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Many galaxies are moving away or towards us. Are there any galaxies that aren't moving considerably, or have more sideways movement than in and out? | Measuring the sideways motion of galaxies isn't something we can really do. However there are nearby galaxies with have negligible velocity (relative to us) in the radial direction; in these cases, you can safely assume that their sideways motion (relative to us) is the larger component. | [
"In models of the expanding universe, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. This receding is not due to motion \"through\" space, but rather to the expansion of space itself. For example, galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere, the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light.\n",
"Based upon a radial velocity of about 10,500 km s, the interacting pair of galaxies at the northwest are located at a distance of from us (assuming a Hubble constant value of ). If we further assume that the third galaxy lies at the same distance away from us, we find that the galaxies are separated by a projected linear distance of roughly , though later findings from Hubble may cast this assumption into doubt (see below)\n",
"American astronomer Edwin Hubble observed that the distances to faraway galaxies were strongly correlated with their redshifts. This was interpreted to mean that all distant galaxies and clusters are receding away from our vantage point with an apparent velocity proportional to their distance: that is, the farther they are, the faster they move away from us, regardless of direction. Assuming the Copernican principle (that the Earth is not the center of the universe), the only remaining interpretation is that all observable regions of the universe are receding from all others. Since we know that the distance between galaxies increases today, it must mean that in the past galaxies were closer together. The continuous expansion of the universe implies that the universe was denser and hotter in the past.\n",
"The Milky Way Galaxy is moving through space and many astronomers believe the velocity of this motion to be approximately relative to the observed locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave background. This frame of reference indicates that the Milky Way is moving at around .\n",
"However the observed velocity dispersion of galaxies within a galaxy cluster does not depend on the mass of the galaxies. The explanation is that a galaxy cluster relaxes by violent relaxation, which sets the velocity dispersion to a value independent of the galaxy's mass.\n",
"There are many galaxies visible in telescopes with red shift numbers of 1.4 or higher. All of these are currently traveling away from us at speeds greater than the speed of light. Because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can actually be cases where a galaxy that is receding from us faster than light does manage to emit a signal which reaches us eventually.\n",
"While these observations solve the problem of radial velocity, the movement of Eridanus II towards the center of our galaxy, they cannot solve the problem of transverse velocity, motion at right angles to the line between Eridanus II and the Milky Way. That is, we cannot determine whether Eridanus II is orbiting the Milky Way, or simply moving in its direction from outside the system. Li et al. (2016: 7–8) report that Eridanus II does not exhibit a \"tail\" or gradient of lower (or higher) velocity stars in a particular direction, which might give a clue to that galaxy's transverse velocity. However, they point out that an object similar to Eridanus II would need a total velocity of about 200 km/sec to escape capture by the Milky Way. Given its radial velocity of 75 km/sec, Eridanus II would need a transverse velocity of some 185 km/sec to avoid capture—certainly possible, but not likely. In addition, they point to the results of detailed simulation studies of the Local Group (Garrison-Kimmel et al., 2014). All objects situated similarly to Eridanus II in these simulations were determined to be satellites of the Milky Way (Li et al. (2016: 8)). For reasons to be discussed in the concluding section, most researchers now believe that Eridanus II is an extremely long-period (i.e., several billion years per orbit) satellite of the Milky Way, probably beginning only its second approach to our galaxy.\n"
] |
what exactly causes websites to display special characters incorrectly (often quotes or ampersands) | Different character encoding standards.
Your computer only recognizes the number that's being sent, not the character. Computers only understand zeros and ones. A computer will assign each letter a different set of 8 zeros and ones, but problems happen when two computers use a different system of matching these numbers to the letters. Unicode is the most common system, but there are many others. The guy writing the site is using a weird set of numbers for his symbols and probably doesn't know it.
Google Chrome was unable to detect what encoding this site is using, but it's not Unicode or the European standard. | [
"Because many fonts are designed to fulfill the WGL4 set, this set of characters is likely to work (display as other than replacement glyphs) on many computer systems. For instance you are probably able to see all the characters in the table below, compared to the many missing characters that may be seen in other articles about Unicode.\n",
"Generally, use of character editors is considered cheating (similar to using cheat codes to change player statistics, only more flexibly so). However, character editors often have legitimate uses; for example, changing the appearance of the character or character description (possibly using \"hidden\" outlook options that are not available through the game itself, such as using NPC character portraits), changing internal variables of the character to avoid bugs, or use features that are only available through either cheat codes or character editors (such as custom character races from mods).\n",
"Therefore, the appearance of those code points when displayed or printed -- as in the table below -- is likely to be incorrect, unless they are rendered with a font specifically designed for the particular language and letter style of the text. \n",
"The source of the error was a bug in the JBIG2 implementation, which is an image compression standard that makes use of pattern matching to encode identical characters only once. While this provides a high level of compression, it is susceptible to errors in identifying similar characters.\n",
"In the age of World Wide Web and digital typesetting, especially after the advent of Unicode and enormous amount of digital fonts, typographic approximations are usually caused either by low ability of humans to distinguish and find needed symbols or by inadequate replacement patterns in word processors, rather than by shortage in available characters.\n",
"In this way markup such as font and color are not really a distinguishing factor, because the character sequences that affect font and color are simply standard characters inserted automatically by a \"background text processing\" mode, made to work transparently by compliant text editors, yet becoming otherwise visible as \"text processing commands\" when that mode is not in effect. So text processing is defined most basically (but not entirely) around the visual characters (or graphemes) rather than the standard, yet invisible characters.\n",
"Due to the potential accumulation of parentheses in only one code line, editing and error detecting (or debugging) can became somehow \"awkward\". That is why modern programming environments -as well as spreadsheet programs- highlight in bold type the pair corresponding to the current editing position. The (automatic) balancing control of the opening and closing parenthesis known as \"brace match checking\".\n"
] |
was meat considered to be something just for the upper class in Europe 900 years ago? | Not at all. Medieval peasants grew livestock and used their produce for their own sustenance - chickens, pigs, goats, and cows were all consumed by members of all classes. If they lived near a river or the sea, they would also probably eat fish as well.
The difference between classes, as far as culinary was concerned, was the higher classes' ability to get stuff like spices. These sorts of things usually grew outside of Europe and had to be imported by merchants, thus becoming very rare and precious. | [
"European consumption of meat remained exceptional by world standards, and during the period high levels generally moved down the social scale. But the poor continued to rely mainly on eggs, dairy products, and pulses for protein. Often they did better in the less populated regions, where wild game and fish could still easily be found. The richer nations, especially England, ate considerably more meat than the poorer ones. In some areas, especially Germany and the Mediterranean counties, the meat consumption of ordinary people actually declined, beginning in about 1550, and continuing throughout the period. Increasing population seem to lie behind this trend.\n",
"In Europe, medieval cuisine made great use of meat and vegetables, and the guild of butchers was amongst the most powerful. During the 12th century, salt beef was consumed by all social classes. Smoked meat was called \"carbouclée\" in Romance tongues and \"bacon\" if it was pork.\n",
"BULLET::::- – meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans are omnivorous, and have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle, and eventually their use in meat production on an industrial scale. Today, humans consume not only chicken, mutton, pork and beef but also meats of camel, horse, dog, cat, alligator, crocodile, turtle, dolphin, emu, ostrich, duck, deer, zebra, water buffalo, whale, snake, frog, guinea pig, rabbit, squirrel, porcupine and monkey.\n",
"Some types of meat that were commonly eaten in the past (such as beef tongue, \"disznósajt\" (head cheese) or \"véres hurka\" (similar to black pudding) are now more associated with the countryside as people turn to healthier diets.\n",
"Later philosophers examined the changing practices of eating meat in the modern age as part of a process of detachment from animals as living beings. Norbert Elias, for instance, noted that in medieval times cooked animals were brought to the table whole, but that since the Renaissance only the edible parts are served, which are no longer recognizably part of an animal. Modern eaters, according to , demand an \"ellipsis\" between meat and dead animals; for instance, calves' eyes are no longer considered a delicacy as in the Middle Ages, but provoke disgust. Even in the English language, distinctions emerged between animals and their meat, such as between cattle and beef, pigs and pork. Fernand Braudel wrote that since the European diet of the 15th and 16th century was particularly heavy in meat, European colonialism helped export meat-eating across the globe, as colonized peoples took up the culinary habits of their colonizers, which they associated with wealth and power.\n",
"Meats were more expensive than plant foods. Though rich in protein, the calorie-to-weight ratio of meat was less than that of plant food. Meat could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages dramatically increased. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making them available for pasture and putting more meat on the market.\n",
"Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses.\n"
] |
why has china not taken over mongolia and korea but shows irredentism when it comes to tibet, taiwan, islands in south china sea? | This is a [progress of China's borders](_URL_0_) through out history.
Notice both Tibet and Mongolia were part of China's Qing (1644 to 1911) dynasty. China's Yuan (1271–1368) dynasty was actually Mongols, which of course includes Mongolia. China broke apart into several warring factions after 1911. Tibet, Mongolia and other outlaying regions became self governing. After communist took over in 1949, their first order of business was to reclaim Tibet, Mongolia, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Taiwan and Hong Kong were both islands protected by the US/British fleet. Russia forced Mao to give up Mongolia as a condition of alliance.
Korea was considered a vessel state to China's ming (1368-1644) dynasty. As in they would contribute soldiers and pay tribute to Ming. But they were always self governing. After China was taken over by the Manchus and established Qing dynasty, Korea did not became a vessel state to Qing. | [
"Since the 1960s, China had considered the Soviet Union the principal threat to its security; lesser threats were posed by long standing border disputes with Vietnam and India. China's territorial claims and economic interests made the South China Sea an area of strategic importance to China. Although China sought peaceful reunification of Taiwan with the mainland China, it did not rule out the use of force against the island if serious internal disturbances, a declaration of independence, or a threatening alliance occurred.\n",
"After the widely reported incident near the Senkaku Islands in 2010, over which Japan, China and Taiwan all claim sovereignty, China engaged in coercive economic diplomacy. In response to the dispute, China allegedly blocked all shipments of rare earth minerals to Japan, harming their economy. Whether this embargo indeed took place is unclear, as Japan saw no decrease in rare earths imports during that time.\n",
"Many of Eastern Asia's current disputes to sovereignty and self-determination stem from unresolved disputes from World War II. After its fall, the Empire of Japan renounced control over many of its former possessions including Korea, Sakhalin Island, and Taiwan. In none of these areas were the opinions of affected people consulted, or given significant priority. Korea was specifically granted independence but the receiver of various other areas was not stated in the Treaty of San Francisco, giving Taiwan \"de facto\" independence although its political status continues to be ambiguous.\n",
"The situation today is still mixed, with hostilities in parts of Asia such as the continuing tensions over South China sea, Kashmir, Taiwan, Tibet, North Korea as well as economic competitiveness between the People's Republic of China and India. China and India do not have a peace treaty, nor does Russia and Japan or North Korea and South Korea. However, there are also moves towards greater co-operation and communication within the region with Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) a notable example.\n",
"In addition to Taiwan, China is also involved in other international territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal. On 21 May 2014 Xi Jinping, speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial disputes peacefully. \"China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests\", he said.\n",
"The dispute has been affected by the fact that, after Japan renounced all claims to the Spratly Islands and other conquered islands and territories in the Treaty of San Francisco and Treaty of Peace with the Republic of China (Taiwan) signed on 8 September 1951, it did not indicate successor states since China was not invited to the treaty talks held in San Francisco. In reaction to that, on 15 August, the Chinese government issued the Declaration on the Draft Peace Treaty with Japan by the US and the UK and on the San Francisco Conference by the then Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai, reiterating China's sovereignty over the archipelagos in the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, and protesting about the absence of any provisions in the draft on who shall take over the South China Sea islands following Japan's renouncement of all rights, title and claim to them. It reiterated that \"the Chinese government of the day had taken over those islands\" and that the PRC's rightful sovereignty \"shall remain intact\".\n",
"During the 20th century, China claimed that numerous neighbouring countries and regions in Asia were \"lost territories\" of China. Many of these \"lost territories\" were under the rule of Imperial Chinese dynasties or were tributary states. Sun Yat-sen claimed that these territories were lost due to unequal treaties, forceful occupation and annexation, and foreign interference. Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, among others, were supportive of these claims. China published a series of maps during this time known as a \"Map of National Shame\" () which showcased some of the \"lost territories\" that had links to various Imperial Chinese dynasties.\n"
] |
Where did Yiddish as a language originate? | א שיינעם דאנק פור די שאלה!
Yiddish is, as the podcast and others have said, closely related to German. It's got loans from Hebrew, Aramaic, Slavic languages, and occasionally romance loans (beyond what exists in German dialects), and it's got pronunciation differences like a German dialect would. It formed by Jews in German-speaking areas migrating east but still speaking Yiddish, forming eastern Yiddish, while those that stayed had their language diverge from German and spoke western Yiddish, which is extinct.
