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why does faraway smoke look like it's staying still? | The same reason airplanes look very slow. A plane flying 400 mph looks like its crawling along because its so far away. Smoke rising a mile away is only going, I dunno, ten miles per hour, so it looks completely still because of the same principle. | [
"Backwoods Smokes were advertised heavily throughout the 1970s and 1980s, with virtually no changes being made to their target group during this time. An example advertisement from 1983 shows a man climbing the side of a snowy mountain, with the phrase \"If you ever wanted to climb Mt. Rainier, you're a natural Backwoods man\" in large print. In the foreground, a hand is holding up a pack of Backwoods Smokes that says \"Wild 'N Mild Smokes, All Natural Tobacco\". In a sidebar, the advertisement also reads:\n",
"The name \"Smoky\" comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance. This fog is caused by the vegetation exhaling volatile organic compounds, chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure.\n",
"Security smoke is a thermally generated white fog, aimed at inhibiting intruders from accessing items to steal, much used in the storage of high-value goods, and recommended by police and insurers. It consists of glycol or glycerine mixed with distilled water, which vaporises and then condenses in the air.\n",
"On 13 March 2012, following media reports that interim findings from the investigation showed fog rather than drifting smoke was to blame, police issued a statement to clarify that they had not published any conclusions to the investigation.\n",
"The Smoking Hills are located on the east coast of Cape Bathurst in Canada's Northwest Territories, next to the Arctic Ocean and a small group of lakes. The cliffs were named by explorer John Franklin, who was the first European to see them on his 1826 expeditions. They contain strata of hydrocarbons (oil shales), which have been burning continuously for centuries. \n",
"The Old Smoke was established by Maddy and Az (David's parents) in a remote location in the wilderness near railroad tracks and a forest. Maddy and Az created it because they found out a secret about the operation. The Old Smoke was destroyed at the end of the first book Uglies, by Special Circumstances. Tally Youngblood accidentally alerted Special Circumstances when she threw her tracker pendant into a fire, as a show of trust and caring for David and The Smoke.\n",
"BULLET::::- The Big Smoke – Vancouver's heavy fogs in combination with the many sawmill burners and other industrial pollution produced thick smog. Common as slang and in casual usage. It is also used outside of BC for Toronto, London, Sydney and other places. Very common in use within BC, especially in the BC Interior, when both Vancouver and the Lower Mainland in general.\n"
] |
What are the earliest accounts of 'roleplaying'? I assume children always played pretend but what did adults have any kind of pseudo-D & D in the past? When did these hobbies start to become 'a thing', basically? | Having asked my colleagues at #Twitterstorians, they suggested the following piece, which should answer your question.
_URL_0_ | [
"\"Dungeons & Dragons\" was the first modern role-playing game and it established many of the conventions that have dominated the genre. Particularly notable are the use of dice as a game mechanic, character record sheets, use of numerical attributes and gamemaster-centered group dynamics. Within months of \"Dungeons & Dragons\"'s release, new role-playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role-playing games, with most of these being in the fantasy genre. Some of the earliest other role-playing games inspired by \"D&D\" include \"Tunnels & Trolls\" (1975), \"Empire of the Petal Throne\" (1975), and \"Chivalry & Sorcery\" (1976).\n",
"Prior to creating its well-known series of role playing games which include \"Dragon Quest\" and \"Star Ocean\", Enix was a niche game publisher which became involved in the creation of pornographic games during the 1980s. \"Lolita Syndrome\" was the winning game of the second Hobby Program Contest sponsored by Enix.\n",
"\"Bunnies & Burrows\" was the first role-playing game to allow for non-humanoid play. In addition, it was also the first role-playing game to have detailed martial arts rules (known as \"\"Bun Fu\"\") and the first attempt at a skill system. For its time, the game was considered \"light years\" ahead of the Original \"Dungeons & Dragons\".\n",
"Fantasy role-playing games cross several different media. \"Dungeons & Dragons\" was the first tabletop role-playing game and remains the most successful and influential. According to a 1999 survey in the United States, 6% of 12- to 35-year-olds have played role-playing games. Of those who play regularly, two thirds play \"D&D\". Products branded \"Dungeons & Dragons\" made up over fifty percent of the RPG products sold in 2005.\n",
"The assumption of roles was a central theme in some early 20th century activities such as the game \"Jury Box\", mock trials, model legislatures, and \"Theatre Games\". In the 1960s, historical reenactment groups such as The Sealed Knot and the Society for Creative Anachronism began to perform \"creative history\" reenactments introducing fantasy elements, and in the 1970s fantasy wargames were developed, inspired by sword and sorcery fiction, in which each player controlled only a single unit, or \"character\". The earlier role-playing tradition was combined with the wargames' rule-based character representation to form the first role-playing games.\n",
"In the 1920s, Model League of Nations clubs formed around the United States, creating a style of live-action role playing that was not thought of as a game per se but was thought of as a recreational pastime. There is some evidence that Assassin-style LARP games may have been played in New York City by adults in the early 20th century as well. The 1920s also saw the beginning of role playing used for psychotherapeutic purposes, often called \"psychodrama.\" It was championed in the US by Jacob L. Moreno It was not thought of as a game, but the psychodrama tradition probably influenced LARP games as they later developed.\n",
"Ernest Gary Gygax ( ; July 27, 1938 – March 4, 2008) was an American game designer and author best known for co-creating the pioneering role-playing game \"Dungeons & Dragons\" (\"D&D\") with Dave Arneson.\n"
] |
how do it departments handle frequent cyber attacks? | Almost any publically accessible IP address is constantly bombarded by various attacks and scans. At home your router most likely protects you from a direct assault on your home computers by forbidding direct connections unless you've explicitly set up your router to allow it.
Same is true in the corporate world. Depending on your organization's IT department, budget and policies they may have one more of the following
* Firewalling routers that block desirable internet traffic.
* Application level proxies, that check internet traffic, inspect it for undesirable content and relay it on to the actual application.
* regular updating of software and applications and virus scanning
* various intrusion detection systems that monitor what applications are running on various servers, a fingerprint of various files on the servers and what type of network traffic patterns those servers typically have.
* Maybe even a honey pot system which can mimic vulnerable targets that appear to be easy targets. Once an attack on a honeypot is detected, steps can be implemented to block them.
| [
"The department is also working extensively in the areas of cyber security and homeland defense. Reliable and secure voice and data communications are important in mission success and in providing assurances to the public. Electromagnetic wave analysis regarding fallout may become necessary after a physical attack. Computer information security, high-speed intrusion detection, problem identification, reliable high-speed network design and redundancy are all important for cyber attack prevention; computer engineering faculty work with the Center for Infrastructure Assurance and Security in these efforts. Target analysis and radar signature identification help identify and track friends or foes.\n",
"Today's organizations are challenged with rapidly detecting cybersecurity breaches and effectively responding to security incidents. Teams of people in Security Operations Centers (SOC’s) keep a vigilant eye on security systems, protecting their organizations by detecting and responding to cybersecurity threats.\n",
"Cyber threats involve the use of computers, software and networks. During or after a cyber attack technical information about the network and computers between the attacker and the victim can be collected. However, identifying the person(s) behind an attack, their motivations, or the ultimate sponsor of the attack, is difficult. Recent efforts in threat intelligence emphasize understanding adversary TTPs.\n",
"The DoD begins discussion of current cyber threats by focusing on threats to DoD daily operations, with a progressively expanding scope to encompass broader national security concerns. The DoD is aware of the potential for adversaries to use small scale-technology, such as widely available hacking tools, to cause a disproportionate impact and pose a significant threat to U.S. national security. The DoD is concerned with external threat actors, insider threats, supply chain vulnerabilities, and threats to the DoDʼs operational ability. Additionally, the document mentions the DoDʼs need to address “the concerted efforts of both state and non-state actors to gain unauthorized access to its networks and systems.” The DoD strategy cites the rapidly evolving threat landscape as a complex and vital challenge for national and economic security.\n",
"A number of agencies have been set up in the U.S. to fight against cybercrime, including the FBI, National Infrastructure Protection Center, National White Collar Crime Center, Internet Fraud Complaint Center, Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section of the Department of Justice (DoJ), Computer Hacking and Intellectual Property Unit of the DoJ, and Computer Emergency Readiness Team/Coordination Center (CERT/CC) at Carnegie-Mellon, and so on.\n",
"The FBI Cyber Crime Division investigates cyber-based terrorism, internet-related murders, espionage, computer intrusions, major cyber-fraud, cyber-theft, hacking, sex offenses, blackmail, and any other crime deemed to be cyber-related within the FBI's jurisdiction.\n",
"The FBI, another United States agency, defines \"cyber terrorism\" as “premeditated, politically motivated attack against information, computer systems, computer programs, and data which results in violence against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents”.\n"
] |
Does special relativity apply to circular velocity? | I misread your question, there is not a time dilation effect between the Earth's pole and equator. While pure circular motion should induce such dilation, the special relativistic and general relativistic contributions cancel out because the Earth buldges from centrifugal effects. Here's a more detailed overview I found from searching around:
_URL_0_
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Below is a discussion between the differences of say circular motion in special relativity and circular motion from gravity:
Yes. The math is more complicated as there is an acceleration involved. Now since we're considering orbital motion due to gravity, there is general relativistic effects as well which come with even more complicated math.
So even in situations without significant gravity, like a clock in a centrifuge, special relativity will affect clocks and distances. Most famously we have Ehrenfest paradox which shows that spinning objects cannot be rigid:
_URL_1_ | [
"Many of the concepts of special relativity are illustrated through the biquaternion structures laid out. The subspace corresponds to Minkowski space, with the four coordinates giving the time and space locations of events in a resting frame of reference. Any hyperbolic versor corresponds to a velocity in direction of speed where is the velocity of light. The inertial frame of reference of this velocity can be made the resting frame by applying the Lorentz boost given by since then formula_45 so that formula_46\n",
"The angular velocity of this frame is the angular velocity of the particle about the center of curvature at time \"t\". The centripetal force of the inertial frame is interpreted in the non-inertial frame where the body is at rest as a force necessary to overcome the centrifugal force. Likewise, the force causing any acceleration of speed along the path seen in the inertial frame becomes the force necessary to overcome the Euler force in the non-inertial frame where the particle is at rest. There is zero Coriolis force in the frame, because the particle has zero velocity in this frame. For a pilot in an airplane, for example, these fictitious forces are a matter of direct experience. However, these fictitious forces cannot be related to a simple observational frame of reference other than the particle itself, unless it is in a particularly simple path, like a circle.\n",
"In polar coordinates, a two-dimensional velocity is described by a radial velocity, defined as the component of velocity away from or toward the origin (also known as \"velocity made good\"), and an angular velocity, which is the rate of rotation about the origin (with positive quantities representing counter-clockwise rotation and negative quantities representing clockwise rotation, in a right-handed coordinate system).\n",
"Special relativity does not prohibit this. It tells us that it is wrong to use Galilean relativity to compute the velocity of one of the particles, as would be measured by an observer traveling alongside the other particle. That is, special relativity gives the correct velocity-addition formula for computing such relative velocity.\n",
"Accelerations in special relativity (SR) follow, as in Newtonian Mechanics, by differentiation of velocity with respect to time. Because of the Lorentz transformation and time dilation, the concepts of time and distance become more complex, which also leads to more complex definitions of \"acceleration\". SR as the theory of flat Minkowski spacetime remains valid in the presence of accelerations, because general relativity (GR) is only required when there is curvature of spacetime caused by the energy-momentum tensor (which is mainly determined by mass). However, since the amount of spacetime curvature is not particularly high on Earth or its vicinity, SR remains valid for most practical purposes, such as experiments in particle accelerators.\n",
"Instead of instantaneous changes of direction, special relativity also allows to describe the more realistic scenario of constant proper acceleration, i.e. the acceleration indicated by a comoving accelerometer. This leads to hyperbolic motion, in which the observer continuously changes momentary inertial frames\n",
"In relativity, proper velocity, also known as celerity, is an alternative to velocity for measuring motion. Whereas velocity relative to an observer is distance per unit time where both distance and time are measured by the observer, proper velocity relative to an observer divides observer-measured distance by the time elapsed on the clocks of the traveling object. Proper velocity equals velocity at low speeds. Proper velocity at high speeds, moreover, retains many of the properties that velocity loses in relativity compared with Newtonian theory.\n"
] |
shouldnt we burn a lot of calories when eating ice cream because our body works to raise the temperature of the ice cream? | We do burn calories when eating cold food - it takes energy to keep the body warm, and to counteract the effects of cold food - but it doesn't take that to heat up a few scoops of ice cream, especially compared to the calories you take in by eating it.
For one thing, ice cream really isn't that cold - a freezer is typically between -10 and -20 C, a fridge between 0 and 10 degrees. So compared to something out of the fridge, you don't net more than 30 degrees, and probably less, since it's warming up from the air. It will also largely melt in your mouth, which has a lot more exposure to the outside air, and it's not only your metabolism warming it back up.
Second, a single food calorie - kilocalories - is enough to raise 1 kg of water by 1 degree. Presumably, you're not eating a 1kg of ice cream at a time (if so, mazel), but let's say you've got a hearty serving of 100g. Each Calorie raises that by 10 degrees, and you're only going up 50 degrees or so. So, that's no more than six calories, tops: which you'd replenish with a gram and a half of sugar. | [
"Asides from risk of illness, eating too much ice cream can lead to high blood cholesterol levels, due to its high milkfat content of at least 10%, which in turn can increase ones risk for heart disease or stroke.\n",
"An ice cream maker has to simultaneously freeze the mixture while churning it so as to aerate the mixture and keep the ice crystals small (less than 50 μm). As a result, most ice creams are ready to consume immediately. However, those containing alcohol must often be chilled further to attain a firm consistency.\n",
"In order to prevent them, one may drink electrolyte solutions such as sports drinks during exercise or strenuous work or eat potassium-rich foods like bananas and apples. When heat cramps occur, the affected person should avoid strenuous work and exercise for several hours to allow for recovery.\n",
"Some Turks believe that cold foods, such as ice cream, will cause illnesses – such as sore throats and the common cold; it is held that consumption of warm liquid while consuming ice cream will counteract these effects.\n",
"BULLET::::- Calorie Control Ice Cream series, which uses lower-calorie sweetening agents maltitol and sucralose in place of sugar and starch syrup often used in ice cream. Tofu is also used to replace dairy products to lower the amount of calories.\n",
"HARDEN YOURSELF TO ENDURE COLD -- EAT PLENTY OF ICE CREAMbrICE CREAM IS A GREAT HARDENER -- EAT IT OFTEN ALL WINTERbrICE CREAM FOR LUNCH ON SCHOOL DAYS WILL ENABLE YOUR CHILDREN TO ENJOY THESE RUGGED, WINTRY DAYSbrFIGHT COLD WITH COLD -- EAT ICE CREAMbrTHE BLASTS OF WINTER HAVE LITTLE EFFECT ON CHILDREN THAT EAT ICE CREAM\n",
"Technological innovations such as these have introduced various food additives into ice cream, most notably the stabilizing agent gluten, to which some people have an intolerance. Recent awareness of this issue has prompted a number of manufacturers to start producing gluten-free ice cream.\n"
] |
why are untruthful political ads still protected under the first amendment while ads that lie about consumer products are not? | Most political ads are misleading, not fraudulent. They are careful not to say things which are demonstratively and objectively untrue. | [
"Justice Stewart wrote a concurrence explaining how the holding of this did not limit the states’ ability to restrict deceptive or false advertising. He cited various libel cases to demonstrate that while the press cannot be harshly restricted for fear that journalists may occasionally get their facts wrong, an advertiser is much more likely to know whether or not the material he was publishing was true. Thus, states should have greater latitude in regulating the content of advertisements for the veracity of their content. Even though commercial advertising and ideological expression are clearly different, advertisements which convey truthful information are worthy of First Amendment protection, and the elimination of deceptive claims serves to further the goal of the free flow of accurate and reliable information.\n",
"Many consumer advocates are active in lobbying for laws to limit the rights of an advertiser to use fine print to hide the truth, and to expand rights to consumers who fall victim to fine print. Due to free speech that is granted to advertisers, passing such laws in the United States has proven to be difficult.\n",
"Advertising by lawyers is commercial speech protected by the First Amendment. The First Amendment allows states to ban commercial speech that is false or misleading. If the speech is not false or misleading, then a state may only regulate or ban the speech if it asserts a substantial interest in support of its regulation, demonstrates that the restriction directly and materially advances that interest, and shows that the regulation is narrowly drawn.\n",
"By avoiding any regulation of actual advertising, as had occurred in other cases, the board felt it had steered clear of all First Amendment issues, Williams continued. \"[E]ven if their argument on display could be free expression, it fails because it is advocating use with illegal substances,\" he said in answer to a question about the distinction between advertising and marketing.\n",
"The State has attempted only to prescribe what shall be orthodox in commercial advertising, and its prescription has taken the form of a requirement that appellant include in his advertising purely factual and uncontroversial information about the terms under which his services will be available. Because the extension of First Amendment protection to commercial speech is justified principally by the value to consumers of the information such speech provides, appellant's constitutionally protected interest in not providing any particular factual information in his advertising is minimal. . . . [B]ecause disclosure requirements trench much more narrowly on an advertiser's interests than do flat prohibitions on speech, “warning[s] or disclaimer[s] might be appropriately required . . . in order to dissipate the possibility of consumer confusion or deception.\n",
"There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising alcohol, tobacco or gambling imposed in many countries, as well as the bans around advertising to children, which exist in parts of Europe. Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are often tighter restrictions placed around advertisements for food and healthcare products.\n",
"The Court found that the ban on political advertising itself did not constitute a violation of Article 10, since its target were to avoid large parties with large funding from achieving more airtime than other parties who lacked funds.\n"
] |
in the wolf of wall street, what did they do involving the steve madden stock that was illegal and how did it make them so much money? | It was a "pump and dump" scheme. Buy up a company that is doing terribly, talk it up like it is doing wonderfully along with faking your income reports, then sell off some shares while everyone thinks it is hot stuff. Then vanish with your gains before people discover it was all smoke and mirrors. | [
"During this period, Madden turned down the opportunity to buy an \"unlimited\" number of options for EA stock in its initial public offering, a decision he later called \"the dumbest thing I ever did in my life\".\n",
"Data found stored on Hu’s personal laptop allegedly contained confidential business information of several dozen major business partners of Rio Tinto, including storage levels and sales plans deemed much too specific and precise to have been acquired legitimately. Hu was accused of having obtained such information through bribery and other illegal means for massive corporate and personal benefits.\n",
"Evans was convicted of cocaine trafficking in 1980. He entered a guilty plea to a misdemeanor in federal court after being arrested after engineering a large cocaine buy with his brother Charles. As part of his plea bargain, he filmed an anti-drug TV commercial. The alleged drug dealing, which Evans continues to deny (the misdemeanor was later wiped from his record), came out of his own involvement with the drug. He told the \"Philadelphia Inquirer\" in a 1994 interview, \"Bob 'Cocaine' Evans is how I'll be known to my grave\". He argues that he never should have been convicted of federal selling and distribution charges, as he was only a user.\n",
"In December 2003, arbitrator Roger Kaplan ruled that Jones violated National Football League Players Association regulations in his financial dealings with NFL player Ebenezer Ekuban. Jones received a two-year suspension, prohibiting him from representing NFL players until February 26, 2005. Jones later sued Ekuban and his attorney for slander and libel leading to Ekuban declaring bankruptcy in 2003. Former player Cris Dishman won a US$396,000 judgment against Jones involving a bad investment. Jones later counter sued Cris Dishman and his former wife Karen Dishman, the previous matter was declared settled and Jones received a money judgment against both Cris and Karen Dishman in 2006 for their part in illegally trying to extort more money from Jones.\n",
"In 1993, Evans stole over 800 antiques from a group shop in Quechee, Vermont. Evans used an engine crane to steal a thousand-pound bench out of an Albany cemetery, but he was arrested when his fence became nervous and turned him in. In early 1994, Evans agreed to assist the authorities by obtaining information on Jeffrey Williams, who was implicated in the high-profile murder of Karolyn Lonczak. When Williams was found guilty, Evans was released on February 12, 1994, with police still unaware that Evans himself had killed at least four people at that point.\n",
"On May 17, 2004, the Oakland Raiders signed him as a free agent, but within a month he was traded to the Arizona Cardinals along with defensive end Peppi Zellner, in exchange for a sixth round draft choice (#182-Cedric Houston) in the 2005 NFL Draft.\n",
"The Deccan Chargers retained none of the players from the previous season. They have bought 27 players including 14 players from the auction and still had $1.47million left in their purse in the end out of their allotted $9 million.\n"
] |
why are some colour combinations painful to look at when placed alongside each other (eg. red and green?) | _URL_0_
This kicks me right in the eye-nuts. | [
"Matching colors or (in British English) colours usually refers to complementary colors, pairs or triplets of colors that harmonize well together. It is an effect of human trichromacy, the use of three color receptors in the human eye, and varies somewhat in other animals. Its effects are studied as a part of color psychology.\n",
"Contrasting colors may be chosen in various ways. A common choice is to take a complementary colors from one of the several color wheels (e.g., blue and orange, green and red), or to choose a pairing that occurs in nature, e.g., yellow and red.\n",
"The colors in each pair oppose each other. Red-green receptors cannot send messages about both colors at the same time. This theory also explains negative afterimages; once a stimulus of a certain color is presented, the opponent color is perceived after the stimulus is removed because the anabolic and catabolic processes are reversed. For example, red creates a positive (or excitatory) response while green creates a negative (or inhibitory) response. These responses are controlled by opponent neurons, which are neurons that have an excitatory response to some wavelengths and an inhibitory response to wavelengths in the opponent part of the spectrum.\n",
"Simultaneous contrast identified by Michel Eugène Chevreul refers to the manner in which the colors of two different objects affect each other. The effect is more noticeable when shared between objects of complementary color.\n",
"Where there are only a few colours—say 4—it's easy. You just keep examining balls, one at a time, until you are happy you've seen all the colours. The same old ones keep coming up time and time again. And you just count the different types.\n",
"Different colors are perceived to mean different things. For example, tones of red lead to feelings of arousal while blue tones are often associated with feelings of relaxation. Both of these emotions are pleasant, so therefore, the colors themselves can procure positive feelings in advertisements. The chart below gives perceived meanings of different colors in the United States.\n",
"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe first studied the physiological effect of opposed colors in his \"Theory of Colours\" in 1810. Goethe arranged his color wheel symmetrically \"for the colours diametrically opposed to each other in this diagram are those which reciprocally evoke each other in the eye. Thus, yellow demands purple; orange, blue; red, green; and vice versa: Thus again all intermediate gradations reciprocally evoke each other.\"\n"
] |
how does a knife work on a molecular level? | It doesn't. Knives work on the micrometer level, either tearing out tiny chunks of the material, like a saw, or forcing themselves into, and then forcing open, gaps in it, like a wedge.
Those chunks that are torn out, or those gaps that are opened, are the size of hundreds of millions of molecules, which get on with their molecular lives, so to speak, without any real relation to the bigger picture, with its knives and tomatoes. | [
"The basic method involves repeatedly striking the spine of the knife to force the middle of the blade into the wood. The tip is then struck, to continue forcing the blade deeper, until a split is achieved.\n",
"Sharpening these implements can be expressed as the creation of two intersecting planes which produce an edge that is sharp enough to cut through the target material. For example, the blade of a steel knife is ground to a bevel so that the two sides of the blade meet. This edge is then refined by honing until the blade is capable of cutting.\n",
"The blade of a knife can be made from a variety of materials, the most common being carbon steel, stainless steel, tool steel and alloy steel. Other less-common materials used in knife blades include: cobalt and titanium alloys, ceramics, obsidian, and plastic.\n",
"The main drawback of the knife-edge technique is that the measured value is displayed only on the scanning direction, minimizing the amount of relevant beam information. To overcome this drawback, an innovative technology offered commercially allows multiple directions beam scanning to create an image like beam representation.\n",
"The knife is produced according to NATO regulations by the German company Eickhorn-Solingen Ltd. The assembly consists of three components: the laser cut 172 mm Black Kalgard coated, forged X55CrMo14 or 1.4110 (440A) stainless steel Westernized tanto blade, the ergonomic ambidextrous polyamide handle and screw. The entire knife weighs approximately . The sheath for the KM2000 is turnable, and includes an adapter to allow it to be mounted onto the MOLLE/PALS load bearing system(s).\n",
"This instrument is a common microtome design. This device operates with a staged rotary action such that the actual cutting is part of the rotary motion. In a rotary microtome, the knife is typically fixed in a horizontal position.\n",
"An industrial air knife is a pressurized air plenum containing a series of holes or continuous slots through which pressurized air exits in a laminar flow pattern. The exit air velocity then creates an impact air velocity onto the surface of whatever object the air is directed. This impact air velocity can range from a gentle breeze to greater than Mach 0.6 (40,000 ft/min) to alter the surface of a product without mechanical contact.\n"
] |
traditionally, why do conservatives support israel while liberals do not support israel? | Both parties in the US support israel. At this moment, however, we've got political gamesmanship. The GOP invited a foreign leader to speak to Congress in an unprecedented move, because they want to undermine the POTUS and Sec. of State's negotiating power so that they have an election item to sqwauk about. Similarly, the POTUS administration when it heard the foreign leader was coming and had set up the appointment to speak, decided to snub him because it was the other party doing the inviting.
Both Liberals and Conservatives have supported israel and the middle east peace process, back to Jimmy Carter. | [
"He has argued that voters in the American Jewish community do not necessarily embrace candidates based on their support for the state of Israel as much as they passionately oppose candidates based on their identification with Christianity, especially the Christian Right. Medved also states that the Orthodox community, which he states as less than ten percent of the American Jewish population, \"gives nearly as disproportionate support to Republicans as their Reform, Conservative, and secular Jewish neighbors give to Democrats\" and argues that this is because \"The Orthodox feel no instinctive horror at political alliances with others who make faith the center of their lives.\"\n",
"Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of Orthodox Judaism for not properly following Halakha (Jewish religious law). It is also criticized by some leaders of Reform Judaism for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as intermarriage, patrilineal descent, and the ordination of homosexuals — all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports. (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the \"\"celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies\"\".)\n",
"The Conservative movement, however, has clashed with Orthodoxy over its refusal to recognize the Conservative and Reform movements as legitimate, and in February 1997, Rabbi Ismar Schorsch, the Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary, claimed that Orthodox organizations in Israel politically discriminate against non-Orthodox Jews, and called on Reform and Conservative Jews, as well as the Jewish Federations throughout the United States, to stop funding Orthodox organizations and institutions that disagree with the Conservative view of pluralism. Several weeks later, at the movement's annual Rabbinical Assembly conference in Boston, he called for the disintegration of Israel's chief rabbinate and its network of courts.\n",
"Most Arab citizens of Israel do not have strong anti-Zionist views. A poll of 507 Arab-Israelis conducted by the Israeli Democracy Institute in 2007 found that 75 percent profess support for Israel's status as a Jewish and democratic state that guarantees equal rights for minorities. Israeli Arab support for a constitution in general was 88 percent.\n",
"Because of the emotional connection many Jews have for Israel, the issue has generated strong passions among both left-wing and right-wing Jews. There is a significant Jewish presence in the disparate political movement known as the \"liberal hawks\" or the pro-war Left, which, while strongly committed to liberal or leftist social domestic policy, also supports a liberal interventionist, hawkish or right-wing pro-Israel foreign policy for the United States. (Examples include Joe Lieberman, Christopher Hitchens, many of the contributors to \"Dissent\" magazine, and many of the signatories of the Euston Manifesto.) At the same time, there is a significant Jewish presence in the pro-Palestinian movement seeking a two-state solution, including Norman Finkelstein, Noam Chomsky, Judith Butler, and key UK advocates of an academic boycott of Israel like Stephen and Hilary Rose.\n",
"I would stack up the Democratic caucus's position on the support for Israel against the Republican caucus's any day of the week and be much more confident—and the Jewish community should be much more confident—in the Democrats' stewardship of Israel than the Republicans, especially if you compare the underlying reasons for both groups' support for Israel. The very far right group of Republicans' interest in Israel is not because they are so supportive of there being a Jewish state and making sure that Jews have a place that we can call home. It has references to Armageddon and biblical references that are more their interest. So I would encourage members of the Jewish community to put their faith in Democrats, because our support for Israel is generally for the right reasons.\n",
"Criticism of Conservative Judaism is widespread in the Orthodox Jewish community, although the movement also has its critics in Reform Judaism and in other streams of Judaism. While the Conservative movement professes fidelity to Jewish tradition, it considers \"Halakha\" (Jewish religious law) to be a dynamic process that needs reinterpreting in modern times. The criticism by Orthodox Jews and traditionalists within the movement itself revolves around the following: \n"
] |
flat personal tax/consumption tax. | A flat tax is inherently regressive, and puts more of a burden on the people who can least afford it.
A consumption tax is even worse, because the people who can most afford to be taxed also spend the lowest percentage of their income on essentials.
A progressive income tax solves these problems, but is complex to implement.
Thus, we have a progressive, but complex, tax system. | [
"A direct, personal consumption tax may take the form of an expenditure tax, that is, an income tax that deducts savings and investments, such as the Hall–Rabushka flat tax. A direct consumption tax may be called an expenditure tax, a cash-flow tax, or a consumed-income tax and can be flat or progressive. Expenditure taxes have been briefly implemented in the past in India and Sri Lanka.\n",
"A flat tax rate of 25% applies to income from substantial interest in a company. A substantial interest in a company is defined as owning at least 5% of its shares, options or profit-sharing certificates; either by the taxpayer themselves or together with their tax partner.\n",
"A consumption tax is a tax levied on consumption spending on goods and services. The tax base of such a tax is the money spent on consumption. Consumption taxes are usually indirect, such as a sales tax or a value-added tax. However, a consumption tax can also be structured as a form of direct, personal taxation, such as the Hall–Rabushka flat tax.\n",
"There is a flat tax on the total value of the savings and investments of 1.2% per year. It is nominally part of the income tax, as a 30% tax on a fixed assumed yield of 4% of the value of the assets (this is regardless of the actual income from the assets). EUR 21,139 (2012; higher for 65+ with a low income) of the value of the assets is exempted.\n",
"Quantitatively, the volatility tax is the difference between the arithmetic and geometric average (or “ensemble average” and “time average”) returns of an asset or portfolio. It thus represents the degree of “non-ergodicity” of the geometric average.\n",
"Consumption tax refers to any tax on non-investment spending, and can be implemented by means of a sales tax, consumer value added tax, or by modifying an income tax to allow for unlimited deductions for investment or savings.\n",
"In the UK tax system, personal allowance is the threshold above which income tax is levied on an individual's income. A person who receives less than their own personal allowance in taxable income (such as earnings and some benefits) in a given tax year does not pay income tax; otherwise, tax must be paid according to how much is earned above this level. Certain residents are entitled to a larger personal allowance than others. Such groups include: the over-65s (followed by a further increased allowance for over-75s), blind people, and married couples where at least one person in the marriage (or civil partnership) was born before 6 April 1935. People earning over £100,000 a year have a smaller personal allowance. For every £2 earned above £100,000, £1 of the personal allowance is lost; meaning that incomes high enough will not have a personal allowance.\n"
] |
why is audio/voice quality so bad between crucial communication lines (soldiers/police/pilots etc.) | Main reason is bandwidth - I'm not talking about the amount of data you use a month, but the range of frequencies a radio signal takes up. Soldiers, police, pilots, truckers, taxi drivers, firefighters, and lots of other businesses and professionals all want their own radio frequencies so they can communicate.
As a rule of thumb, the more bandwidth, the better the sound quality. But the more bandwidth, the fewer frequencies can be assigned to different groups within a given range of frequencies. So if the government let people have super high quality radio signals, they wouldn't be able to assign them to everyone that needed it. Instead, just enough bandwidth so they get usable quality. As the technology improves to get better sounding audio in a narrower bandwidth, regulatory bodies would rather that they fit more "acceptable" quality channels in a frequency range, rather than letting people have great quality channels at the expense of others who need a new channel. | [
"Combatants in every branch of the United States’ military are at risk for auditory impairments from steady state or impulse noises. While applying double hearing protection helps prevent auditory damage, it may compromise effectiveness by isolating the user from his or her environment. With hearing protection on, a soldier is less likely to be aware of his or her movements, alerting the enemy to their presence. Hearing protection devices (HPD) could also require higher volume levels for communication, negating their purpose.\n",
"Combatants in every branch of the United States’ military are at risk for auditory impairments from steady state or impulse noises. While applying double hearing protection helps prevent auditory damage, the user is isolated from the environment and the ability to detect, identify and localize important environmental cues is impaired. With hearing protection on, a soldier is less likely to be aware of his or her movements, alerting the enemy to their presence. Hearing protection devices (HPD) could also require higher volume levels for communication, negating their purpose.\n",
"During World War II, he served at the Psycho-Acoustics Laboratory at Harvard. He describes his work as solving the problem of voice communications in a noisy military environment by establishing military codes that are highly audible and inventing selection tests for personnel who had a superior ability to recognize sound in a noisy background.\n",
"This lack of or poor communication could also lead to other issues such as misdiagnosis, poor assessments, mistreatment, and even possibly harm to patients. Poor communication in this setting is often the result of health care providers having the misconception that all people who are deaf or hard of hearing have the same type of hearing loss, and require the same type of communication methods. In reality, there are many different types and range of hearing loss, and in order to communicate effectively a health care provider needs to understand that each individual with hearing loss has unique needs. This affects how individuals have been educated to communicate, as some communication methods work better depending on an individual’s severity of hearing loss. For example, assuming every deaf or hard of hearing patient knows American Sign Language would be incorrect because there are different types of sign language, each varying in signs and meanings. A patient could have been educated to use cued speech which is entirely different from ASL. Therefore, in order to communicate effectively, a health care provider needs to understand that each individual has unique needs when communicating.\n",
"Communication is most critical in an emergency, where high stress levels make effective communication more difficult, and the circumstances of the emergency may make the communication physically more difficult. Voice communication is natural and effective where it is practicable, and most people rely on it for fast and accurate communication in most circumstances. \n",
"What sounds normal for someone with normal hearing may be too soft for someone with recruitment, and what is too loud for someone with normal hearing is also too loud for the patient with recruitment. In effect, the range of sound intensity that a patient with recruitment can tolerate is much narrower. Further adding to the difficulty, recruitment is observed in those frequencies that are most impaired—in the high frequencies, which also carry critical information for speech understanding.\n",
"Military Family Voices, MFV, makes it possible for present and former Military Members and their families to use these sound recordings for comfort, whenever they need reassurance from those familiar voices of those they love. Soldiers carry these recordings with them downrange. Families cherish the recordings as helpful memory triggers, and people's lives are captured in small audio snapshots of their voices, as for instance while children grow up and their voices change month-to-month and year-to-year.\n"
] |
what is a high functioning alcoholic and what is the problem with that? | (1) They are doing a lot of damage to their liver and physical health in general - which is entirely their choice and right.
(2) They may have underlying psychological issues which they are very good at masking, but may turn out to be a problem in the long-term (e.g. PTSD)
(3) They may not be a High Functioning Alcoholic forever. They could get better, they could get much, much worse. Addressing the problem while they are still high-functioning is a much better option than crashing and burning.
(I don't necessarily think that all heavy drinkers are high-functioning alcoholics, or that high-functioning alcoholics are in desperate need of treatment, just presenting some counter-arguments). | [
"Alcoholics can typically be divided into two categories, uncomplicated and complicated. Uncomplicated alcoholics do not have nutritional deficiency states or liver disease, but have a reduction in overall brain volume due to white matter cerebral atrophy. The severity of atrophy sustained from alcohol consumption is proportional to the rate and amount of alcohol consumed during a person's life. Complicated alcoholics may have liver damage that impacts brain structure and function and nutritional deficiencies “that can cause severe brain damage and dysfunction”.\n",
"Adults from alcoholic families experience higher levels of state and trait anxiety and lower levels of differentiation of self than adults raised in non-alcoholic families. Additionally, adult children of alcoholics have lower self-esteem, excessive feelings of responsibility, difficulties reaching out, higher incidence of depression, and increased likelihood of becoming alcoholics.\n",
"Frequently alcoholics have disrupted social links in their lives and have an irregular lifestyle. This may cause an alcoholic to change their eating habits including more missed meals and a poor dietary balance. Alcoholism may also result in loss of appetite, alcoholic gastritis, and vomiting, which decrease food intake. Alcohol abuse damages the lining of the gastrointestinal system and reduces absorption of nutrients that are taken in. The combination of all of them may result in a nutritional deficiency that is linked to the development of alcoholic polyneuropathy.\n",
"Many HFAs are not viewed as alcoholics by society because they do not fit the common alcoholic stereotype. Unlike the stereotypical alcoholic, HFAs have either succeeded or over-achieved throughout their lifetimes. This can lead to denial of alcoholism by the HFA, co-workers, family members, and friends. Functional alcoholics account for 19.5 percent of total U.S. alcoholics, with 50 percent also being smokers and 33 percent having a multigenerational family history of alcoholism.\n",
"In many dysfunctional groups, there is one person who ends up being the over responsible caretaker who gets their self-esteem from caring for other members. They do too much for others and not enough for themselves. What it means in recovery circles is that the person is doing for others what they can and should be doing for themselves. In the alcoholic work place, people cover for the worker who routinely misses deadlines, comes in late, or gets sick too often. In the alcoholic home, it's the person who cleans up, covers up, calls in sick for another person, or does everything they can to make the home life look normal when it isn't. That is unhealthy caretaking and a learned behavior.\n",
"Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol abuse include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody perception problems and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humour is also impaired in alcohol abusers.\n",
"Alcohol has been shown to have just \"some\" long-term effects on working memory. Findings have shown that in order for working memory to be substantially affected, long-term heavy drinking must be sustained over a long period of time, as up to one drink per day does not impair any cognitive function and may actually decrease the risk of a cognitive decline. Furthermore, chronic alcoholism is associated with the impairment in both sustained attention and visual working memory. As a result, alcoholics have reduced ability, but not necessarily \"inability\", to perform these executive tasks. This is assumed to be subserved by regions of the prefrontal cortex. While it may not serve as a surprise that chronic alcoholism is linked to any decreased cognitive function such as working memory, one surprising finding is not only that even moderate levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy were shown to have an adverse effect on the child's working memory when tested at 7.5 years of age, but also that working memory may be the most important aspect of attention that is adversely affected by prenatal alcohol exposure.\n"
] |
what causes that feeling a split second before your realize you're about to have a very big accident? | Its your fight or flight response.
When you sense that you are in danger, your body releases a bunch of chemicals that prepare you to either fight the threat or run away from it. Your get more alert, stronger, faster and more coordinated to facilitate either action. | [
"Hedeman lasted four seconds. Looking back at the ride, Hedeman feels he was \"overconfident and underprepared\". \"When I nodded for him, the first jump felt fine,\" he said. \"Then, all of a sudden, whack! When I hit the ground, I felt numb.\" What Hedeman could not see was how his face really looked; how much blood was on it. \"When I was walking out of the arena I bit down and my teeth didn't come together, so I figured my jaw was broken,\" Hedeman recalled. \"I didn't realize my whole face was smashed. But when I looked at people looking at me, they looked like they'd seen the devil.\" At the hospital, doctors diagnosed Hedeman and said every major bone in his face was broken. Hedeman went through two surgeries which installed six titanium plates and totaled 13 hours. On discharge, the swelling of his face was so extreme that his own young son could not recognize him.\n",
"Not all events are limited to a particular moment in time. The normal physical rules of cause and effect may see a series of interlocking circumstances conspire to cause a particular injury. If the facts of the example above are slightly changed so that the accident occurs at night at a sharp bend on a very quiet country road. When the driver sees the victim lying in the road he simply leaves the unconscious person where he fell. Some hours later, when a second car innocently comes around the corner and kills the victim, the first driver is happily asleep in his bed. Thus, he argues that, at the time of the death, he had no \"mens rea\" and so cannot be guilty of homicide. This argument fails because of the so-called \"Single Transaction Principle\"\n",
"A sensation of falling occurs when the labyrinth or \"vestibular apparatus\", a system of fluid-filled passages in the inner ear, detects changes in acceleration. This sensation can occur when a person begins to fall, which in terms of mechanics amounts to a sudden acceleration increase from zero to roughly 9.8 m/s. If the body is in free fall (for example, during skydiving) with no other momenta (rotation, etc.) there is no falling sensation. This almost never occurs in real-life falling situations because when the faller leaves their support there are usually very significant quantities of residual momenta such as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\n",
"an experience that is unmistakably traumatic ... Sudden change comes in a moment of intense experience that is not so much a peak as a precipice, an unforeseen break in the continuity of awareness that may leave them detached, withdrawn, disoriented – and utterly confused.\n",
"Scott Goodyear was visibly upset in an interview as he said to reporters: \"\"Disbelief is the best word to describe how I feel. I feel like I won this race. The pace-car was going too slow. ... I almost hit it. Scott Pruett almost hit it, Villeneuve almost hit it. He wasn't on the gas and I saw the green lights turn on and that meant go. That's all I can say. I stayed out because in my eyes it was perfect ... and if I came in and later found I didn't make a mistake then what are you going to do? It would have been too late and you won't get it back.\"\"\n",
"Myoclonic seizure can be described as \"jumps\" or \"jolts\" experienced in a single or even the entire body. The feeling experienced by the individual is described as uncontrollable jolts common to receiving a mild electric shock. The sudden jerks and twitching of the body can often be so severe that it can cause a small child to fall.\n",
"\"It was very vicious,\" Dillon said of the crash. \"It's twisting you around in there, and the belts are loosening with each hit, so the hits are getting more and more violent. By the fourth hit, you've separated enough so that the fourth one is going to hurt more than others. I held on to the steering wheel as hard as I could. I'm sure I'm going to find more bumps and bruises during the week, but right now I feel all right. It was just crazy. It's part of this racing. Everybody is pushing as hard as they can — pushing in a tight pack. I was pushing the 24 (Jeff Gordon) and the people behind are pushing me, It was just a wad right there at the end. At these speedway races, you're just praying and hoping that you get through it. I thought the wreck was over and I was sliding on the roof. I thought, 'We made it. We made it.' And then there was a big bang. I think it was the 2 car (Keselowski) that ran into me. Literally I had just got done stopping and crew members were everywhere. I thought that was really cool and special. It was comforting to me. They got to me pretty quick. I just wanted to get out of there and let the fans know I was OK.\"\n"
] |
why is air less dense at higher altitudes? | Imagine you stacked 100 cardboard boxes on top of each other. The one on the bottom would be crushed due to the weight of the other boxes on top of it. It being compressed would cause it to become denser than the other boxes above it.
