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why does increased air flow extinguish flames? wouldn't you be adding the necessary ingredients? | Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:
1. [ELI5: Why can air both extinguish and stoke up a fire? ](_URL_2_)
1. [ELI5: Why does blowing air on a small flame put it out, but doing the same on a big fire only fuels it? ](_URL_1_)
1. [ELI5: Why does blowing on a flame put it out, but glowing on coals makes them brighter? ](_URL_4_)
1. [ELI5: If fire thrives on oxygen, then why does wind blow a fire out? ](_URL_5_)
1. [ELI5 Why does a flame (like on a match, lighter, etc.) go out when you blow on it but when I blow on an ember it intensifies? ](_URL_3_)
1. [ELI5: How does wind blow out fire, like on a match? ](_URL_0_)
| [
"Oxygen is not flammable, but when it is present in increased concentrations it will enable fires to start much more easily. Once a fire has started, if supplemental oxygen is present it will burn more fiercely, based on the principle of the fire triangle. Materials that do not burn in ambient air may burn when there is a greater concentration of oxygen present than there is in air.\n",
"The extinguishing performance of condensed aerosol fire suppressants is dependent on the density of aerosol particulates in the immediate vicinity of the flame. As with gaseous fire suppression systems, the faster the agent can build around the flame, the more efficient the extinguishing agent will be in terminating the flame’s combustion process. The extinguishing and design densities of aerosol fire suppression agents are generally expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m^3). Thus, the efficiency of aerosol extinguishing agents varies depending on a number of factors, such as the location of the aerosol relative to the flame, the proximity of other combustible flammable materials, the type of fuel involved, etc. \n",
"Reduction firing is when the kiln atmosphere, which is full of combustible material, is heated up. \"Reduction is incomplete combustion of fuel, caused by a shortage of oxygen, which produces carbon monoxide\" (Arbuckle, 4) Eventually, all of the available oxygen is used. This then draws oxygen from the glaze and the clay to allow the reaction to continue. Oxygen serves as the limiting reactant in this scenario because the reaction that creates fire needs a constant supply of it to continue; when the glaze and the clay come out hardened, this means that the oxygen was subtracted from the glaze and the clay to accommodate the lack of oxygen in the atmosphere. Consequently, the Raku piece appears black or white, which depends upon the amount of oxygen that was lost from each area of the piece. The empty spaces that occur from the reduction of oxygen are filled in by carbon molecules in the atmosphere of the container, which makes the piece blacker in spots where more oxygen was retracted.\n",
"Using water is one common method to extinguish a fire. Water extinguishes a fire by cooling, which removes heat because of water’s ability to absorb massive amounts of heat as it converts to water vapor. Without heat, the fuel cannot keep the oxidizer from reducing the fuel in order to sustain the fire. Water also extinguishes a fire by smothering it. When water is heated to its boiling point, it converts to water vapor. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air above the fire, thus removing one of the elements that the fire requires to burn. This can also be done with foam.\n",
"Attempts to reduce this problem include preventative and curative ones. Firestain can be largely prevented by heating the object in an atmosphere in which the oxygen has been replaced with another combustive gas such as hydrogen or ammonia. \n",
"Condensed aerosols’ primary extinguishing mechanism involves the fourth element of the fire tetrahedron by means of chemical reactions with the free radicals of the flame, therefore interfering with the combustion process of the fire. Typically, condensed aerosol particulates consist of potassium carbonate (K2CO3)) that are produced from the thermal decomposition of a solid aerosol-forming compound that includes potassium nitrate as an oxidizer. As the aerosol particles surround and come into contact with the flame, the particulates absorb the flame heat energy, breaking down and releasing large concentrations of potassium radicals (K+) (ions with an unpaired electron). The potassium radicals bond with the hydroxide (OH+), hydrogen (H+) and oxygen (O+) free radicals which sustain flame's combustion process, producing harmless by-product molecules such as potassium hydroxide (KOH) and water (H2O).\n",
"Modern methods for extinguishing an urban fire dictate the use of a massive initial water flow, e.g. 500 L/min for each fire hose. The aim is to absorb as much heat as possible at the beginning to stop the expansion of the fire and to reduce the smoke. If the flow is too low, the cooling is insufficient, and the steam that is produced can burn firefighters (the drop of pressure is too small and the vapor is pushed back in their direction).\n"
] |
why do people feel comfortable with themselves in the mirror, but hate themselves in flipped pictures? | Short answer: Because mirrors show a mirrored version of your face that you are used to/comfortable seeing. Photographs show a "correct" version of your face where it is not mirrored and it looks off to the person who perceives sees their face in a mirror on a regular basis
_URL_0_ | [
"This psychological effect is often used in the cinema, where an actor will be shown apparently looking at himself or herself in the mirror. What viewers see is different from what the actor sees, because the camera is not right behind the actor, but the position of the actor is often chosen so that his or her image is nicely framed in the mirror for the camera.\n",
"The reflection in the mirror is distorted and discolored, possibly representing the woman's dislike for herself. The colors used here are dark and make her look very old. Instead of the happiness reflected in the real girl, the reflected girl seems distraught. \n",
"The inability to properly mirror other individuals may strain the child's social relationships later in life. This strain may exist because others may feel more distant from the child due to a lack of rapport, or because the child may have a difficult time feeling empathy for others without mirroring. Mirroring helps to facilitate empathy, as individuals more readily experience other people's emotions through mimicking posture and gestures. This empathy may help individuals create lasting relationships and thus excel in social situations. The action of mirroring allows individuals to believe they are more similar to another person, and perceived similarity can be the basis for creating a relationship. As such, mirroring values is also important.\n",
"BULLET::::- Eyes up - Different people look up for different reasons. Some look up when they are thinking. Others perform that action in an effort to recall something from their memory. It may also be a way for people to subconsciously display boredom. The head position can also come into play, however, as an upwards look with a lowered head can be a coy, suggestive action.\n",
"Mirroring can establish rapport with the individual who is being mirrored, as the similarities in nonverbal gestures allow the individual to feel more connected with the person exhibiting the mirrored behavior. As the two individuals in the situation display similar nonverbal gestures, they may believe that they share similar attitudes and ideas as well. Mirror neurons react to and cause these movements, allowing the individuals to feel a greater sense of engagement and belonging within the situation.\n",
"Painters depicting someone gazing into a mirror often also show the person's reflection. This is a kind of abstraction—in most cases the angle of view is such that the person's reflection should not be visible. Similarly, in movies and still photography an actor or actress is often shown ostensibly looking at him- or herself in the mirror, and yet the reflection faces the camera. In reality, the actor or actress sees only the camera and its operator in this case, not their own reflection.\n",
"BULLET::::- We feel more comfortable and secure when we believe that others see us in the same way that we see ourselves. Actively seeking self-verifying feedback helps people avoid finding out that they are wrong about their self-views.\n"
] |
If I could fly and I flew upwards really slowly, could I escape the earths atmosphere? | The term escape velocity refers to the speed you need to never fall back down to the Earth, assuming you stop pushing on your craft. If you can somehow continue to travel with a constant force away from the Earth, there is nothing stopping you from coming back down. Real craft will eventually run out of fuel, and thus must reach escape velocity before that happens, otherwise they will either orbit or fall back down to Earth. | [
"As a tool for learning to control the body flight, there is a vertical wind tunnel, which makes it possible to fly in the air, simulating free fall due to the created air flow (on average, about 190 km/h).\n",
"In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere, the hypersonic speeds involved (on Earth a speed of 11.2 km/s, or 40,320 km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag. For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface). In many cases, the spacecraft may be first placed in a parking orbit (e.g. a low Earth orbit at 160–2,000 km) and then accelerated to the escape velocity at that altitude, which will be slightly lower (about 11.0 km/s at a low Earth orbit of 200 km). The required additional change in speed, however, is far less because the spacecraft already has significant orbital velocity (in low Earth orbit speed is approximately 7.8 km/s, or 28,080 km/h).\n",
"Near the surface of the Earth, an object in free fall in a vacuum will accelerate at approximately 9.8 m/s, independent of its mass. With air resistance acting on an object that has been dropped, the object will eventually reach a terminal velocity, which is around 53 m/s (195 km/h or 122 mph) for a human skydiver. The terminal velocity depends on many factors including mass, drag coefficient, and relative surface area and will only be achieved if the fall is from sufficient altitude. A typical skydiver in a spread-eagle position will reach terminal velocity after about 12 seconds, during which time he will have fallen around 450 m (1,500 ft).\n",
"Some 30 to 100 planes had been considered to make the descent, each gliding downward over what was expected to be the course of a week to several months. If one of the planes survived to Earth, it would have made the longest flight ever by a paper plane, traversing the 250 mi./400 km. vertical descent. In a test in Japan in February 2008, a prototype about 2.8 inches long and 2 inches wide survived Mach 7 speeds and temperatures reported to be 200°C in a hypersonic wind tunnel for 10 seconds. Materials designed for use in conventional reentry vehicles, including ceramic composites, withstand temperatures on the order of 2200°C. The 30 cm planes were to have been made from heat-resistant paper treated with silicon.\n",
"Later in 1919, upon returning to the U.S., Read predicted: \"It soon will be possible to drive an airplane around the world at a height of 60,000 feet and 1,000 miles per hour.\" The next day, \"The New York Times\" ran an editorial in reaction, stating: \"It is one thing to be a qualified aviator, and quite another to be a qualified prophet. Nothing now known supports the Lieutenant Commander’s forecast. An airplane at the height of 60,000 feet would be whirling its propellers in a vacuum, and no aviator could live long in the freezing cold of interstellar space.\"\n",
"Traveling at approximately 6.9 kilometers/second and 125 kilometers above the surface, the spacecraft entered the atmosphere and was initially decelerated by using a 2.4 meter ablation heat shield, located on the bottom of the entry body, to aerobrake through 116 kilometers of the atmosphere. Three minutes after entry, the spacecraft had slowed to 496 meters per second signaling an 8.4-meter, polyester parachute to deploy from a mortar followed immediately by heat shield separation and MARDI powering on, while 8.8 kilometers above the surface. The parachute further slowed the speed of the spacecraft to 85 meters per second when the ground radar began tracking surface features to detect the best possible landing location.\n",
"Notes specify if test was or . For comparison, an object in free fall, without any air resistance, near the Earth's surface accelerates from 0–100 km/h in 2.83 seconds and from 0–60 mph in 2.73 seconds.\n"
] |
American WW1 vet grave markings. | That's his unit. Company A, 13th Machine Gun Battalion.
See page 76 of this PDF
_URL_0_ | [
"When their remains were recovered after the war, Farrow, Hallmark and Meder were buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. Spatz was buried with military honors at National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific.\n",
"The cemetery is an official Commonwealth War Grave Cemetery containing 48 memorials from World War I and 32 from World War II. The dead largely represent those dying of wounds following repatriation, linking to the nearby City Hospital. The Cross of Remembrance stands in the north-east section of the cemetery.\n",
"The cemetery is the burial site of two Medal of Honor recipients, Sergeant Willie Sandlin (World War I), United States Army, and Sergeant John C. Squires (World War II), United States Army. Also, United States Air Force Lieutenant General Roscoe Charles Wilson is buried there.\n",
"At the beginning of the war, the nearest U.S. Army mortuary affairs unit was the 108th Graves Registration Platoon in Yokohama, Japan, which was searching for the remains of missing World War II American airmen. The 108th was reconfigured as the 114th Graves Registration Company and deployed to establish temporary cemeteries at Hungnam, Pyongyang, and Suchon as the fighting continued. Supporting the 2nd Infantry Division was the Graves Registration Section of the 2nd Quartermaster Company, which collected the remains of Allied and American soldiers to be further processed by the 148th Graves Registration Company. When UN forces launched the Inchon Invasion in September 1950, a platoon from the 565th Graves Registration Company accompanied them. Other mortuary affairs units included the 293rd Graves Registration Company, activated in April 1951. It was difficult to recover remains and conduct burials in Korea, due to the rugged geography and harsh climate, and the threat of unexploded ordnance and booby-traps.\n",
"The cemetery also has a large number of war graves from both the First and Second World Wars, maintained and recorded by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC). This includes 498 graves of soldiers, who mostly died from their wounds at local hospitals during the First World War, and particularly those from when the University of Birmingham acted as the 1st Southern & General Military Hospital, most of whom are buried in the war graves plot in section B10, where a Screen Wall memorial running around three sides of the plot lists those buried in the plot and in graves elsewhere in the cemetery that could not be individually marked. The section is easily identifiable by the Cross of Sacrifice and stone plinth with the words \"Their name liveth for evermore\". Each panel on the screen wall is represented by a number stone plaque set into the grass in the middle of the plot.\n",
"Approximately 175 graves have been identified at the cemetery, of which 125 are in the western half, in an apparently random pattern. In contrast, the 50 graves to the east are primarily Civil War veterans, buried in two long rows with government-issued markers, the only aspect of the cemetery indicating any planning. Among the other graves, only 25 have markers identifying the deceased. Some are surrounded by iron fences or stone walls, while others are indicated by small cobblestone coping or are just depressions in the ground.\n",
"Notable burials in the cemetery include Louis Renninger who was awarded the Medal of Honor in the American Civil War. Renninger is one of one hundred forty-five Civil War veterans buried in the cemetery. There is also section for Spanish–American War veterans and there are many veterans from World War I and World War II.\n"
] |
-if lance armstrong and his generation were doped to the gills how is it that this generation of cyclists is breaking their records absent significant technology advances and without drugs. | what records are you referring to exactly? if we're talking about the time it takes to climb Ventoux or Alpe d'Huez, [those times have actually gotten markedly worse since the doping crackdown](_URL_2_). in both cases, the best certifiably clean result isn't in the top 10 times up those climbs. or the top 20 (i'm looking at Sanchez's 2011 and Froome's 2013 attempts, Sastre is still a bit questionable in my opinion). this doesn't seem surprising at all in context--not doping should cause the time it takes to ride these climbs to increase. they certainly aren't record breaking. i'm mentioning this because this is the only sort of record Armstrong would really have been able to take, as this was kind of his forte.
how about a one-day race then? paris-roubaix is (arguably) the most important of these. [the fastest average speed was set in 1964](_URL_3_). though i give credit to cancellara for an excellent ride in 2013, there are plenty of fast editions of this race that have been ridden over the years--they don't seem to be concentrated on a particular time period.
ok, so maybe you mean the [hour record](_URL_1_)? the hour record rules have been officially changed in the last year. several people have attempted or are planning on attempting to beat it. it's a brand new metric, and it isn't comparable to either of the old hour record definitions, which top level cyclists largely ignored.
records in track racing? sure. those get beaten at an incremental rate. but then again, doping doesn't really seem to have hit the track discipline quite as hard as it did with road, [as evidenced by the amount of doping cases in either](_URL_0_).
**tl;dr** this generation of cyclists really *aren't* beating records, at least not on the road. | [
"In 2009 director Alex Gibney set out to film \"The Road Back\", a documentary on cyclist Lance Armstrong's comeback year after a four-year retirement from the sport. Three years later, on October 2012, a doping investigation led to his lifetime ban from competition and the stripping of his seven Tour de France titles, and the documentary was shelved. On January 14, 2013, three hours after his appearance on \"Oprah\", Armstrong went back to Gibney to set the record straight about his career.\n",
"Armstrong's cycling comeback began in 1998 when he finished fourth in the Vuelta a España. In 1999 he won the Tour de France, including four stages. He beat the second place rider, Alex Zülle, by 7 minutes 37 seconds. However, the absence of Jan Ullrich (injury) and Marco Pantani (drug allegations) meant Armstrong had not yet proven himself against the biggest names in the sport. Stage wins included the prologue, stage eight, an individual time trial in Metz, an Alpine stage on stage nine, and the second individual time trial on stage 19.\n",
"Just as the team's competitive season was nearing its end, Lance Armstrong announced that he planned to return to competitive cycling in 2009 after a four-year absence. As Bruyneel was Armstrong's team manager for all seven of his Tour de France victories, there was much speculation immediately that Armstrong would sign with Astana in his comeback, which he eventually did.\n",
"In 2009 a number of prominent riders returned to professional cycling. Ivan Basso, Floyd Landis and Michele Scarponi had finished a suspension. Bjorn Leukemans was without a team for over a year due to doping-related allegations, which were proven to be ungrounded. Most notably, seven time Tour de France winner Lance Armstrong returned after a three-and-half year break, starting his season as a -rider in the Tour Down Under.\n",
"As the accounts of the now legendary story go, in 1998 a young Lance Armstrong, continuing to recover from testicular cancer remediation, had recently dropped out of the Paris–Nice cycling race. Armstrong's training coach, Chris Carmichael, invited the affable and entertaining Roll to journey to Boone, North Carolina, to talk with Lance and do training rides with the young Armstrong for several days. Armstrong was extremely discouraged by his recent European cycling results, and Carmichael believed Armstrong had lost his career focus and was on the verge of fully retiring from professional cycling. Almost out of desperation, Carmichael talked Armstrong into doing one last series of intensive training rides, with \"Bobke\" as his riding partner. Roll was up to the challenge. Armstrong was a promising future cycling talent and his cycling career was in jeopardy.\n",
"In 2012, Lance Armstrong was stripped of his seven Tour de France titles by UCI, following a report by the United States Anti-Doping Agency revealing that Armstrong had systematically used performance-enhancing drugs for much of his career, including all seven Tour victories.\n",
"Australian ABC radio reported on September 24, 2008, that Armstrong would compete in the UCI Tour Down Under through Adelaide and surrounding areas in January 2009. UCI rules say a cyclist has to be in an anti-doping program for six months before an event, but UCI allowed Armstrong to compete. He had to retire from the 2009 Vuelta a Castilla y León during the first stage after crashing in a rider pileup in Baltanás, Spain, and breaking his collarbone. Armstrong flew back to Austin, Texas, for corrective surgery, which was successful, and was back training on a bicycle within four days of his operation.\n"
] |
why do people think that jeffrey epstein’s death seems like a coincidence? | At this point he was ready to bring down the people around him with him. He was a liability for all of the guilty elites that took advantage of his services. He already almost died once due to a cop beating him senseless, so this isn’t that big of a surprise. | [
"Epstein died of an overdose of Carbitral, a form of barbiturate or sleeping pill, in his locked bedroom on 27 August 1967. He was discovered after his butler had knocked on the door and then, hearing no response, asked the housekeeper to call the police. Epstein was found on a single bed, dressed in pyjamas, with various correspondence spread over a second single bed. At the statutory inquest his death was officially ruled an accident, caused by a gradual buildup of Carbitral combined with alcohol in his system. It was revealed that he had taken six Carbitral pills in order to sleep, which was probably normal for him, but in combination with alcohol they reduced his tolerance.\n",
"Epstein died of an accidental drug overdose in August 1967, not long after negotiating a contract with the BBC for Black to appear in a television series of her own. Relations between Epstein and Black had somewhat soured during the year prior to his death, largely because he was not paying her career enough attention and the fact that her singles \"A Fool Am I\" (UK No. 13, 1966) and \"What Good Am I?\" (UK No. 24, 1967) were not big successes.\n",
"On February 23, 2003, Epstein died from complications related to drug use. MTV News reported that Epstein's death was caused by a heroin overdose. He was 47. Investigators were told Epstein had been using heroin. On the day of his death, Howie was driven to St. Vincent Hospital in Santa Fe, New Mexico by his girlfriend, who described him as \"under distress\". Epstein was taking antibiotics for an illness and had recently suffered from influenza, stomach problems, and an abscess on his leg, friends said. Additionally, it was reported that he had been extremely distraught over the death of his 16-year-old dog a few days earlier.\n",
"On September 1, 1982, he made his live debut at the Santa Cruz Civic Auditorium in Santa Cruz, California, on the tour to promote the album, \"Long After Dark\". Epstein was a member of the Heartbreakers until his departure due to his failing health caused by his heroin addiction. He made his final appearance with the band when they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in March 2002.\n",
"Epstein's death in essence marked the beginning of the Beatles' dissolution, as Lennon admitted later. Because he was not creatively involved with the band, Epstein was only infrequently called the \"fifth Beatle\", but over the years he and producer George Martin have been recognised as the two inner-circle members who most profoundly affected the band's career. In an interview in the 1990s describing Epstein's involvement in the band's rise to fame, Martin declared, \"He's the fifth Beatle, if there ever was one.\"\n",
"A debilitating case of the Epstein-Barr virus forced a two-year absence from the role between 2003 and 2005, although Windsor was able to make a two-episode guest appearance in 2004. She rejoined the cast full-time in the summer of 2005.\n",
"McCartney summarised the importance of Epstein when he was interviewed in 1997 for a BBC documentary about Epstein, saying, \"If anyone was the Fifth Beatle, it was Brian.\" In his 1970 \"Rolling Stone\" interview, Lennon commented that Epstein's death marked the beginning of the end for the group: \"I knew that we were in trouble then ... I thought, 'We've had it now.'\" In 2006 Cynthia Lennon said: \"I think Brian's one of the forgotten people. It's almost as if he's been written out of the [Beatles] story. I don't think they'd have got anywhere without Brian.\" The first contract between the Beatles and Epstein was auctioned in London in 2008, fetching £240,000.\n"
] |
why do bad smells seem to be so much more resilient than good ones? | I would assume that it is because bad smells are most often things that can negatively affect our health, like feces and rotting food and we should avoid as long as it is around.
The running shoes example doesn't exactly fit, although that may be due to cultural/evolutionary distance from apes in the same way that sweaty stinky men don't attract women like pheromones do in other animals.
On the other hand, good smells like flowers and fresh fruit are often not directed at humans specifically but other mammals and birds that the plants "want" their seeds/pollen spread by which likely have stronger senses of smell.
(I can expand on it more if it isn't ELI5 enough) | [
"Smell disorders can result in the inability to detect environmental dangers such as gas leaks, toxins, or smoke. In addition to safety, nutritional and eating habits can also be affected. There is a loss of appetite because of unpleasant flavor and fear of failing to recognize and consuming spoiled food. A decreased or distorted sense of smell therefore results in a decreased quality of life. Distortions are believed to have a greater negative impact on people than the complete loss of smell because they are constantly reminded of the disorder and the distortions have a greater effect on eating habits.\n",
"Good and evil are seen as inherent to human nature because they are both manifestations of our pursuit of perfection. \"Good\" things come from the use of intellect while \"bad\" things come from the prevalence of instinct.\n",
"Another cause includes being more sensitive than average to bitter tastes, which may be associated with a significant history of middle ear infection or an increased perception of bitter foods, known as a supertaster.\n",
"Frith gives three common qualities attributed to bad music: inauthentic, [in] bad taste (see also: kitsch), and stupid. He argues that \"The marking off of some tracks and genres and artists as 'bad' is a necessary part of popular music pleasure; it is a way we establish our place in various music worlds. And 'bad' is a key word here because it suggests that aesthetic and ethical judgements are tied together here: not to like a record is not just a matter of taste; it is also a matter of argument, and argument that matters\" (p. 28). Frith's analysis of popular music is based in sociology.\n",
"The idea that individuals vary in their responsivity to negative qualities of the environment is generally framed in diathesis-stress or dual-risk terms. That is, some individuals, due to their biological, temperamental and/or behavioral characteristics (i.e., \"diathesis\" or \"risk 1\"), are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of negative experiences (i.e., \"stress\" or \"risk 2\"), whereas others are relatively resilient with respect to them (see , an adaptation of Bakermans-Kranenburg and van IJzendoorn's (2007) Figure 1). A fundamentally different, even if not competing view, of the very same phenomenon is central to Belsky's \"differential susceptibility hypothesis\" and Boyce and Ellis' (2005) related notion of \"biological sensitivity to context\": Individuals do not simply vary in the degree to which they are vulnerable to the negative effects of adverse experience but, more generally, in their developmental plasticity.\n",
"Garcia's discovery, conditioned taste aversion, is considered a survival mechanism because it allows an organism to recognize foods that have previously been determined to be poisonous, hopefully allowing said organism to avoid sickness.\n",
"He later gives three common qualities attributed to bad music: inauthentic, [in] bad taste (see also: kitsch), and stupid. He argues that \"The marking off of some tracks and genres and artists as 'bad' is a necessary part of popular music pleasure; it is a way we establish our place in various music worlds. And 'bad' is a key word here because it suggests that aesthetic and ethical judgements are tied together here: not to like a record is not just a matter of taste; it is also a matter of argument, and argument that matters.\" (p. 28)\n"
] |
when i bend my little finger, why do my other fingers also move? | What happens between the pinky and ring finger is nerve signals sent to the pinky get picked up by the ring finger because your brain can't actually control the pinky very accurately so to do more it sends signals intended for the ring finger. All of your fingers do this to a degree. Try extending all your fingers, and then closing the last 3 while keeping the index finger pointed. You can't do it. It will try to close and after your fingers close then you will be able to straighten it back out.
Now with other fingers, like your index finger closing all the way forces the middle one to go down, involve tendon lengths and muscle connection.
Generally, if it's the top knuckle moving any restrictions are muscular but the second knuckle movement restrictions are nervous. | [
"Thumb twiddling is an activity that is done with the hands of an individual whereby the fingers are interlocked and the thumbs circle around a common focal point, usually in the middle of the distance between the two thumbs.\n",
"You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.\n",
"A Thumb Around is performed by pushing a pen using any finger (usually the middle finger if done in isolation) except the thumb to initiate the pen to spin around the thumb one time, then catching it between the thumb and a finger. Before the pen spinning community became significantly organized, the Thumb Around Normal was known by a multitude of names, including 360 Degree Normal, Forward, Normal, and Thumb Spin (now the name of a separate trick).\n",
"For right-handed coordinates the right thumb points along the Z axis in the positive direction and the curl of the fingers represents a motion from the first or X axis to the second or Y axis. When viewed from the top or Z axis the system is counter-clockwise.\n",
"Each finger may flex and extend, abduct and adduct, and so also circumduct. Flexion is by far the strongest movement. In humans, there are two large muscles that produce flexion of each finger, and additional muscles that augment the movement. Each finger may move independently of the others, though the muscle bulks that move each finger may be partly blended, and the tendons may be attached to each other by a net of fibrous tissue, preventing completely free movement.\n",
"The thumb sign (Steinberg's sign) is elicited by asking the person to flex the thumb as far as possible and then close the fingers over it. A positive thumb sign is where the entire distal phalanx is visible beyond the ulnar border of the hand, caused by a combination of hypermobility of the thumb as well as a thumb which is longer than usual.\n",
"Interval changes are accomplished by moving the inside and outside mallets independently of one another, as described in Stevens' book, \"Method of Movement for Marimba.\" As the interval widens, the inside mallet rolls between the thumb and index finger, such that the index finger moves from underneath to the side of the shaft, and the middle finger becomes the fulcrum of the cantilever. The outside mallet is moved principally with the little and ring fingers, although the first section of the middle finger follows along and remains in light contact. When properly used, this grip causes no tension on the hand muscles. This grip is primarily used with light mallets and movements that are close to the keyboard. When this grip is used with heavy mallets or with large movements, muscle strain and tendonitis can occur if small changes are not made to reduce stress in the hands.\n"
] |
If the gene that causes dwarfism is dominant why is it that the percentage of the general population that have this dominant gene is not higher? | Inheriting two copies of the gene usually leads to death in infancy [1], and a lot of achrondroplasic dwarfs have chronic pain, which would cause a general decrease in "fitness" (in the Darwinian sense). It seems fair to say it probably puts people at a pretty serious sexual disadvantage as well.
1. _URL_0_ | [
"As the genetic mutations that cause dwarfing occur in many species, dwarf animals can be the offspring of normal-appearing animals. Even in breeds which have not been selected for dwarfing, some genetic lines may show a tendency to produce dwarfs, which may be encouraged by deliberate breeding. This often takes the form of in-breeding to concentrate recessive genes, and can result in other genetic abnormalities being established in the population.\n",
"In animals, including humans, dwarfism has been described in several ways. Shortened stature can result from growth hormone deficiency, starvation, portal systemic shunts, renal disease, hypothyroidism diabetes mellitus and other conditions. Any of these conditions can be established in a population through genetic engineering, selective breeding, or insular dwarfism, or some combination of the above.\n",
"Many types of dwarfism are currently impossible to prevent because they are genetically caused. Genetic conditions that cause dwarfism may be identified with genetic testing, by screening for the specific variations that result in the condition. However, due to the number of causes of dwarfism, it may be impossible to determine definitively if a child will be born with dwarfism.\n",
"Dwarfism is known to be prevalent in Hereford cattle and has been determined to be caused by an autosomal recessive gene. Due to equal occurrence in heifers and bulls, dwarfism is not considered a sex-linked characteristic.\n",
"Serious chronic illnesses may produce dwarfism as a side effect. Harsh environmental conditions, such as malnutrition, may also produce dwarfism. These types of dwarfism are indirect consequences of the generally unhealthy or malnourished condition of the individual, and not of any specific disease. The dwarfism often takes the form of simple short stature, without any deformities, thus leading to proportionate dwarfism. In societies where poor nutrition is widespread, the average height of the population may be reduced below its genetic potential by the lack of proper nutrition. Sometimes there is no definitive cause of short stature.\n",
"Dwarfism may also be caused by malnutrition or other hormonal deficiencies, such as insufficient growth hormone secretion, hypopituitarism, decreased secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone, deficient growth hormone receptor activity and downstream causes, such as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) deficiency.\n",
"In men and women, the sole requirement for being considered a dwarf is having an adult height under and it is almost always classified with respect to the underlying condition that is the cause of the short stature. Dwarfism is usually caused by a genetic variant; achondroplasia is caused by a mutation on chromosome 4. If dwarfism is caused by a medical disorder, the person is referred to by the underlying diagnosed disorder. Disorders causing dwarfism are often classified by proportionality. Disproportionate dwarfism describes disorders that cause unusual proportions of the body parts, while proportionate dwarfism results in a generally uniform stunting of the body.\n"
] |
Can a strong enough electric field penetrate Faraday cage? | A Faraday cage works because the electrons in the cage respond to an external electric field and re-arrange themselves naturally to create an equal and opposite field.
Hypothetically, if you had a large enough externally applied field that all the free electrons moving from one side to the other does not produce a large enough counter-field then your Faraday cage would fail to block it. However, my feeling is such a strength of field would be very unrealistic. | [
"Faraday cages cannot block stable or slowly varying magnetic fields, such as the Earth's magnetic field (a compass will still work inside). To a large degree, though, they shield the interior from external electromagnetic radiation if the conductor is thick enough and any holes are significantly smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. For example, certain computer forensic test procedures of electronic systems that require an environment free of electromagnetic interference can be carried out within a screened room. These rooms are spaces that are completely enclosed by one or more layers of a fine metal mesh or perforated sheet metal. The metal layers are grounded to dissipate any electric currents generated from external or internal electromagnetic fields, and thus they block a large amount of the electromagnetic interference. See also electromagnetic shielding. They provide less attenuation of outgoing transmissions than incoming: they can block EMP waves from natural phenomena very effectively, but a tracking device, especially in upper frequencies, may be able to penetrate from within the cage (e.g., some cell phones operate at various radio frequencies so while one cell phone may not work, another one will).\n",
"A Faraday cage operates because an external electrical field causes the electric charges within the cage's conducting material to be distributed so that they cancel the field's effect in the cage's interior. This phenomenon is used to protect sensitive electronic equipment (for example RF receivers) from external radio frequency interference (RFI) often during testing or alignment of the device. Faraday cages are also used to enclose devices that produce RFI, such as radio transmitters, to prevent their radio waves from interfering with nearby sensitive equipment. They are also used to protect people and equipment against actual electric currents such as lightning strikes and electrostatic discharges, since the enclosing cage conducts current around the outside of the enclosed space and none passes through the interior.\n",
"A common misconception is that a Faraday cage provides full blockage or attenuation; this is not true. The reception or transmission of radio waves, a form of electromagnetic radiation, to or from an antenna within a Faraday cage is heavily attenuated or blocked by the cage; however, a Faraday cage has varied attenuation depending on wave form, frequency or distance from receiver/transmitter, and receiver/transmitter power. Near-field high-powered frequency transmissions like HF RFID are more likely to penetrate. Solid cages generally attenuate fields over a broader range of frequencies than mesh cages.\n",
"Faraday cages are Faraday shields which have holes in them and are therefore more complex to analyze. Whereas continuous shields essentially attenuate all wavelengths shorter than the skin depth, the holes in a cage may permit shorter wavelengths to pass through or set up \"evanescent fields\" (oscillating fields that do not propagate as EM waves) just beneath the surface. The shorter the wavelength, the better it passes through a mesh of given size. Thus to work well at short wavelengths (i.e., high frequencies), the holes in the cage must be smaller than the wavelength of the incident wave. Faraday cages may therefore be thought of as high pass filters.\n",
"A Faraday cage is composed of a conductor that completely surrounds an area on all sides, top, and bottom. Electromagnetic radiation is blocked where the wavelength is longer than any gaps. For example, mobile telephone signals are blocked in windowless metal enclosures that approximate a Faraday cage, such as elevator cabins, and parts of trains, cars, and ships. The same problem can affect signals in buildings with extensive steel reinforcement.\n",
"Field measurements preclude the use of a Faraday cage and the energising supply can also be a compromise from the ideal. Field measurements are therefore prone to noise and may be consequently less sensitive.\n",
"BULLET::::1. Faraday cage – A Faraday cage enclosing a circuit can be used to isolate the circuit from external noise sources. A faraday cage cannot address noise sources that originate in the circuit itself or those carried in on its inputs, including the power supply.\n"
] |
Why is steel stronger than pure iron? | It all comes down to grain structure. Neither steel nor iron is a completely homogenous solid. A single crystal of metal can deform easily along the crystal axes; but if your metal is made up of a large number of small crystalline regions that are oriented randomly, they can't all deform in the same way and the bulk material is stronger.
Adding or removing various impurities (like carbon) changes the crystal grain structure because it changes how the metal freezes from the melt. As the molten metal cools, it separates into multiple distinct phases (like if you freeze salt water, it'll separate into pure-ish ice and brine, and if you get it cold enough it'll end up as chunks of ice separated by frozen brine). If you have the right ratios of impurities, you can control how the metal solidifies and get a grain structure that's especially strong.
This is also what happens when you're tempering, annealing, or work-hardening a piece of metal, fundamentally— you're changing the grain structure, making the grains smaller or larger or differently organized.
[Here's a link to the iron-carbon phase diagram](_URL_0_). It's fairly complicated, and it gets even more complicated when you add other alloying elements (there are tons: chromium, molybdenum, manganese, nickel, vanadium, and on and on). Plus you can get different results by cooling the metal differently (tempering, quenching, etc), since it actually takes time for various individual phases to separate, for crystal grains to grow, etc. This is what makes metallurgy interesting.
| [
"Steel has much higher strength than wrought iron and allowed long span bridges, high rise buildings, automobiles and other items. Steel also made superior threaded fasteners (screws, nuts, bolts), nails, wire and other hardware items. Steel rails lasted over 10 times longer than wrought iron rails.\n",
"Iron is the most widely used of all the metals, accounting for over 90% of worldwide metal production. Its low cost and high strength often make it the material of choice material to withstand stress or transmit forces, such as the construction of machinery and machine tools, rails, automobiles, ship hulls, concrete reinforcing bars, and the load-carrying framework of buildings. Since pure iron is quite soft, it is most commonly combined with alloying elements to make steel.\n",
"Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and sometimes other elements. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons.\n",
"Most steels offer a good balance of strength and ductility, which makes them extremely tough. This allows them to withstand significant stress and strain without fracturing. Steel can also be fairly wear-resistant. Alloy additions can increase both impact and wear resistance.\n",
"Steel - basically a mixture of iron and carbon, although other metals may be added to change the characteristic of the steel (add chrome, get stainless steel; add nickel, get armor plate). The carbon content of steel is closely controlled in its manufacture - the more carbon the \"stronger\" the steel. Steel varies from iron in that it can be hardened. Heat steel red-hot and quench it and it gets hard, heat iron red hot and quench it and it gets cold.\n",
"Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.25% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.\n",
"Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks.\n"
] |
in court how do they compensate swearing the oath on bibles for people who arent religious or are not christian? | In the US, very few jurisdictions have people swear on bibles anymore. Those that do offer alternates to non-Christians. Some religions, like the Jehovah's Witnesses, who do not allow swearing, are allowed to affirm instead.
Note there is no legal significance to swearing on the bible or any religious book, it is purely symbolic. All the swearing process means is that you are promising to tell the truth and acknowledging that you can be charged with perjury if you do not. Any religious trappings are legally irrelevant to that purpose. | [
"On May 24, 2007, Superior Court Judge Paul Ridgeway ruled that people of non-Christian faiths must be allowed to use religious texts other than the Christian Bible when being sworn in as jurors or witnesses in state court proceedings. Though the state had 30 days to decide to appeal the ruling, it took no action.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Oath: No (oaths) should be taken because Jesus prohibited the taking of oaths and swearing. Testifying is not the same thing as swearing. When a person bears testimony, they are testifying about the present, whether it be good or evil.\n",
"Those who do not want to swear the religious oath may give an affirmation. In this case, the words \"promise and swear before almighty and all-knowing God\" are replaced by \"promise and affirm by my honor and by my conscience\".\n",
"North Carolina's state law \"allows witnesses preparing to testify in court to take their oath in three ways: by laying a hand over 'the Holy Scriptures', by saying 'so help me God' without the use of a religious book, or by an affirmation using no religious symbols\". \n",
"In a courtroom, jurors and witnesses are required to swear an oath before partaking in a trial. This involves the individual raising his or her right hand, often placing the other hand on an object of ceremonial importance, such as the Bible, and vowing, as a juror, that he or she will give a “true” verdict based on the evidence or, as a witness, that he or she will tell the truth. Up to the 13th century in northern Europe, oaths were sworn “on the threshold”. When a Bible was unavailable, the person taking the oath would place one hand on the doorframe or door ring.\n",
"Many of those who take a religious oath do so largely as a matter of form (or) because they think they are more likely to be believed if they take the oath, the oath ‘is only too often regarded as a necessary formality and rattled off with little outward sign of sincerity or understanding of its implications…We therefore think the time has come for the oath in its present form to be abolished and replaced by a form of undertaking which is more meaningful, more generally acceptable and more likely to serve the cause of justice. All witnesses should be required to make same solemn affirmation so that there is no distinction in the respect that is accorded them.’\n",
"In the United Kingdom, each juror can opt either to swear an oath on the holy book of their choice (provisions are made for Christians, Muslims, Sikhs, and Hindus) or to affirm. The oath typically takes the form \"I swear [by almighty God/by Allah/by Waheguru/on the Gita] that I will faithfully try the defendant and give a true verdict according to the evidence.\" Affirmation, which was made available to Quakers and Moravians by the Quakers and Moravians Act 1838 and later extended to anybody who chooses to do so, takes the form \"I solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm that I will faithfully try the defendant and give a true verdict according to the evidence.\"\n"
] |
What is it about Jamaican culture - opposed to other Caribbean nations - that produced so much extraordinary music? | Not to stifle discussion, but /u/hillsonghoods wrote [some fantastic replies to a similar question](_URL_0_) of mine which I'd recommend checking out. | [
"Jamaica's most popular musical forms are reggae and dancehall. There are also others such as \"dub poetry\" or chanted verses, Ska, and Rocksteady, with its emotionally charged, celebrative beat. Jamaican Americans also listen to a great variety of other music such as: jazz, calypso, soca, ska, rap, classical music, gospel, and \"high-church\" choirs.\n",
"Jamaica's popular culture has a strong tradition of music, including reggae and dancehall. As a consequence, performers are high profile, both influencing popular opinion and reflecting it. The United States Department of State said that in 2012 \"through the songs and the behavior of some musicians, the country's dancehall culture helped perpetuate homophobia.\" In its 2011 review of Jamaica for compliance with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Committee expressed regret over \"virulent lyrics by musicians and entertainers that incite violence against homosexuals\" and recommended that Jamaica investigate, prosecute, and sanction persons who do so.\n",
"\"In Jamaica, we call our music 'mento' until very recently. Today, 'calypso' is beginning to be used for all kinds of West Indian music. This is because it's become so commercialized there. Some people like to think of West Indians as carefree natives who work and sing and play and laugh their lives away. But this isn't so. Most of the people there are hard working folks, and many of them are smart business men. If the tourists want \"calypso\", that's what we sell them.\" \n",
"The music of Trinidad and Tobago is best known for its calypso music, soca music and steelpan. Calypso's internationally noted performances in the 1950s from native artists such as Lord Melody, Lord Kitchener and Mighty Sparrow. The art form was most popularised at that time by Harry Belafonte. Along with folk songs and African- and Indian-based classical forms, cross-cultural interactions have produced other indigenous forms of music including soca, rapso, parang, chutney, and other derivative and fusion styles. There are also local communities which practice and experiment with international classical and pop music, often fusing them with local steelpan instruments.\n",
"Early forms of Afro-Caribbean music in Jamaica was Junkanoo (a type of folk music now more closely associated with The Bahamas), the quadrille (a European dance) and work songs were the primary forms of Jamaican music at the beginning of the 20th century. These were synthesized into mento music, which spread across the island. In the 20th century, influences from the United States were fused to create the uniquely Jamaican forms dancehall and ska. Subsequent styles include reggae, rocksteady and raggamuffin. (Mical 1995)\n",
"The divisions between Caribbean music genres are not always well-defined, because many of these genres share common relations and have influenced each other in many ways and directions. For example, the Jamaican mento style has a long history of conflation with Trinidadian calypso. Elements of calypso have come to be used in mento, and vice versa, while their origins lie in the Afro-Caribbean culture, each uniquely characterized by influences from the Shango and Shouters religions of Trinidad and the \"Kumina\" spiritual tradition of Jamaica.\n",
"As in many Anglo-Caribbean Caribbean islands, the calypso music of Trinidad & Tobago has become part of the culture of Jamaica. Jamaica's own local music mento is often confused with calypso music. Although the two share many similarities, they are separate and distinct musical forms. During the mid-20th century, mento was conflated with calypso, and mento was frequently referred to as \"calypso\", \"kalypso\" and \"mento calypso\"; mento singers frequently used calypso songs and techniques. As in calypso, mento uses topical lyrics with a humorous slant, commenting on poverty and other social issues. Sexual innuendos are also common.\n"
] |
how do we get propane and other gases from the ground? | We refine crude oil which contains gases in the oil(similar to carbonated beverages but less fizzy) and can undergo chemical reactions which will take bigger molecules and break them down into smaller molecules, like propane, which we then seperate out. | [
"Propane and butane are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles, butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in aerosol sprays.\n",
"Propane is produced as a by-product of two other processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, and large amounts of ethane from the raw gas, in order to prevent condensation of these volatiles in natural gas pipelines. Additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil.\n",
"Propane is also used as fuel for small engines, especially those used indoors or in areas with insufficient fresh air and ventilation to carry away the more toxic exhaust of an engine running on gasoline or Diesel fuel. More recently, there have been lawn care products like string trimmers, lawn mowers and leaf blowers intended for outdoor use, but fueled by propane in order to reduce air pollution.\n",
"BULLET::::- Propane is a three-carbon alkane, normally a gas, but compressible to a transportable liquid. It is derived from other petroleum products during oil or natural gas processing. It is commonly used as a fuel for engines, barbecues, portable stoves, and residential central heating. Propane was first identified as a volatile component in gasoline by Dr. Walter O. Snelling of the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1910.\n",
"Propane () is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula . It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as a fuel. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases (LP gases). The others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof.\n",
"Propane is a cleaner burning, high-performance fuel derived from multiple sources. It is known by many names including propane, LPG (liquified propane gas), LPA (liquid propane autogas), Autogas and others. Propane is a hydrocarbon fuel and is a member of the natural gas family.\n",
"Butane and propane are very flammable petroleum products; they are used as fuels for gas barbecue grills, disposable lighters, etc. Like gasoline, to which it chemically is closely related, propane has a tendency to explode if mixed with oxygen and ignited in an enclosed container.\n"
] |
Does picking up a radio signal with a antenna reduce the power of the signal, even minimally? | Substitute "radio signal" with "sunlight" and "antenna" with "solar cell".
You assume that there's such thing as _the_ power of the signal, as a property of the emitter that everyone has direct access to. No, radio waves are not fundamentally different from light, so what you have instead is independent power of the signal in various places; receiving the signal with an antenna removes it from that particular region of space and creates a radio shadow behind it.
