Township, Lake Co., Indiana (east)
Bloom Township (south)
Rich Township (southwest)
Bremen Township (west)
Calumet Township (northwest)
Worth Township (northwest)
Cemeteries
The township contains these 11 cemeteries: Berger, First Reformed of Lansing, Glen Oak, Hazelwood, Holy Cross Catholic, Homewood Memorial Gardens, Mount Forest, Oak Lawn, Oak Ridge, Oakland and Washington Memory Gardens.
Major highways
Interstate 57
Interstate 80
Interstate 94
Interstate 294
U.S. Route 6
Illinois Route 1
Illinois Route 83
Illinois Route 394
Airports and landing strips
Ingalls Memorial Hospital Heliport
Lakes
Green Lake
Homewood Lake
Izaak Walton Lake
Powder Horn Lake
Swets Lake
Wampum Lake
Forest Preserves
The following are all part of the Cook County Forest Preserves:
Brownell Woods
Burnham Woods
Calumet Woods
Green Lake Woods
Kickapoo Meadows
Shabbona Woods
Wampum Lake Woods
Wentworth Woods
Colleges
South Suburban College
Demographics
Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
193050,650—194056,39511.3%195076,81936.2%1960138,44480.2%1970188,06735.8%1980191,3591.8%1990175,896−8.1%2000180,7172.7%2010169,326−6.3%2020157,865−6.8%http://censusviewer.com/city/IL/Thornton
As of the 2020 census there were 157,865 people, 60,889 households, and 38,705 families residing in the township. The population density was 3,331.75 inhabitants per square mile (1,286.40/km2). There were 66,938 housing units at an average density of 1,412.73 per square mile (545.46/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 14.11% White, 69.94% African American, 0.52% Native American, 0.59% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 8.67% from other races, and 6.14% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15.19% of the population.
There were 60,889 households, out of which 32.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.69% were married couples living together, 27.76% had a female householder with no spouse present, and 36.43% were non-families. 33.20% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the average family size was 3.47.
The township's age distribution consisted of 25.1% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 26.5% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.8 males.
The median income for a household in the township was $50,245, and the median income for a family was $58,329. Males had a median income of $36,909 versus $31,320 for females. The per capita income for the township was $23,853. About 16.3% of families and 20.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32.5% of those under age 18 and 11.5% of those age 65 or over.
Political districts
Illinois's 1st congressional district
Illinois's 2nd congressional district
State House District 28
State House District 29
State House District 30
State House District 33
State House District 34
State Senate District 14
State Senate District 15
State Senate District 17
References
"Thornton Township, Cook County, Illinois". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. Retrieved January 10, 2010.
United States Census Bureau 2007 TIGER/Line Shapefiles
United States National Atlas
^ a b c "Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (DP-1): Thornton township, Cook County, Illinois". U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Archived from the original on February 10, 2020. Retrieved March 21, 2013.
^ "Explore Census Data". data.census.gov. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
External links
Thornton Township official website
Township Officials of Illinois
Cook County official site
City-Data.com
Illinois State Archives
vteMunicipalities and communities of Cook County, Illinois, United StatesCounty seat: ChicagoCities
Berwyn
Blue Island
Burbank
Calumet City
Chicago‡
Chicago Heights
Country Club Hills
Countryside
Des Plaines
Elgin‡
Elmhurst‡
Evanston
Harvey
Hickory Hills
Hometown
Markham
Northlake
Oak Forest
Palos Heights
Palos Hills
Park Ridge
Prospect Heights
Rolling Meadows
Map of Illinois highlighting Cook CountyTowns
Cicero
Villages
Alsip
Arlington Heights‡
Barrington‡
Barrington Hills‡
Bartlett‡
Bedford Park
Bellwood
Bensenville‡
Berkeley
Bridgeview
Broadview
Brookfield
Buffalo Grove‡
Burnham
Burr Ridge‡
Calumet Park
Chicago Ridge
Crestwood
Deer Park‡
Deerfield‡
Dixmoor
Dolton
East Dundee‡
East Hazel Crest
Elk Grove Village‡
Elmwood Park
Evergreen Park
Flossmoor
Ford Heights
Forest Park
Forest View
Frankfort‡
Franklin Park
Glencoe
Glenview
Glenwood
Golf
Hanover Park‡
Harwood Heights
Hazel Crest
Hillside
Hinsdale‡
Hodgkins
Hoffman Estates‡
Homer Glen‡
Homewood
Indian Head Park
Inverness
Justice
Kenilworth
La Grange
La Grange Park
Lansing
Lemont‡
Lincolnwood
Lynwood
Lyons
Matteson‡
Maywood
McCook
Melrose Park
Merrionette Park
Midlothian
Morton Grove
Mount Prospect
Niles
Norridge
North Riverside
Northbrook
Northfield
Oak Brook‡
Oak Lawn
Oak Park
Olympia Fields
Orland Hills
Orland Park‡
Palatine
Palos Park
Park Forest‡
Phoenix
Posen
Richton Park
River Forest
River Grove
Riverdale
Riverside
Robbins
Roselle‡
Rosemont
Sauk Village‡
Schaumburg‡
Schiller Park
Skokie
South Barrington
South Chicago Heights
South Holland
Steger‡
Stickney
Stone Park
Streamwood
Summit
Thornton
Tinley Park‡
University Park‡
Westchester
Western Springs
Wheeling‡
Willow Springs‡
Wilmette
Winnetka
Woodridge‡
Worth
Townships
Barrington
Berwyn
Bloom
Bremen
Calumet
Cicero
Elk Grove
Hanover
Lemont
Leyden
Lyons
Maine
New Trier
Niles
Northfield
Norwood Park
Oak Park
Orland
Palatine
Palos
Proviso
Rich
River Forest
Riverside
Schaumburg
Stickney
Thornton
Wheeling
Worth
Former: Evanston
• Hyde Park
• Jefferson
• Lake
• Lake View
• North Chicago
• Rogers Park
• South Chicago
• West Chicago
Unincorporatedcommunities
Central Stickney
Hines
Indian Hill
La Grange Highlands
Nottingham Park
Sag Bridge
Sutton
Other Communities
Orchard Place
Techny
Footnotes‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
Illinois portal
United States portal | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"townships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_township"},{"link_name":"Cook County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois"},{"link_name":"2020 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census_2020-1"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"Rockford Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockford_Township,_Winnebago_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Winnebago County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnebago_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census_2020-1"},{"link_name":"South Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Holland,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Thornton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Thornton Township High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton_Township_High_School"},{"link_name":"Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Thornwood High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornwood_High_School"},{"link_name":"Thornridge High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornridge_High_School"},{"link_name":"Dolton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolton,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Thornton Fractional South High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton_Fractional_South_High_School"},{"link_name":"Lansing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lansing,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Thornton Fractional North High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton_Fractional_North_High_School"},{"link_name":"Calumet City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calumet_City,_Illinois"}],"text":"Township in Illinois, United StatesThornton Township is one of 29 townships in Cook County, Illinois. 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-87.548935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.601147_N_87.548935_W_"},{"link_name":"South Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Harvey,_Illinois&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"41°34′57″N 87°39′47″W / 41.582535°N 87.663101°W / 41.582535; -87.663101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.582535_N_87.663101_W_"},{"link_name":"Thornton Junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thornton_Junction,_Illinois&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"41°35′21″N 87°36′25″W / 41.589198°N 87.606994°W / 41.589198; -87.606994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.589198_N_87.606994_W_"},{"link_name":"West Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West_Harvey,_Illinois&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"41°37′21″N 87°39′33″W / 41.622536°N 87.65921°W / 41.622536; -87.65921","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.622536_N_87.65921_W_"}],"sub_title":"Unincorporated Towns","text":"Berger at 41°37′25″N 87°35′31″W / 41.623646°N 87.591988°W / 41.623646; -87.591988\nBernice at 41°34′45″N 87°32′53″W / 41.579201°N 87.548096°W / 41.579201; -87.548096\nGlobe at 41°35′51″N 87°33′34″W / 41.597504°N 87.559311°W / 41.597504; -87.559311\nGreenwood at 41°36′51″N 87°35′21″W / 41.614201°N 87.589211°W / 41.614201; -87.589211\nNorth Harvey at 41°37′32″N 87°38′12″W / 41.625591°N 87.636711°W / 41.625591; -87.636711\nOakglen at 41°33′47″N 87°33′30″W / 41.563091°N 87.558372°W / 41.563091; -87.558372\nSchrum at 41°36′04″N 87°32′56″W / 41.601147°N 87.548935°W / 41.601147; -87.548935\nSouth Harvey at 41°34′57″N 87°39′47″W / 41.582535°N 87.663101°W / 41.582535; -87.663101\nThornton Junction at 41°35′21″N 87°36′25″W / 41.589198°N 87.606994°W / 41.589198; -87.606994\nWest Harvey at 41°37′21″N 87°39′33″W / 41.622536°N 87.65921°W / 41.622536; -87.65921","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"North Township, Lake Co., Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Township,_Lake_County,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"Bloom Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Rich Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rich_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Bremen Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Calumet Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calumet_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Worth Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worth_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois"}],"sub_title":"Adjacent townships","text":"North Township, Lake Co., Indiana (east)\nBloom Township (south)\nRich Township (southwest)\nBremen Township (west)\nCalumet Township (northwest)\nWorth Township (northwest)","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Cemeteries","text":"The township contains these 11 cemeteries: Berger, First Reformed of Lansing, Glen Oak, Hazelwood, Holy Cross Catholic, Homewood Memorial Gardens, Mount Forest, Oak Lawn, Oak Ridge, Oakland and Washington Memory Gardens.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:I-57.svg"},{"link_name":"Interstate 57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_57"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:I-80.svg"},{"link_name":"Interstate 80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_80"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:I-94.svg"},{"link_name":"Interstate 94","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_94"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:I-294.svg"},{"link_name":"Interstate 294","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_294"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_6.svg"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illinois_1.svg"},{"link_name":"Illinois Route 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Route_1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illinois_83.svg"},{"link_name":"Illinois Route 83","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Route_83"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illinois_394.svg"},{"link_name":"Illinois Route 394","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Route_394"}],"sub_title":"Major highways","text":"Interstate 57\n Interstate 80\n Interstate 94\n Interstate 294\n U.S. Route 6\n Illinois Route 1\n Illinois Route 83\n Illinois Route 394","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ingalls Memorial Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingalls_Memorial_Hospital"}],"sub_title":"Airports and landing strips","text":"Ingalls Memorial Hospital Heliport","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Lakes","text":"Green Lake\nHomewood Lake\nIzaak Walton Lake\nPowder Horn Lake\nSwets Lake\nWampum Lake","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cook County Forest Preserves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Preserve_District_of_Cook_County"}],"sub_title":"Forest Preserves","text":"The following are all part of the Cook County Forest Preserves:Brownell Woods\nBurnham Woods\nCalumet Woods\nGreen Lake Woods\nKickapoo Meadows\nShabbona Woods\nWampum Lake Woods\nWentworth Woods","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"South Suburban College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Suburban_College"}],"sub_title":"Colleges","text":"South Suburban College","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2020 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_census"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Pacific Islander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Islander_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"other races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(United_States_Census)"},{"link_name":"Hispanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"per capita income","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_capita_income"},{"link_name":"poverty line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_line"}],"text":"As of the 2020 census[2] there were 157,865 people, 60,889 households, and 38,705 families residing in the township. The population density was 3,331.75 inhabitants per square mile (1,286.40/km2). There were 66,938 housing units at an average density of 1,412.73 per square mile (545.46/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 14.11% White, 69.94% African American, 0.52% Native American, 0.59% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 8.67% from other races, and 6.14% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15.19% of the population.There were 60,889 households, out of which 32.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.69% were married couples living together, 27.76% had a female householder with no spouse present, and 36.43% were non-families. 33.20% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the average family size was 3.47.The township's age distribution consisted of 25.1% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 26.5% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.8 males.The median income for a household in the township was $50,245, and the median income for a family was $58,329. Males had a median income of $36,909 versus $31,320 for females. The per capita income for the township was $23,853. About 16.3% of families and 20.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32.5% of those under age 18 and 11.5% of those age 65 or over.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Illinois's 1st congressional district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois%27s_1st_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"Illinois's 2nd congressional district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois%27s_2nd_congressional_district"}],"text":"Illinois's 1st congressional district\nIllinois's 2nd congressional district\nState House District 28\nState House District 29\nState House District 30\nState House District 33\nState House District 34\nState Senate District 14\nState Senate District 15\nState Senate District 17","title":"Political districts"}] | [{"image_text":"Map of Illinois highlighting Cook County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Map_of_Illinois_highlighting_Cook_County.svg/42px-Map_of_Illinois_highlighting_Cook_County.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Thornton Township, Cook County, Illinois\". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. Retrieved January 10, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/search/names/0422238","url_text":"\"Thornton Township, Cook County, Illinois\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_Names_Information_System","url_text":"Geographic Names Information System"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey","url_text":"United States Geological Survey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior","url_text":"United States Department of the Interior"}]},{"reference":"\"Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (DP-1): Thornton township, Cook County, Illinois\". U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Archived from the original on February 10, 2020. Retrieved March 21, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20200210212745/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_DP/G001/0600000US1703175198","url_text":"\"Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (DP-1): Thornton township, Cook County, Illinois\""},{"url":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/all?q=Population%20in%20Thornton%20Township","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Explore Census Data\". data.census.gov. Retrieved January 22, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=0600000US1703175198","url_text":"\"Explore Census Data\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41_35_00_N_87_37_00_W_region:US-IL_type:city(157865)","external_links_name":"41°35′00″N 87°37′00″W / 41.58333°N 87.61667°W / 41.58333; -87.61667"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41_35_00_N_87_37_00_W_region:US-IL_type:city(157865)","external_links_name":"41°35′00″N 87°37′00″W / 41.58333°N 87.61667°W / 41.58333; -87.61667"},{"Link":"http://thorntontownship.com/","external_links_name":"thorntontownship.com"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.623646_N_87.591988_W_","external_links_name":"41°37′25″N 87°35′31″W / 41.623646°N 87.591988°W / 41.623646; -87.591988"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.579201_N_87.548096_W_","external_links_name":"41°34′45″N 87°32′53″W / 41.579201°N 87.548096°W / 41.579201; -87.548096"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.597504_N_87.559311_W_","external_links_name":"41°35′51″N 87°33′34″W / 41.597504°N 87.559311°W / 41.597504; -87.559311"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.614201_N_87.589211_W_","external_links_name":"41°36′51″N 87°35′21″W / 41.614201°N 87.589211°W / 41.614201; -87.589211"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.625591_N_87.636711_W_","external_links_name":"41°37′32″N 87°38′12″W / 41.625591°N 87.636711°W / 41.625591; -87.636711"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.563091_N_87.558372_W_","external_links_name":"41°33′47″N 87°33′30″W / 41.563091°N 87.558372°W / 41.563091; -87.558372"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.601147_N_87.548935_W_","external_links_name":"41°36′04″N 87°32′56″W / 41.601147°N 87.548935°W / 41.601147; -87.548935"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.582535_N_87.663101_W_","external_links_name":"41°34′57″N 87°39′47″W / 41.582535°N 87.663101°W / 41.582535; -87.663101"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.589198_N_87.606994_W_","external_links_name":"41°35′21″N 87°36′25″W / 41.589198°N 87.606994°W / 41.589198; -87.606994"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Thornton_Township,_Cook_County,_Illinois¶ms=41.622536_N_87.65921_W_","external_links_name":"41°37′21″N 87°39′33″W / 41.622536°N 87.65921°W / 41.622536; -87.65921"},{"Link":"http://censusviewer.com/city/IL/Thornton","external_links_name":"http://censusviewer.com/city/IL/Thornton"},{"Link":"https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/search/names/0422238","external_links_name":"\"Thornton Township, Cook County, Illinois\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070310144543/http://www.cyberdriveillinois.com/departments/archives/irad/edgar.html","external_links_name":"United States Census Bureau 2007 TIGER/Line Shapefiles"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081205020547/http://www.nationalatlas.gov/","external_links_name":"United States National Atlas"},{"Link":"https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1990/cp-1/cp-1-15.pdf","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20200210212745/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_DP/G001/0600000US1703175198","external_links_name":"\"Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (DP-1): Thornton township, Cook County, Illinois\""},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/all?q=Population%20in%20Thornton%20Township","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=0600000US1703175198","external_links_name":"\"Explore Census Data\""},{"Link":"http://thorntontownship.com/","external_links_name":"Thornton Township official website"},{"Link":"http://www.toi.org/","external_links_name":"Township Officials of Illinois"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070210030517/http://www.co.cook.il.us/","external_links_name":"Cook County official site"},{"Link":"http://www.city-data.com/township/Thornton-Cook-IL.html","external_links_name":"City-Data.com"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080516085659/http://cyberdriveillinois.com/departments/archives/irad/cook.html","external_links_name":"Illinois State Archives"},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/all?q=Population%20in%20Thornton%20Township","external_links_name":"[2]"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olla,_Louisiana | Olla, Louisiana | ["1 History","2 Geography","3 Demographics","4 Education","5 Notable people","6 References","7 External links"] | Coordinates: 31°53′58″N 92°14′05″W / 31.89944°N 92.23472°W / 31.89944; -92.23472
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Town in Louisiana, United StatesOlla, LouisianaTownTown of OllaLocation of Olla in LaSalle Parish, Louisiana.Location of Louisiana in the United StatesCoordinates: 31°53′58″N 92°14′05″W / 31.89944°N 92.23472°W / 31.89944; -92.23472CountryUnited StatesStateLouisianaParishLa SalleGovernment • MayorRhonda Gough Elliott (R) • Police ChiefDaniel Ray Smith (No Party)Area • Total3.93 sq mi (10.19 km2) • Land3.93 sq mi (10.19 km2) • Water0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2)Elevation157 ft (48 m)Population (2020) • Total1,295 • Density329.27/sq mi (127.11/km2)Time zoneUTC-6 (CST) • Summer (DST)UTC-5 (CDT)ZIP code71465Area code318FIPS code22-57905Websitewww.townofolla.com
Olla is a town in northwest La Salle Parish, Louisiana, United States, located in the heart of the Louisiana Central Hill Country.
Olla has a federally recognized downtown Historic District and a Louisiana historic marker. The population was 1,385 at the 2010 census. Olla Historic District is the site of the annual Central Louisiana Bluegrass Festival each April and to the Olla Homecoming Parade, Celebration, and Festival that coincides with LaSalle High School Homecoming each autumn.
The Town of Olla also hosts an annual nighttime Christmas Parade, Miss Merry Christmas Pageant, and Community Christmas. These events occur on the Friday locals schools release for Christmas break. The parade begins at the Olla Elementary School and terminates at Santa's Gazebo in the Olla Town Square. The Olla Town Square in located within the Olla Historic District and contains the Olla Farmers Market/Community Pavilion (completed in 2014), Wishing Tree, Dixie Center(Community Center), Gazebo, historic marker, and a stage. The Olla Wishing Tree, which stands between the Community Pavilion and stage, is part of local lore as it's said to "grant wishes" to those who close their eyes and touch its bark. The Olla Town Square facilities can be rented by the public for events.
The "Tri-City Popper" fireworks show, an endeavor funded by donations from the Towns and businesses of Olla, Tullos, and Urania, is held at dusk each 4 July at the Historic Olla Fairgrounds. This event is conducted by the Olla Volunteer Fire Department
The town's motto is "Small Town, Big Heart" in reference to the hospitality and generosity of its citizens.
The Town of Olla has two large parks with a paved walking trail, multiple baseball fields, public swimming pool, bowling alley, and a Recreation Center that is facilitated by the YMCA.
History
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The Town of Olla is the oldest incorporated town in LaSalle Parish. Settled prior to the American Civil War, the town of Olla was known as Castor Sulfur Springs, and a steamboat port on nearby Bayou Castor was its original site. The area had a post office, general store, hotel, spa, and a dry goods and cotton storage facility.
Naturally-occurring sulfur muds and spring water made Castor Sulfur Springs a nationally known "health spa".
In 1890, the Olla Military Institute, a private military school was established. The first faculty members consisted of Riley J. Wilson, Ms. Olla Mills, John Paul Jones, Missy Robertson, Rev. Elijah Bryant, and Bell Murphy. The school flourished for several years until 1899, when a fire destroyed the campus. At this time, a public school, Olla High School, was constructed to serve the towns of Olla and Standard. In 1950, Olla, Urania, and Tullos High Schools closed, and consolidated as LaSalle High School. The Olla Elementary School now sits at the former site of the Olla Military Institute and Olla High School.
In 1891, the Houston, Central Arkansas, and Northern Railroad came to what was then northwest Catahoula Parish and bought a 200-foot-wide right-of-way over which it would construct a railroad more than a mile away from Castor Sulfur Springs. Community leaders were faced with the possibility that their town would be cut off and decided that a railroad station must be constructed for passenger and commercial services to ensure the survival of Castor Sulfur Springs. Dr. Frank Mills, with the assistance of Mr. J.D. Adams, set aside 40 acres of land for a station and town-site. This transaction was recorded on February 9, 1891. When the new site was chosen and incorporation paperwork was submitted naming the new community “New Castor Sulfur Springs”, their request was denied.
The legislature was not accepting new municipalities named in reference to springs, rivers, bayous, or creeks to avoid duplication and confusion. New Lebanon was considered as well as many Greek and Biblical names, which were very popular at the time. After much debate, it was decided that the relocated community should be named for Olla Mills, daughter of Dr. Frank Mills and sister of Judge W.H. Mills, who were residents of Castor Sulfur Springs for many years. Ms. Mills was an accomplished, attractive, and popular young lady who was dramatically inclined and took part in all constructive community activities, who served with distinction as the head of the Olla Military Institute's English department. Miss Olla Mills, who later became Mrs. CC Young, died in 1901 and is buried in the Olla Cemetery.
The Town of Olla was officially incorporated on August 1, 1899, with Dr. William V. Taylor III as its first mayor. In 1906, the Zeagler Family established and erected the Olla State Bank as the cornerstone of the downtown. Built in Romanesque Revival style, the bank's structure is said to be influenced by Louisiana native and architect Henry Hobson Richardson. The Olla State Bank served Olla and the surrounding region throughout the Great Depression until its merger with Southern Heritage Bank in 1980s. The Ernest Gray Gang as well as The Jimmy Yarrell Gang held up the bank in the 1930s.
Olla is also the location of the only train holdup in Louisiana history. In August 1900, unknown bandits built a fire on the tracks north of Olla and forced the train to stop. The group then boarded and ordered the conductor to disconnect the mail and express cars from the train. The express safe was cracked, but the expected big money shipment from St. Louis, Missouri to New Orleans was not aboard. The robbers got away with less than $50.
Near the site of the former Olla Military Institute, B.E. Zeagler of Olla and L.C. Nunn of Columbia, Louisiana organized and constructed the North Central Louisiana Fair or Carnival fair barns, and an equine racetrack stadium in 1912. Since its inception, the open space has served the parishes of La Salle, Winn, Grant, and Caldwell, and it is now called the Olla Fairgrounds. Still host to an annual event every fall, it is one of the oldest continuously running fairs or carnivals in the United States. The fairgrounds also contains a modern rodeo arena that hosts the Olla Rodeo, sponsored by the local Kiwanis International club, annually.
In 1910, the state of Louisiana split Catahoula Parish in half. The western half where the Town of Olla is situated became La Salle Parish, named for French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. An immediate struggle developed between the towns of Olla and Jena over the location of the parish courthouse. Jena was subsequently chosen as the La Salle parish seat because of its central location. Even without the prestige of being the parish seat, the early 20th century brought many changes to the Town of Olla. Olla's economy grew with the success of two large sawmills in the area – Urania Lumber Company to the south and Louisiana Central Lumber Company located to the north, in Standard. Mr. G.W. McCartney purchased a dynamo to bring electric lights to Olla. Residences were also piped with natural gas. The town took another step forward when Mr. Sam Shamblin opened a silent movie house. The Community Talking Picture Company of Shreveport sold Olla its first talking movies, and later a more modern theater was erected.
Known for its excellent ground water, Olla was the site of the Olla Bottling Works. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Olla Bottling Works made and distributed numerous flavored carbonated beverages including NuGrape Soda. The Olla Bottling Works was purchased by a firm in Monroe and eventually merged with the Coca-Cola Bottling Company.
The Southern Baptist encampment and the Civilian Conservation Corps Camp activities also left their mark on Olla. Each year Baptist campers gathered for two weeks of religious instruction, preaching, and recreation. The CCC Camp occupied the same facilities the remainder of the year, and the area is still crossed with public and private roads built by the CCC. Olla is also the site of Camp Olla, an annual Pentecostal summer camp, retreat, and hurricane evacuation shelter.
In 1938, oil was discovered just outside Olla's boundaries. This was a tremendous boost for the local economy because the large sawmills had begun to slow production. The Olla Oil Field brought a fresh influx of people and is large producer of light sweet crude and natural gas.
The Town of Olla currently serves as a regional hub for banking, commercial retail, and manufacturing and is heavily involved with the forestry and petroleum production industries.
Downtown Olla is a recognized Historic District with many buildings being restored for commercial use.
On November 23, 2004, a tornado that reached F3 strength tore through parts of the town, destroying or damaging a large portion of the buildings, including LaSalle High School. Classes were held in an abandoned sportswear factory, known as Holloway Sportswear, until a new high school was constructed. In 2005, the town played host to many evacuees from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
Geography
Olla is located within the Louisiana Central Hill County, the upland hill areas between the Red and Ouachita River valleys, at 31°53′58″N 92°14′5″W / 31.89944°N 92.23472°W / 31.89944; -92.23472 (31.899443, -92.234774).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 5.4 square miles (12.9 km2), all land. It is situated exactly halfway (47 miles) (76 km), between Monroe to the north and Alexandria to the south. Also to the south, the towns of Urania and Tullos lie four and seven miles, respectively. The town of Jena is 16 miles (26 km) to the southeast. Surrounded by pine and deciduous forests, nature's abundance and beauty of the area have been a draw for hunters, nature lovers, and tourists.
The town of Olla is served by the Union Pacific Railroad, and U.S. Route 165 traverses north and south. Nearby U.S. Route 84 and a number of state roads serve as east and west corridors.