Replace the cardboard boxes with air and magnify the effect. That is why the air is less dense at higher altitudes.
| [
"At high altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. This is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand.\n",
"Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be linked to the lack of atmospheric pressure. At low elevation, the pressure is higher because the molecules of air are compressed from the weight of the air above them. However, at higher elevations, the pressure is lower and the molecules are more dispersed. The percentage of oxygen in the air at sea level is the same at high altitudes. But because the air molecules are more spread out at higher altitudes, each breath takes in less oxygen to the body. With this in mind, the lungs take in as much air as possible, but because the atmospheric pressure is lower the molecules are more dispersed, resulting in a lower amount of oxygen per breath.\n",
"At higher temperatures, air is less dense and planes must fly faster to generate the same amount of lift. High heat may reduce the amount of cargo a plane can carry, increase the length of runway a plane needs to take off,\n",
"At higher altitudes, the air density is lower than at sea level. Because of the progressive reduction in air density, as the aircraft's altitude increases its true airspeed is progressively greater than its indicated airspeed. For example, the indicated airspeed at which an aircraft stalls can be considered constant, but the true airspeed at which it stalls increases with altitude.\n",
"Conversely, if the adiabatic lapse rate is \"higher\" than the ambient lapse rate, an air mass displaced upward cools \"more\" rapidly than the air in which it is moving. Hence, such an airmass becomes \"cooler\" relative to the atmosphere. As cooler air is more dense, the rise of such an airmass would tend to be resisted.\n",
"At standard sea-level condition for air, the mean free path of air molecules is about formula_1. Low density air is much thinner. At an altitude of 342,000 feet or 104 km the mean free path is formula_2. Because of this large free mean path aerodynamic concepts, equations, and results based on the assumption of a continuum begin to break down, therefore aerodynamics must be considered from kinetic theory. This regime of aerodynamics is called low-density flow.\n",
"There is also a general trend of smaller body sizes and lower species richness at high altitudes, likely due to lower oxygen partial pressures. These factors may decrease productivity in high altitude habitats, meaning there will be less energy available for consumption, growth, and activity.\n"
] |
Why does North Korea have such few allies? | North and South Korea both claim to be the one true Korea with the other one being an illegitimate government. Historically, both sides have legitimate claims with Pyongyang and Kaeseong both being major capital cities of former dynasties during Korea's 5000 year history.
After the Korean War, both sides attempted to claim legitimacy on the international stage through diplomacy. They would sign deals with other nations usually with the caveat that those nations not recognize the other Korea. Naturally, the Cold War participants and their allies aligned with the respective Korea's with the Third World being the toss-up countries.
South Korea had much more recognition during the 50's and 60's due to the fact that the UN backed the South during the Korean War. In the early 1970's, North and South Korea began to talk and with that came more recognition for the North. By 1991, both Koreas wanted into the UN and were only allowed in on the condition that both of them were allowed in as separate, recognized countries.
As to why they have so few *allies*, that has to do with the collapse of communism. North Korea has mutual defense treaties with China and Russia. Previously, the Russia deal was with the USSR. At the DMZ, the northern neutral observers were from Poland and Czechoslovakia, two (now three) countries that have been part of NATO for the past 15-20 years. With the collapse of the Warsaw Pact, Soviet allies fell away leaving only Russia and China.
Why don't they get more allies? Who would want to be their ally? In the 1980's, the North attempted to assassinate the South's president in Rangoon, killing multiple people in the attempt, they blew up a Korean Air flight, and they kidnapped Japanese and South Korean civilians. In the 90's, they pulled out of the Non-Proliferation treaty and began pursuing nuclear weapons. You can look at what they've done in the last 20 years (VX nerve agent assassination in a major international airport?!?!) and draw your own conclusions as to why no one is rushing to jump on the North Korean bandwagon these days. | [
"For much of its history, North Korean politics have been dominated by its adversarial relationship with South Korea. During the Cold War, North Korea aligned with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The North Korean government invested heavily in its military, hoping to develop the capability to reunify Korea by force if possible and also preparing to repel any attack by South Korea or the United States. Following the doctrine of \"Juche\", North Korea aimed for a high degree of economic independence and the mobilization of all the resources of the nation to defend Korean sovereignty against foreign powers.\n",
"Japan-Korea relations may be referred to as a quasi alliance, as the two states remain unallied, but share a common threat, North Korea, and a common ally, the United States. The two states remain unallied mainly due to historical animosity rooting from the period of Japanese colonialism.\n",
"After the Korean War, North Korea maintained a powerful, but smaller military force than that of South Korea. In 1967 the KPA forces of about 345,000 were much smaller than the South Korean ground forces of about 585,000. North Korea's relative isolation and economic plight starting from the 1980s has now tipped the balance of military power into the hands of the better-equipped South Korean military. In response to this predicament, North Korea relies on asymmetric warfare techniques and unconventional weaponry to achieve parity against high-tech enemy forces. North Korea is reported to have developed a wide range of technologies towards this end, such as stealth paint to conceal ground targets, midget submarines and human torpedoes, blinding laser weapons, and probably has a chemical weapons program and is likely to possess a stockpile of chemical weapons. The Korean People's Army operates ZM-87 anti-personnel lasers, which are banned under the United Nations Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons.\n",
"Although both rival factions tried initially to diplomatically reunite the divided nation, the Northern faction eventually tried to do so with military force. The North hoped that they would be able to unify the peninsula via insurgency, but the success of South Korea (Republic of Korea: ROK) in suppressing insurgency brought about the realization for the North that they would require military force. North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea: DPRK) had expanded their army and Korean volunteers fighting in Manchuria in the Chinese Civil War had given their troops battle experience. The North expected to win with the war in a matter of days. Troops from North's Korean People's Army (KPA) crossed the 38th parallel on 25 June 1950 beginning a civil war.\n",
"North Korea–United States relations refers to international relations between North Korea and the United States. The political and diplomatic relations between North Korea and the United States have been historically hostile, developing primarily during the Korean War. In recent years relations have been largely defined by North Korea's nuclear program – six tests of nuclear weapons, its development of long-range missiles capable of striking targets thousands of miles away, and its ongoing threats to strike the United States and South Korea with nuclear weapons and conventional forces. During his presidency, George W. Bush referred to North Korea as part of \"the Axis of Evil\" because of the threat of its nuclear capabilities.\n",
"North Korea's relationships with the international community, especially South Korea, have sometimes been shaped by sports diplomacy. In the 1966 World Cup, North Korea defeated the heavily favored Italian team. Kim Jong-il believed that successful athletics increases the strength of a country, promoted its ideology, brought a country great honor and increased its international reputation. For this reason, this victory has become propaganda used by the North Korean regime to present a reputable country to not only their citizens, but also to the international community as a whole. Although North Korea has not had much success since this victory, North Korea participated in the 2010 World Cup. In addition, North Korea was surrounded by controversy during 2006 World Cup qualifying. Fan violence in Pyongyang after a match with Iran led to North Korea playing a home game in Thailand without any fans.\n",
"During this time, North Korea's major allies were China, the USSR, and Cuba. While Fidel Castro and Cuba staunchly defended North Korea, both the USSR and China agreed to participate in the games. This major decision strained relationships that were vital to the North Korean economic system. Throughout the history of North Korea, North Korea relied heavily on the foreign aid. The countries that gave the most aid were the USSR and China. For that reason, the strained relationships had a major effect on North Korea. This played a major role in the North Korean isolationist policies of the 1990s. In addition, as a result of the undeniable success of the Seoul Games, the growing gap between these two nations was further put on display.\n"
] |
Can there be an object of sufficient mass that light would orbit the object due to gravitional lensing? | Yes. If an object with mass M has a radius less than 3GM/c^(2), [light can circle entirely around the object](_URL_0_). The density required for this is pretty extreme; it's limited mostly to black holes. | [
"The possibility of gravitational lensing was suggested in 1924 and clarified by Albert Einstein in 1936. In 1937, Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky (1898 - 1974), working at the Mount Wilson Observatory in California, realized that galaxies and galaxy clusters far out in space may be sufficiently compact and massive to observably bend the light from even more distant objects through gravitational lensing. His ideas were confirmed in 1979, when the first example of a cosmic mirage was discovered, the Twin Quasar.\n",
"While the presence of any mass bends the path of light passing near it, this effect rarely produces the giant arcs and multiple images associated with strong gravitational lensing. Most lines of sight in the universe are thoroughly in the weak lensing regime, in which the deflection is impossible to detect in a single background source. However, even in these cases, the presence of the foreground mass can be detected, by way of a systematic alignment of background sources around the lensing mass. Weak gravitational lensing is thus an intrinsically statistical measurement, but it provides a way to measure the masses of astronomical objects without requiring assumptions about their composition or dynamical state.\n",
"As electromagnetic rays are somewhat bent by gravitation, when they pass by a heavy mass they are bent. Thus, the heavy mass acts as a form of gravitational lens. If the light source, the diffracting mass and the observer stand in a line, one sees what is termed as an Einstein ring.\n",
"Unlike an optical lens, a gravitational lens produces a maximum deflection of light that passes closest to its center, and a minimum deflection of light that travels furthest from its center. Consequently, a gravitational lens has no single focal point, but a focal line. The term \"lens\" in the context of gravitational light deflection was first used by O.J. Lodge, who remarked that it is \"not permissible to say that the solar gravitational field acts like a lens, for it has no focal length\". If the (light) source, the massive lensing object, and the observer lie in a straight line, the original light source will appear as a ring around the massive lensing object. If there is any misalignment, the observer will see an arc segment instead. This phenomenon was first mentioned in 1924 by the St. Petersburg physicist Orest Chwolson, and quantified by Albert Einstein in 1936. It is usually referred to in the literature as an Einstein ring, since Chwolson did not concern himself with the flux or radius of the ring image. More commonly, where the lensing mass is complex (such as a galaxy group or cluster) and does not cause a spherical distortion of space–time, the source will resemble partial arcs scattered around the lens. The observer may then see multiple distorted images of the same source; the number and shape of these depending upon the relative positions of the source, lens, and observer, and the shape of the gravitational well of the lensing object.\n",
"Gravitational lenses act equally on all kinds of electromagnetic radiation, not just visible light. Weak lensing effects are being studied for the cosmic microwave background as well as galaxy surveys. Strong lenses have been observed in radio and x-ray regimes as well. If a strong lens produces multiple images, there will be a relative time delay between two paths: that is, in one image the lensed object will be observed before the other image.\n",
"Gravitational lensing is an effect of Einstein's general relativity, which says that all matter bends light that passes by it. Strong gravitational lensing drastically alters the shape of an object on the sky; weak gravitational lensing slightly alters the shape of the object; and gravitational microlensing alters only the brightness of the object, instead of its shape. Gravitational lensing in general, and especially microlensing, has had a vast impact on astronomy, specifically in the search for extrasolar planets.\n",
"Since gravitational lensing is an effect only depending on gravitational potential, it can be used to constrain the mass model of lenses. With the constraints from multiple images or arcs, a proposed mass model can be optimized to fit to the observables. The subgalactic structures currently interests lensing astronomers are the central mass distribution and dark matter halos.\n"
] |
Why do European monarchs almost always have adjectives applied to their names? (i.e. Louis "the Pious" of France) | For both Louis the Pious and his son Charles the Bald, these were both names by which they were known during their lifetimes. As for Charles' opinions on his nickname, we've no record of how he felt about it, but he might well have like it and found it funny, since it's possible that it was ironic, and that he was in fact an unusually hairy man - given that we know the name was used during his lifetime and any contemporary depiction of him has a full head of hair.
As for the why, I'm not sure I can answer that one. It does help to distinguish between kings with the same name who ruled around the same time (like all the later Louis' in French history), but given that Louis the Pious was also Louis I, that doesn't really hold up. I've never read an explanation of it, to be honest - sorry! | [
"With the House of Bonaparte and the Bourbon Restoration, additional \"Kings of the French\" and \"Emperors of the French\" ruled in 19th century France, between 1814 and 1870. All rulers to have held the title \"King of the Franks\", \"King of France\", \"King of the French\" or \"Emperor of the French\" are listed below and excludes other Frankish monarchs. In addition to the monarchs listed below, the Kings of England and Great Britain from 1340 to 1360 and again from 1369 to 1801 also claimed the title of King of France.\n",
"In the High Middle Ages, the name was Latinized as \"Henricus\". It was a royal name in Germany, France and England throughout the high medieval period (Henry I of Germany, Henry I of England, Henry I of France) and widely used as a given name; as a consequence, many regional variants developed in the languages of Western and Central Europe:\n",
"Nonetheless, Louis has also received praise. The anti-Bourbon Napoleon described him not only as \"a great king\", but also as \"the only King of France worthy of the name\". Leibniz, the German Protestant philosopher, commended him as \"one of the greatest kings that ever was\". And Lord Acton admired him as \"by far the ablest man who was born in modern times on the steps of a throne\". The historian and philosopher Voltaire wrote: \"His name can never be pronounced without respect and without summoning the image of an eternally memorable age\". Voltaire's history, \"The Age of Louis XIV\", named Louis' reign as not only one of the four great ages in which reason and culture flourished, but the greatest ever.\n",
"The name of \"Louis\" was bestowed because it was typical of a prince of France; Stanislas was chosen to honour his great-grandfather King Stanisław I of Poland; and Xavier was chosen for Saint Francis Xavier, whom his mother's family held as one of their patron saints.\n",
"His name is Germanic, composed of the elements \"hlod\" (\"fame\") and \"wig\" (\"combat\"), and is the origin of the later French given name \"Louis\", borne by 18 kings of France. In Dutch, the most closely related modern language to Frankish, the name is currently rendered as \"Lodewijk\", in Middle Dutch the form was \"Lodewijch\". In modern German the name became Ludwig (although the emperor himself is named Chlodwig in German); in Spanish, Luis; in Italian, Luigi; and in English, Lewis.\n",
"By the 19th century, the sovereigns in Germany, Italy and Austria had all adopted \"higher\" titles, and not a single sovereign margraviate remained. Although the title remained part of the official style of such monarchs as the German Emperors, Kings of Saxony and Grand Dukes of Baden, it fell into desuetude as the primary title of members of any reigning family.\n",
"Louis is the French form of the Old Frankish given name Chlodowig and one of two English forms, the other being Lewis (). The Frankish name is composed of the words for \"fame\" (\"hlōd\") and \"warrior\" (\"wīg\") which may be translated to \"famous warrior\" or \"famous in battle\".\n"
] |
why does american culture put so much emphasis on "moving out of the house" and being independent from one's family, when other cultures (e.g. asian and spanish) live with their extended family under the same roof throughout their lifetimes? | Rugged Individualism. It's the concept Americans have hard wired in our brains. The mark of being an adult is going out on your own and providing for yourself. It's a sense of pride and accomplishment to leave the safety of your parents house and pave your own road to success. This mindset has its advantages, as well as some disadvantages. Moving out is an extension of the mentioned "rugged individualism" but there are several faucets to this concept.
_URL_0_ | [
"“It’s important to embrace your culture today because there are so many different ethnicities in America. At the end of the day, you are you. You’ve got to stay true to yourself, and you can’t change yourself in order to fit in or to make someone else feel comfortable.” \n",
"Because of the United States' continued attraction for immigrants, its cities have been sources of study for scholars of urban development and ethnic succession. Ethnic groups often settle together in urban neighborhoods as part of a \"chain of immigration\" to a new country, or migration to a new region, to keep personal networks, languages, foods, religions and cultures alive. They may be viewed by the dominant racial or cultural group as undesirable neighbors because of prejudice against a new culture's dominating a neighborhood. People with entry-level skills and/or limited language skills often have settled in older areas, where they can afford the housing and entry-level jobs. Over time, the incoming group members find work, and members are able to establish themselves economically. The group rises in status with its economic achievements. The first, more established group tends to move out in the face of new arrivals, as it tends to have the economic resources to do so. The neighborhood takes on new demographics.\n",
"Traditionally home-ownership has been encouraged by governments in Western countries (especially English-speaking countries) because it was thought to help people acquire wealth, to encourage savings, and promote civic engagement. However the housing market crash of 2008 in most of the English-speaking world has caused academic and policy-makers to question this logic.\n",
"Among many immigrant families, members of the younger generation tend to assimilate to American culture at a faster rate than members of older generations. This can create divides along generational lines. Members of the older generation may dislike the influence that American culture has on the younger generation, particularly shifts from communal values to a more individualistic mindset. On the other hand, members of the younger generation may view their elders as too set in their ways and out of touch with American society. Such sentiments can lead to conflict between family members. Points of contention include clothing, speech, displaying respect for elders, and dating practices.\n",
"According to Hall, people have been influenced to move because of factors like climate, jobs, and tax rates. Hall also found that people who are not a part of a more stable family will tend to move more. People choosing to live in rural areas have found it more beneficial because of cleaner air, peace and quiet, and lots of space. Smaller towns have also been proven to be convenient for the inhabitants.\n",
"Immigrants may also take their families with them, meaning that their children grow up in different lands, learning a different culture and language often feeling more at home in the host country than their \"home\" country. These children, called third culture kids, often tend to feel affinity to those who have also lived in more than one country and culture, and tend to marry people of diverse backgrounds, regardless of nationality and citizenship.\n",
"Family members who identify more with the culture of their home country may experience frustration when they attempt to instill their cultural values into younger family members. Popular media, schools, and peers act as powerful socializing agents and members of the older generation may feel that they cannot compete with these pervasive cultural and social forces. Parents may blame television and magazines for the unwanted change they see in their children and if they decide to act by cracking down on their children's access to popular media, this may lead to further generational schisms.\n"
] |
how comic distribution works? | Most American comics are produced on a monthly basis, about 22 pages per month. These comics are published by a publisher (DC, Marvel, Dark Horse, Etc.) and then distributed by a company called Diamond, who pretty much have a monopoly on comic distribution. These individual issues are pretty much only sold in comic book stores, though, some book stores carry some.
Months later, these comics may be recollected into "trade paperbacks" which will have 4-12 issues all together. Even more issues might also be recollected into even bigger collections- the biggest I've ever heard of in a single volume is The Invisibles Omnibus, which is 59 issues in a single book.
Back issues you generally have to hunt down in comic book stores or at comic conventions. Rarity is sort of pointless to track, but in short, certain first-editions of first-issues become popular collectors items. Finding non-first-editions of these first issues is pretty easy, but they aren't considered rare or valuable. | [
"American comic books can be sold through the direct market. Formats include single issues, trade paperback, and graphic novels. Graphic novels may also be known as \"prestige format\" comics for single issues. Issues may be published as one shots or periodically.\n",
"Print syndication distributes news articles, columns, comic strips, and other features to newspapers, magazines and websites. They offer reprint rights and grant permissions to other parties for republishing content of which they own/represent copyrights.\n",
"Print syndication distributes news articles, columns, political cartoons, comic strips and other features to newspapers, magazines and websites. The syndicates offer reprint rights and grant permissions to other parties for republishing content of which they own and/or represent copyrights. Other terms for the service include a newspaper syndicate, a press syndicate, and a feature syndicate.\n",
"A distribution center is a warehouse or other specialized building that receives, stores, and distributes goods to a variety of destinations such as retail stores, businesses, consumers, manufacturing facilities, or other distribution centers.\n",
"Most newspaper comic strips are syndicated; a syndicate hires people to write and draw a strip and then distributes it to many newspapers for a fee. Some newspaper strips begin or remain exclusive to one newspaper. For example, the \"Pogo\" comic strip by Walt Kelly originally appeared only in the \"New York Star\" in 1948 and was not picked up for syndication until the following year.\n",
"The creative team, the writers and artists, may work with a comic book publisher for help with marketing, advertising, and other logistics. A distributor like Diamond Comic Distributors, the largest in the U.S., helps to distribute the finished product to retailers.\n",
"Like most comic book conventions, Comic-Con features a large floorspace for exhibitors. These include media companies such as movie studios and TV networks, as well as comic-book dealers and collectibles merchants. And like most comics conventions, Comic-Con includes an autograph area, as well as the Artists' Alley where comics artists can sign autographs and sell or do free sketches. Despite the name, artists' alleys can include writers and even models.\n"
] |
what causes the urge to move around after hurting yourself? | You gotta run the pain off. For real, in the wild, if you get hurt, there's probably someone or something that hurt you and your body wants to get away from them asap so you don't sustain any more injuries. | [
"Many people who self-harm state that it allows them to \"go away\" or dissociate, separating the mind from feelings that are causing anguish. This may be achieved by tricking the mind into believing that the present suffering being felt is caused by the self-harm instead of the issues they were facing previously: the physical pain therefore acts as a distraction from the original emotional pain. To complement this theory, one can consider the need to \"stop\" feeling emotional pain and mental agitation. \"A person may be hyper-sensitive and overwhelmed; a great many thoughts may be revolving within their mind, and they may either become triggered or could make a decision to stop the overwhelming feelings.\"\n",
"Research has suggested that the urge to repetitive self-injury is similar to a body-focused repetitive behavior but others have argued that for some the condition is more akin to a substance abuse disorder.\n",
"Aside from this, a need for attention or a feel good sensation can ultimately cause this behavior. A prime example of this would be addiction to drugs or alcohol. In the beginning stages, people have the tendency to ease their way into these unhealthy behaviors because it gives them a pleasurable sensation. However, as time goes on, it becomes a habit that they can not stop and they begin to lose these great feeling easily. When these feelings stop, self-destructive behavior enhances because they aren't able to provide themselves with that feeling that makes mental or physical pain go away. \n",
"Several of the symptoms are capable of causing or allowing for renewed acts of violence. The outbursts of anger can have an impact in domestic violence and street crime. The sense of emotional numbing, detachment and estrangement from other people can also contribute to these, along with contributing to participation in further battle activities or to apathetic reactions when violence is done by others. Associated substance abuse may also have connections to acts of violence.\n",
"Drug addiction, alcoholism, a mental disability, biochemical changes and PTSD can all lead to a person committing an aggressive act against another person. Not having sufficient skills on how to handle oneself when faced with aggression can lead to very undesirable outcomes. These factors are typically associated with a heightened chance of anger, but there are other, less-known factors that can lead to people acting in a negative way. Prolonged or intense anger and frustration contributes to physical conditions such as headaches, digestive problems, high blood pressure and heart disease. Problems dealing with angry feelings may be linked to psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. Angry outbursts can be a way of trying to cope with unhappiness or depression.\n",
"Alternatively, self-harm may be a means of feeling \"something\", even if the sensation is unpleasant and painful. Those who self-harm sometimes describe feelings of emptiness or numbness (anhedonia), and physical pain may be a relief from these feelings. \"A person may be detached from themselves, detached from life, numb and unfeeling. They may then recognise the need to function more, or have a desire to feel real again, and a decision is made to create sensation and 'wake up'.\"\n",
"The individual engages in the behavior because it produces a decrease in aversive stimulation. Put another way, something aversive is occurring in some location on the organism's body, and engaging in the behavior decreases the level of discomfort. For example, a child bangs their head against the wall to decrease the pain experienced from a toothache. Another example includes a child scratching their arm to decrease the level of itchiness experienced from a bug bite. Common forms of aversive stimulation abated by engaging in specific behaviors include sinus pain, itching, hunger, etc.\n"
] |
how is it the island of java can support it's 140+ million people in area the size of north carolina? | by depending on trade for food and other resources, and coping up with less personal space. there's still some farms and forests, but yeah its hard to get away from other people.
the total north carolina population is about 10 million? heck, Jakarta (the largest city in Java) alone has 20 million people...
source: i live there. | [
"With a combined population of 145 million in the 2015 census (including Madura's 3.7 million), which is estimated for 2014 at 143.1 million (including 3.7 million for Madura), Java is the most populous island in the world and is home to 57% of Indonesia's population. At over 1,100 people per km² in 2014, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on par with Bangladesh. Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around the valleys surrounding volcanic peaks.\n",
"The island of Maui (; Hawaiian: ) is the second-largest of the Hawaiian Islands at 727.2 square miles (1,883 km) and is the 17th largest island in the United States. Maui is part of the State of Hawaii and is the largest of Maui County's four islands, which include Molokai, Lānai, and unpopulated Kahoolawe. In 2010, Maui had a population of 144,444, third-highest of the Hawaiian Islands, behind that of Oahu and Hawaii Island. Kahului is the largest census-designated place (CDP) on the island with a population of 26,337 and is the commercial and financial hub of the island. Wailuku is the seat of Maui County and is the third-largest CDP . Other significant places include Kīhei (including Wailea and Makena in the Kihei Town CDP, the island's second-most-populated CDP), Lahaina (including Kāanapali and Kapalua in the Lahaina Town CDP), Makawao, Pukalani, Pāia, Kula, Haikū, and Hāna.\n",
"The island is located in the middle of the Java Sea approximately halfway between Java (more precisely Madura) and Borneo. It is about 9 km north of the slightly larger, more populated island of Masalembu. It measures around 4 km north-south and 3 km west-east, with a published land area of 7.79 square kilometers. Due to its small size, there is little prominent features on the island which is largely flat with a peak elevation of just 8 meters above sea level.\n",
"Formed mostly as the result of volcanic eruptions from geologic subduction between Sunda Plate and Australian Plate, Java is the 13th largest island in the world and the fifth largest in Indonesia by landmass at about . A chain of volcanic mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island: Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese, where Javanese is the most spoken; it is the native language of about 60 million Javanese people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian (the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java's population comprises people of diverse religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.\n",
"Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south. It is the world's 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, the Indian Ocean to the south and Bali Strait and Madura Strait in the east.\n",
"East Java's population of 37.5 million includes 900,000 Christians (70% of which are Protestant). As with the rest of Java, this population is concentrated in the cities, with Surabaya's 2.8 million citizens more than 10% Christian, and Christian populations of around 8% in Mojokerto, Madiun, Kediri, Blitar and Malang.\n",
"Java (Indonesian: \"Jawa\"; Javanese: ꦗꦮ; Sundanese: ) is an island of Indonesia, bordered by the Indian Ocean on the south and the Java Sea on the north. With a population of over 141 million (Java only) or 145 million (including the inhabitants of its surrounding islands), Java is the home to 56.7 percent of the Indonesian population and is the world's most populous island. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on its northwestern coast. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the centre of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Four of Indonesia's eight UNESCO world heritage sites are located in Java: Ujung Kulon National Park, Borobudur Temple, Prambanan Temple, and Sangiran Early Man Site.\n"
] |
Treatment of French colonies | Hey there, AskHistorians allows homework questions, but other people can't do the work for you - for the way HW questions are treated on here see [the rules](_URL_0_) and [this roundtable discussion](_URL_1_). To boil it down, you have to show that you've done some work yourself and specify the question - where do you hit the wall when using your sources? Are you looking for better ones/ones specific to a certain angle? Is there one part of your research of which you'd like to know more about? Say what you know, try to narrow down your inquiry and someone knowledgeable might help you with that. Good luck! | [
"A hallmark of the French colonial project from the late 19th century to the post-World War Two era was the civilising mission (\"mission civilisatrice\"). The principle was that it was France's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar.\n",
"A hallmark of the French colonial project in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the civilising mission (\"mission civilisatrice\"), the principle that it was Europe's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar. During the 19th century, French citizenship along with the right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies was granted to the four old colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyanne and Réunion as well as to the residents of the \"Four Communes\" in Senegal. In most cases, the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, although there were some blacks, such as the Senegalese Blaise Diagne, who was elected in 1914. Elsewhere, in the largest and most populous colonies, a strict separation between \"sujets français\" (all the natives) and \"citoyens français\" (all males of European extraction) with different rights and duties was maintained until 1946. As was pointed out in a 1927 treatise on French colonial law, the granting of French citizenship to natives \"was not a right, but rather a privilege\". Two 1912 decrees dealing with French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa enumerated the conditions that a native had to meet in order to be granted French citizenship (they included speaking and writing French, earning a decent living and displaying good moral standards). From 1830 to 1946, only between 3,000 and 6,000 native Algerians were granted French citizenship. In French West Africa, outside of the Four Communes, there were 2,500 \"citoyens indigènes\" out of a total population of 15 million.\n",
"During the Napoleonic Wars, the British occupied the Cape Colony in 1795 to prevent the French from doing so. The French had occupied the Netherlands, and so the link between the church in the colony and the Amsterdam classis was broken. The first British occupation was temporary, but in 1806 a long-term occupation was undertaken. For the next century, the colony would be under British control. Ministers from the Netherlands were not as willing to serve in what was now for them a foreign country, and the British authorities were not keen to have them. Presbyterian ministers from Scotland were encouraged to serve the needs of the Dutch Reformed Church in the Cape. The church was semi-established, and the government helped with stipends of ministers.\n",
"Its activities in the French colonies were soon challenged by a rival society, more focussed on educational and cultural activities in the French colonies, the Société Coloniale des Artistes Français, founded by Louis Dumoulin in 1908.\n",
"Before the Revolutionary war, extra-colonial relations were handled in London. The colonies had agents in the United Kingdom, and established inter-colonial conferences. The colonies were subject to European peace settlements, settlements with Indian tribes, and inter-colony (between colonies) agreements.\n",
"Before the Revolutionary war, extra-colonial relations were handled in London. The colonies had agents in the United Kingdom, and established inter-colonial conferences. The colonies were subject to European peace settlements, settlements with Indian tribes, and inter-colony (between colonies) agreements.\n",
"In 1793 the Haitian Revolution was underway, and Great Britain attempted to intervene, hoping to get a toehold in the rich French colony. The Royal Navy defeated the French fleet at Saint-Domingue, and its commanders allowed French military officers to leave the island after they resigned their commissions. French forces and thousands of colonists left Saint-Domingue because of the violence of the Haitian Revolution. De Grasse lost all his property there, including the slaves.\n"
] |
why is chemotherapy used the way it is? | Chemo attempts to stop cells from dividing. Ideally the cells that stop dividing are targeted (hence the plethora of drugs for various cancers; different drugs = different targets) but because the chemistry is nowhere near an exact science, lots of other fast-dividing cells get hit too (hair, muscles, skin, white/red blood cells, etc).
The logic is that the cancer itself is a mutant, and won't survive more than 'a little while' without constantly dividing and replicating, so if you can specifically poison the body, stop cellular division for a while, and otherwise keep the person alive, the cancer will die off while (most of) the rest of the person stays alive.
Think of it like having a castle full of people, and there was one group of particularly troublesome monks inside you wanted to kill off. The monks only ate apples, but your intel was shitty and you knew only that the monks ate sweet foods. You siege the castle and prevent anything sweet from getting in, sugar, fruits, plants...anything that contained or could become sugar. Many people develop scurvy and other malnutrition related problems and die off, but the monks all die too. You celebrate that the monks are dead, and get on living with whatever is left alive in the castle as the population slowly recovers.
The monks are cancer, the people are the healthy cells in the body, and everything else is the process of treating and living with the aftermath of cancer. | [
"Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses chemicals to interfere with the cancer cells ability to grow and reproduce. Chemotherapy can be used alone or in combination with other therapies. Chemotherapy can be given either as a pill to swallow orally, an injection into the fat or muscle, through an IV directly into the bloodstream or directly into the spinal column.\n",
"Chemotherapy is a treatment that injects a drug into a vein (IV) or that is given via the mouth to prevent the growth of cancer cells by stopping them from dividing. It is often used after surgery or as the first line of treatment. The drug injected flows through the bloodstream and destroys cancer cells.\n",
"Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with one or more cytotoxic anti-neoplastic drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized regimen. The term encompasses a variety of drugs, which are divided into broad categories such as alkylating agents and antimetabolites. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents act by killing cells that divide rapidly, a critical property of most cancer cells.\n",
"Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs (\"anticancer drugs\") that can destroy cancer cells. In current usage, the term \"chemotherapy\" usually refers to \"cytotoxic\" drugs which affect rapidly dividing cells in general, in contrast with \"targeted therapy\" (see below). Chemotherapy drugs interfere with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of DNA or the separation of newly formed chromosomes. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific to cancer cells, although some degree of specificity may come from the inability of many cancer cells to repair DNA damage, while normal cells generally can. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy.\n",
"Chemotherapy is sometimes used to destroy urethral cancer cells. It is a systemic urethral cancer treatment (i.e., destroys urethral cancer cells throughout the body) that is administered orally or intravenously. Medications are often used in combination to destroy urethral cancer that has metastasized. Commonly used drugs include cisplatin, vincristine, and methotrexate.\n",
"Chemotherapy (drug treatment for cancer) may be used before surgery, after surgery, or instead of surgery for those cases in which surgery is considered unsuitable. Chemotherapy is justified for cancers whose prognosis after surgery is poor without additional intervention.\n",
"Lastly, the chemotherapy can be defined as a treatment towards the cancer by using the medication to destroy the malignant cells. The chemotherapy is usually used before the surgery and radiation therapy or after the treatment of surgery and radiation therapy. The chemotherapy can be implemented by using the drugs to stop the spread of paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. The chemotherapy could make contribution to destroy the cancer cells or stop them from division. The chemotherapy could have effect on the cancer cell of the whole body by injecting into vein or taken by patient. The chemotherapy could influence a specific area by placing it into a specific area. Evidence shows that the chemotherapy could make also contribution to the treatment of sinonasal cancer which is a sub-branch of the paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer. Infection, loss of hair might occur after the implementation of chemotherapy.\n"
] |
Where does the church's money come from? | This goes well within the 20 year rule, you may want to ask this on a religious oriented sub, such as /r/Catholicism or /r/Christianity.
As an aside, the church can have jobs outside just being a priest. I know my local pastor is also a successful doctor, and a local brotherhood prints and publishes books, though they still use lots of donations. | [
"Meanwhile, the church moved the majority of its income-generating assets (which in the past included a great deal of land, but today mostly take the form of financial stocks and bonds) out of the hands of individual clergy and bishops to the care of a body called the Church Commissioners, which uses these funds to pay a range of non-parish expenses, including clergy pensions and the expenses of cathedrals and bishops' houses. These funds amount to around £8 billion and generate income of around £260 million each year (), around a fifth of the church's overall income.\n",
"Most of the LDS Church's revenues comes in the form of tithes and fast offerings contributed by church members. Tithing donations are used to support operations of the church, including construction and maintenance of buildings and other facilities, and are transferred from local units directly to church headquarters in Salt Lake City, where the funds are centrally managed. It is estimated that about ten percent of its funding also comes from income on its investments, mostly direct investments.\n",
"The church's revenue streams came from, amongst other things, rents and profits arising from assets gifted to the church, its endowment, given by believers, be they monarch, lord of the manor or vassal, and later also upon tithes calculated on the sale of the product of the people's personal labour in the entire parish such as cloth or shoes and the people's profits from specific forms of likewise God-given, natural increase such as crops and in livestock.\n",
"Church funds are used to construct and maintain buildings and other facilities; provide for the administrative needs of local church units; provide social welfare and relief; and to support missionary, educational, and other church-sponsored programs. The church has also invested in business and real estate ventures such as Bonneville International, Deseret Book Company, and cattle ranches in Utah, Florida, and Canada.\n",
"The church has been criticized for its wealth, as monthly or quarterly donations were encouraged in the second article of the statutes of the Federation of Evangelical Missionary. According to the CCMM, property acquisition was evidence of significant income. The 1999 parliamentary report considered the church a \"small cult\" (a cult whose annual income is less than five million francs), which provided \"relatively accurate information\" to the Parliamentary Commission. The annual budget of the church was estimated between 2.4 and 3.1 million francs (the total of donations in 1998 and 1995 respectively), mainly from Sunday offerings, donations, loans, financial products and property income. In 1999, the commission estimated the church's property at about 15 million francs. As of 31 December 1998, the church's net active wealth (composed of real estate and stock) reached 7.3 million francs. Concerning its finances, the church said it applies five major principles: economy, recovery, devotion, voluntary work and solidarity. Money comes from Sunday collections, sometimes from personal loans and from donations intended for a particular use; there is no external financial support. Accounts are published at the annual general assembly of the church, by the financial commission of the Federation and by Social Security. Trainee pastors work outside the church; permanent pastors receive a low salary, and are affiliated with the \"Caisse d'assurance vieillesse, invalidité et maladie des cultes\" (CAVIMAC).\n",
"Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £900 million.\n",
"The church receives significant funds from tithes and fast offerings. According to the church, tithing and fast offering money collected are devoted to ecclesiastical purposes and not used in for-profit ventures.\n"
] |
what causes the cloud rings to form around and above a nuclear or thermonuclear bomb? | The immense force of the blast creates a wave of high pressure in the air, traveling outwards from the centre.
Following this high pressure is an area of extreme low pressure, this low pressure causes a drastic temperature drop.
Dropping temperature results in water in the air condensing, causing the ring of "cloud" that you see. | [
"Mushroom clouds are formed by many sorts of large explosions under earth's gravity, but they are best known for their appearance after nuclear detonations. Without gravity, the explosive's by-product gases would remain spherical. Nuclear weapons are usually detonated above the ground (not upon impact, because some of the energy would be dissipated by the ground motions), to maximize the effect of their spherically expanding fireball and blast wave. Immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a hot-air balloon.\n",
"A mushroom cloud is a distinctive pyrocumulus mushroom-shaped cloud of debris/smoke and usually condensed water vapor resulting from a large explosion. The effect is most commonly associated with a nuclear explosion, but any sufficiently energetic detonation or deflagration will produce the same effect. They can be caused by powerful conventional weapons, like thermobaric weapons, including the ATBIP and GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast. Some volcanic eruptions and impact events can produce natural mushroom clouds.\n",
"This phenomenon can be seen in interstellar gas, such as the Crab Nebula. It is pushed out of the Galactic plane by magnetic fields and cosmic rays and then becomes Rayleigh–Taylor unstable if it is pushed past its normal scale height. This instability also explains the mushroom cloud which forms in processes such as volcanic eruptions and atomic bombs.\n",
"Nuclear detonations produced high above the ground might not create mushroom clouds with a stem. The heads of the clouds themselves consist of highly radioactive particles, primarily the fission products and other weapon debris aerosols, and are usually dispersed by the wind, though weather patterns (especially rain) can produce problematic nuclear fallout.\n",
"The much cooler molecular cloud outside the bubble is mostly invisible to Spitzer. However, three very young stars near the center of the nebula are sending jets of supersonic gas into the cloud. The collision of these jets heats carbon monoxide molecules in the nebula. This produces the complex nebulosity that appears like a stem of a rosebud.\n",
"Detonations significantly below ground level or deep below the water (for instance, nuclear depth charges) also do not produce mushroom clouds, as the explosion causes the vaporization of a huge amount of earth and water in these instances, creating a bubble which then collapses in on itself; in the case of a less deep underground explosion, this produces a subsidence crater. Detonations underwater but near the surface produce a pillar of water, which, in collapsing, forms a cauliflower-like shape, which is easily mistaken for a mushroom cloud (such as in the well-known pictures of the \"Crossroads Baker\" test). Underground detonations at low depth produce a mushroom cloud and a base surge, two different distinct clouds. The amount of radiation vented into the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing detonation depth.\n",
"Young open clusters may be contained within the molecular cloud from which they formed, illuminating it to create an H II region. Over time, radiation pressure from the cluster will disperse the molecular cloud. Typically, about 10% of the mass of a gas cloud will coalesce into stars before radiation pressure drives the rest of the gas away.\n"
] |
How did "x" become the conventional, go-to variable? | > You'll find details on this point (and precise references) in Cajori's History mathematical notations, 340. He credits Descartes in his La Géometrie for the introduction of x, y and z (and more generally, usefully and interestingly, for the use of the first letters of the alphabet for known quantities and the last letters for the unknown quantities) He notes that Descartes used the notation considerably earlier: the book was published in 1637, yet in 1629 he was already using x as an unknown (although in the same place y is a known quantity...); also, he used the notation in manuscripts dated earlier than the book by years.