Measuring mutual intelligibility is difficult. I've seen lots of German-speakers say they can figure out Yiddish, but usually that's standard Yiddish on YouTube or something. Colloquial Yiddish has lots more loans from other languages and can have funkier vowel shifts than standard Yiddish. Yiddish speakers can't always understand each other!
It's also easy to construct a Yiddish sentence unreadable to Germans because of vocabulary. Like "der rov leynt a seyfer" means "the rabbi reads a book", but rov, leynt, and seyfer are not German words. Or an actual example from /r/Yiddish, "kulem hobn nekudes toyves", meaning "everybody's got good points"--all words but "hobn" are loans | [
"Yiddish is a major linguistic creation of the Jewish Diaspora, originating in what is now Germany. It is one of many languages that emerged as a result of the migration of the Jewish people throughout Europe, alongside Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), Italkian (Judeo-Italian), Knaanic (Judeo-Slavic), Yevanic (Judeo-Greek), and Zarphatic (Judeo-French). Of these languages, Yiddish produced the most significant literature and served as an icon of Jewish identity throughout Central and Eastern Europe.\n",
"Yiddish originated in the Ashkenazi culture that developed from about the 10th century in the Rhineland and then spread to central and eastern Europe and eventually to other continents. For a significant portion of its history, Yiddish was the primary spoken language of the Ashkenazi Jews. Eastern Yiddish, three dialects of which are still spoken today, includes a significant but varying percentage of words from Slavic, Romanian and other local languages.\n",
"From the late 13th century, there is evidence of the beginnings of the Yiddish language, which in the early phase is a variety of Middle High German, not distinct enough even to be described as a dialect, but written in Hebrew characters. In its early phase, it is normally referred to as Judeo-German; from the 15th century it becomes Old Yiddish. Poems in this idiom belong equally to the fields of Medieval German Studies and Jewish/Yiddish studies.\n",
"Yiddish (, or , \"yidish\"/\"idish\", \"Jewish\", ; in older sources \"Yidish-Taitsh\", Judaeo-German) is the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews. It originated during the 9th century in Central Europe, providing the nascent Ashkenazi community with a High German-based vernacular fused with elements taken from Hebrew and Aramaic as well as from Slavic languages and traces of Romance languages. Yiddish is written with a fully vocalized version of the Hebrew alphabet.\n",
"It is generally accepted that early Yiddish was likely to have contained elements from other languages of the Near East and Europe, absorbed through migrations. Since some settlers may have come via France and Italy, it is also likely that the Romance-based Jewish languages of those regions were represented. Traces remain in the contemporary Yiddish vocabulary: for example, (\"bentshn\", \"to bless\"), ultimately from the Latin \"\"; (\"leyenen\", \"to read\"), from the Old French \"lei(e)re\"; and the personal names Bunim (related to French \" bon nom\", good name) and Yentl (Old French \"gentil\", \"noble\"). Western Yiddish includes additional words of ultimate Latin derivation (but still very few): for example, \"orn\" (to pray), cf. Old French \"orer\".\n",
"Yiddish is a Germanic language with significant Hebrew and Slavic influence, written with a variant of the Hebrew Alphabet (see Yiddish orthography) and, formerly, spoken by most Ashkenazic Jews (although most now speak the language of the country in which they live). Although the Jewish population of Sweden was traditionally Sephardic, after the 18th century, Ashkenazic immigration began, and the immigrants brought with them their Yiddish language (See History of the Jews in Sweden). Like Romani, it is seen by the government to be of historical importance. The organisation \"Sällskapet för Jiddisch och Jiddischkultur i Sverige\" (Society for Yiddish and Yiddish Culture in Sweden) has over 200 members, many of whom are mother-tongue Yiddish speakers, and arranges regular activities for the speech community and in external advocacy of the Yiddish language.\n",
"Yiddish () is the historical and cultural language of Ashkenazi Jews, who make up the majority of the Canadian Jewry and was widely spoken within the Canadian Jewish community up to the middle of the twentieth century.\n"
] |
if vegetables are good for you, why do soda, chips, and other "junk food" taste better? | Sugar, salt, and fat are critical for the human body to work. Our brain users more sugar than any other part, salt is needed to conduct electricity, and fat is of course an excellent store of energy.
You and I are unfortunately a very old model, stuck in modern times. Human beings haven't had a major evolution in 35,000 years. We are essentially designed to be the perfect hunter gatherers, but that's not been our role in a very long time. Our tastes turn us on to exactly what our ancestors needed the most, but in the age of the Big Mac that's exactly what we have too much of. | [
"Most vegetables are low- or moderate-carbohydrate foods (in some low-carbohydrate diets, fiber is excluded because it is not a nutritive carbohydrate). Some vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, maize (corn) and rice are high in starch. Most low-carbohydrate diet plans accommodate vegetables such as broccoli, spinach, kale, lettuce, cucumbers, cauliflower, peppers and most green-leafy vegetables.\n",
"As for junk food's appeal, there is no definitive scientific answer, both physiological and psychological factors are cited. Food manufacturers spend billions of dollars on research and development to create flavor profiles that trigger the human affinity for sugar, salt, and fat. Consumption results in pleasurable, likely addictive, effects in the brain. At the same time, massive marketing efforts are deployed, creating powerful brand loyalties that studies have shown will trump taste.\n",
"Berries remain under research and do not have evidence of providing any health benefits different from other fresh fruits. Specifically, blueberries are not especially nutrient dense (a superfood characteristic); they have moderate content of only three essential nutrients: vitamin C, vitamin K, and manganese.\n",
"Vegetables such as corn, carrots, and mushrooms, provide the patty with texture and taste. Additionally, they provide moisture when heated. This allows the disc shape without breaking apart easily. The vegetables also provide nutrients with the addition of some vitamins and minerals.\n",
"Scientific literature shows that consuming a \"variety\" of fruits and vegetables is linked with reduction of some cancers. There is insufficient evidence to support any one fruit/vegetable or food constituent with a reduction of cancer occurrence. Fruits and vegetables have a wide range of nutrients and phytochemicals, thus to achieve optimal nutrient levels a variety is recommended. \"Some\" types of cancer signifies that not all types of cancers are diet related and thus not all types of cancer can be reduced by a dietary change. The statement \"may help\" eliminates consumer confusion that diet is the only factors in reducing risk of some types of cancers. The wording of this disease reduction health claim cannot be modified in any way. However, words, numbers or signs can be added before or after the claim, provided that they do not change the nature of the claim.\n",
"Timo Krämer and Tarek Mandelartz, two students, were looking for a solution for making it easier to consume more fruits and vegetables every day. Both agreed that they did not like the smoothies and pasteurised juices in supermarkets. These still contain either a lot of sugar or just a little percentage of actual fruit, which both contradict the whole principal of eating healthier. In the spring of 2014 they started their business in Berlin, which focussed at first at a detox line. The first recipes for the juices were developed at home in the kitchen and directly sold at the door. Consumers would replace all their food during the day for 9 juices of Safterei every day, also known as juice fasting. \n",
"Besides there are meant and dairy substitutes that vegan can choose from, such as fiber. There are various kinds of fruit and vegetables. They not only help add flavor, fiber and texture, but also healthy. Sweet potato, as an easy ingredient available in puree, juice, dried flake and flour, are ranked as the number one in nutrition for vegetables by the Centre for Science in the Public Interest. Although vegetables have seasonal variation in colour, nutrients, price and available, using vegetable concentrates and extracts is a effective solution in coping with the consistency, thus boosting specific flavour profile, especially in soups.\n"
] |
notre dame is getting lots of donations to rebuild and they say it's not enough. wouldn't a world landmark be covered in insurance for catastrophe like this? | From my understanding, neither the maximum amount of insurance possible on the church, nor the insurance bond of the construction company doing the restorations, come anywhere close to the BILLIONS it will take to rebuild. | [
"On Tuesday 16th April 2019, the company's Chief Executive Officer, Patrick Pouyanne pledged that Total will make a €100 million contribution to the reconstruction of the Notre-Dame cathedral after it was extensively damaged in a fire. \n",
"Since 1905, France's cathedrals (including Notre-Dame) have been owned by the state, which is self-insured. Some costs might be recovered through insurance coverage if the fire is found to have been caused by contractors working on the site. The French insurer AXA provided insurance coverage for two of the contracting firms working on Notre-Dame's restoration before the blaze which devastated the cathedral. AXA also provided insurance coverage for some of the relics and artworks in the cathedral.\n",
"United Saints Recovery Project is a 501(c)(3) non-profit located in the Central City neighbourhood of New Orleans which developed in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. It is a second-tier disaster response and community development organisation that exclusively harnesses the power of national and international volunteers to rebuild and preserve the city of New Orleans. The United Saints organisation was founded by Daryl Kiesow in 2007 after HandsOn organisation transitioned out of the neighbourhood. The United Saints main focus is to help communities affected by disasters and to revitalise economically distressed neighbourhoods. The United Saints Recovery Project operates out of First Street United Methodist Church on Dryades Street, New Orleans.\n",
"As of 14 June only €80million had been collected. The minister in charge of national museums and monuments, Franck Riester, predicted that further donations would materialize as reconstruction work progressed, though it was reported that some who made pledges have renounced them because fundraising has been so successful.\n",
"In 2015, NPR and ProPublica investigated the disappearance of US$500 million donated to the American Red Cross for earthquake relief, earlier described by the charity as the result of \"one of the most successful fundraisers ever\". Despite the claims of the American Red Cross that 130,000 homes had been built, the investigation discovered that only six had been built. The investigation reviewed \"hundreds\" of pages of internal documents and interviewed \"more than a dozen\" former and current staff members, investigating the organization's claim that 4.5 million Haitians had been helped \"back on their feet.\" Joel Boutroue, a Haitian government advisor, said that this number would cover \"100 percent of the urban area\", and observed that it would mean the Red Cross had served every city in Haiti. Numerous other claims did not hold up under investigation. NPR found that the project was riddled with \"multiple staffing changes\", bureaucratic delays and a language barrier, as many of the Red Cross officials spoke neither French nor Haitian Creole. General counsel for the American Red Cross, David Meltzer, provided investigators with the NGO's official statistics, but would not elaborate on them. The public affairs office of the Red Cross disputed NPR and ProPublica's claims in an email, and claimed that their investigative report could cause an international incident. By June the American Red Cross had transferred the rebuilding efforts to the Haitian Red Cross.\n",
"On 2 March 2012, Bishop Victoria Matthews announced that the building would be demolished. She questioned the safety of the building and stated that rebuilding could cost NZ$50 million more than insurance would cover and that a new cathedral would be built in its place.\n",
"The church suffered some damage from hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, including wind damages and flood waters from standing in nearly of water for many weeks before the city authorities could drain the flood water from the city. Archdiocese of New Orleans decided not to try and refurbish the church or demolish it and rebuild a new and collect the 9 million in insurance money and distributed to other parishes that didn't have insurance. The decision was partly because the church's roof was very challenging and costly to maintain requiring constant repairs which often went beyond the parish's means.. \n"
] |
what is the difference between knitting and crocheting? | Knitting uses two needles
_URL_1_
crocheting uses a hook
_URL_0_
| [
"Knitting is the process of using two or more needles to loop yarn into a series of interconnected loops in order to create a finished garment or some other type of fabric. The word is derived from \"knot\", thought to originate from the Dutch verb \"knutten\", which is similar to the Old English \"cnyttan\", “to knot”. Its origins lie in the basic human need for clothing for protection against the elements. More recently, hand knitting has become less a necessary skill and more a hobby.\n",
"Crochet (; ) is a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials using a crochet hook. The name is derived from the French term \"crochet\", meaning 'small hook'. These are made of materials such as metal, wood, or plastic and are manufactured commercially and produced in artisan workshops. The salient difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before the next one is begun, while knitting keeps a large number of stitches open at a time. (Variant forms such as Tunisian crochet and broomstick lace keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time.)\n",
"Among the differences between crochet and knitting is that crocheters seldom work with more than one stitch at a time, while knitters routinely carry dozens of stitches on their knitting needles. For these reasons these two textile arts require different kinds of stitch markers.\n",
"Knitting creates multiple loops of yarn, called stitches, in a line or tube. Knitting has multiple active stitches on the needle at one time. Knitted fabric consists of a number of consecutive rows of intermeshing of loops. As each row progresses, a newly created loop is pulled through one or more loops from the prior row, placed on the gaining needle, and the loops from the prior row are then pulled off the other needle.\n",
"Knitting is a technique of producing fabric from a strand of yarn or wool. Unlike weaving, knitting does not require a loom or other large equipment, making it a valuable technique for nomadic and non-agrarian peoples.\n",
"Lace knitting consists of making patterns and pictures using holes in the knit fabric, rather than with the stitches themselves. The large and many holes in lacy knitting makes it extremely elastic; for example, some Shetland \"wedding-ring\" shawls are so fine that they may be drawn through a wedding ring.\n",
"Combined knitting or combination knitting is a style that combines elements of Eastern-style knitting with the Western techniques. The name was suggested by Mary Thomas in her 1938 book \"Mary Thomas's Knitting Book\", where she described the technique as \"..the better way to work in Flat Knitting. The resulting fabric is more even and closer in construction.\" By wrapping the yarn the opposite way while purling, the knitter changes the orientation of the resulting loops; then the next row's knit stitches can be formed by inserting the needle through the back leg (as in Eastern knitting), rather than through the front leg, without twisting the stitch. This technique is suitable for all knitted fabrics from the basic Stockinette stitch, to any other style, such as Fair Isle, circular knitting, or lace knitting.\n"
] |
Were US troops in WWII required to have haircuts? | If you mean buzzcuts in the modern sense, no; at least not for the US Army. They absolutely, however, had grooming standards; its a basic tenet of military hygiene. Hair had to be short at the sides and back; away from the collars and not covering the ears. [Haircuts happened when they could](_URL_2_) and the frequency of them were never guaranteed. However, especially in the US, battalions could rotate off the line with frequency at the end of a drive or series of attacks; so obviously it isn't a case of 'hair growing back.' One has to remember that 'being at the front' doesn't mean you're constantly dodging bullets; it could mean your Battalion is in division reserve, or that you're in a low-activity area; lulls happened even in the high tempo operations of WWII.