Demographics
Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
1910260—19202662.3%1930740178.2%1940691−6.6%19501,11561.4%19601,24611.7%19701,38711.3%19801,60315.6%19901,410−12.0%20001,4170.5%20101,385−2.3%20201,295−6.5%U.S. Decennial Census
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,617 people, 587 households, and 407 families residing in the town. The population density was 413.9 inhabitants per square mile (159.8/km2). There were 681 housing units at an average density of 198.9 per square mile (76.8/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 95.06% White, 2.46% African American, 1.35% Native American, 0.42% Asian, 0.21% from other races, and 0.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.20% of the population.
There were 587 households, of which 32.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.5% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.5% were non-families. 27.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.95.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.1% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 21.3% from 45 to 64, and 15.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.3 males.
The incorporated Towns of Olla, Urania, Tullos, and Georgetown, unincorporated Northern LaSalle, Southern Caldwell, Northern Grant, and Eastern Winn Parishes are considered the Olla Market Area or Olla Region.
Education
The following schools operated by the La Salle Parish School Board serve the city:
Olla-Standard Elementary School (Olla)
La Salle Junior High School (Urania, Louisiana)
La Salle High School (Olla)
Notable people
Thomas "Bud" Brady, member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from 1976 to 1988, resided in Olla
John Cooksey, Monroe ophthalmologist and former congressman, Louisiana's 5th congressional district, graduated from LaSalle High School
Kristy Curry, head coach of Alabama Crimson Tide women's basketball
Ronald Jackson Hays, admiral, United States Navy, United States Naval Academy
Herman Johnson, New York Giants offensive guard
Gene Jones, film and television actor
Billy Masters, Denver Broncos tight end
J. Reed Walters, LaSalle Parish district attorney
Alfred (Al) Busby, born 1928-(92) town resident, former businessman, renowned transmission mechanic, ref. Al Busby day at town hall
References
^ "Election Returns: La Salle Parish". Louisiana Secretary of State. November 6, 2018. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
^ "2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 20, 2022.
^ "Olla LA ZIP Code". zipdatamaps.com. 2023. Retrieved June 16, 2023.
^ a b c "Welcome to Our Community". The Town of Olla.
^ "The Jena Times".
^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
^ ""Thomas 'Bud' Brady dead at 72", April 3, 2011". Monroe News-Star. Archived from the original on May 7, 2011. Retrieved July 5, 2013.
External links
United States portal
http://www.townofolla.com Town of Olla
vteMunicipalities and communities of LaSalle Parish, Louisiana, United StatesParish seat: JenaTowns
Jena
Olla
Tullos‡
Urania
CDPs
Good Pine
Midway
Trout
Otherunincorporatedcommunities
Rhinehart‡
Standard
Whitehall
Footnotes‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent parish or parishes
Louisiana portal
United States portal | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"La Salle Parish, Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Salle_Parish,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Historic District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_District"},{"link_name":"2010 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"Central Louisiana Bluegrass Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.culturalcenter.us"},{"link_name":"Homecoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homecoming"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-townofolla.com-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-townofolla.com-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-townofolla.com-4"},{"link_name":"YMCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YMCA"}],"text":"Town in Louisiana, United StatesOlla is a town in northwest La Salle Parish, Louisiana, United States, located in the heart of the Louisiana Central Hill Country.Olla has a federally recognized downtown Historic District and a Louisiana historic marker. The population was 1,385 at the 2010 census. Olla Historic District is the site of the annual Central Louisiana Bluegrass Festival each April and to the Olla Homecoming Parade, Celebration, and Festival that coincides with LaSalle High School Homecoming each autumn.The Town of Olla also hosts an annual nighttime Christmas Parade, Miss Merry Christmas Pageant, and Community Christmas.[4] These events occur on the Friday locals schools release for Christmas break. The parade begins at the Olla Elementary School and terminates at Santa's Gazebo in the Olla Town Square. The Olla Town Square in located within the Olla Historic District and contains the Olla Farmers Market/Community Pavilion (completed in 2014), Wishing Tree, Dixie Center(Community Center), Gazebo, historic marker, and a stage. The Olla Wishing Tree, which stands between the Community Pavilion and stage, is part of local lore as it's said to \"grant wishes\" to those who close their eyes and touch its bark. The Olla Town Square facilities can be rented by the public for events.[4]The \"Tri-City Popper\" fireworks show, an endeavor funded by donations from the Towns and businesses of Olla, Tullos, and Urania, is held at dusk each 4 July at the Historic Olla Fairgrounds. This event is conducted by the Olla Volunteer Fire Department[4]The town's motto is \"Small Town, Big Heart\" in reference to the hospitality and generosity of its citizens.\nThe Town of Olla has two large parks with a paved walking trail, multiple baseball fields, public swimming pool, bowling alley, and a Recreation Center that is facilitated by the YMCA.","title":"Olla, Louisiana"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Bayou Castor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_Creek_(Little_River)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"military school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_school"},{"link_name":"public school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_school"},{"link_name":"Houston, Central Arkansas, and Northern Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_railroads"},{"link_name":"Catahoula Parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catahoula_Parish"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"Biblical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical"},{"link_name":"Romanesque Revival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_Revival"},{"link_name":"Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Henry Hobson Richardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Hobson_Richardson"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"},{"link_name":"St. Louis, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"Columbia, Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"La Salle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Salle_Parish,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Winn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winn_Parish,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant_Parish,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Caldwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldwell_Parish,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Kiwanis International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiwanis_International"},{"link_name":"state of Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Catahoula Parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catahoula_Parish"},{"link_name":"La Salle Parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Salle_Parish"},{"link_name":"René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-Robert_Cavelier,_Sieur_de_La_Salle"},{"link_name":"Jena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jena,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Urania Lumber Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_E._Hardtner"},{"link_name":"Shreveport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreveport"},{"link_name":"NuGrape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NuGrape"},{"link_name":"Monroe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Southern Baptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Baptist"},{"link_name":"Civilian Conservation Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps"},{"link_name":"Pentecostal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentecostal"},{"link_name":"natural gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas"},{"link_name":"Historic District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_District"},{"link_name":"November 23, 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado_outbreak_of_November_22%E2%80%9324,_2004"},{"link_name":"tornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado"},{"link_name":"Hurricanes Katrina and Rita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricanes_Katrina_and_Rita"}],"text":"The Town of Olla is the oldest incorporated town in LaSalle Parish. Settled prior to the American Civil War, the town of Olla was known as Castor Sulfur Springs, and a steamboat port on nearby Bayou Castor was its original site. The area had a post office, general store, hotel, spa, and a dry goods and cotton storage facility.[5]Naturally-occurring sulfur muds and spring water made Castor Sulfur Springs a nationally known \"health spa\".[citation needed]In 1890, the Olla Military Institute, a private military school was established. The first faculty members consisted of Riley J. Wilson, Ms. Olla Mills, John Paul Jones, Missy Robertson, Rev. Elijah Bryant, and Bell Murphy. The school flourished for several years until 1899, when a fire destroyed the campus. At this time, a public school, Olla High School, was constructed to serve the towns of Olla and Standard. In 1950, Olla, Urania, and Tullos High Schools closed, and consolidated as LaSalle High School. The Olla Elementary School now sits at the former site of the Olla Military Institute and Olla High School.In 1891, the Houston, Central Arkansas, and Northern Railroad came to what was then northwest Catahoula Parish and bought a 200-foot-wide right-of-way over which it would construct a railroad more than a mile away from Castor Sulfur Springs. Community leaders were faced with the possibility that their town would be cut off and decided that a railroad station must be constructed for passenger and commercial services to ensure the survival of Castor Sulfur Springs. Dr. Frank Mills, with the assistance of Mr. J.D. Adams, set aside 40 acres of land for a station and town-site. This transaction was recorded on February 9, 1891. When the new site was chosen and incorporation paperwork was submitted naming the new community “New Castor Sulfur Springs”, their request was denied.The legislature was not accepting new municipalities named in reference to springs, rivers, bayous, or creeks to avoid duplication and confusion. New Lebanon was considered as well as many Greek and Biblical names, which were very popular at the time. After much debate, it was decided that the relocated community should be named for Olla Mills, daughter of Dr. Frank Mills and sister of Judge W.H. Mills, who were residents of Castor Sulfur Springs for many years. Ms. Mills was an accomplished, attractive, and popular young lady who was dramatically inclined and took part in all constructive community activities, who served with distinction as the head of the Olla Military Institute's English department. Miss Olla Mills, who later became Mrs. CC Young, died in 1901 and is buried in the Olla Cemetery.The Town of Olla was officially incorporated on August 1, 1899, with Dr. William V. Taylor III as its first mayor. In 1906, the Zeagler Family established and erected the Olla State Bank as the cornerstone of the downtown. Built in Romanesque Revival style, the bank's structure is said to be influenced by Louisiana native and architect Henry Hobson Richardson. The Olla State Bank served Olla and the surrounding region throughout the Great Depression until its merger with Southern Heritage Bank in 1980s. The Ernest Gray Gang as well as The Jimmy Yarrell Gang held up the bank in the 1930s.Olla is also the location of the only train holdup in Louisiana history. In August 1900, unknown bandits built a fire on the tracks north of Olla and forced the train to stop. The group then boarded and ordered the conductor to disconnect the mail and express cars from the train. The express safe was cracked, but the expected big money shipment from St. Louis, Missouri to New Orleans was not aboard. The robbers got away with less than $50.Near the site of the former Olla Military Institute, B.E. Zeagler of Olla and L.C. Nunn of Columbia, Louisiana organized and constructed the North Central Louisiana Fair or Carnival fair barns, and an equine racetrack stadium in 1912. Since its inception, the open space has served the parishes of La Salle, Winn, Grant, and Caldwell, and it is now called the Olla Fairgrounds. Still host to an annual event every fall, it is one of the oldest continuously running fairs or carnivals in the United States. The fairgrounds also contains a modern rodeo arena that hosts the Olla Rodeo, sponsored by the local Kiwanis International club, annually.In 1910, the state of Louisiana split Catahoula Parish in half. The western half where the Town of Olla is situated became La Salle Parish, named for French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. An immediate struggle developed between the towns of Olla and Jena over the location of the parish courthouse. Jena was subsequently chosen as the La Salle parish seat because of its central location. Even without the prestige of being the parish seat, the early 20th century brought many changes to the Town of Olla. Olla's economy grew with the success of two large sawmills in the area – Urania Lumber Company to the south and Louisiana Central Lumber Company located to the north, in Standard. Mr. G.W. McCartney purchased a dynamo to bring electric lights to Olla. Residences were also piped with natural gas. The town took another step forward when Mr. Sam Shamblin opened a silent movie house. The Community Talking Picture Company of Shreveport sold Olla its first talking movies, and later a more modern theater was erected.Known for its excellent ground water, Olla was the site of the Olla Bottling Works. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Olla Bottling Works made and distributed numerous flavored carbonated beverages including NuGrape Soda. The Olla Bottling Works was purchased by a firm in Monroe and eventually merged with the Coca-Cola Bottling Company.The Southern Baptist encampment and the Civilian Conservation Corps Camp activities also left their mark on Olla. Each year Baptist campers gathered for two weeks of religious instruction, preaching, and recreation. The CCC Camp occupied the same facilities the remainder of the year, and the area is still crossed with public and private roads built by the CCC. Olla is also the site of Camp Olla, an annual Pentecostal summer camp, retreat, and hurricane evacuation shelter.In 1938, oil was discovered just outside Olla's boundaries. This was a tremendous boost for the local economy because the large sawmills had begun to slow production. The Olla Oil Field brought a fresh influx of people and is large producer of light sweet crude and natural gas.The Town of Olla currently serves as a regional hub for banking, commercial retail, and manufacturing and is heavily involved with the forestry and petroleum production industries.Downtown Olla is a recognized Historic District with many buildings being restored for commercial use.On November 23, 2004, a tornado that reached F3 strength tore through parts of the town, destroying or damaging a large portion of the buildings, including LaSalle High School. Classes were held in an abandoned sportswear factory, known as Holloway Sportswear, until a new high school was constructed. In 2005, the town played host to many evacuees from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"31°53′58″N 92°14′5″W / 31.89944°N 92.23472°W / 31.89944; -92.23472","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Olla,_Louisiana¶ms=31_53_58_N_92_14_5_W_type:city"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR1-6"},{"link_name":"United States Census Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau"},{"link_name":"Monroe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Urania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urania,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Tullos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tullos,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Jena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jena,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Union Pacific Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 165","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_165"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 84","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_84"},{"link_name":"state roads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Highway"}],"text":"Olla is located within the Louisiana Central Hill County, the upland hill areas between the Red and Ouachita River valleys, at 31°53′58″N 92°14′5″W / 31.89944°N 92.23472°W / 31.89944; -92.23472 (31.899443, -92.234774).[6]According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 5.4 square miles (12.9 km2), all land. It is situated exactly halfway (47 miles) (76 km), between Monroe to the north and Alexandria to the south. Also to the south, the towns of Urania and Tullos lie four and seven miles, respectively. The town of Jena is 16 miles (26 km) to the southeast. Surrounded by pine and deciduous forests, nature's abundance and beauty of the area have been a draw for hunters, nature lovers, and tourists.The town of Olla is served by the Union Pacific Railroad, and U.S. Route 165 traverses north and south. Nearby U.S. Route 84 and a number of state roads serve as east and west corridors.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR2-8"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"other races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(United_States_Census)"},{"link_name":"Hispanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"married couples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage"}],"text":"As of the census[8] of 2010, there were 1,617 people, 587 households, and 407 families residing in the town. The population density was 413.9 inhabitants per square mile (159.8/km2). There were 681 housing units at an average density of 198.9 per square mile (76.8/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 95.06% White, 2.46% African American, 1.35% Native American, 0.42% Asian, 0.21% from other races, and 0.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.20% of the population.There were 587 households, of which 32.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.5% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.5% were non-families. 27.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.95.In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.1% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 21.3% from 45 to 64, and 15.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.3 males.The incorporated Towns of Olla, Urania, Tullos, and Georgetown, unincorporated Northern LaSalle, Southern Caldwell, Northern Grant, and Eastern Winn Parishes are considered the Olla Market Area or Olla Region.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"La Salle Parish School Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Salle_Parish_School_Board"}],"text":"The following schools operated by the La Salle Parish School Board serve the city:Olla-Standard Elementary School (Olla)\nLa Salle Junior High School (Urania, Louisiana)\nLa Salle High School (Olla)","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thomas \"Bud\" Brady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_%22Bud%22_Brady"},{"link_name":"Louisiana House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"John Cooksey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cooksey"},{"link_name":"ophthalmologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmologist"},{"link_name":"congressman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Louisiana's 5th congressional district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana%27s_5th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"Kristy Curry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristy_Curry"},{"link_name":"Alabama Crimson Tide women's basketball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_women%27s_basketball"},{"link_name":"Ronald Jackson Hays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Jackson_Hays"},{"link_name":"admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"United States Naval Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy"},{"link_name":"Herman Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Johnson_(American_football)"},{"link_name":"New York Giants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Giants"},{"link_name":"Gene Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Jones_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Billy Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Masters_(American_football)"},{"link_name":"Denver Broncos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver_Broncos"},{"link_name":"J. Reed Walters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Reed_Walters"},{"link_name":"Alfred (Al) Busby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfred_(Al)_Busby&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Thomas \"Bud\" Brady, member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from 1976 to 1988, resided in Olla[9]\nJohn Cooksey, Monroe ophthalmologist and former congressman, Louisiana's 5th congressional district, graduated from LaSalle High School\nKristy Curry, head coach of Alabama Crimson Tide women's basketball\nRonald Jackson Hays, admiral, United States Navy, United States Naval Academy\nHerman Johnson, New York Giants offensive guard\nGene Jones, film and television actor\nBilly Masters, Denver Broncos tight end\nJ. Reed Walters, LaSalle Parish district attorney\nAlfred (Al) Busby, born 1928-(92) town resident, former businessman, renowned transmission mechanic, ref. Al Busby day at town hall","title":"Notable people"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Map_of_Louisiana_highlighting_LaSalle_Parish.svg/180px-Map_of_Louisiana_highlighting_LaSalle_Parish.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Election Returns: La Salle Parish\". Louisiana Secretary of State. November 6, 2018. Retrieved November 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://voterportal.sos.la.gov/Graphical","url_text":"\"Election Returns: La Salle Parish\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Secretary_of_State","url_text":"Louisiana Secretary of State"}]},{"reference":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 20, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_22.txt","url_text":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\""}]},{"reference":"\"Olla LA ZIP Code\". zipdatamaps.com. 2023. Retrieved June 16, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zipdatamaps.com/71465","url_text":"\"Olla LA ZIP Code\""}]},{"reference":"\"Welcome to Our Community\". The Town of Olla.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.townofolla.com/","url_text":"\"Welcome to Our Community\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Jena Times\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thejenatimes.net/","url_text":"\"The Jena Times\""}]},{"reference":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\". United States Census Bureau. February 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html","url_text":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"Census of Population and Housing\". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html","url_text":"\"Census of Population and Housing\""}]},{"reference":"\"U.S. Census website\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/","url_text":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"}]},{"reference":"\"\"Thomas 'Bud' Brady dead at 72\", April 3, 2011\". Monroe News-Star. Archived from the original on May 7, 2011. Retrieved July 5, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110507083202/http://www.thenewsstar.com/article/20110403/NEWS01/104030315/Thomas-Bud-Brady-dead-72","url_text":"\"\"Thomas 'Bud' Brady dead at 72\", April 3, 2011\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_News-Star&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Monroe News-Star"},{"url":"http://www.thenewsstar.com/article/20110403/NEWS01/104030315/Thomas-Bud-Brady-dead-72","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Olla,_Louisiana¶ms=31_53_58_N_92_14_05_W_type:city(1295)_region:US-LA","external_links_name":"31°53′58″N 92°14′05″W / 31.89944°N 92.23472°W / 31.89944; -92.23472"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Olla%2C+Louisiana%22","external_links_name":"\"Olla, Louisiana\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Olla%2C+Louisiana%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Olla%2C+Louisiana%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Olla%2C+Louisiana%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Olla%2C+Louisiana%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Olla%2C+Louisiana%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Olla,_Louisiana¶ms=31_53_58_N_92_14_05_W_type:city(1295)_region:US-LA","external_links_name":"31°53′58″N 92°14′05″W / 31.89944°N 92.23472°W / 31.89944; -92.23472"},{"Link":"http://www.townofolla.com/","external_links_name":"www.townofolla.com"},{"Link":"http://www.culturalcenter.us/","external_links_name":"Central Louisiana Bluegrass Festival"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Olla,_Louisiana¶ms=31_53_58_N_92_14_5_W_type:city","external_links_name":"31°53′58″N 92°14′5″W / 31.89944°N 92.23472°W / 31.89944; -92.23472"},{"Link":"https://voterportal.sos.la.gov/Graphical","external_links_name":"\"Election Returns: La Salle Parish\""},{"Link":"https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_22.txt","external_links_name":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\""},{"Link":"https://www.zipdatamaps.com/71465","external_links_name":"\"Olla LA ZIP Code\""},{"Link":"https://www.townofolla.com/","external_links_name":"\"Welcome to Our Community\""},{"Link":"http://www.thejenatimes.net/","external_links_name":"\"The Jena Times\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/time-series/geo/gazetteer-files.html","external_links_name":"\"US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html","external_links_name":"\"Census of Population and Housing\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/","external_links_name":"\"U.S. Census website\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110507083202/http://www.thenewsstar.com/article/20110403/NEWS01/104030315/Thomas-Bud-Brady-dead-72","external_links_name":"\"\"Thomas 'Bud' Brady dead at 72\", April 3, 2011\""},{"Link":"http://www.thenewsstar.com/article/20110403/NEWS01/104030315/Thomas-Bud-Brady-dead-72","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.townofolla.com/","external_links_name":"http://www.townofolla.com"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_d%27agglom%C3%A9ration_de_B%C3%A9thune-Bruay,_Artois-Lys_Romane | Communauté d'agglomération de Béthune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane | ["1 Composition","2 References"] | Coordinates: 50°32′N 2°38′E / 50.53°N 2.64°E / 50.53; 2.64Communauté d'agglomération in Hauts-de-France, FranceBéthune-Bruay, Artois-Lys RomaneCommunauté d'agglomérationLocation of Béthune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane within the Hauts-de-France RegionCountryFranceRegionHauts-de-FranceDepartmentPas-de-CalaisNo. of communes100Established2017SeatBéthuneArea645.6 km2 (249.3 sq mi)Population (2018)276,759 • Density429/km2 (1,110/sq mi)Websitewww.bethunebruay.fr
Communauté d'agglomération de Béthune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane is the communauté d'agglomération, an intercommunal structure, centred on the cities of Béthune and Bruay-la-Buissière. It is located in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France regions, northern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communauté d'agglomération de Béthune Bruay Nœux et environs and the former communautés de communes Artois-Lys and Artois-Flandres. Its area is 645.6 km2. Its population was 276,759 in 2018.
Composition
The communauté d'agglomération consists of the following 100 communes:
Allouagne
Ames
Amettes
Annequin
Annezin
Auchel
Auchy-au-Bois
Auchy-les-Mines
Bajus
Barlin
Béthune
Beugin
Beuvry
Billy-Berclau
Blessy
Bourecq
Bruay-la-Buissière
Burbure
Busnes
Calonne-Ricouart
Calonne-sur-la-Lys
Camblain-Châtelain
Cambrin
Cauchy-à-la-Tour
Caucourt
Chocques
La Comté
La Couture
Cuinchy
Diéval
Divion
Douvrin
Drouvin-le-Marais
Ecquedecques
Essars
Estrée-Blanche
Estrée-Cauchy
Ferfay
Festubert
Fouquereuil
Fouquières-lès-Béthune
Fresnicourt-le-Dolmen
Gauchin-Légal
Givenchy-lès-la-Bassée
Gonnehem
Gosnay
Guarbecque
Haillicourt
Haisnes
Ham-en-Artois
Hermin
Hersin-Coupigny
Hesdigneul-lès-Béthune
Hinges
Houchin
Houdain
Isbergues
Labeuvrière
Labourse
Lambres
Lapugnoy
Lespesses
Lières
Liettres
Ligny-lès-Aire
Lillers
Linghem
Locon
Lorgies
Lozinghem
Maisnil-lès-Ruitz
Marles-les-Mines
Mazinghem
Mont-Bernanchon
Neuve-Chapelle
Nœux-les-Mines
Norrent-Fontes
Noyelles-lès-Vermelles
Oblinghem
Ourton
Quernes
Rebreuve-Ranchicourt
Rely
Richebourg
Robecq
Rombly
Ruitz
Sailly-Labourse
Saint-Floris
Saint-Hilaire-Cottes
Saint-Venant
Vaudricourt
Vendin-lès-Béthune
Vermelles
Verquigneul
Verquin
Vieille-Chapelle
Violaines
Westrehem
Witternesse
References
^ Arrêté préfectoral, 13 September 2016
^ Comparateur de territoire, INSEE, accessed 5 April 2022.
^ CA de Béthune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane (N° SIREN : 200072460), BANATIC. Accessed 5 April 2022.