_URL_3_
The book
_URL_2_
Also check out
_URL_4_ Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols
Particularly
_URL_0_
Earliest Uses of Symbols for Variables
And _URL_1_
Earliest Known Uses of
Some of the Words of Mathematics
Sorry if answer is brief/badly formatted, I'm on my phone. | [
"In mathematics, \"x\" is commonly used as the name for an independent variable or unknown value. The modern tradition of using \"x\" to represent an unknown was introduced by René Descartes in \"La Géométrie\" (1637). As a result of its use in algebra, X is often used to represent unknowns in other circumstances (e.g. X-rays, Generation X, \"The X-Files\", and \"The Man from Planet X\"; see also Malcolm X).\n",
"The title of \"X\" was chosen because it has no fixed meaning. In mathematics, it is a common variable. Beyond mathematics, \"X\" is a generic placeholder whose value is secret or unknown. \"X\" is also a cruciform, an allusion to Christian mythos, and the representation of death and rebirth in Kabbalah.\n",
"The existence of the variable x was implicit in the natural language. The variable x is created when the natural language is translated into mathematics. This allows us to use natural language, with natural semantics, while maintaining mathematical integrity.\n",
"Author William Strauss noted that around the time Coupland's 1991 novel was published the symbol \"X\" was prominent in popular culture, as the film \"Malcolm X\" was released in 1992, and that the name \"Generation X\" ended up sticking. The \"X\" refers to an unknown variable or to a desire not to be defined.\n",
"In Leibniz's notation, if \"x\" is a variable quantity, then \"dx\" denotes an infinitesimal change in the variable \"x\". Thus, if \"y\" is a function of \"x\", then the derivative of \"y\" with respect to \"x\" is often denoted \"dy\"/\"dx\", which would otherwise be denoted (in the notation of Newton or Lagrange) \"ẏ\" or \"y\". The use of differentials in this form attracted much criticism, for instance in the famous pamphlet The Analyst by Bishop Berkeley. Nevertheless, the notation has remained popular because it suggests strongly the idea that the derivative of \"y\" at \"x\" is its instantaneous rate of change (the slope of the graph's tangent line), which may be obtained by taking the limit of the ratio Δ\"y\"/Δ\"x\" of the change in \"y\" over the change in \"x\", as the change in \"x\" becomes arbitrarily small. Differentials are also compatible with dimensional analysis, where a differential such as \"dx\" has the same dimensions as the variable \"x\".\n",
"X derives its name as a successor to a pre-1983 window system called W (the letter preceding X in the English alphabet). W ran under the V operating system. W used a network protocol supporting terminal and graphics windows, the server maintaining display lists.\n",
"In this latter statement, ω is now regarded as variable and \"X\" is fixed, whereas previously it was the other way round. This distribution of ω is the \"fiducial distribution\" which may be used to form fiducial intervals that represent degrees of belief.\n"
] |
Question about tooth decay and evolution. | Yes, we got cavities. Go google image some pics of old skulls. | [
"Tooth decay can be managed by modifying behavior and controlling its causative factors, i.e. reducing the intake frequency of fermentable carbohydrates from food. This will reduce the chance of the dental biofilm developing into cariogenic biofilm. The bacteria in cariogenic biofilm produce organic acids when carbohydrates, especially sugar, are eaten. When enough acid is produced so that the pH goes below 5.5, the acid dissolves carbonated hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, in a process known as \"demineralisation\". After the sugar is gone, the mineral loss can be recovered—or \"remineralised\"—from ions dissolved in the saliva. Cavities result when the rate of demineralisation exceeds the rate of remineralisation and the latticework is destroyed, typically in a process that requires many months or years.\n",
"Tooth decay is caused by biofilm (dental plaque) lying on the teeth and maturing to become cariogenic (causing decay). Certain bacteria in the biofilm produce acid in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.\n",
"Archaeological evidence shows that tooth decay is an ancient disease dating far into prehistory. Skulls dating from a million years ago through the neolithic period show signs of caries, including those from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages. The increase of caries during the neolithic period may be attributed to the increased consumption of plant foods containing carbohydrates. The beginning of rice cultivation in South Asia is also believed to have caused an increase in caries especially for women, although there is also some evidence from sites in Thailand, such as Khok Phanom Di, that shows a decrease in overall percentage of dental caries with the increase in dependence on rice agriculture.\n",
"Decay is the process or result of \"demineralisation\" (softening) of an area of dental tissue, creating a decayed \"lesion\" on the tooth. The process of restoring decay begins with an analysis of the decayed lesions together with their location and severity, with particular regard to the state of reversibility. Where decay is reversible, it is referred to as \"non-cavitated\" decay, where healing is possible by the hardening process of \"remineralisation\". Where a \"cavity\" has formed from excessive demineralisation, the decay has reached the point of no return where the tooth structure has been lost and the decay is permanent and non-reversible. In this situation of \"cavitated\" decay, the cavity will have to be filled to restore the tooth. Minimal intervention dentistry is focused on filling only cavitated regions, leaving non-cavitated decay to be remineralised, thus restoring the tooth while removing as little of the tooth structure as possible, enhancing the strength and aesthetics of the restoration. Classifications of the location and severity of decay are made in order to establish guidelines for suitable treatment methods.\n",
"Tooth decay, also known as dental caries or cavities, is a breakdown of teeth due to acids made by bacteria. The cavities may be a number of different colors from yellow to black. Symptoms may include pain and difficulty with eating. Complications may include inflammation of the tissue around the tooth, tooth loss, and infection or abscess formation.\n",
"Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose. The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.\n",
"Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities). An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry, although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC. An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago. Dentistry was practiced in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had an abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC.\n"
] |
(Math) Do we know everything there is to know about math? Or are there new discoveries being made in mathematics? | No, we don't know everything there is to know.
One good way of getting a quick view of recent advancements in mathematics is to read the list of winners of the [Fields Medal](_URL_1_) and the [Abel Prize](_URL_4_), paying attention to the citations. In general, though, recent advancements in mathematics are very difficult to understand for the layman, and I can't possibly hope to go into every one of them for you (for lack of both time and knowledge).
Some very famous recent proofs of statements that are not so difficult to understand (although the proofs certainly are) were those of [Fermat's last theorem](_URL_3_), the [Poincaré conjecture](_URL_0_) and recent work on the [Twin prime conjecture](_URL_2_). | [
"Mathematics and the Search for Knowledge is a book by Morris Kline on the developing mathematics ideas, which are partially overlap with his previous book \"\", as a source of human knowledge about the physical world, starting from astronomical theories of Ancient Greek to the modern theories.\n",
"What is mathematics? What is it for? What are mathematicians doing nowadays? Wasn't it all finished long ago? How many new numbers can you invent anyway? Is today's mathematics just a matter of huge calculations, with the mathematician as a kind of zookeeper, making sure the precious computers are fed and watered? If it's not, what is it other than the incomprehensible outpourings of superpowered brainboxes with their heads in the clouds and their feet dangling from the lofty balconies of their ivory towers? Mathematics is all of these, and none. Mostly, it's just different. It's not what you expect it to be, you turn your back for a moment and it's changed. It's certainly not just a fixed body of knowledge, its growth is not confined to inventing new numbers, and its hidden tendrils pervade every aspect of modern life. \n",
"BULLET::::- Mathematics describes the real world: many areas of mathematics originated with attempts to describe and solve real world phenomena - from measuring farms (geometry) to falling apples (calculus) to gambling (probability). Mathematics is widely used in modern physics and engineering, and has been hugely successful in helping us to understand more about the universe around us from its largest scales (physical cosmology) to its smallest (quantum mechanics). Indeed, the very success of mathematics in this respect has been a source of puzzlement for some philosophers (see The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences by Eugene Wigner).\n",
"Mathematicians study and research in all the different areas of mathematics. The publication of new discoveries in mathematics continues at an immense rate in hundreds of scientific journals, many of them devoted to mathematics and many devoted to subjects to which mathematics is applied (such as theoretical computer science and theoretical physics).\n",
"Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the \"Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society\", \"The number of papers and books included in the \"Mathematical Reviews\" database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs.\"\n",
"The area of study known as the history of mathematics is primarily an investigation into the origin of discoveries in mathematics and, to a lesser extent, an investigation into the mathematical methods and notation of the past. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few locales. From 3000 BC the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, together with Ancient Egypt and Ebla began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for purposes of taxation, commerce, trade and also in the field of astronomy and to formulate calendars and record time.\n",
"Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance, and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics and game theory. Mathematicians engage in pure mathematics (mathematics for its own sake) without having any application in mind, but practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered later.\n"
] |
Does every neuron contain every neurotransmitter? | I can answer the following question: "Does every neuron have the genetic capability to *create* every neurotransmitter?" **Yes** (short answer). The two main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are glutamate and GABA, which are both derived from Amino acids. In fact, almost all neurotransmitters are either derivatives of amino acids, chains of amino acids, or products created by biological enzymes (which are, themselves, created from long chains of amino acids). Cells use DNA as a template for *which* amino acids they produce, in *what quantity* those AA's are produced, and in *what order* those AA's are combined.
But that does't mean that every neuron *does* contain every neurotransmitter. Neurons are effected in myriad ways by the outside environment, and these environmental interactions influence which genes are expressed by which cells. This mechanism is what allows different cells of the developing body to specialize—into skin cells, neurons, etc. Different neurons have different ways of expressing genes, so they act differently. Therefore, I'm pretty sure that different neurons (and especially different neuron *types*) have different concentrations of neurotransmitters. It all depends on gene expression.
That was the short answer. The long answer involves a more precise definition of what a "neurotransmitter" is, as opposed to a neuromodulator. But short answer, **no**. | [
"There are literally hundreds of different types of synapses. In fact, there are over a hundred known neurotransmitters, and many of them have multiple types of receptors. Many synapses use more than one neurotransmitter—a common arrangement is for a synapse to use one fast-acting small-molecule neurotransmitter such as glutamate or GABA, along with one or more peptide neurotransmitters that play slower-acting modulatory roles. Molecular neuroscientists generally divide receptors into two broad groups: chemically gated ion channels and second messenger systems. When a chemically gated ion channel is activated, it forms a passage that allows specific types of ions to flow across the membrane. Depending on the type of ion, the effect on the target cell may be excitatory or inhibitory. When a second messenger system is activated, it starts a cascade of molecular interactions inside the target cell, which may ultimately produce a wide variety of complex effects, such as increasing or decreasing the sensitivity of the cell to stimuli, or even altering gene transcription.\n",
"Neuropil (or \"neuropile\") is any area in the nervous system composed of mostly unmyelinated axons, dendrites and glial cell processes that forms a synaptically dense region containing a relatively low number of cell bodies. The most prevalent anatomical region of neuropil is the brain which, although not completely composed of neuropil, does have the largest and highest synaptically-concentrated areas of neuropil in the body. For example, the neocortex and olfactory bulb both contain neuropil.\n",
"A neuron, also known as a neurone (British spelling) or nerve cell, is an electrically excitable cell that communicates with other cells via specialized connections called synapses. It is the main component of nervous tissue. All animals except sponges and placozoans have neurons, but other multicellular organisms such as plants do not.\n",
"According to a rule called Dale's principle, which has only a few known exceptions, a neuron releases the same neurotransmitters at all of its synapses. This does not mean, though, that a neuron exerts the same effect on all of its targets, because the effect of a synapse depends not on the neurotransmitter, but on the receptors that it activates. Because different targets can (and frequently do) use different types of receptors, it is possible for a neuron to have excitatory effects on one set of target cells, inhibitory effects on others, and complex modulatory effects on others still. Nevertheless, it happens that the two most widely used neurotransmitters, glutamate and GABA, each have largely consistent effects. Glutamate has several widely occurring types of receptors, but all of them are excitatory or modulatory. Similarly, GABA has several widely occurring receptor types, but all of them are inhibitory. Because of this consistency, glutamatergic cells are frequently referred to as \"excitatory neurons\", and GABAergic cells as \"inhibitory neurons\". Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of terminology—it is the receptors that are excitatory and inhibitory, not the neurons—but it is commonly seen even in scholarly publications.\n",
"With only two transmitter chemicals known to exist at the time, the possibility of a neuron releasing more than one transmitter at a single synapse did not enter anybody's mind, and so no care was taken to frame hypotheses in a way that took this possibility into account. The resulting ambiguity in the initial statements led to some confusion in the literature about the precise meaning of the principle. Nicoll and Malenka, for example, understood it to state that a neuron always releases one and only one neurotransmitter at all of its synapses. In this form it is certainly false. Many neurons release more than one neurotransmitter, in what is called \"cotransmission\". Although there were earlier hints, the first formal proposal of this discovery did not come until 1976. Most neurons release several different chemical messengers. In modern neuroscience, neurons are often classified by their neurotransmitter and most important cotransmitter, for example striatal GABA neurons utilize either opioid peptides or substance P as the primary cotransmitter.\n",
"Neurotransmitter systems are systems of neurons in the brain expressing certain types of neurotransmitters, and thus form distinct systems. Activation of the system causes effects in large volumes of the brain, called \"volume transmission\". Volume transmission is the diffusion of neurotransmitters through the brain extracellular fluid released at points that may be remote from the target cells with the resulting activation of extrasynaptic receptors, and with a longer time course than for transmission at a single synapse. Such prolonged transmitter action is called tonic transmission, in contrast to the phasic transmission that occurs rapidly at single synapses.\n",
"An idealized description of neuron is as follows: a neuron has a cell body with two kinds of branches: \"dendrites\" and an \"axon\". It receives input signals from other neurons via dendrites, integrates (sums) them and generates its own (electric) output signal which is sent to outside neurons via axon. The points of electric contact between neurons are called \"synapses\".\n"
] |
Would a plant/crop grow faster if it had artificial sunlight and perfect conditions all the time? | It is not so much 'growing faster' but 'just growing with minimum light'.
A(not very satisfactory) explanation is [airmass](_URL_0_), if a plant grows during spring in the Nordic countries with (due to airmass) only 15% of available light, then on the same area in Southern countries you have enough sunlight for 6-7 stacked layers.
Indoors means better control over humidity/pest-control, day/night-percentage, change between the blue and red percentages to favour leaf or flower growth, and probably temperature changes at the end of the growth cycle to modify sugar content.
| [
"Plants can grow as much as 50 percent faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients. Elevated levels cause increased growth reflected in the harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated in FACE experiments.\n",
"Scientific advances in genetic engineering led to developments in crops. Genetically modified crops introduce new traits to plants which they do not have naturally. These can bring benefits such as a decrease in the use of harmful pesticides, by building in qualities such as insect resistance and herbicide tolerance.\n",
"Even in agricultural crops, where ideal conditions are approximated as much as is practical, plants are not always growing (and therefore transpiring) at their theoretical potential. Plants have growth stages and states of health induced by a variety of environmental conditions.\n",
"Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield increases have not occurred in the past 15–20 years. The genetic \"yield potential\" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has \"barely increased in 35 years\". It takes only a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation.\n",
"Duration of crop growth cycles are above all, related to temperature. An increase in temperature will speed up development. In the case of an annual crop, the duration between sowing and harvesting will shorten (for example, the duration in order to harvest corn could shorten between one and four weeks). The shortening of such a cycle could have an adverse effect on productivity because senescence would occur sooner.\n",
"Genetically modified plants can be implemented to slow down the effects of the abiotic stressors. This allows more crops to be grown on a smaller amount of land. Less need for farmland allows some of it to be set aside for natural wildlife habitat.\n",
"Humans have planned the planting of our crops around the seasons. Even though the seasons are fairly predictable, there are always unexpected storms, heat waves, or cold snaps that can ruin our growing seasons.(Suzuki & Mittler, 2006)\n"
] |
what does hormones actually do to our brains, how it makes us think, and if we extract all the hormone and hormone producing glands will the person be dead or lose his ability to think and feel? | Hormones is a functional name for dozens of chemicals that serve as messengers between organs, and mediate physiological processes. They basically change what cells/tissues/organs do by changing the chemical environment in which said cells are. If you removed all glands, yes a person would die, probably in a diabetic coma from lack of insuline. | [
"Hormones work at very small doses (part per billion ranges). Endocrine disruption can thereby also occur from low-dose exposure to exogenous hormones or hormonally active chemicals such as bisphenol A. These chemical can bind to receptors for other hormonally mediated processes. Furthermore, since endogenous hormones are already present in the body in biologically active concentrations, additional exposure to relatively small amounts of exogenous hormonally active substances can disrupt the proper functioning of the body's endocrine system. Thus, an endocrine disruptor can elicit adverse effects at much lower doses than a toxicity, acting through a different mechanism.\n",
"Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.\n",
"The pituitary gland secretes hormones that directly impact the body as well as hormones that indirectly control body functions because they activate other endocrine glands, such as the adrenal cortex (ACTH) and the thyroid gland (TSH). These two glands when stimulated by pituitary hormones then release their own hormones.\n",
"Nervous system control over hormone release is based in the hypothalamus, from which the neurons that populate the pariventricular and arcuate nuclei originate. These neurons project to the pituitary gland via the hypophysial portal system, and dictate endocrine function via the four Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Glandular axes. Recent studies have begun to offer evidence that many pituitary hormones which have been observed to be released episodically are preceded by pulsatile secretion of its associated releasing hormone from the hypothalamus in a similar pulastile fashion. Novel research into the cellular mechanisms associated with pituitary hormone pulsatility, such as that observed for Leutinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) have indicated similar pulses into the hypophesial vessels of Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH).\n",
"BULLET::::- Hormones are the major signaling molecules of the endocrine system, though they often regulate each other's secretion via local signaling (e.g. islet of Langerhans cells), and most are also expressed in tissues for local purposes (e.g. angiotensin) or failing that, structurally related molecules are (e.g. PTHrP).\n",
"The other central method through which drugs act is by affecting communications between cells through hormones. Neurotransmitters can usually only travel a microscopic distance before reaching their target at the other side of the synaptic cleft, while hormones can travel long distances before reaching target cells anywhere in the body. Thus, the endocrine system is a critical focus of psychopharmacology because 1) drugs can alter the secretion of many hormones; 2) hormones may alter the behavioral responses to drugs; 3) hormones themselves sometimes have psychoactive properties; and 4) the secretion of some hormones, especially those dependent on the pituitary gland, is controlled by neurotransmitter systems in the brain.\n",
"The endocrine system consists of numerous glands throughout the body that produce and secrete hormones of diverse chemical structure, including peptides, steroids, and neuroamines. Collectively, hormones regulate many physiological processes.\n"
] |
could an organism living in the ocean at a pressure of 5 tons/in^2 survive a hit from a sledge hammer? | You have to remember that organisms living at the bottom of the ocean are filled with water. They aren't resisting 5 tons of pressure like a submarine would. The water inside their bodies is at the same pressure as the water outside their body. So, they don't feel the pressure at all. | [
"Because pressure in the ocean increases by about 1 atmosphere for every 10 meters of depth, the amount of pressure experienced by many marine organisms is extreme. Until recent years, the scientific community lacked detailed information about the effects of pressure on most deep sea organisms because the specimens encountered arrived at the surface dead or dying and weren't observable at the pressures at which they lived. With the advent of traps that incorporate a special pressure-maintaining chamber, undamaged larger metazoan animals have been retrieved from the deep sea in good condition.\n",
"The extreme difference in pressure between the sea floor and the surface makes the creature's survival on the surface near impossible; this makes in-depth research difficult because most useful information can only be found while the creatures are alive. Recent developments have allowed scientists to look at these creatures more closely, and for a longer time. A marine biologist, Jeffery Drazen, has explored a solution, a pressurized fish trap. This captures a deep-water creature, and adjusts its internal pressure slowly to surface level as the creature is brought to the surface, in the hope that the creature can adjust.\n",
"Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upperparts of the water column. The pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one atmosphere for each 10 metres of water depth).\n",
"These animals have evolved to survive the extreme pressure of the sub-photic zones. The pressure increases by about one atmosphere every ten meters. To cope with the pressure, many fish are rather small, usually not exceeding 25 cm in length. Also, scientists have discovered that the deeper these creatures live, the more gelatinous their flesh and more minimal their skeletal structure. These creatures have also eliminated all excess cavities that would collapse under the pressure, such as swim bladders.\n",
"Anurag Sharma, a geochemist, James Scott, a microbiologist, and others at the Carnegie Institution of Washington directly observed microbial activity at pressures in excess of 1 gigapascal. The experiments were performed up to 1.6 GPa (232,000 psi) of pressure, which is more than 16,000 times normal air pressure, or about 14 times the pressure in the deepest ocean trench.\n",
"Pressure is the greatest environmental factor acting on deep-sea organisms. In the deep sea, although most of the deep sea is under pressures between 200 and 600 atm, the range of pressure is from 20 to 1,000 atm. Pressure exhibits a great role in the distribution of deep sea organisms. Until recently, people lacked detailed information on the direct effects of pressure on most deep-sea organisms, because virtually all organisms trawled from the deep sea arrived at the surface dead or dying. With the advent of traps that incorporate a special pressure-maintaining chamber, undamaged larger metazoan animals have been retrieved from the deep sea in good condition. Some of these have been maintained for experimental purposes, and we are obtaining more knowledge of the biological effects of pressure.\n",
"While on the bottom, Piccard and Walsh reported they observed a number of small sole and flounder swimming away, indicating that at least some vertebrate life might withstand the extremes of pressure in any of the Earth's oceans. They noted that the floor of the Challenger Deep consisted of \"diatomaceous ooze\". The ascent to surface took three hours, fifteen minutes.\n"
] |
how do united states defence contractors make money when they are not needed? | Many still have personnel overseas re-building infrastructure, training foreign and US troops, and cleaning up everything afterwards. Weapons and equipment are still used and destroyed in training (things wear out or break), even in peace time. Some of them sell to foreign governments. A few do environmental cleanups, demolish unused military sites, and return polluted parcels of land to other uses. Most, if not all, are diversified enough that they still make money in seemingly unrelated things. | [
"Work on contracts approved and funded by the U.S. under the Foreign Assistance Act, which among other things provides for cash sale of military equipment, materials, and services to its allies, if the contract is performed outside of the United States;\n",
"Some defense agencies are the responsibility of separate subcommittees. Funding for military construction activities, such as military personnel housing and infrastructure, and veterans issues are handled by the Subcommittee on Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies. Funding for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is handled by the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development.\n",
"Defense contracting has expanded dramatically over the last decade, particularly in the United States, where in the last fiscal year the Department of Defense spent nearly $316 billion on contracts. Contractors have also assumed a much larger on-the-ground presence during recent American conflicts: during the 1991 Gulf War the ratio of uniformed military to contractors was about 50 to 1, while during the first four years of the Iraq War the U.S. hired over 190,000 contractors, surpassing the total American military presence even during the 2007 Iraq surge and 23 times greater than other allied military personnel numbers. In Afghanistan, the presence of almost 100,000 contractors has resulted in a near 1 to 1 ratio with military personnel.\n",
"Just prior to and during the Iraq War, US Army contracting officers were stationed in Kuwait and Iraq and were charged with contracting for services to support the Army's operations in theater. Contracts for food, water, shelter, and other living essentials, and gravel and chain link fencing were made with numerous US and international companies. By 2007, the US Army had spent $30 billion on support contracts to support operations in Iraq.\n",
"The contract, worth about $400 million, calls for a private company to provide intelligence services to the U.S. Army and security for the Army Corps of Engineers on reconstruction work in Iraq. The case, which is being heard by the U.S. Court of Federal Claims, puts on trial one of the most controversial and least understood aspects of the Iraq war: the outsourcing of military security to an estimated 20,000 armed contractors.\n",
"A defense contractor (or security contractor) is a business organization or individual that provides products or services to a military or intelligence department of a government. Products typically include military or civilian aircraft, ships, vehicles, weaponry, \"and\" electronic systems. Services can include logistics, technical support \"and\" training, communications support, \"and\" engineering support in cooperation with the government.\n",
"Private military contractors, including civilian contractors, are businesses that supply weapons and training to the military, and also handle logistics and base management. While private military contractors may seem similar to mercenaries, the difference is that mercenaries operate illegally. More recently, companies involved with supplying the coalition forces in the Iraq War, such as Bechtel, KBR, Academi (formerly known as Blackwater) and Halliburton, have come under fire for allegedly overcharging for their services. The modern private military company is also offered as an example of sanctioned war profiteering. On the opposing side, companies like Huawei Technologies, which upgraded Saddam's air-defense system between the two Gulf Wars, face such accusations.\n"
] |
Is there a 4 dimensional analog to a sphere like a tesseract is for a cube? | Yes, the sphere *S*^(3), which is the *three-dimensional* sphere (embedded in Euclidean four-dimensional space), is the set of points (*x**_1_*, *x**_2_*, *x**_3_*, *x**_4_*) such that
*x**_1_*^2 + *x**_2_*^2 + *x**_3_*^2 + *x**_4_*^2 = 1
Similarly for higher number of dimensions. | [
"A 3-sphere is a higher-dimensional analogue of a sphere. It consists of the set of points equidistant from a fixed central point in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Just as an ordinary sphere (or 2-sphere) is a two-dimensional surface that forms the boundary of a ball in three dimensions, a 3-sphere is an object with three dimensions that forms the boundary of a ball in four dimensions.\n",
"The 6-sphere or hypersphere in seven-dimensional Euclidean space is the six-dimensional surface equidistant from a point, e.g. the origin. It has symbol , with formal definition for the 6-sphere with radius \"r\" of\n",
"In mathematics, a 3-sphere, or glome, is a higher-dimensional analogue of a sphere. It may be embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean space as the set of points equidistant from a fixed central point. Analogously to how the boundary of a ball in three dimensions is an ordinary sphere (or 2-sphere, a two-dimensional surface), the boundary of a ball in four dimensions is a 3-sphere (an object with three dimensions). A 3-sphere is an example of a 3-manifold and an n-sphere.\n",
"For example, a one-dimensional sphere is the surface of what is commonly called a \"circle\", while such a circle's interior and surface together are the two-dimensional ball. Similarly, a two-dimensional sphere is the surface of the Euclidean solid known colloquially as a \"sphere\", while the interior and surface together are the three-dimensional ball.\n",
"Much of the interesting geometry of the 3-sphere stems from the fact that the 3-sphere has a natural Lie group structure given by quaternion multiplication (see the section below on group structure). The only other spheres with such a structure are the 0-sphere and the 1-sphere (see circle group).\n",
"A sphere (from Greek —, \"globe, ball\") is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball (viz., analogous to the circular objects in two dimensions, where a \"circle\" circumscribes its \"disk\").\n",
"In mathematics, 6-sphere coordinates are a coordinate system for three-dimensional space obtained by inverting the 3D Cartesian coordinates across the unit 2-sphere formula_1. They are so named because the loci where one coordinate is constant form spheres tangent to the origin from one of six sides (depending on which coordinate is held constant and whether its value is positive or negative). They have nothing whatsoever to do with the 6-sphere, which is an object of considerable interest in its own right.\n"
] |
As an international programmer, how do you deal with using computer science in languages from different countries? | I am an American working for a Japanese astronomical observatory in Hawaii.
All code is in English (mostly C, Python, Java, some C++ and some Objective C). Documentation around the code may be in english or japanese. Stand-alone documentation is often in japanese only (depending on the author). | [
"In recent years, computer-assisted language learning has been integrated into foreign language education and computer programs with varying levels of interactional relationship between computer and the language learner have been developed. Language learning aids such as foreign language writing aid and foreign language reading aid, targeted at the specific language skills of foreign language learners, are also alternative instruments available for foreign language learners.\n",
"BULLET::::- Computer science education requires development of trading zones between experts in the social and learning sciences and computer scientists (Fincher & Petre, 2004). Each of these communities uses different methods and speaks a different language, hence the need for a creole and also for interactional experts.\n",
"Technical translation is the medium through which language, discourse and communication can exist in a global world. As technology creates easier and faster means of communication and the world moves toward becoming a global community, the need to communicate with people from multiple language backgrounds also grows. Rather than working with multiple languages, some have proposed the idea of using English as the primary language for global communication, making English the lingua franca—or a common world language. However, English as a lingua franca has various implications for the field of technical communication. Particularly for technical translators who are native speakers of English, there is the tendency to assume a unilateral stance on translation. In other words, the technical translator's objective is to translate to and from English, with the English message being the main focus. While English is a language of global communication, it is not the only language being used for communication, highlighting the importance of moving away from \"singular perspective\" of only communicating in English. The concept of maintaining technical communication in languages other than English is of particular significance in countries with high volumes of multilingual speakers. For example, research has shown that the English-speaking bias, due to the language's position as the lingua franca, within technical translation and communication has negatively affected native Spanish speakers in the United States. Lacking both in quality and quantity, user manuals for various electronic devices exemplified sub-par translations into Spanish, demonstrating the limited accessibility of certain technical documents to speakers of languages other than English, perhaps partly as a result of English as the lingua franca. Finally, when discussing English as a lingua franca it is noteworthy to mention what some researchers call \"untranslatable\" words and what that means for technical translation. Such words or phrases are composed of concepts that are not easily translated from one language to another. A word is considered \"untranslatable\" when there is either no direct corresponding word in the target language, requiring the word to be described or when important cultural connotations from the source language are not properly communicated through the target word. For example, a common example in English of an untranslatable word is the German word \"schadenfreude\", which means to exhibit joy as a result of someone else's misfortune. This word exemplifies untranslatability due to the lack of a corresponding word; however words can be untranslatable due to a lack of a corresponding word, loss of cultural meaning, or for both reasons.\n",
"BULLET::::- Natural language processing – field of computer science, artificial intelligence (also called machine learning), and linguistics concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages.\n",
"Computer programming in general is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language, which is an artificial language often more restrictive or demanding than natural languages, but easily translated by the computer. The purpose of programming is to invoke the desired behavior (customization) from the machine. The process of writing high quality source code requires knowledge of both the application's domain \"and\" the computer science domain. The highest-quality software is thus developed by a team of various domain experts, each person a specialist in some area of development. But the term \"programmer\" may apply to a range of program quality, from hacker to open source contributor to professional. And a single programmer could do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the proof of concept to launch a new \"killer\" application.\n",
"Artificial languages are languages of a typically very limited size which emerge either in computer simulations between artificial agents, robot interactions or controlled psychological experiments with humans. They are different from both constructed languages and formal languages in that they have been consciously devised by an individual or group but are the result of (distributed) conventionalisation processes, much like natural languages. Opposed to the idea of a central \"designer\", the field of artificial language evolution in which artificial languages are studied can be regarded as a sub-part of the more general cultural evolution studies.\n",
"For personal computers, the language selected may be little more than a matter of preference. Language bindings for popular libraries such as SDL and Allegro are widespread, and the performance gap between idiomatic code written in modern compiled languages is negligible. The most popular languages are usually procedural/object-oriented and implemented via compilers; for example, C, C++, and Java. However, developers may take into account domain-specific features, such as interfacing with the operating system, and resilience to reverse engineering for online video games. Many games are not written in one language exclusively, and may combine two or more languages; For example, Unity, a popular game engine, has different pieces written in C, C++, and C#.\n"
] |
What would a gas giant look like from within? | "About 500 kilometers over the dense cloud cover, we enter Jupiter’s troposphere, and keep diving. This “haze” area is filled with all kinds of odd compounds, most interestingly hydrazine and the increasingly important polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons created by UV-blasting of methane that circulates out too far from cloud-cover. Visibility drops off dramatically until we begin to descend into the clouds themselves — then it’s basically zero."
From _URL_0_
Also,
_URL_1_
If you're into this kind of stuff, you should read Sagan's *Cosmos*. | [
"Given the planet's high mass, it is most likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through observations of the star, properties such as its radius, composition, and temperature are unknown.\n",
"The planet is a gas giant that is about in diameter. Like most gas giants, it has a solid core that consists of metal followed by layers of metallic gases. Many of the layers of gas are poisonous, and the pressure and temperature are far above what a human could tolerate. But from approximately down from outer space, there is a habitable layer known as the Bespin Life Zone. This layer has an oxygen atmosphere with the temperature and pressure that makes it ideal for human life. It is in this layer that Cloud City is located.\n",
"Normally, gas giants are considered to not have a surface, although they might have a solid core of rock or various types of ice, or a liquid core of metallic hydrogen. However, the core, if it exists, does not include enough of the planet's mass to be actually considered a surface. Some scientists consider the point at which the atmospheric pressure is equal to 1 bar, equivalent to the atmospheric pressure at Earth’s surface, to be the surface of the planet.\n",
"The term \"gas giant\" was coined in 1952 by the science fiction writer James Blish and was originally used to refer to all giant planets. It is, arguably, something of a misnomer because throughout most of the volume of all giant planets, the pressure is so high that matter is not in gaseous form. Other than solids in the core and the upper layers of the atmosphere, all matter is above the , where there is no distinction between liquids and gases. The term has nevertheless caught on, because planetary scientists typically use \"rock\", \"gas\", and \"ice\" as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly found as planetary constituents, irrespective of what phase the matter may appear in. In the outer Solar System, hydrogen and helium are referred to as \"gases\"; water, methane, and ammonia as \"ices\"; and silicates and metals as \"rock\". Because Uranus and Neptune are primarily composed of, in this terminology, ices, not gas, they are increasingly referred to as ice giants and separated from the gas giants.\n",
"A team of researchers led by David Anderson of Keele University in Staffordshire, England, discovered the gas giant, which is about 1,000 light years (300 parsecs) from Earth, by observing it in transit its host star WASP-17. Such photometric observations also reveal the planet's size. The discovery was made with a telescope array at the South African Astronomical Observatory. Due to the involvement of the \"Wide Angle Search for Planets\" SuperWASP consortium of universities, the exoplanet, as the 17th found to date by this group, was given its present name.\n",
"The term \"gas giant\" was coined in 1952 by the science fiction writer James Blish and was originally used to refer to all giant planets. Arguably it is something of a misnomer, because throughout most of the volume of these planets the pressure is so high that matter is not in gaseous form. Other than the upper layers of the atmosphere and solids in the core, all matter is above the , where there is no distinction between liquids and gases. \"Fluid planet\" would be a more accurate term. Jupiter also has metallic hydrogen near its center, but much of its volume is hydrogen, helium, and traces of other gases above their critical points. The observable atmospheres of all these planets (at less than unit optical depth) are quite thin compared to their radii, only extending perhaps one percent of the way to the center. Thus the observable portions are gaseous (in contrast to Mars and Earth, which have gaseous atmospheres through which the crust can be seen).\n",
"Gas giants also have cores, though the composition of these are still a matter of debate and range in possible composition from traditional stony/iron, to ice or to fluid metallic hydrogen. Gas giant cores are proportionally much smaller than those of terrestrial planets, though theirs can be considerably larger than the Earth's nevertheless; Jupiter has one 10–30 times heavier than Earth, and exoplanet HD149026 b may have a core 100 times the mass of the Earth.\n"
] |
are the black panthers a racist hate group? | The Black Panthers started as a community activist group meant to protect the Black community. You gotta remember that during that time period, law enforcement's idea of "due process" in a lot of places consisted of rounding up the nearest black guy and beating him until he confessed to whatever you needed. So, the BP formed to protect the black community from abuse. This protection often included armed patrols in black communities that were needed to protect innocent black folk from police. In their early days, they did a lot of positive organizing, including many social programs such as community health clinics.
Over time, the group became more radical, more isolated, and several leaders turned to criminal activities to fund their activities or just line their own pockets.
So, it depends on what you're remembering. Most people who aren't black remember the crime, the corruption, and the violence. But many who are black remember that, at a time when law enforcement and many in the government were committed to victimizing the community, the Black Panthers were ready to stand up and fight back. | [
"The Black Panthers (, translit. \"HaPanterim HaShhorim\") were an Israeli protest movement of second-generation Jewish immigrants from North Africa and Middle Eastern countries. It was one of the first organizations in Israel with the mission of working for social justice for Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews, drawing inspiration and borrowing the name from the African-American organization Black Panther Party. It is also sometimes referred to as the Israeli Black Panthers to distinguish them from the original American group.\n",
"The Black Panther Party was an African-American left-wing organization working for the right of self-defense for African Americans in the United States. Newton said that the Black Panther Party's beliefs were greatly influenced by Malcolm X: \"Therefore, the words on this page cannot convey the effect that Malcolm has had on the Black Panther Party, although, as far as I am concerned, the testament to his life work.\" The Party achieved national and international renown through their deep involvement in the Black Power movement and the politics of the 1960s and 1970s.\n",
"Black anarchists have criticized both the hierarchical organization of the Black Panther Party, and the anarchist movement, on the grounds that it has traditionally been Eurocentric and/or white supremacist. They oppose the anti-racist conception, based on the universalism of the Enlightenment, which is proposed by the anarchist workers' tradition, arguing that it is not adequate enough to struggle against racism and that it disguises real inequalities by proclaiming a \"de jure\" equality.\n",
"King Samir Shabazz, a former Nation of Islam member and head of the New Black Panther Party's Philadelphia chapter, has a long history of confrontational racist behavior. He advocated racial separation and made incendiary racial statements while promoting anti-police messages in the media and on the streets of Philadelphia. He publicly announced, \"I hate white people. All of them.\" He also suggested the killing of white babies. Shabazz was arrested in June 2013 for carrying a loaded, unlicensed weapon. The party has claimed his arrest is part of an \"onslaught of attacks against the New Black Panther Party.\"\n",
"There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans. Members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the Mexican Mafia, were indicted in 2011 for harassing and intimidating black people in Southern California.\n",
"The Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include the New Black Panthers on their lists of designated hate groups. The Huey Newton Foundation, former chairman and co-founder Bobby Seale, and members of the original Black Panther Party have insisted that this New Black Panther Party is illegitimate and they have strongly objected to it by stating that there \"is no new Black Panther Party\".\n",
"The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense calls upon the American people in general and the Black People in particular to take careful note of the racist California Legislature now considering legislation aiming at keeping black people disarmed and powerless at the very time that racist police agencies throughout the country intensify the terror, brutality, murder and repression of Black People. As the aggression of the racist American Government escalates in Vietnam, the police agencies of America escalate the repression of Black People throughout the ghettos of America. Vicious police dogs, cattle prods, and increased patrols have become familiar sights in Black communities ... The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense believes that the time has come for Black people to arm themselves against this terror before it's too late.\n"
] |
nominalism | 4 upvotes and no comments, wtf?!?!? | [
"In the foundations of mathematics, nominalism has come to mean doing mathematics without assuming that sets in the mathematical sense exist. In practice, this means that quantified variables may range over universes of numbers, points, primitive ordered pairs, and other abstract ontological primitives, but not over sets whose members are such individuals. To date, only a small fraction of the corpus of modern mathematics can be rederived in a nominalistic fashion.\n",
"Broadly speaking, nominalism denies the existence of universals (abstract entities), like sets, classes, relations, properties, etc. Thus the plural logic(s) were developed as an attempt to formalize reasoning about plurals, such as those involved in multigrade predicates, apparently without resorting to notions that nominalists deny, e.g. sets.\n",
"In medieval philosophy, the French philosopher and theologian Roscellinus (c. 1050 – c. 1125) was an early, prominent proponent of nominalism. Nominalist ideas can be found in the work of Peter Abelard and reached their flowering in William of Ockham, who was the most influential and thorough nominalist. Abelard's and Ockham's version of nominalism is sometimes called conceptualism, which presents itself as a middle way between nominalism and realism, asserting that there \"is\" something in common among like individuals, but that it is a concept in the mind, rather than a real entity existing independently of the mind. Ockham argued that only individuals existed and that universals were only mental ways of referring to sets of individuals. \"I maintain\", he wrote, \"that a universal is not something real that exists in a subject... but that it has a being only as a thought-object in the mind [objectivum in anima]\". As a general rule, Ockham argued against assuming any entities that were not necessary for explanations. Accordingly, he wrote, there is no reason to believe that there is an entity called \"humanity\" that resides inside, say, Socrates, and nothing further is explained by making this claim. This is in accord with the analytical method that has since come to be called Ockham's razor, the principle that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible. Critics argue that conceptualist approaches only answer the psychological question of universals. If the same concept is \"correctly\" and non-arbitrarily applied to two individuals, there must be some resemblance or shared property between the two individuals that justifies their falling under the same concept and that is just the metaphysical problem that universals were brought in to address, the starting-point of the whole problem (MacLeod & Rubenstein, 2006, §3d). If resemblances between individuals are asserted, conceptualism becomes moderate realism; if they are denied, it collapses into nominalism.\n",
"Nominalists assert that only individuals or particulars exist and deny that universals are real (i.e. that they exist as entities or beings; \"universalia post res\"). The term \"nominalism\" comes from the Latin \"nomen\" (\"name\"). Four major forms of nominalism are predicate nominalism, resemblance nominalism, trope nominalism, and conceptualism. One with a nominalist view claims that we predicate the same property of/to multiple entities, but argues that the entities only share a name and not have a real quality in common. \n",
"Nominalism arose in reaction to the problem of universals, specifically accounting for the fact that some things are of the same type. For example, Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats, or, the fact that certain properties are repeatable, such as: the grass, the shirt, and Kermit the Frog are green. One wants to know by virtue of \"what\" are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats, and \"what\" makes the grass, the shirt, and Kermit green.\n",
"In \"Ideas Have Consequences\", Weaver analyzed William of Occam's 14th century notions of nominalist philosophy. In broad terms, nominalism is the idea that \"universals are not real, only particulars\". Nominalism deprives people of a measure of universal truth, so that each man becomes his own \"priest and ethics professor\". Weaver deplored this relativism, and believed that modern men were \"moral idiots, ... incapable of distinguishing between better and worse\".\n",
"As a category of late medieval thought, the concept of 'nominalism' has been increasingly queried. Traditionally, the fourteenth century has been regarded as the heyday of nominalism, with figures such as John Buridan and William of Ockham viewed as founding figures. However, the concept of 'nominalism' as a movement (generally contrasted with 'realism'), first emerged only in the late fourteenth century, and only gradually became widespread during the fifteenth century. The notion of two distinct ways, a \"via antiqua\", associated with realism, and a \"via moderna\", associated with nominalism, became widespread only in the later fifteenth century – a dispute which eventually dried up in the sixteenth century.\n"
] |
Is it correct (Scientifically) to refer to Humans as Omnivores? | We are omnivores by design, even if we arent all by habit. Same way that someone with backwards sleep habits would not put our status as diurnal as any different. | [
"The word \"omnivore\" derives from the Latin \"omnis\" (all), and \"vora\", from vorare, (to eat or devour), having been coined by the French and later adopted by the English in the 1800s. Traditionally the definition for omnivory was entirely behavioral by means of simply \"including both animal and vegetable tissue in the diet.\" In more recent times, with the advent of advanced technological capabilities in fields like gastroenterology, biologists have formulated a standardized variation of omnivore used for labeling a species' actual ability to obtain energy and nutrients from materials. This has subsequently conditioned two context specific definitions.\n",
"Various mammals are omnivorous in the wild, such as species of pigs, badgers, bears, coatis, civets, hedgehogs, opossums, skunks, sloths, squirrels, raccoons, chipmunks, mice, and rats. The hominidae, including humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans are also omnivores.\n",
"The taxonomic utility of omnivore's traditional and behavioral definition is limited, since the diet, behavior, and phylogeny of one omnivorous species might be very different from that of another: for instance, an omnivorous pig digging for roots and scavenging for fruit and carrion is taxonomically and ecologically quite distinct from an omnivorous chameleon that eats leaves and insects. The term \"omnivory\" is also not always comprehensive because it does not deal with mineral foods such as salt licks and the consumption of plant and animal material for medical purposes which would not otherwise be consumed (i.e. zoopharmacognosy) within non-omnivores.\n",
"Although cases exist of herbivores eating meat and carnivores eating plant matter, the classification \"omnivore\" refers to the adaptations and main food source of the species in general, so these exceptions do not make either individual animals or the species as a whole omnivorous. For the concept of \"omnivore\" to be regarded as a scientific classification, some clear set of measurable and relevant criteria would need to be considered to differentiate between an \"omnivore\" and other categories, e.g. faunivore, folivore, and scavenger. Some researchers argue that evolution of any species from herbivory to carnivory or carnivory to herbivory would be rare except via an intermediate stage of omnivory.\n",
"Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming diverse plant and animal foods. Fossil evidence from wear patterns on teeth indicates the possibility that early hominids like robust australopithecines and Homo habilis were opportunistic omnivores, generally subsisting on a plant-based diet, but supplementing with meat when possible.\n",
"Omnivores come from diverse backgrounds that often independently evolved sophisticated consumption capabilities. For instance, dogs evolved from primarily carnivorous organisms (Carnivora) while pigs evolved from primarily herbivorous organisms (Artiodactyla). What this means is that physical characteristics are often not reliable indicators of whether an animal has the ability to obtain energy and nutrients from both plant and animal matter. Owing to the wide range of entirely unrelated organisms independently evolving the capability to obtain energy and nutrients from both plant and animal materials, no generalizations about the anatomical features of all omnivores can realistically be made.\n",
"The brain, like most other internal organs, or offal, can serve as nourishment. Brains used for nourishment include those of pigs, squirrels, rabbits, horses, cattle, monkeys, chickens, fish, lamb and goats. In many cultures, different types of brain are considered a delicacy.\n"
] |
What are these straight line formations in the middle of Australia and what caused them? | I believe the other answer is incorrect. The algorithm is getting it right. [Simpson Desert](_URL_0_), the location of the straight lines, has very long parallel sand dunes up to 200 km long. They're up to 30 m tall, so a detailed elevation map is likely to have captured them.