The idea of 'high tops' in hairstyles isn't out of the ordinary across any armies of WWII; the general rule of ['short sides, above the collar in the back'](_URL_1_) generally applies to every branch and army, with obvious variations.
Finally, and as always, lets never forget that Band of Brothers is an interpretation of a book made for our entertainment; and such content will always have inconsistencies, as myself and /u/rittermeister have [discussed before](_URL_0_).
| [
"Before World War One men generally had longer hair and beards. However, short hair on men was introduced in World War One for soldiers. Slaves and defeated armies were often required to shave their heads. The trench warfare in 1914 to 1918 exposed men to flea and lice infestations, which prompted the order to cut short hair, establishing a military tradition.\n",
"The militaries of the United States, Russia, and several other countries have welcomed their recruits by giving them haircuts using hair clippers with no guard attached. As of 2011, shaved heads continued to be standard haircuts in the United States Air Force, United States Marine Corps, United States Army, and the United States Coast Guard during basic/recruit training – upon graduation from training, grooming restrictions are relaxed in accordance with each service's regulations. In Greece, this practice was abolished on June 25, 1982, when the military started allowing recruits to have up to 4 cm of hair. Before then, the regulation haircut in the Greek army for recruits was \"en hro\" (an archaic phrase for \"shaved to the bone\").\n",
"According to Professor Penny Jolly, who has studied \"social trends in appearance,\" beards \"were eliminated in the US military in WWI due to the need to wear gas masks. Razors were issued in GI kits, so men could shave themselves on the battlefield.\" However, the link between the requirement to shave and the use of gas masks has been called only one of \"several theories.\" Other theories include the fact that the massive build-up of the military for WWI brought with it many men from rural areas, and this \"sudden concentration of recruits in crowded army induction centers brought with it disease, including head lice. Remedial action was taken by immediately shaving the faces and cutting the hair of all inductees upon their arrival.\"\n",
"For U.S. male recruits, the induction haircut has become a sometimes-dreaded symbolic rite of passage for entry into the armed forces and is usually performed within minutes or hours of arrival at boot camp. It is one of several techniques used to mentally shock recruits into adapting to their decision to become a member of the armed forces. Although all branches of the U.S. armed forces employ the tradition of the induction haircut, the U.S. Marines have adopted the most severe version – a \"zero-length\" clipper blade to the scalp, although not shorter to avoid any minor injuries to recruits' head moles or other lesions.\n",
"During World War II, many American GIs, notably paratroopers from the 101st Airborne Division wore mohawks to intimidate their enemies. It was also occasionally worn by American troops during the Vietnam War. In the early 1950s, mohawks were worn by some jazz musicians like Sonny Rollins, and even a few teenage girls.\n",
"In 1944 Brown was the first woman to have her hair used for military aircraft bombsights. She saw an advertisement in a Pueblo newspaper in 1943 that said the government was looking for hair from women for the war effort, although no details were given as to how it would be used. The ad said only that they wanted blonde hair that was at least , and which had not been treated with chemicals or hot irons. The women's hair collection for use as bombsight crosshairs was a clandestine operation even though they found the hair through a newspaper advertisement.\n",
"Berlin Haircut Trials– November 1974, LMDC represented a group of Berlin GIs charged with failing to have haircuts meeting military regulations. The cases resulted in widespread publicity and a brief soldiers' strike exposing Army efforts to enforce increased discipline. African-American enlisted person Babbette Peyton was defended at court-martial after she was denied the right to wear her hair in cornrows. In \"United States v. Hatheway\", LMDC urged denial of equal protection in the prosecution of the accused for engaging in homosexual acts on the basis of selective prosecution and a narrowed constitutional test where rights of a minority are at stake.\n"
] |
why do smaller animals seem to live shorter lives and larger animals longer? such as a fly compared to a whale | Typically organisms with shorter life spans have a survival strategy based on rapid and mass reproduction. A fly for example would be expected to grow many larvae to maturity, mate, and lay their own eggs within a month because flies die all the time to various things. If a fly needed to survive for 5 years before it could reproduce then it would never work as the mass of flies required every generation would be impossible to achieved. From the other side it is equally untenable as there is no way to grow a whale up to full size in 28 days. There simply isn't enough available food even if the organism could grow that quickly. | [
"In mammals, larger animals tend to have longer lifespans than smaller ones; the Brandt's bat is the most extreme outlier to this pattern, with lifespans exceeding 40 years in the wild while only weighing .\n",
"The life expectancy is typically twenty to thirty years; as in many mammals, smaller species often have a shorter lifespan than larger species. The artiodactyls with the longest lifespans are the hippos, cows, and camels, which can live 40 to 50 years.\n",
"There is a large body of evidence indicating the negative effects of growth on longevity across many species. As a general rule, individuals of a smaller size generally live longer than larger individuals of the same species.\n",
"When examining the body-size vs. lifespan relationship, one also observes that predatory mammals tend to live longer than prey mammals in a controlled environment, such as a zoo or nature reserve. The explanation for the long lifespans of primates (such as humans, monkeys, and apes) relative to body size is that their intelligence, and they would have a lower intrinsic mortality.\n",
"Typical body length does not exceed , and some species are smaller than 1 mm, although the largest known species, \"Trogulus torosus\" (Trogulidae), grows as long as . The leg span of many species is much greater than the body length and sometimes exceeds and to in Southeast Asia. Most species live for a year.\n",
"A small bodied animal has a greater capacity to be more abundant than a large bodied one. Purely as a function of geometry many more small things can be packed into a given space than can large things into the same area. However, these limits are generally never reached in ecological systems as other resources become limiting long before the packing limits are reached. Additionally, smaller species may have many more ecological niches available to them and thus facilitating the diversification of life (Hutchinson and MacArthur, 1959).\n",
"Some argue that shorter male life expectancy is merely another manifestation of the general rule, seen in all mammal species, that larger (size) individuals (within a species) tend, on average, to have shorter lives. This biological difference occurs because women have more resistance to infections and degenerative diseases.\n"
] |
When doing statistics, is too large of a sample size ever a bad thing? | The only way I can think of would be if your sample size is larger than your population of interest. For example, if you want to figure something out about a population of 10,000 people and you poll 20,000 people, you've clearly polled at least 10,000 people that are not part of your population of interest. | [
"Larger sample sizes generally lead to increased precision when estimating unknown parameters. For example, if we wish to know the proportion of a certain species of fish that is infected with a pathogen, we would generally have a more precise estimate of this proportion if we sampled and examined 200 rather than 100 fish. Several fundamental facts of mathematical statistics describe this phenomenon, including the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem.\n",
"The limitations of statistical stability become apparent for large sample sizes and in the passage to the limit. Sample sizes are often small and therefore many practical tasks can be solved with acceptable accuracy using random (stochastic) models. Such models are usually simpler than the hyper-random models, so \"are preferred\" for not very large sample sizes.\n",
"Sample sizes may be evaluated by the quality of the resulting estimates. For example, if a proportion is being estimated, one may wish to have the 95% confidence interval be less than 0.06 units wide. Alternatively, sample size may be assessed based on the power of a hypothesis test. For example, if we are comparing the support for a certain political candidate among women with the support for that candidate among men, we may wish to have 80% power to detect a difference in the support levels of 0.04 units.\n",
"The likely size of the sampling error can generally be controlled by taking a large enough random sample from the population, although the cost of doing this may be prohibitive; see sample size determination and statistical power for more detail. If the observations are collected from a random sample, statistical theory provides probabilistic estimates of the likely size of the sampling error for a particular statistic or estimator. These are often expressed in terms of its standard error.\n",
"Insensitivity to sample size is a cognitive bias that occurs when people judge the probability of obtaining a sample statistic without respect to the sample size. For example, in one study subjects assigned the same probability to the likelihood of obtaining a mean height of above six feet [183 cm] in samples of 10, 100, and 1,000 men. In other words, variation is more likely in smaller samples, but people may not expect this.\n",
"It is not possible to take the measures from all the elements of a population. Because of that, the sampling process is very important for statistical inference. Sampling is defined as to randomly get a representative part of the entire population, to make posterior inferences about the population. So, the sample might catch the most variability across a population. The sample size is determined by several things, since the scope of the research to the resources available. In clinical research, the trial type, as inferiority, equivalence, and superiority is a key in determining sample size.\n",
"The sample size determines the amount of sampling error inherent in a test result. Other things being equal, effects are harder to detect in smaller samples. Increasing sample size is often the easiest way to boost the statistical power of a test. How increased sample size translates to higher power is a measure of the efficiency of the test—for example, the sample size required for a given power.\n"
] |
Some mammals have internal testes (Elephants, Rhinoceroses, Cetaceans), how do they get around the difficulties that body heat imposes on sperm production? | This has more to do with the sperm than the testes.
Temperature tolerances of proteins can vary quite a bit with very small changes in the amino acid sequence used to make them. The bonds between amino acids not linked together by peptide bonds are typically pretty weak so the extra movement with temperature (the average **kinetic** energy of a substance) can rattle this long twisted string apart.
Animals with external testes have sperm that have proteins with lower heat tolerances and require a lower temp to be viable.
If the proteins of the sperm have a high enough tolerance, the testes can remain inside, which reproductively is advantageous (since they're less likely to be accidentally lost).
| [
"The mammalian male reproductive system contains two main divisions, the penis and the testicles, the latter of which is where sperm are produced. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity, but they can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other animals. For instance, a dog's penis is covered by a penile sheath except when mating. Having the testicles outside the abdomen best facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific temperatures to survive. The external location may also cause a reduction in the heat-induced contribution to the spontaneous mutation rate in male germinal tissue. Sperm are the smaller of the two gametes and are generally very short-lived, requiring males to produce them continuously from the time of sexual maturity until death. The produced sperm are stored in the epididymis until ejaculation. The sperm cells are motile and they swim using tail-like flagella to propel themselves towards the ovum. The sperm follows temperature gradients (thermotaxis) and chemical gradients (chemotaxis) to locate the ovum.\n",
"The basal condition for mammals is to have internal testes. The testes of the non-boreotherian mammals, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, and elephants, remain within the abdomen. There are also some marsupials with external testes and Boreoeutherian mammals with internal testes, such as the rhinoceros. Cetaceans such as whales and dolphins also have internal testes. As external testes would increase drag in the water they have internal testes which are kept cool by special circulatory systems that cool the arterial blood going to the testes by placing the arteries near veins bringing cooled venous blood from the skin.\n",
"Having the scrotum and testicles situated outside the abdominal cavity may provide additional advantages. The external scrotum is not affected by abdominal pressure. This may prevent the emptying of the testes before the sperm were matured sufficiently for fertilization. Another advantage is it protects the testes from jolts and compressions associated with an active lifestyle. Animals that move at a steady pace – such as elephants, whales, and marsupial moles – have internal testes and no scrotum. Unlike placental mammals, some male marsupials have a scrotum that is anterior to the penis, although there are several marsupial species without an external scrotum. In humans, the scrotum may provide some friction during intercourse, helping to enhance the activity.\n",
"Boreoeutherian land mammals, the large group of mammals that includes humans, have externalized testes. Their testes function best at temperatures lower than their core body temperature. Their testes are located outside of the body, suspended by the spermatic cord within the scrotum.\n",
"In turbellarians there are one or more pairs of both testes and ovaries. Sperm ducts run from the testes, through bulb-like seminal vesicles, to the muscular penis. In many species, this basic plan is considerably complicated by the addition of accessory glands or other structures. The penis lies inside a cavity, and can be everted through an opening on the posterior underside of the animal. It often, although not always, possesses a sharp stylet. Unusually among animals, in most species, the sperm cells have two tails, rather than one.\n",
"2) \"Irreversible adaptation to sperm competition\". It has been suggested that the ancestor of the boreoeutherian mammals was a small mammal that required very large testes (perhaps rather like those of a hamster) for sperm competition and thus had to place its testes outside the body. This led to enzymes involved in spermatogenesis, spermatogenic DNA polymerase beta and recombinase activities evolving a unique temperature optimum, slightly less than core body temperature. When the boreoeutherian mammals then diversified into forms that were larger and/or did not require intense sperm competition they still produced enzymes that operated best at cooler temperatures and had to keep their testes outside the body. This position is made less parsimonious by the fact that the kangaroo, a non-boreoeutherian mammal, has external testicles. The ancestors of kangaroos might, separately from boreotherian mammals, have also been subject to heavy sperm competition and thus developed external testes, however, kangaroo external testes are suggestive of a possible adaptive function for external testes in large animals.\n",
"There are several hypotheses why most boreotherian mammals have external testes which operate best at a temperature that is slightly less than the core body temperature, e.g. that it is stuck with enzymes evolved in a colder temperature due to external testes evolving for different reasons, that the lower temperature of the testes simply is more efficient for sperm production.\n"
] |
cryptology | People like to communicate. When we communicate, sometimes we tell each other secrets - things that nobody else should know.