^ INSEE
50°32′N 2°38′E / 50.53°N 2.64°E / 50.53; 2.64
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
France
BnF data
This Pas-de-Calais geographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"communauté d'agglomération","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_d%27agglom%C3%A9ration"},{"link_name":"intercommunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes_of_France#Intercommunality"},{"link_name":"cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes_of_France"},{"link_name":"Béthune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9thune"},{"link_name":"Bruay-la-Buissière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruay-la-Buissi%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Pas-de-Calais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departments_of_France"},{"link_name":"Hauts-de-France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauts-de-France"},{"link_name":"regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions_of_France"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"communauté d'agglomération de Béthune Bruay Nœux et environs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglomeration_community_of_Artois"},{"link_name":"communautés de communes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_de_communes"},{"link_name":"Artois-Lys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut%C3%A9_de_communes_Artois-Lys"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-compar-2"}],"text":"Communauté d'agglomération in Hauts-de-France, FranceCommunauté d'agglomération de Béthune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane is the communauté d'agglomération, an intercommunal structure, centred on the cities of Béthune and Bruay-la-Buissière. It is located in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France regions, northern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communauté d'agglomération de Béthune Bruay Nœux et environs and the former communautés de communes Artois-Lys and Artois-Flandres.[1] Its area is 645.6 km2. Its population was 276,759 in 2018.[2]","title":"Communauté d'agglomération de Béthune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BANATIC-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Allouagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allouagne"},{"link_name":"Ames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Amettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amettes"},{"link_name":"Annequin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annequin"},{"link_name":"Annezin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annezin"},{"link_name":"Auchel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auchel"},{"link_name":"Auchy-au-Bois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auchy-au-Bois"},{"link_name":"Auchy-les-Mines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auchy-les-Mines"},{"link_name":"Bajus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajus,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Barlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlin,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Béthune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9thune"},{"link_name":"Beugin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beugin"},{"link_name":"Beuvry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beuvry"},{"link_name":"Billy-Berclau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy-Berclau"},{"link_name":"Blessy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blessy,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Bourecq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourecq"},{"link_name":"Bruay-la-Buissière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruay-la-Buissi%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Burbure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burbure"},{"link_name":"Busnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busnes"},{"link_name":"Calonne-Ricouart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calonne-Ricouart"},{"link_name":"Calonne-sur-la-Lys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calonne-sur-la-Lys"},{"link_name":"Camblain-Châtelain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camblain-Ch%C3%A2telain"},{"link_name":"Cambrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambrin"},{"link_name":"Cauchy-à-la-Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy-%C3%A0-la-Tour"},{"link_name":"Caucourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucourt"},{"link_name":"Chocques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chocques"},{"link_name":"La Comté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Comt%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"La Couture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Couture,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Cuinchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuinchy"},{"link_name":"Diéval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A9val"},{"link_name":"Divion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divion"},{"link_name":"Douvrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douvrin"},{"link_name":"Drouvin-le-Marais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drouvin-le-Marais"},{"link_name":"Ecquedecques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecquedecques"},{"link_name":"Essars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essars"},{"link_name":"Estrée-Blanche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estr%C3%A9e-Blanche"},{"link_name":"Estrée-Cauchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estr%C3%A9e-Cauchy"},{"link_name":"Ferfay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferfay"},{"link_name":"Festubert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festubert"},{"link_name":"Fouquereuil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouquereuil"},{"link_name":"Fouquières-lès-Béthune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouqui%C3%A8res-l%C3%A8s-B%C3%A9thune"},{"link_name":"Fresnicourt-le-Dolmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnicourt-le-Dolmen"},{"link_name":"Gauchin-Légal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauchin-L%C3%A9gal"},{"link_name":"Givenchy-lès-la-Bassée","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Givenchy-l%C3%A8s-la-Bass%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"Gonnehem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonnehem"},{"link_name":"Gosnay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosnay"},{"link_name":"Guarbecque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guarbecque"},{"link_name":"Haillicourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haillicourt"},{"link_name":"Haisnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haisnes"},{"link_name":"Ham-en-Artois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham-en-Artois"},{"link_name":"Hermin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermin"},{"link_name":"Hersin-Coupigny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersin-Coupigny"},{"link_name":"Hesdigneul-lès-Béthune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesdigneul-l%C3%A8s-B%C3%A9thune"},{"link_name":"Hinges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinges,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Houchin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houchin"},{"link_name":"Houdain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houdain"},{"link_name":"Isbergues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isbergues"},{"link_name":"Labeuvrière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labeuvri%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Labourse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labourse"},{"link_name":"Lambres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambres"},{"link_name":"Lapugnoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapugnoy"},{"link_name":"Lespesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lespesses"},{"link_name":"Lières","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%A8res"},{"link_name":"Liettres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liettres"},{"link_name":"Ligny-lès-Aire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligny-l%C3%A8s-Aire"},{"link_name":"Lillers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillers"},{"link_name":"Linghem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linghem"},{"link_name":"Locon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locon"},{"link_name":"Lorgies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorgies"},{"link_name":"Lozinghem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lozinghem"},{"link_name":"Maisnil-lès-Ruitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maisnil-l%C3%A8s-Ruitz"},{"link_name":"Marles-les-Mines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marles-les-Mines"},{"link_name":"Mazinghem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazinghem"},{"link_name":"Mont-Bernanchon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont-Bernanchon"},{"link_name":"Neuve-Chapelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuve-Chapelle"},{"link_name":"Nœux-les-Mines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C5%93ux-les-Mines"},{"link_name":"Norrent-Fontes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norrent-Fontes"},{"link_name":"Noyelles-lès-Vermelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noyelles-l%C3%A8s-Vermelles"},{"link_name":"Oblinghem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblinghem"},{"link_name":"Ourton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ourton"},{"link_name":"Quernes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quernes"},{"link_name":"Rebreuve-Ranchicourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebreuve-Ranchicourt"},{"link_name":"Rely","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rely,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Richebourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richebourg,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Robecq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robecq"},{"link_name":"Rombly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rombly"},{"link_name":"Ruitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruitz"},{"link_name":"Sailly-Labourse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailly-Labourse"},{"link_name":"Saint-Floris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Floris"},{"link_name":"Saint-Hilaire-Cottes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Hilaire-Cottes"},{"link_name":"Saint-Venant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Venant"},{"link_name":"Vaudricourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaudricourt,_Pas-de-Calais"},{"link_name":"Vendin-lès-Béthune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vendin-l%C3%A8s-B%C3%A9thune"},{"link_name":"Vermelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermelles"},{"link_name":"Verquigneul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verquigneul"},{"link_name":"Verquin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verquin"},{"link_name":"Vieille-Chapelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieille-Chapelle"},{"link_name":"Violaines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violaines"},{"link_name":"Westrehem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westrehem"},{"link_name":"Witternesse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witternesse"}],"text":"The communauté d'agglomération consists of the following 100 communes:[3][4]Allouagne\nAmes\nAmettes\nAnnequin\nAnnezin\nAuchel\nAuchy-au-Bois\nAuchy-les-Mines\nBajus\nBarlin\nBéthune\nBeugin\nBeuvry\nBilly-Berclau\nBlessy\nBourecq\nBruay-la-Buissière\nBurbure\nBusnes\nCalonne-Ricouart\nCalonne-sur-la-Lys\nCamblain-Châtelain\nCambrin\nCauchy-à-la-Tour\nCaucourt\nChocques\nLa Comté\nLa Couture\nCuinchy\nDiéval\nDivion\nDouvrin\nDrouvin-le-Marais\nEcquedecques\nEssars\nEstrée-Blanche\nEstrée-Cauchy\nFerfay\nFestubert\nFouquereuil\nFouquières-lès-Béthune\nFresnicourt-le-Dolmen\nGauchin-Légal\nGivenchy-lès-la-Bassée\nGonnehem\nGosnay\nGuarbecque\nHaillicourt\nHaisnes\nHam-en-Artois\nHermin\nHersin-Coupigny\nHesdigneul-lès-Béthune\nHinges\nHouchin\nHoudain\nIsbergues\nLabeuvrière\nLabourse\nLambres\nLapugnoy\nLespesses\nLières\nLiettres\nLigny-lès-Aire\nLillers\nLinghem\nLocon\nLorgies\nLozinghem\nMaisnil-lès-Ruitz\nMarles-les-Mines\nMazinghem\nMont-Bernanchon\nNeuve-Chapelle\nNœux-les-Mines\nNorrent-Fontes\nNoyelles-lès-Vermelles\nOblinghem\nOurton\nQuernes\nRebreuve-Ranchicourt\nRely\nRichebourg\nRobecq\nRombly\nRuitz\nSailly-Labourse\nSaint-Floris\nSaint-Hilaire-Cottes\nSaint-Venant\nVaudricourt\nVendin-lès-Béthune\nVermelles\nVerquigneul\nVerquin\nVieille-Chapelle\nViolaines\nWestrehem\nWitternesse","title":"Composition"}] | [] | null | [] | 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outwood,_Greater_Manchester | Outwood, Greater Manchester | ["1 History","2 References","3 External links"] | Coordinates: 53°32′57″N 2°20′00″W / 53.5492°N 2.3332°W / 53.5492; -2.3332
Human settlement in EnglandOutwoodThe A567 west towards OutwoodOutwoodLocation within Greater ManchesterMetropolitan boroughBuryMetropolitan countyGreater ManchesterRegionNorth WestCountryEnglandSovereign stateUnited Kingdom
List of places
UK
England
Greater Manchester
53°32′57″N 2°20′00″W / 53.5492°N 2.3332°W / 53.5492; -2.3332
Outwood is a settlement in the Bury district in the county of Greater Manchester, England. Until 1974 it was in Lancashire.
History
OutwoodArea • 19011,938 acres (7.8 km2) • 19311,938 acres (7.8 km2)
Population • 19011,514 • 19312,195
History • Created1894 • Abolished1933 • Succeeded byKearsley, Radcliffe and Whitefield urban districts
StatusCivil parish
Outwood was an area in the township of Pilkington in the ancient parish of Prestwich-cum-Oldham in the historic county of Lancashire. It was once called Outwood of Pilkington and is marked as Outwoods on the Yates Map of 1787 and on the later Greenwood and Hennet maps.
Under the Local Government Act 1894, Outwood was established as a civil parish and became part of the Bury Rural District in the administrative county of Lancashire, England. In 1933, Outwood civil parish was abolished and its former area was divided between Kearsley, Radcliffe and Whitefield parishes and urban districts. In 1931 the civil parish had a population of 2195.
References
^ a b Great Britain Historical GIS Project. "Outwood CP: Area (acres)". A Vision of Britain through Time. University of Portsmouth. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
^ a b Great Britain Historical GIS Project. "Outwood CP: Total Population". A Vision of Britain through Time. University of Portsmouth. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
^ Billington, W.D. (1982). From Affetside to Yarrow. Egerton: Ross Anderson Publications. pp. 63–64. ISBN 0-86360-003-4.
^ "Yates Map of 1786". lancashire.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
^ "Greenwood's Map of Lancashire, 1818". lancashire.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
^ "Hennet's map of 1829, sheet F5". lancashire.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
^ Great Britain Historical GIS Project. "Outwood CP: Relationships and changes". A Vision of Britain through Time. University of Portsmouth. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
^ "Greater Manchester Gazetteer". Greater Manchester County Record Office. Places names - Outwood. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
^ "Relationships and changes Outwood CP through time". A Vision of Britain through Time. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
^ "Population statistics Outwood CP through time". A Vision of Britain through Time. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
External links
Boundary Map of Outwood CP | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Bury"},{"link_name":"Greater Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Manchester"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire"}],"text":"Human settlement in EnglandOutwood is a settlement in the Bury district in the county of Greater Manchester, England. Until 1974 it was in Lancashire.","title":"Outwood, Greater Manchester"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Township_(England)"},{"link_name":"Pilkington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilkington_(ancient_township)"},{"link_name":"ancient parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_parish"},{"link_name":"Prestwich-cum-Oldham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestwich-cum-Oldham"},{"link_name":"historic county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Billington1982pp63-64-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Local Government Act 1894","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Government_Act_1894"},{"link_name":"civil parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_parish_(England)"},{"link_name":"Bury Rural District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bury_Rural_District"},{"link_name":"administrative county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_counties_of_England"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-outwoodrelation-7"},{"link_name":"Kearsley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kearsley_Urban_District"},{"link_name":"Radcliffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe,_Greater_Manchester"},{"link_name":"Whitefield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitefield,_Greater_Manchester"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Outwood was an area in the township of Pilkington in the ancient parish of Prestwich-cum-Oldham in the historic county of Lancashire. It was once called Outwood of Pilkington[3] and is marked as Outwoods on the Yates Map of 1787[4] and on the later Greenwood[5] and Hennet maps.[6]Under the Local Government Act 1894, Outwood was established as a civil parish and became part of the Bury Rural District in the administrative county of Lancashire, England.[7] In 1933, Outwood civil parish was abolished and its former area was divided between Kearsley, Radcliffe and Whitefield parishes and urban districts.[8][9] In 1931 the civil parish had a population of 2195.[10]","title":"History"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Great Britain Historical GIS Project. \"Outwood CP: Area (acres)\". A Vision of Britain through Time. University of Portsmouth. Retrieved 4 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459/cube/AREA_ACRES#tab02","url_text":"\"Outwood CP: Area (acres)\""}]},{"reference":"Great Britain Historical GIS Project. \"Outwood CP: Total Population\". A Vision of Britain through Time. University of Portsmouth. Retrieved 4 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459/cube/TOT_POP#tab02","url_text":"\"Outwood CP: Total Population\""}]},{"reference":"Billington, W.D. (1982). From Affetside to Yarrow. Egerton: Ross Anderson Publications. pp. 63–64. ISBN 0-86360-003-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86360-003-4","url_text":"0-86360-003-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Yates Map of 1786\". lancashire.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www3.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/oldmap/Yates/images/d3.gif","url_text":"\"Yates Map of 1786\""}]},{"reference":"\"Greenwood's Map of Lancashire, 1818\". lancashire.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www3.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/oldmap/greenwood/greenwood.asp","url_text":"\"Greenwood's Map of Lancashire, 1818\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hennet's map of 1829, sheet F5\". lancashire.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www3.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/oldmap/hennet/images/f5.gif","url_text":"\"Hennet's map of 1829, sheet F5\""}]},{"reference":"Great Britain Historical GIS Project. \"Outwood CP: Relationships and changes\". A Vision of Britain through Time. University of Portsmouth. Retrieved 4 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459#tab02","url_text":"\"Outwood CP: Relationships and changes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Greater Manchester Gazetteer\". Greater Manchester County Record Office. Places names - Outwood. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144358/http://www.gmcro.co.uk/Guides/Gazeteer/gazzo2r.htm#outwood","url_text":"\"Greater Manchester Gazetteer\""},{"url":"http://www.gmcro.co.uk/Guides/Gazeteer/gazzo2r.htm#outwood","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Relationships and changes Outwood CP through time\". A Vision of Britain through Time. Retrieved 1 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459","url_text":"\"Relationships and changes Outwood CP through time\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Vision_of_Britain_through_Time","url_text":"A Vision of Britain through Time"}]},{"reference":"\"Population statistics Outwood CP through time\". A Vision of Britain through Time. Retrieved 1 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459/cube/TOT_POP","url_text":"\"Population statistics Outwood CP through time\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Outwood,_Greater_Manchester¶ms=53.5492_N_2.3332_W_region:GB_type:city","external_links_name":"53°32′57″N 2°20′00″W / 53.5492°N 2.3332°W / 53.5492; -2.3332"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Outwood,_Greater_Manchester¶ms=53.5492_N_2.3332_W_region:GB_type:city","external_links_name":"53°32′57″N 2°20′00″W / 53.5492°N 2.3332°W / 53.5492; -2.3332"},{"Link":"http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459/cube/AREA_ACRES#tab02","external_links_name":"\"Outwood CP: Area (acres)\""},{"Link":"http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459/cube/TOT_POP#tab02","external_links_name":"\"Outwood CP: Total Population\""},{"Link":"http://www3.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/oldmap/Yates/images/d3.gif","external_links_name":"\"Yates Map of 1786\""},{"Link":"http://www3.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/oldmap/greenwood/greenwood.asp","external_links_name":"\"Greenwood's Map of Lancashire, 1818\""},{"Link":"http://www3.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/oldmap/hennet/images/f5.gif","external_links_name":"\"Hennet's map of 1829, sheet F5\""},{"Link":"http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459#tab02","external_links_name":"\"Outwood CP: Relationships and changes\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144358/http://www.gmcro.co.uk/Guides/Gazeteer/gazzo2r.htm#outwood","external_links_name":"\"Greater Manchester Gazetteer\""},{"Link":"http://www.gmcro.co.uk/Guides/Gazeteer/gazzo2r.htm#outwood","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459","external_links_name":"\"Relationships and changes Outwood CP through time\""},{"Link":"https://visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459/cube/TOT_POP","external_links_name":"\"Population statistics Outwood CP through time\""},{"Link":"http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10375459/boundary","external_links_name":"Boundary Map of Outwood CP"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahrizeh,_Divandarreh | Kahrizeh, Divandarreh | ["1 References"] | Coordinates: 35°54′39″N 47°04′26″E / 35.91083°N 47.07389°E / 35.91083; 47.07389Village in Kurdistan, IranKahrizeh
كهريزهvillageKahrizehCoordinates: 35°54′39″N 47°04′26″E / 35.91083°N 47.07389°E / 35.91083; 47.07389Country IranProvinceKurdistanCountyDivandarrehBakhshCentralRural DistrictHowmehPopulation (2006) • Total184Time zoneUTC+3:30 (IRST) • Summer (DST)UTC+4:30 (IRDT)
Kahrizeh (Persian: كهريزه, also Romanized as Kahrīzeh; also known as Kariza and Kārīzeh) is a village in Howmeh Rural District, in the Central District of Divandarreh County, Kurdistan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 184, in 36 families. The village is populated by Kurds.