So for example to black out a radio emitter you have to build a [Faraday cage](_URL_0_) around it. | [
"So much wasted power is not acceptable in a transmitting antenna, however in a receiving antenna the inefficiency is not important at frequencies below about 15 MHz. At these lower frequencies, atmospheric noise (static) and man-made noise (radio frequency interference) even in the weak signal from an inefficient antenna are far above the internal \"thermal\" or \"Johnson noise\" present in the radio receiver's circuits, so the weak signal from a loop antenna can be amplified without degrading the signal-to-noise ratio. (CCIR 258; CCIR 322.)\n",
"The radio antenna's design \"focuses\" the signal toward the horizon, creating gain and increasing the ERP. There is also some loss (negative gain) from the feedline, which reduces some of the TPO to the antenna by both resistance and by radiating a small part of the signal.\n",
"BULLET::::- Amplification: The power of the radio waves picked up by a receiving antenna decreases with the square of its distance from the transmitting antenna. Even with the powerful transmitters used in radio broadcasting stations, if the receiver is more than a few miles from the transmitter the power intercepted by the receiver's antenna is very small, perhaps as low as picowatts. To increase the power of the recovered signal, an amplifier circuit uses electric power from batteries or the wall plug to increase the amplitude (voltage or current) of the signal. In most modern receivers, the electronic components which do the actual amplifying are transistors.\n",
"The point at which power output is measured may also affect transmissions. The United Kingdom measures at the point the antenna is connected to the signal feed cable, which means the radio system may transmit more than 400 W to overcome signal loss in the cable; conversely, Germany measures power at the output of the final amplification stage, which results in a loss in radiated power with longer cable feeds.\n",
"The average power output of these transmitters was low, because due to its low capacitance and inductance the antenna had very low Q factor, it was a highly damped oscillator. During each spark the energy stored in the antenna was quickly radiated away as radio waves, so the oscillations decayed to zero quickly. The radio signal consisted of brief pulses of radio waves separated by long intervals of no output. The power radiated was dependent on how much electric charge could be stored in the antenna before each spark, which was proportional to the capacitance of the antenna. To increase their capacitance to ground, antennas were made with multiple parallel wires, often with capacitive toploads, in the \"harp\", \"cage\", \"umbrella\", \"inverted-L\", and \"T\" antennas characteristic of the \"spark\" era. The only other way to increase the energy stored in the antenna was to charge it up to very high voltages. However the voltage that could be used was limited to about 100 kV by corona discharge which caused charge to leak off the antenna, particularly in wet weather, and also energy lost as heat in the longer spark.\n",
"Antenna tuners are particularly important for use with transmitters. Transmitters are typically designed to feed power into a resistive load of a specific value, very often 50 ohms. However the antenna and feedline impedance can vary depending on frequency and other factors. If the impedance seen by the transmitter departs from this design value, the output power of the transmitter can be reduced due to the failure to obtain a conjugate match. In addition to reducing the power radiated by the antenna, this can cause distortion of the signal, and in high power transmitters may overheat the transmitter. Because of this, ATUs are a standard part of almost all radio transmitting systems. They may be a circuit incorporated into the transmitter itself, or a separate piece of equipment connected between the transmitter and the antenna. In transmitting systems with an antenna separated from the transmitter and connected to it by a transmission line (feedline), there may be another matching network (or ATU) where the feedline connects to the antenna, that matches the transmission line's impedance to the antenna.\n",
"High power transmitters like radio broadcasting stations have a matching unit that is adjustable to accommodate changes in the frequency, the transmitter, the antenna, or the antenna's environment. Adjusting the ATU to match the transmitter to the antenna is an important procedure which is done after any work on the transmitter or antenna occurs. The effect of this adjustment is typically measured using an instrument called an SWR meter, which indicates the degree of mismatch between a reference impedance (typically 50 + \"\" 0 Ohms) and the complex impedance at the point of insertion of the SWR meter.\n"
] |
Does running through the rain make you more or less dry than walking? | If you look at this problem by trying to figure out your wetness as you walk through the falling rain, then it can be pretty tough. But it actually becomes easier if you look at it from the frame of reference of the falling rain. In this reference frame, the rain is just sitting there, still, and the ground is moving up through it with you moving along. Then, as you move through it, you will carve out a tunnel through the rain and how wet you get will be proportional to the volume of this tunnel.
To get the volume of this tunnel you can simplify it further by noting that it's basically just a thickened line, and so the volume will be roughly proportional to the length of this line. The slope of this line will depend on how fast you go. If you go really, really, slow, then the line will be very steep, as you are going more up through the rain than forward. It will be very, very shallow if you go really fast, as the ground hardly has time to move up before you're done. In general, then, this line traced out by your path is the hypotenuse of a right triangle. The bottom leg of this triangle is just the distance that you have to go across the ground, L, and the height of this triangle is basically the amount of time you spend in the rain, T (well, proportional to it depending on how fast the rain is falling). The length of this line, and the subsequent volume of rain you carve out, is then given by the Pythagorean theorem as the square root of L^(2)+T^(2).
So how wet you get is then basically proportional to sqrt(L^(2)+T^(2)). Since L doesn't change the only way you can make this less is to make T smaller, which means running faster.
[MinutePhysics](_URL_0_) has a more well put together presentation of this. | [
"Running is an effective way to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and tension. It helps people who struggle with seasonal affective disorder by being more outside running when it's sunny and warm. Running can improve mental alertness and also improve sleep which is needed for good mental health. Both research and clinical experience have shown that exercise can be a treatment for serious depression and anxiety even some physicians prescribe exercise to most of their patients. Running can have a longer lasting effect than anti-depressants. \n",
"A man is walking on a warm day. The sky was clear the last time he observed it; but presently he notes, while occupied primarily with other things, that the air is cooler. It occurs to him that it is probably going to rain; looking up, he sees a dark cloud between him and the sun, and he then quickens his steps. What, if anything, in such a situation can be called thought? Neither the act of walking nor the noting of the cold is a thought. Walking is one direction of activity; looking and noting are other modes of activity. The likelihood that it will rain is, however, something \"suggested\". The pedestrian \"feels\" the cold; he \"thinks of\" clouds and a coming shower. (John Dewey, \"How We Think\", 1910, pp. 6-7).\n",
"BULLET::::- Jogging or running paths. Many runners also favor running on trails rather than pavement, as giving a more vigorous work-out and better developing agility skills, as well as providing a more pleasant exercise environment.\n",
"The dry rule does allow one to travel faster in dry weather, but expect emergency deceleration to be a bit uncomfortable. If one desires to remember only one rule, use the wet one. However, because the difference between wet and dry is half-a-second at 30 MPH and one second at 60 MPH, and because dividing by two is easier than three, we can use a correctable rule of thumb:\n",
"Regular walking is important both for human health and for the natural environment. Frequent exercise such as walking tends to reduce the chance of obesity and related medical problems. In contrast, using a car for short trips tends to contribute both to obesity and via vehicle emissions to climate change: internal combustion engines are more inefficient and highly polluting during their first minutes of operation (engine cold start). General availability of public transportation encourages walking, as it will not, in most cases, take one directly to one's destination.\n",
"Some runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces. The problem with running on concrete is that the body adjusts to this flat surface running, and some of the muscles will become weaker, along with the added impact of running on a harder surface. Therefore, it is advised to change terrain occasionally – such as trail, beach, or grass running. This is more unstable ground and allows the legs to strengthen different muscles. Runners should be wary of twisting their ankles on such terrain. Running downhill also increases knee stress and should, therefore, be avoided. Reducing the frequency and duration can also prevent injury.\n",
"Running on sand may result in slower times, approximately 30 seconds per mile more than the your usual pace, but others say the sand is easier than pavement running and great for long runs. In 2007, Stephen Baumgartner was the first runner to break the 3 hour mark finishing in 2 hours, 55 minutes, and 44 seconds.\n"
] |
why do stenographers use those tiny typewriters? | They're [stenotypes](_URL_0_) which are much faster than typing, but don't transcribe speech directly into readable English but into a form of shorthand.
Why? It's quicker - the words are formed with "chords" rather than letter at a time. | [
"A number of typographical conventions originate from the widespread use of the typewriter, based on the characteristics and limitations of the typewriter itself. For example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did not include keys for the en dash and the em dash. To overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one adjacent hyphen to approximate these symbols. This typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, even though modern computer word processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font type. Double hyphens are also standard in Western comics lettering despite historically being done by hand.\n",
"The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard type machines they were mechanically simpler and lighter, they were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers, and because they could be produced more cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to produce small quantities of typed correspondence. The index typewriter's niche appeal however soon disappeared, as on the one hand new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more portable and on the other refurbished second hand machines began to become available. The last widely available western index machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by AEG which was produced until 1934. Considered one of the very best of the index typewriters, part of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured both interchangeable indexes and type, allowing the use of different fonts and character sets, something very few keyboard machines allowed and only at considerable added cost.\n",
"Typesetting uses spaces of varying length for specific purposes. The typewriter, on the other hand, can accommodate only a limited number of keys. Most typewriters have only one width of space, obtained by pressing the space bar. Following widespread acceptance of the typewriter, some spacing and other typewriter conventions, which were based on the typewriter's mechanical limitations, have influenced professional typography other designers of printed works.\n",
"A stenotype, stenotype machine, shorthand machine or steno writer is a specialized chorded keyboard or typewriter used by stenographers for shorthand use. In order to pass the United States Registered Professional Reporter test, a trained court reporter or closed captioner must write speeds of approximately 180, 200, and 225 words per minute (wpm) at very high accuracy in the categories of literary, jury charge, and testimony, respectively. Some stenographers can reach 300 words per minute. The website of the California Official Court Reporters Association (COCRA) gives the official record for American English as 375 wpm.\n",
"The typesetting machines were continually improved in the early years of the 20th century, with a typewriter style keyboard for entering the type being introduced in 1906. This arrangement addressed the need to vary the space between words so that all lines were the same length.\n",
"The most widespread fonts in typewriters are 10 and 12 pitch, called \"pica\" and \"elite\", respectively. There may be other font styles with various width: condensed or compressed (17–20 cpi), italic or bold (10 pitch), enlarged (5–8 cpi), and so on.\n",
"The radical-and-stroke system, or some similar pattern-matching and stroke-counting method, was traditionally the only practical method for constructing dictionaries that someone could use to look up a logograph whose pronunciation was unknown. With the advent of computers, dictionary programs are now available that allow one to handwrite a character using a mouse or stylus.\n"
] |
the lean six sigma methodology | LEAN and 6sigma address two different aspects of factory production.
LEAN applies analysis to find the minimal cost steps needed to produce the item. It could mean the difference between giving a power tool to a worker instead of a manual tool. or having a conveyer delivery belt move the component to the worker instead of the worker walking around the factory to get the components from their bins. all of it centers on the methods to measure and reduce the cost of the production in both time and money (which boils down to same thing).
6sigma is concerned about whether items that come out of production all meet quality control standards. bad items are categorized as errors vs defects. errors are caught inside the production area. defects make it out of production area. the total cost of an error is the time and cost to remanufacture the item within the production area. the total cost of a defect is error cost PLUS defect management overhead cost PLUS potential customer impacts. 6sigma goals is to measure the existing rates and find ways to reduce the rates.
1sigma is 69% mistakes.
2sigma is 30% mistake.
3sigma is 6.68%.
4sigma is 0.6%
5sigma is 0.0233%
6sigma is 0.00034% | [
"Lean Six Sigma is a synergized managerial concept of Lean and Six Sigma. Lean traditionally focuses on the elimination of the eight kinds of waste/\"Muda\" classified as defects, over-production, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and extra-processing. Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of process outputs by identifying and removing the causes of defects (errors) and minimizing variability in (manufacturing and business) processes. Synergistically, Lean aims to achieve continuous flow by tightening the linkages between process steps while Six Sigma focuses on reducing process variation (in all its forms) for the process steps thereby enabling a tightening of those linkages. In short, Lean exposes sources of process variation and Six Sigma aims to reduce that variation enabling a virtuous cycle of iterative improvements towards the goal of continuous flow.\n",
"Whereas Lean IT focuses on customer satisfaction and reducing waste, Six Sigma focuses on removing the causes of defects (errors) and the variation (inconsistency) in manufacturing and business processes using quality management and, especially, statistical methods. Six Sigma also differs from Lean methods by introducing a special infrastructure of personnel (e.g. so-called “Green Belts” and “ Black Belts”) in the organization. Six Sigma is more oriented around two particular methods (DMAIC and DMADV), whereas Lean IT employs a portfolio of tools and methods. These differences notwithstanding, Lean IT may be readily combined with Six Sigma such that the latter brings statistical rigor to measurement of the former’s outcomes.\n",
"In recent years, some practitioners have combined Lean and Six Sigma principles to yield a methodology commonly known as Lean Six Sigma. One of the earliest adopters of this is Honeywell, which calls its program Six Sigma Plus. Like some other practitioners, GE has developed a very rigorous Lean Six Sigma training program in which certain employees are chosen to become certified in this area.\n",
"The first concept of Lean \"Six Sigma\" was created in 2001 by a book titled \"Leaning into Six Sigma: The Path to Integration of Lean Enterprise and Six Sigma\" by Barbara Wheat, Chuck Mills, Mike Carnell.\n",
"Lean Six Sigma uses the DMAIC phases similar to that of Six Sigma. IASSC does not provide Lean Six Sigma related training,mentoring,coaching or consulting services. Lean Six Sigma projects comprise aspects of Lean's waste elimination and the Six Sigma focus on reducing defects, based on critical to quality characteristics. The DMAIC toolkit of Lean Six Sigma comprises all the Lean and Six Sigma tools. \"Lean Six Sigma\" unites tools and techniques from Lean and Six Sigma methodologies to produce real results. The belt personnel is designated as white belts, yellow belts, green belts, black belts and master black belts, similar to judo.\n",
"The principles of Lean Integration may at first glance appear similar to that of Six Sigma but there are some very clear differences between them. Six-Sigma is an \"analytical technique\" that focuses on quality and reduction of defects while Lean is a \"management system\" that focuses on delivering value to the end customer by continuously improving value delivery processes. Lean provides a robust framework that facilitates improving efficiency and effectiveness by focusing on critical customer requirements.\n",
"Lean management and Six Sigma are two concepts which share similar methodologies and tools. Both programs are Japanese-influenced, but they are two different programs. Lean management is focused on eliminating waste using a set of proven standardized tools and methodologies that target organizational efficiencies, while Six Sigma's focus is on eliminating defects and reducing variation. Both systems are driven by data though Six Sigma is much more dependent on accurate data.\n"
] |
how do the "check to ensure you're not a robot" things actually work? what prevents computers from "clicking all pictures with a car"? i'm especially confused with the ones that dont require you to do anything except check the box. does somebody have an explaination? | It checks the way that the person clicks the button (path, speed, etc) to determine if the clicker is indeed a human | [
"Machine checks are a hardware problem, not a software problem. They're often the result of the overclocking or overheating, causing errors, or hitting a thermal limit where the CPU must shut itself down to avoid permanent damage. But they can also be caused by bus errors introduced by other failing components, including memory, i/o devices and i/o controllers. Possible causes include:\n",
"The typical personal computer tests itself at start-up (called POST) because it's a very complex piece of machinery. Since it includes a computer, a computerized self-test was an obvious, inexpensive feature. Most modern computers, including embedded systems, have self-tests of their computer, memory and software.\n",
"Model checking refers to strict, formal, and automated ways to check if a \"model\" (which in this context means a formal model of a piece of code, though in other contexts it can be a model of a piece of hardware) complies with a given specification. Due to the inherent finite state nature of code, and both the specification and the code being convertible into logical formulae, it is possible to check if the system violates the specification using efficient algorithmic methods.\n",
"BULLET::::3. Autonomation: In any contemporary setting, every one uses either machines or software to do any work. Yet, this automated work still requires specific human judgments to be done right. As a result, many machines can't be left alone to work because they're likely to go wrong if someone doesn't watch them all the time. Autonomation is the practice of progressively imparting human judgement to a system so that it self-monitors and stops and calls a human when it feels it went wrong, just as a desktop computer will flag a virus alert if it feels under attack. Autonomation is essential to separate people from machines and not have humans doing machine work and vice versa. Automation teaches lean thinking by revealing new ways of designing lighter, smarter machines with less capital expenditure.\n",
"The Robot does not have a program installed in it, need to be taught how to operate, or has any sensors to help it see because the human controls it. It does have a camera to help the human see where it is going when the human is using a remote to control it.\n",
"The sensors come assembled and programmed. In the software (see Programming above), people can decide what to do with the information that comes from the sensors, such as programming the robot move forward until it touches something. \n",
"Automation bias can take the form of commission errors, which occur when users follow an automated directive without taking into account other sources of information. Conversely, omission errors occur when automated devices fail to detect or indicate problems and the user does not notice because they are not properly monitoring the system.\n"
] |
how did mayweather win that fight? | Pacquiao was the aggressor for most of the fight, and he swung a lot more. The crowd was clearly on his side, and Mayweather rarely drove forward.
But these things don't matter to the judges, or at least they shouldn't. Who was better at landing punches, who dictated the pace, who did the most damage, these things matter. And Mayweather did all those things. He threw less, but landed more. His hits were doing more damage. It was very rare that Mayweather ever seemed trapped, even buried in the corner.
Pacquiao need a lot more of those flurry pieces, and he didn't get through Mayweather's defense most of those times.
EDIT: it's been brought to my attention that MW actually threw MORE punches as well. Paq threw more power punches but MW threw more total punches. Thank you fellow redditor for pointing that out. | [
"Having recovered from Pacquiao's big hit in the previous round, Mayweather won the early exchanges of the fifth round. Pacquiao remained on the offensive, but was unable to land any big punches. Mayweather upped his activity and won the round in the eyes of the three judges. Pacquiao came out aggressive in the sixth, forcing Mayweather to the ropes. Pacquiao successfully landed a couple of combinations, but Mayweather appeared to be unfazed. All the judges gave the round to Pacquiao, making the overall score Mayweather 58–56 (4–2 by rounds) on all cards.\n",
"Mayweather ending up losing only the second round, according to the judges' scorecards, winning the 12 round fight by unanimous decision. Two judges had the final margin at 119–109, while the third had it at 118–108. The win improved Mayweather to 41–0 in his career, while dropping Mosley to 46–6.\n",
"Mayweather came out swinging in the eleventh round, landing just below his highest volume of the fight. The action then stalled as Pacquiao struggled to land much on a defensive-minded Mayweather, who ducked the attacks. Pacquiao forced Mayweather to the corner, but Mayweather landed a clean hit on Pacquiao's chin. However, Pacquiao still managed to hit solid punches in a fast pace. The judges unanimously scored the round in favor of Mayweather. In the final round, Pacquiao attempted to attack with Mayweather mostly looking to avoid his punches by running across the ring. Mayweather kept the fight in the center of the ring, but Pacquiao did land some inside counters. All three judges gave the round to Mayweather.\n",
"Mayweather fought Manny Pacquiao, after negotiations spread over a number of years, on May 2, 2015, inside MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas. Mayweather dictated the pace early, controlling range with the jab. His deft movement and pivoting made Pacquiao, who landed only 19% of his punches, consistently miss. Mayweather was able to counter Pacquiao with his right hand constantly throughout the fight and won via unanimous decision with the scorecards reading 118–110, 116–112, and 116–112. The vast majority of media outlets (16/18) scored the bout in his favor. In the days following the fight, many casual observers felt the match failed to live up to expectations. Pacquiao told the media after the match that he was limited in the fight due to an injured right arm. \"Sports Illustrated\" reported that Pacquiao fought through a torn rotator cuff in his right shoulder, which will require surgery. Bob Arum revealed Pacquiao's injury to have been a persistent one dating back to 2008. Additionally Pacquiao's camp never requested a cortisone injection, which is allowed by the US Anti-Doping Agency, but rather a last minute toradol injection, which was declined by the Nevada State Athletic Commission. Mayweather, who originally had no plans on a rematch with Pacquiao, told ESPN's Stephen A. Smith in a text that he would be open to a rematch after Pacquiao recovers from shoulder surgery, however , Mayweather stated \"Did I text Stephen A. Smith and say I will fight him again? Yeah, but I change my mind. At this particular time, no, because he's a sore loser and he's a coward.\" On July 6, 2015, the World Boxing Organization (WBO) stripped Mayweather of his welterweight championship on technical grounds.\n",
"At one time, Floyd Mayweather Sr. negotiated to train Oscar De La Hoya and be in his corner during the fight, but De La Hoya decided to train with Freddie Roach. Mayweather won the fight by a split decision in 12 rounds, capturing the WBC title. However, many analysts and ringside observers felt Mayweather should have received a unanimous decision. During the early rounds De La Hoya had some success cutting off the ring, attempting to pound Mayweather on the inside. Despite his activity on the inside, however, many of De La Hoya's punches were ineffective and landed on Mayweather's arms or shoulders. By the middle of the fight, it was seen as an even bout by the announcers. Mayweather turned the tide in the middle and late rounds, often hitting De La Hoya at will. Official scorecards read 116–112 (Mayweather), 115–113 (Mayweather), and 115–113 (De La Hoya). CompuBox had Mayweather out-landing De La Hoya 207–122 in total punches and 134–82 in power punches, with better accuracy throughout the fight. After the bout Mayweather contemplated retirement, saying he had nothing left to prove in the boxing world.\n",
"Mayweather changed tactics at the start of the seventh round, becoming the aggressor for a second and forcing Pacquiao on to the ropes. He threw a double jab, then a right-handed punch, landing none, before Pacquiao counterattacked with an unsuccessful combo. Mayweather stayed aggressive in the eighth round, landing jabs that kept Pacquiao off balance. Pacquiao went on the attack, opening up and landing some bigger punches. The round went to Mayweather on the official scorecards.\n",
"Mosley started the fight well, landing two solid right hands in round two which caused Mayweather's knees to buckle. Mayweather recovered well and went on to dominate the remainder of the fight, out-boxing Mosley and showing more aggression than in his previous recent fights. Mayweather eventually won a unanimous decision, with the judges scoring the fight 119–109, 119–109, and 118–110. In round four CompuBox found Mosley throwing seven power punches without taking any, making Mayweather the second boxer (after Roy Jones Jr.) to go an entire round without being hit by a power punch. After the fight, president of Golden Boy Promotions Oscar De La Hoya stated that he believed Mayweather was the best in the game.\n"
] |
at the large hadron collider, how do the scientists get the 'right' protons into the machine? | You're overthinking the way it actually works.
What happens is they use a source that generates literally billions and billions of protons, these are all then accelerated around the machine and then finally allowed to crash into each other. Most of them don't even hit each other and are just absorbed. If the scientists are really, really lucky some of the protons WILL hit each other, if they're luckier still then when they hit each other they'll decay into simpler particles, and if it's the scientists' best day ever they'll decay into the exact simpler particles they've been looking for. | [
"The Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB) is the first and smallest circular proton accelerator (a synchrotron) in the accelerator chain at the CERN injection complex, which also provides beams to the Large Hadron Collider. It contains four superimposed rings with a radius of 25 meters, which receive protons with an energy of from the linear accelerator Linac 2 and accelerate them up to , ready to be injected into the Proton Synchrotron (PS). Before the PSB was built in 1972, Linac 1 injected directly into the Proton Synchrotron, but the increased injection energy provided by the booster allowed for more protons to be injected into the PS and a higher luminosity at the end of the accelerator chain.\n",
"HERA was the only accelerator in the world that was able to collide protons with either electrons or positrons. To make this possible, HERA used mainly superconducting magnets, which was also a world first. At HERA, it was possible to study the structure of protons up to 30 times more accurately than before. The resolution covered structures 1/1000 of the proton in size. In the years to come, there were made many discoveries concerning the composition of protons from quarks and gluons.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), a circular accelerator with a diameter of 2 kilometres built in a tunnel, which started operation in 1976. It was designed to deliver an energy of 300 GeV and was gradually upgraded to 450 GeV. As well as having its own beamlines for fixed-target experiments (currently COMPASS and NA62), it has been operated as a proton–antiproton collider (the SpS collider), and for accelerating high energy electrons and positrons which were injected into the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP). Since 2008, it has been used to inject protons and heavy ions into the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).\n",
"The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is a particle accelerator of the synchrotron type at CERN. It is housed in a circular tunnel, in circumference, straddling the border of France and Switzerland near Geneva, Switzerland.\n",
"A project for the UNK accelerator-storage complex, a proton-proton collider with an energy of 3 × 3 TeV, started in the mid 1980s. It was planned that U-70 becomes an injector for the collider ring, but the project was stopped because of the dissolution of the Soviet Union.\n",
"Protons were obtained from originally negatively charged hydrogen ions and pre-accelerated to 50 MeV in a linear accelerator. They were then injected into the proton synchrotron \"DESY-III\" and accelerated further to 7 GeV. Then they were transferred to PETRA where they were accelerated to 40 GeV. Finally, they were injected into their storage ring in the HERA tunnel and reached their final energy of 920 GeV. The proton storage ring used superconducting magnets to keep the protons on track.\n",
"In 1976, he suggested adapting CERN's Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) to collide protons and antiprotons in the same ring — the Proton-Antiproton Collider. Using Simon van der Meers technology of stochastic cooling, the Antiproton Accumulator was also built. The collider started running in 1981 and, in early 1983, an international team of more than 100 physicists headed by Rubbia and known as the UA1 Collaboration, detected the intermediate vector bosons, the W and Z bosons, which had become a cornerstone of modern theories of elementary particle physics long before this direct observation. They carry the weak force that causes radioactive decay in the atomic nucleus and controls the combustion of the Sun, just as photons, massless particles of light, carry the electromagnetic force which causes most physical and biochemical reactions. The weak force also plays a fundamental role in the nucleosynthesis of the elements, as studied in theories of stars evolution. These particles have a mass almost 100 times greater than the proton. In 1984 Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer were awarded the Nobel Prize \"for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction\"\n"
] |
What was the origin and meaning behind the haircuts of Medieval Japan? | Frankly I only know of the common topknot ("Chonmage") which was mostly done as a way to ensure that the kabuto helmet would fit snugly on one's head. The idea was that the topknot would be able to fit through a small hole in the helmet. Over time, while this tradition was forgotten, as the bushi and local daimyo began to take power, they continued using topknots as it was a sign of their military prowess. | [
"In the early 1870s, in a shift that historians attribute to the influence of the West, Japanese men began cutting their hair into styles known as jangiri or zangiri (which roughly means \"random cropping\"). During this period, Asian women were still wearing traditional hairstyles held up with combs, pins and sticks crafted from tortoise, metal, wood and other materials, but in the middle 1880s, upper-class Japanese women began pushing back their hair in the Western style (known as sokuhatsu), or adopting Westernized versions of traditional Japanese hairstyles (these were called yakaimaki, or literally, soirée chignon).\n",
"During the Nara period, a variety of Chinese cultural aspects and items were brought to Japan, including \"zan\" (written with the same Chinese character as \"kanzashi\") and other hair ornaments. During the Heian period, the traditional style of putting hair up was changed to wearing it long, tied back low. It was at this time that \"kanzashi\" began to be used as a general term for any hair ornament, including combs and hairpins. During the Azuchi-Momoyama period, the hairstyles changed from the , or long straight hair, to the wider variety of which made more use of hair ornaments.\n",
"The is a form of Japanese traditional topknot haircut worn by men. It is most commonly associated with the Edo period and samurai, and in recent times with sumo wrestlers. It was originally a method of using hair to hold a samurai helmet steady atop the head in battle, and became a status symbol among Japanese society.\n",
"Traditional Ainu culture was quite different from Japanese culture. Never shaving after a certain age, the men had full beards and moustaches. Men and women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, trimmed semicircularly behind. The women tattooed their mouths, and sometimes the forearms. The mouth tattoos were started at a young age with a small spot on the upper lip, gradually increasing with size. The soot deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark was used for colour. Their traditional dress was a robe spun from the inner bark of the elm tree, called \"attusi\" or \"attush\". Various styles were made, and consisted generally of a simple short robe with straight sleeves, which was folded around the body, and tied with a band about the waist. The sleeves ended at the wrist or forearm and the length generally was to the calves. Women also wore an undergarment of Japanese cloth.\n",
"It is unclear when this style became fashionable in East Asia, but evidence of it in Japanese media can be seen from before the 1990s. Many anime characters, such as \"Dragon Ball Z's\" Trunks, James from \"Pokémon's\" Team Rocket, \"Fullmetal Alchemist's\" Edward Elric and Naruto's Sasuke and his older brother, Itachi Uchiha have this haircut. Japanese video game characters with this haircut include James Sunderland from \"Silent Hill 2\", Sothe from , and Leon S. Kennedy from \"Resident Evil 4\".\n",
"Outside Japan, so-called \"samurai buns\" have been worn by a minority of young British, Australian, Canadian, European, and American men during the mid-2010s. Unlike the traditional chonmage, the hair on top of the head is kept long, and the back and sides are shaven This hairstyle, reminiscent of the samurai topknots in jidaigeki movies, was popularised by celebrities including Orlando Bloom, Jared Leto, Zayn Malik, TOWIE's Joey Essex, Harry Styles, and Brent Burns. Although this haircut is somewhat similar to the Japanese topknot, it is visually more closely related to the topknots worn by western barbarians, such as the Lombards, Vikings, and Cumans. The medieval historian Paul the Deacon, in his description of the traditional barbarian style of the Lombard nation, describes their hair thus so, \"they uncovered the flesh of their heads by shaving all around the neck, sides, and back of the head until the nuchal zone. The hair on the top, left long, was parted in the middle and hung down to the corners of their mouths.\" (HL IV.22). This perfectly describes the modern western top knot as it appears untied.\n",
"Nihongami (日本髪), is one of many traditional Japanese hairstyles, dating to the Edo period, today most often seen on \"maiko\" (geisha apprentices). Traditionally, two sides of the hair stick out until it curves to the back. The hair is pulled in the back as well in the front.\n"
] |
(if your country has them) why do drinks in king-size cans cost less than the normal cans? | There are a lot of fixed costs in packaging drinks and the price of a bigger or smaller can may not make much difference. Most of an items price has nothing to do with the size.
I designed labels for a big box store once and learned that the difference in cost to make a 16oz can of soda and a 32oz can is often less than 1 cent per can.
Naturally, even if it is priced less than the smaller cans, there's still room for profit.
Here's an example of all of the math involved. Hope this helps!
_URL_0_ | [
"In both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml/350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks where it would usually cost a lot more than local ones.\n",
"250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks, but when accompanying take out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245 ml can is standard. Recently, some 355 ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but are limited mostly to Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper, and beer cans are available in 500 ml.\n",
"A drink can (or beverage can) is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic drinks, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Drink cans are made of aluminium (75% of worldwide production) or tin-plated steel (25% worldwide production). Worldwide production for all drink cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year worldwide.\n",
"Because of such great distances the cost of food and other materials such as construction supplies can be much higher than that of southern Canada. Milk is approximately $3.75/L, and carbonated drinks can be as much as $4.50/can.\n",
"It is available in 500 ml cans, as well as 1- and 2-litre bottles and is traditionally served over ice. As of 2010, in some off licences it could be purchased for £0.69 per can, a rate of only 18.4 pence per UK unit of alcohol. Today, its current price is £1.00 per can.\n",
"At least for a brief period in the mid-1990s, some brands of malt liquor, including Olde English 800, Colt 45, and Mickey's, were available in even larger, 64-ounce glass bottles. Forty-ounce bottles are not permitted in some US states, such as Florida, where the largest container that a malt beverage may be sold at retail is 32 US fluid ounces.\n",
"South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up-until-then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml. There is also the 500 ml can. A smaller 200 ml can is used for \"mixers\" such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans. In September 2018, a 300 ml can was introduced as an alternative to the 330 ml can in a continued effort to reduce the amount of sugar consumed in soft drinks.\n"
] |
4 continuous hours in the sun results in a sunburn, but 4 hours broken up into 15 minutes chunks does not. | The explanations so far are not correct. 4 continuous hours of sunlight will give your damaged cells less time to repair DNA and less time to apoptose (safely die without causing inflammation).
4 hours spread out over increments gives your cells time to repair DNA and, if need be, apoptose irreparable cells in-between exposures.
If you do not have this break time in-between exposures, cells will become damaged so badly that they cannot die in a safe, organized manner (apoptosis). Instead, they die quicker and release their proteins into the space between cells. Nearby cells sense this, freak out and release chemicals that cause inflammation and pain.
Additionally, immune cells in skin undergoing DNA damage from UV may directly contribute to inflammation.
Fun fact: When you feel heat, when you are out in the sun, it’s from infrared light. A lot of people have the misconception that they aren’t feeling the heat from the sun, so they aren’t getting burned. The “heat” (really just pain) from a sunburn will come on much later, and is produced by inflammation and hypersensitive nerve endings.
Edit: I should add. Even if your 4 hours is broken up into increments, if you’re fair-skinned, you’ll probably still get burned. | [
"Sunburn can occur in less than 15 minutes, and in seconds when exposed to non-shielded welding arcs or other sources of intense ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, the inflicted harm is often not immediately obvious.\n",
"Recurring yearly, the eruption can sometimes last longer than a few days if persistent and repeated sun exposure occurs. However, the \"hardening\" effect, with respite during the later summer, frequently occurs with gradual exposure of sunlight, eventually leading to significant improvement.\n",
"Short-term damage includes solar keratitis, which is similar to sunburn of the cornea. Symptoms usually occur within twenty-four hours and include eye pain and light sensitivity. Long-term or permanent damage includes solar retinopathy, which occurs when the sun burns a hole in the retina, usually at the fovea (the focus of the retina). Symptoms can occur as long as several weeks after the incident, and can include loss of central vision and/or other vision, as well as eye pain and light sensitivity, afterimages, and changes in color vision. Depending on the severity of damage, vision problems can last for several months or be permanent.\n",
"After the exposure, skin may turn red in as little as 30 minutes but most often takes 2 to 6 hours. Pain is usually strongest 6 to 48 hours after exposure. The burn continues to develop for 1 to 3 days, occasionally followed by peeling skin in 3 to 8 days. Some peeling and itching may continue for several weeks.\n",
"The UV Index is designed as an open-ended linear scale, directly proportional to the intensity of UV radiation that causes sunburn on human skin. For example, if a light-skinned individual (without sunscreen) begins to sunburn in 30 minutes at UV Index 6, then that individual should expect to sunburn in about 15 minutes at UV Index 12 – twice the UV, twice as fast.\n",
"Minor sunburns typically cause nothing more than slight redness and tenderness to the affected areas. In more serious cases, blistering can occur. Extreme sunburns can be painful to the point of debilitation and may require hospital care.\n",
"If the exposure to beta radiation is intense, the beta burns may first manifest in 24–48 hours by itching and/or burning sensation that last for one or two days, sometimes accompanied by hyperaemia. After 1–3 weeks burn symptoms appear; erythema, increased skin pigmentation (dark colored patches and raised areas), followed by epilation and skin lesions. Erythema occurs after 5–15 Gy, dry desquamation after 17 Gy, and bullous epidermitis after 72 Gy. Chronic radiation keratosis may develop after higher doses. Primary erythema lasting more than 72 hours is an indication of injury severe enough to cause chronic radiation dermatitis. Edema of dermal papillae, if present within 48 hours since the exposition, is followed by transepidermal necrosis. After higher doses, the malpighian layer cells die within 24 hours; lower doses may take 10–14 days to show dead cells. Inhalation of beta radioactive isotopes may cause beta burns of lungs and nasopharyngeal region, ingestion may lead to burns of gastrointestinal tract; the latter being a risk especially for grazing animals.\n"
] |
what are these new-age solid-state batteries? how are they different from conventional batteries? | They're batteries that use solid electrodes or electrolytes instead of liquid.
They have potentially higher energy density, and are safer since they're not flammable. They also have longer lifespans and don't produce as much heat.
I think the problem at the moment is that they're not ready to be mass produced and so they're expensive. | [
"A solid-state battery is a battery technology that uses solid electrodes and a solid electrolyte, instead of the liquid or polymer gel electrolytes found in lithium-ion or lithium polymer batteries. Materials proposed for use as solid electrolytes in solid-state batteries include ceramics (e.g. oxides, sulfides, phosphates), and solid polymers. Solid-state batteries have found use in pacemakers, RFID and wearable devices. They are potentially safer, with higher energy densities, but at a much higher cost..\n",
"In the late 1950s, efforts were made to develop a solid-state battery. The first solid-state batteries utilized a silver ion conducting electrolyte, had low energy density and cell voltages, and high internal resistance. A new class of solid-state electrolyte, developed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1990s, was later incorporated into certain thin film lithium-ion batteries.\n",
"While no solid-state batteries have reached the market, multiple groups are researching this alternative. The notion is that solid-state designs are safer because they prevent dendrites from causing short circuits. They also have the potential to substantially increase energy density because their solid nature prevents dendrite formation and allows the use of pure metallic lithium anodes. They may have other benefits such as lower temperature operation.\n",
"Modern game systems such as the Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable have rechargeable Lithium-Ion batteries with proprietary shapes. Other seventh-generation consoles such as the GP2X use standard alkaline batteries. Because the mAh rating of alkaline batteries has increased since the 1990s, the power needed for handhelds like the GP2X may be supplied by relatively few batteries.\n",
"Nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned. However, plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids, and thus require more resources. Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load leveling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value. More recently, General Motors (GM) has said it has been \"approached by utilities interested in using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system, a secondary market that could bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug-in vehicles for consumers\".\n",
"Rechargeable N-size batteries are also available, in nickel-cadmium (\"KR1\") and nickel-metal hydride (\"HR1\") chemistries. However, these are far less common than other rechargeable sizes. Rechargeable N-Series batteries may be charged in an AA charger using a makeshift adapter (such as a small metal slug or a spring). Some universal battery chargers (with spring-loaded contacts) are also able to charge N size batteries.\n",
"A solid-state battery design is attractive for its safety, eliminating the chance of ignition from rupture. Current solid-state Li–air batteries use a lithium anode, a ceramic, glass, or glass-ceramic electrolyte, and a porous carbon cathode. The anode and cathode are typically separated from the electrolyte by polymer–ceramic composites that enhance charge transfer at the anode and electrochemically couple the cathode to the electrolyte. The polymer–ceramic composites reduce overall impedance. The main drawback of the solid-state battery design is the low conductivity of most glass-ceramic electrolytes. The ionic conductivity of current lithium fast ion conductors is lower than liquid electrolyte alternatives.\n"
] |
When I think of the legacy of dueling, I picture it as an exclusively male enterprise. Is this really the case? Or are there records of women dueling as well? | Not discouraging any new answers coming in, but you better believe that /u/Georgy_K_Zhukov wrote about [this topic already](_URL_0_). Hope it helps! | [
"In tennis, \"Battle of the Sexes\" is a term that has been used to describe various exhibition matches played between a man and a woman (or, in one case, a doubles match between two men and two women). Most famously, the term is used for a nationally televised match in 1973, held at the Houston Astrodome, between 55-year-old Bobby Riggs and 29-year-old Billie Jean King, which King won in three sets. The match attracted massive attention and was viewed by an estimated 90 million people around the world. King's win is considered a milestone in public acceptance of women's tennis.\n",
"The duel was based on a code of honor. Duels were fought not so much to kill the opponent as to gain \"satisfaction\", that is, to restore one's honor by demonstrating a willingness to risk one's life for it, and as such the tradition of dueling was originally reserved for the male members of nobility; however, in the modern era it extended to those of the upper classes generally. On occasion, duels with pistols or swords were fought between women.\n",
"BULLET::::- 1790s–1840s – Dueling is common among the elite, government officials, lawyers, and to military officers; they used dueling as a form of extralegal justice to assert their superior claims to honour. However, a new ethic was emerging that opposed dueling and rejected the hyper-masculinity embodied by the code of the duelist. This opposition was part of growing opposition to hierarchic dominance by the elite; opponents valued the bourgeois husband and father and separated male honour from physical violence.\n",
"Duela is originally depicted as the daughter of Two-Face and his estranged wife, Gilda Dent. Creator Bob Rozakis stated, \"It didn't take too long to decide whose daughter she would turn out to be. After all, the only married villain was Two-Face. I convinced [editor Julius Schwartz and associate editor E. Nelson Bridwell, the acknowledged keeper of DC's historical consistency] that Harvey and Gilda Dent had a daughter, that Harvey had been disappointed because she wasn't a twin, and that they'd named her Duela\". Rozakis, upon being asked his thought regarding the current insane version of Duela Dent, who claims to be the daughter of multiple supervillains, replied: \"I got a laugh out of it when I first saw it, but I thought they wasted the character. I realize that Marv and company didn't want her around anymore and felt they had to explain her away because of continuity, but they could have just as easily ignored her. Actually, I consider Harley Quinn to be a reincarnation of Duela\".\n",
"A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people, with matched weapons, in accordance with agreed-upon rules. Duels in this form were chiefly practiced in early modern Europe with precedents in the medieval code of chivalry, and continued into the modern period (19th to early 20th centuries) especially among military officers.\n",
"BULLET::::- Duel: it is a competition between any two subjects. The magazine's team establishes five topics for each duel and compares the weak and the strong points, later deciding who wins, with the possibility of a tie. Some fights featuring famous characters or franchises were partially voted by the readers, like \"Harry Potter X The Lord of the Rings\", \"Gandalf X Professor Dumbledore\", \"Bill Gates X Carlos Slim\" and \"X-Men X The Avengers\"\n",
"European styles of dueling established themselves in the colonies of European states in North America. Duels were to challenge someone over a woman or to defend one's honor. In the US, dueling was used to deal with political differences and disputes and was the subject of an unsuccessful amendment to the United States Constitution in 1838. It was fairly common for politicians at that time in the United States to end disputes through duels, such as the Burr–Hamilton duel and the Jackson-Dickinson duel. Dueling has become outdated in the north since the early-19th century. Dueling in the US was not uncommon in the south and west, even after 1859, when 18 states outlawed it, but it became a thing of the past in the United States by the start of the 20th century. To this day, anyone sworn into any statewide or county office or judgeship in Kentucky must declare under oath that he or she has not participated in, acted as a second or otherwise assisted in a duel.\n"
] |
how does a bike roll down a hill (balance) with no assistance? | Conservation of angular momentum. The wheels of the bike are spinning on a particular plane, and they naturally "want" to continue spinning on that plane, so they resist any change in that motion. In this case they resist the bike tipping over due to gravity. The faster they are spinning (meaning the more momentum they have) the more they will resist a change in that momentum. Once they slow down and lose momentum the bike will tip over. | [
"A cyclist executing a basic track stand holds the bicycle's cranks in a horizontal position, with his or her dominant foot forward. Track stands executed on bicycles with a freewheel usually employ a small uphill section of ground. The uphill needs to be sufficient to allow the rider to create backward motion by relaxing pressure on the pedals, thus allowing the bike to roll backwards. Once the track stand is mastered, even a very tiny uphill section is sufficient: e.g. the camber of the road, a raised road marking, and so on. Where no such uphill exists, or even if the gradient is downhill, a track stand can be achieved on a freewheeling bicycle by using a brake to initiate a backwards movement. If a fixed-gear bicycle is being used, an uphill slope is not needed since the rider is able to simply back pedal to move backwards. In both cases forward motion is accomplished by pedalling forwards. The handlebars are held at approximately a 45 degree angle, converting the bike's forward and back motion into side-to-side motion beneath the rider's body. This allows the rider to keep the bike directly below their center of gravity.\n",
"BULLET::::- Very loose surfaces (such as gravel and loose dirt): In some loose-surface situations, it may be beneficial to completely lock up the rear wheel in order to slow down or maintain control. On very steep slopes with loose surfaces where any braking will cause the wheel to skid, it can be better to maintain control of the bicycle by the rear-brake more than one would normally. However neither wheel should stop rotating completely, as this will result in very little control.\n",
"The sideways bike is different in many ways from a conventional diamond-framed bicycle. The rider controls direction by steering with both front and back handlebars. This means that the bicycle can maneuver effectively in congested conditions, weaving in and out of cars and performing tight turns. It also means that the rider can move the bike sideways, as the name suggests, such that the movement is perpendicular to the direction in which the frame points. Although this is possible, it is very difficult, as it is necessary for the rider to have extremely good balance and coordination.\n",
"Even when staying relatively motionless, a rider can balance a bike by the same principle. While performing a track stand, the rider can keep the line between the two contact patches under the combined center of mass by steering the front wheel to one side or the other and then moving forward and backward slightly to move the front contact patch from side to side as necessary. Forward motion can be generated simply by pedaling. Backwards motion can be generated the same way on a fixed-gear bicycle. Otherwise, the rider can take advantage of an opportune slope of the pavement or lurch the upper body backwards while the brakes are momentarily engaged.\n",
"A bicycle stays upright while moving forward by being steered so as to keep its center of mass over the wheels. This steering is usually provided by the rider, but under certain conditions may be provided by the bicycle itself.\n",
"If the steering of a bike is locked, it becomes virtually impossible to balance while riding. On the other hand, if the gyroscopic effect of rotating bike wheels is cancelled by adding counter-rotating wheels, it is still easy to balance while riding. One other way that a bike can be balanced, with or without locked steering, is by applying appropriate torques between the bike and rider similar to the way a gymnast can swing up from hanging straight down on uneven parallel bars, a person can start swinging on a swing from rest by pumping their legs, or a double inverted pendulum can be controlled with an actuator only at the elbow.\n",
"A bike remains upright when it is steered so that the ground reaction forces exactly balance all the other internal and external forces it experiences, such as gravitational if leaning, inertial or centrifugal if in a turn, gyroscopic if being steered, and aerodynamic if in a crosswind.\n"
] |
why (in the u.s) we are taxed twice, and in many cases a third time, on the same income? | There's nothing illegal for different taxation at different levels of government for different purposed. Different taxes are for different governing bodies, some are more regressive, some more progressive, some go to specific uses while others go to general revenue streams. The amount needed to be collected is the same, so whether it was a 50% state income tax that also got distributed to cities and the Federal gov't or paying 3 different levels of taxes don't change the totals... in fact they might be higher, because different levels have different types of credits, etc. Like you might lose mortgage interest deduction if you didn't pay the Feds directly. | [
"Taxes are most often levied as a percentage, called the \"tax rate\". An important distinction when talking about tax rates is to distinguish between the marginal rate and the effective tax rate. The effective rate is the total tax paid divided by the total amount the tax is paid on, while the marginal rate is the rate paid on the next dollar of income earned. For example, if income is taxed on a formula of 5% from $0 up to $50,000, 10% from $50,000 to $100,000, and 15% over $100,000, a taxpayer with income of $175,000 would pay a total of $18,750 in taxes.\n",
"Some systems tax some or all dividend income at lower rates than other income. The United States has historically provided a dividends received deduction to corporations with respect to dividends from other corporations in which the recipient owns more than 10% of the shares. For tax years 2004–2010, the United States also has imposed a reduced rate of taxation on dividends received by individuals.\n",
"Another case where income is not taxed as ordinary income is the case of qualified dividends. The general rule taxes dividends as ordinary income. A change allowing use of the same tax rates as is used for long term capital gains rates for qualified dividends was made with the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003. Qualified dividends are dividends paid by domestic corporations or by corporations from foreign countries that have a tax treaty with the United States. This rule applies under the condition that the corporation has included the dividends in its own taxable income. Thus pass-through corporations like REITs and REMICs would not distribute qualified dividends, and the dividends from those entities would be taxed at the ordinary income rates.\n",
"In jurisdictions where tax rates are progressive - meaning that income taxes as a percentage of income are higher for higher incomes or tax brackets, resulting in a higher marginal tax rate - this often results in lower taxes paid, regardless of the time value of money.\n",
"In the United States, ordinary income is taxed at the marginal tax rates. As of 2006, there are six \"tax brackets\" ranging from 10% to 35%. Ordinary income is taxed within the particular tax bracket listed on the rate schedules or tax tables as a percentage for each dollar within that bracket. However, after the 2003 Tax Cut, qualified dividends and long-term capital gains are taxed at the same rate of 15% (up to 20% after 2012).\n",
"The Income Tax Act 1942, was held to be valid despite the fact the rate was so high as to preclude the states from imposing income tax. As taxation is a non-purposive power, regardless of the object of the law, the subject matter was taxation, and hence valid under section 51(ii) of the Constitution.\n",
"Forty-three states and many localities in the U.S. impose an income tax on individuals. Forty-seven states and many localities impose a tax on the income of corporations. Tax rates vary by state and locality, and may be fixed or graduated. Most rates are the same for all types of income. State and local income taxes are imposed in addition to federal income tax. State income tax is allowed as a deduction in computing federal income, but is capped at $10,000 per household since the passage of the 2017 tax law. Prior to the change, the average deduction exceeded $10,000 in most of the Midwest, most of the Northeast, as well as California and Oregon.\n"
] |
I was told that there is so much historical proof of jesus' ressurection that you can't claim it didn't happen, how true is this? | **Commenters:** Please keep our commenting rules in mind as you respond to this. We've already had to remove a lot of comments that weren't up to the standards of the subreddit.