The algorithm is showing where water would be flowing if there was any to speak of. It would flow through the valleys between the sand dunes. | [
"The circles are numbered in sequence 1 to 4, with number 1 being the most southerly of the group. Circle 1 is in diameter, with a surviving ditch up to wide and deep. It has several gaps, but the one to the north-north-east was a causewayed entrance feature. Circle 2 is in diameter, with a bank up to 6 m wide and high, and the ditch is up to deep. There are three gaps present in this earthwork, and the one to the north-north-east is possibly an original feature. Within circle 2 is a possible ovoid barrow mound measuring , and high. Circle 3 is up to across, with a bank up to 1 m high and wide, and ditch up to 1 m deep and wide. There are four gaps in this circle, the one to the south-south-west is considered an original entrance feature because it directly faces the north-north-west entrance of circle 2. Circle 4 has a diameter of up to 190 m but only two-thirds of the earthwork is present. Boreholes made in the 1950s suggested that the missing western section was never finished, possibly due to subsidence in the area. Associated with circle 4 is a group of mounds interpreted as barrows, one outside the circle to the west, and possibly four inside.\n",
"The Straight Cliffs Formation is a stratigraphic unit in the Kaiparowits Plateau of south central Utah. It is Late Cretaceous (latest Turonian – early Campanian) in age and contains fluvial (river systems), paralic (swamps and lagoons), and marginal marine (shoreline) siliciclastic strata. It is well exposed around the margin of the Kaiparowits Plateau in the Grand Staircase – Escalante National Monument in south central Utah. The formation is named after the Straight Cliffs, a long band of cliffs creating the topographic feature Fiftymile Mountain.\n",
"The sand ridges have a trend of SSE-NNW and continue parallel for kilometres. This pattern is seen throughout the deserts of Australia. Some of the ridges continue unbroken for up to 200 km. The height and the spacing between the ridges are directly related. Where there are 5-6 ridges in a kilometre, the height is around 15 metres but when there is one or two ridges per kilometre the height jumps to 35–38 metres. In cross section, the lee side is the eastern slope with an incline of 34-38 degrees, while the stoss side is the western slope with an incline of only 10-20 degrees. In cross section, the cross beds are planar with foresets alternating between east and west. The foresets have incline angles of 10-30 degrees.\n",
"Northern Botswana has a series of deep, underlying fault lines running beneath its sands. These faults are thought to be the southernmost extensions of the same system of parallel fault lines that are pulling away from each other and have formed East Africa's Great Rift Valley. Parts of the courses of both the Linyanti River and Chobe River, mark the lie of these faults today .\n",
"The area is representative of south-east Australian lunettes or dry lake beds with wind blown dunes on their eastern margins and flat floors, formerly lake bottoms. A lunette is a crescentic dune ridge commonly found on the eastern (lee) margin of shallow lake basins in eastern Australia, developed under the influence of dominant westerly winds. The lunettes provide the area with a special scenic quality. Stabilised dunes, crescent shaped, edgethe lakes and where erosion has occurred, deep gullying has created miniature grand canyons of great beauty, as at the Walls of China, where the multicoloured strata of the lunette of Lake Mungo is exposed.\n",
"The Cordillera mountains were formed by the collision of tectonic plates and stray islands from the far East coast, causing the crust to buckle forming the mountains that we know today. This is the youngest of the three primary geographic regions of Canada, the others being the Canadian Shield and Great Plains. This designation is peculiar to Canada because the country's intramontane plateaus are narrow and may be considered together with adjoining ranges.\n",
"The four circles each consist of a flat circular area surrounded by a bank and external ditch enclosure with more than one entrance. Excavations carried out between 1956 and 1959 by members of the University of Bristol Spelæological Society showed that the banks had stone cores with post and stake holes on either side. Geophysical surveys in 1995 and a magnetometer survey in 2006 are exploring further the make up of the circles.\n"
] |
what exactly is a time share? | It's partial ownership in a property. In a simple example, you and 25 other people would get together to buy something very expensive, like a condo that would cost millions of dollars. Then you all agree to each spend two weeks per year in the condo.
The problem with timeshares is they are almost always run by predatory management companies who have no interest but to squeeze as much money out of the tenants as possible. The industry is rife with scam artists. | [
"A time interval is the intervening time between two time points. The amount of intervening time is expressed by a duration (as described in the previous section). The two time points (start and end) are expressed by either a combined date and time representation or just a date representation.\n",
"The 'half time' is the time taken by a quantity to reach one half of its extremal value, where the rate of change is proportional to the difference between the present value and the extremal value (i.e. in exponential decay processes). It is synonymous with half-life, but used in slightly different contexts.\n",
"Time-sharing was the first time that multiple processes, owned by different users, were running on a single machine, and these processes could interfere with one another. For example, one process might alter shared resources which another process relied on, such as a variable stored in memory. When only one user was using the system, this would result in possibly wrong output - but with multiple users, this might mean that other users got to see information they were not meant to see.\n",
"Time-sharing (or timesharing) is based on the idea that computers are much faster than humans, so while one human user is reading what a computer has just displayed on a screen the computer can do some useful work for another user. Large time-sharing systems can have hundreds or even thousands of simultaneous users, and the memory required by their programs and data generally adds up to much more than the physical memory attached to the computer. Time-sharing systems solve this problem by various combinations of:\n",
"Time is an abstract measurement of elemental changes over a non spatial continuum. It is denoted by numbers and/or named periods such as hours, days, weeks, months and years. It is an apparently irreversible series of occurrences within this non spatial continuum. It is also used to denote an interval between two relative points on this continuum.\n",
"This property also makes it straightforward to represent a timestamp as a fractional day, so that .534 can be interpreted as five decimal hours and 34 decimal minutes after the start of that day, or 0.534 (53.4%) through that day. It also adjusts well to digital time representation using epochs, in that the internal time representation can be used directly both for computation and for user-facing display.\n",
"Time's Up is a movement against sexual harassment and was founded on January 1, 2018, by Hollywood celebrities in response to the Weinstein effect and #MeToo. , it has raised more than $22 million for its legal defense fund, and gathered nearly 800 volunteer lawyers.\n"
] |
How often do electrons move energy levels? | This is actually quite complicated. In short, it depends on the specific atom and how its electronic structure is. It is not possible to further understand this from Bohr's model which just considers the different energy levels n=1,2,3... as you described it.
To go into a little more detail: If you calculate the possible energy levels of electrons around an atomic nucleus using quantum mechanics, you end up with an incredibly high number. You can sort those levels using not only n, but also the three additional quantum numbers l, m and s. Each of these solutions is a possible wavefunction for an electron to have. The probability that an electron will "jump" from energy level x to level y depends on the overlap of these two wavefunctions. The greater the overlap, the more likely is the transition (absorption and emission have equal probabilities). There are many transitions that are not possible ("forbidden"), most often because there is a change in angular momentum greater than a single photon can carry or some other quantity is not preserved. The fancy term for these probabilities is Clebsch-Gordan coefficients, whether a transition is allowed is determined through so-called selection rules.
It's maybe worth noting that it's impossible to calculate the transition probabilities exactly for atoms that are not hydrogen, for all other atoms we have to use numerical methods and approximations. | [
"The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (see \"n\"-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by the nucleus but also interact with each other via the Coulomb Force.\n",
"At the same time, there will be a process of atomic absorption which \"removes\" energy from the field while raising electrons from the lower state to the upper state. Its rate is given by an essentially identical equation,\n",
"The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative, its dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state. The electron's energy raises when \"n\" increases because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of the energy on is caused not by electrostatic potential of the nucleus, but by interaction between electrons.\n",
"This result shows that the total kinetic energy of the electrons can be expressed in terms of only the spatially varying electron density formula_18 according to the Thomas–Fermi model. As such, they were able to calculate the energy of an atom using this expression for the kinetic energy combined with the classical expressions for the nuclear-electron and electron-electron interactions (which can both also be represented in terms of the electron density).\n",
"Electrons are produced by a hot cathode that is heated to about . The electrons are accelerated to relativistic speeds (99.999+% of the speed of light) with an energy of 450 MeV in a linear accelerator. From the linear accelerator, the electrons are injected into the booster synchrotron. Here, the electrons are sent around an oval racetrack of electromagnets, providing further acceleration. Within one-half second, the electrons reach 7 GeV of energy. Upon reaching that energy, the electrons are injected into the storage ring, a circumference ring of more than 1,000 electromagnets.\n",
"The effect is most pronounced for electrons with around 300eV of kinetic energy - with a steep drop-off of the effect at less than that energy, and a gradual drop-off at higher energies, which occurs because electrons \"bury\" themselves deep inside the walls of the accelerator tube, making it difficult for secondary electrons to escape into the tube.\n",
"in which formula_6 is the kinetic and formula_7 is the potential energy. From this expression the energy expectation value, or the statistical average, of the energy of the electron can be calculated with\n"
] |
in the restaurant industry, why do prices increase from breakfast through lunch and into dinner? | I'm not sure about breakfast, but my first guess would be that most breakfast ingredients are cheaper.
As for lunch to dinner, the basic answer is portion sizes. Even ordering the exact same entree, if you order from the lunch menu, your potion will be smaller than if you order during dinner hours. I've worked in kitchens/restaurants since I was 15, and this is what I've always found. | [
"Many industries change prices depending on the time of day, especially online retailers, whose customers usually shop the most in during weekly office hours between 9AM-5PM. Raising prices during the morning and afternoon and lowering prices during the evening is a common practice with dynamic pricing.\n",
"In keeping with the similarity to B&Bs, breakfast is usually included in the price, although one should ask first. Dinner is often also served, but not included in the price. However, if it becomes clear that one plans to generally eat out, the price may go up because this is an important second source of income. The owners will usually offer extra services like laundry service, breakfast & meals or even cigars.\n",
"As a matter of fact, the marked shortening of the menu is in informal dinners and at the home table of the well-to-do. Formal dinners have been as short as the above schedule for twenty-five years. [c.1900.] A dinner interlarded with a row of extra entrées, Roman punch, and hot dessert is unknown except at a public dinner, or in the dining-room of a parvenu. About thirty-five years ago [c.1890] such dinners are said to have been in fashion!\n",
"Dining in restaurants has become increasingly popular, with the proportion of meals consumed outside the home in restaurants or institutions rising from 25% in 1950 to 46% in 1990. This is caused by factors such as the growing numbers of older people, who are often unable or unwilling to cook their meals at home and the growing number of single-parent households. It is also caused by the convenience that restaurants can afford people; the growth of restaurant popularity is also correlated with the growing length of the work day in the US, as well as the growing number of single parent households. Eating in restaurants has also become more popular with the growth of higher income households. At the same time, less expensive establishments such as fast food establishments can be quite inexpensive, making restaurant eating accessible to many.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dinner – most significant and important meal of the day, which can replace either lunch, high tea, or supper. However, the term \"dinner\" can have many different meanings depending on the culture; it may mean a meal of any size eaten at any time of day. Historically, in British culture, dinner was taken at midday for children and manual workers; in the early evening for office workers; and in the late evening by the wealthier elements of society. During the latter half of the 20th century there has been a cultural shift towards everyone having the main meal in the late evening. The meaning as the evening meal, now generally the largest of the day, is becoming standard in most parts of the English-speaking world.\n",
"Confusingly, the evening meal is sometimes called \"middag\" (midday) because hot meals were formerly served in the middle of the day. The variety of evening meals has developed as a result of the increasing availability of foods from supermarkets as well as the development and growth of the local food industry. As a result of American influence, there is now considerable interest in barbecues, salad buffets and ready-to-serve dishes. Italian-inspired preparations including pizza and pasta have also become common options. Meat is increasingly popular, pork still remaining the most frequently served. Cuts are often prepared in the frying pan and accompanied by brown gravy and potatoes.\n",
"During the late 17th and 18th centuries, this meal was gradually pushed back into the evening, creating a greater time gap between breakfast and dinner. A meal called \"lunch\" came to fill the gap. The late evening meal, called supper, became squeezed out as dinner advanced into the evening, and often became a snack. But formal \"supper parties\", artificially lit by candles, sometimes with entertainment, persisted as late as the Regency era, and a ball normally included supper, often served very late.\n"
] |
how is exercise an anti-inflammatory? | Think of inflammation as coming in two different flavors.
Acute inflammation is temporary and strong. It breaks down your body in a temporary way and when your body is done repairing itself, you just made it stronger and better than it was before.
Chronic inflammation is a different beast. It's asymptomatic. You don't know you have it and you can't feel it. It's little but it sticks around and quietly, slowly just breaks down your body. Without it getting stronger at all. It happens so slowly your body doesn't really react. It makes it weaker over time and harms your body.
They aren't 100% sure why, but exposing yourself to acute inflammation *consistently* over time, reduces your levels of chronic inflammation. There are a lot of theories for why that is, involving stress reduction and various hormone levels. But study after study shows that it is true.
| [
"Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines, which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.\n",
"Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.\n",
"Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.\n",
"Exercise is a promising mechanism of prevention and treatment for various diseases characterized by neuroinflammation. Aerobic exercise is used widely to reduce inflammation in the periphery. Exercise has been shown to decreases proliferation of microglia in the brain, decrease hippocampal expression of immune-related genes, and reduce expression of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α.\n",
"Anti-inflammatory medicines such as aspirin, naproxen or ibuprofen among others can be taken to help with pain. In some cases the physical therapist will use ultrasound and electrical stimulation, as well as manipulation. Gentle stretching and strengthening exercises are added gradually. If there is no improvement, the doctor may inject a corticosteroid medicine into the space under the acromion. However, recent level one evidence showed limited efficacy of corticosteroid injections for pain relief. While steroid injections are a common treatment, they must be used with caution because they may lead to tendon rupture. If there is still no improvement after six to 12 months, the doctor may perform either arthroscopic or open surgery to repair damage and relieve pressure on the tendons and bursae.\n",
"Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines, including but not limited to those cited in the above description, which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases. The new view that muscle is an endocrine organ is transforming our understanding of exercise physiology and with it, of the role of inflammation in adaptation to stress.\n",
"Anti-inflammatory drugs are used to treat the pain, and can help the lameness resolve sometimes if shoeing and training changes are made. Include Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and other joint medications. The use of intramuscular glycosaminoglycans has been shown to decrease pain in horses with navicular disease, but this effect wanes after discontinuation of therapy. Oral glycosaminoglycans may have a similar effect.\n"
] |
What is going on inside a battery to establish the potential difference that causes electric current to flow? | See [galvanic cells](_URL_1_).
Basically, you have two [half cells](_URL_0_) that, when put together, undergoes a spontaneous reaction. Instead of letting that happen, you insert your load in between the electrodes such that in order for the spontaneous reaction to occur, the electrons must flow through the path that _you_ want, converting the chemical potential into useful work.
It's similar to an internal combustion engine - you a combustion reaction that is spontaneous, and it will just go its merry way. Instead we have to put some sort of obstacle - a piston - such that the expansion of gases is harvested as useful work. | [
"A battery or galvanic cell in use has a cathode that is the positive terminal since that is where the current flows out of the device. This outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this \"uphill\" motion). It is continued externally by electrons moving into the battery which constitutes positive current flowing outwards. For example, the Daniell galvanic cell's copper electrode is the positive terminal and the cathode.\n",
"When an electric field is applied to the fluid (usually via electrodes placed at inlets and outlets), the net charge in the electrical double layer is induced to move by the resulting Coulomb force. The resulting flow is termed electroosmotic flow. In CEC positive ions of the electrolyte added along with the analyte accumulate in the electrical double layer of the particles of the column packing on application of an electric field they move towards the cathode and drag the liquid mobile phase with them.\n",
"Electroosmotic flow is caused by the Coulomb force induced by an electric field on net mobile electric charge in a solution. Because the chemical equilibrium between a solid surface and an electrolyte solution typically leads to the interface acquiring a net fixed electrical charge, a layer of mobile ions, known as an electrical double layer or Debye layer, forms in the region near the interface. When an electric field is applied to the fluid (usually via electrodes placed at inlets and outlets), the net charge in the electrical double layer is induced to move by the resulting Coulomb force. The resulting flow is termed electroosmotic flow.\n",
"The electrostatic potential or voltage between two points is defined as the energy (work) required to move a small charge through an electric field between the two points, divided by the size of the charge. If there is an electric field directed from point formula_1 to point formula_2 then it will exert a force on a charge moving from formula_2 to formula_1. Work will have to be done on the charge by a force to make it move to formula_1 against the opposing force of the electric field. Thus the electrostatic potential energy of the charge will increase. So the potential at point formula_1 is higher than at point formula_2. The electric field formula_8 at any point is the negative gradient (rate of change) of the electrostatic potential formula_9 : \n",
"In general, electric potential is equivalent to hydraulic head. This model assumes that the water is flowing horizontally, so that the force of gravity can be ignored. In this case electric potential is equivalent to pressure. The voltage (or voltage drop or \"potential difference\") is a difference in pressure between two points. Electric potential and voltage are usually measured in volts. \n",
"Conventional current flow is from cathode to anode outside of the cell or device (with electrons moving in the opposite direction), regardless of the cell or device type and operating mode. The cathode in the solid-state battery is important because it supplies the battery with the necessary ions during charging and vice versa during discharging. \n",
"In the case of a battery, the charge separation that gives rise to a voltage difference between the terminals is accomplished by chemical reactions at the electrodes that convert chemical potential energy into electromagnetic potential energy. A voltaic cell can be thought of as having a \"charge pump\" of atomic dimensions at each electrode, that is:\n"
] |
What causes the dark coloration around anuses? Poop? Friction? Is it just the same process that darkens genitals and nipples in puberty? | Similar threads - [1](_URL_0_), [2](_URL_1_) | [
"During the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also responsible for the darkening of the clitoris and the walls of the vagina during sexual arousal. During the male sex flush, the coloration of the skin develops less consistently than in the female, but typically starts with the epigastrium (upper abdomen), spreads across the chest, then continues to the neck, face, forehead, back, and sometimes, shoulders and forearms.\n",
"During the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also responsible for the darkening of the clitoris and the walls of the vagina during sexual arousal. During the male sex flush, the coloration of the skin develops less consistently than in the female, but typically starts with the epigastrium (upper abdomen), spreads across the chest, then continues to the neck, face, forehead, back, and sometimes, shoulders and forearms. The sex flush typically disappears soon after orgasm occurs, but this may take up to two hours or so and, sometimes, intense sweating will occur simultaneously. The flush usually diminishes in reverse of the order in which it appeared.\n",
"The sexual phase appears on catkins as rounded structures (6 mm × 3–4 mm) possessing a characteristic point, and when young are covered with fine hairs. The galls, shiny and hard, turn red in colour and then black or dark purple.\n",
"During puberty, the vaginal mucosa becomes estrogenized and becomes a dull pink color and gains moisture. Secondary sex characteristics develop under the influence of estrogen on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, typically between the ages of 8 and 13. These characteristics include breast buds, pubic hair, and accelerated growth. Higher body mass index is correlated with earlier puberty.\n",
"Leukorrhea or (leucorrhoea British English) is a thick, whitish or yellowish vaginal discharge. There are many causes of leukorrhea, the usual one being estrogen imbalance. The amount of discharge may increase due to vaginal infection, and it may disappear and reappear from time to time. This discharge can keep occurring for years, in which case it becomes more yellow and foul-smelling. It is usually a non-pathological symptom secondary to inflammatory conditions of vagina or cervix.\n",
"In pregnancy the vulva and vagina take on a bluish colouring due to venous congestion. This appears between the eighth and twelfth week and continues to darken as the pregnancy continues. Estrogen is produced in large quantities during pregnancy and this causes the external genitals to become enlarged. The vaginal opening and the vagina are also enlarged. After childbirth a vaginal discharge known as lochia is produced and continues for about ten days.\n",
"Urticating hairs do not appear at birth but form with each consecutive molt, widening from molt to molt and outwardly presenting themselves around areas of more dark hairs on the upper back part of the abdomen of juveniles. In elder ages their coloration shifts to match the main tone of abdomen. Despite this shift, urticating hairs nonetheless retain unique characteristics that render them visually distinct from abdominal hairs, such as their tendency to cover only a portion instead of the entirety of the opisthosoma.\n"
] |
Why can't medical scientists collect data from a group of people and use the same human control group for every medical experiment in the future so that participants in a study don't have to risk taking a placebo? | The major issue with that is it wouldn't be a good control *because* of the lack of a group taking the placebo. When they do most trials they do them double blind. Neither the subject nor the doctor knows who is getting the real drug and who is getting a placebo (until afterwards, of course). | [
"In controlled experiments of medical treatment options on humans, researchers randomly assign individuals to a treatment group or control group. This is done to reduce the confounding effect of irrelevant variables that are not being studied, such as the placebo effect. \n",
"In medicine, anecdotal evidence is also subject to placebo effects: it is well-established that a patient's (or doctor's) expectation can genuinely change the outcome of treatment. Only double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials can confirm a hypothesis about the effectiveness of a treatment independently of expectations.\n",
"Whenever possible, social psychologists rely on controlled experimentation. Controlled experiments require the manipulation of one or more independent variables in order to examine the effect on a dependent variable. Experiments are useful in social psychology because they are high in internal validity, meaning that they are free from the influence of confounding or extraneous variables, and so are more likely to accurately indicate a causal relationship. However, the small samples used in controlled experiments are typically low in external validity, or the degree to which the results can be generalized to the larger population. There is usually a trade-off between experimental control (internal validity) and being able to generalize to the population (external validity).\n",
"Another issue that can lead researchers not to take part is whether the researcher would stand to gain any benefit from taking part in the experiment. It is an ethical principle that volunteers must stand to gain some benefit from the research, even if that is only a remote future possibility of treatment being found for a disease that they only have a small chance of contracting. Tests on experimental drugs are sometimes conducted on sufferers of an untreatable condition. If the researcher does not have that condition then there can be no possible benefit to them personally. For instance, Ronald C. Desrosiers in responding to why he did not test an AIDS vaccine he was developing on himself said that he was not at risk of AIDS so could not possibly benefit. Against that, the early stages of testing a new drug are usually focused merely on the safety of the substance, rather than any benefits it may have. Healthy individuals are required for this stage, not volunteers suffering from the target condition, so if the researcher is healthy, he or she is a potential candidate for testing. An issue peculiar to AIDS vaccine research is that the test will leave HIV antibodies in the volunteers blood, causing the person to show HIV positive when tested even if they have never been in contact with an HIV carrier. This could cause a number of social problems for the volunteers (including any self-testers) such as issues with life insurance.\n",
"To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trials – say for U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval – quantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified. Researchers attempt to reduce the biases of observational studies with complicated statistical methods such as propensity score matching methods, which require large populations of subjects and extensive information on covariates. Outcomes are also quantified when possible (bone density, the amount of some cell or substance in the blood, physical strength or endurance, etc.) and not based on a subject's or a professional observer's opinion. In this way, the design of an observational study can render the results more objective and therefore, more convincing.\n",
"In the case of risk assessments evaluating the magnitude and nature of risk to human health, it is important to control for confounding to isolate the effect of a particular hazard such as a food additive, pesticide, or new drug. For prospective studies, it is difficult to recruit and screen for volunteers with the same background (age, diet, education, geography, etc.), and in historical studies, there can be similar variability. Due to the inability to control for variability of volunteers and human studies, confounding is a particular challenge. For these reasons, experiments offer a way to avoid most forms of confounding.\n",
"Typically, researchers conduct clinical research on human subjects by asking volunteers to give informed consent to participate in an experiment by taking drugs that have not always been proven safe or effective in humans, though their safety has been tested (usually in animals) prior to any human trials. At the HVTN, many current vaccine studies are using products with a safety record that has been established in previous human trials.\n"
] |
Why do lights dim briefly sometimes when lightning strikes nearby? | If lightning hits a power line or transformer, it could greatly increase the voltage of the lines relative to Earth ground, and a lot of equipment connected to those power lines would be damaged. Varisters or Transorbs are places across power line components to protect them form sudden increases in voltage. While these components are acting, they may prevent the normal flow of electricity. | [
"During the American Physical Society's 2014 March meeting, research was provided that gave a possible explanation for the reason why bright lights sometimes appear during an earthquake. The research stated that when two layers of the same material rub against each other, voltage is generated. The researcher, Professor Troy Shinbrot of Rutgers University, conducted lab experiments with different types of grains to mimic the crust of the earth and emulated the occurrence of earthquakes. \"When the grains split open, they measured a positive voltage spike, and when the split closed, a negative spike.\" The crack allows the voltage to discharge into the air which then electrifies the air and creates a bright electrical light when it does so. According to the research provided, they have produced these voltage spikes every single time with every material tested. While the reason for such an occurrence was not provided, Professor Troy Shinbrot referenced the light to a phenomenon called triboluminescence. Researchers hope that by getting to the bottom of this phenomenon, it will provide more information that will allow seismologists to better predict earthquakes.\n",
"Another possible explanation is local disruption of the Earth's magnetic field and/or ionosphere in the region of tectonic stress, resulting in the observed glow effects either from ionospheric radiative recombination at lower altitudes and greater atmospheric pressure or as aurora. However, the effect is clearly not pronounced or notably observed at all earthquake events and is yet to be directly experimentally verified.\n",
"However, a Monte Carlo simulation program indicates that the lightning hypothesis as the cause of the glow is incorrect, as not enough light could be transmitted through the atmosphere to be seen from Earth. Observers have speculated it may be illusory, resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright, crescent-shaped object. Spacecraft looking for it have not been able to spot it — leading some astronomers to believe that it is just an enduring myth.\n",
"In areas where trees or other vegetation are present, there is little to no rain that can prevent the lightning from causing them to catch fire. Storm winds also fan the fire and firestorm, causing it to spread more quickly.\n",
"Power-line flicker is a visible change in brightness of a lamp due to rapid fluctuations in the voltage of the power supply. The voltage drop is generated over the source impedance of the grid by the changing load current of an equipment or facility. These fluctuations in time generate flicker. The effects can range from disturbance to epileptic attacks of photosensitive persons. Flicker may also affect sensitive electronic equipment such as television receivers or industrial processes relying on constant electrical power.\n",
"Some reports have indicated the presence of \"distant flashing lights\" before or during a cryoseism, possibly because of electrical changes when rocks are compressed. Cracks and fissures may also appear as surface areas contract and split apart from the cold. The sometime superficial to moderate occurrences may range from a few centimeters to several kilometers long, with either singular or multiple linear fracturing and vertical or lateral displacement possible.\n",
"LED lamps may flicker. The effect can be seen on a slow motion video of such a lamp. The extent of flicker is based on the quality of the DC power supply built into the lamp structure, usually located in the lamp base. Longer exposures to flickering light contribute to headaches and eye strain.\n"
] |
why are animals and fauna no longer as large as they once were? what has changed about our world that mega fauna and mega animals no longer exist? | We don’t *actually* know but some theories are that temperature of the earth was the major factor for mammals getting so big. If the ambient temperature is lower, the heat/energy of a larger mammal is much easier.
For insects (and maybe plants), there was a much higher concentrations of oxygen in the atmosphere that helped produce gigantic bugs (we think) and when birds were getting bigger and preying on them (we think) they started to die off (we think) | [
"A 2019 study published in \"Nature Communications\" found that rapid biodiversity loss is impacting larger mammals and birds to a much greater extent than smaller ones, with the body mass of such animals expected to shrink by 25% over the next century. Over the past 125,000 years, the average body size of wildlife has fallen by 14% as human actions eradicated megafauna on all continents with the exception of Africa.\n",
"Human population growth results in changes in land-use, which can cause natural habitats to become fragmented, altered, or destroyed. Large mammals are often more vulnerable to extinction than smaller animals because they require larger home ranges and thus are more prone to suffer the effects of deforestation. Large species such as elephants, rhinoceroses, large primates, tapirs and peccaries are the first animals to disappear in fragmented rainforests.\n",
"Predatory large mammals are important for increasing overall diversity by making sure that smaller predators and herbivores do not become overabundant and dominate. An absence of large predators seems to result in uneven densities of prey species. Even though certain animals may not have become completely extinct, they may have lowered in numbers to the point that they have suffered an ecological extinction. The animals that have most likely suffered an ecological extinction in neotropical forests are the ones who are the most important predators, large seed dispersers, and seed predators.\n",
"The changes to the fauna were even more dramatic: the megafauna, species significantly larger than humans, disappeared, and many of the smaller species disappeared too. All told, about 60 different vertebrates became extinct, including the Diprotodon family (very large marsupial herbivores that looked rather like hippos), several large flightless birds, carnivorous kangaroos, \"Wonambi naracoortensis\", a 5-metre snake, a five-metre lizard and \"Meiolania\", a tortoise the size of a small car.\n",
"Before the arrival of humans European fauna was more diverse and widespread than today. The European megafauna of today is much reduced from its former numbers. The Holocene extinction drastically reduced numbers and distribution of megafauna. Many of these species still exist in smaller numbers, while others thrive in the developed continent free from natural predators. Many other species became extinct. \n",
"Even more open landscapes allowed animals to grow to larger sizes than they had earlier in the Paleocene epoch 30 million years earlier. Marine faunas became fairly modern, as did terrestrial vertebrate fauna on the northern continents. This was probably more as a result of older forms dying out than as a result of more modern forms evolving. Many groups, such as equids, entelodonts, rhinos, merycoidodonts, and camelids, became more able to run during this time, adapting to the plains that were spreading as the Eocene rainforests receded. The first felid, \"Proailurus\", originated in Asia during the late Oligocene and spread to Europe.\n",
"BULLET::::- A study on the mammalian extinction selectivity, continental body size distributions, and taxonomic diversity over five time periods spanning the past 125,000 years is published by Smith \"et al.\" (2018), who report evidence indicating that larger species of mammals were at greater risk of extinction following the global expansion of hominins over the late Quaternary, and that the degree of size-selectivity of mammalian extinctions in this period was unprecedented in the past 65 million years of mammalian evolution.\n"
] |
why don't 'unincorporated territories of the united states pay taxes? why aren't they considered a state? | Well in the US we have a thing about taxing people who don't have representation in the body that decides what those taxes are. They aren't states either because the don't want to be, or Congress won't admit them, or both. | [
"Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions overseen by the federal government. They differ from U.S. states and Native American tribes, which have limited sovereignty. The territories are classified by incorporation and whether they have an \"organized\" government through an organic act passed by Congress. All U.S. territories are part of the United States (because they are under U.S. sovereignty), but unincorporated territories are not considered to be integral parts of the United States, and the U.S. constitution only applies partially in those territories.\n",
"A small number of U.S. states rely entirely on sales taxes for state revenue, as those states do not levy a state income tax. Such states tend to have a moderate to large amount of tourism or inter-state travel that occurs within their borders, allowing the state to benefit from taxes from people the state would otherwise not tax. In this way, the state is able to reduce the tax burden on its citizens. The U.S. states that do not levy a state income tax are Alaska, Tennessee, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Washington state, and Wyoming. Additionally, New Hampshire and Tennessee levy state income taxes only on dividends and interest income. Of the above states, only Alaska and New Hampshire do not levy a state sales tax. Additional information can be obtained at the Federation of Tax Administrators website.\n",
"The territories of the United States are \"organized\" and, thus, self-governing if the United States Congress has passed an Organic Act. Only two of the 14 territories – Guam and the United States Virgin Islands – are organized. One unorganized territory, American Samoa, has its own constitution. The remaining 13 unorganized territories have no permanent populations and are either under direct control of the U.S. Government or operate as military bases.\n",
"An interesting side effect of this is that government entities do not pay real estate taxes to other government entities since government entities own the land rather than hold the land. Localities that depend on real estate taxes to provide services are often put at a disadvantage when the state or federal government acquires a piece of land. Sometimes, to mollify local public opinion, the state or federal government may volunteer to make payments in lieu of taxes (PILOT or PILT programs) to local governments.\n",
"All modern inhabited territories under the control of the federal government can be considered as part of the \"United States\" for purposes of law as defined in specific legislation. However, the judicial term \"unincorporated\" was coined to legitimize the late–19th-century territorial acquisitions without citizenship and their administration without constitutional protections temporarily until Congress made other provisions. The case law allowed Congress to impose discriminatory tax regimes with the effect of a protective tariff upon territorial regions which were not domestic states.\n",
"Taxes in the United States are levied at the federal, state, and local government levels. These include taxes on income, payroll, property, sales, imports, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. Taxation in the United States is based on citizenship, not residency. Both non-resident citizens and Green Card holders living abroad are taxed on their income irrespective of where they live or where their income is earned. It is the only country in the world, other than Eritrea, to do so.\n",
"Some American states have no unincorporated land areas; these include Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York and Rhode Island, although these states all have communities that are not separately incorporated but are part of a larger municipality.\n"
] |
how are open-world video game maps designed? | They actually do "draw" the world piece by piece. It's usually done by groups of people, not just one dude. They first make a rough terrain curves (hills, rivers, canyons...) then they just polish it till it looks really nice. Then they have to add all the props, like trees, buildings, people...
So yeah, they are actually modeled inch by inch, there's nothing more complicated in it.
Exception could be randomly generated games like Minecraft, where the game continues to load new piecea of world. It's not really random, the blocks are dependent on their neighbours. | [
"Some open-world games, to guide the player towards major story events, do not provide the world's entire map at the start of the game, but require the player to complete a task to obtain part of that map, often identifying missions and points of interest when they view the map. This has been derogatorily referred to as \"Ubisoft towers\", as this mechanic was promoted in Ubisoft's \"Assassin's Creed\" series (the player climbing a large tower as to observe the landscape around it and identify waypoints nearby) and reused in other Ubisoft games, including \"Far Cry\", \"\" and \"Watch Dogs\". Other games that use this approach include \"\" and \"\".\n",
"Like most role-playing video games, players travel around the world, buy powerful equipment, battle with monsters and save the world. Unlike all predecessors, the world map uses a 45-degree angle view, and using a point instead town or dungeon' pigeon hole, with the only way from a point to a point; once the player completes the task, the next location will appear on the map.\n",
"The maps in the game are based off real locations at the coordinates given at each level's loading screen and the player's GPS when opened in the area. Eight of the maps have trails, four have at least one building, and all maps contain some type of body of water. Each location is largely different from the other, a huge departure from its predecessor . The in-game guide at the location menu will explain more about each level's geography, history, and flora and fauna. The guides for the animals of each location explain the species' habits, weights, diets, and other details.\n",
"The other map locations are those in which the game action takes place. Each area has a set number of rounds that have to be completed to finish the area. With the exception of Faria, these areas can be played in any order, but one area must be completed before moving onto another. Each area, when completed, unlocks a new panel for sale at the My Town store. The panels that can be unlocked include:\n",
"The original maps are numerous and varied, and most of them are made and submitted by players and casual gamers. Some maps are based on historic battles or wars (e.g., there is a map of the Vietnam War), and others are fantasy realms, inspired by other board games (such as \"Monopoluxy,\" or \"Scrabblux\"), or are simply geometric shapes. In addition, the coding allows for one-way connections on a map, meaning a particular \"country\" may be able to attack another, but not the other way around, which allows for unique strategies.\n",
"Games are played on either pre-defined or procedurally generated maps, creating a world with varied terrain including mountains and oceans. Map generation can be set by several parameters, such as average climate or landmass types. Maps can vary in size, which will affect the number of civilizations that can be played by that map.\n",
"The world map is broken up into a number of different islands which can be navigated between via ship. Each island generally has troops of certain types and foes of a certain level range, giving each island a distinctive identity. The player can only travel to islands for which the player has discovered a map, and this mechanic is used to slowly provide additional islands for the player to visit as he or she explores the previous islands. At some point during play, the player's mount gains the ability to fly, making dodging enemies and traversing each island easier.\n"
] |
why is drinking sea water lethal, but soups with massive sodium content are acceptable? | Because soups with massive sodium content are still much, much, ***MUCH*** less salty than sea water. That's not to say they're healthy, though, Americans eat way too much sodium as it is.
Edit: in fact, salt water is so salty, that getting a mouthful of it is known to cause immediate vomiting. It's happened to me before. We in the SCUBA diving community call it "feeding the fishes". (and yes, when it happens, fishes often crowd around your face to eat your vomit. It's disgusting and cool at the same time) | [
"Many canned soups, including Campbell's condensed and chunky varieties, contain relatively high quantities of sodium and thus are not desirable for those on low-sodium diets. However, Campbell's Chunky, Healthy Request and other soups, as well as their V-8 and Tomato juices, are claimed by Campbell's to contain reduced sodium levels.\n",
"Because large amounts of salts are given out by regenerative water softeners, over 60 cities in Southern California have banned them because of elevated salt levels in ground water reclamation projects. Water labeled as \"drinking water\" in supermarkets contains natural sodium since it is usually only filtered with a carbon filter and will contain any sodium present in the source water.\n",
"Saline is in general safer and more effective than the other intrauterine solutions because it is likely to work in one dose. Prostaglandin is fast-acting, but often requires a second injection, and carries more side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.\n",
"BULLET::::- Saline (medicine) - A saline solution being isotonic with that of human blood is 0.9% w/v, c. 300 mOsm/L (and this being the same as the salinity of the ocean is a common myth. The ocean on average has a much higher concentration of sodium chloride as well as many other salts. This is why ocean water is not suitable for drinking)\n",
"Sodium hydroxide is sometimes used during water purification to raise the pH of water supplies. Increased pH makes the water less corrosive to plumbing and reduces the amount of lead, copper and other toxic metals that can dissolve into drinking water.\n",
"Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.\n",
"Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.\n"
] |
How genetically dissimilar are different dog breeds? Could a Sheppard donate a kidney to a Lab? Could a Great Dane donate blood to a Chihuahua? | Great question! Both cats of different breeds and dogs of different breeds are of the same species (*Felis catus* and *Canis lupis familiaris* respectively). As such, they can act as donors within their own species of both blood and organs.
That being said, there are things that you have to watch out for.
1. When it comes to dogs, with organs that can vary drastically in size between breeds, you have to select animals that are of similar dimensions.