If you are sending a message containing a secret to somebody you might fear that this message will fall into the wrong hands and the wrong people will know your secret. So to outsmart the bad guys you can modify your message to seem like gibberish to anybody else.
For example let's say your secret message is "I'm high". You can substitute the letter "h" with the letter "z" and your message will become "I'm zigz". You tell your buddy "listen, I don't want people to know I'm high, so when I write you messages I will swap the 'z' and 'h' letters.". If the wrong person gets the message they won't understand it.
Changing your message to seem like gibberish to other people is called encoding.
When the recipient receives that "gibberish" message and turns it back into a meaningful message, we say that he decodes the message.
Well obviously with a little detective work a person might find out that "I'm zigz" probably means "I'm high". So we use more complicated methods for encoding our messages, usually involving some complicated mathematics. But the idea is the same. | [
"Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties (called adversaries). More generally, it is about constructing and analyzing protocols that overcome the influence of adversaries and that are related to various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation. Modern cryptography intersects the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, and electrical engineering. Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce.\n",
"Cryptography or cryptology (from \"hidden, secret\"; and \"graphein\", \"to write\", or \"-logia\", \"study\", respectively) is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries. More generally, cryptography is about constructing and analyzing protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages; various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation are central to modern cryptography. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, electrical engineering, communication science, and physics. Applications of cryptography include electronic commerce, chip-based payment cards, digital currencies, computer passwords, and military communications.\n",
"Cryptography (or cryptology) – practice and study of hiding information. Modern cryptography intersects the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, and engineering. Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce.\n",
"Cryptology is the use of communicating secretly through the use of ciphers, and cryptanalysis is the process of cracking or deciphering such secret communications. This chapter offers information on the theory of cryptology, including the work of Claude Shannon, and concepts including unconditional security, one-time pads, quantum key distribution, and computational security.\n",
"Crypton is a JavaScript library that allows one to write web applications where the server knows nothing of the contents a user is storing. This is done by use of cryptography, though the developer of the application does not need any cryptographic knowledge. It is designed to encrypt data inside a JavaScript context (either a browser extension, mobile application, or WebKit-based desktop application).\n",
"Cryptography is a long-standing subject in the field of mathematics, computer science and engineering. It can generally be defined as \"the protection of information and computation using mathematical techniques.\" In the OECD Guidelines, Encryption and cryptography are defined as follows: \"Encryption\" means the transformation of data by the use of cryptography to produce unintelligible data (encrypted data) to ensure its confidentiality. Cryptography\" means the discipline which embodies principles, means, and methods for the transformation of data in order to hide its information content, establish its authenticity, prevent its undetected modification, prevent its repudiation, and/or prevent its unauthorized use. encryption and cryptography are \"often used synonymously, although \"cryptographic\" has a broader technical meaning. For example, a digital signature is \"cryptographic\" but arguably it is not technically \"encryption\"\".\n",
"David Kahn notes in \"The Codebreakers\" that modern cryptology originated among the Arabs, the first people to systematically document cryptanalytic methods. Al-Khalil (717–786) wrote the \"Book of Cryptographic Messages\", which contains the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels.\n"
] |
Why do people (usually children) associate transparency with the colour white? | For children coloring, white and clear mean the same thing, on a white piece of paper. If they want to show something as white, they don't fill it in, it'll be the white of the paper. If they want to show something as clear, they'll leave it blank, and it'll be transparent to them. | [
"\"White\" is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light that stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye in equal amounts and with high brightness compared to the surroundings. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness. White is the lightest possible color.\n",
"White is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light that stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye in equal amounts and with high brightness compared to the surroundings. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness. White is the lightest possible color.\n",
"For whites and clear values corresponding to multiple shades of white Reid insists that a white object \"stays white\" regardless of the lighting it receives, even in the shade it is white (according to the other objects). The darker shades of white will always be brighter than the lighter shades of darkness. \"White is white\" in all circumstances, is the principle which guides the way he treats the tonal variations of white objects in the shadows and cast shadows by the use of shades of white. These are obtained from cold and warm subtle mixtures that he juxtaposes on paper, and from shades of a gray composed of ceruleum blue, yellow ocher or natural sienna and carmine that he particularly likes.\n",
"The perception of \"white\" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of color receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of complementary colors such as blue and yellow.\n",
"The appearance of white line indicates that there is an onset of failure of the corresponding material. This phenomenon is known as \"stress whitening\". This is more common in amorphous materials, and also in some brittle polymers like PS, PMMA and Polycarbonate. The white colour is because of the light scattering by the crazes.\n",
"In colorimetry, whiteness is the degree to which a surface is white. An example of its use might be to quantitatively compare two pieces of paper which appear white viewed individually, but not when juxtaposed.\n",
"White is a balanced combination of all the colors of the visible light spectrum, or of a pair of complementary colors, or of three or more colors, such as additive primary colors. It is a neutral or achromatic (\"without color\") color, like black and gray.\n"
] |
- why does one get cravings? when one quits a drug/behavior, what's exactly happening when one senses a 'craving'? | When one does drugs or smoke or eat junk food, our brain responds by giving you a “feel good” feeling. This feeling is caused by chemicals aka neurotransmitters, in our body like dopamine and endorphins. Our brain remembers what caused us to feel this way and knows in the future what it needs to make yourself feel good like before ., which leads to cravings.
With quitting drugs, particularly opiates, painful or just unpleasant withdraw happens because our body grew accustomed or dependent on the drugs to make the body produce the feel good chemicals and it didn’t think it needed to produce anymore of its feel good chemicals on its own. Once the drugs stop, the body takes time to readjust and build its own supply back up on its own. ......in the mean time, the person is in agony.
| [
"\"Cue-induced wanting\" or \"cue-triggered wanting\", a form of craving that occurs in addiction, is responsible for most of the compulsive behavior that addicts exhibit. During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding stimuli with drug consumption triggers an associative learning process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as conditioned positive reinforcers of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as drug cues). As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving) – sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization – which can transfer to the primary reinforcer (e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired.\n",
"Berridge developed the \"incentive salience hypothesis\" to address the \"wanting\" aspect of rewards. It explains the compulsive use of drugs by drug addicts even when the drug no longer produces euphoria, and the cravings experienced even after the individual has finished going through withdrawal. Some addicts respond to certain stimuli involving neural changes caused by drugs. This sensitization in the brain is similar to the effect of dopamine because \"wanting\" and \"liking\" reactions occur. Human and animal brains and behaviors experience similar changes regarding reward systems because these systems are so prominent.\n",
"In addiction, the \"liking\" (pleasure or hedonic value) of a drug or other stimulus becomes dissociated from \"wanting\" (i.e., desire or craving) due to the sensitization of incentive salience. In fact, if the incentive salience associated with drug-taking becomes pathologically amplified, the user may want the drug more and more while liking it less and less as tolerance develops to the drug's pleasurable effects.\n",
"Research on the brain mechanisms of drug addiction showed how the a-process is equated with the pleasure derived from drugs and once it weakens, it is followed by the strengthening of the b-process, which are the withdrawal symptoms.\n",
"Key to this concept is the Hedonic Hypothesis, which states that individuals initiate use of the substance or behaviour for their pleasurable effects, but then take it compulsively to avoid withdrawal symptoms, resulting in dependence. Based on this hypothesis, some researchers believe that individuals engaging in risky use of substances or behaviours may be over-responsing to negative stimuli, which leads to addiction.\n",
"\"Drug addiction is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic). Its characteristics include: (i) an overpowering desire or need (compulsion) to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any means; (ii) a tendency to increase the dose; (iii) a psychic (psychological) and generally a physical dependence on the effects of the drug; and (iv) detrimental effects on the individual and on society.\"\n",
"When an individual falls victim to drug addiction, they will undergo the five stages of addiction which are the first use, the continued use, tolerance, dependence, and addiction. The first use stage, is the stage where individuals experiment with drugs and alcohol. This is the stage where individuals will partake in drug use because of curiosity, peer pressure, emotional problems etc. They discover how the drug will make them feel. In the continued use stage, individuals know how the drug makes them feel and is likely to notice that they're not getting “high” as quickly as they use to. In the tolerance stage, the brain and the body have adjusted to the drug and it takes longer to get the “high” an individual is seeking. Tolerance arrives after a period of continued use and is one of the first warning signs of addiction. In the dependence stage, the brain becomes accustomed to the drug and doesn't function well without it. Substance abusers become physically ill without the use of drugs and will begin to develop symptoms of withdrawal. This is sign that the addiction is beginning to take hold of the individual. In the addiction stage, individuals find it impossible to stop using drugs even if they do not enjoy it or if their behavior has caused problems within an individual's life.\n"
] |
why must clothes irons be hot in order to serve their purpose ? | It's kinda like how you straighten hair the carbon bonds are weak in hair heat allows the breaking of bonds and forms it straight under the flat surface | [
"A clothes iron is a device that, when heated, is used to press clothes to remove creases and help prevent the spread of infectious disease. Domestic irons generally range in operating temperature from between to . It is named for the metal (iron) of which the device was historically made, and the use of it is generally called ironing. Ironing works by loosening the ties between the long chains of molecules that exist in polymer fiber materials. With the heat and the weight of the ironing plate, the fibers are stretched and the fabric maintains its new shape when cool. Some materials, such as cotton, require the use of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. \n",
"Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing.\n",
"The most pronounced feature of Potts's clothes iron was a detachable rounded wooden handle. That allowed the iron base to be placed on a heated stovetop and the handle removed at that time to stay away and cool while the base heated up. This prevented burned fingers, that often happened with the conventional all-solid-metal clothes iron of the nineteenth century. The handle and bases were designed standard and could be easily reattached to various sizes after they were heated for little delay in ironing. \n",
"Clothing: Loose-fitting clothing can speed up the rate of putrefaction, as it helps to retain body heat. Tight-fitting clothing can delay the process by cutting off blood supply to tissues and eliminating nutrients for bacteria to feed on.\n",
"The conventional solid metal clothes iron of the 19th century weighed around to and had to be heated on a stove. It was so hot, that often a rag or thick cloth mitt was utilized to touch the metal handle to prevent burning the fingers. Once this all-metal iron cooled down, the ironing job at hand had to stop until it was reheated. The advantage of Potts's system was that there was always a waiting heated base ready to be switched out with the used cooled base, so the ironing could continue immediately. \n",
"Ironing is the use of a machine, usually a heated tool (an iron), to remove wrinkles from fabric. The heating is commonly done to a temperature of 180–220 °Celsius, depending on the fabric. Ironing works by loosening the bonds between the long-chain polymer molecules in the fibers of the material. While the molecules are hot, the fibers are straightened by the weight of the iron, and they hold their new shape as they cool. Some fabrics, such as cotton, require the addition of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. Many modern fabrics (developed in or after the mid-twentieth century) are advertised as needing little or no ironing. Permanent press clothing was developed to reduce the ironing necessary by combining wrinkle-resistant polyester with cotton.\n",
"Most ironing is done on an ironing board, a small, portable, foldable table with a heat-resistant surface. Some commercial-grade ironing boards incorporate a heating element and a pedal-operated vacuum to pull air through the board and dry the garment.\n"
] |
how do lottery ticket companies make sure their workers don't track down the winning tickets that they print? | A computer prints the numbers on the scratchoff tickets as they roll through the printing presses at a thousand tickets a minute and the machine also coats the tickets with the scratch off coating in the same process. So when they come out of the press all the employee sees is the completed tickets in a giant stack. They have no way of knowing which tickets are winners unless they are upper management of the company who program the software. Those employees are heavily scrutinized at all times to make sure there is no way they can cheat the system. | [
"Companies operating using a ticket reseller model purchase tickets for the official lottery draw on behalf of the player. The company then charges the player the price of the ticket, as well as an extra commission. In the event of a winning ticket, the company collects the winnings from the official lottery operators and then forwards the winnings on to the player. Lottery messenger services earn income from charging a service fee for the tickets they sell. This fee goes towards paying staff and maintaining the quality of the website. \n",
"Lottery tickets are bearer instruments, which means that the Lottery must pay the holder of a winning ticket presented for payment. Signing the back of the ticket is the single most important thing one can do to help protect themselves from theft and demonstrate ownership of the ticket. Any alteration to a winning ticket worth more than $600 is cause for an immediate security investigation. Once a winning ticket has been paid, however, it is much more difficult to determine whether another individual was the rightful owner. By law, the Lottery can pay a winning ticket only once.\n",
"There have also been several cases of cashiers at lottery retailers who have attempted to scam customers out of their winnings. Some locations require the patron to hand the lottery ticket to the cashier to determine how much they have won, or if they have won at all, the cashier then scans the ticket to determine one or both. In cases where there is no visible or audible cue to the patron of the outcome of the scan some cashiers have taken the opportunity to claim that the ticket is a loser or that it is worth far less than it is and offer to \"throw it away\" or surreptitiously substitute it for another ticket. The cashier then pockets the ticket and eventually claims it as their own.\n",
"Companies using this model are not required to purchase tickets from official lottery operators. Instead, when a player places a wager on a lottery, the company then forwards this bet to a third-party insurance company. The betting company pays a set fee for every wager placed to the insurance company in order to offset the risk of a large lottery prize being won. If a player wins a large prize (such as a jackpot), the insurance company pays the betting company, who subsequently give the money to the winning player. In the event of small prize wins, the betting firm will typically pay the prize directly to the player from their own funds.\n",
"By betting on the outcome of a lottery draw, rather than purchasing an official ticket, players are able to take part in international and state lottery draws that are usually out of their jurisdiction. For example, a resident of the United Kingdom could place a bet on the outcome of an American lottery drawing, such as Mega Millions or Powerball, even though they would not be eligible to buy official tickets.\n",
"The Lottery also changed its instant ticket vendor to Scientific Games, Inc. in July 2007. This combination of companies has allowed the Lottery to offer unique game promotions where players have the opportunity to enter second-chance draws through either the internet or via tele-entry using a regular touch-tone telephone.\n",
"Ticket exchanges allow people to buy and sell tickets online. For example, an individual who purchased tickets to a football game may find that they can no longer go and hence sell their tickets on a ticket exchange. Those most likely to use the services of a ticket exchange are ticket brokers (commonly known as \"scalpers\"). Brokers may purchase tickets in bulk from a promoter or directly from the venue (box office) hoping that the tickets will sell above face value due to high demand.\n"
] |
why is it so difficult to provide africa with clean drinking water desalination? | Solar stills might be more viable there than in other parts of the world, but the problem is that they still aren't very viable.