**OP:** We actually have this question asked from time to time, or questions like it. You might be interested in these previous posts:
* [So, what do we actually know about the life, existence, etcetera of the man called Jesus Christ?](_URL_0_)
* [What do we really know about Jesus Christ?](_URL_5_)
* [How is it that we can have so much concrete information on Ancient philosophers like Parmenides and Plato, yet so little on Jesus?](_URL_6_)
* [What are your views on the mentioning of Jesus in Josephus' histories? Added later by people copying it down or authentic?](_URL_3_)
* [I'd like a real historians critique of American Biblical scholar Joseph Atwill's "new discovery": ancient confessions recently uncovered now prove that the New Testament was written by first-century Roman aristocrats and that they fabricated the entire story of Jesus Christ.](_URL_4_)
* [What do we actually know about Jesus?](_URL_2_)
* [How much evidence is there for a historical jesus christ besides the bible?](_URL_1_)
| [
"Many testified falsely against Jesus, but their statements did not agree. At last two witnesses said they had heard Him saying He would destroy that temple and in three days built another, not made with hands, (He really had meant the resurrection of His body, as a temple of the Holy Spirit, destroyed by others but raise it up by Him). Yet even about this their testimony did not agree.\n",
"The theological explanation was proposed by Wrede: it was not yet the proper time for him to be revealed as such. He knew when he had to go to the court and then be crucified. In Mark 8:30 Jesus, \"Then strictly warned them that they should tell no one about Him.\" Jesus' messianic mission cannot be understood apart from the cross, which the disciples did not yet understand (vs. 31–33 and ch. 9 vs. 30–32). This theological explanation is supported by Matthew's explicit link between Pharisaic conspiracy to \"destroy\" Jesus and the latter's command to his followers \"not to make him known.\" Aware of the plot against him, Jesus \"withdrew from there\" and continued his healing ministry. Matthew goes one step ahead and claims that Jesus' conscious decision to fulfil his ministry by avoiding untimely conflict was a fulfilment of Isaiah's prophecy, Behold, my servant whom I have chosen, my beloved with whom my soul is well pleased. ... He will not quarrel or cry aloud, nor will anyone hear his voice in the streets; a bruised reed he will not break, and a smoldering wick he will not quench, until he brings justice to victory; and in his name the Gentiles will hope.The literary explanation theory has it that Mark made a conscious effort to identify Jesus with Odysseus, a Greek hero with whom Mark's gentile audience would certainly have been familiar. Odysseus, on his return home, has to disguise his identity to avoid his enemies, and in Mark the messianic secret could serve the same purpose for Jesus.\n",
"Paula Fredriksen, in \"From Jesus to Christ\", has suggested that Jesus' impact on his followers was so great that they could not accept this failure. According to the New Testament, some Christians believed that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion; they argued that he had been resurrected (the belief in the resurrection of the dead in the messianic age was a core Pharisaic doctrine), and would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment. Others adapted Gnosticism as a way to maintain the vitality and validity of Jesus' teachings (see Elaine Pagels, \"The Gnostic Gospels\"). Since early Christians believed that Jesus had already replaced the Temple as the expression of a new covenant, they were relatively unconcerned with the destruction of the Temple, though it came to be viewed as symbolic of the doctrine of supersessionism.\n",
"While consideration of the context is necessary when studying the Bible, some find the accounts of the Resurrection of Jesus within the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, difficult to reconcile. E. P. Sanders concludes that the inconsistencies make the possibility of a deliberate fraud unlikely: \"A plot to foster belief in the Resurrection would probably have resulted in a more consistent story. Instead, there seems to have been a competition: 'I saw him,' 'So did I,' 'The women saw him first,' 'No, I did; they didn't see him at all,' and so on.\"\n",
"when confronted with the resurrection account. Thomas' emphatic disbelief of the disciples' testimony intensified his resolution to seek physical evidence to convince him that the risen Jesus was the Jesus he had known. \n",
"This means that it is impossible to infer if Mara believed the resurrection happened or not, and leaves it up to speculation whether he was a Christian or a non-Christian who agreed with Christians as regarding Jesus as a \"wise king\" according to the Gospels. Given that the gospel portraits of Jesus' crucifixion place much of the blame for the execution of Jesus on the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate (with the Jewish mob merely acting as agitators), some Gospels do agree with the Jews being to blame. And referring to \"king of the Jews\" rather than the Savior or Son of God indicates that the impressions of Bar-Serapion were not formed by Christian sources, although Jewish Christians did call him the king of the Jews.\n",
"According to the New Testament, some Christians reported that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion. They argued that he had been resurrected (belief in the resurrection of the dead in the Messianic Age was a core Pharisaic doctrine), and would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment.\n"
] |
why do space craft enter the atmosphere at full velocity, requiring heat shields and risking burning up? | "at the expense of additional fuel"
That's a really big expense, both in cost and weight. Its just literally not economically viable right now to do it that way. Though things like space x are starting to work on it.
Right now it makes most economic sense to just let it burn and crash and rebuild it, because thats how much more expensive that extra fuel is. | [
"Spacecraft that land on a planet with an atmosphere, such as Earth, Mars, and Venus, currently do so by entering the atmosphere at high speeds, depending on air resistance rather than rocket power to slow them down. A side effect of this method of atmospheric re-entry is aerodynamic heating, which can be highly destructive to the structure of an unprotected or faulty spacecraft. An aerodynamic heat shield consists of a protective layer of special materials to dissipate the heat. Two basic types of aerodynamic heat shield have been used:\n",
"In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere, the hypersonic speeds involved (on Earth a speed of 11.2 km/s, or 40,320 km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag. For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface). In many cases, the spacecraft may be first placed in a parking orbit (e.g. a low Earth orbit at 160–2,000 km) and then accelerated to the escape velocity at that altitude, which will be slightly lower (about 11.0 km/s at a low Earth orbit of 200 km). The required additional change in speed, however, is far less because the spacecraft already has significant orbital velocity (in low Earth orbit speed is approximately 7.8 km/s, or 28,080 km/h).\n",
"During re-entry of spacecraft into the earth's atmosphere, the high velocity of the spacecraft together with friction and displacement of air molecules leads to temperatures of over 2000 °C. In order to not burn up, spaceships need very expensive and sometimes failing heat shields.\n",
"Intentional aerobraking is achieved by orienting the returning space craft so as to present the heat shields forward toward the atmosphere to protect against the high temperatures generated by atmospheric compression and friction caused by passing through the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds. The thermal energy is dissipated mainly by compression heating the air in a shockwave ahead of the vehicle using a blunt heat shield shape, with the aim of minimising the heat entering the vehicle.\n",
"Orbital spacecraft reentering the Earth's atmosphere must shed significant velocity, resulting in extreme heating. For example, the Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) protects the orbiter's interior structure from surface temperatures that reach as high as , well above the melting point of steel. Suborbital spaceplanes fly lower energy trajectories that do not put as much stress on the spacecraft thermal protection system.\n",
"Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its periapsis speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish aerobraking. There have also been theoretical proposals to use aerodynamic lift as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an aerogravity assist, could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.\n",
"Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at reentry, and in fact, are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed. Furthermore, slow-speed returns to Earth from near-space such as parachute jumps from balloons do not require heat shielding because the gravitational acceleration of an object starting at relative rest from within the atmosphere itself (or not far above it) cannot create enough velocity to cause significant atmospheric heating.\n"
] |
the earth is about 4.5 billion years old, but at what physical point do scientists classify a planet's age as 0? | When it started to be a planet.
To be a planet, it needs to fit three criteria:
A planet is an object in orbit around the Sun with a diameter greater than 2000 km.
A planet is an object in orbit around the Sun whose shape is stable due to its own gravity.
A planet is an object in orbit around the Sun that is dominant in its immediate neighbourhood.
So, basically, it needed to coalesce into a stable shape and clear out the immediate neighbourhood.
There's no hard-and-fast answer of when it "became" a planet. There's no point where you can say "Before this instant, it was not a planet, but now it is."
Just like how if you have a pile of seeds, and then take one seed away at a time, you can't say there's a specific time when taking away a single seed made it from a pile into something that isn't a pile anymore. Obviously if you have only one seed, it isn't a pile. Is two seeds a pile of seeds? Probably not. | [
"The age of the Earth is estimated to be 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years This age may represent the age of the Earth's accretion, of core formation, or of the material from which the Earth formed. This dating is based on evidence from radiometric age-dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the radiometric ages of the oldest-known terrestrial and lunar samples.\n",
"The age of the Earth (actually the Solar System) was first accurately measured around 1955 by Clair Patterson at 4.55 billion years, essentially identical to the modern value. For H ~ 75 (km/s)/Mpc, the inverse of H is 13.0 billion years; so after 1958 the Big Bang model age was comfortably older than the Earth.\n",
"BULLET::::- The age of the solar system, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4 billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862.\n",
"BULLET::::- The age of the solar system, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4 billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862.\n",
"Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The geology or \"deep time\" of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually marked by corresponding changes in the composition of strata which indicate major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older time spans, which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic eon), are defined by their absolute age.\n",
"Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old. The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the Apollo program.\n",
"Much of 19th-century geology revolved around the question of the Earth's exact age. Estimates varied from a few hundred thousand to billions of years. By the early 20th century, radiometric dating allowed the Earth's age to be estimated at two billion years. The awareness of this vast amount of time opened the door to new theories about the processes that shaped the planet.\n"
] |
How much body heat do you lose in your legs compared to your arms? And in your hands and feet? | heat loss is fairly uniform throughout the body. | [
"The burn percentage in adults can be estimated by applying the Wallace rule of nines (see total body surface area): 9% for each arm, 18% for each leg, 18% for the front of the torso, 18% for the back of the torso, and 9% for the head and 1% for the perineum.\n",
"Normally, extremities such as the hands are lower in temperature than the rest of the body, but if one can increase blood flow to the hands, that difference decreases. In France, those that possess this ability are said to have \"Solar Hands\".\n",
"BULLET::::- As the participant gains strength, they can increase their holding time by small increments such as 10 seconds. While a burning feeling in the quadriceps muscles is normal, if the participant feels even a little pain in their knee or kneecap, they should be advised to immediately stop the activity.\n",
"For example, a patient in a wheel chair who is using his arms but due to his paraplegia not his legs will suffer massive muscle and bone loss only in his legs due to the lack of usage of the legs. However the muscles and bones of the arms which are used every day will stay the same or might even be increased depending on the usage.\n",
"In some people, the body's mechanism for cooling itself is overactive—so overactive that they may sweat four or five times more than is typical. Millions of people are affected by this condition, but more than half never receive treatment due to embarrassment or lack of awareness. While it most commonly affects the armpits, feet, and hands, it is possible for someone to experience this condition over their whole body. The face is another common area for hyperhidrosis to be an issue. Sweating uncontrollably is not always expected and may be embarrassing to sufferers of the condition. It can cause both physiological and emotional problems in patients. It is generally an inherited problem that is found in each ethnic group. It is not life-threatening, but it is threatening to a person's quality of life.\n",
"Superficial arterio-venous anastomoses open when the body reaches a high temperature, and enable the body to cool itself. As warm arterial blood passes close to the surface it will decrease in temperature. This occurs together with sweating.\n",
"The lack of development to the circulatory system can leave the arm with almost no ability to regulate its temperature, which often proves problematic during winter months when it would need to be closely monitored to ensure that the temperature of the arm was not dropping too far below that of the rest of the body. However the damage to the circulatory system also leaves the arm with another problem. It reduces the healing ability of the skin, so that skin damage takes far longer than usual to heal, and infections in the arm can be quite common if cuts are not sterilized as soon as possible. This will often cause many problems for children since they often injure themselves in the course of their childhoods.\n"
] |
Theoretically could you implant cones into your eyes that would allow you to see colors you could previously not see? | Perhaps. Experiments have been done where new visual pigment proteins have been introduced into red-green colorblind monkeys, and afterwards the monkeys could distinguish colors that they were not able to previously. However, these experiments did not implant new cones into the monkey retinas. Instead new proteins were expressed in previously existing cones, and the circuitry already in place adapted to the new spectral properties of the photopigments.
See the [Neitz Lab website](_URL_0_) or their [published paper](_URL_1_) for more info. | [
"Neitz further states that since apparently \"the neural circuits can handle even higher dimensions of color vision that could come from artificially adding a fourth cone type, it is possible that gene therapy could also be used to extend normal human color vision\", making human trichromats into tetrachromats.\n",
"Experiments using a variety of mammals (including primates) demonstrated that it is possible to confer color vision to animals by introducing an opsin gene that the animal previously lacked. Using a replication-defective recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) as a vector, the cDNA of the opsin gene found in the L or M cones can be delivered to some fraction of the cones within the retina via subretinal injection. Upon gaining the gene, the cone begins to express the new photopigment. The effect of therapy lasts until the cones die or the inserted DNA is lost within the cones.\n",
"A previous important result shows that in adult primates it is possible to restore colour vision through an AAV gene therapy that introduced a new opsin in the primate retina. A mouse model of blue cone monochromacy has been treated with gene-based therapy.\n",
"Optometrists can supply colored spectacle lenses or a single red-tint contact lens to wear on the non-dominant eye, but although this may improve discrimination of some colors, it can make other colors more difficult to distinguish. A 1981 review of various studies to evaluate the effect of the X-chrom contact lens concluded that, while the lens may allow the wearer to achieve a better score on certain color vision tests, it did not correct color vision in the natural environment. A case history using the X-Chrom lens for a rod monochromat is reported and an X-Chrom manual is online.\n",
"An alternative way to permanently change the color of the eye is called bright ocular, and is achieved by placing an artificial silicon lens on top of the original iris. The clients can choose from a variety of colors and different designs and images. The method also makes it possible to remove the implant later in life to get the original eye color back.\n",
"BULLET::::1. Colors that would be seen if the output strengths of the human eye retina's three types of cone cell (red, green, blue) could be set to values which cannot be produced by exposing the eye in normal seeing conditions to any possible combination of strengths of the frequencies of visible light.\n",
"Traditionally ocularists hand paint the iris and sclera of an artificial eye. In the 1990s some ocularists began to use digital printing to enhance the natural appearance of the artificial eye. Digital artificial eyes are only made in a few ocularist offices. \n"
] |
What is happening on a microscopic level when I burn my toast? | [The Maillard Reaction](_URL_0_) | [
"The naked eye detects particle sizes greater than 7 µm (micrometres). Visible particles emitted from a fire are referred to as smoke. Invisible particles are generally referred to as gas or fumes. This is best illustrated when toasting bread in a toaster. As the bread heats up, the products of combustion increase in size. The fumes initially produced are invisible but become visible if the toast is burnt.\n",
"BULLET::::1. \"Toasting\": A piece was broken from the tea brick and usually first toasted over a fire. This was probably done to sanitize the tea brick and destroy any mold or insect infestation that may have occurred when the bricks were stored uncovered in warehouses and storerooms or in covered jars underground. Toasting also imparted a pleasant flavor to the resulting beverage.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Toasting\": Tea bricks are usually first toasted over a fire to destroy any mould or insects that may have burrowed into the tea bricks. Such infestation sometimes occurred since the bricks were stored openly in warehouses and storerooms. Toasting likely imparted a pleasant flavour to the resulting tea.\n",
"Toast, being an inanimate object, lacks both the ability and the desire to right itself. A study at Manchester Metropolitan University involving dropping 100 slices under laboratory conditions established that toast typically lands on the floor butter-side-down as a result of the manner in which it is typically dropped from a table, and the aerodynamic drag caused by the air pockets within the bread. The toast is typically butter-side-up when dropped. As it falls, it rotates; given the typical speed of rotation and the typical height of a table, a slice of toast that began butter-side-up on the table will land butter-side-down on the floor in 81% of cases.\n",
"Toast is a play written in 1999 by English playwright Richard Bean. It premiered at the Royal Court Theatre, London in 1999. The play tells the story of seven men who all work in a bread factory in Hull. One Sunday night, Nellie is so worn down from a lifetime making dough, he loses his vest in the mix.\n",
"The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around . Many recipes call for an oven temperature high enough to ensure that a Maillard reaction occurs. At higher temperatures, caramelization (the browning of sugars, a distinct process) and subsequently pyrolysis (final breakdown leading to burning) become more pronounced.\n",
"In the past, this has often been considered just a pessimistic belief. A 1991 study by the BBC's television series \"Q.E.D.\" found that when toast is tossed into the air, it lands butter-side down just one-half of the time (as would be predicted by chance). However, several scientific studies have found that when toast is dropped from a table (as opposed to being thrown in the air), it more often falls butter-side down. A study by Robert Matthews won the Ig Nobel Prize for physics in 1996.\n"
] |
If I weigh X and add Y weight to my body during exercise, do I burn the same calories as a person who weights X+Y? | You will be burning slightly fewer calories. The reason for this is that all body mass needs to burn calories constantly to maintain normal life processes, but if you put on the vest, the vest would not need to burn calories. | [
"A permanent routine of exercise, eating healthily, and, during periods of being overweight, consuming the same number or fewer calories than used will prevent and help fight obesity. A single pound of fat yields approximately 3500 calories of energy (32 000 kJ energy per kilogram of fat), and weight loss is achieved by reducing energy intake, or increasing energy expenditure, thus achieving a negative balance. Adjunctive therapies which may be prescribed by a physician are orlistat or sibutramine, although the latter has been associated with increased cardiovascular events and strokes and has been withdrawn from the market in the US, the UK, the EU, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Thailand, Egypt and Mexico.\n",
"Like other forms of exercise, step aerobics helps burn calories and fat. The number of calories burned depends on the speed of movements, step height, length of exercise, and the persons height and weight.\n",
"BULLET::::- Fitness mode is similar to Endurance mode. Weight is entered at the beginning which can be altered to the player's own weight, which can range from 10.00 kg to 200 kg. There is a calorie counter on the screen and mis-stepping displays \"Pork Out\" and \"Gettin' Flabby\" instead of \"Miss\". When a song is finished, the screen shows the number of calories burned and how far one would have to jog, swim or cycle to burn off the same number of calories burnt.\n",
"Although students do gain weight in college, they can always burn it off by exercising and eating right. Overall meaning limiting how much they eat out and the junk food they pact into their body system. Students can prevent the ‘freshman 15’ if only they put effort and hard work for a healtheir body or image.\n",
"In addition to improving performance through healthy eating, some athletes will seek to lose weight through dieting and aerobic exercise. By losing fat they hope to achieve a higher \"strength-to-mass ratio\" or \"lean weight.\" This means more muscle and less fat, and should theoretically give them an advantage against other athletes of the same weight.\n",
"Weight loss is achieved by adopting a lifestyle in which fewer calories are consumed than are expended. According to the UK National Health Service this is best achieved by monitoring calories eaten and supplementing this with physical exercise.\n",
"All participants were instructed to follow a diet with a 300 kcal deficit and to increase their physical activity gradually to 30–60 minutes of exercise per day. The placebo-subtracted mean weight losses were 4.5%, 9.2% and 10.6% in the 0.25 mg, 0.5 mg and 1 mg dose groups, respectively. This is approximately twice the weight loss produced by medications currently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of obesity.\n"
] |
Why is it when I close one eye, the vision in my open one appears to have "Warm" colors, and the other appears to have "Cool" colors? | My photography expertise is usable here!
So see this. When you close an eyelid, the sunlight is filtering trough a blood lined flap of skin. This makes the "warm"(sub 4300kelvin" light look even warmer.
See, our eyes adjust the "white balance" of our surroundings. That's why when you walk into a room lit with compact fluorescent bulbs it all seems green but after a few minutes it looks pure white in the room. Our eyes adjust to the color balance and shift to where grey really actual looks grey with no tinge.
So seeing all this ultra warm light thru your closed eye makes your brain balance the light to with a lot of blue. The blue is apparent when you open your eye and look at a white object.
Your eye that was open, Is perfectly balanced. But when you compare, it seems very warm.
Sources: 5 years of photography and 17 years of staring at the sun. | [
"Warm colors (red, orange, and yellow) are signs of warmness and can increase the temperature in a confined area. These colors are associated with danger, threat, warning, and movement and the way they affect the brain they increase metabolism and heat in the body and put it on alert which from Iranian traditional medicine point of view are sign of excessive heat.\n",
"The \"temperature\" of a color also affects its perceived depth. Warm colors have red or yellow tones (including orange and yellow-green) and are associated psychologically with warmth and energy. Cool colors have more bluish undertones (including purples, aquas and greens) and are associated psychologically with serene, calm personalities. Warm colors tend to advance relative to cool colors, when both are presented simultaneously.\n",
"The obvious properties we can see when we look at an isolated colour and let it act alone, on one side is the warmth or coldness of the colour tone, and on the other side is the clarity or obscurity of that tone. Warmth is a tendency towards yellow, and coldness a tendency towards blue; yellow and blue form the first great, dynamic contrast. Yellow has an \"eccentric\" movement and blue a \"concentric\" movement; a yellow surface seems to move closer to us, while a blue surface seems to move away. Yellow is a typically terrestrial colour, whose violence can be painful and aggressive. Blue is a celestial colour, evoking a deep calm. The combination of blue and yellow yields total immobility and calm, which is green.\n",
"The distinction between \"warm\" and \"cool\" colors has been important since at least the late 18th century. The difference (as traced by etymologies in the Oxford English Dictionary), seems related to the observed contrast in landscape light, between the \"warm\" colors associated with daylight or sunset, and the \"cool\" colors associated with a gray or overcast day. Warm colors are often said to be hues from red through yellow, browns and tans included; cool colors are often said to be the hues from blue green through blue violet, most grays included. There is historical disagreement about the colors that anchor the polarity, but 19th-century sources put the peak contrast between red orange and greenish blue.\n",
"BULLET::::- Hyperbolic colors: these are impossibly highly saturated. For example, to see \"hyperbolic orange\": staring at bright cyan causes an orange afterimage, then on looking at orange, the resulting orange afterimage seen against the orange background may cause an orange color purer than the purest orange color that can be made by any normally-seen light. Or, staring at something pure magenta in bright sunlight for two minutes or more, thus temporarily making the red and blue cones less sensitive, and then looking at green leaves, may result in briefly seeing an unnaturally pure green afterimage.\n",
"Color theory has described perceptual and psychological effects to this contrast. Warm colors are said to advance or appear more active in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede; used in interior design or fashion, warm colors are said to arouse or stimulate the viewer, while cool colors calm and relax. Most of these effects, to the extent they are real, can be attributed to the higher saturation and lighter value of warm pigments in contrast to cool pigments; brown is a dark, unsaturated warm color that few people think of as visually active or psychologically arousing.\n",
"Therefore, those with cold \"Mizaj\" who normally have slow metabolism, and feel sluggish had better use warm color for their clothes and houses while for people with warm \"Mizaj\" the reverse is true. People with warm temperament who are normally vibrant, brisk, lively and stressed should avoid using such colors and use cool colors such as white, blue, and light green. Such cool hues can bring about a more passive reaction in the brain and can make a person feel pleased and relaxed. Accordingly, cool colors do not suit people with cold temperament.\n"
] |
What was going on in China that so many of them migrated to work for the railroads in the U.S.? | The Taiping Rebellion started in 1850. It was fairly bloody, even by Chinese standards. The effects of that rebellion also inspired others to rebel and there were associated problems with flooding and famine. _URL_0_ | [
"Starting with the California Gold Rush in the middle 19th century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states— enlisted large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. Early Chinese immigrant worked as gold miners, and later on subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. The decline of the Qing Dynasty in China, instability and poverty caused many Chinese, especially from the province of Guangdong, to emigrate overseas in search of a more stable life, and this coincided with the rapid growth of American industry. The Chinese were considered by employers as \"reliable\" workers who would continue working, without complaint, even under destitute conditions.\n",
"Starting with the California Gold Rush in the late 19th century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states—imported large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. Early Chinese immigrant worked as gold miners, and later on subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. The decline of the Qing Dynasty in China caused many Chinese to emigrate overseas in search of a more stable life, and this coincided with the rapid growth of American industry. The Chinese were considered by employers as \"reliable\" workers who would continue working, without complaint, even under destitute conditions.\n",
"Asian immigrants—Chinese at this time—were hired by California construction companies for temporary railroad work. The European Americans strongly disliked the Chinese for their alien life-styles and threat of low wages. The construction of the Central Pacific Railroad from California to Utah was handled largely by Chinese laborers. In the 1870 census, there were 63,000 Chinese men (with a few women) in the entire U.S.; this number grew to 106,000 in 1880. Labor unions, led by Samuel Gompers strongly opposed the presence of Chinese labor. Immigrants from China were not allowed to become citizens until 1950; however, as a result of the Supreme Court decision in United States v. Wong Kim Ark, their children born in the U.S. were full citizens.\n",
"The mostly male Chinese immigrants came to the United States with the intent of sending money home to support their families; coupled with the high cost of repaying their loans for travel, they often had to take any work that was available. Fears began to arise among non-Chinese workers that they could be replaced, and resentment towards Chinese immigrants rose. With extensive nationwide unemployment in the wake of the Panic of 1873, racial tensions in the city boiled over into full blown race riots. The two-day San Francisco riot of 1877 raged through Chinatown in July; four were killed and in property damage was done to Chinese-owned businesses. In response to the violence, the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, also known as the Chinese Six Companies, which evolved out of the labor recruiting organizations for different areas of Guangdong, was created to provide the community with a unified voice. The heads of these companies advocated for the Chinese community to the wider business community as a whole and to the city government.\n",
"After exclusion, existing Chinese immigrants were further excluded from agricultural labor by racial hostility, and as jobs in railroad construction declined, they increasingly moved into self-employment as laundry workers, store and restaurant owners, traders, merchants, and wage laborers; and they congregated in Chinatowns established in California and across the country.\n",
"Although freight demand to China gradually fell, the influx of people from China continued due to the Chinese Civil War. Through-train passenger services to China stopped on 14 October 1949, the day prior to the capture of Canton by the Communists. Passengers and goods then had to be transhipped at the border. Despite the inconvenience that this caused, the railway benefitted by Hong Kong becoming the centre of communications and trade with southern China, especially as much of the traffic that had hitherto gone by sea could no longer do so. Refugees fleeing the new communist government of China also often settled in squatter areas along the railway, and this, together with an increase in the British Army's presence, added to domestic travel demand in Hong Kong.\n",
"Many workers from Guangdong Province (mainly Taishanese people and Pearl River Delta peoples) arrived to help build the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 19th century as did Chinese veterans of the gold rushes. These workers accepted the terms offered by the Chinese labour contractors who were engaged by the railway construction company to hire them—low pay, long hours, lower wages than non-Chinese workers and dangerous working conditions, in order to support their families that stayed in China. Their willingness to endure hardship for low wages enraged fellow non-Chinese workers who thought they were unnecessarily complicating the labour market situations. From the passage of the Chinese Immigration Act in 1885, the Canadian government began to charge a substantial head tax for each Chinese person trying to immigrate to Canada. The Chinese were the only ethnic group that had to pay such a tax. Owing to the fear of the \"Yellow Peril\", in 1895 the government of Mackenzie Bowell passed an act forbidding any Asian-Canadian from voting or holding office.\n"
] |
what did it cost to go see an actual mozart opera? | I can't seem to find any really solid sources right now, and all my books are still at school (I'm home from college on break right now), but I have studied music history quite a bit, so I can at least give you an answer to your question, even though I can't really give you further places to look currently. I can also give you [this list](_URL_0_) which is pretty accurate despite being from wikipedia
Basically, Mozart had two separate audiences for his operas. Some operas were performed at palaces and sponsored by the archduke or other royalty. Such performances would have been free for the guests of the archduke, but would have been available only to royalty. Other performances took place at public opera houses, which were a new phenomenon at the time. These new public opera houses offered entertainment to the working class at relatively affordable prices- something akin to the price of a movie today.
Mozart's time is interesting because it is right around the time when music was transitioning from being sponsored by the aristocracy in Europe to being sponsored by the public. Mozart made most of his money through commissions by the aristocracy, as did all composers before him. He was one of the first composers to experiment with composing music for public consumption- that is, not by commission. He would work with public opera houses to put on performances which he would not be guaranteed to make any money from, because revenue was based on ticket sales, not a commission from a duke or some other noble figure.
I hope this begins to answer your question. Basically, if you were already rich, seeing Mozart's music didn't cost anything, because you would be invited to see it at a palace for free. If you were poor, it was about the cost of a movie ticket today, but it would be standing in a room for up to five hours. And no, it didn't include snacks (though I believe those could be purchased or brought to the theatre)
If you add any more specific questions as replies to my comment, I am happy to answer as quickly as I can. I will also work on finding some solid sources so you can verify. | [
"Although the opera greatly raised Mozart's standing with the public as a composer, it did not make him rich: he was paid a flat fee of 100 Imperial ducats (about 450 florins) for his work, and made no profits from the many subsequent performances.\n",
"The Imperial Italian opera company paid Mozart 450 florins for the work; this was three times his (low) yearly salary when he had worked as a court musician in Salzburg. Da Ponte was paid 200 florins.\n",
"With substantial returns from his concerts and elsewhere, Mozart and his wife adopted a rather luxurious lifestyle. They moved to an expensive apartment, with a yearly rent of 460 florins. Mozart bought a fine fortepiano from Anton Walter for about 900 florins, and a billiard table for about 300. The Mozarts sent their son Karl Thomas to an expensive boarding school and kept servants. Saving was therefore impossible, and the short period of financial success did nothing to soften the hardship the Mozarts were later to experience.\n",
"However, in 2009 the musicologist Michael Lorenz showed that at the time when Mozart pretended to be in dire straits, he had certainly not reduced his expenses (as claimed in one of his letters to Puchberg), but lived in a spacious apartment on the Alsergrund that cost him 250 Gulden a year. At that time he also owned a carriage and a horse. Thus there is a good case to assume that Mozart might have vastly exaggerated his financial problems just to get money from Puchberg.\n",
" The opera was a huge success. The first two performances brought in the large sum of 1200 florins, three times what Mozart's salary had been for his old job in Salzburg. The work was repeatedly performed in Vienna during Mozart's lifetime, and throughout German-speaking Europe. In 1787, Goethe wrote (concerning his own efforts as a librettist):\n",
"The journey took place during a difficult period of Mozart's career when he was no longer earning much money from concerts, and his income from the composition of operas had not made up the difference. He was borrowing money, for example from his friend Michael Puchberg, and the financial situation was very worrisome.\n",
"BULLET::::- The first public performance of Mozart's Requiem took place in the hall on 2 January 1793. This was a benefit concert on behalf of Mozart's widow Constanze, organized by Mozart's patron Gottfried van Swieten; it raised \"more than 300 golden ducats\" (about 1350 florins, a substantial sum) to support Constanze and her two sons.\n"
] |
why do ladybugs seem to appear inside every time the temperature drops? | These insects, among quite a few others are doing something called over wintering. I'm short, they are looking for shelter. Homes/buildings are about the best fit for that. So as the temp drops they look for these places to survive. You'll actually end up seeing activity change with temp, sometimes with recurrences!
This is actually a pretty big topic that gets complicated fast. Especially when it comes to helping prevent these pests.
I'm a certified pest control technician.
Edit: you living in a new house has nothing to do with it. You can caulk and seal holes to help reduce activity, and residual pesticide treatments in key areas before the first real good drop in temp can help. | [
"A newly hatched ladybug is bullied by group of flies and attempts to fly away, but the flies chase after it. The ladybug crashs and breaks off a wing. Unable to locate its family, the ladybug shelters in a tin for the night. The tin is full of sugar cubes, part of an abandoned picnic. In the morning, various bugs are carrying off the spoils of the picnic. A foraging patrol of black ants find the sugar and start carrying off the tin, with the ladybug still inside, to their nest. The ants encounter a patrol of red ants and give them a sugar cube as a peace offering, but the red ants pursue them for the rest of the sugar. The black ants escape by sliding down an embankment and into a stream on the tin. The ladybug falls overboard and the ants rescue it from becoming a hungry fish's lunch. The red ants pursue them down stream in a soda can. They all go over a waterfall and the tin washes up on the shore down stream. The black ants pick up the sugar cubes and start hauling them back to their nest.\n",
"They often congregate in sunlit areas because of the heat available, so even on fairly cold winter days, some of the hibernating beetles will \"wake up\" because of solar heating. These large populations can be problematic because they can form swarms and linger in an area for a long time. These beetles can form groups that tend to stay in upper corners of windows. This beetle has been also found to be attracted to dark screening material for its warmth. This beetle has good eyesight; it will return from a location to which it is removed, and is known to give a small bite if provoked.\n",
"During certain times of the year boxelder bugs cluster together in large groups while sunning themselves on warm surfaces near their host tree (e.g. on rocks, shrubs, trees, and man-made structures). This is especially a problem in the fall when they are seeking a warm place to overwinter. Large numbers are often seen congregating on houses seeking an entry point. Once they have gained access, they remain inactive behind siding and inside of walls while the weather is cool. Once the home's heating system becomes active for the season, the insects may falsely perceive it to be springtime and enter inhabited parts of the home in search of food and water. Once inside inhabited areas of a home, their excreta may stain upholstery, carpets, drapes, and they may feed on certain types of house plants. In the spring, the bugs leave their winter hibernation locations to feed and lay eggs on maple or ash trees. Clustered masses of boxelder bugs may be seen again at this time, and depending on the temperature, throughout the summer. Their outdoor congregation habits and indoor excreta deposits are perceived as a nuisance by many people, therefore boxelder bugs are often considered pests. However, boxelder bugs are harmless to people and pets. The removal of boxelder trees and maple trees can help control boxelder bug populations. Spiders are minor predators, but because of the boxelder bug's chemical defenses few birds or other animals will eat them. Boxelder bug populations are not affected by any major diseases or parasites.\n",
"Insects are well hidden in winter, but there are several locations in which they can reliably be found. Ladybugs practice communal hibernation by stacking one on top of one another on stumps and under rocks to share heat and buffer themselves against winter temperatures. The female grasshopper (family Tettigoniidae [long-horned]), in an attempt to keep her eggs safe through the winter, tunnels into the soil and deposits her eggs as deep as possible in the ground. Many other insects, including various butterflies and moths also overwinter in soil in the egg stage. Some adult beetles hibernate underground during winter; many flies overwinter in the soil as pupae. Other methods of hibernation include the inhabitance of bark, where insects nest more toward the southern side of the tree for heat provided by the sun. Cocoons, galls, and parasitism are also common methods of hibernation.\n",
"Tule fog is characteristically confined mainly to the Central Valley due to the mountain ranges surrounding it. Because of the density of the cold air in the winter, winds are not able to dislodge the fog and the high pressure of the warmer air above the mountaintops presses down on the cold air trapped in the valley, resulting in a dense, immobile fog that can last for days or at times for weeks undisturbed. Tule fog often contains light drizzle or freezing drizzle where temperatures are sufficiently cold.\n",
"Research, published in January 2010 using HiRISE images, found that some of the channels in spiders grow larger as they go uphill since gas is doing the erosion. The researchers also found that the gas flows to a crack that has occurred at a weak point in the ice. As soon as the sun rises above the horizon, gas from the spiders blows out dust which is blown by wind to form a dark fan shape. Some of the dust gets trapped in the channels. Eventually frost covers all the fans and channels until the next spring when the cycle repeats.\n",
"Although this phenomenon is not fully understood, it is theorized that the event is caused when rain evaporates (virga) into a parcel of cold, dry air high in the atmosphere- making the air denser than its surroundings. The parcel descends rapidly, warming due to compression, overshoots its equilibrium level and reaches the surface, similar to a downburst.\n"
] |
why are pretzels shaped like... well, pretzels? where did that shape originate from? | Can't remember specifics but something about nuns creating a shape that looked like children folding arms. | [
"A pretzel () () () is a type of baked bread product made from dough most commonly shaped into a twisted knot. The traditional pretzel shape is a distinctive symmetrical form, with the ends of a long strip of dough intertwined and then twisted back into itself in a certain way (a pretzel loop). In modern times, pretzels come in a range of different shapes. \n",
"The pretzel shape is used for a variety of sweet pastries made of different types of dough (flaky, brittle, soft, crispy) with a variety of toppings (icing, nuts, seeds, cinnamon). Around Christmas, they can be made of soft gingerbread (\"Lebkuchen\") with chocolate coating. In southern Germany and adjoining German-speaking areas, pretzels have retained their original religious meanings and are still used in various traditions and festivals. In some areas, on January 1, people give each other lightly sweetened yeast pretzels for good luck and good fortune. These \"New Year's pretzels\" are made in different sizes and can have a width of and more. Sometimes children visit their godparents to fetch their New Years pretzel. On May 1, love-struck boys used to paint a pretzel on the doors of the adored. On the other hand, an upside-down pretzel would have been a sign of disgrace. Especially Catholic areas, such as Austria, Bavaria, or some parts of Swabia, the \"Palm pretzel\" is made for Palm Sunday celebrations. Sizes can range from up to and they can weigh up to . An old tradition on Palm Sunday dating back to 1533 is the outdoor pretzel market (\"Brezgenmarkt\") in the Hungerbrunnen Valley near Heldenfingen.\n",
"German \"pretzels\" (which are soft and formed into rings or long rectangular shapes) are somewhat similar to bagels in texture, the main exceptions being the shape and the alkaline water bath that makes the surface dark and glossy.\n",
"There are numerous unreliable accounts regarding the origin of pretzels, as well as the origin of the name; most assume that they have Christian backgrounds and were invented by European monks. According to legend, as cited by several sources, including \"The History of Science and Technology\", by Bryan Bunch and Alexander Hellemans, in 610 AD \"... [a]n Italian monk invents pretzels as a reward to children who learn their prayers. He calls the strips of baked dough, folded to resemble arms crossing the chest, 'pretiola' (\"little reward[s]\")\". However, there is no known historical evidence to verify this claim. Another source locates the invention in a monastery in southern France. In Germany, there are stories that pretzels were the invention of desperate bakers held hostage by local dignitaries. \n",
"The pretzel has been in use as an emblem of bakers and formerly their guilds in southern German areas since at least the 12th century. A 12th-century illustration in the \"Hortus deliciarum\" from the southwest German Alsace region (today France) may contain the earliest depiction of a pretzel. \n",
"The pretzel has become an element in popular culture, both as a food staple, and its unique knotted twist shape which has inspired ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena. Although historically, the pretzel has influenced culture, it has recently been heavily influenced by mass media.\n",
"Hard pretzels originated in the United States, where, in 1850, the Sturgis bakery in Lititz, Pennsylvania, became the first commercial hard pretzel bakery. Snack food hard pretzels are made in the form of loops, braids, letters, little pretzels, or sticks around thick and long; they have become a popular snack in many countries around the world. A thicker variety of sticks can be thick; in the U. S. these are called Bavarian pretzels or pretzel rods. Unlike the soft pretzels, these were durable when kept in an airtight environment and marketable in a variety of convenience stores. Large-scale production began in the first half of the 1900s, more so during 1930 to 1950. A prime example was in 1949, when highly innovative American Machine and Foundry Co., of New York City, developed the \"pretzel bender\": a new automatic crispy-styled baked pretzel-twisting machine that rolled and tied them at the rate of 50 a minute—more than twice as fast as skilled hand twisters could make them—and conveyed them through the baking and salting process. \n"
] |
why does software randomly not work or crash at times but is fine after a restart? | Computer programs ALWAYS have bugs, it's the nature of programming as software is usually so complicated with thousands upon thousands of lines of code, some situations weren't thought about or someone just made a mistake when making it. Little bugs often exist that cause programs to become unstable over time, and there isn't anything built into the software to detect that it's unstable and fix the problem on it's own. Restarting the program clears out everything and starts fresh, as it was before it got into that unstable state. As far as restarting your computer, everything on your computer is software, and is included in the above description including your operating system (windows, mac, linux) and your drivers which are software that lets your operating system talk to the hardware and accessories it's working with. | [
"Crash-only software also has benefits for end-users. All too often, applications do not save their data and settings while running, only at the end of their use. For example, word processors usually save settings when they are closed. A crash-only application is designed to save all changed user settings soon after they are changed, so that the persistent state matches that of the running machine. No matter how an application terminates (be it a clean close or the sudden failure of a laptop battery), the state will persist.\n",
"Crash-only software refers to computer programs that handle failures by simply restarting, without attempting any sophisticated recovery. Correctly written components of crash-only software can microreboot to a known-good state without the help of a user. Since failure-handling and normal startup use the same methods, this can increase the chance that bugs in failure-handling code will be noticed, except when there are leftover artifacts, such as data corruption from a severe failure, that don't occur during normal startup.\n",
"Normal maintenance of software and systems may also cause software rot. In particular, when a program contains multiple parts which function at arm's length from one another, failing to consider how changes to one part affect the others may introduce bugs.\n",
"As software is updated or changed, or reused on a modified target, emergence of new faults and/or re-emergence of old faults is quite common. Sometimes re-emergence occurs because a fix gets lost through poor revision control practices (or simple human error in revision control). Often, a fix for a problem will be \"fragile\" in that it fixes the problem in the narrow case where it was first observed but not in more general cases which may arise over the lifetime of the software. Frequently, a fix for a problem in one area inadvertently causes a software bug in another area. Finally, it may happen that, when some feature is redesigned, some of the same mistakes that were made in the original implementation of the feature are made in the redesign.\n",
"An application typically crashes when it performs an operation that is not allowed by the operating system. The operating system then triggers an exception or signal in the application. Unix applications traditionally responded to the signal by dumping core. Most Windows and Unix GUI applications respond by displaying a dialogue box (such as the one shown to the right) with the option to attach a debugger if one is installed. Some applications attempt to recover from the error and continue running instead of exiting.\n",
"If the program receiving the error does not handle it, the operating system performs a default action, typically involving the termination of the running process that caused the error condition, and notifying the user that the program has malfunctioned. Recent versions of Windows often report such problems by simply stating something like \"this program must close\" (an experienced user or programmer with access to a debugger can still retrieve detailed information). Recent Windows versions also write a minidump (similar in principle to a core dump) describing the state of the crashed process. UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems report these conditions to the user with error messages such as \"segmentation violation\", or \"bus error\", and may also produce a core dump.\n",
"Software failures are a more likely cause of unplanned systems outages compared to hardware failures. This is because software exhibits over time an increasing failure rate due to data corruption, numerical error accumulation and unlimited resource consumption. In widely used and specialized software, a common action to clear a problem is rebooting because aging occurs due to the complexity of software which is never free of errors. It is almost impossible to fully verify that a piece of software is bug-free. Even high-profile software such as Windows and macOS must receive continual updates to improve performance and fix bugs. Software development tends to be driven by the need to meet release deadlines rather than to ensure long-term reliability. Designing software that can be immune to aging is difficult. Not all software will age at the same rate as some users use the system more intensively than others.\n"
] |
how is it possible for light to not have reached us from parts of the universe yet? | The limit of Speed of Light only applies to particles moving through spacetime, it does not apply to spacetime itself. Two points in spacetime can be pushed apart by the expansion of the universe faster than the speed of light. The further any two points in spacetime are from each other, the faster they move apart based on the expansion of the universe, so for every point in the universe, there is horizon beyond which all points are moving away from it faster than the speed of light, and no light emitted from those points over the horizon will ever reach the former. | [
"Some parts of the universe are too far away for the light emitted since the Big Bang to have had enough time to reach Earth or its scientific space-based instruments, and so lie outside the observable universe. In the future, light from distant galaxies will have had more time to travel, so additional regions will become observable. However, due to Hubble's law, regions sufficiently distant from the Earth are expanding away from it faster than the speed of light (special relativity prevents nearby objects in the same local region from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, but there is no such constraint for distant objects when the space between them is expanding; see uses of the proper distance for a discussion) and furthermore the expansion rate appears to be accelerating due to dark energy. Assuming dark energy remains constant (an unchanging cosmological constant), so that the expansion rate of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a \"future visibility limit\" beyond which objects will \"never\" enter our observable universe at any time in the infinite future, because light emitted by objects outside that limit would never reach the Earth. (A subtlety is that, because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can be cases where a galaxy that is receding from the Earth just a bit faster than light does emit a signal that reaches the Earth eventually.) This future visibility limit is calculated at a comoving distance of 19 billion parsecs (62 billion light-years), assuming the universe will keep expanding forever, which implies the number of galaxies that we can ever theoretically observe in the infinite future (leaving aside the issue that some may be impossible to observe in practice due to redshift, as discussed in the following paragraph) is only larger than the number currently observable by a factor of 2.36.\n",
"The only objects not in causal contact are those for which there is no event in the history of the universe that could have sent a beam of light to both. For example, if the universe were not expanding and had existed for 10 billion years, anything more than 20 billion light-years away from the earth would not be in causal contact with it. Anything less than 20 billion light-years away \"would\" because an event occurring 10 billion years in the past that was 10 billion light-years away from both the earth and the object under question could have affected both. \n",
"By thinking of photons of light as ants crawling along the rubber rope of space between the galaxy and us, we can see that just as the ant can eventually reach the end of the rope, so light from distant galaxies, even some that appear to be receding at a speed greater than the speed of light, can eventually reach Earth, given sufficient time.\n",
"This puzzle has a bearing on the question of whether light from distant galaxies can ever reach us given the metric expansion of space. The universe is expanding, which leads to increasing distances to other galaxies, and galaxies that are far enough away from us will have an apparent relative motion greater than the speed of light. It might seem that light leaving such a distant galaxy could never reach us.\n",
"Just before recombination, the baryonic matter in the universe was at a temperature where it formed a hot ionized plasma. Most of the photons in the universe interacted with electrons and protons, and could not travel significant distances without interacting with ionized particles. As a result, the universe was opaque or \"foggy\". Although there was light, it was not possible to see, nor can we observe that light through telescopes.\n",
"Since light is deflected in a gravitational field, it is possible for the light of a distant object to reach an observer along two or more paths. For instance, light of a very distant object such as a quasar can pass along one side of a massive galaxy and be deflected slightly so as to reach an observer on Earth, while light passing along the opposite side of that same galaxy is deflected as well, reaching the same observer from a slightly different direction. As a result, that particular observer will see one astronomical object in two different places in the night sky. This kind of focussing is well known when it comes to optical lenses, and hence the corresponding gravitational effect is called gravitational lensing.\n",
"\"I have spoken at times of a light in the soul, a light that is uncreated and uncreatable... to the extent that we can deny ourselves and turn away from created things, we shall find our unity and blessing in that little spark in the soul, which neither space nor time touches.\"\n"
] |
How do athletes seemingly tear their ACLs so easily during non-contact portions of their respective sports? | The others posting here have done a really good job of explaining so far, but I'll fill in with a little more information.