2. As in other donors/recipients it would be nice to try to match [MHC I](_URL_0_) between the donor and the recipient. This is the molecule on cells that tells the immune system that a cell is either self or non-self. Matching makes the organ less likely to be rejected. This is likely not going to happen since it would be very expensive and time consuming, and most veterinary medicine neither has the time nor the money. As a result, the recipient animal will have to be put on [immuno-suppressive drugs](_URL_1_) for life. This procedure takes place in the case of [feline renal transplantation](_URL_3_) at the University of Pennsylvania.
3. Dogs can, and often do in emergency trauma cases, receive blood transfusions! They have a set of their own [blood types](_URL_2_), although if the animal has never gotten an transfusion before and it is an emergency, any type will do. After that initial transfusion, antibodies toward the new blood type are formed, and subsequent transfusions must be made with matching blood type.
I hope that answers everything! Source: the above references, and I'm a 2nd year student of veterinary medicine. | [
"Ullmann was a pioneer of renal transplantation research. In 1902, he performed the first successful renal autotransplantation in a dog. Reportedly, the kidney remained functional for five days. Soon afterwards, he was unsuccessful in trying the first renal xenotransplantation (cross-species transplant) between a goat and a dog. Following an unsuccessful attempt to transplant a pig's kidney into a human patient, who was in the final stage of renal disease, he stopped research of kidney transplantation. \n",
"Allogeneic and autologous stem cell transplantations (as is commonly done in humans) have recently been shown to be a possible treatment option for dogs. Most of the basic research on transplantation biology was generated in dogs. Current cure rates using stem cell therapy in dogs approximates that achieved in humans, 40-50%.\n",
"For a blood transfusion to take place, the donor and recipient must be of compatible blood types. Dogs have eleven blood types but are born without antibodies in their blood. For this reason, first time transfusions will not have a reaction, but further transfusions will cause severe reactions if the dog has a mismatch in the DEA1.1 blood type. Because the immune systems of dogs are so fierce, cross-match tests must be performed upon each dog blood transfusion. Only about one in every 15 dogs is negative for all antigens and thus, a universal donor.\n",
"Breeder Sharon McCurdy who had three of those litters and already lost one dog to the disease, contacted geneticist Bruce Cattanach for help. Cattanach is a Boxer breeder and has been the breed's genetics adviser for more than 30 years. Most cases of kidney disease are not inherited but upon reviewing pedigree information of affected dogs, the disease seemed likely to be inherited in a recessive manner, meaning that puppies are at risk only if both parents carry the faulty gene. Close inbreeding increases the likelihood of recessive genes matching up. Cattanach quickly found more than 30 cases of juvenile kidney disease diagnosed between 2007 and 2010, most are now dead and all closely related. The chance of the disease not being an inherited condition now seems remote. In almost half the cases, Gucci was either the puppies' father or grandfather. Because Gucci is a popular stud dog and had sired 894 puppies, the consequences will be worrying if he turns out to be the source of the gene.\n",
"Dogs that are DEA 1.1 positive (33 to 45% of the population) are universal recipients - that is, they can receive blood of any type without expectation of a life-threatening hemolytic transfusion reaction. Dogs that are DEA 1.1 negative are universal donors. Blood from DEA 1.1 positive dogs should never be transfused into DEA 1.1 negative dogs. If it is the dog's first transfusion the red cells transfused will have a shortened life due to the formation of alloantibodies to the cells themselves and the animal will forever be sensitized to DEA 1.1 positive blood. If it is a second such transfusion, life-threatening conditions will follow within hours. In addition, these alloantibodies will be present in a female dog's milk (colostrum) and adversely affect the health of DEA 1.1 negative puppies.\n",
"Belzer demonstrated the applicability of his dog experiments to human kidney storage when he reported his experiences in human renal transplantation using the same storage techniques as he had used for dog kidneys. He was able to store kidneys for up to 50 hours with only 8% of patients requiring post operative dialysis when the donor had been well prepared.\n",
"Cats have A, B, and AB blood types with specific factors, but there is no universal donor type Recipient and donor blood must be properly cross-matched. Red cells from the donor are mixed with the serum of the recipient in major cross-matching. In a minor cross-match, the recipient's red cells are compared with the donor's serum. Blood donors must meet specific requirements in order to qualify to donate. They must weigh at least 50 lb for dogs and 10 lb for cats, have high enough blood component values, and have no infectious diseases. One donation could be used by up to two animals.\n"
] |
why is it that whats politically correct sometimes isn't the same as the opinion of the majority? | Let's start off with a statement, society evolves towards increased compassion for all members of society. On the forefront of that evolution is radical thought that tends to be less judgemental of others. For example, native Americans are equal humans (1920s), women are equal humans (1940s), Blacks are equal humans (1950), Gays are equal humans (1990). The population in general is conservative, they find radical though scary. Thus social regulation has to be created to help move on society (equal opportunities acts, etc.) This is called "political correctness" in that the politics of the time have moved on past the status quo of the population.
Of course, there are always people looking to mock evolution of society because it scares them a lot. This is usually because they are in some way inadequate and need oppression of sectors of society in order to keep their inadequacy "punching above their weight". These people use "political correctness" as a mocking term. They are trying to undermine a fairer society so that they don't need to address their own failings.
So, to answer your question, leaders need to create political correctness in order to evolve our society forward to a better place. By that definition PC will always be pushing the majority | [
"By solely acknowledging voting patterns, one cannot make an accurate conclusion as to the presence or absence of political polarization, because in the United States, there is a limited number of presidential candidates in the two-party system. To assume that the majority of voters are mostly or completely in agreement with the plethora of political issues within their party is a false assumption. Despite contrary beliefs, there are many liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats in the U.S. who have differing political beliefs within their parties. However, these voters most often align with their party because of the limited choice of candidates, and to do otherwise (i.e. vote for a third-party candidate) is perceived as a waste of time.\n",
"Commentators on the political left in the United States contend that conservatives use the concept of political correctness to downplay and divert attention from substantively discriminatory behavior against disadvantaged groups. They also argue that the political right enforces its own forms of political correctness to suppress criticism of its favored constituencies and ideologies. In the United States, the term has played a major role in the \"culture war\" between liberals and conservatives.\n",
"The notion of political bias based on the sum of individuals' party selection has been criticized. Among others, conservative historian and politician Francis Sejersted holds that the general media is neither left-slanted nor right-slanted, but \"media-slanted\". This means that media across the political spectrum have a tendency to choose the same angle on a case, focusing on personification and dramatic events.\n",
"Since the majority could be quite wrong in regard to particular issues, however, adapting to that majority opinion on those issues might, in a specific context, be an even bigger error than \"keeping one's principles pure\". This is acknowledged in democratic theory to the extent that democracy is normally thought to involve the civil right of dissent from majority opinion, and consequently also the civil right of a minority viewpoint to exist. It implies that \"the majority could be wrong\", and that the minority could be right, something that could never be corrected efficiently, if minority viewpoints were simply silenced. Because in that case, the minority might not be able to become a majority, even if experience proved the minority correct. That is why it is especially important to evaluate criticisms of \"opportunism\" in context.\n",
"In the United States in 2010, however, there was wide disagreement between the Republicans and Democrats because the minority party has been voting as a bloc against major legislation, according to James Fallows in \"The Atlantic\". In 2010, the minority party has the ability to \"discipline its ranks\" so that none join the majority, and this situation in the Congress is unprecedented, according to Fallows. He sees this inability to have bipartisanship as evidence of a \"structural failure of American government.\" Adviser to President Obama, Rahm Emanuel, said the period from 2008–2010 was marked by extreme partisanship. After the U.S. elections of 2010, with sizeable gains by Republicans in the House and Senate, analyst Charles Babington of the Associated Press suggested that both parties remained far apart on major issues such as immigration and Medicare while there may be chances for agreement about lesser issues such as electric cars, nuclear power, and tax breaks for businesses; Babington was not optimistic about chances for bipartisanship on major issues in the next few years. While analyst Benedict Carey writing in \"The New York Times\" agrees political analysts tend to agree that government will continue to be divided and marked by paralysis and feuding, there was research suggesting that humans have a \"profound capacity through which vicious adversaries can form alliances,\" according to Berkeley professor Dacher Keltner.\n",
"In the essay \"Why I Am Not a Conservative\" (1960), the economist Friedrich von Hayek said that political conservatism is ideologically unrealistic, because of the conservative person’s inability to adapt to changing human realities and refusal to offer a positive political program that benefits everyone in a society. In that context, Hayek used the term \"obscurantism\" differently, to denote and describe the denial of the empirical truth of scientific theory, because of the disagreeable moral consequences that might arise from acceptance of fact.\n",
"In the current election system in the United States, many voters feel that their vote will not matter in their state if they do not agree with the majority of the population. Voters who usually vote Democrat in the general election, but live in a primarily Republican state, often feel less inclined to vote. The same goes for Republicans who live in a primarily Democratic state. In these situations, voters feel as if their vote no longer matters in the electoral college.\n"
] |
How can paper be sharp enough to cut through human skin? | Microscopically the edge of paper is like a saw blade rather than a razor, it has to slide along the skin in order to make the cut.
| [
"BULLET::::- Plastic blades are usually not very sharp and are mainly used to cut through vegetables without causing discolouration. They are not sharp enough to cut deeply into flesh, but can cut or scratch skin.\n",
"A clean cut through a thick stack of paper cannot be made with a traditional inexpensive sickle-shaped hinged paper cutter. These cutters are only intended for a few sheets, with up to ten sheets being the practical cutting limit. A large stack of paper applies torsional forces on the hinge, pulling the blade away from the cutting edge on the table. The cut becomes more inaccurate as the cut moves away from the hinge, and the force required to hold the blade against the cutting edge increases as the cut moves away from the hinge.\n",
"Drawing a blade across any material tends to abrade both the blade, usually making it duller, and the cut material. Though softer than glass or many types of stone used in the kitchen, steel edges can still scratch these surfaces. The resulting scratch is full of very fine particles of ground glass or stone which will very quickly abrade the blade's edge and so dull it.\n",
"Implements commonly used for cutting are the knife and saw, or in medicine and science the scalpel and microtome. However, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with sufficient force. Even liquids can be used to cut things when applied with sufficient force (see water jet cutter).\n",
"Cutting of the skin for cosmetic purposes is not to be confused with self-harm, which is also referred to by the euphemism \"cutting\". There may be cases of self-mutilation and self-scarification for non-cosmetic reasons. Lines are cut with surgical blades. Techniques include:\n",
"BULLET::::- Skin removal/skinning: Cutting in single lines produces relatively thin scars, and skin removal is a way to get a larger area of scar tissue. The outlines of the area of skin to be removed will be cut, and then the skin to be removed will be peeled away. Scars from this method often have an inconsistent texture, although this relies heavily on the experience of the artist and aftercare of the wound.\n",
"More precise and less destructive than cutting pages with a paper guillotine or razor or scissors is the technique of meticulous unbinding by hand, assisted with tools. This technique has been successfully employed for tens of thousands of pages of archival original paper scanned for the Riazanov Library digital archive project from newspapers and magazines and pamphlets, varying from 50 to 100 years old and more, and often composed of fragile, brittle paper. Although the monetary value for some collectors (and for most sellers of this sort of material) is destroyed by unbinding, unbinding in many cases actually greatly assists preservation of the physical pages themselves, making them more accessible to researchers and less likely to be damaged when subsequently examined. The down side is that unbound stacks of pages are \"fluffed up\", and therefore more exposed to oxygen in the air, which may in some cases (theoretically) speed deterioration. This can be addressed by putting weights on the pages after they are unbound, and storage in appropriate containers.\n"
] |
is gordan ramsay actually a good chef? | There's not really an objective way to answer your question, tastes can certainly vary. His restaurants have earned 16 Michelin stars, which are pretty sought after, so you may take that as an endorsement. At least some of these stars have been earned while he has been head chef at a location. He's undoubtedly technically skilled. | [
"Ramsay's reputation is built upon his goal of culinary perfection, which is associated with winning three Michelin stars. His mentor, Marco Pierre White noted that he is highly competitive. Since the airing of \"Boiling Point\", which followed Ramsay's quest of earning three Michelin stars, the chef has also become infamous for his fiery temper and use of expletives. Ramsay once famously ejected food critic A. A. Gill, whose dining companion was Joan Collins, from his restaurant, leading Gill to state that \"Ramsay is a wonderful chef, just a really second-rate human being.\" Ramsay admitted in his autobiography that he did not mind if Gill insulted his food, but a personal insult he was not going to stand for. Ramsay has also had confrontations with his kitchen staff, including one incident that resulted in the pastry chef calling the police. A 2005 interview reported Ramsay had retained 85% of his staff since 1993. Ramsay attributes his management style to the influence of previous mentors, notably chefs Marco Pierre White and Guy Savoy, father-in-law, Chris Hutcheson, and Jock Wallace, his manager while a footballer at Rangers.\n",
"Chef Ramsay is closely followed during eight of the most intense months of his life as he opens his first (and now flagship) restaurant in Royal Hospital Road in Chelsea in September 1998. This establishment would ultimately earn him the highly prestigious (and rare) three Michelin Stars. It also covers his participation in the dinner made at the Palace of Versailles on 11 July 1998 to celebrate the closing of the 1998 World Cup and features young chefs Marcus Wareing and Mark Sargeant at the early stages of their careers, as well as mentor Marco Pierre White.\n",
"Gordon James Ramsay (born 8 November 1966) is a British chef, restaurateur, writer, television personality and food critic. Born in Johnstone, Scotland, and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, England, Ramsay's restaurants have been awarded 16 Michelin stars in total and currently hold a total of seven. His signature restaurant, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in Chelsea, London, has held three Michelin stars since 2001. Appearing on the British television miniseries \"Boiling Point\" in 1998, by 2004 Ramsay had become one of the best-known and most influential chefs in the UK.\n",
"Ramsay's flagship restaurant, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay, was voted London's top restaurant in \"Harden's\" for eight years, but in 2008 was placed below Petrus, a restaurant run by former protégé Marcus Wareing. In January 2013, Ramsay was inducted into the Culinary Hall of Fame.\n",
"Ramsay's findings were met with mixed reactions. While some of his contemporaries, like Nigella Lawson, previously stated similar opinions, other celebrity chefs, like Clarissa Dickson Wright, felt Ramsay's proposition was \"rubbish and about ten years out of date\". Wright felt that these comments undermined the increased enrollment of women at culinary schools across the United Kingdom. It was claimed that his desire was to help women who want to be able to cook but lack the confidence or motivation.\n",
"In 1998, Ramsay opened his own restaurant in Chelsea, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay, with the help of his father-in-law, Chris Hutcheson, and his former colleagues at Aubergine. The restaurant gained its third Michelin star in 2001, making Ramsay the first Scot to achieve that feat. In 2011, \"The Good Food Guide\" listed Restaurant Gordon Ramsay as the second best in the UK, only bettered by The Fat Duck in Bray, Berkshire.\n",
"Ramsay's Best Restaurant is a television programme featuring British celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay broadcast on Channel 4. During the series restaurants from all over Britain competed in order to win the \"Ramsay's Best Restaurant\" title. The initial 16 restaurants were selected by Ramsay from a pool of some 12,000 entries submitted by Channel 4 viewers.\n"
] |
was Nero (the emperor) crazy from the beginning ? | I wrote [an answer](_URL_0_) to a similar question a few months back. The tl;dr of it is that Nero likely never was crazy, he was just really unfit to be an emperor of Rome. | [
"BULLET::::- \"The Adventures of Nero\": The title character Nero is named after Nero. In his first debut appearance the character believes himself to be the Roman emperor after drinking poisoned beer. Later he regains his sanity, but all characters kept referring to him as \"Nero\" from that moment onwards. In the album \"De Rode Keizer\" (\"The Red Emperor\", 1952) Nero travels back in time to Ancient Rome and actually meets the real emperor Nero.\n",
"BULLET::::- Emperor Nero – Emperor Nero is a legacy of Apollo and the main antagonist of \"The Hidden Oracle\". The last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Nero is infamous for his tyranny and overindulgence in wealth and luxury with little regard to his subjects. He is the deified Roman Emperor, who has survived through the millennia along with two other deified Roman emperors—the Triumvirate. He forms an alliance with Python, who holds Delphi, while he himself controls the other oracles and plans to destroy Dodona. As the Emperor of the East, Nero lives in New York City, where he recruits and trains homeless demigods, and controls the eastern third of North America. He and the other two Roman Emperors have established Triumvirate Holdings. As \"the Beast\", Nero killed Meg's father, but later adopted and trained her in demigod arts so she could eventually lure Apollo into the Grove of Dodona. After Rhea restores the Grove of Dodona at Camp Half-Blood, Nero tries to force Apollo and Meg to burn the trees; failing at that, he sends a giant statue of himself, the Colossus Neronis, which originally stood in Rome, against Camp Half-Blood and Apollo and the Greek demigods defend the camp against it.\n",
"BULLET::::- Emperor Nero, played by Tim Curry, is the Caesar in Rome during the series. He launches the campaign to wipe Christianity out of the empire. Nero is portrayed in the series as a short, skinny man who likes playing the lyre and singing, but has no skill for either. He is gullible, not recognizing his own favorite baker in disguise. The Storykeepers series promotes the theory that it was Nero who started the fire in Rome on July 18, 64 AD. In the series, this is not the only fire Nero sanctions. In \"Ready, Aim, Fire,\" he allows his centurion Nihilus to launch fire bombs into the merchant district, wanting to clear space to build a pantheon. Unlike the rest of the characters who have typical American accents Nero speaks with a British accent and a Lisp. Nero has Sinus problems.\n",
"BULLET::::- Vice Principal Nero is a reference to the Emperor Nero, a Roman Emperor whose reign is often associated with tyranny and greed. Emperor Nero allegedly \"fiddled while Rome burned.\" Emperor Nero was also famous for forcing many of his subjects to sit through extended theatrical pieces created and performed by himself. This is reflected in Vice Principal Nero's awful violin recitals.\n",
"BULLET::::- Nero: is the main antagonist. He is a legacy of Apollo and a Roman Emperor, infamous for his tyranny and luxury with little regard for his subjects. Alongside the other two Emperors, Nero has influenced many events in history through Triumvirate Holdings, using the company to supply funding for Luke Castellan during \"Percy Jackson & the Olympians\" and Octavian and Camp Jupiter during \"The Heroes of Olympus\". Because of his fame, he has always been worshiped throughout history, so he can not die. He refers to himself as a \"god-emperor\".\n",
"BULLET::::- \"\": Nero is the emperor of Rome and plays as the antagonist. Contrary to popular belief, his sons portrayed in the game share no kinship with the emperor in real life and were based off real emperors Basil I, Basil II, and Commodus.\n",
"Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and for the Great Fire of Rome, rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself. In 59 AD he murdered his mother and in 62 AD, his wife Claudia Octavia. Never very stable, he allowed his advisers to run the government while he slid into debauchery, excess, and madness. He was married three times, and had numerous affairs with both men and women, and, according to some rumors, even his mother. A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under Calpurnius Piso failed, but in 68 AD the armies under Julius Vindex in Gaul and Servius Sulpicius Galba in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.\n"
] |
Are there any studies that show other species to be capable of lying/dishonesty? | This was a guestion in AMA with Sir David Attenborough:
In all your time of shooting nature programs, what is the most human thing you have ever witnessed an animal do?
A chimpanzee does in fact tell lies. If you can believe that. Also, when some Colobus monkeys find a very precious piece of food, it calls the alarm call that it would make if a snake were to arrive, and all the other monkeys run away and it gets the food. | [
"Researchers from the University of the Free State (UFS) in South Africa, while observing gelada during field studies, discovered that the monkeys were capable of 'cheating' on their partners and covering up their 'infidelity'. A non-dominant male would mate surreptitiously with a female, suppressing their normal mating cries so as not to be overheard. If discovered, the dominant male would attack the miscreants in a clear form of punishment. It is the first time that evidence of the knowledge of cheating and fear of discovery has been recorded among animals in the wild. Dr. Aliza le Roux of the university's Department of Zoology and Entomology believes that dishonesty and punishment are not uniquely human traits, and that the observed evidence of this behaviour among gelada monkeys suggests that the roots of the human system of deceit, crime and punishment lie very deep indeed.\n",
"Withholding information, a form of tactical deception, can be costly to the deceiver. For example, rhesus monkeys discovering food announce their discoveries by calling on 45% of occasions. Discoverers who fail to call, but are detected with food by other group members, receive significantly more aggression than vocal discoverers. Moreover, silent female discoverers eat significantly less food than vocal females. Presumably because of such costs to deceivers, tactical deception occurs rather rarely. It is thought to be more common in forms and species where the cost of ignoring the possibly deceptive act is even higher than the cost of believing. For example, tufted capuchin monkeys sometimes emit false alarm calls. The cost of ignoring one of these calls could be death, which may lead to a \"better safe than sorry\" philosophy even when the caller is a known deceiver.\n",
"There are several examples of fish being deceptive, suggesting to some researchers that they may possess a theory of mind. However, most of the observations of deception can be understood as instinctive patterns of behavior that are triggered by specific environmental events, and they do not require a fish to understand of the point of view of other individuals.\n",
"The cumulative research evidence suggests that machines do detect deception better than chance, but with significant error rates and that strategies used to \"beat\" polygraph examinations, so-called countermeasures, may be effective. Despite unreliability, results are admissible in court in some countries such as Japan. Lie detector results are very rarely admitted in evidence in the US courts.\n",
"Additionally, findings suggest that deception is not harmful to subjects. Christensen's (1988) review of the literature found \"that research participants do not perceive that they are harmed and do not seem to mind being misled\" (p. 668). Furthermore, those participating in experiments involving deception \"reported having enjoyed the experience more and perceived more educational benefit\" than those who participated in non-deceptive experiments (p. 668). Lastly, it has also been suggested that an unpleasant treatment used in a deception study or the unpleasant implications of the outcome of a deception study may be the underlying reason that a study using deception is perceived as unethical in nature, rather than the actual deception itself (Broder, 1998, p. 806; Christensen, 1988, p. 671).\n",
"Deceptive behaviour has been observed in Old World monkeys including baboons (\"Papio ursinus\"). In one of their articles, Byrne and Whiten recorded observations of \"intimate tactical deception\" within a group of baboons, and documented examples that they classified as follows: A juvenile using warning screams to gain access to underground food storages which otherwise would have been inaccessible; an exaggerated \"looking\" gesture (which in an honest context would mean detection of a predator) produced by a juvenile to avoid attack by an adult male; recruitment of a \"fall-guy\" (a third party used by the deceiver to draw attention or aggression); and using one's own movement pattern to draw group-mates away from food caches. Byrne and Whiten also broke these categories into subcategories denoting the modality of the action (e.g. vocalization) and what the action would have signified if observed in an honest context. They noted whether the individual that had been manipulated was in turn used to manipulate others, what the costs had been to the manipulated individual, and whether or not there were additional costs to third parties. Byrne and Whiten expressed concern that these observations might be exceptions, and that such deceptive behaviors might not be common to the species.\n",
"The practice of deception has been challenged by some psychologists who maintain that deception under any circumstances is unethical, and that other research strategies (e.g., role-playing) should be used instead. Unfortunately, research has shown that role-playing studies do not produce the same results as deception studies and this has cast doubt on their validity. In addition to deception, experimenters have at times put people into potentially uncomfortable or embarrassing situations (e.g., the Milgram experiment and Stanford prison experiment), and this has also been criticized for ethical reasons.\n"
] |
I was spinning in my chair today (question about centripetal and -fugal forces.) | The construction of the inner ear (see [semicircular canals](_URL_0_)) allows you to detect the direction of acceleration. Once the turbulence in your inner ear settles, you will perceive yourself to be at rest as long as you don't feel acceleration, ignoring the sorts of small details mentioned in other comments. | [
"In Newtonian mechanics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a \"fictitious\" or \"pseudo\" force) that appears to act on all objects when viewed in a rotating frame of reference. It is directed away from an axis passing through the coordinate system's origin and parallel to the axis of rotation. If the axis of rotation passes through the coordinate system's origin, the centrifugal force is directed radially outwards from that axis.\n",
"Centrifugal force has also played a role in debates in classical mechanics about detection of absolute motion. Newton suggested two arguments to answer the question of whether absolute rotation can be detected: the rotating bucket argument, and the rotating spheres argument. According to Newton, in each scenario the centrifugal force would be observed in the object's local frame (the frame where the object is stationary) only if the frame were rotating with respect to absolute space. Nearly two centuries later, Mach's principle was proposed where, instead of absolute rotation, the motion of the distant stars relative to the local inertial frame gives rise through some (hypothetical) physical law to the centrifugal force and other inertia effects. Today's view is based upon the idea of an inertial frame of reference, which privileges observers for which the laws of physics take on their simplest form, and in particular, frames that do not use centrifugal forces in their equations of motion in order to describe motions correctly.\n",
"The force in question was perpendicular to both the velocity of an object relative to a rotating frame of reference and the axis of rotation of the frame. Compound centrifugal force eventually came to be known as the Coriolis Force.\n",
"In classical mechanics, centrifugal force is an outward force associated with rotation. Centrifugal force is one of several so-called pseudo-forces (also known as inertial forces), so named because, unlike real forces, they do not originate in interactions with other bodies situated in the environment of the particle upon which they act. Instead, centrifugal force originates in the rotation of the frame of reference within which observations are made.\n",
"It wasn't until the latter half of the 18th century that the modern \"fictitious force\" understanding of the centrifugal force as a pseudo-force artifact of rotating reference frames took shape. In a 1746 memoir by Daniel Bernoulli, \"the idea that the centrifugal force is fictitious emerges unmistakably.\" Bernoulli, in seeking to describe the motion of an object relative to an arbitrary point, showed that the magnitude of the centrifugal force depended on which arbitrary point was chosen to measure circular motion about. Later in the 18th century Joseph Louis Lagrange in his \"Mécanique Analytique\" explicitly stated that the centrifugal force depends on the rotation of a system of perpendicular axes. \n",
"BULLET::::- Centrifuges are used in science and industry to separate substances. In the reference frame spinning with the centrifuge, the centrifugal force induces a hydrostatic pressure gradient in fluid-filled tubes oriented perpendicular to the axis of rotation, giving rise to large buoyant forces which push low-density particles inward. Elements or particles denser than the fluid move outward under the influence of the centrifugal force. This is effectively Archimedes' principle as generated by centrifugal force as opposed to being generated by gravity.\n",
"Within this view of physics, any other phenomenon that is usually attributed to centrifugal force can be used to identify absolute rotation. For example, the oblateness of a sphere of freely flowing material is often explained in terms of centrifugal force. The oblate spheroid shape reflects, following Clairaut's theorem, the balance between containment by gravitational attraction and dispersal by centrifugal force. That the Earth is itself an oblate spheroid, bulging at the equator where the radial distance and hence the centrifugal force is larger, is taken as one of the evidences for its absolute rotation.\n"
] |
What do we know about the fowl of the roman empire? | Fortunately there is a cook book from the late 4th or early 5th century CE. That book is Apicius. Keep in mind these recipes would have been for the upper class of society. There is a section on fowl which includes chicken, pheasant, goose, duck and doves. It also includes ostrich and peacock along with a few others. If you'd like you can check out the book at the following link from project Gutenberg.
_URL_0_
You are also correct in turkey being a recent addition to European cuisine. The turkey is among one of the New World foods. | [
"Caltrops were known to the Romans as \"tribulus\" or sometimes as \"murex ferreus\", the latter meaning 'jagged iron' (literally 'iron jagged thing'). They were also used in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.\n",
"Pliny reported in \"Natural History\" that a grub which he gives the name \"cossus\" was considered a Roman delicacy after it was fed with flour. Some writers have equated this with \"Cossus cossus\", but Pliny specifies that his \"cossus\" is found in oak trees, which makes this identification unlikely. Pliny's \"cossus\" is more likely to have been the larva of the beetle \"Cerambyx heros\".\n",
"\"Archimylacris\" lived on the warm, swampy forest floors of North America and Europe 300 million years ago, in the Late Carboniferous times. Like modern cockroaches, this insect had a large head shield with long, curved antennae, or feelers, and folded wings. To a modern observer, it would likely appear as a moderate-sized cockroach, with a \"tail\" (ovipositor) in the female. Presumably, its habits would be cockroach-like, too, scurrying along the undergrowth eating anything edible, possibly falling prey to labyrinthodont amphibians and very early reptiles.\n",
"Pigs of the Roman Empire is an album by the American alternative metal group Melvins and electronic musician Lustmord, which was released in 2004 through Ipecac Recordings. Adam Jones, guitarist for Tool, also makes substantial contributions to the album. \n",
"Rusts can produce up to five spore types from corresponding fruiting body types during their life cycle, depending on the species. Roman numerals have traditionally been used to refer to these morphological types.\n",
"Roman tradition held that the \"mundus\" had been dug and sealed by Romulus as part of Rome's foundation; Plutarch compares it to pits dug by Etruscan colonists, containing soil brought from their parent city, used to dedicate the first fruits of the harvest. Warde Fowler speculates the \"mundus\" as Rome's first storehouse (\"penus\") for seed-grain, later becoming the symbolic \"penus\" of the Roman state. In the oldest known Roman calendar, the days of the \"mundus\" are marked as C(omitiales) (days when the Comitia met). Later authors mark them as \"dies religiosus\" (when no official meetings could be held). Some modern scholars seek to explain this as the later introduction and accommodation of Greek elements, grafted onto the original \"mundus\" rites. The rites of August 24 were held between the agricultural festivals of Consualia and Opiconsivia; those of October 5 followed the \"Ieiunium Cereris\", and those of November 8 took place during the Plebeian Games As a whole, the various days of the \"mundus\" suggest rites to Ceres as the guardian deity of seed-corn in the establishment of cities, and in her function as a door-warden of the afterlife, which was co-ruled during the winter months by her daughter Proserpina, queen-companion to Dis.\n",
"The cockerel was already of symbolic importance in Gaul at the time of the invasion of Julius Caesar and was associated with the god Lugus. Today the Gallic rooster is an emblem of France. The rooster is also an emblem of Wallonia and the Turkish city of Denizli. Among Roman deities, Priapus was sometimes represented as a cock, with its beak as a phallus and its wattles as testicles. The cock or a man with rooster attributes was similarly used as an erotic symbol, \"Priapus Gallinaceus\" The Cockburn clan in Scotland use the cock as their badge. Their canting coat-of-arms is \"Argent three cocks gules\", and their motto is ACCENDIT CANTU (Latin: He rouses us with song). A fighting cockerel on a ball is the symbol of Tottenham Hotspur Football Club. The cockerel wears a pair of spurs which is a reference to the club's nickname. It has been present on their crest and shield since 1901. Additionally, the cockerel is the emblem of Turkish sports club Denizlispor, which was founded in 1966. Also, the supporters of the club are called cockerels. Another soccer club that uses a rooster as its symbol is the Clube Atlético Mineiro, from Brazil. The supporters of the club and the supporters of other Brazilian clubs, often refer to Mineiro as \"Galo\", which means rooster in Portuguese. The \"Crazy Rooster\", a symbol of Clube Atlético Mineiro. In Australia, the Sydney Roosters, who play in the National Rugby League have adopted the cockerel as its emblem. The Roosters' emblem is a cock with its comb fashioned to represent the Sydney Opera House. Jesus College in the University of Cambridge features roosters on its coat of arms, which is a pun on the name of the college's founder, John Alcock. The University of South Carolina features a Gamecock, or fighting cockerel, as its mascot for all athletic programs. The Coat of arms of Kenya features a rooster holding an axe. The emblem of Chianti Classico is a black rooster. A black cockerel was believed in medieval times to be a symbol of witchcraft along with the black cat, with the rooster \"used as symbols of either virtue or vice\" until modern times.\n"
] |
the plot of the legend of zelda series | It's hard to attribute a chronology to Zelda, though some aspects can be assumed ( like Wind Waker seems to be a post-apocalyptic Hyrule, the Great Sea having flooded the world ), and each of the games has similar themes for the most part. Seeing as Link is the "hero of time", I always saw the series as two omnipresent "forces" that are epitomized by Link and Ganondorf, good and evil, a conflict that reoccurs every century or so. We can be sure all this is happening within the same world, seeing as certain constants exist (the goddesses, zelda, hyrule, termina, deku tree, faeries, etc) but I dont think anyone knows for sure | [
"The story of \"The Legend of Zelda\" is described in the instruction booklet and during the short prologue which plays after the title screen: A small kingdom in the land of Hyrule is engulfed by chaos when an army led by Ganon, the Prince of Darkness, invaded and stole the Triforce of Power, one part of a magical artifact which alone bestows great strength. In an attempt to prevent him from acquiring the Triforce of Wisdom, another of the three pieces, Princess Zelda splits it into eight fragments and hides them in secret underground dungeons. Before eventually being kidnapped by Ganon, she commands her nursemaid Impa to find someone courageous enough to save the kingdom. While wandering the land, the old woman is surrounded by Ganon's henchmen, when a young boy named Link appears and rescues her. Upon hearing Impa's plea, he resolves to save Zelda and sets out to reassemble the scattered fragments of the Triforce of Wisdom, with which Ganon can then be defeated.\n",
"Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine is an action-adventure video game by LucasArts released in 1999. The first 3D installment in the series, its gameplay focuses on solving puzzles, fighting enemies, and completing various platforming sections. The story is set in 1947, nine years after the events of \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\", and puts the eponymous protagonist, the adventurer Indiana Jones, against the Soviet Union. In a race for a mythological Babylonian power source, he joins forces with the Central Intelligence Agency and collects four pieces of the Infernal Machine, an ancient device that allegedly opens a portal to another dimension.\n",
"The Legend of Zelda is an American animated series based on the Japanese video game series \"The Legend of Zelda\" by Nintendo. The plot follows the adventures of Link and Princess Zelda as they defend the kingdom of Hyrule from an evil wizard named Ganon. It is heavily based on the first game of the \"Zelda\" series, \"The Legend of Zelda\", but includes some references to the second, \"\". The show was produced by DIC Enterprises and distributed by Viacom Enterprises in association with Nintendo of America, Inc. It comprises thirteen episodes which first aired in North America from September 8, 1989, to December 1, 1989.\n",
"Every episode of \"The Legend of Zelda\" follows the adventures of the hero Link and Princess Zelda as they defend the kingdom of Hyrule from an evil wizard named Ganon, who somehow came into possession of the Triforce of Power. Most episodes consist of Ganon (or his minions) either attempting to capture the Triforce of Wisdom from Zelda, kidnap Zelda, or otherwise conquer Hyrule. Curiously, the Triforce of Courage is never seen or even mentioned in the series. In some episodes, Link and Zelda are assisted and accompanied by a fairy-princess, Spryte.\n",
"The premise of the \"Legend of Zelda\" focused on the hero Link (Jonathan Potts) helping Princess Zelda (Cynthia Preston) to defend the kingdom of Hyrule from the evil wizard Ganon (Len Carlson), by preventing him from acquiring the Triforce through thwarting his schemes or those of his minions. Many elements of the serials were based upon the NES game \"The Legend of Zelda\". It is one of few Zelda productions to feature the character of Link being able to fully talk - the others in the Zelda franchise being the CD-i games, the manga series, the comic series, and episodes of \"\" (the latter following the conclusion of \"The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!\", and based upon the NES game \"\") - with episodes often featuring the character using the sarcastic catchphrase \"Well, excuse me, Princess!\" (which later went on to become a popular meme) and a running gag involving Link failing to get Zelda to kiss him for his heroic deeds.\n",
"Created as a serial comic for \"Nintendo Power\" magazine by acclaimed manga author Shotaro Ishinomori, and later collected in graphic novel form, \"The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past\" tells an alternate version of the events from \"A Link to the Past\". Zelda calls to Link and he must rescue her, first from Agahnim, and then from imprisonment at Turtle Rock in the Dark World. She is also instrumental in storming Ganon's floating castle and destroying him. Link and Zelda definitely develop a strong connection, but the relationship is ultimately portrayed as tragic. At the end of the story, Zelda has become queen, and Link is head of the Royal Guard and the Knights of Hyrule. This success is bittersweet, as their duties keep them apart, even though they were once so close, sharing an adventure and even coming together in dreams.\n",
"Following this, the games branched off into original storylines with Indiana Jones in the Lost Kingdom, \"Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis\", \"Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine\", \"Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb\" and \"Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings\". \"Emperor's Tomb\" sets up Jones's companion Wu Han and the search for Nurhaci's ashes seen at the beginning of \"Temple of Doom\". The first two games were developed by Hal Barwood and starred Doug Lee as the voice of Indiana Jones; \"Emperor's Tomb\" had David Esch fill the role and \"Staff of Kings\" starred John Armstrong.\n"
] |
What causes the double sonic boom of Falcon rockets landing? | Practically all objects that breaks the sound barrier cause a double sonic boom. First at the front of the object, where it is pushing away the air, and second at the end of the object, where it stops pushing away the air. At both these points there is a big and rapid change in pressure.
The F9 actually creates three sonic booms though. At the engine, at the landing legs and at the grid fins. | [
"According to witnesses no sonic boom was heard. It is claimed that this was because of the short distance between the observers and the deafening sonic waves from the combined liquid and solid-fuel rockets used to propel the vehicle. Standing shock waves in the rocket exhaust produce continuous supersonic shock waves (a continuous \"sonic boom\"). The auditory dynamics of two roaring rocket exhausts, combined with the pounding physical effects of such intense sound waves over the short distance to the observers, made it questionable whether close observers could have differentiated the vehicle's sonic boom from the general cacophony of background noise. No boom was heard at greater distances either, in marked contrast to the runs of ThrustSSC, which generated extensive and well attested sonic booms over a wide area and a clearly visible shockwave.\n",
"the rocket's largest payload yet targeting a highly-energetic geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). Consequently, the Falcon 9 first stage followed a ballistic trajectory after separation and re-entered the atmosphere at high velocity with very little fuel to mitigate potential aerodynamic damage.\n",
"The sound of the Apollo rocket launch is a mix of V2 rocket and atom bomb punctuated by slowed down struck metal which emulates cathedral bells, creating a thread with the slowed down brass in the Stonehenge music which bookends the film and the pipe organ score linking the Apollo 11 rocket flight with micro and macro universes.\n",
"Rocket exhaust generates a significant amount of acoustic energy. As the supersonic exhaust collides with the ambient air, shock waves are formed. The sound intensity from these shock waves depends on the size of the rocket as well as the exhaust velocity. The sound intensity of large, high performance rockets could potentially kill at close range.\n",
"The sound of a sonic boom depends largely on the distance between the observer and the aircraft shape producing the sonic boom. A sonic boom is usually heard as a deep double \"boom\" as the aircraft is usually some distance away. However, as those who have witnessed landings of space shuttles have heard, when the aircraft is r \"crack\". The sound is much like that of mortar bombs, commonly used in firework displays. It is a common misconception that only one boom is generated during the subsonic to supersonic transition; rather, the boom is continuous along the boom carpet for the entire supersonic flight. As a former Concorde pilot puts it, \"You don't actually hear anything on board. All we see is the pressure wave moving down the aeroplane - it gives an indication on the instruments. And that's what we see around Mach 1. But we don't hear the sonic boom or anything like that. That's rather like the wake of a ship - it's behind us.\".\n",
"It is worth noting that orbital rockets are launched vertically at first to lift the rocket above the atmosphere (which causes frictional drag), and then slowly pitch over and finish firing the rocket engine parallel to the atmosphere to achieve orbit speed.\n",
"BULLET::::- SpaceX successfully lands the first stage of its Falcon 9 rocket on a platform at sea, the fourth time it has made such a landing. The landing, made aboard a platform in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Florida after launching a communications satellite into orbit, is particularly challenging because of the distance the rocket travels to deliver its payload and the large amount of energy required, subjecting the first stage to extreme speeds and re-entry heating.\n"
] |
In the UK, how did political power shift away from the nobility? | It was taken from the hands of the nobility in 1999 when Labour removed the rights of peers to sit in the House of Lords, which is the UK's second chamber.
92 hereditary peers are left there today, along with 26 Princes of the Church. The rest are members of political parties that were ushered while their party was in power. Sixteen years later it's still a controversial issue and reeks of corruption to many.