The parts of Africa that have trouble accessing clean drinking water generally aren't coastal regions, those tend to be quite prosperous areas that have wells or other forms of water.
The parts of Africa that we see that need help, are sub-Saharan, middle of the continent Africa. Where they can't reach the Ocean.
This combined with the high amounts of corruption throughout the continent mean that plants would inevitably end up in the hands of someone who would make it hard for the poor to access it. It'd just be another resource for certain group to try and control. | [
"To adequately address the issue of water scarcity in Africa, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa emphasizes the need to invest in the development of Africa's potential water resources to reduce unnecessary suffering, ensure food security, and protect economic gains by effectively managing droughts, floods, and desertification. Some suggested and ongoing efforts to achieve this include an emphasis on infrastructural implementations and improvements of wells, rainwater catchment systems, and clean-water storage tanks.\n",
"Desalination techniques have been developed to allow greater access to fresh water in areas that have historically had limited access. The desalination process turns salt water into fresh water and will allow the irrigation of crops to continue without making a harmful impact on the water supply. While desalination can prove to be an effective tool to provide fresh water to areas that need it to sustain agriculture, it requires money and resources. regions of China have been considering large scale desalination in order to increase access to water, but the current cost of the desalination process makes it impractical.\n",
"The more basic solutions to help provide Africa with drinkable and usable water include well-digging, rain catchment systems, de-worming pills, and hand pumps, but high demand for clean water solutions has also prompted the development of some key creative solutions as well.\n",
"Efforts made by the United Nations in compliance with the Millennium Development Goals have targeted water scarcity not just for Africa, but globally. The compiled list includes eight international development goals, seven of which are directly impacted by water scarcity. Access to water affects poverty, food scarcity, educational attainment, social and economic capital of women, livelihood security, disease, and human and environmental health. Because addressing the issue of water is so integral to reaching the MDGs, one of the sub-goals includes halving the proportion of the globe's population without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015. In March 2012, the UN announced that this goal has been met almost four years in advance, suggesting that global efforts to reduce water scarcity are on a successful trend.\n",
"Overall, a wide range of cost-effective, manageable, and innovative solutions are available to help aid Africa in producing clean, disease-free water. Ultimately what it comes down to is using technology appropriate for each individual community's needs. For the technology to be effective, it must conform to environmental, ethical, cultural, social, and economic aspects of each Africa community. Additionally, state governments, donor agencies, and technological solutions must be mindful of the gender disparity in access to water so as to not exclude women from development or resource management projects. If this can be done, with sufficient funding and aid to implement such technologies, it is feasible to eliminate clean water scarcity for the African continent by the Millennium Development Goal deadline of 2012\n",
"But for many regions, there is a lack of financial and human resources to support infrastructure and technology required for proper crop irrigation. Because of this, the impact of droughts, floods, and desertification is greater in terms of both African economic loss and human life loss due to crop failure and starvation. Additionally, lack of water causes many Africans to use wastewater for crop growth, causing a large number of people to consume foods that can contain chemicals or disease-causing organisms transferred by the wastewater. Thus, for the extremely high number of African areas suffering from water scarcity issues, investing in development means sustainably withdrawing from clean freshwater sources, ensuring food security by expanding irrigation areas, and effectively managing the effects of climate change.\n",
"When infected with these waterborne diseases, those living in African communities suffering from water scarcity cannot contribute to the community's productivity and development because of a simple lack of strength. Additionally, individual, community and governmental economic resources are sapped by the cost of medicine to treat waterborne diseases, which takes away from resources that might have potentially been allocated in support of food supply or school fees. Also, in term of governmental funding, the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) estimates that in Sub-Saharan Africa, treatment of diarrhea due to water contamination consumes 12% of the country's health budget. With better water conditions, the burden on healthcare would be less substantial, while a healthier workforce would stimulate economic growth and help alleviate the prevalence of poverty.\n"
] |
Has there ever been any movements similar to Zionism? | Check out the [Back to Africa Movement](_URL_0_) from 19th century America. It lead to the foundation of Liberia (fun fact: the capital of Monrovia is named after James Monroe!)
Sierra Leone has a similar history of resettlement in the foundation of the Province of Freedom, which was founded for the "resettlement" of black loyalists who fled the Revolutionary war in America, as well as other poor, free blacks from around the empire.
Neither of the projects had smooth sailing.
Source: Took a class called "Small Wars in the Global Context" Mostly covering cold war proxies and African civil wars. There were no overarching books on those topics, only some memoirs from reporter and child soldiers. | [
"Zionism was formed in Europe as the national movement of the Jewish people. It sought to re-establish Jewish statehood in the ancient homeland. The first wave of Zionist immigration, dubbed the First Aliyah lasted between 1882 and 1903. Some 30,000 Jews mostly from the Russian Empire reached Ottoman Palestine. They were driven both by the Zionist idea but also by the wave of Antisemitism in Europe and especially in the Russian Empire, which came in the form of the brutal pogroms. They wanted to establish Jewish agricultural settlements and set the base for a Jewish majority in the land that will allow them to establish statehood. The land on which they settled was acquired by cash. They settled mostly the sparsely populated lowlands, which were full of swamps and subjected to Bedouin robbers.\n",
"Zionism as an organized movement is generally considered to have been founded by Theodor Herzl in 1897. However, the history of Zionism began earlier and is related to Judaism and Jewish history. The Hovevei Zion, or the \"Lovers of Zion\", were responsible for the creation of 20 new Jewish cities in Palestine between 1870 and 1897.\n",
"Others, such as Shlomo Avineri and Mitchell Bard, view Zionism not as colonialist movement, but as a national movement that is contending with the Palestinian one. South African rabbi David Hoffman rejected the claim that Zionism is a 'settler-colonial undertaking' and instead characterized Zionism as a national program of affirmative action, adding that there is unbroken Jewish presence in Israel back to antiquity.\n",
"Herzl popularized the term \"Zionism\", which was coined by Nathan Birnbaum. The nationalist movement culminated in the birth of the State of Israel in 1948, but Zionism continues to be connected with political support of Israel.\n",
"BULLET::::- 1890: The term \"Zionism\" is coined by an Austrian Jewish publicist Nathan Birnbaum in his journal \"Self Emancipation\" and was defined as the national movement for the return of the Jewish people to their homeland and the resumption of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel.\n",
"Zionism arose in the late 19th century in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. Romantic nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe had helped to set off the Haskalah, or \"Jewish Enlightenment\", creating a split in the Jewish community between those who saw Judaism as their religion and those who saw it as their ethnicity or nation. The 1881–1884 anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire encouraged the growth of the latter identity, resulting in the formation of the Hovevei Zion pioneer organizations, the publication of Leon Pinsker's \"Autoemancipation\", and the first major wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine – retrospectively named the \"First Aliyah\".\n",
"Zionism ( \"Tsiyyonut\" after \"Zion\") is the nationalist movement of the Jewish people that espouses the re-establishment of and support for a Jewish state in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel (roughly corresponding to Canaan, the Holy Land, or the region of Palestine). Modern Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a national revival movement, both in reaction to newer waves of antisemitism and as a response to Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the desired state in Palestine, then an area controlled by the Ottoman Empire.\n"
] |
Are there visual anomalies that the human eye can see but wouldn't be seen on a picture taken? | I can think of a couple:
- Extreme dynamic range. You've probably noticed most cameras can't take a picture containing some items in direct sunlight and others in shadow: either the sunlit areas are blown-out to white, or the shaded objects are solid black. This is because our eyes have a greater dynamic range than most sensors. HDR photography is a way of compensating for this with multiple exposures.
- While it's pretty rare, some people can see polarized light. Looking at the blue sky about 90 degrees from the sun, they will see a pattern of blue and yellow.