The ACL is most commonly torn when the knee bends backwards too far, or moves too far to the side. This is easily something you can do yourself, simply by turning sharply, stopping, any number of non-contact movements that create flexion at the knee can result in a torn ACL.
The [wiki](_URL_0_) here is actually surprisingly good in comparison to most orthopedic wiki's. | [
"One sports injury that is becoming prevalent in contact sports, particularly in the sport of American football, is called a \"stinger.\" An athlete can incur this injury in a collision that can cause cervical axial compression, flexion, or extension of nerve roots or terminal branches of the brachial plexus. In a study conducted on football players at United States Military Academy, researchers found that the most common mechanism of injury is, \"the compression of the fixed brachial plexus between the shoulder pad and the superior medial scapula when the pad is pushed into the area of Erb's point, where the brachial plexus is most superficial.\". The result of this is a \"burning\" or \"stinging\" pain that radiates from the region of the neck to the fingertips. Although this injury causes only a temporary sensation, in some cases it can cause chronic symptoms.\n",
"In the Australian Football League (AFL) injuries are now very common and consistent due to the game been a contact sport. The Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) knee injury is one of the three major and common injuries that occur in the AFL. The ACL injury has long-term effects on the player, not only in physical activity but also in their own daily lives in the future. Studies have attempted to understand and work out a prevention for ACL injuries but it is too complicated. Once a player has injured their ACL, there is a very high possibility that the injury can occur again to the same knee. There is even the chance of the opposite knee been injured due to the fact the player protecting the reconstructed knee.\n",
"Female athletes are two to eight times more likely to strain their ACL in sports that involve cutting and jumping as compared to men who play the same particular sports. NCAA data has found relative rates of injury per 1000 athlete exposures as follows:\n",
"The process of an ACL injury where no contact from a player is applied is mostly due to the player landing on the surface after going up for a mark. Dependent on the hardness of the surface or the quality of the grass and how well the player lands will impact on the injury.\n",
"Patellar tendinitis (knee pain) is considered an overused injury that also happens to other athletes of virtually every sport. It is a common problem that football players develop and can usually be treated by a quadriceps strengthening program. Jumping activities place particularly high strains on the tendon and with repetitive jumping, tearing and injury of the tendon can occur. The chronic injury and healing response results in inflammation and localized pain.\n",
"AFL is said to be a contact sport, which it is, but not every Anterior cruciate ligament injury occurs due to contact. Studies show that out of 34 ACL injuries assessed, 56% of injuries were due to no contact situations. These studies showed that ACL injuries occur most of the time due to type of movement, change of direction resulting in the knee to give way, speed of player, angle of the knee when landing and the lack of stability the player has. All AFL footballers wear boots with studs at the bottom of them; this creates grip and friction with the player and the surface. Although boots help the player play football, it creates an increase in risk of injury to the ACL.\n",
"An ACL tear is one of the most common knee injuries, with over 100,000 tears occurring annually in the US. Most ACL tears are a result of a non-contact mechanism such as a sudden change in a direction causing the knee to rotate inward. As the knee rotates inward additional strain is placed on the ACL, since the femur and tibia, which are the two bones that articulate together forming the knee joint, move in opposite directions causing the ACL to tear. Most athletes will require reconstructive surgery on the ACL, in which the torn or ruptured ACL is completely removed and replaced with a piece of tendon or ligament tissue from the patient (autograft) or from a donor (allograft). Conservative treatment has poor outcomes in ACL injury since the ACL is unable to form a fibrous clot as it receives most of its nutrients from the synovial fluid which washes away the reparative cells making it difficult for new fibrous tissue to form. The two most common sources for tissue are the patellar ligament and the hamstrings tendon. The patellar ligament is often used, since bone plugs on each end of the graft are extracted which helps integrate the graft into the bone tunnels, during reconstruction. The surgery is arthroscopic, meaning that a tiny camera is inserted through a small surgical cut. The camera sends video to a large monitor so that the surgeon can see any damage to the ligaments. In the event of an autograft, the surgeon will make a larger cut to get the needed tissue. In the event of an allograft, in which material is donated, this is not necessary since no tissue is taken directly from the patient's own body. The surgeon will drill a hole forming the tibial bone tunnel and femoral bone tunnel, allowing for the patient's new ACL graft to be guided through. Once the graft is pulled through the bone tunnels, two screws are placed into the tibial and femoral bone tunnel. Recovery time ranges between one and two years or longer, depending if the patient chose an autograft or allograft. A week or so after the occurrence of the injury, the athlete is usually deceived by the fact that he/she is walking normally and not feeling much pain. This is dangerous as some athletes start resuming some of their activities such as jogging which, with a wrong move or twist, could damage the bones as the graft has not completely become integrated into the bone tunnels. It is important for the injured athlete to understand the significance of each step of an ACL injury to avoid complications and ensure a proper recovery.\n"
] |
How do we know how many people died under Stalin and Mao? | We honestly don't know accurately, it's mostly educated guesses and deduction, some will be higher than reality and some will be lower than the true number. It's just like with most things in history, I will give an example, with The Battle of the Nile, we know how many British were involved, how many died and how many were wounded due to the quality of records. Whereas we have very little idea how many casualties the French suffered. So without adequate record keeping we have to try and piece it together although we will likely never know the true number.
EDIT: Battle of the Nile example | [
"The number of people killed under Mao's rule in the People's Republic of China has been estimated at 19.5 million by Wang Weizhi, 27 million by John Heidenrich, between 38 and 67 million by Kurt Glaser and Stephan Possony, between 32 and 59 million by Robert L. Walker, 50+ million by Steven Rosefielde, 65 million by \"The Black Book of Communism\", well over 70 million by \"\" and 77 million by R.J. Rummel.\n",
"The number of people killed under Joseph Stalin's rule in the Soviet Union by 1939 has been estimated as 3.5–8 million by G. Ponton, 6.6 million by V.V. Tsaplin and 10–11 million by Alec Nove. The number of people killed under Stalin's rule by the time of his death in 1953 has been estimated as 1–3 million by Stephen G. Wheatcroft, 6–9 million by Timothy D. Snyder, 13–20 million by Steven Rosefielde, 20 million by \"The Black Book of Communism\", 20 to 25 million by Alexander Yakovlev, 43 million by R.J. Rummel and 50 million by Norman Davies.\n",
"Estimates of the number of deaths attributable to Joseph Stalin vary widely. Some scholars assert that record-keeping of the executions of political prisoners and ethnic minorities are neither reliable nor complete, others contend archival materials contain irrefutable data far superior to sources utilized prior to 1991, such as statements from emigres and other informants. Those historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 3 million to nearly 9 million. Some scholars still assert that the death toll could be in the tens of millions.\n",
"Estimates on the number of deaths brought about by Stalin's rule are hotly debated by scholars in the field of Soviet and Communist studies. Prior to the collapse of the USSR and the archival revelations, some historians estimated that the numbers killed by Stalin's regime were 20 million or higher. Michael Parenti writes that estimates on the Stalinist death toll vary widely in part because such estimates are based on \"anecdotes\" in absence of reliable evidence and \"speculations by writers who never reveal how they arrive at such figures\". \n",
"In his book, \"Death by Government\" published in 1987, Rummel estimated that 148 million were killed by communist governments from 1917 to 1987. The list of communist countries with more than 1 million victims included the following:\n",
"BULLET::::- According to Benjamin Valentino in 2005, the number of non-combatants killed by communist regimes in the Soviet Union, People's Republic of China and Cambodia alone ranged from a low of 21 million to a high of 70 million. Citing Rummel and others, Valentino stated that the \"highest end of the plausible range of deaths attributed to communist regimes\" was up to 110 million\".\n",
"Rummel estimated the total number of people killed by all governments during the 20th century at 212 million, and he estimated that 148 million were killed by communist regimes from 1917 to 1987. To give some perspective on these numbers, Rummel pointed out that all domestic and foreign wars during the twentieth century killed in combat around 41 million. His figures for Communist regimes are higher than those given by most other scholars, which range from 60 to 100 million. In his last book, Rummel increased his estimate to over 272 million innocent, non-combatant civilians who were murdered by their own governments during the 20th century.\n"
] |
how to become a programmer when /r/learnprogramming goes over my head? [serious] | Just how far over your head are we talking? Do you have any sort of math background? Do you know what a computer is?
You might try to start with some sort of interactive tutorial like [Code Academy](_URL_0_) or a book that's meant to teach everything from the ground up. | [
"A programmer who needs to implement a specific algorithm, especially an unfamiliar one, will often start with a pseudocode description, and then \"translate\" that description into the target programming language and modify it to interact correctly with the rest of the program. Programmers may also start a project by sketching out the code in pseudocode on paper before writing it in its actual language, as a top-down structuring approach, with a process of steps to be followed as a refinement.\n",
"You start with a self-assessment against the skills. Then you can sign into an online course. Here you are guided by a tutor and do a homework which is being corrected by the tutor. Finally the homework and real work done in your project is sufficient to demonstrate the skills.\n",
"Lead programmers are usually trained in software programming, although do not necessarily hold formal degrees in the subject, and may learn management responsibilities either on the job or through short courses. Because their primary training is usually technical rather than managerial, lead programmers traditionally see themselves as part of the technical staff of a company rather than as part of management.\n",
"The starting point of ProgramByDesign is the observation that students act as computers in primary school courses on arithmetic, and in middle school and secondary school courses on pre-algebra and algebra. Teachers program them with rules and run specific problems via exercises. The key is that students execute purely functional programs.\n",
"In contrast to conventional formal learning, the user is not uniquely trained before using software, but receives hints, tips and help as soon as a problem occurs when applying a software in everyday work.\n",
"A boy trying to get himself hired is asked by a man if he can read who rejects him when the boy says he can even though his duties would only be to dust the man's books. The boy runs ahead of the man and asks again for a job and this time claims he cannot read. The man accepts the boy and while he dusts the books he reads them. As his master is a wizard, the boy learns some magic and is then able to transform into any animal.\n",
"Regarding the “From 0 to C”outcomes, de Feo explains, \"The scope of this primer is not teaching you to be the best coder or hacker, but to be one who knows what you are dealing with and has a better attitude towards problem solving.\" \"After learning the ins and outs of how stupid computers actually are, [Ubi]’s students then learn the syntax of a language of their choice (C, JavaScript, or Python, for example), and write a few programs.\"\n"
] |
how do professional boxers have (decently) long careers if they're getting concussed everytime they fight? | _URL_0_
It is a problem in boxing, although today's boxers and trainers know more about it and boxers have adopted a much more defensive style (lots of clinching, few face-to-face brawls) that prevents them getting punched in the head as much. See any recent Klitschko fight or the Mayweather - Pacquiao fight to see this defensive style. | [
"Aspiring boxers undergo years of apprenticeship, toughening their fists against stone and other hard surfaces, until they are able to break coconuts and rocks with their bare hands. Any part of the body may be targeted, except the groin, but the prime targets are the head and chest. Techniques incorporate punches, kicks, elbows, knees and grabs. Boxers wear no form of protection and fight bare-fisted. Matches may be one-on-one, one against a group, or group against group. Victory can be attained by knockout, ringout or submission.\n",
"Due to the rigorous training regimen (some Thai boxers fight almost every other week) professional boxers in Thailand have relatively short careers in the ring. Many retire from competition to begin instructing the next generation of Thai fighters. Most professional Thai boxers come from lower economic backgrounds, and the purse (after other parties get their cut) is sought as means of support for the fighters and their families. Very few higher economic strata Thais join the professional Muay Thai ranks; they usually either do not practice the sport or practice it only as amateur Muay Thai boxers.\n",
"A boxer may fight different bouts at different weight classes. The trend for professionals is to move up to a higher class as they age. Winning titles at multiple weight classes to become a \"multiple champion\" is considered a major achievement. In amateur boxing, bouts are much shorter and much more frequent, and boxers fight at their \"natural\" weight.\n",
"A classic \"boxer\" or stylist (also known as an \"out-fighter\") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler. Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork.\n",
"BULLET::::- Clinching: Any boxer may attempt to clinch his opponent at any time. If successful, both boxers will regenerate health and stamina faster as long as they are clinched. Clinching too often, however, will result in point deductions and eventually, disqualification.\n",
"The out-boxer (out-fighter, boxer) is the opposite of the swarmer. The out-boxer seeks to maintain a gap from their opponent and fight with faster, longer range punches. Out-boxers are known for being extremely quick on their feet, which often makes up for a lack of power. Since they rely on the weaker jabs and straights (as opposed to hooks and uppercuts), they tend to win by points decisions rather than by knockout, although some out-boxers can be aggressive and effective punchers. Bare-knuckle boxer Daniel Mendoza was the first to ever use this boxing style. Out-boxers such as Benny Leonard and Larry Holmes can still have many notable knockouts and punching power, but usually preferred to wear down their opponents and outclass them rather than just knock them out. Out-boxers also cross over frequently with counter-punch and/or swarming techniques, such as Naseem Hamed, who used his speed on his feet to avoid injury and his precision and power to carve his opponents down. Notable out-boxers include Gabriel Elorde, Wilfred Benitez, Cecilia Brækhus, Ezzard Charles, Kid Chocolate, Billy Conn, James J. Corbett, George Dixon, Chris Eubank, Tiger Flowers, Tommy Gibbons, Holly Holm, Jack Johnson, Amir Khan, Tony Harrison, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Philadelphia Jack O'Brien, Willie Pep, Barney Ross, Michael Spinks, Gene Tunney, Jersey Joe Walcott, and Pernell Whitaker. The fictional boxer Apollo Creed is considered an out-boxer.\n",
"In Japan, every professional boxer must contract with a manager under the JBC rules, and is required to belong to a boxing gym which has exclusive management rights for boxers as a member of each regional subsidiary body of Japan Pro Boxing Association under the Japan's conventional gym system. Two professional boxers belonging to the same gym have not been allowed to fight against each other unless one of them transfers to other gym, because it might disrupt the gym system. However, it is often quite difficult for boxers to transfer between the gyms due to the matters on transfer fees, match fees and so on.\n"
] |
If the US government printed $15 trillion to pay off the debt, what would the rate of inflation become? | Looking around, there are various estimates online of the total circulating US money supply, [this](_URL_0_) source estimates about $3.5 trillion in bills and coins, which would indicate the inflation caused by adding $15 trillion to the money supply should be around 500%. That's definitely just an order-of-magnitude estimate, since inflation is affected by other factors besides just number of bills actually circulating, and estimates of the total money supply vary considerably, but I think 500% is a reasonable ballpark figure.
edit: from [wikipedia](_URL_1_), it appears that by broad measures of the money supply there are more like $10 trillion in circulation, which would give a slightly more reasonable inflation figure of about 150%. Still, as I said before these are just order-of-magnitude estimates, the actual observed inflation could be dramatically different. | [
"In April 1979, however, the United States may have technically defaulted on $122 million in Treasury bills, which was less than 1% of U.S. debt. The Treasury Department characterized it as a delay rather than as a default, but it did have consequences for short-term interest rates, which jumped 0.6%. Others view it as a temporary, partial default.\n",
"The report was important because inflation, as calculated by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is used to index the annual payment increases in Social Security and other retirement and compensation programs. This implied that the federal budget had increased by more than it should have, and that projections of future budget deficits were too large. The original report calculated that the overstatement of inflation would add $148 billion to the deficit and $691 billion to the national debt by 2006.\n",
"A \"Harper's\" magazine column by Linda Bilmes, a lecturer in Public Finance at Harvard's Kennedy School of Government, and Joseph Stiglitz titled \"The $10 trillion hangover: Paying the price for eight years of Bush\", \"estimate that the cost of undoing the Bush administration's economic choices, from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan to the collapse of the financial system, soaring debt and new commitments to interest payments and Medicare, all add up to over $10 trillion\". See also National Debt Graph: Bush Sets 50-Year Record. The National debt from George Washington to the beginning of Ronald Reagan's term totaled about one trillion dollars.\n",
"After 1985 the government chose to fill the gap between decreasing revenues and mushrooming military expenditures by printing large amounts of paper money. Inflation skyrocketed, peaking in 1988 at more than 14,000% annually.\n",
"As a result of the 2008 economic downturn, prices for the best accounts fell from the 2007-2008 high of 14 cents on the dollar to 4–7 cents. According to the Payments Source 2009 webpage, depending on the age and history of the debt, a buyer typically paid between 3 and 20 percent of the face value of the debt. Accounts that come directly from the original creditor without having been placed with a collection agency have the highest value, with prices decreasing based on the amount of time that has passed since the account has charged off.\n",
"Some argued that the worst outcome would be if the US failed to pay interest and/or principal on the national debt to bondholders, thereby defaulting on its sovereign debt. Former Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers warned in July 2011 that the consequences of such a default would be higher borrowing costs for the US government (as much as one percent or $150 billion/year in additional interest costs) and the equivalent of bank runs on the money markets and other financial markets, potentially as severe as those of September 2008.\n",
"Over the thirty-year period from 1981 to 2009, the U.S. dollar lost over half its value. This is because the Federal Reserve has targeted not zero inflation, but a low, stable rate of inflation—between 1987 and 1997, the rate of inflation was approximately 3.5%, and between 1997 and 2007 it was approximately 2%. The so-called \"Great Moderation\" of economic conditions since the 1970s is credited to monetary policy targeting price stability.\n"
] |
How much ocean water is moved worldwide each tidal cycle? | I doubt anyone can answer that for the case of the Earth as it is far too complicated. Tides on the Earth are subject to the topography of the ocean bed and so vary throughout the oceans.
I think even for a homogeneous fluid body this might not be a straightforward question either. You can evaluate the tidal force through the body quite simply but the response of the fluid is a lot more complex. If you let the fluid be convective then I know for a fact that no one can answer this question for an arbitrary plan/star. | [
"Long-Period tides are gravitational tides, typically with amplitudes of a few centimeters or less and periods longer than one day, generated by changes in the Earth's orientation relative to the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter. The distance between a reference point on the surface of the Earth relative to these objects can be expressed as an infinite combination of periods and, as the distance changes, so does the tidal forcing. An analysis of the changing distance by Pierre-Simon de Laplace in the 18th century shows that these periods at which gravity varies cluster into three species, the semi-diurnal and diurnal tide constituents which have periods of a day or less, and the long period tidal constituents (see also tide). Long period tidal constituents with relatively strong forcing include the lunar fortnightly (Mf) and monthly (Ms) as well as the solar semiannual (Ssa) and annual (Sa) constituents. In addition to having periods longer than a day-long period tidal forcing is distinguished from that of the first and second species by being zonally symmetric. The long period tides are also distinguished by the way in which the oceans respond. In contrast to the first and second species, the long period tidal forcings occur sufficiently slowly that they do not excite surface gravity waves. This property of exciting surface gravity waves is responsible for the high amplitude semi-diurnal tides in the Bay of Fundy, for example. In contrast, the ocean responds to long period tidal forcing with a combination of an equilibrium tidal response along with a possible excitation of barotropic Rossby wave normal modes \n",
"At ground level, atmospheric tides can be detected as regular but small oscillations in surface pressure with periods of 24 and 12 hours. However, at greater heights, the amplitudes of the tides can become very large. In the mesosphere (heights of ~ 50–100 km) atmospheric tides can reach amplitudes of more than 50 m/s and are often the most significant part of the motion of the atmosphere.\n",
"BULLET::::- Long period tide – Gravitational tides, typically with amplitudes of a few centimetres or less and periods longer than one day, generated by changes in the Earth's orientation relative to the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter\n",
"At ground level, atmospheric tides can be detected as regular but small oscillations in surface pressure with periods of 24 and 12 hours. Daily pressure maxima occur at 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. local time, while minima occur at 4 a.m. and 4 p.m. local time. The absolute maximum occurs at 10 a.m. while the absolute minimum occurs at 4 p.m. However, at greater heights the amplitudes of the tides can become very large. In the mesosphere (heights of ~ 50 – 100 km) atmospheric tides can reach amplitudes of more than 50 m/s and are often the most significant part of the motion of the atmosphere.\n",
"“The Natural World, Greatest Tides: The greatest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy... Burntcoat Head in the Minas Basin, Nova Scotia, has the greatest mean spring range with 14.5 metres (47.5 feet) and an extreme range of 16.3 metres (53.5 feet).”\n",
"Turnagain Arm is one of only about 60 bodies of water worldwide to exhibit a tidal bore. The bore may be more than six feet high and travel at 15 miles per hour on high spring tides and opposing winds. Turnagain Arm sees the largest tidal range in United States, with a mean of 30 feet (9.2 m), and the fourth highest in the world, behind Bay of Fundy (11.7m), Ungava Bay (9.75m), and Bristol Channel (9.6m). The ocean's natural 12-hour 25-minute tidal cycle is close to Turnagain Arm's natural resonance frequency, which then reinforces the tide similar to water sloshing in a bathtub. Tidal fluctuations in the main body of Cook Inlet, while not as extreme as the shallow and narrow Turnagain Arm, regularly reach or more and exhibit currents in excess of at full tidal flow. The inlet and its arms have been proposed as a potentially attractive site for the generation of tidal power.\n",
"\"Every year the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km of water. This is water that evaporates from the oceanic surface (502,800 km) and from land (74,200 km). The same amount of water falls as atmospheric precipitation, 458,000 km on the ocean and 119,000 km on land. The difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface (119,000 - 74,200 = 44,800 km/year) represents the total runoff of the Earth's rivers (42,700 km/year) and direct groundwater runoff to the ocean (2100 km/year). These are the principal sources of fresh water to support life necessities and man's economic activities.\"\n"
] |
How exactly did the Japanese worship their Emperor in the early 20th century/ww2? | To my knowledge the Emperor wasn't praised as a god via rituals as that would go against their religion to their many gods, it would have been seen as an insult.
In the early 20th century/WW2 era the Emporer was often thought to be a Demi-god or higher being, someone who has unquestionable reign over the entire nation. Many actions during the war and in Japanese society were said to be done in the name of the Emperor, be it kamikaze bombers or some form of societal advancement back in Japan.
To my knowledge in schools children tended to be thought that the Emporer was the ultimate ruler with an all seeing eye. However, do not quote me on this, I am just trying to remember back to my Japanese studies in school which was some time ago, but I hope this helps. I still encourage a qualified 20th century historian to give you a better answer. | [
"Like the rest of the country, the Japanese monarchy was changing too - but not in a way that made it resemble Western royalty. In the 1920s the Japanese were being taught that their emperor, living in a park in central Tokyo, was more than just a mere human being - he was called a living god. Children were educated to think of the emperor as a god in the form of a human being. In Japan it was in the interests of one group more than any other that the emperor be perceived as an all powerful living god - the armed forces. Only ultimately accountable to their supreme commander Hirohito, as long as they acted in the name of their 'divine' emperor, elected Japanese politicians found it almost impossible to control them - and by the late 1920s many within the army thought that Japan should act decisively, and expand. Masatake Okumiya (Japanese Imperial Navy): \"Japan's population was increasing - its natural resources could not sustain such an increase. Ideally we hoped to receive co-operation from other countries to solve the problem but, back then, the world was under the control of the west and a peaceful solution seemed impossible. We decided, as Britain, America and France had done in the past from time to time, to \"use force to solve the problem.\"\" By the early 1930s western countries had colonized much of Asia. \n",
"In Imperial Japan, between the 1910s and 1945, a was a small shrine- or temple-like building that housed a photograph of the incumbent Emperor and Empress (Emperor Meiji, Emperor Taishō, Emperor Shōwa, Empress Shōken, Empress Teimei and Empress Kōjun) together with a copy of the Imperial Rescript on Education. A Hō-an-den was typically installed at elementary schools, though also at a number of other institutions. This served as a place for the veneration of the Emperor of Japan.\n",
"In its original form, the holiday was named . The national holiday was supported by those who believed that focusing national attention on the emperor would serve an unifying purpose, holding the \"kokutai\" together with all Japanese people united by their love of the god-emperor. Publicly linking his rule with the mythical first emperor, Jimmu, and thus the Sun Goddess Amaterasu, the Meiji Emperor declared himself the one, true ruler of Japan. The claim that the emperors of Japan were gods was based upon their supposed descent from Amaterasu, the most important of the Shinto gods and goddesses. With large parades and festivals, in its time, \"Kigensetsu\" was considered one of the four major holidays of Japan. The holiday of \"Kigensetsu\" featured parades, athletic competitions, the public reading of poems, the handing out of sweets and buns to children, with the highlight of the \"Kigensetsu\" always being a rally where ordinary people would kowtow to a portrait of the emperor, which was followed up by the singing of the national anthem and patriotic speeches whose principal theme was always that Japan was a uniquely virtuous nation because of its rule by the god-emperors. \"Kigensetsu\" provided the model for school ceremonies, albeit on a smaller scale, as classes always began in Japan with the students kowtowing to a portrait of the emperor, and school graduations and the opening of new schools were conducted in a manner very similar to how \"Kigensetsu\" was celebrated. When students graduated in Japan, the principal and the teachers would always give speeches to the graduating class on the theme that Japan was a special nation because its emperors were gods, and it was the duty of every student to serve the god-emperor. \n",
"The late emperor's funeral, like the man it honored, was dogged by bitter memories of the past. Many Allied veterans of World War II regarded Hirohito as a war criminal and called upon their countries to boycott the funeral. Nevertheless, of the 166 nations invited to send representatives, all but three accepted. Some Japanese, including a small Christian community, constitutional scholars and opposition politicians, denounced the pomp at the funeral as a return to past exaltation of the emperor and contended that the inclusion of Shinto rites violated Japan's post-war separation of church and state. Some groups, opposed to the Japanese monarchy, also staged small protests.\n",
"During the Meiji period as Japan began to modernize and the emperor was restored to power, Hinamatsuri was deprecated in favor of new holidays that focused on the emperor's supposed bond with the nation, but it was revived. By focusing on marriage and families, it represented Japanese hopes and values, and as the dolls were said to represent the emperor and empress, it also fostered respect for the throne. The holiday then spread to other countries via the Japanese diaspora, although it remains confined to immigrant Japanese communities and their descendants.\n",
"The Japanese take pride in the Meiji Restoration, as it and the accompanying industrialization allowed Japan to become the preeminent power in the Pacific and a major player in the world within a generation. Yet, Emperor Meiji's role in the Restoration, as well as the amount of personal authority and influence he wielded during his reign, remains debatable. He kept no diary, wrote almost no letters (unlike his father) and left \"no more than three or four\" photographs. The accounts of people who had met or were close to him usually contain little substantial information or are mutually contradictory. \n",
"In the Meiji period, the government of Meiji Japan designated the day as a national holiday because of the modernization of Japan by the Meiji Restoration. Under the \"bakufu\", people in Japan had worshiped the emperors as living gods, but regional loyalties were just as strong as national loyalties with most people feeling an equal or a stronger loyalty to whatever \"daimyō\" (\"lord\") that ruled over their province as they did to the shōgun who ruled from distant Edo, let alone the emperor who reigned in the equally distant city of Kyoto. Moreover, Shintoism has a number of deities, and until the Meiji Restoration, the emperors were just one of many Shinto gods, and usually not the most important. During the Meiji period, the government went out of its way to promote the imperial cult of emperor-worship as a way of ensuring that loyalty to the national government in Tokyo would outweigh any regional loyalties. Moreover, the process of modernization in Meiji era Japan was intended only to ensure that Japan adopted Western technology, science and models of social organization, not the values of the West; it was a recurring fear of the government that the Japanese people might embrace Western values like democracy and individualism, which led the government to rigidly insist upon all Japanese were to hold the same values with any form of heterodoxy viewed as a threat to the \"kokutai\". The American historian Carol Gluck noted that for the Japanese state in the Meiji era, \"social conformity\" was the highest value, with any form of dissent considered a major threat to the \"kokutai\". Up to 1871, Japanese society was divided into four castes: the samurai, the merchants, the artisans and the peasants. The samurai were the dominant caste, but the sort of aggressive militarism embraced by the samurai were not embraced by the other castes, who legally speaking were not allowed to own weapons. One of the Meiji era reforms was the introduction of conscription with all able-bodied young men to serve in either the Army or the Navy when they turned 18, which required promoting the ideology of \"Bushido\" (\"the way of the warrior\") to people who historically speaking had been encouraged to see war as the exclusive concern of the samurai. The imperial cult of emperor-worship was promoted both to ensure that everyone would be a part of the \"kokutai\" and to ensure that all men embraced \"Bushido\", and would willingly serve in the military. After conscription was introduced in 1873, a group of teenage rickshaw drivers and shop clerks were ordered to attend a lecture where they were informed that \"Now that all men are samurai\" that they were to show \"manly obedience\" by enlisting in the Army at once, which many objected to under the grounds that they did not come from samurai families. \n"
] |
How did Nazi Germany a regime born out of the ruins of World War 1 have so much access to a diverse pool of top notch academics by world war 2? ( Rocket scientists, Gunsmiths, Cytologists/ciphers, Tank and aircraft engineers) | It seems to me that you assume that if there is hunger and some political chaos that all the institutions stop functioning? Germany before WWI was one of the most advanced countries on the planet, they won the most Nobel prices in the sciences up to that point. WWI was 4 years and after it was over the scientists or institutions didn't just disappear.
They might have been destitute right after the war but they still had one of the biggest economies in the world plus the institutional memory and tradition in the sciences, engineering didn't vanish.
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I hosted the spreadsheet on my Google docs if that is easier:
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There GDP took hits in those years but they never got below France there level and overtook England in the inter war period. GDP is a flawed way to look at the economy but it's useful to illustrate my point that they weren't as destitute as you might have thought. | [
"Politicization of the German academia under the National Socialist regime had driven many physicists, engineers, and mathematicians out of Germany as early as 1933. Those of Jewish heritage who did not leave were quickly purged from German institutions, further thinning the ranks of academia. The politicization of the universities, along with the demands for manpower by the German armed forces (many scientists and technical personnel were conscripted, despite possessing useful skills), substantially reduced the number of able German physicists.\n",
"At the end of World War II many German engineers were 'seconded' by the Soviet government to continue their advanced research under direct supervision of the USSR. One of the most significant German teams was OKB-1 (opytno-konstrooktorskoye byuro – experimental design bureau) set up in GOZ-1 (Gosoodarstvenny opytnyy zavod – state experimental plant) at Dubna near Moscow. OKB-1, with Dr. Brunolf Baade as chief designer, continued work on German-built aircraft such as the EF-131 and '140', which used many components of the two EF-131's, as well as design work on the stillborn EF 132 long-range bomber. By early 1948 Semyon M. Alekseyev had been appointed supervisor/chief warden/supervisor of OKB-1, with Dr. Brunolf Baade remaining as chief designer. This has caused confusion in the past with '150' being ascribed to Alekseyev and not OKB-1 (OKB-1 was not named after Baade for propaganda reasons).\n",
"After World War II a competition began among the Allies to acquire the knowledge of German scientists and engineers. The Technical College of the German Air Force, presided over by Schardin, was a particular goal of France and the USA. \n",
"The Ministry was in charge of development and production of all aircraft developed, designed and built in Germany during the existence of the Third Reich, overseeing all matters concerning both military and civilian designs — it handled military aviation matters as its top priority, particularly for the Luftwaffe. As was characteristic of government departments in the Nazi era, the Ministry was personality-driven and formal procedures were often ignored in favour of the whims of the Minister, \"Reichsmarschall\" Hermann Göring. As a result, early successes in aircraft development progressed only slowly and erratically during World War II.\n",
"The foreign policy and war aims of the Nazis have been the subject of debate among historians. The Nazis governed Germany between 1933 and 1945. There has been disagreement over whether Adolf Hitler aimed solely at European expansion and domination, or whether he planned for a long-term global empire.\n",
"After the Nazis came to power in Germany, they reformed the administrative system by transforming the former German provinces and states into their Gau system in 1935 as a part of their Gleichschaltung policy.\n",
"The National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) did not allow any competing ideologies to develop in universities; however, some of the Leipzig School group remained at the university until 1945. Their numbers declined as some emigrated (Günther) or made a career in the Third Reich (Gehlen, Ipsen, Pfeffer), and before the war ended, Freyer himself left to take up a teaching position at the University of Budapest.\n"
] |
you know that feeling when you're drinking something, and there's like a pause almost i'm not sure how to put it, a throat-cramp of sorts when it's going down your throat? sorry if nobody knows what i'm talking about | Yes. It hurts. I think it's an air bubble so there's not room for the liquid and the bubble so it feels like a trying to swallow big lump. | [
"Presents as a sensation of food getting stuck (dysphagia) in the mid- or lower esophagus, atypical chest pain, or cough. People often state they must drink liquids to swallow solid food. This motility problem results from atrophy of the gastrointestinal tract wall smooth muscle. This change may occur with or without pathologic evidence of significant tissue fibrosis.\n",
"This affliction is a common cause of throat irritation. Normally the stomach produces acid in the stomach which is neutralized in the small intestine. To prevent acid from flowing backwards, the lower part of the swallowing tube (esophagus) has a valve which closes after food passes through. In some individuals, this valve becomes incompetent and acid goes up into the esophagus. Reflux episodes often occur at night and one may develop a bitter taste in the mouth. The throat can be severely irritated when acid touches the vocal cords and can lead to spasms of coughing. To prevent throat irritation from reflux, one should lose weight, stop smoking, avoid coffee beverages and sleep with the head elevated.\n",
"Globus pharyngis is the persistent sensation of having phlegm, a pill or some other sort of obstruction in the throat when there is none. Swallowing can be performed normally, so it is not a true case of dysphagia, but it can become quite irritating. One may also feel mild chest pain or even severe pain with a clicking sensation when swallowing.\n",
"When we are intoxicated with strong drink we drown our rational powers, by which we are distinguished from the brutal creation--we unman ourselves, and bring ourselves not only level with the beasts of the field, but seven degrees beneath them...How many [drunkards] have been drowned in our rivers, and how many frozen to death in the winter season! And now let me exhort you all to break off from your drunkenness...Take warning by this doleful sight before us, and by all the dreadful judgments that have befallen poor drunkards.\n",
"When you have taken a spatulaful of it, you will feel an intense pain in your heart, as if you had been stabbed there with a knife. After three days you will want to drink, and when you have drunk a full \"hu\" 斛 [about 50 liters] your breath will be cut off. When that happens, it will mean that you are dead. When your body has been laid out, it will suddenly disappear, and only your clothing will remain. Thus you will be an immortal released in broad daylight by means of his waistband. If one knows the name of the drug [or, perhaps, the secret names of its ingredients] he will not feel the pain in his heart, but after he has drunk a full \"hu\" he will still die. When he is dead, he will become aware that he has left his corpse below him on the ground. At the proper time, jade youths and maidens will come with an azure carriage to take it away. If one wishes to linger on in the world, he should strictly regulate his drinking during the three days when he feels the pain in his heart. This formula may be used by the whole family. (tr. Strickmann 1979: 137–138) \n",
"Aftertaste is the taste intensity of a food or beverage that is perceived immediately after that food or beverage is removed from the mouth. The aftertastes of different foods and beverages can vary by intensity and over time, but the unifying feature of aftertaste is that it is perceived \"after\" a food or beverage is either swallowed or spat out. The neurobiological mechanisms of taste (and aftertaste) signal transduction from the taste receptors in the mouth to the brain have not yet been fully understood. However, the primary taste processing area located in the insula has been observed to be involved in aftertaste perception.\n",
"Patients usually complain of dysphagia (the feeling of food getting stuck \"several seconds\" after swallowing), and will point to the suprasternal notch or behind the sternum as the site of obstruction.\n"
] |
Why are bronze and brass not as common metals to make things as they used to be in antiquity? | we have harder metals to work that produce a better product in the end.