FYI, this subreddit has a rule that excludes everything that happened under twenty years ago. | [
"The influence of the Crown was increased by the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, which destroyed the power of the great noblemen. Both houses of Parliament held little power during the ensuing years, and the absolute supremacy of the Sovereign was restored. The domination of the monarch grew further under the House of Tudor in the early sixteenth century as Henry VII, in his miserly greed grew fiscally independent. The Reformation Parliament, called by Henry VIII after Cardinal Wolsey failed to secure a divorce from Catherine of Aragon and sitting from 1529 to 1536 made laws affecting all aspects of national life, but especially with regard to religious matters previously reserved to the church. Though acting at the behest and under the direction of the King and his leading minister, Thomas Cromwell, Parliament was acquiring universal legal competence and responsibility for all matters affecting the realm. \n",
"The same forces that had reduced the power of the traditional aristocracy also served to increase the power of the commercial classes. The rise of trade and the central importance of money to the operation of the government gave this new class great power, but power that was not reflected in the government structure. This would lead to a long contest during the 17th century between the forces of the monarch and parliament.\n",
"Executive power was historically shared between the King and an aristocratic Privy council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the commoner estates of the Riksdag. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, a parliamentary system was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of constitutional monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. Already during the first of those three periods, the 'Era of Liberty' (1719–72) the Swedish Rikstag had developed into a very active Parliament, and this tradition continued into the nineteenth century, laying the basis for the transition towards modern democracy at the end of that century.\n",
"In the mid 17th century, after the English Civil War (1642–1651), Parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch then gained more power through the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights in 1689. The monarch could no longer establish any law or impose any tax without its permission and thus the House of Commons became a part of the government. It is at this point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge.\n",
"After the Hanoverian George I ascended the throne in 1714 through an Act of Parliament, power began to shift from the Sovereign, and by the end of his reign the position of the ministers — who had to rely on Parliament for support — was cemented. Towards the end of the 18th century the monarch still had considerable influence over Parliament, which was dominated by the English aristocracy and by patronage, but had ceased to exert direct power: for instance, the last occasion Royal Assent was withheld, was in 1708 by Queen Anne. At general elections the vote was restricted to freeholders and landowners, in constituencies that were out of date, so that in many \"rotten boroughs\" seats could be bought while major cities remained unrepresented. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the Napoleonic Wars developed the government became repressive against dissent and progress toward reform was stalled.\n",
"For example, in the case of democratization of Europe, especially in England before the Glorious Revolution, political institutions were dominated by the monarch. However, profits from increasing international trade extended \"de facto\" political power beyond the monarch to commercially engaged nobles and a new rising merchant class. Because these nobles and the merchant class contributed to a significant portion of the economic output as well as the tax income for the monarch, the interaction of the two political powers gave rise to political institutions that increasingly favored the merchant class, plus economic institutions that protected the interests of the merchant class. This cycle gradually empowered the merchant class until it was powerful enough to take down the monarchy system in England and guarantee efficient economic institutions.\n",
"New Monarchies, which were very powerful centralized governments with unified inhabitants, began to emerge in the mid-15th century. Factors responsible for this advance were the vast demographic and economic growth. Before these New Monarchies were formed there were many changes the new monarchs had to make: including weakening powerful rivals, increasing revenue, unifying the country, and strengthening the power of the king and his bureaucracy. Two countries successful in strengthening themselves were France and England. England was headed by Henry VII and his son Henry VIII of the Tudor dynasty; France was headed by Louis XI, Louis XII and Frances I of the Valois dynasty. \n"
] |
What's the science behind the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs? Why were they still airborne when they detonated? | Both the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs were devices meant to create a supercritical state in a mass of enriched uranium (Hiroshima) or plutonium (Nagasaki), which allowed for an explosive nuclear fission chain reaction. In more layman's speak, this means that they quickly created the conditions so that [splitting one atom of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 would lead to the splitting of more than one additional atoms](_URL_0_), which over the course of a millisecond of such exponential splitting would release a lot of energy. They used different fuels and were of different designs because of those fuel choices. In the Hiroshima bomb (Little Boy), one piece of enriched uranium was shot into another through a gun barrel using high explosives. This created a brief supercritical mass of uranium. In the Nagasaki bomb (Fat Man), a solid sphere of plutonium-239 was compressed symmetrically from all sides through the use of explosive lenses, which increased its density by a factor of 2 or so, squeezing its atoms closer together. This meant that its existing mass was now supercritical.
There are many more details involved with making this work in practice, but the basic concept is as described. Atomic bombs are just complex machines made to produce the conditions for the chain reaction.
The above is totally separate from why they were detonated in the air. The choice of an air bust was made to maximize blast damage to the targets on the ground. When the blast wave proceeds downward from above, it reflects off of the ground. It can then catch up with the rest of the blast wave, increasing its strength. This expands the area of medium/light damage considerably, at the expense of heavier blast damage. For a "light" target like a city, this is (clearly) entirely adequate. [You can see a diagram of this reflection here](_URL_1_), and a [photograph of the reflection here](_URL_2_) (the latter is for a weapon with the same yield as the Hiroshima bomb, from the 1950s; those little dark things on the ground are tanks). This technique is sometimes used with conventional explosives as well. | [
"In Europe and America the effects of the atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not fully understood. The photos produced by Masao Horino contributed to the world wide cry for the bombs to never be used again.\n",
"Details of nuclear weapon design also affect neutron emission: the gun-type assembly Hiroshima bomb leaked far more neutrons than the implosion type 21 kt Nagasaki bomb because the light hydrogen nuclei (protons) predominating in the exploded TNT molecules (surrounding the core of the Nagasaki bomb) slowed down neutrons very efficiently while the heavier iron atoms in the steel nose forging of the Hiroshima bomb scattered neutrons without absorbing much neutron energy.\n",
"For 12 months prior to the nuclear attack, Nagasaki had experienced five small-scale air attacks by an aggregate of 136 U.S. planes which dropped a total of 270 tons of high explosive, 53 tons of incendiary, and 20 tons of fragmentation bombs. Of these, a raid of August 1, 1945, was most effective, with a few of the bombs hitting the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, several hitting the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works, and six bombs landing at the Nagasaki Medical School and Hospital, with three direct hits on buildings there. While the damage from these few bombs was relatively small, it created considerable concern in Nagasaki and a number of people, principally school children, were evacuated to rural areas for safety, thus reducing the population in the city at the time of the atomic attack.\n",
"According to the 1946 book \"Hiroshima\" and other books which cover both bombings, in the days between the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, some survivors of the first bombing went to Nagasaki and told others what they had done to survive after the initial \"flash\" and informed them about the particularly dangerous threat of imploding window glass. As a result of this timely warning, a number of lives were saved in the initial blast at Nagasaki. However these informed people were the exception and in both Hiroshima and Nagasaki many died while searching the skies, curious to locate the source of the brilliant flash.\n",
"Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on 6 August, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. \"Enola Gay\", piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, in the Northern Mariana Islands, about six hours' flight time from Japan, accompanied by two other B-29s, \"The Great Artiste\", carrying instrumentation, and a then-nameless aircraft later called \"Necessary Evil\", commanded by Captain George Marquardt, to take photographs. The director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., wanted the event recorded for posterity, so the takeoff was illuminated by floodlights. When he wanted to taxi, Tibbets leaned out the window to direct the bystanders out of the way. On request, he gave a friendly wave for the cameras.\n",
"The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are identified as the cause of Japanese whaling. The two Japanese cities were destroyed by atomic weapons during the final stages of World War II under orders by U.S. President Harry Truman, which killed about 220,000 people. In \"Whale Whores\", the Japanese are presented with a doctored picture of the \"Enola Gay\", the B-29 Superfortress bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. The picture shows a dolphin and a whale piloting the plane to bomb the city. The Miami Dolphins, a National Football League professional football team, are killed along with real dolphins by the whalers in \"Whale Whores\". Near the end of the episode, Stan and the crew of the MY Steve Irwin encounter fishing ship captain Sig Hansen and his crew from the Discovery Channel reality series, \"Deadliest Catch\". The scene with Paul Watson's crew throwing \"stinky butter\" at the whalers refers to Watson and his crew's practice of throwing stink bombs containing butyric acid, an acid found in rancid butter and cheese, at Japanese whaling vessels, including the factory vessel, the \"Nisshin Maru\".\n",
"All of the scientists expressed shock when informed of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Some first doubted that the report was genuine. They were told initially of an official announcement that an \"atomic bomb\" had been dropped on Hiroshima, with no mention of uranium or nuclear fission. Harteck said that he would have understood the words \"uranium\" or \"nuclear (fission) bomb\", but he had worked with atomic hydrogen and atomic oxygen and thought that American scientists might have succeeded in stabilising a high concentration of (separate) atoms; such a bomb would have had a tenfold increase over a conventional bomb. \n"
] |
what makes facebook so valuable? why would it be a 100 bn $ company? | They do have a product they sell, a very valuable one... You.
All those statuses, all those 'likes', all those location check-ins... That data isn't just there for your friends to see. It is organized and categorized and analyzed and creates an unbelievable source of data for directed advertising. You dump every detail of yourself onto Facebook which tells them exactly what to try and sell you. The ads may be small and seem insignificant, but they are the digital equivalent of real estate on Manhattan Island. Add to that the ads beyond the actual _URL_0_ site itself. The 'like' button you see on virtually every website now, ever wonder why you don't log in every time you use it? A cookie based system is essentially tracking your every online movement while at the same time allowing advertisers to customize ads anywhere based on your FB info. Not just Facebook either: Google, Yahoo, Foursquare, Twitter... All these 'free' products we take for granted as "Innovative communications tools for the 21st century!" are vast information fishing nets for well-paying corporate clients.
I always chuckle when the semi-annual "Facebook is going to start charging a fee!" outrage kicks up. No they aren't. They have zero need to ever extract a penny from us, more likely they will keep tacking on new free feature after another. When you sell something you charge the fee to the buyer, and we aren't the customer... we're the product. | [
"Facebook ranked No. 76 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue. Most comes from advertising. One analysis of 2017 data determined that the company earned per user from advertising.\n",
"Facebook did accept investments from companies, and these investments suggested fluctuating valuations for the firm. In 2007 Microsoft beat out Google to purchase a 1.6% stake for $240 million, giving Facebook a notional value of $15 billion at the time. Microsoft purchased preferred stock, which meant that the company's actual valuation would be considerably lower than $15 billion. Meanwhile, that valuation dropped to $10 billion in 2009, when Digital Sky Technologies bought a nearly 2% stake for $200 million - a larger stake than Microsoft had purchased at a lower price. An investment report in 2011 valued the company at $50 billion.\n",
"In early 2012, Facebook disclosed that its profits had jumped 65% to $1 billion in the previous year when its revenue, which is mainly from advertising, had jumped almost 90% to $3.71 billion. Facebook also reported that 56% of its advertising revenue comes from the U.S. alone, and that 12% of its revenue comes from Zynga, the social network game development company. Payments and other fees were $557 million up from $106 million the previous year.\n",
"At $26.81 per share, which Facebook closed at a week after its IPO, Facebook was valued like \"an ultra-growth company,\" according to Robert Leclerc of the Financial Post. Its PE ratio was 85, despite a decline in both earnings and revenue in the first quarter of 2012.\n",
"In July 2015, during their Q2 earnings call, Facebook revealed that it achieved $2.9B in mobile revenue, amounting to over 76% of its overall quarterly revenue. A large portion of this revenue was from app install ads, of which developers buy on a Cost per Install basis.\n",
"In September 2010, Thiel, while expressing skepticism about the potential for growth in the consumer Internet sector, argued that relative to other Internet companies, Facebook (which then had a secondary market valuation of $30 billion) was comparatively undervalued.\n",
"The company announced 500 million users in July 2010. Half of the site's membership used Facebook daily, for an average of 34 minutes, while 150 million users accessed the site from mobile devices. A company representative called the milestone a \"quiet revolution.\" In November 2010, based on SecondMarket Inc. (an exchange for privately held companies' shares), Facebook's value was $41 billion. The company had slightly surpassed eBay to become the third largest American web company after Google and Amazon.com.\n"
] |
is there an evolutionary benefit to the type of hair you have? | I can tell you that having really curly afro hair in the summer heat means that I can sick my fingers in my hair and it feels like there is a little private AC unit in there. It keeps my head cool, I imagine it does, and has for other afro haired humans who are almost entirely of recent African descent, where it would have been beneficial in the hot environment. | [
"It has been hypothesised that, in an alternate type of mutation, positive selection for increased expression of the FGF5 protein was one of the contributing factors in the evolutionary loss of hair in cetaceans as they transitioned from the terrestrial to the aquatic environment.\n",
"Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said humans evolved by \"natural selection\" to be hairless when the trade off of \"having fewer parasites\" became more important than having a \"warming, furry coat\".\n",
"From a literature review and their own study in Brazil, Saldanha and Guinsburg (1961) suggested that lack of middle phalangeal hair may be determined by a pair of recessive genes, but noted that the occurrence of sex, age, and possibly environmental differences make genetic analysis of the trait difficult.\n",
"In numerous genetic studies of long haired phenotypes of animals it has been shown that small changes in the FGF5 gene can disrupt its expression, leading to an increase in the length of the anagen phase of the hair cycle, resulting in phenotypes with extremely long hair. This has been demonstrated in many species, including cats dogs mice, rabbits, donkeys, sheep and goats, where it is often referred to as the angora mutation. Recently, CRISPR modification of goats to artificially knock out the FGF5 gene, was shown to result in higher wool yield, without any fertility or other negative effects on the goats.\n",
"The function of hair in humans has long been a subject of interest and continues to be an important topic in society, developmental biology and medicine. Of all mammals, humans have the longest growth phase of scalp hair compared to hair growth on other parts of the body. For centuries, humans have ascribed esthetics to scalp hair styling and dressing and it is often used to communicate social or cultural norms in societies. In addition to its role in defining human appearance, scalp hair also provides protection from UV sun rays and is an insulator against extremes of hot and cold temperatures. Differences in the shape of the scalp hair follicle determine the observed ethnic differences in scalp hair appearance, length and texture.\n",
"Humans are the only primate species that have undergone significant hair loss. The hairlessness of humans compared to related species may be due to loss of functionality in the pseudogene KRTHAP1 (which helps produce keratin) Although the researchers dated the mutation to 240 000 ya, both the Altai Neandertal and Denisovan have the loss-of-function mutation, indicating it is much older. Mutations in the gene HR can lead to complete hair loss, though this is not typical in humans.\n",
"Scientists also view the ability to grow very long hair as a result of sexual selection, since long and healthy hair is a sign of fertility and youth. An evolutionary biology explanation for this attraction is that hair length and quality can act as a cue to youth and health, signifying a woman's reproductive potential. As hair grows slowly, long hair may reveal 2–3 years of a person's health status, nutrition, age and reproductive fitness. Malnutrition, and deficiencies in minerals and vitamins due to starvation, cause loss of hair or changes in hair color (e.g. dark hair turning reddish).\n"
] |
when nasa created the golden record that they sent with the voyager probe, how did they know that another intelligent species who found the probe would be able to read/play it? | They printed instructions on how to play the disk in pictograms onto the disk cover.
see this picture on the explaination of the pictograms
_URL_0_ | [
"Launched in 1977, the Voyager probes carried two golden records that were inscribed with diagrams depicting the human form, our solar system, and its location. Also included were recordings of images and sounds from Earth.\n",
"The Voyager Golden Records are two phonograph records that were included aboard both Voyager spacecraft launched in 1977. The records contain sounds and images selected to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth, and are intended for any intelligent extraterrestrial life form, or for future humans, who may find them. The records are a sort of time capsule.\n",
"In March 1972, scientists at NASA launched \"Pioneer 10\" to gather scientific data about the Solar System's largest planet, Jupiter, while the vessel was also receiving radio control and guidance signals and other information from Earth. \"Pioneer 10\" was expected to last for 21 months in the Solar System and deliver accurate information over that period of time. The fastest man made object to enter space from Earth, the spacecraft was to begin collecting data at the Asteroid Belt and Jupiter and continue to relay information about other areas and phenomena of the Solar System.\n",
"As creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project, Druyan worked with a team to design a complex message, including music and images, for possible alien civilizations. These golden phonograph records affixed to the \"Voyager 1\" and \"Voyager 2\" spacecraft are now beyond the outermost planets of the solar system and \"Voyager 1\" has entered interstellar space. Both records have a projected shelf life of one billion years.\n",
"BULLET::::- In 1977 Roger Payne's recordings of Humpback whales were included in the Voyager Golden Record carried aboard the Voyager program spacecraft, the first human artifacts to leave our Solar System.\n",
"On December 21, 1909, a commission at the University of Copenhagen, after having examined evidence submitted by Cook, ruled that his records did not contain proof that the explorer reached the Pole. (Peary refused to submit his records for review by such a third party, and for decades the National Geographic Society, which held his papers, refused researchers access to them.)\n",
"In 1973, Scottish author Duncan Lunan analyzed the long delayed radio echoes received by Hals and others and speculated that they could possibly originate from a 13,000 year old alien probe located in an orbit around the Earth's Moon. He suggested that the probe may have originated from a planet located in the solar system of star Epsilon Boötis. Lunan later retracted his conclusions, saying that he had made \"outright errors\" and that his methods had been \"unscientific\".\n"
] |
what's a tarif? | A tariff is a tax on imports or exports.
For example, if you have a 100% tariff on iron, that means someone wanting to import (or export) iron into your country must pay 100% of the value of the iron in taxes. | [
"In computing, tar is a computer software utility for collecting many files into one archive file, often referred to as a tarball, for distribution or backup purposes. The name is derived from \"(t)ape (ar)chive\", as it was originally developed to write data to sequential I/O devices with no file system of their own. The archive data sets created by tar contain various file system parameters, such as name, time stamps, ownership, file access permissions, and directory organization. The command line utility was first introduced in the Version 7 Unix in January 1979, replacing the tp program. The file structure to store this information was standardized in POSIX.1-1988 and later POSIX.1-2001, and became a format supported by most modern file archiving systems.\n",
"A tarpaulin ( , ), or tarp, is a large sheet of strong, flexible, water-resistant or waterproof material, often cloth such as canvas or polyester coated with polyurethane, or made of plastics such as polyethylene. In some places such as Australia, and in military slang, a tarp may be known as a hootch. Tarpaulins often have reinforced grommets at the corners and along the sides to form attachment points for rope, allowing them to be tied down or suspended.\n",
"The name \"tar sands\" was applied to bituminous sands in the late 19th and early 20th century. People who saw the bituminous sands during this period were familiar with the large amounts of tar residue produced in urban areas as a by-product of the manufacture of coal gas for urban heating and lighting. The word \"tar\" to describe these natural bitumen deposits is really a misnomer, since, chemically speaking, tar is a human-made substance produced by the destructive distillation of organic material, usually coal.\n",
"A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with tar, which is a man-made product derived from pine trees or refined from petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are an aquatic pollutant in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example in the Santa Barbara Channel of California or in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas. Their concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of oil spills. Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin, and tarballs themselves may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents. They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including \"Chromobacterium violaceum\", \"Cladosporium resinae\", \"Bacillus submarinus\", \"Micrococcus varians\", \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\", \"Candida marina\" and \"Saccharomyces estuari\".\n",
"A tariqah is how a religious order is described in Sufism. It especially refers to the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking \"ḥaqīqah\" \"ultimate truth\". Such tariqas typically have a \"murshid\" (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. Members and followers of a tariqa are known as \"murīdīn\" (singular \"murīd\"), meaning \"desirous\", viz. \"desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God\" (also called a \"faqīr\" ). Tariqas have silsilas () which is the spiritual lineage of the Shaikhs of that order. Almost all orders trace their silsila back to Prophet Mohammad. Tariqas are spread all over the Muslim world.\n",
"A kupiah is a cap that originates from Aceh, Indonesia. There are two types of kupiahs, the kupiah meukeutob and kupiah riman. Kupiahs are worn by Acehnese men as an everyday wear or specifically in ceremonies such as in a wedding.\n",
"Tar () is an Iranian long-necked, waisted instrument, shared by many cultures and countries including Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and others near the Caucasus region. The older and more complete name of the tār is \"čāhārtār\" or \"čārtār\", meaning in Persian \"four string\", (\"čāhār\" frequently being shorted to \"čār\"). This is in accordance with a practice common in Persian-speaking areas of distinguishing lutes on the basis of the number of strings originally employed. Beside the čārtār, these include the \"dotār\" (دوتار, “two string”), \"setār\" (سهتار, “three string”), \"pančtār\" (پنجتار “five string”), and \"šaštār\" or \"šeštār\" (ششتار “six string”). \n"
] |
How does hydrogen peroxide work to remove stains? | It either oxidizes the material responsible for the coloration to the point that it becomes water soluble and rinses away or until it no longer absorbs light in the visible spectrum (organic dyes absorb light in certain color bands based on the energy level of their electrons - adjust the electronics and you adjust the absorbtion band. The process is called bleaching because this is also what bleach does). | [
"Oxidation using hydrogen peroxide is often used as a low cost pyrogen destroying solution. The mechanism for this destruction is unknown, but hydrogen peroxide can easily be removed further downstream in the purification process, and is therefore a useful method of pyrogen removal. However, like acid-base hydrolysis, it is not suitable when purifying proteins.\n",
"Other illustrative uses that employ the capacity of malate oxidase to yield hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a suitable substrate, including malate, are found in toothpaste to remove bacterial plaque, cleaning compositions for removing blood stains and the like, and in the removal of chewing gum lumps stuck on surfaces by enzymatic degradation.\n",
"Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide(HS), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with sodium hypochlorite solution.\n",
"Hydrogen peroxide - urea (also called Hyperol, artizone, urea hydrogen peroxide, and UHP) is a solid composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. This compound is a white crystalline solid which dissolves in water to give free hydrogen peroxide. Often called carbamide peroxide in the dental office, it is used as a source of hydrogen peroxide for bleaching, disinfection, and oxidation. Hydrogen peroxide - urea contains solid and water-free hydrogen peroxide, which offers a higher stability and better controllability than liquid hydrogen peroxide when used as an oxidizing agent.\n",
"Hydrogen peroxide-urea is a readily water-soluble, odorless, crystalline solid, which is available as white powder or colorless needles or platelets. Upon dissolving in various solvents, the 1:1 complex dissociates back to urea and hydrogen peroxide. So just like hydrogen peroxide, the (erroneously) so-called adduct is an oxidizer but the release at room temperature in the presence of catalysts proceeds in a controlled manner, thus the compound is suitable as a safe substitute for the unstable aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide. Because of the tendency for thermal decomposition, which accelerates at temperatures above 82 °C, it should not be heated above 60 °C, particularly in pure form.\n",
"Peroxides may be removed by washing with acidic iron(II) sulfate, filtering through alumina, or distilling from sodium/benzophenone. Alumina does not destroy the peroxides but merely traps them, and must be disposed of properly. The advantage of using sodium/benzophenone is that moisture and oxygen are removed as well.\n",
"Drawbacks of hydrogen peroxide include material compatibility, a lower capability for penetration and operator health risks. Products containing cellulose, such as paper, cannot be sterilized using VHP and products containing nylon may become brittle. The penetrating ability of hydrogen peroxide is not as good as ethylene oxide and so there are limitations on the length and diameter of the lumen of objects that can be effectively sterilized. Hydrogen peroxide is a primary irritant and the contact of the liquid solution with skin will cause bleaching or ulceration depending on the concentration and contact time. It is relatively non-toxic when diluted to low concentrations, but is a dangerous oxidizer at high concentrations ( 10% w/w). The vapour is also hazardous, primarily affecting the eyes and respiratory system. Even short term exposures can be hazardous and NIOSH has set the IDLH at 75 ppm, less than one tenth the IDLH for ethylene oxide (800 ppm). Prolonged exposure to lower concentrations can cause permanent lung damage and consequently, OSHA has set the permissible exposure limit to 1.0 ppm, calculated as an eight-hour time-weighted average. Sterilizer manufacturers go to great lengths to make their products safe through careful design and incorporation of many safety features, though there are still workplace exposures of hydrogen peroxide from gas sterilizers documented in the FDA MAUDE database. When using any type of gas sterilizer, prudent work practices should include good ventilation, a continuous gas monitor for hydrogen peroxide and good work practices and training.\n"
] |
How did the first century Greeks and Romans view women? Further, how was this different from how Christians treated women? | This is mainly about the upper classes, as a necessity mandated by our sources. But an extremely brief summary: Greek and Roman medical theory believed that women had not received enough heat in the womb, and thus had failed to mature into full humans, i.e. men. So women are considered inherently biologically inferior. Women were expected to get married, get married early (~14), produce children, and re-marry if their husband died in order to produce more children. Remaining unmarried was highly anomalous, even religious virgins (such as the vestals) generally only remained virgins for a set period (for example until 30). The production of children was considered absolutely vital to the future of the state, community, and family. It was also hugely dangerous. Marriage was understood as one of the core institutions of the Empire, vital to maintaining it. Men were the unquestioned head of the household, all the property, etc. Women essentially passed from the control of their fathers/older brothers to husband.
Christianity, on the other hand, brings with it a strong focus on bodily asceticism, of which sexual renunciation (and given above, extremely visible) was an important part. Christians both encourage consecrated virginity among young women, but they also support widows who wish to remain unmarried. Both of these allowed women to escape the societal strictures of the time, and to at least a limited degree the control of men, and to avoid the terrifying (we can see this in their literature) dangers of childbirth. Also vitally, it enables widows to retain control of their deceased husband's property, which for the upper class could be quite substantial (some of the widows who corresponded with Jerome in the 4th century were among the richest people in the world at the time). This is all pretty problematic from the point of view of prevailing society. Thus, in Late Antiquity it is Christianity which is accused of being anti-family.
It's also important to note that many, if not most, Roman religious practices excluded women, whereas Christianity did not. Perhaps not unsurprisingly, Christianity was very popular with women.
A lot of this comes from Peter Brown's *Body and Society* which is a really excellent study of this sort of thing.
| [
"Whereas neither the Jewish, nor the Roman family would warm the hearts of a modern feminist, the early Christians were sympathetic to women. Paul himself insisted in his early writings that men and women were equal. His letter to the Galatians was emphatic in defying the prevailing culture, and his words must have been astonishing to women encountering Christian ideas for the first time: 'there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Jesus Christ'. Women shared equally in what is called the Lord's Supper or Eucharist, a high affirmation of equality.\n",
"Religious justifications were not the only sources of information regarding woman's nature. As Renaissance humanism developed, there was great interest in returning to classical Greek and Roman philosophy. Classical philosophy held that women were inferior to men at a physical level, and this physical inferiority made them intellectually inferior as well. While the extent of this inferiority was hotly debated by the likes of Christine de Pizan and Moderata Fonte, women continued to be understood as inherently subordinate to men, and this was the basis for preventing women from attending universities or participating in the public sphere.\n",
"Rome had a social caste system, with women having \"no legal independence and no independent property.\" Early Christianity, as Pliny the Younger explains in his letters to Emperor Trajan, had people from \"every age and rank, and both sexes.\" Pliny reports arresting two slave women who claimed to be 'deaconesses' in the first decade of the second century. There was a rite for the ordination of women deacons in the Roman Pontifical, (a liturgical book), up through the 12th century. For women deacons, the oldest rite in the West comes from an eighth-century book, whereas Eastern rites go all the way back to the third century and there are more of them.\n",
"During the early centuries of Christianity, there is evidence of a great deal of activity by women in the life of congregations. Women served as deacons and ladies of means like Lydia of Philippi acted as financiers. Women probably constituted the majority of Christians. Blainey notes that by around AD 300, women had become so influential in the affairs of the church that the pagan philosopher Porphyry \"complained that Christianity had suffered because of them\". Nevertheless, by the close of the Patristic era, a male hierarchy had established itself over church affairs, with priests and bishops running the congregations.\n",
"According to historian Geoffrey Blainey, women were probably the majority of Christians in the 1st century after Christ. The 1st century Apostle Paul emphasised a faith open to all in his Letter to the Galatians: \"There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Jesus Christ.\"\n",
"Social structures at the dawn of Christianity in the Roman Empire held that women were inferior to men intellectually and physically and were \"naturally dependent\". Athenian women were legally classified as children regardless of age and were the \"legal property of some man at all stages in her life.\" Women in the Roman Empire had limited legal rights and could not enter professions. Female infanticide and abortion were practiced by all classes. In family life, men, not women, could have \"lovers, prostitutes and concubines\" and it was not rare for pagan women to be married before the age of puberty and then forced to consummate the marriage with her often much older husband. Husbands, not wives, could divorce at any time simply by telling the wife to leave. The spread of Christianity changed women's lives in many ways by requiring a man to have only one wife and keep her for life, condemning the infidelity of men as well as women and doing away with marriage of prepubescent girls. Because Christianity outlawed infanticide and because women were more likely than men to convert, there were soon more Christian women than men whereas the opposite was true among pagans.\n",
"Early Christian devotion to female martyrs (such as Perpetua and Felicity) and the apocryphal writings about figures like St. Thecla seem to indicate that women did play a role in the early Church, far more than either Brown or some modern critics of Christianity acknowledge, though historical evidence does not suggest men and women shared \"all\" roles of office. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches particularly venerate the Virgin Mary, who gave birth to Jesus, but the book deems this a desexualised aspect of femininity that suppresses the sacred feminine. Brown echoes scholars such as Joseph Campbell in saying this image of Mary derives from Isis and her child Horus. Meisel and Olson counters that the \"Mother and child\" symbol, as a universal part of the general human experience, can be found in other faiths; so Christianity did not copy this element from Egyptian mythology.\n"
] |
what went down in the ows subreddit? | I only have a tenuous grasp of the situation, but what I gathered was that some dick (username: [TheGhostOfNoLibs](_URL_0_)) finagled his way into a moderator spot on [/r/occupywallstreet](/r/occupywallstreet). Several people were complaining that he directly opposes just about everything the OWS movement stands for, has a war hawkish disposition, and regularly makes inflammatory and offensive comments. A lot of people were banned from the OWS subreddit for pointing out that this guy is an asshole and has no business being anywhere near an OWS community. Evidently he was stripped of his position recently. [source](_URL_1_) | [
"OWS Media Group, Inc. is a group of the Occupy Wall Street movement, which achieved media attention after filing a lawsuit to re-obtain control over the Twitter account, @OccupyWallStNYC, which was hijacked by one of tweetboat's former members and password holders, Justin Wedes.\n",
"On June 10, 2015, a post on Reddit, signed by Pao and two other executives, announced that five subreddits were being banned for fostering off-site harassment. One such community had over 150,000 subscribers. Multiple change.org petitions calling for Pao's resignation were created by displeased Reddit users and the most popular one reached 10,000 signatures in the days following the change. Some users began posting hateful comments and images about Pao on Reddit and other websites. Other complaints about the site focused on inadequate moderation tools and the fact that some posts critical of Ellen Pao's lawsuit had been deleted by moderators.\n",
"In March 2018, Break.com inexplicably disabled all comments, user uploads and user pages on their site, putting an end to any kind of user interaction or participation. Before this, their Alexa ranking had already been in a steady decline, but this major change of removing all comments and discussions brought about a steeper decline during March/April in their page ranking, as can be seen on the Alexa rankings. Many users stopped visiting the website and they have dropped (as of September 2018) to 3414th most visited website in USA, losing a significant amount of their popularity since being ranked #248 in 2008.\n",
"In 2016, Twitter began closing alt-right accounts it regarded as engaging in abuse or harassment; among those closed were the accounts of Spencer and his NPI. In February 2017, Reddit then closed down the \"r/altright\" sub-reddit after its participants were found to have breached its policy prohibiting doxing. Facebook followed by shutting down Spencer's pages on its platform in April 2018. In January 2017, Spencer launched a new website, \"AltRight.com\", which combined the efforts of the Arktos publishing company and the Red Ice video and radio network.\n",
"BULLET::::- On February 28, 2017, AWS experienced a massive outage of S3 services in its Northern Virginia region. A majority of websites which relied on AWS S3 either hung or stalled, and Amazon reported within five hours that AWS was fully online again. No data has been reported to have been lost due to the outage. The outage was caused by a human error made while debugging, that resulted in removing more server capacity than intended, which caused a domino effect of outages.\n",
"On 17 May 2017, ExtraTorrent voluntarily ceased operations out of the blue. The entire website was replaced with a message from the administrator, stating that the website was to shut down permanently (as well as all mirror domains), and wipe all data relating to the website and its content. The website was already down for days due to an emergency maintenance situation, just two days before the website shut down permanently.\n",
"On April 4, 2013, Brittain announced via Twitter that \"As of today Is Anybody Down is over.\" Although Brittain's tweets were interpreted to mean that the site would be shut down entirely, Brittain transferred the content of the site to a new domain, ObamaNudes.com. This lasted from April 5 to at least April 15. By June 11, 2013, ObamaNudes redirected to another service called DIYspies, hosted on a Facebook page. \n"
] |
Why is it human nature to enjoy the pain of others? | It is not human nature to enjoy the suffering of others, quite the opposite in fact. Empathy is the one of the very important reasons our society functions well.
Sometimes however, the relief that we are not the ones suffering can be mistaken for enjoyment.
In modern day it can be seen as weak or soft to be empathetic, leading to a growing tendency for people to stifle or repress their feelings of empathy. However if this keeps happening, society as we know will start to deconstruct, as everyone will become overwhelmingly selfish at the expense of others. | [
"A benefit of tracing good to pleasure and pain is that both are easily understandable, both in oneself and to an extent in others. For the hedonist, the explanation for helping behaviour may come in the form of \"empathy\"—the ability of a being to \"feel\" another's pain. People tend to value the lives of gorillas more than those of mosquitoes because the gorilla lives and feels, making it easier to empathize with them. This idea is carried forward in the ethical relationship view and has given rise to the animal rights movement and parts of the peace movement. The impact of sympathy on human behaviour is compatible with Enlightenment views, including David Hume's stances that the idea of a self with unique identity is illusory, and that morality ultimately comes down to sympathy and fellow feeling for others, or the exercise of approval underlying moral judgments.\n",
"Bernard E. Rollin says that the ability to experience pain is something we have to feel to be considered moral (Rollin, 2010). It can result from something such as a wound or abuse causing physical pain. Animals can also experience pain mentally, such as experiencing grief as well as sadness due to anxiety. Animal pain can be understood once we understand the nature of a certain animal. For example, when somebody is caring for a dog as a pet the individual understands their actions, their traits and emotions. While taking care of an animal we are then able to understand that specific animal and their way of grieving or their happiness per se.\n",
"Dr. Kringelbach suggests that this relationship between pain and pleasure would be evolutionarily efficient, because it was necessary to know whether or not to avoid or approach something for survival. According to Dr. Norman Doidge, the brain is limited in the sense that it tends to focus on the most used pathways. Therefore, having a common pathway for pain and pleasure could have simplified the way in which human beings have interacted with the environment (Dr. Morten Kringelbach, personal communication, October 24, 2011).\n",
"Benatar argues that bringing someone into existence generates both good and bad experiences, pain and pleasure, whereas not doing so generates neither pain nor pleasure. The absence of pain is good, the absence of pleasure is not bad. Therefore, the ethical choice is weighed in favor of non-procreation.\n",
"When we see another person suffering, it can also cause us pain. This constitutes our powerful system of empathy, which leads to our thinking that we should do something to relieve the suffering of others. If we cannot help another, or fail in our efforts, we experience feelings of guilt. From the perspective of group selection, groups that are made up of a high percentage of co-operators outdo groups with a low percentage of co-operators in between-group competition. People who are more prone to high levels of empathy-based guilt may be likely to suffer from anxiety and depression; however, they are also more likely to cooperate and behave altruistically. This suggests that guilt-proneness may not always be beneficial at the level of the individual, or within-group competition, but highly beneficial in between-group competition.\n",
"Pain negatively affects the health and welfare of animals. \"Pain\" is defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain as \"an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage.\" Only the person experiencing the pain can know the pain's quality and intensity, and the degree of suffering. However, for non-human animals, it is harder, if even possible, to know whether an emotional experience has occurred. Therefore, this concept is often excluded in definitions of pain in animals, such as that provided by Zimmerman: \"an aversive sensory experience caused by actual or potential injury that elicits protective motor and vegetative reactions, results in learned avoidance and may modify species-specific behaviour, including social behaviour.\" Non-human animals cannot report their feelings to language-using humans in the same manner as human communication, but observation of their behaviour provides a reasonable indication as to the extent of their pain. Just as with doctors and medics who sometimes share no common language with their patients, the indicators of pain can still be understood.\n",
"The world is filled with pain and torment, and the best that one can do is to suffer those blows that cannot be avoided and deal as much pain back to those who offend. Kindnesses are the best companions to hurts, and increase the intensity of suffering. Let mercy of sudden abstinence from causing pain and of providing unlooked-for healing come over you seldom, but at whim, so as to make folk hope and increase the Mystery of Loviatar's Mercy. Unswerving cruelty will turn all folk against you. Act alluring, and give pain and torment to those who enjoy it as well as to those who deserve it most or would be most hurt by it. The lash, fire, and cold are the three pains that never fail the devout. Spread Loviatar's teachings whenever punishment is meted out. Pain tests all, but gives strength of spirit and true pleasure to the hardy and the true. There is no true punishment if the punisher knows no discipline. Wherever a whip is, there is Loviatar. Fear her—and yet long for her.\n"
] |
Is there an auditory processing disorder that is similar to dyslexia? | There is a disorder literally called Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) that is similar to Dyslexia. It is an abnormality in the processing of sound in the central auditory nervous system and it affects the brain’s ability to filter and process sounds and words. Most people that have Dyslexia also tend to have this disorder as well. | [
"Dyslexia is thought to have two types of cause, one related to language processing and another to visual processing. It is considered a cognitive disorder, not a problem with intelligence. However, emotional problems often arise because of it. Some published definitions are purely descriptive, whereas others propose causes. The latter usually cover a variety of reading skills and deficits, and difficulties with distinct causes rather than a single condition. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke definition describes dyslexia as \"difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding\". The British Dyslexia Association definition describes dyslexia as \"a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling\" and is characterized by \"difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed\".\n",
"Some disorders cause a wide array of effects, and language impairment is merely one of many possible symptoms. The two major disorders of this type are autism spectrum disorder and epilepsy. Autism and other autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are disorders in which the patient suffers from decreased social skills and lowered mental flexibility. As a result, many patients suffering from ASDs also have language problems, arising from both the lack of social interaction and lowered mental flexibility. Epilepsy is a disorder where electrical malfunctions or mis-communications in the brain cause seizures, leading to muscle spasms and activation of other organs and systems of the body. Over time, epilepsy can lead to cognitive and behavioral decay. This mental decay can eventually lead to a loss of language and communication skills.\n",
"Dyslexia is a disorder in which the person affected has difficulty reading due to the reversal of letters in the brain that isn't linked to intelligence. In people with dyslexia, the brain processes certain signals in a specific way making it a very specific learning difficulty. Dr. Goswami's research is concerned with focusing on dyslexia as a language disorder rather than a visual disorder as she has found that the way that children with dyslexia hear language is slightly different than others. When sound waves approach the brain, they vary in pressure depending on the syllables within the words being spoken creating a rhythm. When these signals reach the brain they are lined up with speech rhythms and this process doesn't work properly in those with dyslexia. Goswami is currently researching whether or not reading poetry, nursery rhymes, and singing can be used to help children with dyslexia. The rhythm of the words could allow the child to match the syllable patterns to language before they begin reading as to catch them up to where children without the disability might be.\n",
"BULLET::::- Auditory processing disorder – A listening disability that affects the ability to process auditory information. This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research indicates that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.\n",
"The causes of dyslexia are not agreed upon, although the consensus of neuroscientists believe dyslexia is a phonological processing disorder and that dyslexics have reading difficulties because they are unable to see or hear a word, break it down to discrete sounds, and then associate each sound with letter/s that make up the word. Some researchers believe that a subset of dyslexics have visual deficits in addition to deficits in phoneme processing, but this view is not universally accepted. In any case, there is evidence that dyslexics literally \"see\" letters backward or in reverse order within words.\n",
"The phonological deficit theory proposes that people with dyslexia have a specific sound manipulation impairment, which affects their auditory memory, word recall, and sound association skills when processing speech. The phonological theory explains a reading impairment when using an alphabetic writing system which requires learning the grapheme/phoneme correspondence, the relationship between the graphic letter symbols and speech sounds which they represent.\n",
"Furthermore, recent evidence has found that there are certain genes responsible for causing dyslexia. Research also suggests a clear genetic basis for developmental dyslexia with abnormalities in certain language areas of the brain. However, there is also evidence that orthography, the correspondence between the language's phonemes (sound units) and its graphemes (characters, symbols, letters), plays a significant role in the type and frequency of dyslexia's manifestations. Some psycholinguists believe that the complexity of a language’s orthography (whether it has a high phoneme-grapheme correspondence or an irregular correspondence in which sounds don’t clearly map to symbols) affects the severity and occurrence of dyslexia, postulating that a more regular system would reduce the number of cases of dyslexia and/or the severity of symptoms.\n"
] |
How did James Maxwell determine that electromagnetic waves create their own medium? | To get the speed of light, you can take Maxwell's equations, assume there are no charges anywhere, and 'pluck' the electric or magnetic field and watch what happens. The solution to these assumptions is a wave propagating through the EM field at the speed *c*. Maxwell proposed that light might be an EM wave because this behavior matched what was known about light at the time.
Originally, it was thought that this wave was propagating in a 'luminiferous aether', as these charge-free EM fields were assumed to be mathematical constructs, not physical things (because the only known way to measure the field was with charges or magnets.) The [Michelson-Morley experiment](_URL_2_), along with the analysis provided by Einstein, convincingly demonstrated that no such thing exists. Further measurement of the properties of light and results like the derivation of [Snell's law](_URL_1_) and the equations of [diffraction](_URL_0_) from Maxwell's equations cemented the idea that light was an electromagnetic phenomena.