- This one's controversial, but there's some evidence that certain females may be "tetrachromats"--they have a fourth variety of cones in their retinas that would allow them to see a color between red and green, a true yellow. Since cameras emulate the *typical* human eye's sensitivity, they detect red and green, but make no distinction between red+green yellow and true yellow. | [
"Every normal mammal eye has a scotoma in its field of vision, usually termed its blind spot. This is a location with no photoreceptor cells, where the retinal ganglion cell axons that compose the optic nerve exit the retina. This location is called the optic disc. There is no direct conscious awareness of visual scotomas. They are simply regions of reduced information within the visual field. Rather than recognizing an incomplete image, patients with scotomas report that things \"disappear\" on them.\n",
"Binocular vision anomalies are among the most common visual disorders. They are usually associated with symptoms such as headaches, asthenopia, eye pain, blurred vision, and occasional diplopia. About 20% of patients who come to optometry clinics will have binocular vision anomalies. The most effective way to diagnosis vision anomalies is with the near point of convergence test. During the NPC test, a target, such as a finger, is brought towards the face until the examiner notices that one eye has turned outward and/or the person has experienced diplopia or doubled vision.\n",
"Patients with cortical blindness will not be able to identify the item being questioned about at all or will not be able to provide any details other than color or perhaps general shape. This indicates that the lack of vision is neurological rather than ocular. It specifically indicates that the occipital cortex is unable to correctly process and interpret the intact input coming from the retinas.\n",
"The classical description in medical literature is of a key-hole shaped defect. A coloboma can occur in one eye (unilateral) or both eyes (bilateral). Most cases of coloboma affect only the iris. The level of visible impairment of those with a coloboma can range from having no vision problems to being able to see only light or dark, depending on severity and the position of the coloboma (or colobomata if more than one is present). It affects less than one in every 10,000 births.\n",
"The most common causes of visual impairment globally are uncorrected refractive errors (43%), cataracts (33%), and glaucoma (2%). Refractive errors include near sighted, far sighted, presbyopia, and astigmatism. Cataracts are the most common cause of blindness. Other disorders that may cause visual problems include age related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, corneal clouding, childhood blindness, and a number of infections. Visual impairment can also be caused by problems in the brain due to stroke, premature birth, or trauma among others. These cases are known as cortical visual impairment. Screening for vision problems in children may improve future vision and educational achievement. Screening adults without symptoms is of uncertain benefit. Diagnosis is by an eye exam.\n",
"Dysmetropsia in one eye, a case of aniseikonia, can present with symptoms such as headaches, asthenopia, reading difficulties, depth perception problems, or double vision. The visual distortion can cause uncorrelated images to stimulate corresponding retinal regions simultaneously impairing fusion of the images. Without suppression of one of the images symptoms from mild poor stereopsis, binocular diplopia and intolerable rivalry can occur.\n",
"The visual anomaly results from abnormal functioning of portions of the occipital cortex at the back of the brain, not in the eyes nor any component thereof, such as the retinas. This is a different disease from retinal migraine, which is monocular (only one eye).\n"
] |
the universe is expanding, but where is the center of the expansion? is that the point in which the big bang happened? and where are we relatively to it? | Every point is expanding away from every other point. There's no "center of the expansion".
Imagine an infinitely large rubber sheet, with a 1" grid drawn on it.
Now stretch out the rubber sheet so that the grid lines are 2" apart instead, everywhere. Is there a "center" to this stretching? Every point is moving away from every other point. | [
"Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding and that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from us. Two years later, Georges Lemaître suggests that the expansion can be traced to an initial \"Big Bang\".\n",
"Since Georges Lemaître first noted in 1927 that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point, scientists have built on his idea of cosmic expansion. The scientific community was once divided between supporters of two different theories, the Big Bang and the Steady State theory, but a wide range of empirical evidence has strongly favored the Big Bang which is now universally accepted. In 1929, from analysis of galactic redshifts, Edwin Hubble concluded that galaxies are drifting apart; this is important observational evidence for an expanding universe. In 1964, the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered, which was crucial evidence in favor of the hot Big Bang model, since that theory predicted the existence of background radiation throughout the universe before it was discovered. \n",
"Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n",
"The expansion is thought to have been triggered by the phase transition that marked the end of the preceding grand unification epoch at approximately 10 seconds after the Big Bang. One of the theoretical products of this phase transition was a scalar field called the inflaton field. As this field settled into its lowest energy state throughout the universe, it generated a repulsive force that led to a rapid expansion of space. This expansion explains various properties of the current universe that are difficult to account for without such an inflationary epoch.\n",
"The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. In other words, the Big Bang is not an explosion \"in space\", but rather an expansion \"of space\". Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.\n",
"Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as \"metric expansion\". In mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\".\n",
"Given the cosmological principle, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. Two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow. The other explanation was Fred Hoyle's steady state model in which new matter is created as the galaxies move away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.\n"
] |
if the universe is infinite but empty outside of the "edges", wouldnt gravity curve space so that if you go straight sooner or later you would end up "inside" of the edges again? | Reading through this thread I'm imagining this discussion taking place 500 years ago and we're all monkeys grunting and banging sticks to explain our individual understanding of this .
| [
"If formula_7, the geometry of space is open, i.e., negatively curved like the surface of a saddle. The angles of a triangle sum to less than 180 degrees, and lines that do not meet are never equidistant; they have a point of least distance and otherwise grow apart. The geometry of such a universe is hyperbolic.\n",
"If one applies Minkowski space-based special relativity to expansion of the universe, without resorting to the concept of a curved spacetime, then one obtains the Milne model. Any spatial section of the universe of a constant age (the proper time elapsed from the Big Bang) will have a negative curvature; this is merely a pseudo-Euclidean geometric fact analogous to one that concentric spheres in the \"flat\" Euclidean space are nevertheless curved.\n",
"Infinite expansion does not determine the overall spatial curvature of the universe. It can be open (with negative spatial curvature), flat, or closed (positive spatial curvature), although if it is closed, sufficient dark energy must be present to counteract the gravitational forces or else the universe will end in a Big Crunch.\n",
"In standard Big Bang cosmology, the universe has no center and no edge. A third idea for potentially solving the distant starlight problem, put forward by Russell Humphreys in 1994 and refined by others since, sets this assumption aside and proposes that the Earth is located near the center of a finite and bounded (i.e. spherical) universe. Time dilation would have allowed billions of years of time to elapse at the edge of the universe in its own reference frame, while only a few days passed on Earth. Humphreys also finds a place for the \"waters above (and below) the Earth,\" locating them at the edge (\"above\") and the centre (\"below\") of the universe.\n",
"At cosmological scales the present universe is geometrically flat, which is to say that the rules of Euclidean geometry associated with Euclid's fifth postulate hold, though in the past spacetime could have been highly curved. In part to accommodate such different geometries, the expansion of the universe is inherently general relativistic; it cannot be modeled with special relativity alone, though such models exist, they are at fundamental odds with the observed interaction between matter and spacetime seen in our universe.\n",
"The apparent paradox of an infinite universe contained within a sphere is explained with length contraction: the galaxies farther away, which are travelling away from the observer the fastest, will appear thinner.\n",
"Because of the fundamental nonsimultaneity of universal structuring, a single, simultaneous, static model of Universe is inherently both nonexistent and conceptually impossible as well as unnecessary. Ergo, Universe does not have a shape. Do not waste your time, as man has been doing for ages, trying to think of a unit shape \"outside of which there must be something,\" or \"within which, at center, there must be a smaller something.\" (307.04)\n"
] |
how were the victims of the hiroshima and nagasaki bombs "killed instantly"? | The bomb generated extreme heat, around 3000 degrees Celsius and given that humans are mostly water, they literally steam cooked and exploded at the same time | [
"The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are identified as the cause of Japanese whaling. The two Japanese cities were destroyed by atomic weapons during the final stages of World War II under orders by U.S. President Harry Truman, which killed about 220,000 people. In \"Whale Whores\", the Japanese are presented with a doctored picture of the \"Enola Gay\", the B-29 Superfortress bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. The picture shows a dolphin and a whale piloting the plane to bomb the city. The Miami Dolphins, a National Football League professional football team, are killed along with real dolphins by the whalers in \"Whale Whores\". Near the end of the episode, Stan and the crew of the MY Steve Irwin encounter fishing ship captain Sig Hansen and his crew from the Discovery Channel reality series, \"Deadliest Catch\". The scene with Paul Watson's crew throwing \"stinky butter\" at the whalers refers to Watson and his crew's practice of throwing stink bombs containing butyric acid, an acid found in rancid butter and cheese, at Japanese whaling vessels, including the factory vessel, the \"Nisshin Maru\".\n",
"BULLET::::- 1945 – World War II: Nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb, \"Fat Man\", is dropped by the United States B-29 \"Bockscar\". Thirty-five thousand people are killed outright, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese war workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers.\n",
"Less than a second after the detonation, the north of the city was destroyed and 35,000 people were killed. Among the deaths were 6,200 out of the 7,500 employees of the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, and 24,000 others (including 2,000 Koreans) who worked in other war plants and factories in the city, as well as 150 Japanese soldiers. The industrial damage in Nagasaki was high, leaving 68–80% of the non-dock industrial production destroyed. It was the second and, to date, the last use of a nuclear weapon in combat, and also the second detonation of a plutonium bomb. The first combat use of a nuclear weapon was the \"Little Boy\" bomb, which was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. The first plutonium bomb was tested in central New Mexico, United States, on July 16, 1945. The Fat Man bomb was somewhat more powerful than the one dropped over Hiroshima, but because of Nagasaki's more uneven terrain, there was less damage.\n",
"Hiroshima was attacked on 6 August. At 8:15 am local time the B-29 \"Enola Gay\", piloted by Tibbets, dropped the \"Little Boy\" atomic bomb over the center of the city. The resulting explosion killed tens of thousands of people and destroyed about of buildings. The six American aircraft involved in this attack returned safely to the Marianas. Postwar estimates of casualties from the attack on Hiroshima range from 66,000 to 80,000 fatalities and 69,000 to 151,000 injured. Tens of thousands more subsequently died as a result of radiation and other injuries from the attack; it has been estimated that 140,000 people had died as a result of the atomic bomb by the end of 1945. Estimates of the total number of fatalities range as high as 230,000. Of the survivors of the bombing, 171,000 were rendered homeless.\n",
"The bomb was dropped at approximately 08:15 (JST) 6 August 1945. After falling for 44.4 seconds, the time and barometric triggers started the firing mechanism. The detonation happened at an altitude of . It was less powerful than the Fat Man, which was dropped on Nagasaki, but the damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher, as Hiroshima was on flat terrain, while the hypocenter of Nagasaki lay in a small valley. According to figures published in 1945, 66,000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast, and 69,000 were injured to varying degrees. Of those deaths, 20,000 were members of the Imperial Japanese Army.\n",
"On the 9th of August, 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped in Nagasaki. Tens of thousands of people died suffering from the intense blast and heat, and the city of Nagasaki was reduced to ashes.However, there was a kaki tree which miraculously survived while more than half of the trunk was burnt black, and barely standing and about to die at any moment. In 1994, Masayuki Ebinuma, an arborist, started to treat the fragile tree and restored its health as to be able to produce “seedlings” from the bombed tree. Then Ebinuma started to hand out the “saplings” from the survivor tree to children who visited Nagasaki as a symbol of peace. After Miyajima learned Ebinuma’s activity, he wanted to support Ebinuma as an artist. So then he displayed the saplings and recruited foster parents at an art exhibition in 1995. They received ten applications and selected the former Ryuhoku Elementary School in Taito-ku, Tokyo as a planting site. Through the process, Miyajima had conceived an art project called “Revive Time: Kaki Tree Project” and launched the Executive Committee. In 1996, the first planting of the project took place at the former Ryuhoku Elementary School. Miyajima himself conducted a workshop at the tree-planting ceremony.\n",
"An estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki. A total of 60,000–80,000 fatalities resulted, including from long-term health effects, the strongest of which was leukemia with an attributable risk of 46% for bomb victims. Others died later from related blast and burn injuries, and hundreds more from radiation illnesses from exposure to the bomb's initial radiation. Most of the direct deaths and injuries were among munitions or industrial workers. Mitsubishi's industrial production in the city was also severed by the attack; the dockyard would have produced at 80 percent of its full capacity within three to four months, the steel works would have required a year to get back to substantial production, the electric works would have resumed some production within two months and been back at capacity within six months, and the arms plant would have required 15 months to return to 60 to 70 percent of former capacity. The Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works was the factory that manufactured the type 91 torpedoes released in the attack on Pearl Harbor; it was destroyed in the blast.\n"
] |
The rate of universal expansion is accelerating to the point that light from other galaxies will someday never reach us. Is it possible that this has already happened to an extent? Are there things forever out of our view? Do we have any way of really knowing the size of the universe? | Yes, there are galaxies from which we will never receive any light at all. (Any galaxy beyond a current distance of about 65 Gly.) There are also galaxies whose light we have already received in the past but which are currently too far away for any signal emitted from us *now* to reach them some time in the future. (Any galaxy beyond a current distance of about 15 Gly.) The farthest points from which we have received any light at all as of today are at the edge of the observable universe, currently at a distance of about 43 Gly.