The main issue with bronze is that its a rather soft metal and doesn't keep its edge well. While early iron suffered similar issues (with less reparability) the moment you start getting cast and later wrought iron plus steel you have a might sharper metal that can be used in much more things. | [
"In the 3rd millennium BCE ancient foundry workers discovered by trial and error that bronze had distinct advantages over pure copper for making artistic statuary. Bronze stays liquid longer when filling a mold due to its lower melting point. Bronze is a superior metal than copper for sculpture casting because of its higher tensile strength. The island of Cyprus supplied most of the bronze used for artistic purposes throughout the ancient Mediterranean region.\n",
"The discovery of copper and bronze manufacture had a significant impact on the history of the Old World. Metals were hard enough to make weapons that were heavier, stronger, and more resistant to impact damage than wood, bone, or stone equivalents. For several millennia, bronze was the material of choice for weapons such as swords, daggers, battle axes, and spear and arrow points, as well as protective gear such as shields, helmets, greaves (metal shin guards), and other body armor. Bronze also supplanted stone, wood, and organic materials in tools and household utensils—such as chisels, saws, adzes, nails, blade shears, knives, sewing needles and pins, jugs, cooking pots and cauldrons, mirrors, and horse harnesses. Tin and copper also contributed to the establishment of trade networks that spanned large areas of Europe and Asia, and had a major effect on the distribution of wealth among individuals and nations.\n",
"Of the known types of bronze or brass in classical antiquity (known in Latin as \"aes\" and in Greek as χαλκός), hepatizon was the second most valuable. Pliny the Elder mentions it in his \"Natural History\", stating that it is less valuable than Corinthian bronze, which contained a greater proportion of gold or silver and as a result resembled the precious metals, but was esteemed before bronze from Delos and Aegina. As a result of its dark colour, it was particularly valued for statues. According to Pliny, the method of making it, like that for Corinthian bronze, had been lost for a long time.\n",
"Of the known types of bronze or brass, not distinguished in classical antiquity and interchangeably known in Latin as \"aes\" and in Greek as χαλκός, Corinthian bronze was the most valuable. Statues, vases and vessels, or other objects formed of this metal were priceless, of greater value than if they had been made of silver or gold. Pliny the Elder distinguished it into three kinds, depending on the metal that is added to the copper base: in the first, gold is added (\"luteum\"); in the second, silver (\"candidum\"); in the third, gold, silver, and copper are equally blended. Plutarch and Cicero both comment that Corinthian bronze, unlike many other copper alloys, is resistant to tarnishing. Pliny also refers to a fourth, dark alloy, known as hepatizon. Petronius and other authors mocked the connoisseurs of their day who claimed to be able to identify it.\n",
"The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper (\"Chalcolithic\") predecessors. Initially, bronze was made out of copper and arsenic, forming arsenic bronze, or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic, with the earliest artifacts so far known coming from the Iranian plateau in the 5th millennium BC. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC.\n",
"The discovery of bronze (an alloy of copper with arsenic or tin) enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper (\"Chalcolithic\") predecessors. Initially, bronze was made of copper and arsenic (forming arsenic bronze) by smelting naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic. The earliest artifacts so far known come from the Iranian plateau in the 5th millennium BCE. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BCE. Pure tin itself was first isolated in 1800 BCE by Chinese and Japanese metalworkers.\n",
"Metals were also a very important part of the Mycenaean economy, during the Mycenaean period there were five metals in use: gold, silver, copper, tin and lead. Iron was not unknown but was very rare. Therefore, bronze was the main metal for the making of tools and weapons. Although bronze was the most important metal for the Mycenaeans, it was relatively scarce and expensive. Our knowledge of the Mycenaean bronze industry comes entirely from Pylos where we have some information about smiths. Most of the tablets concerning bronze demonstrate a very tight control of the metal industry by the palace.\n"
] |
How do snipers/spotters calculate where to shoot? | From my Army experience, not as a sniper, but with basic rifle marksmanship training, I can tell you what I have learned. First, you learn to his a target at 300 meters. At this distance, you can learn to adjust the sights so when you shoot at the center of the target, you will hit the center of the target. There are adjustments you can make to your rifle to ensure that the rifle is accurate to 800 meters. When you get beyond 800 meters, you need a more powerful rifle, and a longer range sight. The sniper will learn to adjust with the new rifle and sight, so again what he aims at the center of, he will hit the center of.
This will work under perfect conditions. When the sniper has to shoot from the top or the bottom of a hill, he will have to adjust for elevation. The spotter will usually give him an idea of what the elevation is. The sniper then adjusts the sights of his rifle. There are tools that the spotter can use to tell the sniper the difference in elevation. For example, there is a telescope looking sight that the spotter can look through that will show the elevation by turning it up or down.
Windage, or the direction and speed of the wind is generally estimated. The spotter has learned tricks to get an idea of how fast the wind is blowing and in what direction at every point out to the target. The sniper has been trained in how to adjust his aim based on the wind speed. If the wind is too strong, or is blowing unsteady, the spotter may call of the shot until the wind dies down.
Finally, at a long enough distance (like over a mile) the spotter takes into account the curvature of the earth. There are charts that are learned to assist the spotter in determining the proper point of aim based on the curvature.
So, basically, it comes down to learning how to shoot close targets well, then learning some tricks to be able to shoot at longer distances. | [
"Artillery spotters typically use their calibrated binoculars to walk fire onto a target. Here they know the approximate range to the target and so can read off the angle (+ quick calculation) to give the left/right corrections in meters.\n",
"When the trajectory of the bullet can be sensed, backtracking can be done to calculate the sniper's location. Sensor techniques are often used in combination to improve detection and eliminate false alarms.\n",
"The spotter detects, observes, and assigns targets and watches for the results of the shot. Using a spotting scope or a rangefinder, the spotter will also read the wind by using physical indicators and the mirage caused by the heat on the ground. Also, in conjunction with the shooter, the spotter will make calculations for distance, angle shooting (slant range), mil dot related calculations, correction for atmospheric conditions and leads for moving targets. It is not unusual for the spotter to be equipped with a notepad and a laptop computer specifically for performing these calculations.\n",
"The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit and correct range estimation becomes absolutely critical at long ranges, because a bullet travels with a curved trajectory and the sniper must compensate for this by aiming higher at longer distances. If the exact distance is not known the sniper may compensate incorrectly and the bullet path may be too high or low. As an example, for a typical military sniping cartridge such as 7.62×51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) M118 Special Ball round this difference (or “drop”) from is . This means that if the sniper incorrectly estimated the distance as 700 meters when the target was in fact 800 meters away, the bullet will be 200 millimeters lower than expected by the time it reaches the target.\n",
"A sniper must have the ability to accurately estimate the various factors that influence a bullet's trajectory and point of impact such as: range to the target, wind direction, wind velocity, altitude and elevation of the sniper and the target and ambient temperature. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can decrease lethality or cause a shot to miss completely.\n",
"To determine the range to a target without a laser rangefinder, the sniper may use the mil dot reticle on a scope to accurately find the range. Mil dots are used like a slide rule to measure the height of a target, and if the height is known, the range can be as well. The height of the target (in yards) ×1000, divided by the height of the target (in mils), gives the range in yards. This is only in general, however, as both scope magnification (7×, 40×) and mil dot spacing change. The USMC standard is that 1 mil (that is, 1 milliradian) equals 3.438 MOA (minute of arc, or, equivalently, minute of angle), while the US Army standard is 3.6 MOA, chosen so as to give a diameter of 1 yard at a distance of 1,000 yards (or equivalently, a diameter of 1 meter at a range of 1 kilometer.) Many commercial manufacturers use 3.5, splitting the difference, since it is easier to work with.\n",
"To aim the guns, base data such as the target's speed, direction and range must be entered into the sighting system by the sight adjuster, who sits to the left of the guns at the rear of the turret. The target's speed and direction is determined by visual estimation, while range can also be estimated visually or with the rangefinder. The upper front of the turret has two small ports with armoured covers meant for collimators of the sight.\n"
] |
What's the correct response to this objection to special relativity? | Whoever wrote this is trying to discredit SR because they still hold onto the assumption of absolute time and don't understand that that assumption has to be abandoned. Let's take a look at this statement they make while talking about two clocks traveling at different speeds, they *completely* miss the point of SR.
> [...] perhaps each should be running slower than the other. To suggest that two clocks could both run slower than each other is a seeming absurdity that defies all logic; even within the difficult ideas that SR asks us to follow. It is the mathematical equivalent of saying: A > B and B > A; which is impossible.
This isn't an argument, it's an assertion. The conclusion makes them uncomfortable, so they reject it and justify it with some babble inequalities. Further down it gets worse:
> SR tells us that C and B must be recording time more slowly than A, and A should slow down by the same degree relative to C and B. It also tells us that C should be going slower than B, by a greater degree than relative to A, and likewise B should slowdown the same amount relative to C. Mathematically this is:
> A > B and B > A and C > A and A > C and C > > B and B > > C.
So according to SR, clocks C and B are both running slow *from the perspective of* A. Outside completely ignoring SR's math for some affinity for greater than and less than signs, they don't seem to understand then notion of a frame of reference. In this example, from A's point of view, the other clocks are slow. From B's point of view, C and A are slow--though not equally slow. This is *okay.* This is how physics works, we are simply going to disagree on the concept of time and length because these quantities are unique to us. Luckily, the discrepancy is accounted for exactly by using Lorentz boosts--the math that tells you how to change from one reference frame to another. Here's a *really* good video from SixtySymbols on the topic of SR's reference frames--I especially like the train part half way through which explicitly discusses the disagreements different frames will have:
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I won't bother with the "challenge" section, because it's just a retread of the same failings to understand SR as seen in the first paragraphs. | [
"Some criticized Special Relativity for various reasons, such as lack of empirical evidence, internal inconsistencies, rejection of mathematical physics \"per se\", or philosophical reasons. Although there still are critics of relativity outside the scientific mainstream, the overwhelming majority of scientists agree that Special Relativity has been verified in many different ways and there are no inconsistencies within the theory.\n",
"Many introductions to special relativity illustrate the differences between Galilean relativity and special relativity by posing a series of \"paradoxes\". These paradoxes are, in fact, ill-posed problems, resulting from our unfamiliarity with velocities comparable to the speed of light. The remedy is to solve many problems in special relativity and to become familiar with its so-called counter-intuitive predictions. The geometrical approach to studying spacetime is considered one of the best methods for developing a modern intuition.\n",
"Special relativity is generally considered the solution to all negative aether drift (or isotropy of the speed of light) measurements, including the Michelson–Morley null result. Many high precision measurements have been conducted as tests of special relativity and modern searches for Lorentz violation in the photon, electron, nucleon, or neutrino sector, all of them confirming relativity.\n",
"The impression that a paradox exists stems from a misunderstanding of what special relativity states. Special relativity does not declare all frames of reference to be equivalent, only inertial frames. The traveling twin's frame is not inertial during periods when she is accelerating. Furthermore, the difference between the twins is observationally detectable: the traveling twin needs to fire her rockets to be able to return home, while the stay-at-home twin does not.\n",
"The consensus in the physics community is that Dingle's objections to the logical consistency of special relativity were unfounded. According to Max Born, \"Dingle's objections are just a matter of superficial formulation and confusion.\"\n",
"It was also claimed that special relativity cannot handle acceleration, which would lead to contradictions in some situations. However, this assessment is not correct, since acceleration actually can be described in the framework of special relativity (see Acceleration (special relativity), Proper reference frame (flat spacetime), Hyperbolic motion, Rindler coordinates, Born coordinates). Paradoxes relying on insufficient understanding of these facts were discovered in the early years of relativity. For example, Max Born (1909) tried to combine the concept of rigid bodies with special relativity. That this model was insufficient was shown by Paul Ehrenfest (1909), who demonstrated that a rotating rigid body would, according to Born's definition, undergo a contraction of the circumference without contraction of the radius, which is impossible (Ehrenfest paradox). Max von Laue (1911) showed that rigid bodies cannot exist in special relativity, since the propagation of signals cannot exceed the speed of light, so an accelerating and rotating body will undergo deformations.\n",
"Another paradox associated with relativity is Supplee's paradox which seems to describe two reference frames that are irreconcilable. In this case, the problem is assumed to be well-posed in special relativity, but because the effect is dependent on objects and fluids with mass, the effects of general relativity need to be taken into account. Taking the correct assumptions, the resolution is actually a way of restating the equivalence principle.\n"
] |
how can energy companies guarantee a customer getting '100% green energy', when they also produce energy from fossil fuels? | Electricity isn't a physical object that's being piped around, so the idea of there being specific energy being produced in one place and then shipped around doesn't really work.
What the energy company is guaranteeing is that they'll supply, either by producing it themselves or buying it from another producer, enough energy from green sources that they could power all the people who signed up for green power without needing to use any other source. | [
"The Greens support the mass-rollout of renewable energy, with an aim of 100% renewable energy production by 2030, and phasing out the use of coal-fired power, as a means of driving investment and creating jobs. In 2019, the Greens pledged to create 180,000 new jobs in the renewable energy sector, including a renewable energy export industry to replace coal exports. This plan would drive billions of dollars of investment in renewable energy.\n",
"The company only buys green-sourced electricity from within the UK and has no brown energy or nuclear in its business. Green Energy UK facilitates investment into renewable technologies by creating demand for this green electricity.\n",
"By participating in a green energy program a consumer may be having an effect on the energy sources used and ultimately might be helping to promote and expand the use of green energy. They are also making a statement to policy makers that they are willing to pay a price premium to support renewable energy. Green energy consumers either obligate the utility companies to increase the amount of green energy that they purchase from the pool (so decreasing the amount of non-green energy they purchase), or directly fund the green energy through a green power provider. If insufficient green energy sources are available, the utility must develop new ones or contract with a third party energy supplier to provide green energy, causing more to be built. However, there is no way the consumer can check whether or not the electricity bought is \"green\" or otherwise.\n",
"Green Energy (UK) plc, also known as Green Energy UK, is an independent sustainable energy company which sells 100% Ofgem-certified green and renewable electricity, as well as gas, to homes, businesses and organisations in England, Wales and Scotland. Green Energy UK is the only energy supplier in the UK to offer 100% green gas. Based in Ware, Hertfordshire, Green Energy UK was founded in 2001 by chief executive officer Douglas Stewart.\n",
"Greenpeace Energy chose to establish itself in the legal form of a registered cooperative (eG). The motivation for this decision was that it allows Greenpeace Energy to be independent of banks and major shareholders and build equity on a wide base of shareholders to offer as well as favorable current. Therefore, at present no returns will be distributed to the shareholders (as of 2011).\n",
"In 2008, the EPA announced Green Power Partnership program, which was designed to help achieve its goal of encouraging the use of renewable power sources. The renewable energy credits allow companies without direct access to renewable power achieve their goals. However, to avoid companies buying RECs years in advance of any of the hypothetical power ever being produced, RECs are only accepted into the program when the actual equivalent renewable power will be produced.\n",
"As mentioned under Shelter, some sustainable households may choose to produce their own renewable energy, while others may choose to purchase it through the grid from a power company that harnesses sustainable sources (also mentioned previously are the methods of metering the production and consumption of electricity in a household). Purchasing sustainable energy, however, may simply not be possible in some locations due to its limited availability. 6 out of the 50 states in the US do not offer green energy, for example. For those that do, its consumers typically buy a fixed amount or a percentage of their monthly consumption from a company of their choice and the bought green energy is fed into the entire national grid. Technically, in this case, the green energy is not being fed directly to the household that buys it. In this case, it is possible that the amount of green electricity that the buying household receives is a small fraction of their total incoming electricity. This may or may not depend on the amount being purchased. The purpose of buying green electricity is to support their utility's effort in producing sustainable energy. Producing sustainable energy on an individual household or community basis is much more flexible, but can still be limited in the richness of the sources that the location may afford (some locations may not be rich in renewable energy sources while others may have an abundance of it).\n"
] |
Do so-called "brain training" games really work? | I'm sure you'll get a lot of empirical articles here, and I encourage people to read them. However, here is the basic summation of what we know so far:
**"Brain training" activities improve performance on the specific activity you're training with. Most of those improvements, however, don't translate to improvements on other tasks, even when the tasks are somewhat similar, and they don't increase overall intelligence.**
The exception is research on something called the dual n-back task that does have some evidence that it can improve working memory skills (the ability to hold and manipulate information in the mind for a brief period of time) and may translate to other working memory tasks.
There is no evidence that any of these tasks increase intelligence, or can reliably prevent or reverse neurodegenerative illnesses like Alzheimer's disease. | [
"Cognitive skills can be enhanced through repetition of puzzles, memory games, spatial abilities and attention control. Most video games present opportunities to use these skills with the ability to try multiple times even after failure. Many of these skills can be translated to reality and problem solving. This allows the player to learn from mistakes and fully understand how and why a solution to a problem may work. Some researchers believe that continual exposure to challenges may lead players to develop greater persistence over time after a study was shown that frequent players spent more time on puzzles in task that did not involve video games. Although players were shown to spend more time on puzzles, much of that could have been due to the positive effects of problem solving in games, which involve forming strategy and weighing option before testing a solution.\n",
"\"Brain Games\" was suggested in the 1984 book \"Clinical Management of Memory Problems\" as an effective clinical device for memory retraining exercises. Noted for having a variety of useful games, patients would be faced with auditory and visual cues that may improve spatial reasoning.\n",
"Brain Games is a popular science television series that explores cognitive science by focusing on illusions, psychological experiments, and counterintuitive thinking. Neil Patrick Harris was the unseen narrator in the first season, replaced by Jason Silva for the remainder of the series as its host and presenter; in addition, sleight-of-hand artist Apollo Robbins has been a frequent consultant and illusionist guest on the show. The show is interactive, encouraging television viewers, often along with a handful of live volunteers, to engage in visual, auditory, and other cognitive experiments, or \"brain games\", that emphasize the main points presented in each episode. The series debuted on the National Geographic Channel in 2011 as a special. Its return as an original series in 2013 set a record for the highest premiere rating for any National Geographic Channel original series with 1.5 million viewers. Season 7 aired in 2016. National Geographic announced that the show would return as a 2-hour live event in the fall of 2018. As of December 2018, no live event ever took place.\n",
"One of the earliest neurogames is the racing game NeuroRacer, which was designed by Adam Gazzaley to improve the cognitive functioning of aging adults. Other early neurogames include \"Throw Trucks With Your Mind\" (which allows users to pick up and throw objects by mentally blocking distractions) and NeuroMage, which allows users to use a \"relax the mind\" technique to learn new spells and levitate the Millennium Falcon.\n",
"Brain Challenge is a mental exercise video game similar to \"Big Brain Academy\", featuring \"brain exercise puzzles\". The game was developed by Gameloft Beijing for mobile phones and iPods and released on September 5, 2007. It was followed by a Nintendo DS version on January 8, 2008, an Xbox Live Arcade release on March 12, 2008, and a PlayStation 3 launch on November 27, 2008. The N-Gage 2.0 version was released on the day of the service's launch, April 3, 2008. A version for WiiWare was released in Japan on October 14, 2008, in Europe on November 7, 2008 and in North America on November 10, 2008. The Wii version also uses Miis for the players profile. OnLive also had launched their new streaming game platform with Brain Challenge on July 27, 2010. On January 20, 2011, the game was released for Mac OS X.\n",
"Featuring a total of 19 games, the catalog of \"Brain Games\" includes a variety of memory games where the player must focus on a series of ciphers, symbols, and musical notes. Each game has several options for altering the \"difficulty switches\", which add different aspects of challenge and have the following progression:\n",
"Braingames is an American educational program shown on HBO in the mid-1980s. It was a half-hour program consisting of brain-teasing animated skits (either stop-motion or cartoon) designed to make the viewers think.\n"
] |
How is laze formed by lava mixing with sea water? | The high-temperature steam produced by the lava entering the ocean hydrolizes the various salts present in seawater, primarily chloride salts. This results in hydrogen from the steam combining with chloride ions, producing significant quantities of hydrogen chloride. As the steam recondenses it picks up this HCl to form hydrochloric acid droplets. | [
"Pumice is created when super-heated, highly pressurized rock is violently ejected from a volcano. The unusual foamy configuration of pumice happens because of simultaneous rapid cooling and rapid depressurization. The depressurization creates bubbles by lowering the solubility of gases (including water and CO) that are dissolved in the lava, causing the gases to rapidly exsolve (like the bubbles of CO that appear when a carbonated drink is opened). The simultaneous cooling and depressurization freezes the bubbles in a matrix. Eruptions under water are rapidly cooled and the large volume of pumice created can be a shipping hazard for cargo ships.\n",
"When lava next flowed over it, the heat and pressure transformed the muddy mixture. As water escaped it in the form of superheated steam, pressure variations resulted in flexation and many short fluctuating changes, reflected in the jasper's many thin, parallel bands. The hydrothermal reaction progressed as a shock wave through the mud, removing iron from it and depositing the iron as intertwining bands of limonite. The altered rock remained plastic, and subject to local movement as a result of pressure changes. These caused the great variety of marbled, rosette-like and picture designs found in Biggs jasper.\n",
"Laze is acid rain and air pollution arising from steam explosions and large plume clouds containing extremely acidic condensate (mainly hydrochloric acid), which occur when molten lava flows enter cold oceans. The term \"laze\" is a portmanteau of \"lava\" and \"haze\".\n",
"When \"pāhoehoe\" lava enters the sea it usually forms pillow basalts. However, when \"ʻaʻā\" enters the ocean it forms a littoral cone, a small cone-shaped accumulation of tuffaceous debris formed when the blocky \"ʻaʻā\" lava enters the water and explodes from built-up steam.\n",
"For instance, water causes magma to cool and solidify much more quickly than in a terrestrial eruption, often turning it into volcanic glass. The shapes and textures of lava formed by submarine volcanoes are different from lava erupted on land. Upon contact with water, a solid crust forms around the lava. Advancing lava flows into this crust, forming what is known as pillow lava.\n",
"Several different mechanisms have been invoked to explain the genesis of lava balloons. Water that penetrates the lava can boil and the resulting vapours can inflate the balloons and make them float, although for Terceira a non-water gas composition has been inferred. They are usually observed when lava flows enter the sea. They appear to form when water is trapped in lava as it flows onto a beach with waves or enters lava tubes; in the latter case, entrained water can be transported through the tube and eventually end up in developing pillow lavas which are rendered buoyant by water vapour bubbles.\n",
"When basalt erupts underwater or flows into the sea, contact with the water quenches the surface and the lava forms a distinctive \"pillow\" shape, through which the hot lava breaks to form another pillow. This \"pillow\" texture is very common in underwater basaltic flows and is diagnostic of an underwater eruption environment when found in ancient rocks. Pillows typically consist of a fine-grained core with a glassy crust and have radial jointing. The size of individual pillows varies from 10 cm up to several meters.\n"
] |
from where did country music emerge? | Hank Williams Sr. | [
"Country music is a genre of American popular music that originated in Southern United States, in Atlanta, Georgia in the 1920s, and It takes its roots from the southeastern genre of American folk music and Western music. The origins of country music are the folk music of mostly white, working-class Americans, who blended popular songs, Irish and Celtic fiddle tunes, traditional ballads, and cowboy songs, and various musical traditions from European immigrant communities. Barn dancing and other folk dance styles would be featured at country music gatherings, and many modern festivals have continued to feature dance, rodeo, or other cultural aspects.\n",
"Country music is primarily a fusion of African American blues and spirituals with Appalachian folk music, adapted for pop audiences and popularized beginning in the 1920s. The origins of country are in rural Southern folk music, which was primarily Irish and British, with African and continental European musics. Anglo-Celtic tunes, dance music, and balladry were the earliest predecessors of modern country, then known as \"hillbilly music\". Early hillbilly also borrowed elements of the blues and drew upon more aspects of 19th-century pop songs as hillbilly music evolved into a commercial genre eventually known as \"country and western\" and then simply \"country\". The earliest country instrumentation revolved around the European-derived fiddle and the African-derived banjo, with the guitar later added. String instruments like the ukulele and steel guitar became commonplace due to the popularity of Hawaiian musical groups in the early 20th century.\n",
"Country music evolved out of the diverse musical practices of the Appalachian region of the United States. Appalachian folk music was largely Scottish and Irish, with an important influence also being the African American country blues. Parts of Ontario, British Columbia and the Maritime provinces shared a tradition with the Appalachian region, and country music became popular quite quickly in these places. Fiddlers like George Wade and Don Messer helped to popularize the style, beginning in the late 1920s. Wade was not signed until the 1930s, when Victor Record's, inspired by the success of Wilf Carter the year before, signed him, Hank Snow and Hank LaRivière.\n",
"Country music originated in the southern United States in the 1920s where it evolved as a fusion of Appalachian music and Blues largely through the efforts of commercial record producers who sought to popularize traditional folk melodies from the rural United States. Country is musically similar to Western, although the latter tends to be more evocative of themes and imagery associated with the western United States, particularly that of the Old West era.\n",
"Country music has a long history in Canada. The genre evolved out of the diverse musical practices of the Appalachian region of the United States. Appalachian folk music was largely Scottish and Irish, with an important influence also being the African American country blues. Parts of Ontario, British Columbia and the Maritime provinces shared a tradition with the Appalachian region, and country music became popular quite quickly in these places. Fiddlers like George Wade and Don Messer helped to popularize the style, beginning in the late 1920s. Wade was not signed until the 1930s, when Victor Records, inspired by the success of Wilf Carter the year before, signed him, Hank Snow and Hank LaRivière.\n",
"Country rock is a genre that started in the 1960s but became prominent in the 1970s. The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres. In the aftermath of the British Invasion, many desired a return to the \"old values\" of rock n' roll. At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music. What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock. Early innovators in this new style of music in the 1960s and 1970s included Bob Dylan, who was the first to revert to country music with his 1967 album \"John Wesley Harding\" (and even more so with that album's follow-up, \"Nashville Skyline\"), followed by Gene Clark, Clark's former band The Byrds (with Gram Parsons on \"Sweetheart of the Rodeo\") and its spin-off The Flying Burrito Brothers (also featuring Gram Parsons), guitarist Clarence White, Michael Nesmith (The Monkees and the First National Band), the Grateful Dead, Neil Young, Commander Cody, The Allman Brothers, The Marshall Tucker Band, Poco, Buffalo Springfield, and Eagles, among many, even the former folk music duo Ian & Sylvia, who formed Great Speckled Bird in 1969. The Eagles would become the most successful of these country rock acts, and their compilation album \"Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975)\" remains the second best-selling album of all time in the US with 29 million copies sold. The Rolling Stones also got into the act with songs like \"Dead Flowers\" and a country version of \"Honky Tonk Women\".\n",
"The term \"country music\" is used today to describe many styles and subgenres. The origins of country music are found in the folk music of working class Americans, who blended popular songs, Irish and Celtic fiddle tunes, traditional English ballads, cowboy songs, and the musical traditions of various groups of European immigrants.\n"
] |
What exactly did the Jewish aristocracy do in Babylon? | As a corollary to OP's question:
What was the life of an average Jew in Babylon like? How were the classes divided? Were Jews well integrated into Babylonian society? | [
"Although most of the Jewish people during this period, especially the wealthy families, were to be found in Babylonia, the existence they led there, under the successive rulers of the Achaemenids, the Seleucids, the Parthians, and the Sassanians, was obscure and devoid of political influence. The poorest but most fervent of the exiles returned to Judah / the Land of Israel during the reign of the Achaemenids (c. 550–330 BCE). There, with the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem as their center, they organized themselves into a community, animated by a remarkable religious ardor and a tenacious attachment to the Torah as the focus of its identity. As this little nucleus increased in numbers with the accession of recruits from various quarters, it awoke to a consciousness of itself, and strove once again for national independence and political enfranchisement and sovereignty.\n",
"The Jewish exiles in Babylon were not slaves or prisoners, nor were they badly treated, and when the Persians gave permission for them to return to Jerusalem the majority elected to remain where they were. They and their descendants formed the diaspora, a large community of Jews living outside Judea, and the 1st century CE historian Josephus reported that there were more Jews in Syria (meaning the Seleucid empire) than in any other land. There was also significant Egyptian diaspora, although the Jews of Egypt were immigrants, not deportees, \"...attracted by Hellenistic culture, eager to win the respect of the Greeks and to adapt to their ways\" (John J. Collins, \"Between Athens and Jerusalem). The Egyptian diaspora was slow to develop, but in the Hellenistic period it came to outstrip the Babylonian community in importance. In addition to these major centres there were Jewish communities throughout the Hellenistic and subsequently the Roman world, from North Africa to Asia Minor and Greece and in Rome itself.\n",
"The Jewish community of what is termed in Jewish sources \"Babylon\" or \"Babylonia\" included Ezra the scribe, whose return to Judea in the late 6th century BC is associated with significant changes in Jewish ritual observance and the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem. The Babylonian Talmud was compiled in \"Babylonia\", identified with modern Iraq.\n",
"From the biblical Babylonian period to the rise of the Islamic caliphate, the Jewish community of \"Babylon\" thrived as the center of Jewish learning. The Mongol invasion and Islamic discrimination in the Middle Ages led to its decline. Under the Ottoman Empire, the Jews of Iraq fared better. The community established modern schools in the second half of the 19th century. Driven by persecution, which saw many of the leading Jewish families of Baghdad flee for the Indian subcontinent, and expanding trade with British colonies, the Jews of Iraq established a trading diaspora in Asia known as the Baghdadi Jews.\n",
"The first governor appointed by Babylon was Gedaliah, a native Judahite; he encouraged the many Jews who had fled to surrounding countries such as Moab, Ammon and Edom to return, and he took steps to return the country to prosperity. Some time later, a surviving member of the royal family assassinated Gedaliah and his Babylonian advisors, prompting many refugees to seek safety in Egypt. By the end of the second decade of the 6th century, in addition to those who remained in Judah, there were significant Jewish communities in Babylon and in Egypt; this was the beginning of the later numerous Jewish communities living permanently outside Judah in the Jewish Diaspora.\n",
"During this time Jews lived in thriving communities all across ancient Babylonia. In the Geonic period (650–1250 CE), the Babylonian Yeshiva Academies were the chief centers of Jewish learning; the Geonim (meaning either \"Splendor\" or \"Geniuses\"), who were the heads of these schools, were recognized as the highest authorities in Jewish law.\n",
"The deportation and exile of an unknown number of Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar II, starting with the first deportation in 597 BCE and continuing after the fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the Temple in 587 BCE, resulted in dramatic changes to Jewish culture and religion. During the 70-year exile in Babylon, Jewish houses of assembly (known in Hebrew as a \"beit knesset\" or in Greek as a \"synagogue\") and houses of prayer (Hebrew \"Beit Tefilah\"; Greek προσευχαί, \"proseuchai\") were the primary meeting places for prayer, and the house of study (\"beit midrash\") was the counterpart for the synagogue.\n"
] |
Okay, so I don't know anything about physics, but this question has been on my mind. | What you're looking for is called [Gravitational Lensing](_URL_2_)... and nothing can go faster than the speed of light (without funky quantum mechanical [jibber](_URL_1_) [jabber](_URL_0_)). | [
"\"Physics\" (from ) is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.\n",
"“What I liked about physics is that it asked the ultimate questions. I loved how when you look at the world, all this amazing complexity had these very simple rules behind it. Now I believe the opposite — the argument of my favorite writer, Tolstoy, is that the world doesn’t fit any system, because human psychology is so infinitely complex,” Morson says.\n",
"Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the \"fundamental science\". Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together.\n",
"Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as the fundamental science, because all other natural sciences use and obey the principles and laws set down by the field. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for formulation and quantification of principles.\n",
"Physics (from , from \"phýsis\" 'nature') is the natural science that studies matter, its motion and behavior through space and time, and that studies the related entities of energy and force. Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, and its main goal is to understand how the universe behaves.\n",
"Philosophy of physics is the study of the fundamental, philosophical questions underlying modern physics, the study of matter and energy and how they interact. The main questions concern the nature of space and time, atoms and atomism. Also included are the predictions of cosmology, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, the foundations of statistical mechanics, causality, determinism, and the nature of physical laws. Classically, several of these questions were studied as part of metaphysics (for example, those about causality, determinism, and space and time).\n",
"Physics is involved with the fundamental principles of physical phenomena and the basic forces of nature, and also gives insight into the aspects of space and time. Physics also deals with the basic principles that explain matter and energy, and may study aspects of atomic matter by following concepts derived from the most fundamental principles.\n"
] |
why toddlers are happy one moment then screaming and crying the next moment | One theory I have heard is that basically *everything* is a new experience for them, and they don't yet routines in place for dealing with things that seem trivial to adults.
Me: I dropped my pen. Drat. I will pick it up and then resume writing.
Toddler: I dropped my toy. FUCK! WHAT DO I DO? IT'S ALL SO INTENSE! | [
"Happy that they are save, they start laughing and mocking each other. The principal tells the parents that they are not worried about what happened and are happy. Feeling ashamed, the parents leave the children alone. \n",
"Beginning at birth, newborns have the capacity to signal generalized distress in response to unpleasant stimuli and bodily states, such as pain, hunger, body temperature, and stimulation. They may smile, seemingly involuntarily, when satiated, in their sleep, or in response to pleasant touch. Infants begin using a “social smile,” or a smile in response to a positive social interaction, at approximately 2 to 3 months of age, and laughter begins at 3 to 4 months. Expressions of happiness become more intentional with age, with young children interrupting their actions to smile or express happiness to nearby adults at 8–10 months of age, and with markedly different kinds of smiles (e.g., grin, muted smile, mouth open smile) developing at 10 to 12 months of age.\n",
"This poem belongs to the \"Songs of Experience\" by William Blake. It is the counter poem of \"Infant Joy\". The poem suggests that childbirth is not always joyful and happy but can bring sorrow and pain. The response of the child itself may be different from that of the child in \"Infant Joy\" because of the behavior of the parents. In this poem the parents seem depressed by this unwanted birth, and this may be reflecting on the child itself.\n",
"In the third month of life, children begin smiling, gesturing and vocalizing (cooing) when greeting familiar adults. Vygotskians have called this the \"animation complex\" and infants soon come to use it proactively to arouse and maintain the attention of a caregiver (Bodrova & Leong 2007). From around three to six months of age, infants use smiles and vocalizations to invite caregivers to engage in emotional exchanges, creating what researchers such as Tronick have called \"interactional synchrony\" (Tronick 1989). Parents often use \"baby-talk\" or \"child-directed speech\" in response to their children's prelinguistic vocalization (e.g. babbling), and it has been shown that infants respond by modifying their babbling in accordance with the phonological structure present in their caregivers' utterances (Goldstein & Schwade 2008). This sort of vocalized emotional interaction, or what John Locke (2001) has referred to as \"vocal communion,\" appears to be linked to attachment and later lexical learning, thus playing a formative role in language development.\n",
"According to the \"Life of St. Macarius\", when he was still a baby, he would start crying every time he heard the ringing of the bells of the nearby church. There was no way to console the child. The parents would not want to bring the baby boy to the church, afraid that he would disturb the service with his crying; but eventually they decided to try. And, to their surprise, as soon as they brought the child to the church, he became quiet, smiling joyfully. From this time on, the parents had to attend every service at the parish church, and to take the child with them, because if they stayed at home during the service, the baby would again start crying.\n",
"After the second year, as the child begins to see the caregiver as an independent person, a more complex and goal-corrected partnership is formed. Children begin to notice others' goals and feelings and plan their actions accordingly. For example, whereas babies cry because of pain, two-year-olds cry to summon their caregiver, and if that does not work, cry louder, shout, or follow.\n",
"\"Laughed Until We Cried\" is a ballad in which the narrator reflects on various events in his life, each involving family and/or friends, such as having fun on a senior class trip, listening to his grandfather telling family stories at a Christmas gathering, and rocking a newborn baby daughter to sleep. In each case, the narrator describes the events as being a time when he and those around him \"laughed until [they] cried\".\n"
] |
Why was being able to flank an opponents army so powerful pre-gunpowder? | More can always be said, but the following previous answers are quite excellent explanations.
u/Iphikrates offers a [comprehensive treatment on just this topic here](_URL_0_), and u/theshadowdawn has a [similar answer here](_URL_1_), with special reference to the Battle of Cannae. | [
"Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, cannon and mortars and howitzers (in modern times), the traditional methods of defense became less effective against a determined siege.\n",
"The best-known proponent of the tactic was the Duke of Wellington who used it repeatedly during the Napoleonic Wars to defeat the French infantry. By placing a ridge between his own army and his opponent's, and having his troops lie down, Wellington was able both to better protect his troops from French artillery fire and to strike the attacking French infantry by having his troops stand up at the last moment and deliver volleys of musketry at close range.\n",
"Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defence became less and less effective against a determined siege.\n",
"At range, this strategy would do little against musket armed troops firing in volleys or artillery using canister shot (while effective against bayonets, the targe would not fare so well against a musket ball), which necessitated tactics such as the \"Highland Charge\", which required a Jacobite war band to close with their targets as quickly as possible, normally under heavy fire, using the smoke from musket and cannon fire to cover the last leg of the assault before attacking the line.\n",
"The main battle tactic came to be known as pike and shot infantry. The two sides would line up opposite one another, with infantry brigades of musketeers in the centre. These carried matchlock muskets, an inaccurate weapon which nevertheless could be lethal at a range of up to 300 yards. Musketeers would assemble three rows deep, the first kneeling, second crouching, and third standing, allowing all to fire a volley simultaneously. At times, troops divided into two groups, allowing one to reload while the other fired. Among the musketeers were pikemen, carrying pikes of to long, whose main purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. Positioned on each side of the infantry were cavalry, with a right-wing led by the lieutenant-general and left by the commissary general. Its main aim was to rout the opponents' cavalry, then turn and overpower their infantry.\n",
"Warriors on board were typically armed with shield, spear and bow. In the gunpowder era, small iron or brass cannon were sometimes mounted on the bow or stern, although the firepower delivered from these areas and weapons was relatively ineffective. Musketeers delivering fire to cover raiding missions generally had better luck. The typical tactic was to maneuver close to shore, discharge weapons, then quickly pull out to open water to reload, before dashing in again to repeat the cycle. Troop and supply transport were the primary missions, but canoe versus canoe engagements in the lagoons, creeks and lakes of West Africa were also significant.\n",
"Flanking on land in the pre-modern era was usually achieved with cavalry (and rarely, chariots) due to their speed and maneuverability, while heavily armored infantry was commonly used to fix the enemy, as in the Battle of Pharsalus. Armored vehicles such as tanks replaced cavalry as the main force of flanking maneuvers in the 20th century, as seen in the Battle of France in World War II.\n"
] |
why do so many animals like deer, boars, and tapirs all have dapple camouflage only when they are babies? why do they lose it when they grow older? | I think I’ve heard that the camouflage babies have only really works if they’re sitting completely still, which is fine because their parents will bring them food. But when they move, those spots become sort of a bulls eye, and they can’t afford to sit still anymore. | [
"Camouflage is a powerful influence in a large number of mammals, as it helps to conceal individuals from predators or prey. In arctic and subarctic mammals such as the arctic fox (\"Alopex lagopus\"), collared lemming (\"Dicrostonyx groenlandicus\"), stoat (\"Mustela erminea\"), and snowshoe hare (\"Lepus americanus\"), seasonal color change between brown in summer and white in winter is driven largely by camouflage. Some arboreal mammals, notably primates and marsupials, have shades of violet, green, or blue skin on parts of their bodies, indicating some distinct advantage in their largely arboreal habitat due to convergent evolution. The green coloration of sloths, however, is the result of a symbiotic relationship with algae.\n",
"The immature instars of some species camouflage themselves extremely effectively by gluing sand grains and similar particles to their backs, and so do the adults of a few species. They are not conspicuous and most species are physically small and occur patchily and in small numbers; these factors make them difficult to study and partly explain why there is a poverty of detailed knowledge of the biology of most species.\n",
"Katydids have evolved a wide range of camouflage adaptations so their body colouring and shape match entire leaves, half-eaten leaves, dying leaves, leaves with bird droppings, sticks, twigs, and tree bark. Other well-known mimetic animals include beetles, mantids, caterpillars, moths, snakes, lizards, frogs, and fish.\n",
"Reptiles tend to avoid confrontation through camouflage. Two major groups of reptile predators are birds and other reptiles, both of which have well developed color vision. Thus the skins of many reptiles have cryptic coloration of plain or mottled gray, green, and brown to allow them to blend into the background of their natural environment. Aided by the reptiles' capacity for remaining motionless for long periods, the camouflage of many snakes is so effective that people or domestic animals are most typically bitten because they accidentally step on them.\n",
"The Utila iguana has a grey-brown to black coloring when young, the only species of spiny-tail iguana with such a dark color when young. Other members of the genus have a green or yellow coloring when young and turn darker with age. As this animal matures it can be a blue or light gray in color, depending on heat conditions or even the animal's temper.\n",
"Camouflage is sometimes facilitated by motion, as in the leafy sea dragon and some stick insects. These animals complement their passive camouflage by swaying like plants, either preventing predators from detecting them, or appearing as something other than prey.\n",
"Wild budgerigars average long, weigh , in wingspan, and display a light green body colour (abdomen and rumps), while their mantles (back and wing coverts) display pitch-black mantle markings (blackish in fledgelings and immatures) edged in clear yellow undulations. The forehead and face is yellow in adults. Prior to their adult plumage, young individuals have blackish stripes down to the cere (nose) in young individuals until around 3–4 months of age. They display small, iridescent blue-violet cheek patches and a series of three black spots across each side of their throats (called throat patches). The two outermost throat spots are situated at the base of each cheek patch. The tail is cobalt (dark-blue); and outside tail feathers display central yellow flashes. Their wings have greenish-black flight feathers and black coverts with yellow fringes along with central yellow flashes, which only become visible in flight or when the wings are outstretched. Bills are olive grey and legs blueish-grey, with zygodactyl toes.\n"
] |
why do loud noises (e.g gun shots) trigger car alarms? | (10+ years selling/installing car security)
The part of the alarm that does this is called the "shock sensor". It's a little device that detects a "shock" to the vehicle via vibration.
The most common is a "504D" made by DEI. Feel free to search the part number if you'd like to see what it looks like/how it's installed.
It's a security feature, not a regulation. It's uncommon with a factory security system but extremely common for aftermarket systems.
The point is, if someone was to hit your car (ex-gf takes a Louisville Slugger to both headlights for instance) the impact would create a vibration (shock) that is detected by this device and sets off the alarm.
The issue is, sound is just a vibration in air. Very loud and low-frequency sounds can also vibrate solids, like the metal body of your car. Thunder, gun shots, and motorcycles are commonly loud enough to set off these sensors (and I'm sure you've noticed, you can feel the vibration from these loud and low-frequency noises).
They do have a sensitivity adjustment, but there's a fine line between false-positives and false-negatives, and for safety sake, we generally err on the side of false-positives to limit the chances of a false negative. | [
"Frequently, false alarms occur because car alarm owners use high sensitivity settings. This may be the main reason why loud bass frequency sound (loud music, other cars or motorcycles with loud exhaust systems, thunderstorms, etc.) can set off car alarms. The second possible reason is that some parts of the alarm system may be improperly installed.\n",
"Although car alarms of some kind have been available since the beginning of the automobile era, the dramatic increase in their installation in the 1980s and 1990s coupled with the fact that nearly all car alarms are triggered accidentally (frequently because of high sensitivity settings) means that people who hear them often ignore them. In 1994 the New York City Police Department claimed that car alarms may actually be making the crime problem worse, and there is one account in 1992 of a thief in New York City rocking a car to deliberately trigger its alarm in order to help conceal the sound of a breaking window.\n",
"Back-up beepers or an observer are required by OSHA for earthmoving vehicles with an obstructed view to the rear and no one on the ground to help guide the driver. Alarms are typically loud because manufacturers do not know the ambient noise level where the machines will be used.\n",
"A car alarm is an electronic device installed in a vehicle in an attempt to discourage theft of the vehicle itself, its contents, or both. Car alarms work by emitting high-volume sound (often a vehicle-mounted siren, klaxon, pre-recorded verbal warning, the vehicle's own horn, or a combination of these) when the conditions necessary for triggering it are met. Such alarms may also cause the vehicle's headlights to flash, may notify the car's owner of the incident via a paging system, and may interrupt one or more electrical circuits necessary for the car to start. Although inexpensive to acquire and install, the effectiveness of such devices in deterring vehicle burglary or theft when their only effect is to emit sound appears to be negligible.\n",
"Although originally intended as a warning device, often these alarms are used on vehicles in a situation where no one is ever likely to be a passerby. (For example, tractors in fields often use them even though no one is ever walking behind the vehicle). The noise, however, can be heard up to away and disturbs residents and people within the vicinity but who will never be within the danger zone of the vehicle itself. In places, like the City of London, this noise pollution has led to a ban on the back-up beeper and alternatives must be used instead.\n",
"Due to their characteristic howling start-up noise, which is typical for three-phase AC motors with pulsed voltage control, these vehicles are occasionally also called \"circular saws\", \"hoe buoys\" or \"flying alarms\". The loud start-up and brake noise has led to many complaints.\n",
"The infrasonic burglar alarm reacts to shock waves in the air that are produced by a break-in. When an intruder tries to break a window or force open a door or a window, the resultant air pressure variations (or shock waves) produce sound vibrations in the air, from 0.1 – 50 Hz. These low frequency sound vibrations are captured by a very sensitive receiver in the alarm and converted into electronic signals. These signals are then passed through a pre-programmed electronic filtering system for analysis and when found positive, activate the alarm siren immediately; thus dissuading the potential intruder still on the outside of the property.\n"
] |
how do people "live" in an embassy for extended periods of time? i've never visited an embassy, are they like hotels or something or it just a very awkward situation? | It really depends on the countries involved and the situation. A lot of embassies are nothing more than office buildings with no living accommodations.
The U.S. Embassy in London is an office building and the U.S. amabssador lives in a huge mansion called Winfield House in Regents Park. Most of the staff are locals and live in the area surrounding the embassy.