EM Fields were then taken to be fundamental, essentially taking the electromagnetic field itself as the medium for the propagation of light. The electromagnetic field could be measured without the use of charges by measuring light. | [
"With the addition of the displacement current, Maxwell was able to hypothesize (correctly) that light was a form of electromagnetic wave. See electromagnetic wave equation for a discussion of this important discovery.\n",
"In 1864 Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell proposed a comprehensive theory of electromagnetism, now called Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's theory predicted that coupled electric and magnetic fields could travel through space as an \"electromagnetic wave\". Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength, but no one had been able to prove this, or generate or detect electromagnetic waves of other wavelengths. \n",
"James Clerk Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured speed of light, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. Maxwell's equations were confirmed by Heinrich Hertz through experiments with radio waves.\n",
"With the publication of \"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field\" in 1865, Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the speed of light. He proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomena led his prediction of the existence of radio waves. Maxwell is also regarded as a founder of the modern field of electrical engineering.\n",
"Maxwell's contribution to science in producing these equations lies in the correction he made to Ampère's circuital law in his 1861 paper \"On Physical Lines of Force\". He added the displacement current term to Ampère's circuital law and this enabled him to derive the electromagnetic wave equation in his later 1865 paper \"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field\" and to demonstrate the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave. This fact was later confirmed experimentally by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. The physicist Richard Feynman predicted that, \"From a long view of the history of mankind, seen from, say, ten thousand years from now, there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade.\"\n",
"The other was research by physicists to confirm the theory of electromagnetism proposed in 1864 by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, now called Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's theory showed that a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields could travel through space as an \"electromagnetic wave\". Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength, but no one knew how to prove this, or generate or detect electromagnetic waves of other wavelengths. By 1883 it was known that accelerated electric charges could produce electromagnetic waves, and George Fitzgerald had calculated the output power of a loop antenna. Fitzgerald in a brief note published in 1883 suggested that electromagnetic waves could be generated practically by discharging a capacitor rapidly; the method used in spark transmitters, however there is no indication that this inspired other inventors.\n",
"Maxwell extended this view of displacement currents in dielectrics to the ether of free space. Assuming light to be the manifestation of alterations of electric currents in the ether, and vibrating at the rate of light vibrations, these vibrations by induction set up corresponding vibrations in adjoining portions of the ether, and in this way the undulations corresponding to those of light are propagated as an electromagnetic effect in the ether. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light obviously involved the existence of electric waves in free space, and his followers set themselves the task of experimentally demonstrating the truth of the theory. By 1871, he presented the \"Remarks on the mathematical classification of physical quantities\".\n"
] |
Does the electromagnetic spectrum abruptly stop at gamma rays.. or are there higher energy/shorter wavelengths out there? | No, there is no sharp cut off, though we don't have a standard term for super-high energy photons. Typical gamma rays from nuclear have energies of 10^(5) to 10^(7) eV. Astronomical sources can yield energies around 10^(13) eV, indicating that they coming from processes other than radioactive decay. If you can find a way to create a high energy photon, it will have more energy.
In fact, the notion of a photon's energy is dependent on the frame of reference of the observer. The fastest particle every observed was a cosmic ray (likely a proton) with an energy of 3x10^(20) eV. Imagine that that cosmic ray was observing a gamma ray that we observed as traveling towards the cosmic ray and, in our frame, with an energy E. To the cosmic ray, that gamma ray would have an energy that was between 10^(11) and 10^(12) times bigger. That means, if things were lined up right, nuclear gamma rays we observed at 10^(7) eV or astrophysical gamma rays that we observed at 10^(13) eV would, to this cosmic ray, have energies of over 10^(18) or 10^(24) eV, respectively. | [
"In the few radio-loud Seyfert galaxies that have been observed, the radio emission is believed to represent synchrotron emission from the jet. The infrared emission is due to radiation in other bands being reprocessed by dust near the nucleus. The highest energy photons are believed to be created by inverse Compton scattering by a high temperature corona near the black hole.\n",
"Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word \"ionize\" refers to the breaking of one or more electrons away from an atom, an action that requires the relatively high energies that these electromagnetic waves supply. Further down the spectrum, the non-ionizing lower energies of the lower ultraviolet spectrum cannot ionize atoms, but can disrupt the inter-atomic bonds which form molecules, thereby breaking down molecules rather than atoms; a good example of this is sunburn caused by long-wavelength solar ultraviolet. The waves of longer wavelength than UV in visible light, infrared and microwave frequencies cannot break bonds but can cause vibrations in the bonds which are sensed as heat. Radio wavelengths and below generally are not regarded as harmful to biological systems. These are not sharp delineations of the energies; there is some overlap in the effects of specific frequencies.\n",
"Because the energy level spectrum of nuclei typically dies out above about 10 MeV, gamma-ray instruments looking to still higher energies generally observe only continuum spectra, so that the moderate spectral resolution of scintillation (often sodium iodide (NaI) or caesium iodide, (CsI) spectrometers), often suffices for such applications.\n",
"Due to this broad overlap in energy ranges, in physics the two types of electromagnetic radiation are now often defined by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons (either in orbitals outside of the nucleus, or while being accelerated to produce bremsstrahlung-type radiation), while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus or by means of other particle decays or annihilation events. There is no lower limit to the energy of photons produced by nuclear reactions, and thus ultraviolet or lower energy photons produced by these processes would also be defined as \"gamma rays\". The only naming-convention that is still universally respected is the rule that electromagnetic radiation that is known to be of atomic nuclear origin is \"always\" referred to as \"gamma rays\", and never as X-rays. However, in physics and astronomy, the converse convention (that all gamma rays are considered to be of nuclear origin) is frequently violated.\n",
"Ultra-high-energy gamma rays are gamma rays with photon energies higher than 100 TeV (0.1 PeV). They have a frequency higher than 2.42 × 10 Hz and a wavelength shorter than 1.24 × 10 m. The existence of these rays were confirmed in 2019 . The highest energy astronomical sourced gamma rays detected are very-high-energy gamma rays, with the center of the Crab Nebula (thought to contain a rapidly spinning neutron star, or 'pulsar') being the source of the highest energy rays detected as of 2019.\n",
"At very high frequencies (far-ultraviolet and X-ray) interstellar hydrogen gas becomes a significant absorber. In particular, a photon with a wavelength of less than 91 nanometers is energetic enough to completely ionize neutral hydrogen and is absorbed with almost 100% probability even through relatively thin gas clouds. (At much shorter wavelengths the probability of absorption begins to drop again, which is why X-ray afterglows are still detectable.) As a result, observed spectra of very high-redshift GRBs often drop to zero at wavelengths less than that of where this hydrogen ionization threshold (known as the Lyman break) would be in the GRB host's reference frame. Other, less dramatic hydrogen absorption features are also commonly seen in high-z GRBs, such as the Lyman alpha forest.\n",
"Ultra-high-energy gamma rays are of importance because they may reveal the source of cosmic rays. Discounting the relatively weak effect of gravity, they travel in a straight line from their source to an observer. This is unlike cosmic rays which have their direction of travel scrambled by magnetic fields. Sources that produce cosmic rays will almost certainly produce gamma rays as well, as the cosmic ray particles interact with nuclei or electrons to produce photons or neutral pions which in turn decay to ultra-high-energy photons.\n"
] |
why are some seasonal fruits, like apples, available all year round, but others aren't? | Seasonal fuits are grown in both the northern and southern hemispheres and shipped all over the world. A lot of summer fruits that are available in grocery stores in the winter in northern countries are grown in Chile, Argentina, New Zealand etc. The same is true of winter fruits that are available in grocery stores in the summer in northern countries.
Fruits that cannot be shipped and stored easily are not available out of season. Apples, for example, are very easy to ship because they are hard and so do not bruise easily, and they can be stored in refrigerators for months. Strawberries, on the other hand, are too delicate to ship long distances or to store for months because they will bruise and rot quickly.
Some of these more delicate seasonal fruits can be grown out of season in greenhouses, but they tend to be very expensive. They can also be grown in more temperate regions like California and Mexico, which have much longer growing seasons, but they still still have to be shipped on trains and trucks. Avoiding bruising and spoilage is a difficult process.
Tropical fruits like bananas, pineapples, and papayas are grown year-round in tropical climates. | [
"While the season usually lasts only 9 or 10 months, they are able to last all year round. However, due to some apples continuing to be grown in some orchards, and the fact that they can be refrigerated for some months, leads to the availability of the Gala apple year-round in some Australian markets. These usually taste different (slightly less sweet) from those in season. The UK season begins in late summer (August). Storage makes the UK fruit available nearly year-round as with fruit from other origins.\n",
"Apples, plums, and pears, which grow well in Lithuania, are the most commonly used fruit. Because they cannot tolerate frost, tropical fruit such as citrus, bananas and pineapples must be imported, and hence were used less often in the past; however, these fruits are now becoming more typical and are widely consumed. During the autumn harvest, fruit is often simmered and spiced to create fruit stews (kompots). Gooseberries (\"agrastai\") and currants (\"serbentai\") are widely cultivated; they are sweetened, made into jams and baked goods, and provide a piquant touch to desserts. Small local producers make fine fruit wines from raspberries, and especially blackcurrants; apple icewine is also produced. Apple cheese is very popular in autumn.\n",
"They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful, since ripened fruits do not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being gassed with ethylene.\n",
"Fruits, including grapes for wine, earn as much as 40 percent of agricultural export earnings in some years. (Fresh fruit finds a good market in Europe because it matures during the northern hemisphere's winter.) Deciduous fruits, including apples, pears, and peaches, are grown primarily in areas of the Western Cape and the Eastern Cape, where cold winters and dry summers provide ideal conditions for these crops. Almost 1 million tons of deciduous fruits were sold fresh locally or were exported each year in the early 1990s.\n",
"BULLET::::- Fruits : fruits are produced in winter, or there may be several crops during the year if soil moisture is good and temperatures are sufficiently high. Most fruit production is concentrated from midsummer to late fall with variations in production peaks where some plants have two or three harvests and some produce continuously through the season.\n",
"In North America, while most foods are harvested during the autumn, foods particularly associated with the season include pumpkins (which are integral parts of both Thanksgiving and Halloween) and apples, which are used to make the seasonal beverage apple cider.\n",
"Apple and walnut are the prominent fruits grown in the area. Apple season starts from Mid September and people sell the produce across various fruit Markets of the India especially the Jammu fruit market in the state itself. Apples are also used for extraction of pulp and juice for preparation of Jams and jellies.\n"
] |
how do they fake apps/operating systems in movies/tv | Usually you would want to do it in post-production because screens don't film well due to different refresh rates. They may have prompts on the screen if the scene calls for it though. | [
"Virtual influencers are sometimes considered fake influencers too, given their profiles do not correspond to real individuals. It can be argued, however, their presence and role on the platform are different, in the sense they are not automated (bots) nor implemented with the purpose of generating fake likes, fake comments, fake followers or in any way tampering with the platforms where they are created. Simply put, virtual influencers are virtual characters purposefully designed by 3D artists to look like real-life people attending real-life events or situations. Most of these characters' publications are easily distinguished as computer graphics, but some users may be caught off-guard by better polished images.\n",
"In January 2018, a proprietary desktop application called FakeApp was launched. The app allows users to easily create and share videos with faces swapped. The app uses an artificial neural network and the power of the graphics processor and three to four gigabytes of storage space to generate the fake video. For detailed information, the program needs a lot of visual material from the person to be inserted in order to learn which image aspects have to be exchanged, using the deep learning algorithm based on the video sequences and images.\n",
"Carrie Searley explained to paranormal researcher Ben Radford that '\"fake ghost photography is in the minority, however, it does occur... It is purely down to us to educate ourselves with the up and coming new photo apps that are being offered on the market'\". And ASSAP asked the public for its help to catalog the known fake images for smartphones. Though the charity still analyses ghostly photographs, in 2011 it ceased to study smartphone pictures, as apps became available for the specific purpose of faking ghostly figures.The charity asked members to send before and after pictures using the applications to help weed out fakes. \n",
"More recently, with the popularity of social and mobile game stores like Apple's App Store for iOS system and Google Play for Android-based systems, a large number of likely-infringing clones have begun appearing. While such storefronts typically include a review process before games and apps can be offered on them, these processes do not consider copyright infringement of other titles. Instead, they rely on the developer of the work that has been cloned to initiate a complaint regarding the clone, which may take time for review. The cloned apps often are purposely designed to resemble other popular apps by name or feel, luring away purchasers from the legitimate app, even after complaints have been filed. Apple has released a tool to streamline claims of app clones to a team dedicated to handle these cases, helping to bring the two parties together to try to negotiate prior to action. While Apple, Google, and Microsoft took steps to stem the mass of clones based on \"Swing Copters\" after its release, experts believe it is unlikely that these app stores will institute any type of proactive clone protection outside of clear copyright violations, and these experts stress the matter is better done by the developers and gaming community to assure the original developer is well known, protects their game assets on release, and gets the credit for the original game.\n",
"In general, virtual humans employed in movies are known as synthespians, virtual actors, vactors, cyberstars, or \"silicentric\" actors. There are several legal ramifications for the digital cloning of human actors, relating to copyright and personality rights. People who have already been digitally cloned as simulations include Bill Clinton, Marilyn Monroe, Fred Astaire, Ed Sullivan, Elvis Presley, Bruce Lee, Audrey Hepburn, Anna Marie Goddard, and George Burns. Ironically, data sets of Arnold Schwarzenegger for the creation of a virtual Arnold (head, at least) have already been made.\n",
"Today there are several different computer programs that simulate things like cars and airplanes. An obvious example is a flight simulator, another would be video games where players drive cars. But neither of these tools is designed to help movie makers and content-creators to make editable, recorded animation material. None of those technologies are an aid for Maya and 3ds Max.\n",
"BULLET::::- Demo versions: these only feature the studio, do not allow the opening or saving of movies and only feature two actors and one prop. They are Bongo, Nakita and a red car for 3D Movie Maker, while they are Ren, Stimpy and a spaceship for Nickelodeon 3D Movie Maker.\n"
] |
why do game consoles not need a 3 prong plug with a ground wire but things like amplifiers and pcs do? | The 3rd prong is just an added safety precaution. To be approved by the UL anything with an exposed metal case needs to have the 3rd prong so if a wire inside the device comes loose and into contact with the case the current will go down the ground prong and not to you if you touch it. game consoles have plastic cases, computers have metal cases around their power supplies which is exposed on most systems. | [
"Historically, pinball machines have employed a central fixed I/O board connected to the primary CPU controlled by a custom microcontroller platform running an in-house operating system. For a variety of reasons that include thermal flow, reliability, vibration reduction and serviceability, I/O electronics have been located in the upper backbox of the game, requiring significant custom wiring harnesses to connect the central I/O board to the playfield devices.\n",
"A cheater plug, AC ground lifter or three-prong/two-prong adapter is an adapter that allows a NEMA 5-15P grounding-type plug (three prongs) to connect to a NEMA 1-15R non-grounding receptacle (two slots). They are needed to allow appliances with 3-wire power cords to plug into legacy ungrounded (two slot) receptacles found in older buildings. The use of such an adapter avoids the need to replace receptacles, but is potentially hazardous if the grounding tab is not connected to electrical ground. These adapters are illegal in some jurisdictions, in particular throughout Canada. A safer and more reliable alternative identified in the US and Canadian electrical codes is to replace the outlet with a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) breaker outlet.\n",
"Three-prong plugs do not fit into the older, two-prong receptacles. When used as intended, the ground pin of the 3-wire receptacle is to be connected to the grounded cover screw, or to an external ground. In 1969 Underwriters Laboratories mandated three-prong plugs on major appliances for safety. At that time, only half of the receptacles in US homes were three-prong. Wiring in most homes did not include a grounding wire. The screws and outlet boxes were either connected to the neutral, or connected to nothing. Only in rare jurisdictions where non-metallic cable was prohibited and armored cable required (and still in good condition), do cheater plugs work as intended. In 1971, the US National Electrical Code (NEC) required grounded receptacles in all locations of the home (effective January 1, 1974).\n",
"The Stick can be plugged into any standard guitar or bass amplifier, to good effect. However, because of the very high impedance of the passive pickups, an instrument preamp is often employed, especially for full-range amplification systems (PA, keyboard amps, etc.).\n",
"Some people also thought that the control sticks used in the PS2 & Xbox controllers made the essential precision a little bit harder to achieve in the long run due to the smooth edges and deadzone, whereas those of the Gamecube controller had octagonal edges and no deadzones at all.\n",
"This \"2-prong\" design, with two flat parallel non-coplanar blades and slots, is used in most of North America and on the east coast of South America on lamps; consumer electronics such as clocks, radios, and battery chargers; and other double insulated small appliances that don't require grounding (earthing).\n",
"The widespread adoption of FieldTurf and similar modern artificial turfs beginning in the early 2000s also has had a role in the decline of the multipurpose stadium. While first-generation, short-pile turfs such as AstroTurf lent themselves well to multiple sports (one could have a turf for football, roll it up and replace it with one for baseball, association football, or lacrosse), this was not the case with FieldTurf and its competitors. Modern artificial turf requires a more permanent installation, including sand and rubber base and/or infill that is not easily removed, thus does not lend itself well to multipurpose stadiums. Because of such turfs' superiority in other features compared to the earlier turfs, it has been seen as easier to build new stadiums for each sport rather than attempt to share an inflexible turf installation among multiple sports. (Some 21st-century multi-purpose stadiums, such as Tottenham Hotspur Stadium and State Farm Stadium, have developed a more elaborate method of placing an entire playing surface, such as a grass surface for association football and an artificial turf one for gridiron football, on a slab and towing the slab in and out of place for each sport. Because of the expense of using this method, it is generally only used for the highest-level professional sports.)\n"
] |
How does the rate at which a star burns up scale with temperature? | Just taking some of the relationships from [here.](_URL_0_) We have:
- Lifespan is proportional to M^-2.5
- L is proportional to M^3.5
- L is also proportional to T^4
(where L is luminosity, T is temperature and M is mass). So combining all of these, we get lifespan is proportional to T^-10/3.5 or T^-20/7 . | [
"The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production of its core and by its radius, and is often estimated from the star's color index. The temperature is normally given in terms of an effective temperature, which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star. Note that the effective temperature is only a representative of the surface, as the temperature increases toward the core. The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins.\n",
"The pulsations cause the star to be hottest and smallest approximately halfway from the primary minimum towards a maximum. The coolest temperatures are reached near to a deep minimum. When the brightness is increasing, hydrogen emission lines appear in the spectrum and many spectral lines become doubled, due to a shock wave in the atmosphere. The emission lines fade a few days after maximum brightness.\n",
"Temperature estimates for the star range from around 18,000K to well over 30,000K. The hotter temperatures found from fitting the spectral energy distribution (SED) are consistent with the calculated luminosity of an LBV in the quiescent stage, but the spectrum is that of a cooler star.\n",
"Stars have a decreasing temperature gradient, going from their central core up to the atmosphere. The \"core temperature\" of the Sun—the temperature at the centre of the Sun where nuclear reactions take place—is estimated to be 15,000,000 K.\n",
"When the star contracts, the density and temperature of the He II layer increases. He II starts to transform into He III (second ionization). This causes the opacity of the star to increase and the energy flux from the interior of the star is effectively absorbed. The temperature of the star rises and it begins to expand. After expansion, He III begins to recombine into He II and the opacity of the star drops. This lowers the surface temperature of the star. The outer layers contract and the cycle starts from the beginning.\n",
"The core contraction and envelop expansion is very rapid, taking only a few million years. In this time the temperature of the star will cool from its main sequence value of 6,000–30,000 K to around 5,000 K. Relatively few stars are seen in this stage of their evolution and there is an apparent lack in the H–R diagram known as the Hertzsprung gap. It is most obvious in clusters from a few hundred million to a few billion years old.\n",
"In astrophysics, the thermal time scale or Kelvin-Helmholtz time scale is the approximate time it takes for a star to radiate away its total kinetic energy content at its current luminosity rate. Along with the nuclear and free-fall (aka dynamical) time scales, it is used to estimate the length of time a particular star will remain in a certain phase of its life and its lifespan if hypothetical conditions are met. In reality, the lifespan of a star is greater than what is estimated by the thermal time scale because as one fuel becomes scarce, another will generally take its place – hydrogen burning gives way to helium burning, which is replaced by carbon burning.\n"
] |
how is downloading movies/books online any different than going to your local library to check out movies/books for free? | First sale doctrine applies to libraries, video rental outfits, etc.
From [Wikipedia](_URL_0_)
> The doctrine allows the purchaser to transfer (i.e., sell, lend or give away) a particular lawfully made copy of the copyrighted work without permission once it has been legally obtained. This means that the copyright holder's rights to control the change of ownership of a particular copy ends once ownership of that copy has passed to someone else, as long as the copy itself is not an infringing copy.
They purchased the copy legally, so they can lend, sell, or rent it out as they see fit so long as they're not duplicating it. | [
"Used bookstores can range in size offering from several hundred to several hundred thousands of titles. They may be brick-and-mortar stores, internet-only stores, or a combination of both. A book town is a locale where numerous bookstores are located and serve as the town's main attraction to tourists.\n",
"The library system offers many information services to home users via the Internet such as electronic databases and downloadable audiobooks and ebooks. From the convenience of home, library patrons have access to a wealth of authoritative factual information that is not freely available on the Internet. Students can obtain homework help, research newspaper and magazine articles, and search for historical pamphlets and clippings. Consumers can shop for the best rated products by reading Consumer Reports articles online. School children can access links to educational games and homework help sites without having to leave home. Buyers can purchase used books through the Friends of the Library's Amazon store.\n",
"Access Books acquires new books via donations from publishers and distributors or buying them at a discount with grants from charities, businesses, or wealthy individuals. Recipient libraries may request specific titles that are of particular interest to their communities. Used books mostly come from individual donations and book drives by ad hoc groups or local organizations such as middle-class suburban and private schools. Access Books encourages partnerships between schools that have resources and those needing them, as with a book drive led by two students at Oaks Christian School, a private school in Westlake Village. This drive yielded over 11,000 books for new charter schools in North Hollywood and downtown L.A.\n",
"In addition to borrowing books, DVDs, CDs, and other items, patrons have many other resources and services available through the St. Petersburg Library System. Each branch location offers free Wi-Fi and desktop computers for patron use, as well as printing, faxing, and copying services for a small fee. Patrons can download and stream digital resources, such as ebooks, audiobooks, and movies, using the Cloud Library, Hoopla, Overdrive, RBdigital, and Tumblebooks.\n",
"At the Macworld 2008 keynote, Steve Jobs, who was Apple's CEO at the time, announced iTunes movie rentals. Movies are available for rent in iTunes Store on the same day they are released on DVD, though iTunes Store also offers for rental some movies that are still in theaters. Movie rentals are only viewable for 24 hours (in the US) or 48 hours (in other countries) after users begin viewing them. iTunes Store also offers one low-priced movie rental a week: in the United States, this rental costs 99 cents. Movie rentals are not yet available in all countries but it is available in the United States, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.\n",
"Download to own is a concept of legally downloading movies to your computer via a network such as the internet. Generally to obtain movies this way a user must have a broadband connection and an account from an internet distribution company.\n",
"The library is open to anyone older than 14, as well as people who live and work in Switzerland and cross-border regions, members of the university and the EUCOR-universities. Registration and use of the library are free of charge. Books can be ordered online. If the book is either borrowed or not in the stacks, it can directly be taken from the self-service section.\n"
] |
what would happen if somebody broke the nato treaty? | Sending military support is only one way NATO countries can show support. They can also provide financial aide, legal aide, or advisory aide.
Unless one NATO country attacked another, I can't imagine a situation where the other NATO countries wouldn't provide some sort of support, no matter how indirect. | [
"At the time the treaty was being negotiated, NATO had in place secret nuclear weapons sharing agreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\", so there is no breach of the NPT. These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including the Soviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time.\n",
"During most of the Cold War, NATO's watch against the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact did not actually lead to direct military action. On 1 July 1968, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons opened for signature: NATO argued that its nuclear sharing arrangements did not breach the treaty as US forces controlled the weapons until a decision was made to go to war, at which point the treaty would no longer be controlling. Few states knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements at that time, and they were not challenged. In May 1978, NATO countries officially defined two complementary aims of the Alliance, to maintain security and pursue détente. This was supposed to mean matching defences at the level rendered necessary by the Warsaw Pact's offensive capabilities without spurring a further arms race.\n",
"BULLET::::- All members of NATO are bound by the North Atlantic Treaty to oppose a military incursion on a member state; this would probably force the United States and the rest of the NATO members to intervene.\n",
"Four states did not sign the treaty when they joined NATO, despite a preliminary agreement to do so: Slovenia and the three Baltic states: Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia. These states are unable to do so because the treaty cannot be joined until all the original signatories have ratified it.\n",
"NATO states argue that when there is a state of \"general war\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATO nuclear weapons sharing policy, but a troubling one for the logic of the treaty. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding. Many states do not accept this argument. See United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing above.\n",
"NATO's 2004 Istanbul summit was also remarkably silent on the subject of nuclear weapons policy and non-proliferation, as opposed to pre-summit diplomacy and earlier post-Cold War NATO summits and contrary to the demonstrations going on in Istanbul. In June 2004, shortly before the summit, NATO issued two fact sheets on nuclear policy, portraying the developments within NATO in a favourable light in the run up to the 2005 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Review Conference. In practice, no real changes since the end of the Cold War were implemented, as since the 1994 US Nuclear posture review the number of US nuclear weapons based in Europe remained unchanged, and as Cold War nuclear sharing arrangements dating back to the 1960s remained in force. Additionally, no changes were made to Alliance nuclear policy since the 1999 Strategic Concept.\n",
"The European NATO members saw in the mobile launching platform-mounted SS-20 missiles no less a threat than the strategic intercontinental missiles, and on December 12, 1979, took on the so-called \"NATO Double-Track Decision\". This decision intended the deployment of 572 equally mobile American middle-range missiles (Pershing II and Gryphon BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile) to rebuild the state of Mutual Assured Destruction. NATO offered immediate negotiations with the goal to ban nuclear armed middle-range missiles from Europe completely, with the provision that the same missiles could be installed four years later if negotiations failed. The Soviets were critical that neither French nor British nuclear weapons were considered in this treaty.\n"
] |
Why are Hydrogen(1) and Helium(2) highly abundant in the universe, while Lithium(3) and Beryllium(4) not that much? | Production of lithium from helium is highly *Endothermic*, meaning that it consumes massive amounts of energy instead of creating it. Secondly the fact that it's endothermic results in a significant *Energy Barrier* that needs to be overcome, on top of the powerful electrical repulsion between nuclei.
The most likely way one would assume lithium would be produced is from a hydrogen nucleus colliding with a helium-4 nucleus. (2 protons and two neutrons), producing Li-5. *However Li-5 is extremely unstable (half life = 3.7 × 10^−24 s) and almost instantly decays back into helium-4, spitting the proton right back out.*
Li-6, the first stable isotope, would need to be produced by fusion of deuterium (Hydrogen-2) with helium-4. Deuterium in the sun is only about 23 parts per million, because it tends to fuse more easily into highly stable helium, than bare hydrogen-1. So it's consumed almost as fast as it's produced.
Additionally producing Li-6 runs up against the *energy barrier* mentioned earlier, making this process astronomically rare.
In fact the majority of the lithium in the sun has probably been there since the sun's formation. Lithium, Berylium, and Boron are among the rarest elements in the sun.
Li,Be,and B are probably produced in outer space by [Cosmic Ray Spallation](_URL_0_) from much more common, heavier elements. Not produced by fusion in stars.
Berylium is likely produced from lithium-7 by neutron capture via the [S-Process.](_URL_1_) (PDF)
In fact, lithium-7 is much more common than lithium-6, because the latter is much better at absorbing neutrons.
Certain reaction in the sun involving hydrogen isotopes, end up producing high-energy neutrons. These neutrons may be absorbed by heavy elements in the sun. In some situations this converts them into higher elements through successive beta decays. In other cases this may produce lighter elements plus helium by triggering alpha decay.
| [
"According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang. Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a \"cosmological lithium discrepancy\" in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more. The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the \"mixing\" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed, while lithium is produced in younger stars. Though it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than current computations would predict in later-generation stars.\n",
"Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, Li and Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% natural abundance). Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table, helium and beryllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission. The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than deuterium and helium-3. As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements. Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being Li with a half-life of 838 ms and Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10 s.\n",
"Though it was synthesized in the Big Bang, lithium (together with beryllium and boron) is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it.\n",
"Although it is rare on Earth, helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe, constituting 23% of its baryonic mass. Only hydrogen is more abundant. The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton-proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis.\n",
"Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe; helium is second. However, after this, the rank of abundance does not continue to correspond to the atomic number; oxygen has abundance rank 3, but atomic number 8. All others are substantially less common.\n",
"Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up approximately 99 per cent of all ordinary matter in the universe. Less than five per cent of the Universe is believed to be made of ordinary matter, represented by stars, planets and living beings. The balance is made of dark energy and dark matter, both of which are poorly understood at present.\n",
"Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up roughly 74% and 24% of all baryonic matter in the universe respectively. Despite comprising only a very small fraction of the universe, the remaining \"heavy elements\" can greatly influence astronomical phenomena. Only about 2% (by mass) of the Milky Way galaxy's disk is composed of heavy elements.\n"
] |
why does putting the air conditioner on 25°c in a cooling mode feel different from the same 25°c in heating mode? | The unit isn't putting out air at 25 C.
If it's in cooling mode, it's putting out very cold air until the ambient temperature reaches 25 C.
If it's in heating mode, it's putting out very warm air until the ambient temperature hits 25 C. | [
"Switching the direction of heat flow, the same system can be used to circulate the cooled water through the house for cooling in the summer months. The heat is exhausted to the relatively cooler ground (or groundwater) rather than delivering it to the hot outside air as an air conditioner does. As a result, the heat is pumped across a larger temperature difference and this leads to higher efficiency and lower energy use.\n",
"The air conditioning chillers' efficiency is measured by their coefficient of performance (COP). In theory, thermal storage systems could make chillers more efficient because heat is discharged into colder nighttime air rather than warmer daytime air. In practice, heat loss overpowers this advantage, since it melts the ice.\n",
"An HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling tower is used to dispose of (\"reject\") unwanted heat from a chiller. Water-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to tower water at or near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher dry-bulb temperature, and thus have a lower average reverse-Carnot cycle effectiveness. In areas with a hot climate, large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use one or more cooling towers as part of their air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers.\n",
"Air Handling units (AHU) and Roof Top units (RTU) that serve multiple zones should vary the DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE SET POINT VALUE automatically in the range 55 F to 70 F. This adjustment reduces the cooling, heating, and fan energy consumption. When the outside temperature is below 70 F, for zones with very low cooling loads, raising the supply-air temperature decreases the use of reheat at the zone level.\n",
"In warm climates where air conditioning is used, any household device that gives off heat will result in a larger load on the cooling system. Items such as stoves, dish washers, clothes dryers, hot water and incandescent lighting all add heat to the home. Low-power or insulated versions of these devices give off less heat for the air conditioning to remove. The air conditioning system can also improve in efficiency by using a heat sink that is cooler than the standard air heat exchanger, such as geothermal or water.\n",
"In air conditioning, chilled water is often used to cool a building's air and equipment, especially in situations where many individual rooms must be controlled separately, such as a hotel. A chiller lowers water temperature to between 40° and 45°F before the water is pumped to the location to be cooled. \n",
"When there is a high temperature differential (e.g., when an air-source heat pump is used to heat a house with an outside temperature of, say, 0 °C (32 °F)), it takes more work to move the same amount of heat to indoors than on a milder day. Ultimately, due to Carnot efficiency limits, the heat pump's performance will decrease as the outdoor-to-indoor temperature difference increases (outside temperature gets colder), reaching a theoretical limit of 1.0 at −273 °C. In practice, a COP of 1.0 will typically be reached at an outdoor temperature around −18 °C (0 °F) for air source heat pumps.\n"
] |
land bridges | Here's a NOAA map of the last ice age sea levels at their peak (trough) _URL_0_
| [
"A land bridge, in biogeography, is an isthmus or wider land connection between otherwise separate areas, over which animals and plants are able to cross and colonise new lands. A land bridge can be created by marine regression, in which sea levels fall, exposing shallow, previously submerged sections of continental shelf; or when new land is created by plate tectonics; or occasionally when the sea floor rises due to post-glacial rebound after an ice age.\n",
"The term \"landbridge\" or \"land bridge\" is commonly used in the intermodal freight transport sector. When a containerized ocean freight shipment travels across a large body of land for a significant distance, that portion of the trip is referred to as the \"land bridge\" and the mode of transport used is rail transport. There are three applications for the term.\n",
"The bridge is a single suspension span supported from four pyramidal towers - two on each bank of the river - with each tower anchoring two cables. The span has a main central section which cars and smaller trucks can cross, and two pedestrian paths on either side of the central roadway. All three paths have wood upper surfaces. Construction started in 1887, under the direction of engineer , after authorization by Marcelino Vélez, governor of Antioquia. The cables and other steel parts were purchased from England, while the towers were constructed of local materials. The Puente de Occidente was initially open only to pedestrian traffic; later, vehicles were allowed.\n",
"The bridge is 30.25 m wide, 705 m long and has a bridge surface of 21,326 m². The highest point above ground is 60 m. It consists completely of a steelwork construction, whose rolling-element bearing rests on concrete pillars. In contrast to similar bridges, the roadways of both driving directions are carried by continuous elements. Construction of the bridge was completed in 1971.\n",
"\"Isthmus\" and \"land bridge\" are related terms with isthmus having a broader meaning. A land bridge is an isthmus connecting the Earth's major landmasses. The term \"land bridge\" is usually used in biogeology to describe land connections that used to exist between continents at various times and were important for migration of people, and various species of animals and plants, e.g. Bering Land Bridge.\n",
"The bridge itself is one kilometre in length with two lanes, one for each direction of traffic, and no separating median. It is constructed from prestressed concrete. There is a footpath on the northern side, with no barrier from the roadway, signposted as being for emergency use only. \n",
"The Division Street Bridge is a nine-span stone and brick structure, with a total length of about . Each of its spans consists of a segmented arch of about in length. The road bed is wide, and there are sidewalks on either side. The mean height of the bridge above the water is . The piers of the bridge are constructed of coursed granite ashlar and the voussoirs are dressed granite with single keystones. The spandrels, the space between the arches, are filled with mortared granite rubble, and the arch barrels are constructed with an estimated 550,000 bricks. The original roadway was made of granite blocks, the seams of which were filled with tar, but this has been modified with modern asphalt paving and with the piers being modified with the addition of reinforced concrete sheathing for the river piers. The iron walkways, produced by Crowell and Sisson, project over both the sides of the bridge with iron brackets.\n"
] |
what's the deal with tuxes, blazers, etc, when is each appropriate, what kind of occasions? | In descending order of fanciness:
- **[White Tie](_URL_2_)**, otherwise known as Evening Dress or Top Hat And Tails.
This is as formal as it gets in Western fashion, and is generally restricted to very high occasions like state dinners, royal functions or very formal balls and evening weddings. White Tie is strictly to be worn after 6 PM, though many agree that anytime after dark is fine. For events of similar importance during the day, [Morning Dress](_URL_0_) is the thing.
- **[Black Tie](_URL_1_)** is for any highly formal occasion for which White Tie is not required; charity galas, formal weddings, awards ceremonies. It is generally considered good etiquette for the host of an event to indicate on the invitations whether or not Black Tie is appropriate, or whether Formal Wear will suffice.
- **Formal Wear** is sometimes called "informal attire" to set it apart from Black Tie, but as often as not that ends up with Bob from Accounting showing up in khakis and a Hawaiian shirt. Formal wear is pretty basic, just a suit and tie. Lots of leeway here in terms of colour, fashionable cut, accessories etc., if you want to know more about this in detail I think it's done in detail on GQ's website.
The only big things to keep in mind with Formal Wear are that one should always wear black or very dark grey to a funeral, and one should never wear black to a wedding unless the event itself is listed as Black Tie. While we're talking funerals, even if the only black suit you own is a tuxedo, never wear it to a funeral as Black Tie is considered to be for celebrating.
- Below Formal you might see "Smart Casual" or "Business Casual"; the former usually refers to some variation on a blazer and dress pants, while the latter is a nightmarishly vague reference to "any pants nicer than jeans, paired with virtually any shirt with a collar and no logos". When to wear either of these gives many men great difficulty; if in doubt, ask your host or employer in advance.
| [
"Blazers are worn with a wide variety of other clothes, ranging from a dress shirt and necktie to an open-necked polo shirt, or even just a plain T-shirt. They are seen with trousers of all colours and fabrics, from the classic white cotton or linen, to grey flannel, to brown or beige chinos, and also jeans.\n",
"A blazer's cloth is usually durable, as it is intended as outdoor wear. Blazers are often part of a uniform that denotes, for example, an airline's employees, pupils of a particular school, members of sports clubs, or sportsmen and women on a particular team.\n",
"Blazers, in a wide range of colours, are worn as part of school uniforms by many schools across the Commonwealth, and are still daily wear for most uniformed pupils in Britain, Australia and New Zealand. These are blazers in the traditional sense: single-breasted, and often of bright colours or with piping. This style is also worn by some boat clubs, such as those in Cambridge or Oxford, with the piped version used only on special occasions such as a boat club dinner. In this case, the piping is in college colours, and college buttons are worn. This traditional style can be seen in many films set in the Edwardian era, such as \"Kind Hearts and Coronets\".\n",
"Novelty headbands can be used for holidays and may have decorations attached such as bunny ears, reindeer ears, Santa Claus hats and others. Headbands are often part of a larger fashion statement — they can be colour-coded and matched accordingly to one's outfit.\n",
"Blazers to be worn all year round, rumours escalated around parents early 2018 with the warm weather regarding wearing blazers indoors. With request students can remove blazer for lessons but MUST be worn in between when walking around the school to next lesson or lunch and break times.\n",
"Blazers, once commonly worn playing or attending traditional \"gentlemen's sports\", persist in only some games now, such as occasional use by tennis players, or in cricket, where in professional matches, such as international test matches, it is considered customary for the captain to wear a blazer with the team's logo or national coat of arms on the breast pocket – at least during the coin toss at the beginning of the match.\n",
"A gaff is a piece of fabric, usually augmented by an elastic, such as a rubberband that is designed to hide male genitalia. It is usually worn by men with body dysmorphia, trans women or male cross-dressers. Since the 2010s, underwear manufacturers have begun to design underwear with the same function as gaffs. Home-made gaffs are usually by cutting the ends off a single sock, and then placing a pair of elastic loops through them. The main function of gaffs or underwear that duplicates gaffs is to make the male groin appear smoother and flatter in order hide the male crotch bulge, also sometimes referred to by the slang terms \"moose-knuckle\" or \"man-bulge\".\n"
] |
How do weather satellites measure barometric pressure in the atmosphere from space? | Satellite radar systems can correlate a specific band of the electromagnetic spectrum with surface pressure, but according to my relatively limited knowledge of remote sensing, this technique is not commonly in use. Surface pressure is generally recorded in the ocean by anchored buoys, or potentially by [dropsondes](_URL_0_) in the case of a special mission to record pressure fields in tropical storms. | [
"A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure systems and frontal boundaries.\n",
"In aircraft, an aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric pressure from a static port outside the aircraft. Air pressure decreases with an increase of altitude—approximately 100 hectopascals per 800 meters or one inch of mercury per 1000 feet near sea level.\n",
"At the time of its launch, the idea that intangible properties such as air pressure could be observed using a satellite orbiting hundreds of miles above the Earth was revolutionary. With each Nimbus mission, scientists broadened their ability to collect atmospheric characteristics that improved weather forecasting, including ocean and air temperatures, air pressure, and cloudiness. Beginning with the Nimbus 3 satellite in 1969, temperature information through the atmospheric column began to be retrieved by satellites from the eastern Atlantic and most of the Pacific Ocean, which led to significant forecast improvements. The global coverage provided by Nimbus satellites made accurate 3–5 day forecasts possible for the first time.\n",
"When atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer, the pressure is also referred to as the \"barometric pressure\". Assume a barometer with a cross-sectional area \"A\", a height \"h\", filled with mercury from the bottom at Point B to the top at Point C. The pressure at the bottom of the barometer, Point B, is equal to the atmospheric pressure. The pressure at the very top, Point C, can be taken as zero because there is only mercury vapor above this point and its pressure is very low relative to the atmospheric pressure. Therefore, one can find the atmospheric pressure using the barometer and this equation:\n",
"Atmospheric pressure at a particular location is the force per unit area perpendicular to a surface determined by the weight of the vertical column of atmosphere above that location. On Earth, units of air pressure are based on the internationally recognized standard atmosphere (atm), which is defined as 101.325 kPa (760 Torr or 14.696 psi). It is measured with a barometer.\n",
"Since many of these effects are weather-related, and also affect the more common satellite laser ranging, ranging stations traditionally include weather stations, measuring local temperature, pressure, and relative humidity. APOLLO will measure all these, plus measure local gravity very precisely, using a precision gravimeter. This instrument is capable of sensing vertical displacements as small as 0.1 mm, by measuring the change in gravity as the observatory moves closer to or farther from the Earth's center.\n",
"The Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) is a measurement instrument aboard NASA's Thermal Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics Dynamics (TIMED) satellite. The instrument measures ozone (and other atmospheric conditions) through an infrared radiometer (with a spectral range from 1.27 µm to 17 µm).\n"
] |
Volume of Earths atmosphere? | The volume of Earth's atmosphere, using the [accepted definition of the edge of the atmosphere](_URL_0_) is approximately 5.18*10^19 m^3 . Not very useful without something to compare it to, but it's a place to start. | [
"The composition of Earth's atmosphere is largely governed by the by-products of the life that it sustains. Dry air from Earth's atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other \"noble\" gases (by volume), but generally a variable amount of water vapor is also present, on average about 1% at sea level.\n",
"The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages , with a scale height of about . A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. Water vapor content varies between 0.01% and 4% but averages about 1%. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between at the poles to at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.\n",
"In 1663–1664, the English scientist Robert Hooke was writing his book \"Micrographia\" (1666) in which he discussed, among other things, the relation between the height of the atmosphere and the barometric pressure at the surface. Since the atmosphere surrounds the earth, which itself is a sphere, the volume of atmosphere bearing on any unit area of the earth's surface is a truncated cone (which extends from the earth's center to the vacuum of space; obviously only the section of the cone from the earth's surface to space bears on the earth's surface). Although the volume of a cone is proportional to the cube of its height, Hooke argued that the air's pressure at the earth's surface is instead proportional to the height of the atmosphere because gravity diminishes with altitude. Although Hooke did not explicitly state so, the relation that he proposed would be true only if gravity decreases as the inverse square of the distance from the earth's center.\n",
"The density of the Earth's atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude. The total mass of the atmosphere is M = ρ H ≃ 1 kg/cm within a column of one square centimeter above the ground (with ρ = 1.29 kg/m the atmospheric density on the ground at z = 0 m altitude, and H ≃ 8 km the average atmospheric scale height). 80% of that mass is concentrated within the troposphere. The mass of the thermosphere above about 85 km is only 0.002% of the total mass. Therefore, no significant energetic feedback from the thermosphere to the lower atmospheric regions can be expected.\n",
"The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, already mentioned, other noble gases, neon, helium, krypton, and xenon are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.\n",
"In Earth's atmosphere, the pressure at sea level \"P\" averages about 1.01×10 Pa, the mean molecular mass of dry air is 28.964 u and hence 28.964 × 1.660×10 = 4.808×10 kg, and \"g\" = 9.81 m/s². As a function of temperature the scale height of Earth's atmosphere is therefore 1.38/(4.808×9.81)×10 = 29.26 m/deg. This yields the following scale heights for representative air temperatures.\n",
"The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon and other inert gases, such as carbon dioxide. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as clouds. Many natural substances may be present in tiny amounts in an unfiltered air sample, including dust, pollen and spores, sea spray, volcanic ash, and meteoroids. Various industrial pollutants also may be present, such as chlorine (elementary or in compounds), fluorine compounds, elemental mercury, and sulphur compounds such as sulphur dioxide [SO].\n"
] |
why do stores offer cash-out, if it seems like they don't make any profit off it. (they charge your card, and give you that amount in cash) | The store benefits by getting rid of physical money and using electronic funds transfer - less money to transport in an armoured truck, less loss if they are robbed | [
"The combination of these two factors means that the retailer can save money by offering the cashback service. It does not cost the retailer more in commission to add cashback to a debit card purchase, but in the process of giving cashback, the retailer can \"offload\" cash which they would otherwise have to pay to deposit at the bank.\n",
"This benefits the store as it reduces the amount of cash banking the store has to do. Many customers find it a useful way to obtain cash as it avoids them having to use a cash machine, which may incur additional fees.\n",
"Cashback can have benefits for the customer in many scenarios. In locations where there are no cash machines nearby, or the nearby machines are out of order or empty, a local retailer may be able to supply the required cash instead and to offer more flexibility in note denominations. Sometimes it is simply more convenient to combine the transactions at the retailer and ATM into a single cashback transaction with the retailer.\n",
"While there may still be some room for retail kiting, security measures taken by retail chains are helping reduce such incidents. Increasingly, more chains are limiting the amount of cash back received, the number of times cash back can be offered in a week or a given period of time, and obtaining transactional account balances before offering cash back, thereby denying it to those with low balances. For example, Walmart's policy is to determine account balances of those obtaining cash back, and some Safeway locations will not offer cash back on any accounts with balances under $250, even when funds are sufficient to cover the amount on the cheque. Customers who are noted to obtain cash back frequently are also investigated by the corporation to observe patterns.\n",
"In addition, cashback offers may help to combat fraud on high value contracts. Where up-front inducements are used to incentivise sales, such as instant cashback or free merchandise, criminals may use fraud to gain access to the incentives. When the customer defaults on the contract, the network will recall the commission paid to the retailer and the retailer is out-of-pocket. Cashback deals paid over time allow the retailer to provide an incentive on condition that the consumer sticks to the terms of the contract, thereby securing the retailers' commission.\n",
"When buyers borrow money from the issuers, which means that they lend their money out, it is possible that the issuers do not pay the money back at the end when their profitability goes down due to reasons like worse economic environment or industry environment.\n",
"Another version of this scheme involves purchasing an item from a place of retail with a check, and returning it promptly for a cash refund, followed by depositing that cash into the transactional account. This is more difficult these days, as more places of retail will delay a refund on purchases made by check.\n"
] |
Why does a single gas molecule which is hot rise above another one which is cool? | Metrics such as temperature describe the behavior of a system that is made up of components. These types of properties are termed emergent properties because they are derived from the behavior of the system as a whole and are not observable if you were to look only at the components.