References
^ Kahrizeh can be found at GEOnet Names Server, at this link, by opening the Advanced Search box, entering "-3068570" in the "Unique Feature Id" form, and clicking on "Search Database".
^ "Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)" (Excel). Statistical Center of Iran. Archived from the original on 2011-09-20.
^ Mohammadirad, Masoud; Anonby, Erik; et al. "Language distribution in Kordestan Province, Iran". Atlas of the languages of Iran (ALI). Geomatics and Cartographic Research Centre, Carleton University. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023.
vte Divandarreh CountyCapital
Divandarreh
DistrictsCentralCities
Divandarreh
Rural Districts and villagesChehel Cheshmeh
Ab Bareh
Abbasabad
Aliabad
Alijan
Banavchan
Bardeh Rash-e Tabriz Khatun
Best
Darreh Gavan
Darreh Vazan
Ebrahimabad
Gol Qaleh
Kani Sefid
Keh Kusan
Khaleh Bazeh
Kileh Kabud
Nargesleh
Sharifabad
Tabriz Khatun
Tavakkolan
Vazman
Yapal
Howmeh
Aqa Jeri
Bagh Chaleh
Barakeh
Dabagh
Dalan
Darband
Darreh Softeh
Ghiasabad
Gol Qabagh
Kahrizeh
Kaqoli
Nesareh-ye Olya
Nesareh-ye Sofla
Qaleh Jeqeh-ye Sofla
Qaleh-ye Reyhaneh
Qarah Gheybi
Qarah Qayeh
Qeshlaq Sorkheh
Rashidabad
Sar Qaleh
Sheykh Heydar
Tazehabad-e Sar Dalan
Qaratureh
Ab Barik
Akh Kand
Azizabad
Baba Rar
Darreh Asb
Gadmeh Gater
Gavshaleh
Gol Tappeh-ye Sofla
Hijan
Jafarabad
Jaqalu
Morad Qoli
Panjeh-ye Olya
Panjeh-ye Sofla
Qarachiqran
Qaragol
Qaratureh
Qeshlaq-e Sefid
Qezgeh
Sarab-e Qarah Khan
Shekar Bolagh
Tazehabad-e Hijan
Tazehabad-e Vazir
Vazir
Vezman
Yengi Kand
Zarrineh-ye Varmazyar
KaraftuCities
Zarrineh
Rural Districts and villagesKani Shirin
Aminabad
Bash Qeshlaq
Heydar Didehban
Heydarabad
Kani Shirin
Maran-e Sofla
Moinabad
Now Bahar
Papaleh
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This Divandarreh County location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanize"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Howmeh Rural District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howmeh_Rural_District_(Divandarreh_County)"},{"link_name":"Central District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_District_(Divandarreh_County)"},{"link_name":"Divandarreh County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divandarreh_County"},{"link_name":"Kurdistan Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdistan_Province"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Kurds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurds"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Village in Kurdistan, IranKahrizeh (Persian: كهريزه, also Romanized as Kahrīzeh; also known as Kariza and Kārīzeh)[1] is a village in Howmeh Rural District, in the Central District of Divandarreh County, Kurdistan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 184, in 36 families.[2] The village is populated by Kurds.[3]","title":"Kahrizeh, Divandarreh"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)\" (Excel). Statistical Center of Iran. Archived from the original on 2011-09-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1385/results/all/12.xls","url_text":"\"Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_Center_of_Iran","url_text":"Statistical Center of Iran"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110920084728/http://www.amar.org.ir/DesktopModules/FTPManager/upload/upload2360/newjkh/newjkh/12.xls","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Mohammadirad, Masoud; Anonby, Erik; et al. \"Language distribution in Kordestan Province, Iran\". Atlas of the languages of Iran (ALI). Geomatics and Cartographic Research Centre, Carleton University. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://iranatlas.net/index.html?module=module.language-distribution.kordestan","url_text":"\"Language distribution in Kordestan Province, Iran\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carleton_University","url_text":"Carleton University"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20230528185020/http://iranatlas.net/index.html?module=module.language-distribution.kordestan","url_text":"Archived"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kahrizeh,_Divandarreh¶ms=35_54_39_N_47_04_26_E_region:IR_type:city(184)","external_links_name":"35°54′39″N 47°04′26″E / 35.91083°N 47.07389°E / 35.91083; 47.07389"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kahrizeh,_Divandarreh¶ms=35_54_39_N_47_04_26_E_region:IR_type:city(184)","external_links_name":"35°54′39″N 47°04′26″E / 35.91083°N 47.07389°E / 35.91083; 47.07389"},{"Link":"http://geonames.nga.mil/namesgaz/","external_links_name":"this link"},{"Link":"https://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1385/results/all/12.xls","external_links_name":"\"Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110920084728/http://www.amar.org.ir/DesktopModules/FTPManager/upload/upload2360/newjkh/newjkh/12.xls","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://iranatlas.net/index.html?module=module.language-distribution.kordestan","external_links_name":"\"Language distribution in Kordestan Province, Iran\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20230528185020/http://iranatlas.net/index.html?module=module.language-distribution.kordestan","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kahrizeh,_Divandarreh&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary_Pratt,_Marchioness_Camden | Rosemary Pratt, Marchioness Camden | ["1 Early life and background","2 Divorce","3 Later life","4 Notes","5 References"] | British noble (1921–2004)
The Most HonourableThe Marchioness CamdenBornCecil Rosemary Pawle9 May 1921Died27 February 2004(2004-02-27) (aged 82)London, EnglandOccupation(s)Socialite, artistSpouses
Peter Townsend
(m. 1941; div. 1952)
John de László
(m. 1953; div. 1977)
John Pratt, 5th Marquess Camden
(m. 1978; died 1983)
Children4Parent(s)Hanbury PawleMary Cecil Hughes-Hallett
Cecil Rosemary Pratt, Marchioness Camden (née Pawle; 9 May 1921 – 27 February 2004) was a British socialite and artist, best known as the first wife of Group Captain Peter Townsend, who later became romantically involved with Princess Margaret.
Early life and background
She was the daughter of Brigadier Hanbury Pawle CBE DL (1886–1972), a Deputy Lieutenant for Hertfordshire, by his marriage to Mary Cecil Hughes-Hallett (d. 1971), both of whom were from families of the landed gentry.
On 17 July 1941 at Much Hadham, Hertfordshire, she married Peter Townsend (1914–1995). Townsend was a decorated Royal Air Force pilot, who early in the Second World War had brought down the first German bomber to crash in England since 1918. In 1941, he was recovering from injuries incurred in a dogfight. The young Rosemary met the glamorous young ace, and married him after a whirlwind two-week courtship. Townsend later joined the Royal Household in 1944 under an "equerries of honour scheme". With Townsend, she had two sons, Giles (1942–2015) and Hugo (born 1945). King George VI was godfather to Hugo, who was briefly a monk and later married Yolande Princesse de Ligne, fourth daughter of Antoine, 13th Prince of Ligne.
Divorce
According to news reports, their marriage began to collapse due to Rosemary's social life and Townsend's prolonged absences from home. He later discovered Rosemary's affair with John de László, the youngest son of the painter Philip de László, and was granted a decree nisi in 1952 on the grounds of his wife's adultery in August 1951. Since Townsend was a divorced man, and divorce was then anathema to the British establishment and the royal household, Princess Margaret was told that she would lose her royal status and privileges if she married him.
The accounts of this period are somewhat in conflict, and some obituaries for Rosemary and her former husband have suggested a different story behind the official one. Princess Margaret and Townsend became close at some point before Townsend sued for divorce in November 1952; most obituaries state that the Princess turned to Townsend for comfort after the sudden death of her father in February 1952.
Later life
Rosemary married John de László a year later and they had two children, Piers and Charlotte. John de László worked first in export and later as a stockbroker. Meanwhile, Rosemary became a painter, from which she made an income. According to The Times obituary, she had previously refused large sums from newspapers that wanted exclusives. She never spoke publicly about her first marriage or her divorce.
She was divorced from her second husband in 1977; and on 12 January 1978, at Kensington registry office, she became the third wife of John Charles Henry Pratt, 5th Marquess Camden. He died in 1983, and she died in London on 27 February 2004, aged 82, having outlived all three of her husbands: Townsend died in 1995 and de László in 1990. She was survived by three sons and one daughter: Giles Townsend (b. 1942), Hugo Townsend (b. 1945), Charlotte Watkins (née de László), and Piers de László, and several grandchildren.
Notes
^ CNN story on Townsend at the death of Princess Margaret, 10 February 2002
^ "Air Ace Wins Divorce". Truth. 21 December 1952. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
^ See, notably, the Times obituary for Rosemary. "Rosemary, Marchioness Camden" The Times 6 March 2004. . The obituary begins by saying "On Townsend's own admission, shortly before his death in 1995, his wartime marriage to Rosemary Pawle, when he was a fighter pilot and war hero, had become a victim of the strains imposed by his becoming a courtier long before its eventual dissolution in the courts in 1952. But in the climate of blame which was integral to the divorce process in those days, he emerged as the innocent party and was granted custody of his children." It points out Townsend's long hours in Royal service, and his interest in moving to South Africa (not shared by his wife) after the 1947 Royal visit to South Africa. The obituary points out that "By 1951 the attachment of Townsend and Princess Margaret was intensifying, and the process was to be accelerated by the premature death of her father King George VI in 1952, after which Townsend was appointed Equerry to the Queen. By that year, too, his marriage to Rosemary had finally ended in the divorce courts, the ground being her adultery with John de Laszlo, son of the society portrait painter Philip de Laszlo. John de Laszlo and Rosemary were married later that year." No date is put for the starting of the affair between John de Laszlo and Rosemary.
^ "Rosemary, Marchioness Camden" The Times 6 March 2004. .
^ worldroots.com Archived 10 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 16 August 2007
^ Michael Rhodes. "Tempest / Townsend engagement..." reports the possible engagement of Giles's younger daughter to a Tempest of Broughton. Giles's children and Hugo's eldest child appear to be listed as well. In 1995, Rosemary had five grandchildren from her two elder sons.
References
Anonymous. "The Doomed Love Affair" The Sunday Herald, 10 February 2002. Retrieved 16 August 2007.
Anonymous. "Rosemary, Marchioness Camden" The Times 6 March 2004. . Retrieved 16 August 2007.
"Obituary: Rosemary Pawle" Daily Post (Liverpool, England). 8 March 2004. Retrieved 16 August 2007. Available only by subscription.
Michael De-la-Noy. "Obituary: Group Capt Peter Townsend" The Independent(London), 21 June 1995. . Retrieved 16 August 2007.
The UK Press Association. "Love story which gripped the world" CNN.com. 10 February 2002. Retrieved 16 August 2007.