On the other hand, the U.S. embassy in Iraq is a fortress where everyone lives in the compound. | [
"A temporary resident is a foreign national granted the right to stay in a country for a certain length of time (e.g. with a visa or ), without full citizenship. This may be for study, business, or other reasons.\n",
"Though travelling to and from countries is generally permitted (with some limitations), most governments restrict the length of time that temporary visitors may stay in the country. This can be dependent on country of citizenship and country travelled to among other factors. In some instances (such as those of refugees who are at risk of immediate bodily harm on return to their country or those seeking legal asylum), indefinite stay may be allowed on humanitarian grounds, but in most other cases, stay is generally limited. One notable exception to this is the Schengen Area, where citizens of any country in the EU generally enjoy indefinite stay in other EU countries.\n",
"Some countries issue travel documents to permanent residents (i.e. foreign citizens permitted to reside there indefinitely) or other non-citizens, usually for re-entry but also occasionally valid for international travel.\n",
"Because diplomatic missions, such as embassies and consulates, may not be entered by the host country without permission (even though they do not enjoy extraterritorial status), persons have from time to time taken refuge from a host-country's national authorities inside the embassy of another country.\n",
"People sometimes relocate from one country to another, either permanently or on a limited-time basis. This presents challenges to businesses, governments, and individuals seeking to ensure future benefits or having to deal with taxation authorities in multiple countries. To that end, the Social Security Administration has signed treaties, often referred to as \"Totalization Agreements\", with other social insurance programs in various foreign countries.\n",
"Emigration and immigration are sometimes mandatory in a contract of employment: religious missionaries and employees of transnational corporations, international non-governmental organizations, and the diplomatic service expect, by definition, to work \"overseas\". They are often referred to as \"expatriates\", and their conditions of employment are typically equal to or better than those applying in the host country (for similar work).\n",
"Nonimmigrants are foreign nationals granted temporary admission into the United States. The major purposes for which nonimmigrant admission may be authorized include temporary visits for business or pleasure, academic or vocational study, temporary employment, or to act as a representative of a foreign government or international organization, among others.\n"
] |
What was the role of light infantry in Napoleonic era battles? | So, first I'll unpack a few things. What I will be talking about is mainly focused on the French Imperial Army, I don't know enough of the other army compositions to help but I am sure that we have the right people to help. Second, within the French army, there is a difference between light infantry and skirmishers and I'll go into that in a bit.
So, what makes light infantry? Generally light infantry was made of men between five feet and five four to five six. They were chosen for being nimble and intelligent, being able to conduct open order formations without getting confused (clearly they didn't think much of soldiers intellect). So light infantry (or *chasseurs a pied*) would be trained to fight in both a line formation and open order formation. From there, what they would do would vary from what was needed but more often than naught, they would fight in line formation.
Now, the real use of light infantry was to establish a foothold; ideally a French commander would send his light forward to make contact with the enemy and hold them there. From here, the regular line would march up and fight the now tired enemy while the light pulls back for a flanking attempt. So, the use of light is meant to stop the enemy and buy time to pull in more forces to defeat the enemy.
now, for skirmishing. As I mentioned, yes the light was trained in open order combat. They could skirmish if needed but often they would leave it to the *voltigeurs*, an elite company of sharp shooters. Before 1809, a French Line battalion would consist of did companies of about 120 men, one company of elite Grenadier (whom are the tallest and most skilled of the battalion), and a company of elite sharp shooters (the aforementioned *voltigeurs*). A light battalion would have the same composition, having chasseurs instead of standard line and carabiners instead of grenadiers. The *voltigeurs* would be the ones skirmishing until they would give way for the standard light infantry in line formation
There are specific skirmishing battalions, *trailleurs*, which would often be either elite infantry like the Trailleurs De la Jeune Garde but those are unique units. | [
"Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and wore rifle green uniforms. These became designated as \"rifle regiments\" in Britain and \"Jäger\" and \"Schützen\" (sharpshooter) regiments in German-speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called \"voltigeurs\" and \"chasseurs\" and the sharpshooters \"tirailleurs\". The Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from mountainous frontier areas. They were gradually absorbed into the line infantry becoming a hybrid type that proved successful against the French, to the extent that Napoleon recruited several units of Austrian army Grenzer to his own army after victory over Austria in 1809 compelled the Austrians to cede territories from which they were traditionally recruited. In Portugal, 1797, companies of \"Caçadores\" (Hunters) were created in the Portuguese Army, and in 1808 led to the formation of independent \"Caçador\" battalions that became known for their ability to perform precision shooting at long distances.\n",
"In the 18th century light infantry appeared. A skirmish force screening the main body of infantry became so important to any army in the field that eventually all the major European powers developed specialised skirmishing light infantry. Light infantry, such as German Jägers or Austro-Hungarian Pandours, was armed with primitive rifles. As these rifles took a long time to load (up to one minute as opposed to three to five shots a minute for muskets), light infantry played an auxiliary role.\n",
"In the years after the Napoleonic Wars, line infantry continued to be deployed as the main battle force, while light infantry provided fire support and covered the movement of units. In Russia, Great Britain, France, Prussia and some other states, linear tactics and formation discipline were maintained into the late 19th century.\n",
"Light cavalry played a key role in mounted scouting, escorting and skirmishing during the Napoleonic era. Light horse also served a function in major set-piece battles. While lacking the sheer offensive power of heavy cavalry, light cavalry were still extremely effective against unprepared infantry and artillery. All infantry commanders were forced to respect the danger any cavalry presented to their forces, and light cavalry were effective at changing the movement of enemy forces simply through their presence. In the aftermath of battles, light cavalry were used to press a victor's advantage or to screen retreating forces from further attack.\n",
"In France, during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the division into the Guard, while line infantry and light infantry formally continued to exist, line and \"light\" regiments had identical weaponry (smooth-bore fusils) and tactics. (Napoleon preferred smooth-bore weaponry for their faster reload speeds.) However, each battalion in both line and \"light\" regiments included a company of voltigeurs, who were expected to act as skirmishers as well being able to deploy into line.\n",
"The infantry Arm during the Napoleonic Wars had stopped using the grenades of the previous century, and was largely divided into the \"infantry of the line\" which fought in close order formation, and \"light infantry\" which fought as skirmishers in open order. Although many units were named guards, they functionally conformed to the division of the close and open order formation, with light troops often assuming the close order also. More notable were the grenadier units which traditionally had the pick of the largest and strongest conscripts and recruits although this changed over the course of the wars to include the more experienced soldiers.\n",
"BULLET::::- Tirailleurs: \"Tirailleurs\" (Skirmishers) were light infantry who formed a shallow line ahead of the line of battle during the Revolutionary/Napoleonic Wars and subsequently. The name was also used for the locally recruited colonial troops in the French Empire between 1841 and 1962.\n"
] |
why does so many people hate the baby boomer generation? | The current economic, political, and environmental climates were almost entirely influenced by members of that generation to where they are today.
The housing market, education costs, this team mentality for politics, climate, all are in pretty shitty shape for the next generation to deal with. Its also not super uncommon to hear complaints about how the younger generation is dealing with these issues, which is frustrating.
Not to mention the acute issue that few of them are retiring, which restricts job markets.
Personally I think its an unfair sweeping generalization, but its not untrue for a subset. | [
"This population is sometimes referred to as Generation Jones, and less commonly as Tweeners. These cuspers were not as financially successful as older Baby Boomers. They experienced a recession like many Generation Xers but had a much more difficult time finding jobs than Generation X did. While they learned to be IT-savvy, they didn't have computers until after high school but were some of the first to purchase them for their homes. They were among some of the first to take an interest in video games. They get along well with Baby Boomers, but share different values. While they are comfortable in office environments, they are more relaxed at home. They're less interested in advancing their careers than Baby Boomers and more interested in quality of life.\n",
"In Western Europe and North America, boomers are widely associated with privilege, as many grew up during a period of increasing affluence due in part to widespread post-war government subsidies in housing and education. As a group, baby boomers were wealthier, more active and more physically fit than any preceding generation and were the first to grow up genuinely expecting the world to improve with time. They were also the generation that reached peak levels of income in the workplace and could, therefore, enjoy the benefits of abundant food, clothing, retirement programs, and even \"midlife-crisis\" products. But, this generation also has been criticized often for its increases in consumerism which others saw as excessive.\n",
"Baby Boomers, born approximately between 1946 and 1964 were brought up in a healthy post war economy and saw the world revolving around them as the largest generation of the century. Their lifestyle is to live for work and they often expect the same level of dedication and work ethics from the next generations. They are said to prefer face to face communication, are interactive team players and attain personal fulfilment from work. Baby Boomers are often branded workaholics leaving little to no work-life balance which has inevitably led to a breakdown in family values which has influenced the next generation. They are said to be loyal to their organisations, enjoy the notion of lifetime employment and prefer to be valued or needed as opposed to rewarded with recognition or money. An article by Emma Simon in the \"Daily Telegraph\" describes them as the 'post war generation' who have enjoyed an \"unbroken run of good-luck\".\n",
"The generation is noted for coming of age after a huge swath of their older brothers and sisters in the earlier portion of the baby boomer population had come immediately preceding them; thus, many complain that there was a paucity of resources and privileges available to them that were seemingly abundant to older boomers. Therefore, there is a certain level of bitterness and \"jonesing\" for the level of freedom and affluence granted to older boomers but denied to them.\n",
"Economic instability is the primary justification for this phenomenon, as articulated in Kimberly Palmer's 2007 \"U.S. News & World Report\" article \"The New Parent Trap: More Boomers Help Adult Kids out Financially\". In particular, the term Boomeranger has been used to draw reference to those Gen-Xers and Gen-Yers of the Boomerang Generation who have either returned to an earlier, more modest lifestyle or have simply moved back home with parents and other loved ones, in response to the Great Recession. Where the young person and his/her parents can tolerate the arrangement, it provides tremendous financial relief to the young person. Such co-residence can be a valuable form of insurance, particularly for youths from poorer families. It may also provide non-negligible income to the parents, though in many cultures, the boomeranger retains all or nearly all of their disposable income for discretionary income purchases.\n",
"The boomers have tended to think of themselves as a special generation, very different from preceding and subsequent generations. In the 1960s and 1970s, as a relatively large number of young people entered their late teens—the oldest turned 18 in 1964—they, and those around them, created a very specific rhetoric around their cohort and the changes brought about by their size in numbers. This rhetoric had an important impact in the self-perceptions of the boomers, as well as their tendency to define the world in terms of generations, which was a relatively new phenomenon. The baby boom has been described variously as a \"shockwave\" and as \"the pig in the python\".\n",
"BULLET::::- In the United States, many Millennials and late Generation X also belong to the Boomerang Generation which live with their parents after they would normally be considered old enough to live on their own. This social phenomenon is mainly caused by high unemployment rates coupled with various economic downturns, and in turn, many Boomerang children postpone romance and marriage due to economic hardship.\n"
] |
why does this paper shatter after being folded seven times with a hydraulic press? | Paper, when folded in half, effectively doubles its thickness. When folded six times in half, there is too much thickness and not enough surface area for anything to make an effective seventh fold.
However, the hydraulic press has enough force to fold it, but that puts extreme stress on the paper, which is eventually so much tension it breaks into pieces like glass.
The reason for this is most likely because when paper is folded, stress is put onto the cellulose within the paper which helps the crease hold its shape. After enough folds, there's so much potential energy in the paper that when the seventh fold is completed, it literally overflows with energy and shatters. | [
"The Hydraulic Press Channel (HPC) is a YouTube channel operated by Finnish factory owner Lauri Vuohensilta and his wife Anni. Launched in October 2015, the channel publishes videos of various objects being crushed in a hydraulic press. On 31 October 2015, the channel published a video of Vuohensilta unsuccessfully attempting to fold a piece of paper more than seven times with the hydraulic press. The video was subsequently posted to the social news website Reddit in March 2016, causing it to receive more than two million views within a day.\n",
"Paper contrasts with papyrus in that the plant material is broken down through maceration or disintegration before the paper is pressed. This produces a much more even surface, and no natural weak direction in the material which falls apart over time.\n",
"Although glass is unaffected by compression in the printing press, it will break under tension. For that reason, vitreographs are always printed on an etching press, whose rigid bed will support the glass plate firmly. In addition, the press bed must be level and working conditions in the print shop immaculate. A particle of grit or dirt between press bed and the plate will create a tension point that will cause the glass to crack when pressure is applied.\n",
"One characteristic of machine-made paper is that it creates a direction or an alignment of the fibers, which directly impacts its strength. This is of particular importance when tearing the paper, as one would do to separate a stamp for use. When the tear is aligned with the direction of the fibers, the paper will tear evenly. When the tear is opposed to the direction of the fibers, the paper will tear unevenly, in a jagged line. Handmade paper disperses the fibers in unpredictable directions and therefore yields a paper with the most overall strength. A paper’s strength had an influence on the separation methods used for a stamp. For example, a stronger paper may have needed a higher number of perforations per inch to best facilitate the separation of the stamps. Similarly, many stamps have two different standards of perforation for its length and width to optimize the ease of separation while minimizing the cost of manufacturing.\n",
"One survivor, Jiao Zhengyan, 38 and head of the company's ingot casting section, explained why the steel had been spilled instead of remaining in an upright ladle: \"As the ladle was falling, it hit a flatbed and tilted. The molten steel immediately flowed into the nearby conference room.\"\n",
"Most paper folders push paper into the machine by use of a friction wheel; this grabs paper using friction. Friction-feed paper folders do not work well with glossy paper as the friction wheel slips on the paper's surface. Pneumatic paper folders are preferable for folding glossy paper.\n",
"A piece of paper was left over from the package. Herrmann picked this up and rolled it into a ball. Then he proceeded to knock it through his knee. In an instant he tossed the ball of paper into the air, where it vanished.\n"
] |
why can i usually smoothly fast forward a digital video (netflix, hbo go, dvds, etc) but reverse playback is always a jerky mess? | Vidoes general are usually buffered forwards not backwards. Basically they assume that once youve seen it already it's unlikely that you will go back to see it again.
So if you do have to go back all the currently buffered data is tossed out and then you are basically starting fresh from that new point that you jumped to. If your going forward in the video though there's a chance that part of it is already buffered and can just be played immediately. | [
"Analogue VCRs provided fast-forward by simply playing the tape faster. The resulting loss of synchronization of the video was accepted because it was still possible to make out approximately what was happening in the video to find the desired playback point. Modern digital video systems such as DVR and Video on Demand systems use 'trick mode' to present an apparently faster stream by only displaying selected frames.\n",
"The term smooth motion video is used in New Zealand to describe the end result of panning, zooming and sequencing a set of still images in such a fashion as to cause the process to become filmic via use of a video editing programme rather than the more common slideshow software.\n",
"Unlike analogue video streams in which only serial access is possible, digital video allows for random access to the media, which raises the possibility of alternative fast forwarding algorithms and visualizations. In video streaming formats, such as H.264, fast forward algorithms use the I-frames to sample the video at faster than normal speed. In streaming videos, fast-forward represents a useful search or browsing mechanism, but introduces extra network overhead when non-I-frames are transmitted in addition to the viewed I-frames and extra computational complexity in the video transcoder. Finding more network bandwidth-conserving and computationally efficient algorithms for accommodating both fast-forward and normal speed viewing is an active area of research.\n",
"For a sufficiently long clip, it is possible to select sequences that have suffered little from the compression, and sequences that have suffered heavily, especially if CBR has been used, whereby the quality between frames can vary highly due to different amounts of compression needed to achieve a constant bitrate. So, in a given long clip, such as a full-length movie, any two codecs may perform quite differently on a particular sequence from the clip, while the codecs may be approximately equal (or the situation reversed) in quality over a wider sequence of frames. Press-releases and amateur forums may sometimes select sequences known to favor a particular codec or style of rate-control in reviews.\n",
"Typically this style is achieved when each film frame is captured at a rate much faster than it will be played back. When replayed at normal speed, time appears to be moving more slowly. A term for creating slow motion film is overcranking which refers to hand cranking an early camera at a faster rate than normal (i.e. faster than 24 frames per second). Slow motion can also be achieved by playing normally recorded footage at a slower speed. This technique is more often applied to video subjected to instant replay than to film. A third technique that is becoming common using current computer software post-processing (with programs like Twixtor) is to fabricate digitally interpolated frames to smoothly transition between the frames that were actually shot. Motion can be slowed further by combining techniques, interpolating between overcranked frames. The traditional method for achieving super-slow motion is through high-speed photography, a more sophisticated technique that uses specialized equipment to record fast phenomena, usually for scientific applications.\n",
"In contrast to VCRs, hard-disk based digital video recorders make \"time shifting\" more convenient and also allow for functions such as pausing live TV, instant replay, chasing playback (viewing a recording before it has been completed) and skipping over advertising during playback.\n",
"With an analogue system, the visual fast-forward/rewind effect was generated simply by transmitting the frames faster and/or in reverse; there was an inevitable loss of frame synchronization or 'tearing' but this was accepted as the norm. With a digital system, it is unlikely that the decoder can process the digital stream significantly faster than normal, and certainly not backwards. Therefore, only a subset of frames can be presented to the decoder. \n"
] |
Why are things from the past so far underground? In millions of years when our skeletons are where the dinosaurs skeletons are now, where did the old ground go? Where did the new ground come from? | If you drop dead right now and left your body to nature, you won't end up underground like fossils. Scavengers will pull you apart and eat you, you will rot and the rains and ravages of time will remove all traces of you. Even if you were buried at a funeral, you won't become a fossil.
The conditions needed for you to become a fossil are very specific and thus rare. You need to die in a way that scavengers can't reach you, you'll be left alone, and you will be covered by silt or sediment before your bones decompose. This is easier on the bottom of the sea than on land, but sometimes there are places, such as a river delta where erosion and rains wash down the right amounts of the right kinds of silt, and the right kind of geology where the land is sinking so that the sedimentary system will continue for a long time, and a bunch of other factors.
As silt and sediment continues to build up above, and your layer continues to sink, the layers below get squeezed, and over ages become sedimentary rock.
If all the variables are perfect (extremely rare) your bones can mineralize as they degrade, leaving behind an impression of their shape, made out of a kind of rock that is different from the surrounding rock - a fossil.
Over more ages, geology might change (continental plates push into reach other, etc) and start pushing those layers of rock up, or sideways, or pushing up ocean floor, including layers of rock below it that once were the floor.
Basically, the rock above and below is sedimentary and was being formed when you wandered into it in such a way that your shape was cast like a mold. Then geological forces over eons can shift areas of the Earth's crust, including pushing up those layers of rock formed out of ancient sediments | [
"Guy Darrough, a paleontologist from St. Louis, Missouri currently working at the dig site, said it was \"pretty much a miracle\" that dinosaur bones were found in Missouri, because the state's soft soil has resulted in the deterioration of most prehistoric remains. However, some of the remains found have been damaged by erosion and other processes. While much of Missouri lies upon rocks from the Paleozoic or Precambrian eras, the Chronister site is situated over Mesozoic rock. Stewart, who found the bones after being assigned to study the origins of clay in the southeastern portion of the Ozarks, was able to conclude that part of the region lies upon deposits from the Upper Cretaceous period, although much of the sediment from that time period has eroded away.\n",
"During the 1970s, Walter Alvarez was doing geologic research in central Italy. There he had located an outcrop on the walls of a gorge whose limestone layers included strata both above and below the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary. Exactly at the boundary is a thin layer of clay. Walter told his father that the layer marked where the dinosaurs and much else became extinct and that nobody knew why, or what the clay was about — it was a big mystery and he intended to solve it.\n",
"The \"Wall of Bones\" located within the Dinosaur Quarry building in the park consists of a steeply tilted (67° from horizontal) rock layer which contains hundreds of dinosaur fossils. The enclosing rock has been chipped away to reveal the fossil bones intact for public viewing. In July 2006, the Quarry Visitor Center was closed due to structural problems that since 1957 had plagued the building because it was built on unstable clay. The decision was made to build a new facility elsewhere in the monument to house the visitor center and administrative functions, making it easier to resolve the structural problems of the quarry building while still retaining a portion of the historic Mission 66 era exhibit hall. It was announced in April 2009 that Dinosaur National Monument would receive $13.1 million to refurbish and reopen the gallery as part of the Obama administration's $750 billion stimulus plan. The Park Service successfully rebuilt the Quarry Exhibit Hall, supporting its weight on 70-foot steel micropile columns that extend to the bedrock below the unstable clay. The Dinosaur Quarry was reopened in Fall 2011.\n",
"Denver Formation, formed during the Paleogene / Cretaceous periods 55 million years, contains fossils and bones from dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus rex and Triceratops. While the forests of vegetation, dinosaurs, and other organisms thrived, their reign would come to an end at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary). In an instant, millions of species are obliterated from a meteor impact in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. While this extinction lead to the dinosaurs' and other organisms' demise, some life did prevail to repopulate the earth as it recovered from this tremendous disaster. The uplifted Front Range continued to constantly erode and, by 40 million years ago, the range was once again buried in its own rubble. Related sites are: Austin Bluffs Park, Green Mountain, Palmer Park, Pulpit Rock Park, South Table Mountain\n",
"In 1994, an attempt was made to relocate the original quarry where the species and others had been found, using ground-penetrating radar in an attempt to image bones still buried in the ground. This attempt failed because the fossilized mudstone bones were the same density as the surrounding rock, making it impossible to differentiate between the two. A study of the local topography also showed that the fossil-bearing rock strata were severely eroded, and probably were so when Lucas discovered \"M. fragillimus\", suggesting that a majority of the skeleton had already disappeared when the vertebra was recovered.\n",
"Such a high concentration of fossil bones in such a small area is significant for the theories of extinction of dinosaurs. A detailed scientific journal on the fossils is expected to be published later in 2009. Excavations are currently suspended for the winter but will resume when the weather gets warmer. Scientists believe a volcanic eruption may have killed the dinosaurs, and a subsequent flood carried the fossils to Zhucheng, which may have been a wetland covered in grass.\n",
"The fossils are preserved in a hard, concrete-like substance known as calcified clastic sediments that formed at the bottom of what appears to be a shallow underground lake or pool that was possibly as much as underground at the time. It is not known how these skeletons came to be in this pool, but it appears that they may have taken a significant fall. No carnivores or scavengers reached their bodies.\n"
] |
Following the death of Augustus, why didn't he wish full power to go back to the Senete? | *EDIT: While I love the period, I'm not an expert, so please read /u/LegalAction's counterpoints below.*
There is an overly idealised fantasy, portrayed in for example the film Gladiator though it is not limited to Hollywood, of the Roman Republic as this freedom-loving democratic nation. It was not.
The Roman Republic was an oligarchy of an elite group of super-rich families, which were constantly competing with each other for prestige and power.
Wanting to go back to the Republic would only make sense if you were one of the elite super-rich families who wasn't the Emperor. In which case though you're more likely to just try and become Emperor instead.
I asked a question about this to one of the experts here recently. [You can read the answer for yourself here.](_URL_1_) But the TL;DR is that for the majority of people all that changed was that it was now the Emperor instead of the Senate appointing their governors/high administrators. The systems below that remained the same, including various local republican systems.
In either case if a return to the Republic had happened it wouldn't have lasted. Augustus was actually not the first Roman to cease total power after winning a civil war, and neither was Caesar. For that you need to go back around 30 years to [Sulla](_URL_0_). Sulla actually tried to reform the republic so it would survive. But all that happened was that as soon as the generation after him came of age they fought their own civil war. | [
"Augustus' final goal was to figure out a method to ensure an orderly succession. Under Augustus' constitution, the Senate and the People of Rome held the supreme power, and all of his special powers were granted for either a fixed term, or for life. Therefore, Augustus could not transfer his powers to a successor upon his death. Any successor needed to have powers that were independent of Augustus' own powers. During his illness in 23 BC, he had chosen Agrippa to be his successor. He had considered the possibility of making his nephew Marcellus his successor, but had ultimately decided that Marcellus was too young. In 21 BC Marcellus died and Augustus married Agrippa to his daughter Julia, and in 18 BC Augustus enacted a law that granted Agrippa tribunician powers for a period of five years. Agrippa and Julia had two sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, and Augustus designated them as possible heirs by granting upon both tribunician powers. In 12 BC Agrippa died, and in 6 BC Augustus granted these tribunician powers to his stepson Tiberius. Gaius and Lucius Caesar soon died, and Augustus realized that he had no choice but to recognize Tiberius as his heir. In 13 AD, the point was settled beyond question. A law was passed (the \"lex consularis\") which linked Augustus' powers over the provinces to those of Tiberius, so that now Tiberius' legal powers were equivalent to, and independent from, those of Augustus. Within a year, Augustus was dead.\n",
"In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the Principate in some form, while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus' supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed. This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.\n",
"Augustus' final goal was to figure out a method to ensure an orderly succession, something necessary in any monarchial constitution and to avoid the resurgence of civil war. Augustus could not transfer his powers to a successor upon his death, as they were given specifically to him for some fixed term or during his life. Thus, any successor would need to have his own authority and influence. In 6 BC Augustus granted tribunician powers to his stepson Tiberius and recognised Tiberius as his heir. In AD 13, a law was passed which made Tiberius' legal powers equivalent to and independent from those of Augustus.\n",
"Meanwhile, in Rome Augustus forgives Postumus when he realises, with the help of Agrippina, what Livia has been doing and tries to call him back. After seeing the change in Postumus' character he decides that he will change his will to make him his heir, rather than Tiberius. However Augustus becomes ill and dies before he is able to call Postumus back. Realising that he might die before Postumus is saved Augustus plans to have Postumus secretly removed from exile and replaced by his slave Clitus. To ensure that the plots to make Postumus emperor and restore Julia to favour come to nothing, Livia has Postumus secretly murdered.\n",
"After Elagabalus granted Hierocles his freedom, he unsuccessfully tried to have Hierocles declared Caesar, which would have made him the emperor's successor. Hierocles was executed, along with other members of Elagabalus' court, when the emperor fell from power in disgrace in 222.\n",
"Whatever Tiberius' motives, the withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus' succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus' death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of \"Princeps\" survive.\n",
"After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward façade of the free Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, the executive magistrates, and the legislative assemblies. In reality, however, he retained his autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command, and those of tribune and censor. It took several years for Augustus to develop the framework within which a formally republican state could be led under his sole rule. He rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself \"Princeps Civitatis\" (\"First Citizen of the State\"). The resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire.\n"
] |
in what sense have creditors been "pillaging" greece for the past five years? | Greeks feel that the austerity measures imposed on Greece by it's creditors, which are enforced because the lenders feel they will make the greek economy more competitive and a more attractive target for investment, aren't actually helpful. They see austerity more as a punishment for the greek people, or at best a poorly thought out and ineffective policy. Syriza, the far left party elected on an anti-austerity platform, has a strong incentive to describe Greece's treatment by its creditors as unfair or evil by using words like "pillaging" to gain leverage in negotiating conditions for further loans. | [
"It stands out in the history of sovereign defaults. Greek debt restructuring of 2012 achieved very large debt relief – with minimal financial disruption, using a combination of new legal techniques, exceptionally large cash incentives, and official sector pressure on key creditors. But it did so at a cost. The timing and design of the restructuring left money on the table from the perspective of Greece, set precedents and created a large risk for taxpayer – particularly in its very generous treatment of holdout creditors – that are likely to make future debt restructurings in Europe more difficult.\n",
"BULLET::::- By the end of 2009 Greece experienced one of the most severe economical collapses in today's society. The crisis had severe results and for instance resulted in great public poverty. In Athens, 20 per cent of the shops were all of a sudden completely empty and in February 2012 it was reported that 20,000 Greeks, during the proceeding year had been made destitute. By years of unrestrained governmental spending, cheap lending and a failing try at implementing financial reforms Greece was left badly off when the global economical crisis struck and the country had loans they were completely unable to repay.\n",
"During 2015, when Greek economy was on the verge of bankruptcy, millions of panicked citizens completely cleared their accounts - by pulling more than €28 billion out of banks and pushing the total cash revenue held in the country's financial institutions to a 10-year low.\n",
"The Greek government-debt crisis was the sovereign debt crisis faced by Greece in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–08. Widely known in the country as The Crisis (Greek: Η Κρίση), it reached the populace as a series of sudden reforms and austerity measures that led to impoverishment and loss of income and property, as well as a small-scale humanitarian crisis. In all, the Greek economy suffered the longest recession of any advanced capitalist economy to date, overtaking the US Great Depression. As a result, the Greek political system has been upended, social exclusion increased, and hundreds of thousands of well-educated Greeks have left the country.\n",
"Greece had been in economic crisis for decades. Public debt (owed above all to the Great Powers) dating back to the War of Independence reached new heights in the 1890s. At that point the government of Charilaos Trikoupis recognised that the country was bankrupt by deciding to lower the public debt to 30% of its value, which angered the creditors, particularly the European powers. At the same time, export of the Zante currant entered a crisis. A new phenomenon then began: emigration of the working population. The number of emigrants (especially to the United States) went from 1,108 in 1890 to 39,135 in 1910 (of 2.8 million inhabitants); significantly, remittances from America and Egypt fell amid economic slowdown in 1908. Economic growth was too slow for the workers and farmers who left to seek work elsewhere. Until that time, only highlanders and landless island dwellers had left. However, this economic growth did lead to the creation, as elsewhere in Europe in the same period, of a middle class born out of industrial development, of growth in the number of bureaucrats (linked to political clientelism) and to an urban explosion. In the mid-1900s, this middle class could not understand why the country was prosperous while the state's finances were in such poor shape. Politicians, also dissatisfied with government policy, reacted as well. In 1906, a group of youngish radicals nicknamed the \"Japanese Group\" (Ομάς Ιαπώνων), in reference to the dynamism of the Meiji period, formed around the titular leadership of Stephanos Dragoumis, with Dimitrios Gounaris its moving spirit. It criticised the old oligarchy that was ruining the country and demanded radical reforms. The group of “Sociologists” (Κοινωνιολόγοι), especially influenced by Marxism, also called for modernisation of the state apparatus and the economy.\n",
"For the recent Greek government debt crisis, a key priority for Greece is to bring the government's budget in a sustainable position. The main problem appears to be the high and still rising net foreign indebtedness. Much of this high level of external debt could attribute to the current account deficits accumulated since the 1990s. One way to deal with the huge current account deficit is to leave the euro area and devalue the domestic currency drachma. The lower exchange rate could promote export and enhance the competitiveness of Greek economy. By quitting the euro area, the central Bank of Greece regains exchange rate as a policy instrument to reduce the huge current account deficit.\n",
"In 1893, the government of Greek Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis declared bankruptcy. Partial control, which was typical and insubstantial, was imposed by the country's creditors without having the power to interfere in the Greek public finances. The Greek government, over half of whose revenue went in 1893 to service loans, was in addition beset by clientelism. Several years of fruitless negotiations followed. The first modern Olympic Games (held in 1896) increased state expenses.\n"
] |
Why were there so few violent border changes between the Christian Iberian kingdoms? | A reply to /u/HenkWaterlander ,
Maybe you can clarify what assertion you are questioning, because your wording is ambiguous. Are you suggesting that the Christian kingdoms of Iberia had very little among themselves *before* the Reconquesta? How do you determine "very little"?
Leon was united with Castile only after Ferdinand III of Castile invaded Leon following a succession dispute in 1230. This triggered insurrection by Leon loyalists.
Castile itself had a civil war in the 1360s over succession. Galicia was often disputed between Castile and Portugal, who were rivals all the way throughout most of the early modern era.
Due to its position, Navarre was often fought over and partitioned between rival powers. Following a civil war, Ferdinand II of Aragon, widow of Isabella of Castile, was able to obtain Papal support to invade Navarre and obtain kingship in 1513.
Speaking of Isabella, she became Queen of Castile only after overcoming invasion of Castile by Portugal due to succession crisis in the 1470s.
So, I'm not sure what assertion you are considering here. The list above isn't even nearly complete .... | [
"Ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured Toledo, starting a gradual decline of Muslim power. With the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III, leaving Granada as the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. Finally, on January 2, 1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile, completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. Although al-Andalus ended as a political entity, the nearly eight centuries of Islamic rule has left a significant effect on culture and language in Andalusia.\n",
"The common non-Christian enemy has been usually considered the single crucial catalyst for the union of the different Christian realms. However, it was effective only for permanently reconquered territories. Much of the unification happened long after the departure of the last Muslim rulers. Just as Christians remained in Arab Spain after the Christian conquest, so too did Muslims and Arab culture remain after that conquest.\n",
"In Iberia, the Christian states, which had been confined to the north-western part of the peninsula, began to push back against the Islamic states in the south, a period known as the \"Reconquista\". By about 1150, the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states, initially under the Caliphate of Córdoba, which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as \"taifas\", who fought with the Christians until the Almohad Caliphate re-established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s. Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century, culminating in the capture of Seville in 1248.\n",
"In February 1407, the truce between the Christian and Islamic kingdoms collapsed during the reign of the infant John II as the result of a minor skirmish. A Castilian fleet put to sea and inflicted a major defeat on the Moors in the Strait of Gibraltar. The rulers of Granada and Morocco met at Gibraltar and agreed to sue for a fresh truce, but relations between the two Islamic states soon broke down amid disagreements between their rulers.\n",
"The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to the Christian realms in the north. After the loss of Toledo in 1085, the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the Almoravides, who invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa and established an empire. In the 12th century the Almoravid empire broke up again, only to be taken over by the Almohad invasion, who were defeated by an alliance of the Christian kingdoms in the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. By 1250, nearly all of Iberia was back under Christian rule with the exception of the Muslim kingdom of Granada.\n",
"The split into the taifa states weakened the Islamic presence, and the Christian kingdoms further advanced as Alfonso VI of León and Castile conquered Toledo in 1085. Surrounded by enemies, taifa rulers sent a desperate appeal to the Berber chieftain Yusuf ibn Tashfin, leader of the Almoravids.\n",
"Meanwhile, the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia continued their centuries-long fight to reconquer the peninsula from its Muslim rulers. In 1492, the last Islamic stronghold, Granada, fell, and Iberia was divided between the Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. Iberia's Jewish and Muslim minorities were forced to convert to Catholicism or be exiled. The Portuguese immediately looked to expand outward sending expeditions to explore the coasts of Africa and engage in trade with the mostly Muslim powers on the Indian Ocean, making Portugal wealthy. In 1492, a Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus found the Americas during an attempt to find a western route to East Asia.\n"
] |
How are human skulls or other complex body structures posthumously extracted from a cadaver for use in museums or medical schools? | There are a combination of methods. One is maceration. Basically, it involves removing as much of the soft tissue as is practical, then allowing the rest to decompose under controlled conditions, often in temperature-controlled water, until the rest of the tissue is soft enough to be cleaned away. Another method can be used in combination with this. Dermestes beetles will eat flesh, but they prefer not to eat the bones, so they will clean a skeleton for you. Care has to be taken because they will move on to the bones if they exhaust the soft parts, but it saves humans a bit of work.
edit: a bit of clarification. | [
"Skulls Unlimited International, Inc. not only sources their specimens, they still also process the carcasses using the methods Jay perfected in his adolescence. This process begins with removing the majority of the soft tissue from the carcasses by hand. Then two methods are used to detail clean the skulls: dermestid beetles and maceration. After that, skulls are whitened with Hydrogen Peroxide and articulated by running hardware through the bones. \n",
"In 1983 Sailer described a new operative procedure in which lyophilized cartilage of organ donors is used as a replacement for patients’ bones. In the following decades the material has been tried and tested for reconstructions of all types in the region of the skull, jaws and the face. This saves the patient from undergoing a second operation for removal of bones and cartilage. Even completely lyophilized human mandibles were used successfully in patients.\n",
"When the sarcophagus was unwrapped in 1975 by the Manchester Mummy team, including Dr. Rosalie David, believed they may be able to attempt a forensic facial reconstruction. Her skull was incomplete and in many pieces, in order to reconstruct, the team put the skull together, made a plaster cast, and filled the gaps with wax. To create the face, wooden pegs were drilled into the cast, at the precise depth of tissue. Then wax was added to the cast over the pegs, slightly covering them. After the wax was added, glass eyes and a wig were added to the cast. Mummy 1770 was reconstructed twice, one was the 1975 version, the other was a modified version, with darker skin and make up. \n",
"While some surgeons eschewed human cadavers in favour of facsimiles, plaster casts, wax models and animals, bodies were also taken from hospital burial grounds. Recent excavations at the Royal London Hospital appear to support claims made almost 200 years earlier that the hospital's school was \"entirely supplied by subjects, which have been their own patients\".\n",
"In \"Bones\", a long-running TV series centered around forensic analysis of decomposed and skeletal human remains, facial reconstruction is featured in the majority of episodes, used much like a police artist sketch in police procedurals. Regular cast character Angela Montenegro, the Bones team's facial reconstruction specialist, employs 3D software and holographic projection to \"give victims back their faces\" (as noted in the episode, \"A Boy in a Bush\").\n",
"The skull is the basis of facial reconstruction; however, other physical remains that are sometimes available often prove to be valuable. Occasionally, remnants of soft tissue are found on a set of remains. Through close inspection, the forensic artist can easily approximate the thickness of the soft tissue over the remaining areas of the skull based on the presence of these tissues. This eliminates one of the most difficult aspects of reconstruction, the estimation of tissue thickness. Additionally, any other bodily or physical evidence found in association with remains (e.g. jewelry, hair, glasses, etc.) are vital to the final stages of reconstruction because they directly reflect the appearance of the individual in question.\n",
"When the process of maceration is complete, the bones are removed from the solution and left to dry. If the skeleton is human and the subject of an investigation, the forensic anthropologist will then conduct an inventory and analysis of the remains. If the individual is to be identified, occupational and age-related osteological markers will be noted, and measurements of the bones will provide evidence suggesting the individual's height and race. If the skull is intact, forensic facial reconstruction is another option that may help in identifying the individual. If a crime has been established, an examination of the bones without overlying soft tissue may provide evidence on what weapon (if any) was used or on the nature of the injuries sustained.\n"
] |
how does the human body tend to itself when you havent eaten for days? what about havent drank? | There's a general rule of threes for your body's survival. 3 weeks without food, 3 days without water and 3 mins without air.
Without food, your body starts to consume its reserves. First to be consumed is the sugar reserve kept in your liver (about 500 grams). Then the body will try to breakdown the body's fat and muscle for energy and proteins necessary for your metabolism. But it can't break it down as fast as it needs it, thus eventually, you'll die
However your body doesn't have water reserves in the same amounts. Without regular intake, your body has only so much water and it will try to conserve it as much as possible, but without water your body can't get rid of toxic metabolic byproducts like ammonia. These toxins will build in the body and eventually cellular activity will cease without water in which to dilute nutrients and toxins for transport.
Edit: Grammar | [
"When the human body becomes dehydrated, it experiences thirst. This craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels, and also as a result of changes in the volume of blood circulating. The complete elimination of drinks, that is, water, from the body will result in death faster than the removal of any other substance. Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases.\n",
"The body uses a complex system of hormones and hormone-like substances called prostaglandins to keep its volume of fluid at a constant level. If one were to intake an excessive amount of fluid in one day, the amount of fluid would not be affected in the long term. This is because the kidneys quickly excrete the excess in the form of urine. Likewise, if one did not get enough to drink, the body would hold on to its fluids and urinate less than usual. Imbalances in this system can lead to water retention, which can range from mild and unnoticeable to symptomatic with swelling.\n",
"The metabolic processes required for alcohol elimination deplete essential vitamins and electrolytes. Furthermore, alcohol is a diuretic, causing excretion of electrolytes through urination. After a night of drinking, the resulting lack of key B and C vitamins, as well as potassium, magnesium, and zinc may cause fatigue, aching and other hangover-like symptoms.\n",
"Hangover drinks are consumed before a heavy drinking session and an ingredient in them is said to break down a toxin produced in our liver when drinking and also reduce the effect of alcohol on our brain's neurotransmitters.\n",
"Animals with an empty stomach readily vomit after ingestion of this substance. However, when there is food in the stomach of the animals the stimulation to vomit decreases, so more quantities may be absorbed. It has been found that ANTU may cause death in some animals within 2–4 hours of ingestion, while animals that survive 12 hours may recover from the poison. \n",
"Many people with hepatitis will prefer bed rest, though it is not necessary to avoid all physical activity while recovering. A high-calorie diet is recommended. Many people develop nausea and cannot tolerate food later in the day, so the bulk of intake may be concentrated in the earlier part of the day. In the acute phase of the disease, intravenous feeding may be needed if patients cannot tolerate food and have poor oral intake subsequent to nausea and vomiting.\n",
"Megee said that he survived by eating leeches, insects, snakes, ants and lizards, and edible plants. He drank water from \"various dams and waterholes\" and scavenged in the bush every evening, eating \"only one meal a day, just enough to stay alive\". When water was unavailable, he drank his urine after chilling it to suppress the flavour.\n"
] |
if my car is on a steep downward incline and i put it into reverse gear, why does it roll backward up the hill even if i don't press the accelerator? | Because you put it in reverse gear. So long as the engine is producing enough power to move the car, and the clutch is capable of translating that much power without slipping, the car is going to move, otherwise the engine is just going to stall if it's not producing enough power. | [
"Pulling the car \"backward\" (hence the name) winds up an internal spiral spring; a flat spiral rather than a helical coil spring. When released, the car is propelled forward by the spring. When the spring has unwound and the car is moving, the motor is disengaged by a clutch or ratchet and the car then rolls freely onward. Often the clutch mechanism is geared so that the pullback distance needed to wind the spring is less than the distance the spring is engaged propelling forward.\n",
"BULLET::::- Downhill it is much easier to topple over the front wheel because the incline moves the line of \"mg\" closer to \"f\". To try to reduce this tendency the rider can stand back on the pedals to try to keep \"m\" as far back as possible.\n",
"BULLET::::- Slow response – sideways acceleration does not start immediately when the steering is turned and may not stop immediately when it is returned to center. This is partly caused by body roll. Other causes include tires with high slip angle, and yaw and roll angular inertia. Roll angular inertia aggravates body roll by delaying it. Soft tires aggravate yaw angular inertia by waiting for the car to reach their slip angle before turning the car.\n",
"BULLET::::- Reverse: The car reverses as in an automatic car. To reverse, depress brake pedal, and change the gear to R. Gradually lift off the brake pedal to allow the car to creep backwards. On a down-sloping incline, the creep function, simulated using the slipping clutch, is not sufficient to prevent the car from rolling forward. In this case, the car must not be held still using the accelerator pedal, as the excessive clutch slipping will lead to clutch damage. Handbrake should be instead applied, and the accelerator pedal should be depress slightly.\n",
"In a normal turn, rear wheels follow the front ones because resistance to motion in the forward direction (in which the wheels turn) is significantly less than in the sideways direction. The latter provides the centripetal force that makes the rear end of the car follow the turn. When the driver locks the rear wheels with the handbrake, both directions offer the same resistance, so the rear end tends to keep moving in the existing direction (due to inertia) and thus slides out.\n",
"BULLET::::- Moving off from an incline: A MMT car rolls backwards when on an up-sloping incline, unlike an automatic car. To move off from an up-sloping incline, apply handbrake before depressing the accelerator slightly. Do not hold the car on an incline by depressing the accelerator pedal, as the slipping clutch will overheat and lead to clutch damage.\n",
"As mentioned above in the section on balance, one effect of turning the front wheel is a roll moment caused by gyroscopic precession. The magnitude of this moment is proportional to the moment of inertia of the front wheel, its spin rate (forward motion), the rate that the rider turns the front wheel by applying a torque to the handlebars, and the cosine of the angle between the steering axis and the vertical.\n"
] |
please expain noam chomsky and his
views on the ideal type of governance li12 | I don't think Chomsky can be properly explained in the format of an ideal form of government (maybe he can, but it'd hurt the LI12-level of it all).
At the heart of Chomsky's political thought is the question of authority. Why does the government get to tell people what to do, and why should it be like this? He's said he'd place himself *in the tradition of* anarchists (the people who think there should be no government at all), that doesn't mean he's an anarchist himself, though. Mostly, what he believes is Libertarian Socialism. It basically means that the government should only be allowed to tell people what to do if there's a very good reason for it. These reasons, Chomsky thinks, should be questioned often. This puts limits on what, for example, cops should be allowed to do. Some people say that since cops try to fight crime, they should be allowed pretty much anything, but Chomsky would say that cops should only be allowed to do these things if they can give very good reasons that what they want to do will *actually* fight crime. So no arresting people for videotaping them, for example.