For more details, [read this post](_URL_0_). | [
"However, because the expansion of the universe is accelerating, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future, because the light never reaches a point where its \"peculiar velocity\" towards us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in Comoving and proper distances#Uses of the proper distance). The current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light-years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event was less than 16 billion light-years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event was more than 16 billion light-years away.\n",
"This puzzle has a bearing on the question of whether light from distant galaxies can ever reach us given the metric expansion of space. The universe is expanding, which leads to increasing distances to other galaxies, and galaxies that are far enough away from us will have an apparent relative motion greater than the speed of light. It might seem that light leaving such a distant galaxy could never reach us.\n",
"To determine if the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up or slowing down over time, cosmologists make use of the finite velocity of light. It takes billions of years for light from a distant galaxy to reach the Earth. Since the universe is expanding, the universe was smaller (galaxies were closer together) when light from distant galaxies was emitted. If the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up due to dark energy, then the size of the universe increases more rapidly with time than if the expansion were slowing down. Using supernovae, we cannot quite measure the size of the universe versus time. Instead we can measure the size of the universe (at the time the star exploded) and the distance to the supernova. With the distance to the exploding supernova in hand, astronomers can use the value of the speed of light along with the theory of General Relativity to determine how long it took the light to reach the Earth. This then tells them the age of the universe when the supernova exploded.\n",
"Current evidence suggests that the expansion rate of the universe is accelerating, which means that the second derivative of the scale factor formula_23 is positive, or equivalently that the first derivative formula_24 is increasing over time. This also implies that any given galaxy recedes from us with increasing speed over time, i.e. for that galaxy formula_25 is increasing with time. In contrast, the Hubble parameter seems to be decreasing with time, meaning that if we were to look at some fixed distance d and watch a series of different galaxies pass that distance, later galaxies would pass that distance at a smaller velocity than earlier ones.\n",
"Assuming that dark energy continues to make the universe expand at an accelerating rate, in about 150 billion years all galaxies outside the Local Supercluster will pass behind the cosmological horizon. It will then be impossible for events in the Local Group to affect other galaxies. Similarly it will be impossible for events after 150 billion years, as seen by observers in distant galaxies, to affect events in the Local Group. However, an observer in the Local Supercluster will continue to see distant galaxies, but events they observe will become exponentially more red shifted as the galaxy approaches the horizon until time in the distant galaxy seems to stop. The observer in the Local Supercluster never observes events after 150 billion years in their local time, and eventually all light and background radiation lying outside the local supercluster will appear to blink out as light becomes so redshifted that its wavelength has become longer than the physical diameter of the horizon. \n",
"The exponential expansion of the scale factor means that the physical distance between any two non-accelerating observers will eventually be growing faster than the speed of light. At this point those two observers will no longer be able to make contact. Therefore, any observer in a de Sitter universe would see event horizons beyond which that observer can never see nor learn any information. If our universe is approaching a de Sitter universe then eventually we will not be able to observe any galaxies other than our own Milky Way (and any others in the gravitationally bound Local Group, assuming they were to somehow survive to that time without merging).\n",
"However, the metric expansion of space is accelerating. An ant on a rubber rope whose expansion increases with time is not guaranteed to reach the endpoint. The light from sufficiently distant galaxies may still therefore never reach Earth.\n"
] |
encoders, decoders and transcoders | Encoder - changes data into a certain format or "code". Usually it's to conform to certain standards for displaying the information, such as ASCII being the standard for displaying letters and symbols on computers and other devices, or .mp3 being a common format for audio data.
Decoder - changes the encoded data back into it's original form
Transcoder - changes encoded data into a different code, which is generally faster and more efficient than decoding it and re-encoding it to the new format (although in some cases, that's all you can do). | [
"An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, algorithm or person that converts information from one format or code to another, for the purpose of standardization, speed or compression.\n",
"An autoencoder consisting of an encoder and a decoder is a paradigm for deep learning architectures. An example is provided by Hinton and Salakhutdinov where the encoder uses raw data (e.g., image) as input and produces feature or representation as output and the decoder uses the extracted feature from the encoder as input and reconstructs the original input raw data as output. The encoder and decoder are constructed by stacking multiple layers of RBMs. The parameters involved in the architecture were originally trained in a greedy layer-by-layer manner: after one layer of feature detectors is learned, they are fed up as visible variables for training the corresponding RBM. Current approaches typically apply end-to-end training with stochastic gradient descent methods. Training can be repeated until some stopping criteria are satisfied.\n",
"Incremental encoders employ various types of electronic circuits to drive (transmit) their output signals, and manufacturers often have the ability to build a particular encoder model with any of several driver types. Commonly available driver types include open collector, mechanical, push-pull and differential RS-422.\n",
"Device used to recover the component signals from a composite (encoded) source. Decoders are used in displays and in various processing hardware where components signals are required from a composite source such as composite chroma keying or color correction equipment. Device that changes digital signals to analog, or reconstructs information (data) by performing the inverse (reverse) functions of an encode process.\n",
"An incremental encoder interface is an electronic circuit that receives signals from an incremental encoder, processes the signals to produce absolute position and other information, and makes the resulting information available to external circuitry.\n",
"An encoder will use various algorithms such as motion estimation to construct a frame that describes the differences. This allows a decoder to use the reference frame plus the differences to construct the desired frame.\n",
"A vocoder, a portmanteau of the words voice and encoder, is an analysis and synthesis system, mostly used for speech. In the encoder, the input is passed through a multiband filter, each band is passed through an envelope follower, and the control signals from the envelope followers are communicated to the decoder. The decoder applies these control signals to corresponding filters in the (re)synthesizer. Research physicist Homer Dudley invented the Vocoder at Bell Labs in 1939 which served the purpose of improving the voice-carrying capabilities of his employer's telephone lines.\n"
] |
why is it not practical for more countries to send a space shuttle to the moon with all the advances in technology since 1969? | Two reasons. First, getting to the moon is *incredibly* difficult. It's not like "Yeah, it's hard to figure out but once you crack it it's easy." I mean it's *incredibly* difficult. The energy requirements are really enormous. You just wouldn't believe.
The other, better reason is that the moon's a shithole. There's no reason to go there. | [
"In the 2000s, the People's Republic of China initiated a successful manned spaceflight program, while the European Union, Japan, and India have also planned future crewed space missions. China, Russia, Japan, and India have advocated crewed missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has advocated manned missions to both the Moon and Mars during the 20th and 21st century.\n",
"BULLET::::- Marcus Allen – British publisher of \"Nexus\", who said photographs of the lander would not prove that the United States put men on the Moon, and \"Getting to the Moon really isn't much of a problem – the Russians did that in 1959. The big problem is getting people there.\" He suggests that NASA sent robot missions because radiation levels in outer space would be deadly. A variant of this idea has it that NASA and its contractors did not recover quickly enough from the Apollo 1 fire, and so all the early Apollo missions were faked, with Apollos 14 or 15 being the first real mission.\n",
"No manned missions have been sent to any planet of the Solar System. NASA's Apollo program, however, landed twelve people on the Moon and returned them to Earth. The American Vision for Space Exploration, originally introduced by President George W. Bush and put into practice through the Constellation program, had as a long-term goal to eventually send human astronauts to Mars. However, on February 1, 2010, President Barack Obama proposed cancelling the program in Fiscal Year 2011. An earlier project which received some significant planning by NASA included a manned fly-by of Venus in the Manned Venus Flyby mission, but was cancelled when the Apollo Applications Program was terminated due to NASA budget cuts in the late 1960s.\n",
"Bart Sibrel cites the relative level of the United States and USSR space technology as evidence that the Moon landings could not have happened. For much of the early stages of the Space Race, the USSR was ahead of the United States, yet in the end, the USSR was never able to fly a crewed craft to the Moon, let alone land one on the surface. It is argued that, because the USSR was unable to do this, the United States should have also been unable to develop the technology to do so.\n",
"BULLET::::- NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine announced further changes in the American manned space program because of a reduced budget, including the layoff of 50,000 NASA employees over the next 12 months, and a halt in further production of the Saturn V rocket needed to break Earth orbit to make a trip to the Moon.\n",
"The Cold War-inspired Space Race between the Soviet Union and the U.S. led to an acceleration of interest in exploration of the Moon. Once launchers had the necessary capabilities, these nations sent unmanned probes on both flyby and impact/lander missions. Spacecraft from the Soviet Union's \"Luna\" program were the first to accomplish a number of goals: following three unnamed, failed missions in 1958, the first human-made object to escape Earth's gravity and pass near the Moon was \"Luna 1\"; the first human-made object to impact the lunar surface was \"Luna 2\", and the first photographs of the normally occluded far side of the Moon were made by \"Luna 3\", all in 1959.\n",
"Motivation for the United States to engage the Soviet Union in a Space Race can be traced to the then on-going Cold War. Landing on the Moon was viewed as a national and technological accomplishment that would generate world-wide acclaim. But going to the Moon would be risky and expensive, as exemplified by President John F. Kennedy famously stating in a 1962 speech that the United States chose to go \"because\" it was hard.\n"
] |
I'm the illegitamate kid of a English king in the Middle Ages, what's my life like? | I assume you're talking about an *acknowledged* illegitimate kid?
If so, and you're a boy, you'll probably be made a duke or an earl and the king will pay for you're upbringing and you'll have a very comfortable life, including favouritism for a political career if you want one. If you're a girl, you'll probably be married off to a peer.
Also, while it's unlikely, you may potentially be a candidate for the throne; both Henry I and Henry VIII had illegitimate sons that were at times considered potential successors. | [
"BULLET::::- \"Making a Living in the Middle Ages: the People of Britain, 850–1520\" (London and New Haven, 2002 (Yale UP); London, 2003 (Penguin);), New Haven, 2003 (American paperback, Yale UP), 403 pp.\n",
"For detailed information about the middle ages Scott drew on three works by the antiquarian Joseph Strutt: \"Horda Angel-cynnan or a Compleat View of the Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits etc. of the Inhabitants of England\" (1775–76), \"Dress and Habits of the People of England\" (1796–99), and \"Sports and Pastimes of the People of England\" (1801). Two historians gave him a solid grounding in the period: Robert Henry with his \"The History of Great Britain\" (1771–93), and Sharon Turner with \"The History of the Anglo-Saxons from the Earliest Period to the Norman Conquest\" (1799–1805). His clearest debt to an original medieval source involved the Templar Rule, reproduced in \"The Theatre of Honour and Knight-Hood\" (1623) translated from the French of André Favine. Scott was happy to introduce details from the later middle ages, and Chaucer was particularly helpful, as (in a different way) was the fourteenth-century romance \"Richard Coeur de Lion\".\n",
"England in the Late Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the late medieval period, from the thirteenth century, the end of the Angevins, and the accession of Henry III – considered by many to mark the start of the Plantagenet dynasty – until the accession to the throne of the Tudor dynasty in 1485, which is often taken as the most convenient marker for the end of the Middle Ages and the start of the English Renaissance and early modern Britain.\n",
"England in the High Middle Ages includes the history of England between the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the death of King John, considered by some to be the last of the Angevin kings of England, in 1216. A disputed succession and victory at the Battle of Hastings led to the conquest of England by William of Normandy in 1066. This linked the crown of England with possessions in France and brought a new aristocracy to the country that dominated landholding, government and the church. They brought with them the French language and maintained their rule through a system of castles and the introduction of a feudal system of landholding. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled by nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy and Wales. William's sons disputed succession to his lands, with William II emerging as ruler of England and much of Normandy. On his death in 1100 his younger brother claimed the throne as Henry I and defeated his brother Robert to reunite England and Normandy. Henry was a ruthless yet effective king, but after the death of his only male heir in the White Ship tragedy, he persuaded his barons to recognise his daughter Matilda as heir. When Henry died in 1135 her cousin Stephen of Blois had himself proclaimed king, leading to a civil war known as The Anarchy. Eventually Stephen recognised Matilda's son Henry as his heir and when Stephen died in 1154, he succeeded as Henry II.\n",
"During the High Middle Ages tales originated from Brythonic traditions, notably the Arthurian legend. Deriving from Welsh source; King Arthur, Excalibur and Merlin, while the Jersey poet Wace introduced the Knights of the Round Table. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's \"Historia Regum Britanniae\" (\"History of the Kings of Britain\"). Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.\n",
"Burghart is the author of 'A Better Start in Life: Long-term approaches for the most vulnerable children', published by Policy Exchange in 2013. Burghart has written extensively about early medieval England, writing for \"The Times Literary Supplement\" for over 12 years, \"The Spectator\" and \"BBC History\".\n",
"He continued the narrative in several subsequent works: \"History of England During the Middle Ages\", a multi-volume publication covering English history from the reign of William the Conqueror to the accession of Henry VIII; \"History of the Reign of Henry VIII\"; and \"History of the Reigns of Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth\". In 1839, the works were combined into \"The History of England\", a twelve-volume set covering all of English history up to 1603.\n"
] |
Why does a pistol's muzzle flip upwards when you shoot? | The hot gas does leave the muzzle equally.
Handguns are held from the bottom and the recoil goes backwards through the barrel on top, so there's a torque force which wants to rotate it a little.