Authority control databases International
VIAF
Artists
RKD Artists
ULAN | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter Townsend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Townsend_(RAF_officer)"},{"link_name":"Princess Margaret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Margaret"}],"text":"Cecil Rosemary Pratt, Marchioness Camden (née Pawle; 9 May 1921 – 27 February 2004) was a British socialite and artist, best known as the first wife of Group Captain Peter Townsend, who later became romantically involved with Princess Margaret.","title":"Rosemary Pratt, Marchioness Camden"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brigadier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"CBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBE"},{"link_name":"DL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_Lieutenant"},{"link_name":"Deputy Lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_Lieutenant"},{"link_name":"Hertfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertfordshire"},{"link_name":"landed gentry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landed_gentry"},{"link_name":"Much Hadham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Much_Hadham"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"ace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace"},{"link_name":"Royal Household","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Household"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"King George VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_George_VI"},{"link_name":"godfather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godparent"},{"link_name":"Antoine, 13th Prince of Ligne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine,_13th_Prince_of_Ligne"}],"text":"She was the daughter of Brigadier Hanbury Pawle CBE DL (1886–1972), a Deputy Lieutenant for Hertfordshire, by his marriage to Mary Cecil Hughes-Hallett (d. 1971), both of whom were from families of the landed gentry.On 17 July 1941 at Much Hadham, Hertfordshire, she married Peter Townsend (1914–1995). Townsend was a decorated Royal Air Force pilot, who early in the Second World War had brought down the first German bomber to crash in England since 1918. In 1941, he was recovering from injuries incurred in a dogfight. The young Rosemary met the glamorous young ace, and married him after a whirlwind two-week courtship. Townsend later joined the Royal Household in 1944 under an \"equerries of honour scheme\".[1] With Townsend, she had two sons, Giles (1942–2015) and Hugo (born 1945). 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Truth. 21 December 1952. Retrieved 27 May 2023.\n\n^ See, notably, the Times obituary for Rosemary. \"Rosemary, Marchioness Camden\" The Times 6 March 2004. [1]. The obituary begins by saying \"On Townsend's own admission, shortly before his death in 1995, his wartime marriage to Rosemary Pawle, when he was a fighter pilot and war hero, had become a victim of the strains imposed by his becoming a courtier long before its eventual dissolution in the courts in 1952. But in the climate of blame which was integral to the divorce process in those days, he emerged as the innocent party and was granted custody of his children.\" It points out Townsend's long hours in Royal service, and his interest in moving to South Africa (not shared by his wife) after the 1947 Royal visit to South Africa. The obituary points out that \"By 1951 the attachment of Townsend and Princess Margaret was intensifying, and the process was to be accelerated by the premature death of her father King George VI in 1952, after which Townsend was appointed Equerry to the Queen. By that year, too, his marriage to Rosemary had finally ended in the divorce courts, the ground being her adultery with John de Laszlo, son of the society portrait painter Philip de Laszlo. John de Laszlo and Rosemary were married later that year.\" No date is put for the starting of the affair between John de Laszlo and Rosemary.\n\n^ \"Rosemary, Marchioness Camden\" The Times 6 March 2004. [2].\n\n^ worldroots.com Archived 10 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 16 August 2007\n\n^ Michael Rhodes. \"Tempest / Townsend engagement...\" reports the possible engagement of Giles's younger daughter to a Tempest of Broughton. Giles's children and Hugo's eldest child appear to be listed as well. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loginovo,_Sokolsky_District,_Vologda_Oblast | Loginovo, Sokolsky District, Vologda Oblast | ["1 Geography","2 References"] | Village in Vologda Oblast, RussiaLoginovo
ЛогиновоVillageLoginovoShow map of Vologda OblastLoginovoShow map of RussiaCoordinates: 59°34′N 41°31′E / 59.567°N 41.517°E / 59.567; 41.517CountryRussiaRegionVologda OblastDistrictSokolsky DistrictTime zoneUTC+3:00
Loginovo (Russian: Логиново) is a rural locality (a village) in Biryakovskoye Rural Settlement, Sokolsky District, Vologda Oblast, Russia. The population was 1 as of 2002.
Geography
Loginovo is located 105 km northeast of Sokol (the district's administrative centre) by road. Votchino is the nearest rural locality.
References
^ Деревня Логиново на карте
^ Данные переписи 2002 года: таблица 2С. М.: Федеральная служба государственной статистики, 2004.
^ Расстояние от Сокола до Логинова
vteRural localities in Sokolsky District
Agafonovo
Alekino
Aleksino
Alexeyevo
Alferovskoye
Andreyevskoye
Andronovo
Antufyevo
Arkhangelskoye
Bakulino
Barskoye
Beketovo
Bekrenevo
Berezino
Berezov Pochinok
Berkovo
Bessolovo
Bilnovo
Biryakovo
Bolshiye Ivanovskiye
Bolshiye Ozerki
Bolshoy Krivets
Bolshoye Petrakovo
Bolshoye Yakovkovo
Boriskovo
Borisovo
Borshchevo
Borshchovka
Boyarskoye
Bratskoye
Bryukhovo
Burtsevo
Chekshino
Chepurovo
Chuchkovo
Derevenka
Dmitrikovo
Dyakovo
Dyurbenikha
Fedyayevo
Fefilovo
Filyayevo
Frolovo
Georgiyevskoye
Gerasimovo
Gladkino
Glebovo
Golodeyevo
Gololitsyno
Gorbovo
Gribanovo
Gribtsovo
Guriyevo
Istominskoye
Ivanikha
Ivankovo
Ivanovo
Ivkovo
Kachalka
Kalinovo
Kalitino
Kamskoye
Kapustino
Karpovskoye
Kazarinovo
Kazarnoye
Kaznakuryevo
Khaminovo
Kharlushino
Klokovo
Knyazhevo
Kolotovye
Komarovo
Konanikha
Konanovo
Koposikha
Kopylovo
Korino
Korzha
Kotlaksa
Kozhukovo
Kozlovo
Krinkino
Kromovesovo
Kulseyevo
Kurya
Kuvayevo
Kuvshinovo
Kuzminskoye
Lebechikha
Lendobovo
Levkovo
Lipovitsa
Litega
Lodeyshchik
Loginovo
Lubodino
Malakhovo
Malaya Murga
Maloye Petrakovo
Maloye Zalesye
Maly Krivets
Malye Goritsy
Malye Ivanovskiye
Malye Ozerki
Mamonkino
Marfinskoye
Markovskoye
Medvedkovo
Melenka
Melino
Mikheyevo
Mishutkino
Mortkino
Morzhenga
Myalitsyno
Nadeyevo
Naliskoye
Naumovskoye
Navalkino
Nekrasovo
Nelidovo
Nesterovo
Nikolskaya
Nikolskoye
Nikulinskoye
Novy
Obrosovo
Ogarovo
Okulikha
Okulovskoye
Olarevo
Opalevo
Osanovo
Osipikha
Osipovo
Ostrilovo
Ovsyannikovo
Ozerko
Pakhino
Pakhtalka
Panyutino
Pashenino
Pashikovo
Pepelnikovo
Perevoz
Perkhurovo
Petrovskoye
Petryayevo
Pirogovo
Plishkino
Podolnoye
Podyelnoye
Pogost Ilyinsky
Popovo
Preobrazhenskoye
Prisedkino
Prokopovo
Prokshino
Prudovka
Pustoshka
Pyatino
Pykhmarevo
Repnoye
Rodionovo
Rodyukino
Rogozkino
Rostovka
Ryazanka
Rykulya
Rylovo
Savkino
Selishche
Seltso
Semakino
Semenkovo
Semenovo
Senino
Shachino
Shadrino
Shastovo
Shastovo-Zabereznoye
Shchekotovo
Shchurikha
Shera
Shiblovka
Shipunovo
Shishkino
Shitrobovo
Shulepovo
Sidorkovo
Skomorokhovo
Sloboda
Slobodishchevo
Sonikha
Sosnovaya Roshcha
Sosnovets
Spitsyno
Staroye
Stepanovo
Sudoverf
Sverchkovo
Tataurov Pochinok
Telyachye
Tenkovo
Timoninskoye
Titovskoye
Tokhmarevo
Tolstoumovo
Treparevo
Trukhinka
Tupitsyno
Turbayevo
Tureyevo
Turovo
Tyrykovo
Ugol
Ugolskoye
Varushino
Vasilevo
Vasilyevskoye
Vaskovo
Vasyutino
Veretye
Verkhnyaya Storona
Vitoryevo
Vlasovo
Voksino
Vorobyovo
Vyazovoye
Vysokaya
Yadrovo
Yakovlevo
Yertebino
Yesipovo
Zabereznichye
Zabolotka
Zadneye
Zakharovo
Zakurskoye
Zaledeyevo
Zalesye
Zamoshye
Zavrazhye
Zhikharevo
Zhilino
Zuyevo
This Sokolsky District, Vologda Oblast location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"rural locality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_inhabited_localities_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village#Russia"},{"link_name":"Sokolsky District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokolsky_District,_Vologda_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Vologda Oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vologda_Oblast"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Loginovo (Russian: Логиново) is a rural locality (a village) in Biryakovskoye Rural Settlement, Sokolsky District, Vologda Oblast, Russia. The population was 1 as of 2002.[2]","title":"Loginovo, Sokolsky District, Vologda Oblast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sokol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol,_Vologda_Oblast"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Loginovo is located 105 km northeast of Sokol (the district's administrative centre) by road. Votchino is the nearest rural locality.[3]","title":"Geography"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Loginovo,_Sokolsky_District,_Vologda_Oblast¶ms=59_34_N_41_31_E_type:city_region:RU-VLG","external_links_name":"59°34′N 41°31′E / 59.567°N 41.517°E / 59.567; 41.517"},{"Link":"https://mapdata.ru/vologodskaya-oblast/sokolskiy-rayon/derevnya-loginovo/","external_links_name":"Деревня Логиново на карте"},{"Link":"http://allroutes.ru/rasstoyanie_sokol-35_loginovo-4-35","external_links_name":"Расстояние от Сокола до Логинова"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Loginovo,_Sokolsky_District,_Vologda_Oblast&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Marion_County,_Georgia | National Register of Historic Places listings in Marion County, Georgia | ["1 Current listings","2 References"] | This is a list of properties and districts in Marion County, Georgia that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP).
Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap
Download coordinates as:
KML
GPX (all coordinates)
GPX (primary coordinates)
GPX (secondary coordinates)
This National Park Service list is complete through NPS recent listings posted February 16, 2024.
vteProperties on the National Register of Historic Places in Georgia by county
Appling
Atkinson
Bacon
Baker
Baldwin
Banks
Barrow
Bartow
Ben Hill
Berrien
Bibb
Bleckley
Brantley
Brooks
Bryan
Bulloch
Burke
Butts
Calhoun
Camden
Candler
Carroll
Catoosa
Charlton
Chatham
Chattahoochee
Chattooga
Cherokee
Clarke
Clay
Clayton
Clinch
Cobb
Coffee
Colquitt
Columbia
Cook
Coweta
Crawford
Crisp
Dade
Dawson
Decatur
DeKalb
Dodge
Dooly
Dougherty
Douglas
Early
Echols
Effingham
Elbert
Emanuel
Evans
Fannin
Fayette
Floyd
Forsyth
Franklin
Fulton
Gilmer
Glascock
Glynn
Gordon
Grady
Greene
Gwinnett
Habersham
Hall
Hancock
Haralson
Harris
Hart
Heard
Henry
Houston
Irwin
Jackson
Jasper
Jeff Davis
Jefferson
Jenkins
Johnson
Jones
Lamar
Lanier
Laurens
Lee
Liberty
Lincoln
Long
Lowndes
Lumpkin
Macon
Madison
Marion
McDuffie
McIntosh
Meriwether
Miller
Mitchell
Monroe
Montgomery
Morgan
Murray
Muscogee
Newton
Oconee
Oglethorpe
Paulding
Peach
Pickens
Pierce
Pike
Polk
Pulaski
Putnam
Quitman
Rabun
Randolph
Richmond
Rockdale
Schley
Screven
Seminole
Spalding
Stephens
Stewart
Sumter
Talbot
Taliaferro
Tattnall
Taylor
Telfair
Terrell
Thomas
Tift
Toombs
Towns
Treutlen
Troup
Turner
Twiggs
Union
Upson
Walker
Walton
Ware
Warren
Washington
Wayne
Webster
Wheeler
White
Whitfield
Wilcox
Wilkes
Wilkinson
Worth
Current listings
Name on the Register
Image
Date listed
Location
City or town
Description
1
Alfred and Jane Ables House
Alfred and Jane Ables House
August 9, 2002(#02000841)
230 E. Fifth Ave. 32°19′06″N 84°30′41″W / 32.318333°N 84.511389°W / 32.318333; -84.511389 (Alfred and Jane Ables House)
Buena Vista
2
Champion-McGarrah Plantation
Champion-McGarrah Plantation
June 28, 1984(#84001156)
Off GA 30 32°09′45″N 84°27′12″W / 32.1625°N 84.453333°W / 32.1625; -84.453333 (Champion-McGarrah Plantation)
Friendship
3
Drane-Stevens House
Drane-Stevens House
July 28, 1999(#99000899)
108 Church St. (between Fourth and Fifth Ave.) 32°19′07″N 84°30′54″W / 32.318611°N 84.515°W / 32.318611; -84.515 (Drane-Stevens House)
Buena Vista
4
Fort Perry
Fort Perry
July 30, 1975(#75000601)
Fort Perry Road 32°28′41″N 84°32′39″W / 32.47818106°N 84.54411709°W / 32.47818106; -84.54411709 (Fort Perry)
Box Springs
5
Marion County Courthouse
Marion County Courthouse
September 18, 1980(#80001115)
Courthouse Sq. 32°19′06″N 84°31′03″W / 32.318333°N 84.5175°W / 32.318333; -84.5175 (Marion County Courthouse)
Buena Vista
6
Old Marion County Courthouse
Old Marion County Courthouse
September 18, 1980(#80001116)
GA 137 32°22′50″N 84°26′27″W / 32.380556°N 84.440833°W / 32.380556; -84.440833 (Old Marion County Courthouse)
Tazewell
One of three antebellum courthouses still existing in Georgia.