What makes him a Libertarian *Socialist* is that unlike classical Libertarians, he believes that things like "to make sure everybody gets as good an education as possible" and "to make sure we all get the best healthcare for as little money as possible" are good reasons for the government to do things (like tax people). | [
"In a 2011 interview with the Institute for Global Law and Policy at Harvard University, Parsi asserted that his thesis had \"been vindicated\" by recent events. \"I believe it is increasingly clear that efforts to divide the region between moderates vs radicals, democracies vs non-democracies etc is of little utility and has no real explanatory value. Israel, for instance, who had sought to frame its rivalry with Iran as a struggle between the region's sole Western democracy against a fanatical Islamic tyranny, favored the status quo in Egypt and opposed the efforts to oust Mubarak.\" He added that \"With the decline of the US, Israel's strategic paralysis and increased isolation in the region, the rise of Turkey, the 'revolutions' in Tunisia and Egypt, and Iran's continued difficulties in translating its strength to regional acceptance, the region is experiencing momentous changes both in its political structure and in its balance of power. An ideology based approach towards understanding these shifts won't get you far.\"\n",
"Social critic and academic Noam Chomsky has criticized the commission as undemocratic, pointing to its publication \"The Crisis of Democracy\", which describes the strong popular interest in politics during the 1970s as an \"excess of democracy\". He described it as one of the most interesting and insightful books showing the modern democratic system not to really be a democracy at all, but controlled by elites. Chomsky says that as it was an internal discussion they \"let their hair down\" and talked about how the public needs to be reduced to its proper state of apathy and obedience. \n",
"Holacracy is claimed to increase agility, efficiency, transparency, innovation and accountability within an organization. The approach encourages individual team members to take initiative and gives them a process in which their concerns or ideas can be addressed. The system of distributed authority reduces the burden on leaders to make every decision.\n",
"The implied preference for maintaining the political status quo in her work has its limits, however, particularly if the established order has become corrupt or self-serving, or if it is failing to deal effectively with external challenges or internal threats. When the legitimacy of the existing order is compromised in such circumstances, Cherryh's favored political solution is to employ a charismatic leader who arises and either restores the traditional order or establishes new norms of governance. An example of the former type of character is that of Master Saukendar in the world of \"The Paladin\" as he restores the integrity of the Imperial dynasty, whereas Signy Mallory takes the latter route when she breaks from existing military order and helps form the new Alliance government in \"Downbelow Station.\"\n",
"The multistakeholder governance model, sometimes known as a multistakeholder initiative (MSI), is a governance structure that seeks to bring stakeholders together to participate in the dialogue, decision making, and implementation of solutions to common problems or goals. The principle behind such a structure is that if enough input is provided by all actors involved in a question, the eventual consensual decision gains more legitimacy, and therefore better reflects a set of perspectives rather than a single source of validation.\n",
"Political activist, and frequent critic of U.S. government policies, Noam Chomsky argued, \"Governments should not have this capacity. But governments will use whatever technology is available to them to combat their primary enemy – which is their own population.\"\n",
"Anticipatory governance is a concept that has been derived from terms of similar meaning, like forward engagement and forward deployment, which was a primary focus for decisions made by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). More recently, anticipatory governance has become data oriented practice which allows citizens and governments to utilize data as contributions and evidence for decision making regarding various matters within society. For example, Finland has a Finnish parliamentary Committee for the Future, which takes advantage of foresight to predict and evaluate the impact of developments to the country.\n"
] |
How, and why, do ants make new hills? | An "anthill" is just one extension of an ant hive that reaches the surface. The hills form when dirt is left by the entrance of the hills.
_URL_0_
Additionally, some species of ants have more than one queen per colony (polygyne), while others have one per colony (monogyne).
_URL_1_ | [
"Ant hill art is a growing collecting hobby. It involves pouring molten metal (typically non-toxic zinc or aluminum), plaster or cement down an ant colony mound acting as a mold and upon hardening, one excavates the resulting structure. In some cases, this involves a great deal of digging. The casts are often used for research and education purposes but many are simply given or sold to natural history museums or sold as folk art or as souvenirs. Usually, the hills are chosen after the ants have abandoned as to not kill any ants; however in the Southeast United States, pouring into an active colony of invasive fire ants is a novel way to eliminate them.\n",
"Leafcutter ants can create bottom-up gaps by forming their large nests. The ants excavate soil rich in organic matter, and store additional organic matter in their underground chambers. This creates rich soils that promote plant growth. The ants can also trim the leaves of plants in the understory, allowing for more light to hit the forest floor. They can also control the types of trees and other plants by selectively bringing seeds into the underground chambers. Depending on the location of the chamber, a seed can grow by reaching light.\n",
"These ants dig very deep nests with many underground chambers in which they keep seeds, from which they derive food for their larvae. The areas around most \"Pogonomyrmex\" (\"sensu stricto\") nests tend to be utterly devoid of vegetation, and are easily seen from a distance.\n",
"These ants live in nests in sandy soil which sometimes have a mound, which resembles a molehill. \"M. nigrocincta\" ants labor to conceal their nests using twigs and leaves. Depending on the type of habitat in which the colony is located, they decorate the nest with plant material and gravel. Other materials that are used to camouflage \"M. nigrocincta\" colonies include dry leaves, rocks, vegetation, and twigs. Nests are beside a clump of grass or bush or at the base of a tree.\n",
"The seed of the plant has an elaiosome, which is attractive to wood ants (\"Formica\" spp.). The ants disperse the seeds of the plant when they take them back to their nests to feed their young. The plant is an ancient woodland indicator, as the ants rarely carry the seeds more than a few yards, seldom crossing a field to go to a new woodland.\n",
"Ants and termites are often referred to as \" Soil engineers \" as when they create their nests there are several chemical and physical changes that become present. Such as increasing the presence of the most essential elements like Carbon , Nitrogen and phosphorus. Which are all essential for plant and other organisms growth. They also can gather soil particles from differing depth levels of soil and deposit them in other places. Which then leads to the mixing of soil so it is richer with nutrients and other elements.\n",
"This ant usually builds its nest in a hollow in a large live or dead tree. A small entrance may lead to a complex of tunnels and chambers, all excavated by the ants. From the nest the workers emerge by day to forage on other parts of the tree, or cross to contiguous trees, and make use of the crevices in the bark as runways to descend to the ground where they also forage. Auxiliary nests may sometimes be found a little apart from the main colony.\n"
] |
In a _URL_0_ photoplasty, one of the facts stated that if you were a child in England in the middle ages you would have been sewn into your winter clothing until spring. Can anybody give information on this? Is it even true? | I can't say that it's never happened, but it seems unlikely that it was widespread. A quick review of a handful of texts doesn't show anything suggesting that this was typical. ("The Culture of Children in Medieval England", *Medieval Children*, *The Ties that Bound: Peasant Families in Medieval England*, *Growing Up in Medieval London*)
And given beliefs about health and the body at the time, it seems unlikely. I'm more knowledgeable about the 18th and 19th century than I am about the medieval era on this point, but I'm relatively sure that both eras shared in the belief that the skin operated as kind of open system between the inside body and the outer world. Looking at the skin would have been an important part of recognizing, diagnosing, and treating disease. It would seem foolish, then, to sew someone into something that would prevent you from doing that. | [
"In the 19th century, photographs were often taken of the boy in his new trousers, typically with his father. He might also collect small gifts of money by going round the neighbourhood showing off his new clothes. Friends, of the mother as much as the boy, might gather to see his first appearance. A letter of 1679 from Lady Anne North to her widowed and absent son gives a lengthy account of the breeching of her grandson:\"...Never had any bride that was to be dressed upon her wedding-night more hands about her, some the legs and some the armes, the taylor buttn'ing and other putting on the sword, and so many lookers on that had I not a ffinger amongst them I could not have seen him. When he was quit drest he acted his part as well as any of them... since you could not have the first sight I resolved you should have a full relation...\". The dresses he wore before she calls \"coats\".\n",
"Illustrations and paintings from the sixth to eleventh centuries in England, always depict male children. They are usually seen in short tunics with shirts. Infants are portrayed in long gowns, and either wear no head covering or wear head covering similar to women of the period.\n",
"The medieval writers Ralph of Coggeshall and William of Newburgh report that two children appeared mysteriously in Woolpit some time during the 12th century. The brother and sister were of generally normal appearance except for the green colour of their skin. They wore strange-looking clothes, spoke in an unknown language, and the only food they would eat was raw beans. Eventually they learned to eat other food and lost their green pallor, but the boy was sickly and died soon after the children were baptised. The girl adjusted to her new life, but she was considered to be \"rather loose and wanton in her conduct\". After learning to speak English she explained that she and her brother had come from , an underground world whose inhabitants are green.\n",
"In England, especially in the northern counties, there was a custom (now extinct) for poor women to carry around the \"Advent images\", two dolls dressed to represent Jesus and the Blessed Virgin Mary. A halfpenny coin was expected from every one to whom these were exhibited and bad luck was thought to menace the household not visited by the doll-bearers before Christmas Eve at the latest.\n",
"In \"L'enfant de neige\" (\"The snow baby\"), a black comedy, a merchant returns home after an absence of two years to find his wife with a newborn son. She explains one snowy day she swallowed a snowflake while thinking about her husband which caused her to conceive. Pretending to believe the \"miracle\", they raise the boy until the age of 15 when the merchant takes him on a business trip to Genoa. There, he sells the boy into slavery. On his return, he explains to his wife that the sun burns bright and hot in Italy; since the boy was begotten by a snowflake, he melted in the heat.\n",
"A 1547 inventory of Henry VIII of England's wardrobe includes one coat with 12 pairs of aiglets, and 11 gowns with a total of 367 pairs. The \"Day Book of the Wardrobe of Robes\" of Elizabeth I records items received into storage, including details of buttons and aiglets lost from the Queen's clothing. This entry suggests the huge numbers of matching aiglets fashionable forty years later:\n",
"There are several clothing references in seventh and eighth century letters. Letters between King Offa of Mercia and the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne demonstrate that clothing in Anglo-Saxon England was similar to Carolignian Frankia. This costume has been described as a short tunic over linen shirt and linen drawers with long stockings. In winter, a cloak was worn over the costume.\n"
] |
why do i get impulses to do things that i would never ever act on? | The latest scientific thinking on this is that it's an evolutionary adaptation which actually makes you less likely to do dangerous stuff.
If a person has a tendency to imagine things like jumping off cliffs or attacking people, he/she will naturally imagine the negative consequences of the action, during the course of the fantasy.
This essentially forms a "negative plan" for that action. You look at the cliff and actually have the thought "I totally shouldn't jump off, because I'd die." This leads to even more survival-oriented thoughts, like "come to think of it, I could also slip accidentally. I should really just stay away from the cliff, unless it's really necessary for me to be near it."
In comparison, a person who didn't have the initial tendency to imagine the dangerous behavior might just continue hanging out by the cliff. Less fear of the potential danger = more interaction with danger, which translates into greater risk of death.
Also, the French phrase for the phenomenon is "L’appel du vide," which translates to "the call of the void."
And that is just awesome. | [
"An impulse is a wish or urge, particularly a sudden one. It can be considered as a normal and fundamental part of human thought processes, but also one that can become problematic, as in a condition like obsessive-compulsive disorder, borderline personality disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.\n",
"The ability to control impulses, or more specifically control the desire to act on them, is an important factor in personality and socialization. Deferred gratification, also known as impulse control is an example of this, concerning impulses primarily relating to things that a person wants or desires.\n",
"Impulse buying disrupts the normal decision making models in consumers' brains. The logical sequence of the consumers' actions is replaced with an irrational moment of self gratification. Impulse items appeal to the emotional side of consumers. Some items bought on impulse are not considered functional or necessary in the consumers' lives. Preventing impulse buying involves techniques such as setting budgets before shopping and taking time out before the Purchase is made. \n",
"When comparing what you want to \"move\" and what is \"moving\" you, experiences become less important. That is the danger, and yet it is also a chance. Don't \"lose\" yourself and don't lose your chance. When this card appears, it's time for a new beginning that will bring you to the point where you discover the true power and energy of your own fire, your personal power. \n",
"Modulating and controlling impulses is based on the capacity to hold sexual and aggressive feelings in check with out acting on them until the ego has evaluated whether they meet the individual's own moral standards and are acceptable in terms of social norms. Adequate functioning in this area depends on the individual's capacity to tolerate frustration, to delay gratification, and to tolerate anxiety without immediately acting to ameliorate it. Impulse control also depends on the ability to exercise appropriate judgment in situations where the individual is strongly motivated to seek relief from psychological tension and/or to pursue some pleasurable activity (sex, power, fame, money, etc.). Problems in modulation may involve either too little or too much control over impulses (Berzoff, 2011).\n",
"\"The question that I first asked was, why was progress . . . speeding up over time? It arises because of this special characteristic of an idea, which is if [a million people try] to discover something, if any one person finds it, everybody can use the idea.\"\n",
"Other writers choose not to offer any scientific explanations for the questions raised by the actual use of such abilities. Peter David, whose run on the series \"Young Justice\" included the junior speedster Impulse, has opined that speedsters are inherently difficult to write: \"Speedsters make me nervous, because if you play them accurately, they're impossible to beat ... I could deal with Impulse because he was easily distracted.\"\n"
] |
why is there a gust of air when you open a door to the subway station? | they keep the pressure higher in the station in order to help evacuate fumes etc from the platforms | [
"Airflow through a door depends on wind forces, temperature differences (convection), and pressure differences. Air doors work best when the pressure differential between the inside and outside of the building is as close to neutral as possible. Negative pressures, extreme temperature differences, elevators in close proximity, or extreme humidity can reduce the effectiveness of air doors.\n",
"Some types of trains on the New York City Subway use end pantograph gates (which, to avoid interference, compress under spring pressure around curves while the train is en route) to prevent passengers on station platforms from falling into or riding in the gaps between the cars.\n",
"The Mumbai Suburban Railway is known for its open doors and windows. This is because there is no ventilation system on the trains and the train relies on natural air ventilation. This was introduced as a cost-saving measure, as an Air-Conditioning system would be rendered useless during rush hour. Leaving the doors open also allows for a fast boarding process and turnaround time, as the trains stop for only 10 seconds, and are at most 5 minutes apart, to combat overcrowding. Passengers often end up hanging off the edge of the footboard, off door ledges and during rush hour can lose balance and fall to their death. Teenagers and adults also attempt to perform stunts off the doorway and door ladders, thus risking their life. Windows also have a wired grill on them, to prevent theft and chain snatching. However, passengers frequently spit \"paan\" while hanging off doors, and it ends up entering through the open window. There are also numerous records of tripping and falling down everyday while getting on and off the train, when the train is in motion, thus resulting in injury.\n",
"This station is noteworthy because the station building is on ground level and the single side platform is located below, inside a tunnel. The platform level is closed unless a local train is scheduled to arrive because of the strong winds generated by high pressure difference between the tunnel and the ground level. Passengers alighting at this station cannot loiter. They must leave the platform level within 2 minutes or PA system with monitoring camera will ask the passengers to leave immediately. There are two automatic doors, one on the ground level and another at the platform level. The automatic door on the ground level is locked, preventing access to the platform level, until the train driver remotely unlocks the door. The two automatic doors never open at the same time, again, to avoid creating strong winds caused by pressure gradient. There is an underground waiting room between the two doors with wooden bench, timetable, and a suggestion box. Above ground, the waiting room features tatami and is air-conditioned.\n",
"An air door or air curtain is a device used to prevent air or contaminants from moving from one open space to another. The most common use is a downward-facing blower fan mounted over an entrance to a building, or an opening between two spaces conditioned at different temperatures.\n",
"On 9 December 2009 a door on an HST came open in the vicinity of the tunnel and a passenger attempted to close it, without success but at some personal risk. A local newspaper attempted to sensationalise the incident by stating that the passenger concerned was \"almost thrown from the train\" as the door \"flew\" open. Careful reading of the rest of the article shows that statement to be inaccurate and misleading; in fact nobody was near the door when it opened, and any risk to the passenger concerned arose entirely as a result of his decision to attempt to close it.\n",
"Air conditioning poses a problem to elevators because of the condensation that occurs. The condensed water produced has to be disposed of; otherwise, it would create flooding in the elevator car and hoistway.\n"
] |
why are so many people with mental illnesses successful? | Some forms of mental illness can be defeated with effort (such as dyslexia). Other such as certain kinds of bi-polar or OCD can actually be beneficial in certain kinds of job as the manic periods or obsessive traits make them more efficient at said jobs. | [
"Mental health problems are common in the community, so members of the public are likely to have close contact with people affected. However, many people are not well informed about how to recognize mental health problems, how to provide support and what are the best treatments and services available. Furthermore, many people developing mental disorders do not get professional help or delay getting professional help. Someone in their social network who is informed about the options available for professional help can assist the person to get appropriate help. In mental health crises, such as a person feeling suicidal, deliberately harming themselves, having a panic attack or being acutely psychotic, someone with appropriate mental health first aid skills can reduce the risk of the person coming to harm. \n",
"Untreated and under-treated mental illness is strongly correlated with myriad other social problems, including homelessness, high medical-care costs, drug abuse and addiction, and poverty. But research demonstrates that – if met with the best and most appropriate treatments – even severe mental illness can become a manageable condition for most people, opening the way to recovery.\n",
"Additionally, low income and education have been shown to be strong predictors of a range of physical and mental health problems, including respiratory viruses, arthritis, coronary disease, and schizophrenia. These problems may be due to environmental conditions in their workplace, or, in the case of disabilities or mental illnesses, may be the entire cause of that person's social predicament to begin with.\n",
"In addition, mentalism can lead to \"poor\" or \"guarded\" predictions of the future for a person, which could be an overly pessimistic view skewed by a narrow clinical experience. It could also be made impervious to contrary evidence because those who succeed can be discounted as having been misdiagnosed or as not having a genuine form of a disorder — the No true Scotsman fallacy. While some mental health problems can involve very substantial disability and can be very difficult to overcome in society, predictions based on prejudice and stereotypes can be self-fulfilling because individuals pick up on a message that they have no real hope, and realistic hope is said to be a key foundation of recovery. At the same time, a trait or condition might be considered more a form of individual difference that society needs to include and adapt to, in which case a mentalist attitude might be associated with assumptions and prejudices about what constitutes normal society and who is deserving of adaptations, support, or consideration.\n",
"\"\"Parity of Esteem for Mental Health\"\" is an issue for many healthcare systems because of the pervasive stigma of mental illness. People with diagnosed mental illness die on average around 20 years earlier than those without such a diagnosis, some because of suicide, but mostly because of poorly treated physical illness. Mental illness has been assessed as constituting around a quarter of the disease burden in developed countries. There is much bigger treatment gap for mental illness than for physical illness. \n",
"In America, half of people with severe symptoms of a mental health condition were found to have received no treatment in the prior 12 months. Fear of disclosure, rejection by friends, and ultimately discrimination are a few reasons why people with mental health conditions often don't seek help.\n",
"In that post, Insel wrote: \"Patients with mental disorders deserve better.\" He would later elaborate on this point, saying “I look at the data and I’m concerned. … I don’t see a reduction in the rate of suicide or prevalence of mental illness or any measure of morbidity. I see it in other areas of medicine and I don’t see it for mental illness. That was the basis for my comment that people with mental illness deserve better.”\n"
] |
Can a brain completely deprived of sensory input perceive time? | You can, you'd just be really bad at it. See: Campbell, S. S. (1990). Circadian rhythms and human temporal experience. In R. A. Block (Ed.), Cognitive models of psychological time, (pp. 101-118). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
I think where you're going wrong is that memory is *not* dependent on external sensory input. Repeat a word over and over in your head and pretty soon, you have a new memory with no sensory input. | [
"One major goal of sensory neuroscience is to try to estimate the neuron's receptive field; that is, to try to determine which stimuli cause the neuron to fire in what ways. One common way to find the receptive field is to use linear regression to find which stimulus characteristics typically caused neurons to become excited or depressed. Since the receptive field of a sensory neuron can vary in time (i.e. latency between the stimulus and the effect it has on the neuron) and in some spatial dimension (literally space for vision and somatosensory cells, but other \"spatial\" dimensions such as the frequency of a sound for auditory neurons), the term spatio temporal receptive field or STRF is often used to describe these receptive fields.\n",
"Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.\n",
"The duration of the window of temporal integration of sensory information ranges between tens to hundreds of milliseconds. Its duration significantly varies across tasks, so there may be several postdictive windows of integration, and they are consistent across subjects. The duration of the postdictive windows of integration is supposedly hardwired in our brain, but it could be extended by training subjects to systematic delays between causally bounded events. The postdictive window is believed to be triggered by highly salient sensory events acting as \"resets\", such as abrupt stimuli onset and saccadic eye movements.\n",
"These experiments call into question the idea that brain states are directly translatable into the contents of consciousness. How can the second stimuli be 'projected backwards in time', such that it can affect the perception of things that occurred before the second stimulus was even administered?\n",
"William James addressed the benefits of attention by saying, \"Only those items which I notice shape my mind – without selective interest, experience is utter chaos\". Humans have a limited mental capacity that is incapable of attending to all the sights, sounds and other inputs that rush the senses every moment. Inattentional blindness is beneficial in the sense that it is a mechanism that has evolved with attention to help filter out irrelevant input, allowing only important information to reach consciousness. Several researchers, notably James J. Gibson, have argued that, even before the retina, perception begins in the ecology, which has turned perceptual processes into informational relationships in the environment through evolution. This allows humans to focus our limited mental resources more efficiently in our environment. For example, New et al. maintain that survival required monitoring animals, both human and non-human, to become part of the evolutionary adaptiveness of the human species. They found that when participants were shown an image with a rapidly altering scene where the scene change included an animate or inanimate object that the participants were significantly better at identifying humans and animals. New et al. argue that better performance in detecting animals and humans is not a factor of acquired expertise, rather it is an evolved survival mechanism in human perception.\n",
"A number of studies have shown that activity in primary sensory areas of the brain is not sufficient to produce consciousness: it is possible for subjects to report a lack of awareness even when areas such as the primary visual cortex show clear electrical responses to a stimulus. Higher brain areas are seen as more promising, especially the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in a range of higher cognitive functions collectively known as executive functions. There is substantial evidence that a \"top-down\" flow of neural activity (i.e., activity propagating from the frontal cortex to sensory areas) is more predictive of conscious awareness than a \"bottom-up\" flow of activity. The prefrontal cortex is not the only candidate area, however: studies by Nikos Logothetis and his colleagues have shown, for example, that visually responsive neurons in parts of the temporal lobe reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes (i.e., bistable percepts during binocular rivalry).\n",
"In the popular essay \"Brain Time\", David Eagleman explains that different types of sensory information (auditory, tactile, visual, etc.) are processed at different speeds by different neural architectures. The brain must learn how to overcome these speed disparities if it is to create a temporally unified representation of the external world: \"if the visual brain wants to get events correct timewise, it may have only one choice: wait for the slowest information to arrive. To accomplish this, it must wait about a tenth of a second. In the early days of television broadcasting, engineers worried about the problem of keeping audio and video signals synchronized. Then they accidentally discovered that they had around a hundred milliseconds of slop: As long as the signals arrived within this window, viewers' brains would automatically resynchronize the signals\". He goes on to say that \"This brief waiting period allows the visual system to discount the various delays imposed by the early stages; however, it has the disadvantage of pushing perception into the past. There is a distinct survival advantage to operating as close to the present as possible; an animal does not want to live too far in the past. Therefore, the tenth-of- a-second window may be the smallest delay that allows higher areas of the brain to account for the delays created in the first stages of the system while still operating near the border of the present. This window of delay means that awareness is retroactive, incorporating data from a window of time after an event and delivering a delayed interpretation of what happened.\"\n"
] |
how is it that light appears to travel at the speed of light relative to everything else if all of space-time is relative? | Because "all of space-time is relative" is not the full concept. In full, the Special Theory states (roughly) "all of space-time is relative except for the speed of light in a vacuum, which is always constant no matter what frame of reference you are using".
To make that concept work in the real world, strange things have to start happening, including the idea that objects appear smaller and time passes at a different rate when you travel very quickly indeed. And although it sounds crazy, it's been experimentally observed -- time really does pass at different rates (from the perspective of an observer) for objects travelling at different speeds. | [
"According to the equivalence principle of general relativity, the rules of special relativity are \"locally\" valid in small regions of spacetime that are approximately flat. In particular, light always travels locally at the speed \"c\"; in our diagram, this means, according to the convention of constructing spacetime diagrams, that light beams always make an angle of 45° with the local grid lines. It does not follow, however, that light travels a distance \"ct\" in a time \"t\", as the red worldline illustrates. While it always moves locally at \"c\", its time in transit (about 13 billion years) is not related to the distance traveled in any simple way since the universe expands as the light beam traverses space and time. In fact the distance traveled is inherently ambiguous because of the changing scale of the universe. Nevertheless, we can single out two distances which appear to be physically meaningful: the distance between the Earth and the quasar when the light was emitted, and the distance between them in the present era (taking a slice of the cone along the dimension that we've declared to be the spatial dimension). The former distance is about 4 billion light years, much smaller than \"ct\" because the universe expanded as the light traveled the distance, the light had to \"run against the treadmill\" and therefore went farther than the initial separation between the Earth and the quasar. The latter distance (shown by the orange line) is about 28 billion light years, much larger than \"ct\". If expansion could be instantaneously stopped today, it would take 28 billion years for light to travel between the Earth and the quasar while if the expansion had stopped at the earlier time, it would have taken only 4 billion years.\n",
"The fact that light is predicted to always travel at speed \"c\" would be incompatible with Galilean relativity if Maxwell's equations were assumed to hold in any inertial frame (reference frame with constant velocity), because the Galilean transformations predict the speed to decrease (or increase) in the reference frame of an observer traveling parallel (or antiparallel) to the light.\n",
"Although light and objects within spacetime cannot travel faster than the speed of light, in this case it was the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changed in scale. Changes to the metric are not limited by the speed of light.\n",
"While special relativity prohibits objects from moving faster than light with respect to a local reference frame where spacetime can be treated as flat and unchanging, it does not apply to situations where spacetime curvature or evolution in time become important. These situations are described by general relativity, which allows the separation between two distant objects to increase faster than the speed of light, although the definition of \"separation\" is different from that used in an inertial frame. This can be seen when observing distant galaxies more than the Hubble radius away from us (approximately 4.5 gigaparsecs or 14.7 billion light-years); these galaxies have a recession speed that is faster than the speed of light. Light that is emitted today from galaxies beyond the cosmological event horizon, about 5 gigaparsecs or 16 billion light-years, will never reach us, although we can still see the light that these galaxies emitted in the past. Because of the high rate of expansion, it is also possible for a distance between two objects to be greater than the value calculated by multiplying the speed of light by the age of the universe. These details are a frequent source of confusion among amateurs and even professional physicists.Tamara M. Davis and Charles H. Lineweaver, \"Expanding Confusion: common misconceptions of cosmological horizons and the superluminal expansion of the universe\". astro-ph/0310808 Due to the non-intuitive nature of the subject and what has been described by some as \"careless\" choices of wording, certain descriptions of the metric expansion of space and the misconceptions to which such descriptions can lead are an ongoing subject of discussion within education and communication of scientific concepts.\n",
"While special relativity prohibits objects from moving faster than light with respect to a local reference frame where spacetime can be treated as flat and unchanging, it does not apply to situations where spacetime curvature or evolution in time become important. These situations are described by general relativity, which allows the separation between two distant objects to increase faster than the speed of light, although the definition of \"distance\" here is somewhat different from that used in an inertial frame. The definition of distance used here is the summation or integration of local comoving distances, all done at constant local proper time. For example, galaxies that are more than the Hubble radius, approximately 4.5 gigaparsecs or 14.7 billion light-years, away from us have a recession speed that is faster than the speed of light. Visibility of these objects depends on the exact expansion history of the universe. Light that is emitted today from galaxies beyond the cosmological event horizon, about 5 gigaparsecs or 16 billion light-years, will never reach us, although we can still see the light that these galaxies emitted in the past.\n",
"BULLET::::- Some observers with sub-light relative motion will disagree about which occurs first of any two events that are separated by a space-like interval. In other words, any travel that is faster-than-light will be seen as traveling backwards in time in some other, equally valid, frames of reference, or need to assume the speculative hypothesis of possible Lorentz violations at a presently unobserved scale (for instance the Planck scale). Therefore, any theory which permits \"true\" FTL also has to cope with time travel and all its associated paradoxes, or else to assume the Lorentz invariance to be a symmetry of thermodynamical statistical nature (hence a symmetry broken at some presently unobserved scale).\n",
"In 1905, Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity, which led to the concept that space and time can be viewed as a single construct known as \"spacetime\". In this theory, the speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers—which has the result that two events that appear simultaneous to one particular observer will not be simultaneous to another observer if the observers are moving with respect to one another. Moreover, an observer will measure a moving clock to tick more slowly than one that is stationary with respect to them; and objects are measured to be shortened in the direction that they are moving with respect to the observer.\n"
] |
how is the design of the u.s. gov't "deliberately inefficient"? | The checks and balances system ensures that one person or one branch of government can't make quick, unilateral changes. For a law to be passed and take effect, all three branches have to be (more or less) in agreement. The fact that legislation can be difficult to pass, even if one party has a majority, makes some people think of government as inefficient.
Also, the Constitution, which sets all of the rules, was made incredibly hard to amend (2/3 of Congress, 3/4 of the states) to again prevent large changes from being made easily.
EDIT: If you want to read the Founding Fathers' opinions in their own words, read the [The Federalist Papers](_URL_1_). These were essays written by James Madison (primary writer of the Constitution), Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay that were meant to convince people to adopt the Constitution. In them, these three Founding Fathers laid out a lot of their ideas for how the country should be run.
In particular [Federalist #10](_URL_0_) by James Madison addresses your question almost exactly. In it, Madison talks about the need to prevent what he called factions from taking over the government and undermining democratic principles. | [
"Government agendas are created when problems are recognized that have viable solutions that will be politically correct to make at the time of decision making. Kingdon recognizes when these three aspects join together using the term \"policy window\". When a policy window is recognized and open, there is a potential for policy making to happen. Policy entrepreneurs function at this time as the action takers who take advantage of these windows while they are open. In the problems stream, conditions are defined as problems based on how an individual values and believes in it and how much of an impact will happen through change. In the policy stream, ideas and solutions are formulated through policy ideas usually developed by specialists to an issue. Policy development has a better chance of surviving implementation if it has support from various different communities affected by the policy. The politics stream focuses on different elements that will effect a policy such as national mood, efforts by the people to campaign for change and legislative turnover.\n",
"The two modes of governance are contradictory and yet able to coexist together, defining the city. On one hand, regulatory opacity allows the government to deal with the current – such as bending its regulations to cater to different forms of foreign investment capital and urban expertise. On the other hand, regulatory transparency allows the government to deal with the future – to act incrementally today in the promise of a more perfect tomorrow. It represents the hopes and visions of the future and what the government wants to be.\n",
"The United States Congress passes laws that sometimes outline only broad policy mandates. Rulemaking by the specialist agencies in the executive branch adds necessary detail to these laws. Rulemaking also provides an administration with an opportunity to exert political influence over government without having to go through Congress to change the law.\n",
"The Business Reference Model provides a framework that facilitates a functional (as opposed to organizational) view of the federal government's LoBs, including its internal operations and its services for the citizens, independent of the agencies, bureaus and offices that perform them. By describing the federal government around common business areas instead of by a stovepiped, agency-by-agency view, the BRM promotes agency collaboration and serves as the underlying foundation for the FEA and E-Gov strategies.\n",
"Policymakers can be classified as both private and public and are defined as someone who is in a position of authority to implement health policies. A public policy maker could be a government official and a private policymaker could be a business owner or administrator. Policymakers are influenced by, and can also be, change agents. Change agents include \"legislators in Washington, an attorney general, regulators at the FDA, an advocacy group or other organizations that clearly have influence\".\n",
"A design rationale is an explicit documentation of the reasons behind decisions made when designing a system or artifact. As initially developed by W.R. Kunz and Horst Rittel, design rationale seeks to provide argumentation-based structure to the political, collaborative process of addressing wicked problems.\n",
"Many models exist to analyze the development and implementation of public policy. Analysts use these models to identify important aspects of policy, as well as explain and predict policy and its consequences. Each of these models are based upon the types of policies.\n"
] |
How is it that it took until the mid 19th century for people to understand the negative correlation between keeping a wound clean, and that wound becoming infected? | This has more to do with differing definitions of "clean" than it does with people in the past being stupid. Dressings were expected to kept fresh. People spend a lot of time covered in dirt and grime, but manage not to get infected all the time. Why should the inside of the body be different than the out? Still, they would try to avoid visibly dirty conditions around wounds. The biggest exception to this was "laudable pus" which, at least in the 18th century, was thought to be a sign of the body healing itself.
The problem comes with sterilization. For us, something that is medically clean must have either been superheated or washed with an antiseptic chemical. The easy ability to do either of these things did not exist prior to the mid 19th century. Moreover, with no understanding of germ theory, there was no understood reason to do so. | [
"The history of wound care spans from prehistory to modern medicine. Wounds naturally heal by themselves, but hunter-gatherers would have noticed several factors and certain herbal remedies would speed up or assist the process, especially if it was grievous. In ancient history, this was followed by the realisation of the necessity of hygiene and the halting of bleeding, where wound dressing techniques and surgery developed. Eventually the germ theory of disease also assisted in improving wound care.\n",
"In modern-day 21st century, medicine has evolved to involve past treatments such as leech therapy, as well as advancing wound prevention and the treatment. A large part of wound care is wound treatment. This involves promoting healing, preventing infections, and getting rid of an already existent infection. Deciding on a treatment depends on the type of wound that a person has sustained. Varying from infections to burns, wound care is a priority in saving the limb, extremity, or life of a person. In a hospital or medical care setting, more severe wounds like diabetic ulcers, decubitus ulcers, and burns require sterile or clean (depending on the severity of the wound) dressings and wound care. The types of wound dressing include: dry dressings, wet-to-dry dressings, chemical-impregnated dressings, foam dressings, alginate dressings, hydrofiber dressings, transparent film dressings, hydrogel dressings, and hydrocolloid dressings. All of the listed dressing types require different materials to complete the dressing.\n",
"As anatomy classes in medical education proliferated in the 19th century, so too did the need for bodies to dissect. Grave robbery proliferated, along with associated social discontent, revulsion, and unhappiness. Conflicts arose between medical practitioners and defenders of bodies, graves and graveyards. This resulted in riots. Social legislation was passed in many countries to address the competing concerns.\n",
"Modern understanding of disease is very different from the way it was understood in ancient Greece and Rome. The way modern physicians approach healing of the sick differs greatly from the methods used by early general healers or elite physicians like Hippocrates or Galen. In modern medicine, the understanding of disease stems from the “germ theory of disease”, a concept that emerged in the second half of the 19th century, such that a disease is the result of an invasion of a microorganism into a living host. Therefore, when a person becomes ill, modern treatments “target” the specific pathogen or bacterium in order to “beat” or “kill” the disease. In Ancient Greece and Rome, disease was literally understood as dis-ease, or physical imbalance. Medical intervention, therefore, was purposed with goal of restoration of harmony rather than waging a war against disease. Surgery was regarded by Greek and Roman physicians as extreme and damaging while prevention was seen as the crucial first step to healing almost all ailments. In both prevention and treatment of disease in classical medicine, food and diet was central. The eating of correctly-balanced foods made up the majority of preventative treatment as well as to restore harmony to the body after it encountered disease.\n",
"The state of medical knowledge at the time of the Civil War was extremely primitive. Doctors did not understand infection, and did little to prevent it. It was a time before antiseptics, and a time when there was no attempt to maintain sterility during surgery. No antibiotics were available, and minor wounds could easily become infected, and hence fatal. While the typical soldier was at very high risk of being shot and killed in combat, he faced an even greater risk of dying from disease.\n",
"At the turn of the 19th century, medicine was undergoing a transformation. The emergence of hospitals and the development of more advanced medical tools such as the stethoscope are but a few of the changes in the medical field. There was also an increased recognition that medical practices needed to be improved, as many of the current therapeutics were based on unproven, traditional theories that may or may not have helped the patient recover. The demand for more effective treatment shifted emphasis to research with the goal of understanding disease mechanisms and anatomy. This shift had a few effects, one of which was the rise in patient experimentation, leading to some moral questions about what was acceptable in clinical trials and what was not. An easy solution to the moral problem was to use animals in vivisection experiments, so as not to endanger human patients. This, however, had its own set of moral obstacles, leading to the anti-vivisection movement.\n",
"The first advances in wound care in this era began with the work of Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis, a Hungarian obstetrician who discovered how hand washing and cleanliness in general in medical procedures prevents maternal deaths. Semmelweis's work was furthered by an English surgeon, Joseph Lister, who in 1860s began treating his surgical gauze with carbolic acid, known today as phenol, and subsequently dropped his surgical team's mortality rate by 45%. Building on the success of Lister's pretreated surgical gauze, Robert Wood Johnson I, co-founder of Johnson & Johnson, began in the 1890s producing gauze and wound dressings sterilized with dry heat, steam, and pressure. These innovations in wound-site dressings marked the first major steps forward in the field since the advances of the Egyptians and Greeks centuries earlier. In 1886, Ernst von Bergmann introduced heat sterilization of surgical instruments, which marked the beginning of aseptic surgery and significantly reduced the frequency of infections. Conrad Brunner did extensive research into wound management and experimentation with wound disinfection methods, publishing his comprehensive \"Erfahrungen und Studien über Wundinfektion und Wundbehandlung\" in 1898. That same year, Paul Leopold Friedrich introduced wound excision and experimentally showed that excision of open wounds substantially reduced the risk of infection. The next advances would arise from the development of polymer synthetics for wound dressings and the \"rediscovery\" of moist wound-site care protocols in the mid 20th century.\n"
] |
How tall was King Louis XVI of France? | The real height of Louis XVI is not known. However, his coronation " outfit " is between 1,90m and 1,93m.
The tallest King of France was François Ier which was described to be between 1,95m and 2,00m however, thanks to one of his armour, his height was 1,98m. | [
"Louis XVI of France (born Louis Auguste de France, also known as Louis Capet) (1754–1793) was King of France and Navarre from 1774 until 1791, after which he was subsequently King of the French from 1791 to 1792, before his deposition and execution during the French Revolution.\n",
"Louis XVI (; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793), born Louis-Auguste, was the last King of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. He was referred to as citizen Louis Capet during the four months before he was guillotined. In 1765, at the death of his father, Louis, son and heir apparent of Louis XV, Louis-Auguste became the new Dauphin of France. Upon his grandfather's death on 10 May 1774, he assumed the title \"King of France and Navarre\", which he used until 4 September 1791, when he received the title of \"King of the French\" until the monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792.\n",
"BULLET::::- Louis Stanislas Xavier of France, Count of Provence (1755–1824), younger brother of Louis XVI, known as \"Monsieur\" during the reign of Louis XVI, and was later King of France as Louis XVIII from 1814 to 1824;\n",
"From 21 January 1793 to 8 June 1795, Louis XVI's son Louis-Charles was the titular King of France as Louis XVII; in reality, however, he was imprisoned in the Temple throughout this duration, and power was held by the leaders of the Republic. Upon Louis XVII's death, his uncle (Louis XVI's brother) Louis-Stanislas claimed the throne, as Louis XVIII, but only became \"de facto\" King of France in 1814.\n",
"From 21 January 1793 to 8 June 1795, Louis XVI's son Louis-Charles was the titular King of France as Louis XVII; in reality, however, he was imprisoned in the Temple throughout this duration, and power was held by the leaders of the Republic. Upon Louis XVII's death, his uncle (Louis XVI's brother) Louis-Stanislas claimed the throne, as Louis XVIII, but only became \"de facto\" King of France in 1814.\"\n",
"Louis XVI had become the Dauphin of France upon the death of his father Louis, the son of Louis XV, in 1765. He married Marie Antoinette of Austria, a daughter of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, in 1770. Louis intervened in the American Revolution against Britain in 1778, but he is most remembered for his role in the French Revolution. France was in financial turmoil and Louis was forced to convene the Estates-General on 5 May 1789.\n",
"King Louis XVI has been portrayed in numerous films. In \"Captain of the Guard\" (1930), he is played by Stuart Holmes. In \"Marie Antoinette\" (1938), he was played by Robert Morley. Jean-François Balmer portrayed him in the 1989 two-part miniseries \"La Révolution française\". More recently, he was depicted in the 2006 film \"Marie Antoinette\" by Jason Schwartzman. In Sacha Guitry's \"Si Versailles m'était conté\", Louis was portrayed by one of the film's producers, Gilbert Bokanowski, using the alias Gilbert Boka. Several portrayals have upheld the image of a bumbling, almost foolish king, such as that by Jacques Morel in the 1956 French film \"Marie-Antoinette reine de France\" and that by Terence Budd in the \"Lady Oscar\" live action film. In \"Start the Revolution Without Me\", Louis XVI is portrayed by Hugh Griffith as a laughable cuckold. Mel Brooks played a comic version of Louis XVI in \"The History of the World Part 1\", portraying him as a libertine who has such distaste for the peasantry he uses them as targets in skeet shooting. In the 1996 film \"Ridicule\"; Urbain Cancelier plays Louis.\n"
] |
why aren u.s isps only targeting netflix and not the likes of youtube or hulu? | Netflix is 30%+ (?) of traffic, they are a big player.
Also, YouTube at least is run by Google... who with Fiber is already suggesting that they won't take the ISPs shit. | [
"Because ISPs route the traffic of all of their customers, they are able to monitor web-browsing habits in a very detailed way allowing them to gain information about their customers' interests, which can be used by companies specializing in targeted advertising. At least 100,000 United States customers are tracked this way, and as many as 10% of U.S. customers have been tracked in this way. Technology providers include NebuAd, Front Porch, and Phorm. U.S. ISPs monitoring their customers include Knology and Wide Open West. In addition, the United Kingdom ISP British Telecom has admitted testing solutions from Phorm without their customers' knowledge or consent.\n",
"Consumers may switch to ISPs with better privacy protections. However this could be difficult for some as many Americans only have a choice of one or two broadband companies in their area according to federal statistics. Senator Ron Wyden states that thus their only choice may be between \"giving up their browsing history for an Internet provider to sell to the highest bidder or having no Internet at all\". Furthermore, the existence of such ISPs is not guaranteed and Jeremy Gillula, a senior staff technologist at the Electronic Frontier Foundation notes that it's \"unclear if they would even have to tell you they were doing it\".\n",
"CIPA requires schools monitor minors' Internet use, but does not require tracking by libraries. All Internet access, even by adults, must be filtered, though filtering requirements can be less restrictive for adults (filtering obscene and pornographic material but not other \"harmful to minors\" materials).\n",
"More than 30 million Netflix subscribers use the service via a proxy server or virtual private network (VPN); doing so can make a user appear to be located in a country other than the one they are actually in, thus allowing them to use the service to access content that Netflix does not offer in their region, due to geographical licensing restrictions. It is unclear whether accessing geo-blocked content via VPN violates local copyright laws, but content providers and other broadcasters have asserted that it is illegal because it infringes local rights to content that may have been sold to a competitor. GlobalWebIndex showed about 20 million of such VPN users came from China alone. As of November 2013, Canadian Netflix offered 3,600 titles compared to the U.S. service which had more than 10,000 which results in Canadians using VPNs so they can access the larger U.S. content selection.\n",
"Netflix came under pressure from major film studios in September 2014 to block VPN access, as up to 200,000 Australian subscribers were using Netflix despite it not being available yet in Australia. VPN access for Netflix has, like other streaming services, allowed users to view content more securely or while out of the country. Netflix users have also used VPNs as a means of bypassing throttling efforts made by service providers such as Verizon. It is also important to note that all VPNs might slow internet connection when trying to stream Netflix; however, there are cases where using a VPN might improve your connection if your ISP has been throttling Netflix traffic. As of June, 2018 the Netflix VPN and proxy ban is still active. The CEO of Netflix, Reed Hastings made a comment in 2016 about the VPN market as a whole; “It’s a very small but quite vocal minority. It’s really inconsequential to us.”\n",
"libvpx is used by major OTT video services including YouTube, Netflix, Amazon, JW Player, Brightcove, and Telestream, among which are the biggest sources of internet traffic with Netflix alone accounting for nearly a third of all internet traffic in the United States as of 2017.\n",
"Some ISPs are using a voluntary child pornography censorship list administered by the police. The list has been criticised because it has contained legal adult content, that little has been done to actually shut down the illegal websites and, as the list is secret, it can be used for any censorship. More recently, a government-sponsored report has considered establishing similar filtering in order to curb online gambling.\n"
] |
Does the surface of our planet have areas that are more susceptible to meteor and comet impacts? (i.e. do certain regions get hit disproportionately compared to others? and if so, why?) Alternatively, do all regions have an equal chance of being struck? | I work in a department of meteoriticists and proposed this question to them, because a lot of the meteorites they study come from Antarctica.