So, for your specific question, individual molecules do not have temperature. They are not "hot" or "cool" exactly, although they do have energy that is zipping them around their surroundings. Molecules with more energy will move faster and collide with other matter more frequently and with more force. It is only when you begin to look at a system of molecules that ideas such as temperature start to be meaningful. In that sense, a group of molecules with a certain amount of energy will correspond to a certain temperature. If these molecules are "hotter" than other molecules, then they will be moving about much more rapidly and they will be less dense than the latter group of molecules. Properties such as temperature and density are emergent from the system of molecules interacting with each other and interacting with their surroundings. | [
"Molecules, such as oxygen (O), have more degrees of freedom than single spherical atoms: they undergo rotational and vibrational motions as well as translations. Heating results in an increase in temperature due to an increase in the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules. Heating will also cause, through equipartitioning, the energy associated with vibrational and rotational modes to increase. Thus a diatomic gas will require more energy input to increase its temperature by a certain amount, i.e. it will have a greater heat capacity than a monatomic gas.\n",
"It is theoretically predicted that, at sufficiently high temperature, all gases will warm during a Joule expansion The reason is that at any moment, a very small number of molecules will be undergoing collisions; for those few molecules, repulsive forces will dominate and the potential energy will be positive. As the temperature rises, both the frequency of collisions and the energy involved in the collisions increase, so the positive potential energy associated with collisions increases strongly. If the temperature is high enough, that can make the total potential energy positive, in spite of the much larger number of molecules experiencing weak attractive interactions. When the potential energy is positive, a constant energy expansion reduces potential energy and increases kinetic energy, resulting in an increase in temperature. This behavior has only been observed for hydrogen and helium; which have very weak attractive interactions. For other gases this \"Joule inversion temperature\" appears to be extremely high.\n",
"The specific heat of a substance, especially a gas, may be significantly higher when it is allowed to expand as it is heated (specific heat \"at constant pressure\") than when is heated in a closed vessel that prevents expansion (specific heat \"at constant volume\"). These two values are usually denoted by formula_1 and formula_2, respectively; their quotient formula_3is the heat capacity ratio.\n",
"Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled. Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation.\n",
"When a gas is heated, its volume increases. It will displace cooler gases as it expands. If this is done in a partially enclosed space, and the vessel allowed to be full of hot gas, when the heat is taken away, the gases cool and as they do, the amount of liquids that the gas can hold will decrease. Therefore, most of the moisture and alcohol held in the gas will condense. As the gas cools, it decreases in volume, and the pressure drops. Thus when the flaming alcohol in a backdraft is covered with a pint glass over a saucer, the dense, cold air is replaced with less dense, warm air with a lot of alcohol vapour held in it. As the oxygen flow to the fire is restricted, the remaining oxygen is used up and the fire in the pint glass goes out, removing the heat source. The alcohol-laden warm air now in the glass cools and begins to create a pressure difference. The air outside the pint glass forces its way into the partially evacuated pint glass and is responsible for pushing any liquid at the outside bottom of the pint glass further inside (as the seal of the glass and the saucer is not perfect) as it begins to equalise the pressure difference. Once the majority of the liquid is inside the upside down pint glass, sometimes further air can be seen to bubble up into the glass. At some point an equilibrium will occur, where the pressure difference between inside and outside of the glass is equal to the pressure of the column of liquid held up inside, and this will hold the liquid inside the glass. Sometimes, when a good seal is made, the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the glass exerts a great enough force that when the glass is lifted, the saucer will remain stuck to its underside.\n",
"When a gas is compressed to increase its density, the influence of the attractive force increases. If the gas is made sufficiently dense, the attractions can become large enough to overcome the tendency of thermal motion to cause the molecules to disperse. Then the gas can condense to form a solid or liquid, i.e., a condensed phase. Lower temperature favors the formation of a condensed phase. In a condensed phase, there is very nearly a balance between the attractive and repulsive forces.\n",
"In a gas, the distances between molecules are generally large, so intermolecular forces have only a small effect. The attractive force is not overcome by the repulsive force, but by the thermal energy of the molecules. Temperature is the measure of thermal energy, so increasing temperature reduces the influence of the attractive force. In contrast, the influence of the repulsive force is essentially unaffected by temperature.\n"
] |
Is it true that there have been 29 years free of war in all of human history? | It rather depends how you define things. If you count tribal disputes as wars, then it is unlikely there was ever a year without war. If you don't count tribal disputes, only formal armies, then the majority of human existence was without war. Mind you, most of human existence was before history. | [
"BULLET::::4. \"The Long Peace\" – The powers of 20th Century believed that period of time to be the bloodiest in history. This led to a largely peaceful 65-year period post World War I and World War II. Developed countries have stopped warring (against each other and colonially), adopted democracy, and this has led a massive decline (on average) of deaths.\n",
"War and most kinds of crime and violence have declined considerably compared to the 20th century; such a period of \"relative peace\" between major powers has not been documented in human history since the Roman Empire. Malnourishment and poverty are still widespread globally, but fewer people live in the most extreme forms of poverty, relative to recorded history. In 1990 one-in-four people were malnourished, nearly 36% of the world's population lived in extreme poverty; in 2015 this percentage dropped to one-in-eight and 10%, respectively. If current trends hold, the United Nations projects the eradication of famine and extreme poverty by the end of this century.\n",
"Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of life, have been waged in the last century. These are the two World Wars, followed by the Second Sino-Japanese War (which is sometimes considered part of World War II, or as overlapping). Most of the others involved China or neighboring peoples. The death toll of World War II, being over 60 million, surpasses all other war-death-tolls.\n",
"Human history had numerous wars coming and going, but the average number of people dying from war has fluctuated relatively little, being about 1 to 10 people dying per 100,000. However, major wars over shorter periods have resulted in much higher casualty rates, with 100-200 casualties per 100,000 over a few years. While conventional wisdom holds that casualties have increased in recent times due to technological improvements in warfare, this is not generally true. For instance, the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) had about the same number of casualties per capita as World War I, although it was higher during World War II (WWII). That said, overall the number of casualties from war has not significantly increased in recent times. Quite to the contrary, on a global scale the time since WWII has been unusually peaceful.\n",
"BULLET::::- 1851–64: The Taiping Rebellion by the God Worshippers against the Qing dynasty of China. In total between 20 and 30 million lives had been lost, making it the second deadliest war in human history.\n",
"Sources say the 20th century can be considered the bloodiest period in global history. Millions of civilian infants, children, adults, and elderly people died in warfare. One civilian perished for every combatant killed. Efforts of the International Committee of the Red Cross, humanitarian laws, and rules of warfare were not able to stop these crimes against humanity. These terminologies were invented since previous vocabulary was not enough to describe these offenses. War criminals did not fear prosecution, apprehension, or imprisonment before World War II. Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill favored the outright execution of war criminals. The United States was more lenient and called for a just trial. The British Government was convinced to institute the Nuremberg Trial which left several legacies. These are worldwide jurisdiction for severe war crimes are, creation of international war crime tribunals, judicial procedures that documented history of colossal crimes effectively, and success of UN courts in holding impartial trials.\n",
"Every day was a thousand years. This world, as we know it today, cannot last beyond 6,000 years. Right now, we are in the year 5769, which means it's Erev Shabbos of the world. By the year 6,000, Mashiach has to be here. He could come much earlier. But by the year 6,000, he has to be here. ... the Vilna Gaon said that the last war, Milchemet Gog uMagog, is going to last only 12 minutes because they are going to have such weapons...\n"
] |
what is cancer? (specifically leukemia) | You, my ELI5 friend, are made of cells. Billions and billions of them, and they all have special jobs, shapes, and grow a different rates.
Sometimes we want cells to grow and divide a lot, like skin cells. And sometimes we don't want cells to grow and divide a lot, like brain cells. Each cell knows, because it is in the DNA, when to stop dividing.
But the biochemical machines that run cells don't always work properly, and sometimes a cell doesn't stop growing. The reasons why are complex and varied (i'll go into them if you want but it's not very ELI5ish).
This broken cell keeps growing and dividing, consuming resources from surrounding cells, and getting bigger, which will cause harm to surrounding organs. This is called a tumor.
Cancer is named from what kind of cell it arises from. Leukemia is a special kind of cancer, where the broken cell is a white blood cell or leukocyte. Leukemia doesn't usually have a tumor, but can be found in the bone marrow (where all blood cells are 'born') and will destroy the bone there. | [
"Cancer is a group of fatal diseases that involves abnormal cell growth that can invade or spread to other parts of the body. They are usually caused by the accumulation of mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation. Majority of cancer, about 90-95%, are due to genetic mutations from environmental and lifestyle factors – including age, chemicals, diet, exercise, viruses, and radiation. The remaining 5-10% are due to inherited genetics. Some of the cancers may be difficult to treat by conventional means such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, but may be controlled by the stimulation of the immune response of the body with the help of cancer vaccines. \n",
"Cancer is a disease which is highly diverse not only its pathology, but in the initiation and progression from non-cancerous tissue to malignant tumor tissue . Cancer is considered to be stochastic in nature, in that there are many variables and probabilities that contribute to how a cell or tissue progresses from a state of non-cancerous, to cancerous, and eventually to metastasis. Cancer differs from many other diseases due to the uniquely long lifespan of the disease which contributes to the diversity of cancer cells both within a tumor and between related tumors in a host. \n",
"Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements. While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they can also have other causes. Over 100 types of cancers affect humans.\n",
"Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells coupled with malignant behaviour: invasion and metastasis (among other features). It is caused by the interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors. These factors lead to accumulations of genetic mutations in oncogenes (genes that control the growth rate of cells) and tumor suppressor genes (genes that help to prevent cancer), which gives cancer cells their malignant characteristics, such as uncontrolled growth.\n",
"This is a list of cancer types. Cancer is a group of diseases that involve abnormal increases in the number of cells, with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Not all tumors or lumps are cancerous; benign tumors are not classified as being cancer because they do not spread to other parts of the body. There are over 100 different known cancers that affect humans.\n",
"Cancer occurs when a single progenitor cell accumulates mutations and other changes in the DNA, histones, and other biochemical compounds that make up the cell's genome. The cell genome controls the structure of the cell's biochemical components, the biochemical reactions that occur within the cell, and the biological interactions of that cell with other cells. Certain combinations of mutations in the given progenitor cell ultimately result in that cell (also called a cancer stem cell) displaying a number of abnormal, malignant cellular properties that, when taken together, are considered characteristic of cancer, including:\n",
"Thyroid cancer is cancer that develops from the tissues of the thyroid gland. It is a disease in which cells grow abnormally and have the potential to spread to other parts of the body. Symptoms can include swelling or a lump in the neck. Cancer can also occur in the thyroid after spread from other locations, in which case it is not classified as thyroid cancer.\n"
] |
why are neanderthals always depicted with caucasian features? | Most, if not all, skeletons found of Homo neanderthalensis were found in Europe, especially places like France. As you may know, the people native to most places in Europe are Caucasian, including people like the Gauls (the tribe whose descendents make up a quite large percentage of native French people). | [
"Neanderthals are depicted as white-skinned, while Cro-Magnons are dark. Kurtén's skin color identification for both populations appears to agree with recent DNA studies, including those proposing the African origin of modern humans. His racial presentation of the Cro-Magnon is in contrast to Jean M. Auel's view in her \"Earth's Children\" series. Auel's initial book, published a few years later than \"Dance of the Tiger\", portrayed Neanderthals as light-skinned and Cro-Magnons as more racially varied, either light or dark-skinned. The author himself says \"The book is not intended to be a 'theory about interaction between Neanderthals and Modern Humans', it is just a fictive description of one possible scenario among several that might have taken place\".\n",
"The following is a list of physical traits that distinguish Neanderthals from modern humans. However, not all of them distinguish specific Neanderthal populations from various geographic areas, evolutionary periods, or other extinct humans. Also, many of these traits are present in modern humans to varying extent due to both archaic admixture and the retention of ancestral hominid traits shared with Neanderthals and other archaic humans. Nothing is certain (from unearthed bones) about the shape of soft parts such as eyes, ears, and lips of Neanderthals.\n",
"Neanderthals have been portrayed in popular culture including appearances in literature, visual media and comedy. Early 20th century artistic interpretations often presented Neanderthals as beastly creatures, emphasising hairiness and a rough, dark complexion.\n",
"The hominid specimens at level 3G are regarded as unquestionably Neanderthal in overall morphology but exhibit a number of traits that sit closer to anatomically modern Europeans than to the traditional Neanderthal. These include a thinner and less projecting brow ridge, reduced facial size, and narrower front teeth. Though some have put these differences down to the small size of the Vindija individuals, a study conducted in 1995 established that the Vindija Neanderthals, though small, were of comparable size to more morphologically classic Neanderthals such as \"La Ferassie 2\", \"Shanidar 1\" and \"4\", and \"Tabun 1\". More likely, the Vindija Neanderthals were in transition from the classic robust form to a more gracile one.\n",
"Neanderthal anatomy differed from modern humans in that they had a more robust build and distinctive morphological features, especially on the cranium, which gradually accumulated more derived aspects, particularly in certain isolated geographic regions. \n",
"Nevertheless, academic studies have concluded that people often had different physical features from those described by primary sources. Ancient authors described as red-haired several groups of people. They claimed that all Slavs had red-hair, and likewise described the Iranic Scythians as red haired. According to Dr. Beth Cohen, Thracians had \"the same dark hair and the same facial features as the Ancient Greeks.\" On the other hand, Dr. Aris N. Poulianos states that Thracians, like modern Bulgarians, belonged mainly to the Aegean anthropological type.\n",
"Until the early 1950s, most scholars thought Neanderthals were not in the ancestry of living humans. Nevertheless, in 1904 Thomas H. Huxley saw among Frisians the presence of what he suspected to be Neanderthaloid skeletal and cranial characteristics as an evolutionary development from Neanderthal rather than as a result of interbreeding, saying that \"the blond long-heads may exhibit one of the lines of evolution of the men of the Neanderthaloid type,\" yet he raised the possibility that the Frisians alternatively \"may be the result of the admixture of the blond long-heads with Neanderthal men,\" thus separating \"blond\" from \"Neanderthaloid.\"\n"
] |
Urban abandonment during late antiquity and the middle ages. | In the case of the Roman empire, there are several possibilities:
- The loss of North Africa to the Vandals. North Africa was the breadbasket of the Western Roman Empire, and without it, huge cities could no longer be supported. There was a similar but less dramatic depopulation of Constantinople after Egypt was lost to the Arabs in the 7th century. This is probably the most important reason.
- In the waning days of the western empire, invading Germanic tribes cut the supply of water into Rome and only the Aqua Virgo, which ran completely underground, continued to deliver water. In other words, large Roman cities were dependent on proper maintenance of aqueducts, and if they were destroyed for any reason, it would be difficult to continue to support a large population.
- There were several severe and protracted plagues, combined with a long period of invasions and conflicts.
- It has been speculated that the deforestation of the Western Mediterranean might have been an important cause. I really can't say how well accepted this argument is at the moment. | [
"However, there are traces of a resettling in the Middle Ages (12th century), when the ancient Roman walls were incorporated into those of a building forming part of the new inhabited hamlet also called \"Saint Eleuterio\", then in turn abandoned.\n",
"This development took place in the Late Middle Ages (13th to 15th centuries) and Early Modern Period (16th to 18th century), because disease (e.g. The Plague) and famine led to a significant decline in population and the total number of settlements fell sharply (leaving abandoned villages), as a result of wars and economic circumstances. Thus, during the colonization of the mountains, areas were often cleared that, because of the nutrient-poor sandy soils, were unsuitable for farming and had to be abandoned after a short period because of overuse and overexploitation. Also, the use of the forest to obtain firewood and timber did not follow the principles of sustainability. On the one hand, the production of straw (foliage as bedding for cattle) and wood pasture damaged the soils and forests; on the other hand the manufacture of iron, glass and potash, which needed a lot of wood, led for centuries to the overuse and destruction of the forest and thus to the further impoverishment of the population. Occupations that the forest itself supported, such as lumberjacks, charcoal burners, rafters, resin burners (pitch boilers) and ash burners, supported only a meagre existence.\n",
"There is evidence that over the fourth and early fifth centuries, rural villas were abandoned, suggesting that the Romano-British elite were moving to the comparative safety of fortified urban centres. However, urban centres also witnessed decline; Canterbury evidenced a declining population and reduced activity from the late third century onward, while Dover was abandoned by the end of the fourth century.\n",
"Despite being inhabited since ancient times, the region experienced rapid colonization in the Middle Ages, thanks to agricultural techniques allowing the exploitation of the steep hills and to the new wealth acquired by the nearby Republic of Florence.\n",
"The presence of tombs from the 4th century, within the city walls, suggests that the city had been largely abandoned by that time. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Saepinum was taken in 882 by Saracens.\n",
"The city, an early bishopric (see below), was abandoned in the Middle Ages due to the spread of malaria in the area, or to Vandal and Saracen attacks, or even given the last blow by Holy Roman Emperor Louis II of Italy (who also conquered Bari on Byzantium in 871).\n",
"After Luceria was abandoned, it was repeatedly spoliated, as common in the Middle Ages, for valuable building materials to be reused in new constructions (the place was called \"Predàro\" until the 18th century).). Thus the settlement disappeared from view and, in time, from local memory too. \n"
] |
why doesn't the us military replace the m9. i'm sure there are better pistols out there. | Military firearms tend to have a long life. They like to standardize. When you've got a million of *anything* it's a big deal.
That said, they're [currently looking into a replacement](_URL_0_). These things can take time. Since handguns haven't fundamentally changed in decades, there's no major rush. | [
"The U.S. Army and Air Force are seeking to replace their M9s through the Modular Handgun System program. The House Armed Services Committee wants to terminate the program in favor of upgrading the M9. Program officials say buying a new pistol is the better option due to advances in handgun designs, the difficulty in addressing all of the M9's issues, other pistols being less expensive to produce and maintain, and the low confidence soldiers have in the M9. A three-year engineering, manufacturing, and development (EMD) phase is to begin in early 2014. Commercial off-the-shelf pistols will be tested for capabilities such as accuracy, dispersion, compatibility, and corrosion resistance under extreme weather and extreme combat conditions. The pistol's service life is expected at 25,000 rounds. The M9 is required to fire 5,000 rounds, while data from Beretta shows the average reliability of the M9 pistol to be 17,500 rounds without a stoppage.\n",
"The M9 was scheduled to be replaced under a United States Army program, the \"Future Handgun System\" (FHS), which was merged with the \"SOF Combat Pistol\" program to create the \"Joint Combat Pistol\" (JCP). The JCP was renamed \"Combat Pistol\" (CP), and the number of pistols to be bought was drastically cut back. The U.S. Army and Air Force are seeking to replace their M9s through the Modular Handgun System program, which has chosen the SIG Sauer P320.\n",
"The Federal Bureau of Investigation and certain police forces have reversed earlier decisions to replace their 9mm pistols with ones chambered for .40 S&W because the heavier bullet and greater recoil caused excessive wear and frame damage. Law enforcement personnel have found that even marginally larger pistol rounds are still too underpowered to kill a person with one shot, and that smaller rounds allow for better shot placement when firing rapidly. Beretta has submitted changes and product improvements to the M9 system, like the M9A1 accepted by the U.S. Marine Corps in 2006, but the Army has maintained that the M9 system does not meet their MHS requirements.\n",
"The main reason for the program is the same as the Colt M1911A1 replacement by the Beretta M9 previously: the pistols were at the end of their service life and wearing out. All firearms have a finite life cycle. While parts such as the barrel, grips, springs, pins, and others can be replaced, the frame cannot and eventually becomes unserviceable. The M9, in service since the late 1980s, is approaching this limit. Examples in service are showing signs of terminal wear, and rather than replacing them with newly built M9s, the Army decided to opt for a new weapon to address design weaknesses.\n",
"The first two .380 ACP models are primarily intended for markets which prohibit civilian ownership of firearms chambered in military calibers such as 9×19mm Parabellum. Despite this they are legally prohibited from being sold to civilians in the United States due to being manufactured in Austria and not meeting the import restrictions based on its caliber, they are also prohibited from ownership in Canada due to not meeting minimum barrel length requirements for handguns.\n",
"Testing and evaluation of replacement pistols were expected to begin in early 2014. The new pistol will also be carried by more soldiers, namely squad and team leaders. A three-year test and evaluation will determine if a commercial off-the-shelf contender can replace all 239,000 M9s, as well as the concealable M11. The program was in conjunction with the Air Force. The House Armed Services Committee was pushing to upgrade the M9 rather than pursue a new program. Project officers believed buying a new pistol would be cheaper than improving and maintaining the M9 and offers designs that outperform it. The three-year engineering, manufacturing, and development (EMD) phase will test a variety of capabilities including accuracy, dispersion, compatibility, and corrosion resistance. Pistols will be tested in extreme weather and extreme combat conditions. A Request for Proposals (RFP) was expected to be issued in January 2014. The Army plans to buy 265,000 new pistols.\n",
"Although, since 2003 Russian military and law enforcement have switched to the more powerful 9×19mm Parabellum and as such are purchasing larger, more powerful and higher capacity pistols such as the MP-443 Grach (also manufactured by IzhMech).\n"
] |
apparently there are tens of thousands of illegal immigrants from ireland in places like new york. isn't life very difficult for them? how do they earn money? can they get things like houses, driving licenses, healthcare, etc? | Housing: rent and pay cash. Find landlord that doesn't care if you're illegal.
Driver license, just don't get one. Take bus or subway. Or drive illegally and not get pulled over.
Healthcare, go to emergency room, pay in cash or don't pay at all | [
"There are however numerous incentives which draw foreigners to the US. Most illegal immigrants who come to America come for better opportunities for employment, a greater degree of freedom, avoidance of political oppression, freedom from violence, famine, and family reunification.\n",
"Some people go to traffickers looking to be brought into a new country, typically illegally. The most common countries people are brought to are The United States, Britain, Italy, Canada, Spain and The Netherlands. These countries have come to rely on migrant workers doing jobs in agriculture, construction, manufacturing and domestic service for low paying wages. Because of a concern about job competition, security and many other issues related to taking in large amounts of foreign-born populations, this has caused many of these countries to strengthen and tighten their border security. Though this has only caused a rise in illegal immigration. Many people from Guatemala and Belize travel though Mexico to get to the United States border. Because of the increasing security along the borders, smugglers will take more dangerous routes, which makes the smuggling more costly. To pay for this, smugglers will force the migrants into forced labor or prostitution.\n",
"While critics complain of \"illegal immigration,\" Morones maintains current U.S. immigration laws make it impossible for most people from Mexico and Central America to enter the United States with documentation through a port of entry. “The biggest myth out there is that these people should ‘get in line’ and come here legally,” Morones said. “There is no line. These people do not qualify for visas. There is no legal way for these people to come into the country.” Morones also notes that rather than being a financial burden, immigrants contribute greatly to the U.S. economy through work and taxes.\n",
"Many Irish who fled their homeland because of the Potato Famine of the 1840s (over one million people died as a result of this famine) immigrated to the United States. A significant number of them went to Puerto Rico after being turned away at American ports because of epidemic outbreaks on board the ships on which they sailed. Many of these Irish settlers were instrumental in the development of the island's hugely successful sugar industry. Said industry was vital to the growing local economy.\n",
"Economic reasons are one motivation for people to illegally immigrate to the United States. United States employers hire illegal immigrants at wages substantially higher than they could earn in their native countries. A study of illegal immigrants from Mexico in the 1978 harvest season in Oregon showed that they earned six times what they could have earned in Mexico, and even after deducting the costs of the seasonal migration and the additional expense of living in the United States, their net U.S. earnings were three times their Mexican alternative. In the 1960s and early 70s, Mexico's high fertility rate caused a large increase in population. While Mexican population growth has slowed, the large numbers of people born in the 1960s and 70s are now of working age looking for jobs.\n",
"There is small Bangladeshi migrant group in Ireland. 99 Bangladeshis applied for asylum in Ireland in 2014 and 2015 the number rose to 231. Some of the Bangladeshis are illegal immigrants. Bangladesh-born Maksuda Akter won Ms. Ireland Beauty Pageant 2014.\n",
"Illegal immigrants work in many sectors of the U.S. economy. Illegal immigrants have lower incomes than both legal immigrants and native-born Americans, but earnings do increase somewhat the longer an individual is in the country.\n"
] |
If our moon causes our tides, and considering the size, wouldn't moons around a planet the size of Jupiter have tides that would flood entire continents? | (not my field of expertise) The moons of Jupiter have huge tidal forces. For instance take Io, it's the closest large satelite of Jupiter and it's tidal forces are so extreme that they heat the core of the moon, causing volcanos with plumes hundreds of kilometers high!
_URL_0_
(I remembered all of this from Arthur C Clarke's 2010)
| [
"If the Earth had no Moon, the ocean tides resulting solely from the Sun's gravity would be only half that of the lunar tides. A large satellite gives rise to tidal pools, which may be essential for the formation of complex life, though this is far from certain.\n",
"Atmospheric tides are also produced through the gravitational effects of the Moon. \"Lunar (gravitational) tides\" are much weaker than \"solar (thermal) tides\" and are generated by the motion of the Earth's oceans (caused by the Moon) and to a lesser extent the effect of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the atmosphere.\n",
"In the case of the Earth, the sole Moon is sufficiently massive and orbits so as to significantly contribute to ocean tides, which in turn aids the dynamic churning of Earth's large liquid water oceans. These lunar forces not only help ensure that the oceans do not stagnate, but also play a critical role in Earth's dynamic climate.\n",
"If the Moon was formed by such an impact, it is possible that other inner planets also may have been subjected to comparable impacts. A moon that formed around Venus by this process would have been unlikely to escape. If such a moon-forming event had occurred there, a possible explanation of why the planet does not have such a moon might be that a second collision occurred that countered the angular momentum from the first impact. Another possibility is that the strong tidal forces from the Sun would tend to destabilize the orbits of moons around close-in planets. For this reason, if Venus's slow rotation rate began early in its history, any satellites larger than a few kilometers in diameter would likely have spiraled inwards and collided with Venus.\n",
"None of Uranus's moons would appear as large as a full moon on Earth from the surface of their parent planet, but the large number of them would present an interesting sight for observers hovering above the cloudtops. The angular diameters of the five large moons are as follows (for comparison, Earth's moon measures on average 31′ for terrestrial observers): Miranda, 11–15′; Ariel, 20–23′; Umbriel, 15–17′; Titania, 11–13′; Oberon, 8–9′. Unlike on Jupiter and Saturn, many of the inner moons can be seen as disks rather than starlike points; the moons Portia and Juliet can appear around the size of Miranda at times, and a number of other inner moons appear larger than Oberon. Several others range from 6′ to 8′. The outer irregular moons would not be visible to the naked eye.\n",
"Most major moons in the Solar System − the gravitationally rounded satellites − are tidally locked with their primaries, because they orbit very closely and tidal force increases rapidly (as a cubic function) with decreasing distance. Notable exceptions are the irregular outer satellites of the gas giants, which orbit much farther away than the large well-known moons.\n",
"The theoretical amplitude of oceanic tides caused by the Moon is about at the highest point, which corresponds to the amplitude that would be reached if the ocean possessed a uniform depth, there were no landmasses, and the Earth were rotating in step with the Moon's orbit. The Sun similarly causes tides, of which the theoretical amplitude is about (46% of that of the Moon) with a cycle time of 12 hours. At spring tide the two effects add to each other to a theoretical level of , while at neap tide the theoretical level is reduced to . Since the orbits of the Earth about the Sun, and the Moon about the Earth, are elliptical, tidal amplitudes change somewhat as a result of the varying Earth–Sun and Earth–Moon distances. This causes a variation in the tidal force and theoretical amplitude of about ±18% for the Moon and ±5% for the Sun. If both the Sun and Moon were at their closest positions and aligned at new moon, the theoretical amplitude would reach .\n"
] |
why do most aeroplane hangars have curved roofs regardless of their size? | Actually it is for strength. An arch is incredibly strong and puts far less strain on the materials than a flat surface. | [
"The rectangular hangar accommodates 10 planes, and is still in use today. The building is made of brick and has a concrete foundation. The roof is gabled, and the walls are parapeted. The end walls are capped by pent roofs and decorative brick panels framed by stucco. The north and south ends contain eight large sliding metal doors, which open to allow planes to roll in. The interior has a concrete floor, unfinished brick walls, and an unfinished ceiling with exposed steel trusses. There is a small office and washroom on the east end, and a staircase leads to a narrow second floor room that overlooks the workroom and hangar storage area. Located on the east side of the hangar, the Powerhouse is a one-story, one-by-one bay building with another gabled roof and parapeted walls. Entrance is gained through a door on the south side of the building, and the only other openings are a metal window on the east side, and a small vent on the west side.\n",
"An advantage of the high-wing configuration is that the fuselage is closer to the ground which eases cargo loading, especially for aircraft with a rear-fueslage cargo door. Military cargo aircraft are predominently high-wing designs with a rear cargo door.\n",
"Airplanes have flexible wing surfaces which are stretched across a frame and made rigid by the lift forces exerted by the airflow over them. Larger aircraft have rigid wing surfaces which provide additional strength.\n",
"The aircraft's elliptical wing was built using a unique stressed-skin structure, designed by Barnes Wallis for lightness. The top and bottom were manufactured separately, and then clamped together at the leading and trailing edges, this being named \"peapod\" or \"lobster-claw\" structure. This allowed a large internal space unobstructed by ribs, hence capable of housing large fuel tanks (similar to Wallis's geodetic designs).\n",
"A high wing has its upper surface on or above the top of the fuselage. It shares many advantages and disadvantages with the shoulder wing, but on a light aircraft, the high wing has poorer upwards visibility. On light aircraft such as the Cessna 152, the wing is usually located on top of the pilot's cabin, so that the centre of lift broadly coincides with the centre of gravity.\n",
"A wing that is made deep enough to contain the pilot, engines, fuel, undercarriage and other necessary equipment will have an increased frontal area, when compared with a conventional wing and long-thin fuselage. This can actually result in higher drag and thus lower efficiency than a conventional design. Typically the solution adopted in this case is to keep the wing reasonably thin, and the aircraft is then fitted with an assortment of blisters, pods, nacelles, fins, and so forth to accommodate all the needs of a practical aircraft.\n",
"Most aircraft have been designed with planar wings with simple dihedral (or anhedral). Some older aircraft such as the Vought F4U Corsair and the Beriev Be-12 were designed with gull wings bent near the root. Modern polyhedral wing designs generally bend upwards near the wingtips (also known as \"tip dihedral\"), increasing dihedral effect without increasing the angle the wings meet at the root, which may be restricted to meet other design criteria.\n"
] |
What is the mythological precedent for Jesus's single resurrection? | To quote Mettinger's [The Riddle of Resurrection](_URL_0_), which is probably the best survey of ANE gods and resurrection (Baal, Dumuzi-Tammuz, Adonis, Melqart-Heracles, Osiris, Eshmun-Ascelpius):
> The dying and rising gods were closely related to the seasonal
cycle. Their death and return were seen as reflected in the changes of
plant life. The death and resurrection of Jesus is a one-time event, not
repeated, and unrelated to seasonal changes.
and
> There is, as far as I am aware, no prima facie evidence that the death
and resurrection of Jesus is a mythological construct, drawing on the
myths and rites of the dying and rising gods of the surrounding world. While studied with profit against the background of Jewish resurrection belief, the faith in the death and resurrection of Jesus retains its unique 1 character in the history of religions. The riddle remains. | [
"Rahner states that the death and the resurrection of Jesus are two aspects of a single event not to be separated, even though the resurrection is not a historical event in time and place like the death of Jesus. What the Scripture offers are powerful encounters in which the disciples come to experience the \"spirit\" of the risen Lord Jesus among them, provoking a resurrection faith of the disciples as \"a unique fact\". The resurrection is not a return to life in the temporal sphere, but the seal of God the Father upon all that Jesus stood for and preached in his pre-Easter life. \"By the resurrection... Jesus is vindicated as the absolute saviour\" by God: it means \"this death \"as\" entered into in free obedience and \"as\" surrendering life completely to God, reaches fulfillment and becomes historically tangible for us only in the resurrection\". Thus, in the resurrection, the life and death of Jesus are understood as \"the cause of God's salvific will\" and open the door to our salvation: \"we are saved because this man who is one of us has been saved by God, and God has thereby made his salvific will present in the world historically, really and irrevocably\". In this sense, Jesus of Nazareth becomes a God-Man, the absolute saviour.\n",
"According to the New Testament, some Christians reported that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion. They argued that he had been resurrected (belief in the resurrection of the dead in the Messianic Age was a core Pharisaic doctrine), and would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment.\n",
"The post-resurrection appearances of Jesus are the earthly appearances of Jesus to his followers after his death and burial. Believers point to them as proof of his resurrection and identity as Messiah, seated in heaven on the right hand of God (the doctrine of the Exaltation of Christ). \n",
"The historicity and origin of the resurrection of Jesus has been the subject of historical research and debate, as well as a topic of discussion among theologians. The accounts of the Gospels, including the empty tomb and the appearances of the risen Jesus to his followers, have been interpreted and analyzed in diverse ways, and have been seen variously as historical accounts of a literal event, as accurate accounts of visionary experiences, as non-literal eschatological parables, and as fabrications of early Christian writers, among various other interpretations. It has been suggested, for example, that Jesus did not die on the cross, that the empty tomb was the result of Jesus' body having been stolen, or, as was common with Roman crucifixions, that Jesus was never entombed.\n",
"The historicity and origin of the resurrection of Jesus has been the subject of historical research and debate, as well as a topic of discussion among theologians. The accounts of the Gospels, including the empty tomb and the appearances of the risen Jesus to his followers, have been interpreted and analyzed in diverse ways, and have been seen variously as historical accounts of a literal event, as accurate accounts of visionary experiences, as non-literal eschatological parables, and as fabrications of early Christian writers, among various other interpretations. It has been suggested, for example, that Jesus did not die on the cross, that the empty tomb was the result of Jesus' body having been stolen, or, as was common with Roman crucifixions, that Jesus was never entombed.\n",
"According to Christian denominations the bodily resurrection of Jesus after his death is the pivotal event of Jesus' life and death, as described in the gospels and the epistles. According to the gospels, written decades after the events of his life, Jesus preached for a period of one to three years in the early 1st century. His ministry of teaching, healing the sick and disabled and performing various miracles culminated in his crucifixion at the hands of the Roman authorities in Jerusalem. After his death, he appeared to his followers, resurrected from death. After forty days he ascended to Heaven, but his followers believed he would soon return to usher in the Kingdom of God and fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment. \n",
"According to Johan Leman, the resurrection must be understood as a sense of presence of Jesus even after his death, especially during the ritual meals which were continued after his death. His early followers regarded him as a righteous man and prophet, who was therefore resurrected and exalted. In time, Messianistic, Isaiahic, apocalyptic and eschatological expectations were blended in the experience and understanding of Jesus, who came to be expected to return to earth.\n"
] |
Since pi is irrational, is there a point in pi's decimals where there are 1 billion subsequent threes? | Probably, but not just because it's irrational. For example, the [Liouville constant](_URL_1_) is irrational but has only 0's and 1's in its decimal expansion.
However, pi is strongly conjectured to be a [normal number](_URL_0_). If this is the case, you certainly can find a billion 3's in a row in its decimal expansion—in fact, you'd find this infinitely many times. Of course, the first occurrence would be *very* deep, but it would be there. | [
"as it sometimes is, the ellipsis does not mean that the decimals repeat (they do not), but rather that there is no end to them. It has been proved that is irrational. Another well-known number, proven to be an irrational real number, is\n",
"In the 1760s, Johann Heinrich Lambert proved that the number (pi) is irrational: that is, it cannot be expressed as a fraction \"a\"/\"b\", where \"a\" is an integer and \"b\" is a non-zero integer. In the 19th century, Charles Hermite found a proof that requires no prerequisite knowledge beyond basic calculus. Three simplifications of Hermite's proof are due to Mary Cartwright, Ivan Niven, and Nicolas Bourbaki. Another proof, which is a simplification of Lambert's proof, is due to Miklós Laczkovich.\n",
"Because the continued fraction expansion for φ doesn't use any integers greater than 1, φ is one of the most \"difficult\" real numbers to approximate with rational numbers. Hurwitz's theorem states that any irrational number can be approximated by infinitely many rational with\n",
"Being an irrational number, cannot be expressed as a common fraction (equivalently, its decimal representation never ends and never settles into a permanently repeating pattern). Still, fractions such as 22/7 and other rational numbers are commonly used to approximate . The digits appear to be randomly distributed. In particular, the digit sequence of is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness, but to date, no proof of this has been discovered. Also, is a transcendental number; that is, it is not the root of any polynomial having rational coefficients. This transcendence of implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge.\n",
"Another short proof—perhaps more commonly known—of the irrationality of the golden ratio makes use of the closure of rational numbers under addition and multiplication. If formula_15 is rational, then formula_16 is also rational, which is a contradiction if it is already known that the square root of a non-square natural number is irrational.\n",
"Pi certainly seems to behave this way. In the first six billion decimal places of pi, each of the digits from 0 through 9 shows up about six hundred million times. Yet such results, conceivably accidental, do not prove normality even in base 10, much less normality in other number bases.\n",
"If there were finitely many primes this formula would show that is a rational number whose denominator is the product of all multiples of 4 that are one more or less than a prime number, contradicting the fact that is irrational.\n"
] |
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