7
Pasaquan
Pasaquan More images
August 27, 2008(#08000833)
Eddie Martin Rd. 32°20′46″N 84°34′53″W / 32.346213°N 84.581478°W / 32.346213; -84.581478 (Pasaquan)
Buena Vista
8
Shiloh-Marion Baptist Church and Cemetery
Shiloh-Marion Baptist Church and Cemetery
May 17, 1984(#84001159)
6697 GA 41 32°09′36″N 84°32′36″W / 32.16°N 84.543333°W / 32.16; -84.543333 (Shiloh-Marion Baptist Church and Cemetery)
Buena Vista
References
^ National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, "National Register of Historic Places: Weekly List Actions", retrieved February 16, 2024.
^ Numbers represent an alphabetical ordering by significant words. Various colorings, defined here, differentiate National Historic Landmarks and historic districts from other NRHP buildings, structures, sites or objects.
^ The eight-digit number below each date is the number assigned to each location in the National Register Information System database, which can be viewed by clicking the number.
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Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Jeff_Davis_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Jefferson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Jefferson_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Jenkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Jenkins_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Johnson_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Jones_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Lamar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Lamar_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Lanier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Lanier_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Laurens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Laurens_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Lee_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Liberty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Liberty_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Lincoln_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Long_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Lowndes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Lowndes_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Lumpkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Lumpkin_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Macon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Macon_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Madison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Madison_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Marion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"McDuffie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_McDuffie_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"McIntosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_McIntosh_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Meriwether","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Meriwether_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Miller_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Mitchell_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Monroe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Monroe_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Montgomery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Montgomery_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Morgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Morgan_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Murray_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Muscogee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Muscogee_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Newton_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Oconee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Oconee_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Oglethorpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Oglethorpe_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Paulding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Paulding_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Peach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Peach_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Pickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Pickens_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Pierce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Pierce_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Pike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Pike_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Polk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Polk_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Pulaski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Pulaski_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Putnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Putnam_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Quitman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Quitman_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Rabun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Rabun_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Randolph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Randolph_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Richmond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Richmond_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Rockdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Rockdale_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Schley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Schley_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Screven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Screven_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Seminole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Seminole_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Spalding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Spalding_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Stephens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Stephens_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Stewart_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Sumter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Sumter_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Talbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Talbot_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Taliaferro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Taliaferro_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Tattnall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Tattnall_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Taylor_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Telfair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Telfair_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Terrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Terrell_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Thomas_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Tift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Tift_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Toombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Toombs_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Towns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Towns_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Treutlen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Treutlen_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Troup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Troup_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Turner_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Twiggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Twiggs_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Union_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Upson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Upson_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Walker_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Walton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Walton_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Ware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Ware_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Warren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Warren_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Washington_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Wayne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Wayne_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Webster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Webster_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Wheeler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Wheeler_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_White_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Whitfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Whitfield_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Wilcox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Wilcox_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Wilkes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Wilkes_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Wilkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Wilkinson_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Worth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Worth_County,_Georgia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_USA_GA.svg"}],"text":"This is a list of properties and districts in Marion County, Georgia that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP).This National Park Service list is complete through NPS recent listings posted February 16, 2024.[1]vteProperties on the National Register of Historic Places in Georgia by county\nAppling\nAtkinson\nBacon\nBaker\nBaldwin\nBanks\nBarrow\nBartow\nBen Hill\nBerrien\nBibb\nBleckley\nBrantley\nBrooks\nBryan\nBulloch\nBurke\nButts\nCalhoun\nCamden\nCandler\nCarroll\nCatoosa\nCharlton\nChatham\nChattahoochee\nChattooga\nCherokee\nClarke\nClay\nClayton\nClinch\nCobb\nCoffee\nColquitt\nColumbia\nCook\nCoweta\nCrawford\nCrisp\nDade\nDawson\nDecatur\nDeKalb\nDodge\nDooly\nDougherty\nDouglas\nEarly\nEchols\nEffingham\nElbert\nEmanuel\nEvans\nFannin\nFayette\nFloyd\nForsyth\nFranklin\nFulton\nGilmer\nGlascock\nGlynn\nGordon\nGrady\nGreene\nGwinnett\nHabersham\nHall\nHancock\nHaralson\nHarris\nHart\nHeard\nHenry\nHouston\nIrwin\nJackson\nJasper\nJeff Davis\nJefferson\nJenkins\nJohnson\nJones\nLamar\nLanier\nLaurens\nLee\nLiberty\nLincoln\nLong\nLowndes\nLumpkin\nMacon\nMadison\nMarion\nMcDuffie\nMcIntosh\nMeriwether\nMiller\nMitchell\nMonroe\nMontgomery\nMorgan\nMurray\nMuscogee\nNewton\nOconee\nOglethorpe\nPaulding\nPeach\nPickens\nPierce\nPike\nPolk\nPulaski\nPutnam\nQuitman\nRabun\nRandolph\nRichmond\nRockdale\nSchley\nScreven\nSeminole\nSpalding\nStephens\nStewart\nSumter\nTalbot\nTaliaferro\nTattnall\nTaylor\nTelfair\nTerrell\nThomas\nTift\nToombs\nTowns\nTreutlen\nTroup\nTurner\nTwiggs\nUnion\nUpson\nWalker\nWalton\nWare\nWarren\nWashington\nWayne\nWebster\nWheeler\nWhite\nWhitfield\nWilcox\nWilkes\nWilkinson\nWorth","title":"National Register of Historic Places listings in Marion County, Georgia"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Current listings"}] | [{"image_text":"Alfred and Jane Ables House","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Alfred_and_Jane_Ables_House_%28NRHP%29_Buena_Vista%2C_GA.JPG/100px-Alfred_and_Jane_Ables_House_%28NRHP%29_Buena_Vista%2C_GA.JPG"},{"image_text":"Champion-McGarrah Plantation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Champion-McGarrah_Plantation_%28NRHP%29_Friendship%2C_GA.JPG/100px-Champion-McGarrah_Plantation_%28NRHP%29_Friendship%2C_GA.JPG"},{"image_text":"Drane-Stevens House","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Drane-Stevens_House_%28NRHP%29_Buena_Vista%2C_GA.JPG/100px-Drane-Stevens_House_%28NRHP%29_Buena_Vista%2C_GA.JPG"},{"image_text":"Fort Perry","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Fort_Perry_%28NRHP%29_Box_Springs%2C_GA.JPG/100px-Fort_Perry_%28NRHP%29_Box_Springs%2C_GA.JPG"},{"image_text":"Marion County 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_Workers_of_Venezuela | Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela | ["1 History","2 See also","3 External links"] | Venezuelan federation of labour unions
This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
CTVVenezuelan Confederation of WorkersConfederación de Trabajadores de VenezuelaFounded1936HeadquartersCaracas, VenezuelaLocationVenezuelaAffiliationsITUCWebsitewww.ctv.org.ve
The Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela (CTV, English: Confederation of Workers of Venezuela) is a federation of labor unions in Venezuela.
History
The union federation has been a consistent and key opponent of Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez. In the year 2001, two years after his first election to President, Chávez's government ordered the union federation to undertake its first-ever direct leadership elections. Although the Supreme Court refused to certify the results, the winner Carlos Ortega assumed the presidency. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) condemned Chávez's interference in the affairs of free trade unions.
In 2002 and 2003, the CTV received funding from the United States' National Endowment for Democracy via the American Center for International Labor Solidarity.
In 2003, a new union federation, the Unión Nacional de Trabajadores de Venezuela (UNT, National Union of Workers) was started by people in the labor movement who supported Chávez. Some unions disaffiliated with the CTV and affiliated with the UNT.
See also
Organized labour portal
Central Socialista de Trabajadores
Unión Nacional de Trabajadores de Venezuela
List of trade unions
External links
CTV official site.
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
United States
Other
IdRef
This Venezuela-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation"},{"link_name":"labor unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"}],"text":"The Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela (CTV, English: Confederation of Workers of Venezuela) is a federation of labor unions in Venezuela.","title":"Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hugo Chávez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez"},{"link_name":"Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Tribunal_of_Justice_(Venezuela)"},{"link_name":"Carlos Ortega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Ortega_(unionist)"},{"link_name":"International Labour Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Labour_Organization"},{"link_name":"International Confederation of Free Trade Unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Confederation_of_Free_Trade_Unions"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"National Endowment for Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_Democracy"},{"link_name":"American Center for International Labor Solidarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Center_for_International_Labor_Solidarity"},{"link_name":"Unión Nacional de Trabajadores de Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Nacional_de_Trabajadores_de_Venezuela"}],"text":"The union federation has been a consistent and key opponent of Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez. In the year 2001, two years after his first election to President, Chávez's government ordered the union federation to undertake its first-ever direct leadership elections. Although the Supreme Court refused to certify the results, the winner Carlos Ortega assumed the presidency. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) condemned Chávez's interference in the affairs of free trade unions.In 2002 and 2003, the CTV received funding from the United States' National Endowment for Democracy via the American Center for International Labor Solidarity.In 2003, a new union federation, the Unión Nacional de Trabajadores de Venezuela (UNT, National Union of Workers) was started by people in the labor movement who supported Chávez. Some unions disaffiliated with the CTV and affiliated with the UNT.","title":"History"}] | [] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syndicalism.svg"},{"title":"Organized labour portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Organized_labour"},{"title":"Central Socialista de Trabajadores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Socialista_de_Trabajadores"},{"title":"Unión Nacional de Trabajadores de Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Nacional_de_Trabajadores_de_Venezuela"},{"title":"List of trade unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_trade_unions"}] | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Confederaci%C3%B3n+de+Trabajadores+de+Venezuela%22","external_links_name":"\"Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Confederaci%C3%B3n+de+Trabajadores+de+Venezuela%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Confederaci%C3%B3n+de+Trabajadores+de+Venezuela%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Confederaci%C3%B3n+de+Trabajadores+de+Venezuela%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Confederaci%C3%B3n+de+Trabajadores+de+Venezuela%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Confederaci%C3%B3n+de+Trabajadores+de+Venezuela%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.ctv.org.ve/","external_links_name":"www.ctv.org.ve"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060710211011/http://www.ctv.org.ve/","external_links_name":"CTV"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000099942495","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/148463165","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82031667","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/117307971","external_links_name":"IdRef"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Confederaci%C3%B3n_de_Trabajadores_de_Venezuela&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miho_Yamada_(gymnast) | Miho Yamada (gymnast) | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Japanese rhythmic gymnast
Miho YamadaCountry represented JapanBorn (1973-06-21) June 21, 1973 (age 50)Chofu, Tokyo, JapanHeight164 cm (5 ft 5 in)Weight46 kg (101 lb)DisciplineRhythmic gymnasticsLevelSenior internationalClubJusco Co. Ltd.
Medal record
Rhythmic gymnastics
Representing Japan
Four Continents Championships
1994 Seoul
All-around
Asian Games
1994 Hiroshima
All-Around
Asian Championships
1996 Changsha
Team
1996 Changsha
All-around
1996 Changsha
Rope
Miho Yamada (Japanese: 山田 海蜂, born June 21, 1973, Chofu, Tokyo) is a retired Japanese rhythmic gymnast.
She competed for Japan in the individual rhythmic gymnastics all-around competition at two Olympic Games: in 1992 in Barcelona and in 1996 in Atlanta. In 1992 was 18th in the qualification round and didn't advance to the final. In 1996 she again was 18th in the qualification round and advanced to the semifinal. In the semifinal she placed 20th of 20, not advancing to the final.
References
^ Evans, Hilary; Gjerde, Arild; Heijmans, Jeroen; Mallon, Bill; et al. "Miho Yamada". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on 2020-04-17.
External links
Miho Yamada at Olympics.com
This biographical article related to Japanese rhythmic gymnastics is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Chofu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chofu"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"rhythmic gymnast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmic_gymnast"},{"link_name":"was 18th in the qualification round and didn't advance to the final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnastics_at_the_1992_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_rhythmic_individual_all-around"},{"link_name":"she again was 18th in the qualification round and advanced to the semifinal. In the semifinal she placed 20th of 20, not advancing to the final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnastics_at_the_1996_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_rhythmic_qualification"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Miho Yamada (Japanese: 山田 海蜂, born June 21, 1973, Chofu, Tokyo) is a retired Japanese rhythmic gymnast.She competed for Japan in the individual rhythmic gymnastics all-around competition at two Olympic Games: in 1992 in Barcelona and in 1996 in Atlanta. In 1992 was 18th in the qualification round and didn't advance to the final. In 1996 she again was 18th in the qualification round and advanced to the semifinal. In the semifinal she placed 20th of 20, not advancing to the final.[1]","title":"Miho Yamada (gymnast)"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Evans, Hilary; Gjerde, Arild; Heijmans, Jeroen; Mallon, Bill; et al. \"Miho Yamada\". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on 2020-04-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Mallon","url_text":"Mallon, Bill"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200417210757/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ya/miho-yamada-1.html","url_text":"\"Miho Yamada\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_Reference","url_text":"Sports Reference LLC"},{"url":"https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ya/miho-yamada-1.html","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200417210757/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ya/miho-yamada-1.html","external_links_name":"\"Miho Yamada\""},{"Link":"https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ya/miho-yamada-1.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://olympics.com/en/athletes/miho-yamada","external_links_name":"Miho Yamada"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miho_Yamada_(gymnast)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
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