So, I asked if there was a bias towards meteorites falling near the poles, or was it just because they're easier to find in Antarctica.
In theory there is a greater chance of a meteorite on the side of the Earth facing 'forwards' as we move through clouds of material that cause the meteor showers, but as the clouds are big and the Earth spins relatively fast so it might not make that much difference.
Ultimately, the sample size of where we find meteorites isn't big enough to work out if there's a trend in location. Given that a lot will just fall in the sea and that it's easier to find meteorites in deserts or snow/icefields, our statistics will always be skewed. | [
"Impact science also benefits from the delivery of meteorites. The Earth has been struck by large impacts in there past e.g. Chicxulub crater, and the materials left behind and the effect on the ground improves impact modeling predictions. The effects on Earth can also be used to understand similar patterns that have been observed on other planets, creating a wealth of understanding of impact cratering on different planets and planetary bodies.\n",
"An impact event is a collision between astronomical objects causing measurable effects. Impact events have physical consequences and have been found to regularly occur in planetary systems, though the most frequent involve asteroids, comets or meteoroids and have minimal effect. When large objects impact terrestrial planets such as the Earth, there can be significant physical and biospheric consequences, though atmospheres mitigate many surface impacts through atmospheric entry. Impact craters and structures are dominant landforms on many of the Solar System's solid objects and present the strongest empirical evidence for their frequency and scale.\n",
"Large meteoroids may strike the earth with a significant fraction of their escape velocity (second cosmic velocity), leaving behind a hypervelocity impact crater. The kind of crater will depend on the size, composition, degree of fragmentation, and incoming angle of the impactor. The force of such collisions has the potential to cause widespread destruction. The most frequent hypervelocity cratering events on the Earth are caused by iron meteoroids, which are most easily able to transit the atmosphere intact. Examples of craters caused by iron meteoroids include Barringer Meteor Crater, Odessa Meteor Crater, Wabar craters, and Wolfe Creek crater; iron meteorites are found in association with all of these craters. In contrast, even relatively large stony or icy bodies like small comets or asteroids, up to millions of tons, are disrupted in the atmosphere, and do not make impact craters. Although such disruption events are uncommon, they can cause a considerable concussion to occur; the famed Tunguska event probably resulted from such an incident. Very large stony objects, hundreds of meters in diameter or more, weighing tens of millions of tons or more, can reach the surface and cause large craters, but are very rare. Such events are generally so energetic that the impactor is completely destroyed, leaving no meteorites. (The very first example of a stony meteorite found in association with a large impact crater, the Morokweng crater in South Africa, was reported in May 2006.)\n",
"Despite the scientific community repeatedly assuring the public that a collision with Earth is extremely unlikely, pieces of the comet's nucleus impact across the western hemisphere with devastating results. The strikes on parts of Europe, Africa, the Gulf of Mexico, and both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans set off volcanoes, destabilize fault lines, including the San Andreas fault, and cause tsunamis thousands of meters high, destroying major coastal cities around the world, killing billions and initiating long-term climate problems due to the massive quantities of vaporized seawater in the atmosphere.\n",
"Meteoroid collisions with solid Solar System objects, including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede, and most small moons and asteroids, create impact craters, which are the dominant geographic features of many of those objects. On other planets and moons with active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Mars, Europa, Io, and Titan, visible impact craters may become eroded, buried, or transformed by tectonics over time. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth. Molten terrestrial material ejected from a meteorite impact crater can cool and solidify into an object known as a tektite. These are often mistaken for meteorites.\n",
"An impact by a asteroid on the Earth has historically caused an extinction-level event due to catastrophic damage to the biosphere. There is also the threat from comets entering the inner Solar System. The impact speed of a long-period comet would likely be several times greater than that of a near-Earth asteroid, making its impact much more destructive; in addition, the warning time is unlikely to be more than a few months. Impacts from objects as small as in diameter, which are far more common, are historically extremely destructive regionally (see Barringer crater).\n",
"There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth's climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming meteorites and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young's paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth's surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth's climate.\n"
] |
If heat rises, wouldn't turning on a ceiling fan raise the ambient temperature underneath? | Any kind of circulation will make you feel cooler.
The reason you sweat is to expel heat from your body. As it evaporates, it takes the heat with it. The problem is when it is too humid in your immediate vicinity and the sweat can't evaporate in a reasonable amount of time.
When the air in the room you are in is moving, there is a constant supply of fresh air moving past you, allowing the sweat from your body a constant chance to evaporate. | [
"Due to the rising warm air from convector heaters, warm air may accumulate at the ceiling of the room. Therefore, convector heaters are often paired with ceiling fans, especially in rooms with tall ceilings. In the winter, setting a fan to turn clockwise will allow for more air circulation and will keep heat from rising completely, making the room feel warmer and allowing one to turn down the thermostat.\n",
"Unlike air conditioners, which cool rooms, fans cool people. Ceiling fans increase air speed at the occupant level, which facilitates more efficient heat rejection, cooling the occupant, rather than the space. Elevated air speed increases the rate of convective and evaporative heat loss from the body, thus making the occupant feel cooler without changing the dry bulb temperature of the air. \n",
"Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within a room for the purpose of reducing the perceived temperature by increasing evaporation of perspiration on the skin of the occupants. Because hot air rises, ceiling fans may be used to keep a room warmer in the winter by circulating the warm stratified air from the ceiling to the floor.\n",
"For heating, ceiling fans should usually be set to turn the opposite direction (usually clockwise; the blades should spin with the downward turned side leading) and on a low speed (or the lowest speed the fan is able to circulate the air down to the floor). Air naturally stratifies—that is, warmer air rises to the ceiling while cooler air sinks. Unfortunately, this means it is colder on or near the floor where human beings spend most of their time. A ceiling fan, with its direction of rotation set so that air is drawn upward, pulls up the colder air below, forcing the warmer air nearer the ceiling to move down to take its place, without blowing a stream of air directly at the occupants of the room. This action works to even out the temperature in the room, making it cooler nearer the ceiling, but warmer nearer the floor. Thus the thermostat in the area can be set a few degrees lower to save energy, while maintaining the same level of comfort. It is important to run the fan at a low speed (or a lowest speed the fan is able to circulate the air down to the floor) to minimize the wind chill effect described above. However if the ceiling is high enough, or the lowest speed downdraft would not create wind chill effect, it can be left on downdraft year around.\n",
"Finally, large ceiling fans are installed in every room, even those using air conditioning. Ceiling fans ensure that even in the absence of the necessary breezes, the airflow needed to feel comfortable in the room is provided for the users. This solution significantly reduces the amount of energy consumed. The overall consumption of the ceiling fans and the split system (the latter used to cool the technical rooms) is only 3.7kWh/m².yr compared to a classic air conditioning system in a standard building consuming 80kWh/m².yr.\n",
"A ceiling fan is a mechanical fan mounted on the ceiling of a room or space, usually electrically powered, suspended from the ceiling of a room, that uses hub-mounted rotating blades to circulate air. Ceiling fans typically rotate more slowly than other types of circulating fans, such as electric desk fans. They cool people effectively by introducing slow movement into the otherwise still, hot air of a room. Fans never actually cool air, unlike air-conditioning equipment, they in fact heat the air due to the waste heat from the motor and friction, but use significantly less power (cooling air is thermodynamically expensive). Conversely, a ceiling fan can also be used to reduce the stratification of warm air in a room by forcing it down to affect both occupants' sensations and thermostat readings, thereby improving climate control energy efficiency.\n",
"BULLET::::- A hugger or low profile ceiling fan is usually installed on a low ceiling. They can also be used in rooms with vaulted ceilings when installed on the joist. In cold climates, a ceiling fan may disperse heat to warm up the room as well by dispersing downwards the warm air that rises to the ceiling surface. Though the ceiling fan cannot lower room temperatures, when used in tandem with a room air-conditioner it may be able to disperse the cool air all around the room.\n"
] |
i saw two squirrels fighting in a tree, they fell off the branch and tumbled about 30 feet to the floor without seeming to break their fall when they landed. they then got up and ran off. how did they not sustain the kind of terrible injuries i would falling from that height? | An ant can survive a fall from any height. You could drop one out of an airplane, and it would survive the impact. The ant is fine because it is so light. It isn't the hitting the ground that kills you, it's your own mass that crushes you after hitting the ground.
The formula for force is: F = M * A . Force is equal to Mass times Acceleration. Mass is proportional to force. Increasing your mass increases the force that you will experience when landing. Decreasing your mass will decrease the force you experience.
When landing from a fall off of a tree, the squirrel is fine because he is experiencing a much smaller force than you would, because he has much less mass. | [
"As the squirrels march deeper into the forest, they encounter a bat, whom they soon discover is no more than a child. It is Vesper, who has secretly left his home to try to participate in the battle. The squirrels force him to march with them.\n",
"The squirrel is reading a newspaper, but he hears a sawing noise, looks outside, and sees Porky sawing the tree down. The squirrel pulls the saw to a smaller tree, and when Porky tries to saw back, he is sandwiched through the crack and launched in the air, landing in a pond. Porky then chases the squirrel up the tree, but is stopped by a limb placed by the squirrel, who then cuts the pig's suspenders making him fall. Almost immediately after, Porky is on the other side of the tree with a shotgun, and fires. He shoots the branch he's standing on, while the squirrel runs inside and hands him a fruit basket. Porky then falls due to the weight of the basket. The squirrel then runs down with a mattress, but intentionally places it next to where Porky ends up crashing. Porky is disoriented, and the squirrel squeezes two bananas he's holding in his face, giving him a funny-looking mustache.\n",
"Two female, boisterous, spoiled, flying squirrels. They tell the Toadlets that they should be on the ground, never in their tree. but they encounter the Toadlets again when they tried to eat an extravagant woodpecker's acorn-infested tree, but were scared away by a Slothful Porcupine.\n",
"The ground squirrel is especially renowned for its tendency to rise up on its hind legs, usually whenever it senses nearby danger, or when it must see over tall grasses. The squirrel then curls its paws flat against its chest and sends a screeching call to warn other family members about the presence of predators.\n",
"The corpus of the dispute was a squirrel--a live squirrel supposed to be clinging to one side of a tree-trunk; while over against the tree's opposite side a human being was imagined to stand. This human witness tries to get sight of the squirrel by moving rapidly round the tree, but no matter how fast he goes, the squirrel moves as fast in the opposite direction, and always keeps the tree between himself and the man, so that never a glimpse of him is caught. The resultant metaphysical problem now is this: DOES THE MAN GO ROUND THE SQUIRREL OR NOT?\n",
"Devastated, the squirrel is entirely out of luck and now out of the entire supply of winter nuts. By the time the snow starts falling, the foolish squirrel heads back home without any nuts or any luck in telling his father the truth. So, as soon as he enters his home, he decides to make up a lie and tells his father that he has been robbed by bandits, jumped and badly attacked by them. However, his lying ends very quickly and he goes too far when he discovers that the stranger who won the nuts from him is none other than his \"own\" father, who did it to teach his gambling son a lesson for deliberately disobeying him. In spite of this, the lesson, however, does not work. When the disgruntled father concludes that he will give his son ten lashes, and before the young squirrel has a chance to run out the door, he is caught by the tail by his enraged father. As the disgruntled father gets his lashing weapon (a plank) ready, his son tells him that \"he'll flip him for it, double or nothing,\" but his father doesn't believe him. As the cartoon irises out and the \"That's All Folks!\" ending appears, the foolish squirrel is seen/heard getting lashes from his enraged father.\n",
"Tom ducks as Spike's teeth come at him, which instead get lodged in a tree trunk. Tom then barely avoids getting his tail bitten and hides behind a wall, holding a brick up ready to attack. Spike sees the brick and investigates, but gets knocked on the head with it. Jerry revives Spike by hitting him with a wooden plank on his rear end. After slamming Spike, Spike leaps high in the air screaming in pain just as Jerry hands off the board to Tom, framing the cat.\n"
] |
Was there a large amount of fear in the 1930s that the Spanish Civil War would spill out into a larger regional or even global conflict? | Certainly.
This fear was such, that, early on, a non-intervention agreement was signed by many European countries in August of 1936, which created the aptly named Non-Intervention Committee. The most vocal parties for non-interventionism were the French and British. While Italy and Germany were on the committee, they openly flaunted the agreement and guidelines, sending volunteers, aircraft, tanks, and material to Franco's Falangists. The USSR was also on the committee, and it to, ignored the prescription of non-interventionism, sending military aid to the republicans.
Britain and France did, on the whole remain loyal to their pledge of non-interventionism, though France covertly donated planes and specialists to the Republicans.
So yes, the conflict was met with a fear of it spiraling into a wider war, and while on paper, the major European powers pledged non-interventionism, many of these broke it. | [
"The atrocities that had happened at the outset of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 were seen by both sides as a possible precedent for Colombia, causing both sides to fear it could happen in their country; this also spurred the credibility of the conspiracies and the rationale for violence. Catholics everywhere were shocked by the wave of anticlerical violence in the Republican zones in Spain in the first months of that war where anarchists, socialists and communists burned churches and murdered nearly 7,000 priests, monks, and nuns.\n",
"The Spanish Civil War exposed political divisions across Europe. The right and the Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, including labor unions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism. Anti-war and pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential of escalating into a second world war. In this respect, the war was an indicator of the growing instability across Europe.\n",
"The Spanish Civil War exposed political divisions across Europe. The right and the Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, including labor unions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism. Antiwar and pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential of escalating into a second world war. In this respect, the war was an indicator of the growing instability across Europe.\n",
"There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The American Civil War (1861–1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities as well as political ideologies, and it ended through a war of attrition, rather than with a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) proved exceptional because \"both\" sides in the struggle received support from intervening great powers: Germany, Italy, and Portugal supported opposition leader Francisco Franco, while France and the Soviet Union supported the government (see proxy war).\n",
"The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the rebels (the Nationalists), led by Francisco Franco, won in 1939. There was military intervention as Italy sent land forces, and Germany sent smaller elite air force and armoured units to the Nationalists. The Soviet Union sold armaments to the leftist Republicans on the other side, while the Communist parties in numerous countries sent soldiers to the \"International Brigades.\" The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral and refused to sell military supplies to either side. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.\n",
"The Spanish Civil War was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the Nationalists won in 1939 by overwhelming the Republican forces. The Soviet Union provided armaments but never enough to equip the heterogeneous government militias and the \"International Brigades\" of outside far-left volunteers. The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted all the Communists and many socialists and liberals against Catholics, conservatives and fascists. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another great war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.\n",
"BULLET::::- Civil wars occurred in many nations. A violent civil war broke out in Spain in 1936 when General Francisco Franco rebelled against the Second Spanish Republic. Many consider this war as a testing battleground for World War II, as the fascist armies bombed some Spanish territories.\n"
] |
how is a movie made for vhs and dvd converted to be a blu-ray? | Film - the original clear plastic stuff with thousands of pictures on it - is actually much higher resolution than DVD, BluRay or even 4K. Provided you have access to it, you can convert it to whatever digital resolution you want, by in effect taking a photo of each frame and running them together.
If you *don't* have access to the original, then you'll probably find you get a really poor quality disc. However - most films are archived and it's in the producer's interests to allow the best quality print. | [
"The film was released on Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D, DVD, and movie download on August 9, 2011. The release is produced in three different physical packages: a four-disc combo pack (Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D, DVD, and \"Digital Copy\"); a two-disc Blu-ray combo pack (Blu-ray and DVD); and a single-disc DVD. The \"Digital Copy\" included with the four-disc combo pack is a separate disc that allows users to download a copy of the film onto a computer through iTunes or Windows Media Player software. The film is also a movie download or On-Demand option. All versions of the release (except for the On-Demand option) include the \"Fun With Seth\" and \"Martian 101\" bonus features, while the Blu-ray 2D version additionally includes deleted scenes, the \"Life On Mars: The Full Motion-Capture Experience\" feature, and an extended opening film clip. The Blu-ray 3D version also has an alternate scene called \"Mom-Napping\", a finished 3D alternate scene of the Martian abduction of Milo's mom.\n",
"The film was released on DVD and Blu-Ray on November 19, 2007 in the UK and December 4, 2007 in the United States and Canada. The 2-Disc Limited Edition DVD was in continuous circulation until it stopped on September 30, 2008. In contrast, the Blu-ray Disc release, containing all of the features from the 2-Disc DVD version (including some original scenes from the theatrical release, but excluding the writer's commentary) is still widely available. The initial Blu-ray Disc release was misprinted on the back of the box as 1080i, although Disney confirmed it to be 1080p. Disney decided not to recall the misprinted units, but to fix the error on subsequent printings. DVD sales brought in $296,043,871 in revenue, marking the best-selling DVD of 2007, although it ranks second in terms of units sold (14,505,271) behind \"Transformers\" (16,234,195). \"At World's End\" had its television premiere in the UK on Boxing Day 2009 on BBC One at 19:30, and was watched by 6.06 million viewers.\n",
"Three versions are to be released: the limited DVD version will include 2 discs with the movie, the trailer, Magic File 3, and other extras with 5.1 Dolby Digital HD Surround Sound audio. The regular DVD will only include the movie and the trailer with 5.1 Dolby Digital HD Surround Sound audio. The Blu-ray version includes the HD format of the regular DVD version. The limited DVD cost ¥6720, the regular DVD cost ¥5460, and the Blu-ray version cost ¥6510. The DVD will only be released in Japan, Europe, Middle East, and South Africa.\n",
"Universal has not yet officially released this film on DVD or Blu-ray in the North America region. However, it is available on DVD in Europe, presented in PAL format where the film is sped-up slightly to fit this different format and has a runtime of 77 minutes. Most DVD-Rs of the movie made for North American purchasers use the same print from the PAL DVDs.\n",
"On July 12, 2007, the movie became the first adult title licensed by the Advanced Access Content System (AACS) to be sold in the Blu-ray Disc format. It was also the first adult movie available in both HD DVD and Blu-ray formats. Other companies had released a very few adult films on Blu-ray by this point, but they were not copy-protected or licensed, and were burned in-house, some on BD-R discs.\n",
"The film was released to cinemas on Blu-ray, DVD and DCP, none of which were available for public purchase. After considerable complication with the physical discs, the authors of the film insisted on using digital formats instead.\n",
"The DVD contains the theatrical cut of the film and deleted scenes. The Blu-ray Disc edition contains the Blu-ray Disc, the DVD and a digital version of the film in a single pack. The Blu-ray Disc version is an unrated, extended cut (the \"Totally Inappropriate Edition\") with a runtime of 106 minutes compared to the theatrical 98 minutes. The Blu-ray Disc contains deleted scenes and four featurettes: \"My Least Favorite Career\", \"Surviving a Horrible Boss\", \"Being Mean Is So Much Fun\", and \"The Making of the Horrible Bosses Soundtrack\". Both the theatrical and extended cuts are presented in the film's original aspect ratio of 2.39:1 with DTS-HD Master Audio sound. Beginning with the Blu-ray Disc release of \"Horrible Bosses\" and \"Green Lantern\", Warner Bros. included a code that allows the owner to access a version of the film via UltraViolet, a cloud storage service which allows streaming or downloading to a variety of devices.\n"
] |
what in the world is half life 3? | Half-Life is a series of video games by Valve.
The first game came out in 1998, and was a huge success. The second game came out in 2004 (after being delayed for over a year) and was also a huge success.
After the seconds game, Valve decided to create new sequels as three "episodes" (which were more like expansion to the second game). The first episode, titled "Half-Life 2: Episode 1", came out in 2006, and the next episode came out in 2007. They were both also very successful. However, the third episode never saw the light of day, and fans are still expecting it or Half-Life 3. Since Valve are very hush-hush about this, fans try to look for anything that might hint on a new game being developed.
You can read more here: _URL_0_ | [
"Half-Life (stylized HλLF-LIFE) is a series of first-person shooter games developed and published by Valve. The major installments feature protagonist Gordon Freeman, a physicist who battles an alien invasion. \"Half-Life\" (1998) and \"Half-Life 2\" (2004) are full-length games, while \"\" (2006) and \"\" (2007) are shorter, episodic games. A third episode, \"Half-Life 2: Episode Three\", was scheduled for release by Christmas 2007, but is now described as vaporware.\n",
"\"Half-Life 2\" is a science fiction first-person shooter game and the sequel to \"Half-Life\". While remaining similar in style to the original, \"Half-Life 2\" introduces new concepts to the series such as physics-based puzzles and vehicle sections. The game takes place in the fictional City 17 and surrounding areas as the player takes on the role of scientist Gordon Freeman. Freeman is thrust into a dystopian environment in which the aftermath of the events of \"Half-Life\" have come to bear fully upon human society, and he is forced to fight against increasingly unfavorable odds in order to survive. In his struggle, he is joined by various acquaintances, including former Black Mesa colleagues, oppressed citizens of City 17, and the Vortigaunts, all of whom later prove to be valuable allies. \"Half-Life 2\" received critical acclaim, including 35 Game of the Year awards, when it was originally released for Windows in 2004. , over 6.5 million copies of Half-Life 2 have been sold at retail. Although Steam sales figures are unknown, their rate surpassed retail's in mid-2008 and they are significantly more profitable per-unit.\n",
"The \"Half-Life\" series revolves heavily around alternative universes. Xen is a location in the first Half-Life game, accidentally discovered by scientists and described as a border world between dimensions, where the player must travel to stop an alien invasion. Half-Life 2 features a multidimensional empire called The Combine which has successfully conquered Earth and subdued humanity, among countless other universes and species.\n",
"Half-Life (stylized as HλLF-LIFE) is a first-person shooter video game developed by Valve Corporation and published by Sierra Studios for Microsoft Windows in 1998. It was Valve's debut title and the first in the \"Half-Life\" series. Players assume the role of Gordon Freeman, a scientist who must find his way out of the Black Mesa Research Facility after an experiment with an alien material goes wrong. The core gameplay consists of fighting alien and human enemies with a variety of weapons and solving puzzles. Unlike many other games at the time, the player has almost complete uninterrupted control of Freeman, and the story is told mostly through scripted sequences seen through his eyes.\n",
"Half-Life 2 (stylized as HλLF-LIFE) is a first-person shooter video game developed and published by Valve Corporation. It is the sequel to 1998's \"Half-Life\" and was released in November 2004 following a five-year $40 million development. During development, a substantial part of the project was leaked and distributed on the Internet. The game was developed alongside Valve's Steam software and the Source engine.\n",
"\"Half-Life\" sparked numerous fan-made mods, several of them becoming standalone games, notably \"Counter-Strike\", \"Day of Defeat\" and \"Sven Co-op\". A sequel, \"Half-Life 2\", was released in 2004. An unofficial remake of \"Half-Life\" titled \"Black Mesa\" was released in 2012 as a mod of \"Half-Life 2\".\n",
"\"Half-Life\" is the first game in the series, and was the debut game of Valve Software, released on November 19, 1998. \"Half-Life\" follows Gordon Freeman, a theoretical physicist, after the Black Mesa Research Facility accidentally causes a dimensional rift which allows the facility to be invaded by aliens. Freeman consequently attempts to survive the slaughter and resolve the situation. The game was originally published by Sierra Studios and released for Windows, although Gearbox Software would later port the game to PlayStation 2 in 2001. Valve themselves later converted the game to use their Source engine. \"Half-Life\" received critical acclaim upon release, critics hailing its overall presentation and numerous scripted sequences. The game won over 50 Game of the Year awards and its gameplay has influenced first-person shooters for years to come. \"Half-Life\" has since been regarded as one of the greatest games of all time.\n"
] |
I'm interested in military formations and how they actually work -- what made them effective against certain types of combat, etc. Any links or videos about this stuff? | This is too wide a topic to cover in a single post so let me deal with the one question you specifically asked. The hollow square (as a pike formation mostly) works well against cavalry for a couple of reasons. Firstly, the pike is a good weapon versus cavalry due to its reach. A pike formation on the other hand is normally vulnerable to flanking. Changing directions in a pike formation is messy business that requires coordination and skill. The hollow square doesn't really have a front and as such is not vulnerable to flanking. The hollow form also brings the advantage of quickly being able to reinforce a weak spot quickly as troops can move freely within the square. This was often used with a mobile force of ranged troops within the square, specifically the famous spanish square/tercio formation. A square is weaker versus a concentrated assult as much of its strenght is spread out as opposed to focused forward as is the case with a line formation.
In a more general context, military formations usually develope as a reaction to something else. A firm line is stronger than a brute force charge since every man protects the men next to him. The mobile cavalry can out-flank the line but not the square which in turn is vulnerable to a line formation or attack column. It's all a gigantic game of rocks, papers, scissors. | [
"close order formation combat, in which soldiers were held in very strict formations as to maximise their combat effectiveness. Formation combat was used as an alternative to mêlée combat, and required strict discipline in the ranks and competent officers. As long as their formations could be maintained, regular troops could maintain a significant advantage over less organised opponents. Military parades are not to be confused with military show of force.\n",
"Combat capabilities of tank formations and subunits enable them to lead active combat operations, day and night, in a significant isolation from other troops, to smash the enemy in meeting engagements and battles, on the move to overcome the extensive areas of contamination, to force water barriers, as well as to quickly build a solid defence and successfully resist the attack of superior forces of the enemy.\n",
"This article is a list of military strategies and concepts that are commonly recognized and referenced. Military strategies are methods of arranging and maneuvering large bodies of military forces during armed conflicts.\n",
"These three are formed as operational training units at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, the Infantry Battle School and the Land Warfare Centre, to provide opposing forces for realistic battle simulation.\n",
"Military operations is a concept and application of military science that involves planning the operations for the projected maneuvering forces' provisions, services, training, and administrative functions—to allow them to commence, insert, then egress from combat. The operations staff plays a major role in the projection of military forces in any wide spectrum of conflict; terrestrial, aerial, or naval warfare needed to achieve operational objectives in a theater of war.\n",
"It is a major part of military science to find methods of defeating the enemy with available capabilities using existing and new concepts. Successful use of military capability by employing these concepts and methods is reflected in the effects on the enemy ability to continue to resist, subject to Rules of Engagement (ROE) range of political, legal and ethical factors. Military capability is often tested in peacetime by using the scenario methodology to analyse performance, often as a war game. It is \n",
"One of the fundamental aspects of Modern Army Combatives training is the use of competitions as a tool to motivate Soldiers to train. Realizing the inherent problem with competitive systems, that competitors will focus their training on winning and therefore only train the techniques that are allowed in competition, Larsen designed a system of graduated rules that, combined with scenario based training, demand that Soldiers train on all aspects of fighting.\n"
] |
why do all these food companies have non gmo-labels on their products? is it propaganda? | If it's not a modified organism then they're not lying. I could poop in your salad and certify it as non gmo | [
"Opponents claimed Prop 37 backers real intent was to ban GMOs via labeling schemes removing consumer choices, citing claims by proponents like Jeffrey M. Smith that labeling requirements in California would cause food companies to source only non-GMO foods to avoid having labels that consumers would perceive as warnings.\n",
"Other jurisdictions make such labeling voluntary or have had plans to require labeling. Major GM food crop exporters like the United States (until 2018), Argentina, and Canada have adopted voluntary labeling approaches; China and Brazil have major GM (largely non-food) crops and have adopted mandatory labelling.\n",
"Proponents argue that approved GMO food has undergone extensive testing, is \"safe\" and that basically labeling is unnecessary. Labeling may discourage consumers to use GMO products when such a choice may be irrational. A lot of consumers express fears that have not been substantiated by science.\n",
"Although labeling of genetically modified organism (GMO) products in the marketplace is required in many countries, it is not required in the United States and no distinction between marketed GMO and non-GMO foods is recognized by the US FDA.\n",
"Previous attempts to enact a national GMO labeling law included H. R. 1599 in 2015 – \"the Safe and Accurate Food Labeling Act of 2015\". It was a proposed legislative amendment to the United States Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. The act passed the House of Representatives on July 23, 2015 but failed in the Senate. An earlier version of the bill had been originally introduced as H. R. 4432 in 2004. and attempted to regulate food labeling specifically in view of the introduction of GMO food in the United States.\n",
"Several states have passed regulations concerning labelling of GM food; Connecticut passed a GMO labeling bill in May 2013, but the bill will only be triggered after four other states enact similar legislation. On January 9, 2014, Maine’s governor signed a bill requiring labeling for foods made with GMO's, with a similar triggering mechanism as Connecticut's bill. In May 2014 Vermont passed a law requiring labeling of food containing ingredients derived from genetically modified organisms. A federal judge ruled Maui's GMO ban invalid.\n",
"Prior to the new federal rules taking effect, while it does require pre-market approval, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not required GMO labeling as long as there are no differences in health, environmental safety, and consumer expectations based on the packaging.\n"
] |
Why can't we use animal embryonic stem cells? | > presumably reducing the chance of rejection
one of the biggest reasons for why we would want to use stem cells is to *prevent* rejection. if i donate my kidney to some guy, he will have to take immusuppressor drugs *for the rest of his life*. and we are the same species! if he got a monkey's kidney, then it would be an even worse rejection. the same thing would happen to animal stem cells.
as a matter of fact, animal contamination in stem cells is a massive problem in research. at the moment, all of the NIH sanctioned human stem cell lines were just *grown* on a "rug" of mouse fibroblast cells (you have to do this, so that they stay stem cells). just the fact that they were *grown* on mouse cells is a large enough amount of contamination that we don't inject them into people.
so if human stem cells grown with animal cells are bad, then animal stem cells themselves are much, much worse. | [
"In mice, there is an additional option for genetic transfer that is not available in other animals. Embryonic stem cells provide a means to transfer new DNA into the germline. They also allow precise genetic modifications by gene targeting. Modified embryonic stem cells can be selected in vitro before the experiment moves on further for the production of an animal. Embryonic stem cells capable of contributing to the germline of livestock species such as sheep have not been isolated.\n",
"Scientific interest in adult stem cells is centered on their ability to divide or \"self-renew\" indefinitely, and generate all the cell types of the organ from which they originate, potentially regenerating the entire organ from a few cells. Unlike for embryonic stem cells, the use of human adult stem cells in research and therapy is not considered to be controversial, as they are derived from adult tissue samples rather than human embryos designated for scientific research. They have mainly been studied in humans and model organisms such as mice and rats.\n",
"Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated cells of an embryo. These cells are deemed to have a pluripotent potential because they have the ability to give rise to all of the tissues found in an adult organism. This ability allows stem cells to create any cell type, which could then be transplanted to replace damaged or destroyed cells. Controversy surrounds human ESC work due to the destruction of viable human embryos. Leading scientists to seek an alternative method of obtaining stem cells, SCNT is one such method.\n",
"The ethical debate about use of embryonic stem cells has stirred controversy both in the United States and abroad; although more recently these debates have lessened due to modern advances in creating induced pluripotent stem cells from adult cells. The greatest advantage for use of embryonic stem cells is the fact that they can differentiate (become) nearly any type of cell provided the right conditions and signals. However, recent advances by Shinya Yamanaka et al. have found ways to create pluripotent cells without the use of such controversial cell cultures. Using the patient's own cells and re-differentiating them into the desired cell type bypasses both possible patient rejection of the embryonic stem cells and any ethical concerns associated with using them, while also providing researchers a larger supply of available cells. However, induced pluripotent cells have the potential to form benign (though potentially malignant) tumors, and tend to have poor survivability \"in vivo\" (in the living body) on damaged tissue. Much of the ethics concerning use of stem cells has subsided from the embryonic/adult stem cell debate due to its rendered moot, but now societies find themselves debating whether or not this technology can be ethically used. Enhancements of traits, use of animals for tissue scaffolding, and even arguments for moral degeneration have been made with the fears that if this technology reaches its full potential a new paradigm shift will occur in human behavior.\n",
"The online edition of \"Nature Medicine\" published a study on January 24, 2005, which stated that the human embryonic stem cells available for federally funded research are contaminated with non-human molecules from the culture medium used to grow the cells. It is a common technique to use mouse cells and other animal cells to maintain the pluripotency of actively dividing stem cells. The problem was discovered when non-human sialic acid in the growth medium was found to compromise the potential uses of the embryonic stem cells in humans, according to scientists at the University of California, San Diego.\n",
"The most well-known type of pluripotent stem cell is the embryonic stem cell. However, since the generation of embryonic stem cells involves destruction (or at least manipulation) of the pre-implantation stage embryo, there has been much controversy surrounding their use. Further, because embryonic stem cells can only be derived from embryos, it has so far not been feasible to create patient-matched embryonic stem cell lines.\n",
"In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts in early embryonic development, and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues of fully developed mammals. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cells—ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm (see induced pluripotent stem cells)—but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or intestinal tissues.\n"
] |
What are some ways to test microbial evolution as an experiment? | You might be interested in Richard Lenski's long-term evolution of E. coli [experiment](_URL_0_). | [
"Experimental evolution studies are a means of testing evolutionary theory under carefully designed, reproducible experiments. Given enough time, space, and money, any organism could be used for experimental evolution studies. However, those with rapid generation times, high mutation rates, large population sizes, and small sizes increase the feasibility of experimental studies in a laboratory context. For these reasons, bacteriophages (i.e. viruses that infect bacteria) are especially favored by experimental evolutionary biologists. Bacteriophages, and microbial organisms, can be frozen in stasis, facilitating comparison of evolved strains to ancestors. Additionally, microbes are especially labile from a molecular biologic perspective. Many molecular tools have been developed to manipulate the genetic material of microbial organisms, and because of their small genome sizes, sequencing the full genomes of evolved strains is trivial. Therefore, comparisons can be made for the exact molecular changes in evolved strains during adaptation to novel conditions.\n",
"Experimental evolution uses controlled experiments to test hypotheses and theories of evolution. In one early example, William Dallinger set up an experiment shortly before 1880, subjecting microbes to heat with the aim of forcing adaptive changes. His experiment ran for around seven years, and his published results were acclaimed, but he did not resume the experiment after the apparatus failed.\n",
"Experimental evolution is the use of laboratory experiments or controlled field manipulations to explore evolutionary dynamics. Evolution may be observed in the laboratory as individuals/populations adapt to new environmental conditions by natural selection. There are two different ways in which adaptation can arise in experimental evolution. One is via an individual organism gaining a novel beneficial mutation. The other is from allele frequency change in standing genetic variation already present in a population of organisms. Other evolutionary forces outside of mutation and natural selection can also play a role or be incorporated into experimental evolution studies, such as genetic drift and gene flow. The organism used is decided by the experimenter, based on whether the hypothesis to be tested involves adaptation through mutation or allele frequency change. A large number of generations are required for adaptive mutation to occur, and experimental evolution via mutation is carried out in viruses or unicellular organisms with rapid generation times, such as bacteria and asexual clonal yeast. Polymorphic populations of asexual or sexual yeast, and multicellular eukaryotes like Drosophila, can adapt to new environments through allele frequency change in standing genetic variation. Organisms with longer generations times, although costly, can be used in experimental evolution. Laboratory studies with foxes and with rodents (see below) have shown that notable adaptations can occur within as few as 10–20 generations and experiments with wild guppies have observed adaptations within comparable numbers of generations. More recently, experimentally evolved individuals or populations are often analyzed using whole genome sequencing, an approach known as Evolve and Resequence (E&R). E&R can identify mutations that lead to adaptation in clonal individuals or identify alleles that changed in frequency in polymorphic populations, by comparing the sequences of individuals/populations before and after adaptation. The sequence data makes it possible to pinpoint the site in a DNA sequence that a mutation/allele frequency change occurred to bring about adaptation. The nature of the adaptation and functional follow up studies can shed insight into what effect the mutation/allele has on phenotype.\n",
"Experimental methods were invented that allowed investigators to use large, diverse populations of RNA molecules to carry out in vitro molecular experiments that utilized powerful selective replication strategies used by geneticists, and which amount to evolution in the test tube. These experiments have been described using different names, the most common of which are \"combinatorial selection\", \"in vitro selection\", and SELEX (for Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment). These experiments have been used for isolating RNA molecules with a wide range of properties, from binding to particular proteins, to catalyzing particular reactions, to binding low molecular weight organic ligands. They have equal applicability to elucidating interactions and mechanisms that are known properties of naturally occurring RNA molecules to isolating RNA molecules with biochemical properties that are not known in nature. In developing in vitro selection technology for RNA, laboratory systems for synthesizing complex populations of RNA molecules were established, and used in conjunction with the selection of molecules with user-specified biochemical activities, and in vitro schemes for RNA replication. These steps can be viewed as (a) mutation, (b) selection, and (c) replication. Together, then, these three processes enable in vitro molecular evolution.\n",
"Experimental evolution has been used in various formats to understand underlying evolutionary processes in a controlled system. Experimental evolution has been performed on multicellular and unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and viruses. Similar works have also been performed by directed evolution of individual enzyme, ribozyme and replicator genes.\n",
"In addition to evolutionary analysis and Active Learning COMBREX also points to other criteria that might be considered in considering experiments. Such criteria include whether there is a structure available, conservation of the bacterial gene in the human genome (e.g. domain sharing), availability of computational or experimental evidence of gene function, phenotypical considerations (such as presence in a pathogen or relation to antibiotic resistance, pathogenicity or virulence)and others.\n",
"Because of their rapid generation times microbes offer an opportunity to study microevolution in the classroom. A number of exercises involving bacteria and yeast teach concepts ranging from the evolution of resistance to the evolution of multicellularity. With the advent of next-generation sequencing technology it has become possible for students to conduct an evolutionary experiment, sequence the evolved genomes, and to analyze and interpret the results.\n"
] |
Did ancient cultures have any concept of the waxing and waning of the moon being caused by Earth casting a shadow? | Just as a point of clarification: the waxing and waning of the moon are not caused by the earth's shadow; it is a result of the moon rotating around the earth, and from our perspective, the full half of the moon that is illuminated by the sun appears in phases. The only instance of the earth's shadow affecting the illumination of the moon is at the time of a lunar eclipse, a relatively rare occurrence. | [
"The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former. His non-religious view of the heavens was one cause for his imprisonment and eventual exile. In his little book \"On the Face in the Moon's Orb\", Plutarch suggested that the Moon had deep recesses in which the light of the Sun did not reach and that the spots are nothing but the shadows of rivers or deep chasms. He also entertained the possibility that the Moon was inhabited. \n",
"Later, the physical form of the Moon and the cause of moonlight became understood. The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former. Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to \"qi\", their 'radiating influence' theory also recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun, and Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel \"A True Story\", in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his \"Aryabhatiya\" that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon. The astronomer and physicist Alhazen (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.\n",
"The phenomenon of the shadow has always aroused human curiosity and inspired artistic representation, as recorded by Pliny the Elder, and various forms of shadow play since the 1st millennium BCE. The photogram in essence is a means by which the fall of light and shade on a surface may be automatically captured and preserved. To do so required a substance that would react to light, and from the 17th century photochemical reactions were progressively observed or discovered in salts of silver, iron, uranium and chromium. In 1725 Johann Heinrich Schulze was the first to demonstrate a temporary photographic effect in silver salts, confirmed by Carl Wilhhelm Scheele in 1777, who found that violet light caused the greatest reaction in silver chloride. Humphry Davy and Thomas Wedgewood reported that they had produced pictures from stencils on leather and paper, but had no means of fixing them and some organic substances respond to light, as evidenced in sunburn (an effect used by Dennis Oppenheim in his 1970 \"Reading Position for Second Degree Burn\") and photosynthesis (with which Lloyd Godman forms images).\n",
"Through additional works (by Roger Bacon, John Pecham, Witelo, and others) based on Ibn al-Haytham's explanation, the Moon illusion came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon in the 17th century.\n",
"One myth surrounding the moon was to account for the \"dark spots\"; it was believed that a fox fell in love with Mama Killa because of her beauty, but when he rose into the sky, she squeezed him against her, producing the patches. The Incas would fear lunar eclipses as they believed that during the eclipse, an animal (possibly a mountain lion or serpent) was attacking Mama Killa. Consequently, people would attempt to scare away the animal by throwing weapons, gesturing and making as much noise as possible. They believed that if the animal achieved its aim, then the world would be left in darkness. This tradition continued after the Incas had been converted to Catholicism by the Conquistadors, which the Spanish used to their advantage. The natives showed the Spanish great respect when they found that they were able to predict when the eclipses would take place. Mama Killa was also believed to cry tears of silver.\n",
"Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty (202 BC–202 AD) believed the Moon to be energy equated to \"qi\", their 'radiating influence' theory recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun (mentioned by Anaxagoras above). This was supported by mainstream thinkers such as Jing Fang, who noted the sphericity of the Moon. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song Dynasty (960–1279) created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.\n",
"Earth's shadow is as curved as the planet is, and its umbra extends into outer space. (The antumbra, however, extends indefinitely.) When the Sun, Earth, and the Moon are aligned perfectly (or nearly so), with Earth between the Sun and the Moon, Earth's shadow falls onto the lunar surface facing the night side of the planet, such that the shadow gradually darkens the full Moon, causing a lunar eclipse.\n"
] |
how is it that marijuana is legal in some places in the us, but there are many people in jail for possession? if weed becomes legal in more places, what happens to those in jail for possession? | They will remain in jail, absent some executive clemency. Everyone is subject to the laws in place at the time; just because something becomes legal later doesn't mean you're innocent of committing a crime when it was criminal. | [
"Until the passage of the 2018 United States farm bill, under federal law, it was illegal to possess, use, buy, sell, or cultivate cannabis in all United States jurisdictions, since the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified marijuana as a Schedule I drug, claiming it has a high potential for abuse and has no acceptable medical use. Despite this federal prohibition, some state and local governments established laws attempting to decriminalize cannabis, which has reduced the number of \"simple possession\" offenders sent to jail, since federal law enforcement rarely targets individuals directly for such relatively minor offenses. Other state and local governments ask law enforcement agencies to limit enforcement of drug laws with respect to cannabis. However, under the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution, federal law preempts conflicting state and local laws. In most cases, the absence of a state law does not present a preemption conflict with a federal law.\n",
"Cannabis is illegal and public usage can land someone 12 months in jail. Police officers regularly take bribes from those arrested for cannabis and let them walk free. As of 2009, a mandatory death penalty is applied for certain cases. Despite the law, marijuana is openly sold in some businesses. \n",
"Since marijuana is illegal in the US per federal legislation, the government warned that \"previous use of cannabis, or any substance prohibited by U.S. federal laws, could mean that you are denied entry to the U.S\". Canadians travelling within the country (but not internationally) are allowed to carry up to 30 grams of cannabis. Driving under the influence of drugs remained illegal. \n",
"As of 2019 in the United States, eleven states and the District of Columbia have legalized medical and recreational cannabis, with 25 more states decriminalizing the drug. However, fourteen states and federal law still classifies cannabis as illegal, placing cannabis as a \"Schedule 1\" drug. Being federally illegal, profits cannot be handled through federally-insured banks (including checks or deposits), so cannabis retailers are forced to use cash or remain vague about business practices.\n",
"Since marijuana is illegal in the US per federal legislation, the government warned that \"previous use of cannabis, or any substance prohibited by U.S. federal laws, could mean that you are denied entry to the U.S\". Canadians travelling within the country (but not internationally) are allowed to carry up to 30 grams of cannabis. Naturally, driving under the influence of drugs remained illegal. \n",
"The use, sale and possession of cannabis (marijuana) in the United States is illegal under federal law. However, some states have created exemptions for medical cannabis use, as well as decriminalized non-medical cannabis use. In nine states, Colorado, Washington, Oregon, California, Alaska, Nevada, Massachusetts, Maine, and Vermont, the sale and possession of marijuana is legal for both medical and non-medical use. These laws are still somewhat uncertain however, because the states have one year to write laws on distribution and regulation of marijuana.\n",
"It is legal to possess up to 20 grams or 20 plants of marijuana for personal use only. Marijuana is also legalized for medical and scientific purpose. Anyone trafficking marijuana for other purposes can expect long prison sentences from 4 to 20 years under harsh conditions. Colombian law also requires serious offenders to remain in the country to serve a lengthy parole (in which the offenders aren't given housing and might not be permitted to work) after their release from jail.\n"
] |
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