Even if the recoil force translated directly through the hands and wasn't off center (which would make aiming tricky), the gun would still tend to rotate a little to point more upward by virtue of human anatomy - elbows only bend in one direction. | [
"The muzzle rises primarily because, for most firearms, the centerline of the barrel is above the center of contact between the shooter and the firearm's grip and stock. The reactive forces from the fired bullet and propellant gases exiting the muzzle act directly down the centerline of the barrel. If that line of force is above the center of the contact points, this creates a moment or torque (rotational force) that causes the firearm to rotate and the muzzle to rise. The M1946 Sieg automatic rifle had an unusual muzzle brake that made the rifle climb downward, but enabled the user to fire it with one hand in full automatic.\n",
"The primary reason for muzzle rise is that for nearly all guns, the bore axis (longitudinal centerline of the barrel) is slightly above the gun's center of mass, while the contact points between the shooter and the gun (e.g. grips and stock) are often all below the center of mass. When the gun is fired, the bullet motion and the escaping propellant gases exert a reactional recoil directly backwards along the bore axis, while the countering forward push from the shooter's hands and body are well below it. This creates a couple, a rotational torque around the center of mass, which causes the gun the pitch upwards and the muzzle end to rise.\n",
"In this technique, one should pull the trigger to have the shot break as if it were a glass rod. When the compression of the trigger by the finger reaches an appropriate point, the \"glass rod\" of the trigger will break and discharge the firearm. The \"surprise break\" of the \"glass rod\" means the pistol remains aligned on the target while the muscles in the shooter's hand adjust from merely gripping the pistol to depressing the trigger at the same time. This disturbance in the muscles of the hand, while it attempts to move the trigger backwards while still holding the pistol steady, can cause the alignment of the firearm to shift, causing the shot to miss the target. The gradual compression of the trigger by the hand muscles means the alignment may be observed by the eye during the process of compression and kept on the target, regardless of slight changes to the alignment introduced by the muscles of the hand starting to squeeze the trigger.\n",
"To reduce error in the stance, targets not directly in front of the shooter are engaged by turning the upper body at the hips, since turning the arm at the shoulder, elbow, or wrist will result in a loss of control and a miss, while turning at the waist keeps everything aligned correctly.\n",
"At this point, a link pivots the rear of the barrel down, out of locking recesses in the slide, and the barrel is stopped by making contact with the lower barrel lugs against the frame's vertical impact surface. As the slide continues rearward, a claw extractor pulls the spent casing from the firing chamber and an ejector strikes the rear of the case, pivoting it out and away from the pistol through the ejection port. The slide stops and is then propelled forward by a spring to strip a fresh cartridge from the magazine and feed it into the firing chamber. At the forward end of its travel, the slide locks into the barrel and is ready to fire again. However, if the fired round was the last round in the magazine, the slide will lock in the rearward position, which notifies the shooter to reload by ejecting the empty magazine and inserting a loaded magazine, and facilitates (by being rearwards) reloading the chamber, which is accomplished by either pulling the slide back slightly and releasing, or by pushing down on the slide stop, which releases the slide to move forward under spring pressure, strip a fresh cartridge from the magazine and feed it into the firing chamber.\n",
"The Luger has a toggle-lock action which uses a jointed arm to lock, as opposed to the slide actions of many other semi-automatic pistols. After a round is fired, the barrel and toggle assembly travel roughly rearward due to recoil, both locked together at this point. The toggle strikes a cam built into the frame, causing the knee joint to hinge and the toggle and breech assembly to unlock. The barrel strikes the frame and stops its rearward movement, but the toggle assembly continues moving, bending the knee joint, extracting the spent casing from the chamber, and ejecting it. The toggle and breech assembly then travel forward under spring tension and the next round is loaded from the magazine into the chamber. The entire sequence occurs in a fraction of a second. \n",
"For a gun firing under free-recoil conditions, the force on the gun may not only force the gun backwards, but may also cause it to rotate about its center of mass or recoil mount. This is particularly true of older firearms, such as the classic Kentucky rifle, where the butt stock angles down significantly lower than the barrel, providing a pivot point about which the muzzle may rise during recoil. Modern firearms, such as the M16 rifle, employ stock designs that are in direct line with the barrel, in order to minimize any rotational effects. If there is an angle for the recoil parts to rotate about, the torque (formula_17) on the gun is given by:\n"
] |
regarding the current event surrounding the missing malaysian airplane, if family members of its passengers claim that they can still call their missing relative's phone without getting redirected to voice mail, why doesn't the authority try to track down these phone signals? | Phones don't really work that way. When you dial a phone number it's sent to the telco. The telco could choose to send you a ring tone while it's attempting to locate the phone. Unable to find the phone it can just send you to voicemail which is located at the telco not on the phone.
Just because you hear ringing isn't a promise that the other phone is actually ringing or reachable.
Alternatively the telco can just sit there and play ringback tone forever because thats how it's configured. None of which is a promise that it can reach the phone. | [
"Some had speculated that the passengers were still alive but could not answer their cellphones—sometimes known as the \"phantom cellphone theory\". This was based on early reports that family members of Flight 370 passengers heard ringing (as opposed to a busy/off signal) while calling the passengers' phones, though this was after the plane disappeared. However, this was later challenged by Jeff Kagan, a wireless analyst, who in an email to NBC News explained that the network may still produce \"ringbacks\" as it searches for a connection, even if the cellphone has been destroyed.\n",
"BULLET::::- One Italian and one Austrian were not on board of the Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 because their country's passport were stolen. INTERPOL confirms that at least two stolen passports used by passengers on missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 were registered in its databases.\n",
"The Estonian authorities refused to send the flight data recorder of the helicopter to the United States because the aircraft was manufactured there, thus possibly creating a conflict of interest. The technical investigation was in fact performed in the United Kingdom. The voice recording indicated that the pilots realized that something was wrong only 35 seconds before the helicopter hit the sea, and that they did attempt to send a Mayday message.\n",
"An opportunity to allow her to speak with her husband came when the Director-General of Security, Charles Spry, was informed that the MVD agents had broken Australian law by carrying firearms on an airliner in Australian airspace and so could be detained. When the aeroplane landed in Darwin for refuelling, the Soviet party and other passengers were asked to leave the plane. Police, acting on ASIO orders, quickly disarmed and restrained the two MVD officers and Evdokia was taken into the terminal to speak to her husband via telephone. After speaking to him, she became convinced he was alive and speaking freely and asked the Administrator of the Northern Territory for political asylum.\n",
"BULLET::::- Families of the passengers of Malaysian Airlines Flight 370 – a Boeing 777 with 239 people on board missing since 8 March 2014 – announce that they have begun a campaign to raise funds to pay for a private search for the plane, hoping to raise US$15 million for a search in a area in the Indian Ocean to the north of previous search areas. Speaking at the remembrance event at a shopping mall near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, at which the families announce the new effort, Malaysian Minister of Transport Liow Tiong Lai claims that there is an 85 percent chance that the missing plane will be found in the new search area. The governments of Australia, the People's Republic of China, and Malaysia had called off their two-year, US$160 million search for the airliner on 17 January.\n",
"There have been claims that the technology has been secretly fitted to some commercial airliners. Some have blamed it for the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, whose cause is unknown . According to Bob Mann, an airline industry consultant, there is no evidence that the Boeing Uninterruptible Autopilot has ever been used in a commercial airliner. Safety concerns, including the possibility that such a system could be hacked, have prevented its roll-out. \n",
"Aircraft were equipped with Verizon Airfone in every row of seats. Since Verizon ended this service, the airline has deactivated the service and as of 2007, has removed the phones or has covered them in all aircraft.\n"
] |
why would a company sell stock and buy it straight back? | Sell when it's high, stockholders may start selling too which can bring down stock price, buy it all back again. Profit. | [
"Stock can be bought and sold privately or on stock exchanges, and such transactions are typically heavily regulated by governments to prevent fraud, protect investors, and benefit the larger economy. As new shares are issued by a company, the ownership and rights of existing shareholders are diluted in return for cash to sustain or grow the business. Companies can also buy back stock, which often lets investors recoup the initial investment plus capital gains from subsequent rises in stock price. Stock options, issued by many companies as part of employee compensation, do not represent ownership, but represent the right to buy ownership at a future time at a specified price. This would represent a windfall to the employees if the option is exercised when the market price is higher than the promised price, since if they immediately sold the stock they would keep the difference (minus taxes).\n",
"It is often performed as a form of naked short selling in which stock is sold without being borrowed and without any intent to borrow. Once the stock price has declined, the investor uses the proceeds of the initial sale to buy a larger number of the company's shares than sold originally. Some of the newly purchased stock is used to fulfill the short-selling contract; the remaining shares are then offered for sale, which causes an additional decline in the company's share price.\n",
"By purchasing the shares in this way, it immediately exchanges a fixed amount of money for shares of its stock. It is currently being theorized that such arrangements are used by management to manipulate earnings figures for incentive compensation and reporting reasons. There are also earnings reporting black-out periods during which companies are not allowed to announce repurchasing of stock, so the ASR product from an investment bank could allow a company to essentially buy back shares during a black out.\n",
"Selling stock is procedurally similar to buying stock. Generally, the investor wants to buy low and sell high, if not in that order (short selling); although a number of reasons may induce an investor to sell at a loss, e.g., to avoid further loss.\n",
"For example, analysts and brokers who buy shares in a company just before the brokerage firm is about to recommend the stock as a strong buy, are practising this type of \"front running\". Brokers have been convicted of securities laws violations in the United States for such behavior. In 1985, a writer for the Wall Street Journal, R. Foster Winans, tipped off brokers about the content of his column Heard on the Street, which based upon publicly available information would be written in such a way as to give either good or bad news about various stocks. The tipped off brokers traded on the information. Winans and the brokers were prosecuted by the prosecutor Rudolph Giuliani, tried and convicted of securities fraud. Their convictions were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in 1986.\n",
"Some of these approaches require short selling stocks; the trader borrows stock from his broker and sells the borrowed stock, hoping that the price will fall and he will be able to purchase the shares at a lower price, thus keeping the difference as their profit. There are several technical problems with short sales - the broker may not have shares to lend in a specific issue, the broker can call for the return of its shares at any time, and some restrictions are imposed in America by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission on short-selling (see uptick rule for details). Some of these restrictions (in particular the uptick rule) don't apply to trades of stocks that are actually shares of an exchange-traded fund (ETF).\n",
"A company may also buy back shares held by or for employees or salaried directors of the company or a related company. This type of buyback, referred to as an \"employee share scheme buyback\", requires an ordinary resolution. A listed company may also buy back its shares in on-market trading on the stock exchange, following the passing of an ordinary resolution if over the 10/12 limit. The stock exchange's rules apply to \"on-market buybacks\". A listed company may also buy unmarketable parcels of shares from shareholders (called a \"minimum holding buyback\"). This does not require a resolution but the purchased shares must still be canceled.\n"
] |
How much beta/gamma radiation does the core of a star that has undergone supernova emit? | It depends slightly on the type of supernova, and what the core will be made of. However you need to remember a star is much bigger than a nuclear reactor! As such it will emit trillions of times more radiation.
To go into a bit more detail, stars don't contain many radioactive materials (the radiation comes from fusion instead) until a supernova. At this point the flux of neutrons creates many unstable isotopes, which will undergo radiative decay. A core of a recent supernova and the surrounding material is incredibly radioactive. | [
"Core collapse supernovae are on average visually fainter than Type Ia supernovae, but the total energy released is far higher. In these type of supernovae, the gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy that compresses and collapses the core, initially producing electron neutrinos from disintegrating nucleons, followed by all flavours of thermal neutrinos from the super-heated neutron star core. Around 1% of these neutrinos are thought to deposit sufficient energy into the outer layers of the star to drive the resulting catastrophe, but again the details cannot be reproduced exactly in current models. Kinetic energies and nickel yields are somewhat lower than Type Ia supernovae, hence the lower peak visual luminosity of Type II supernovae, but energy from the de-ionisation of the many solar masses of remaining hydrogen can contribute to a much slower decline in luminosity and produce the plateau phase seen in the majority of core collapse supernovae.\n",
"Although pair-instability supernovae are core collapse supernovae with spectra and light curves similar to Type II-P, the nature after core collapse is more like that of a giant Type Ia with runaway fusion of carbon, oxygen, and silicon. The total energy released by the highest mass events is comparable to other core collapse supernovae but neutrino production is thought to be very low, hence the kinetic and electromagnetic energy released is very high. The cores of these stars are much larger than any white dwarf and the amount of radioactive nickel and other heavy elements ejected from their cores can be orders of magnitude higher, with consequently high visual luminosity.\n",
"A pair-instability supernova is believed to result from runaway oxygen fusion in the core of a massive, 130–250 solar mass, low to moderate metallicity star. According to theory, in such a star, a large but relatively low density core of nonfusing oxygen builds up, with its weight supported by the pressure of gamma rays produced by the extreme temperature. As the core heats further, the gamma rays eventually begin to pass the energy threshold needed for collision-induced decay into electron-positron pairs, a process called pair production. This causes a drop in the pressure within the core, leading it to contract and heat further, causing more pair production, a further pressure drop, and so on. The core starts to undergo gravitational collapse. At some point this ignites runaway oxygen fusion, releasing enough energy to obliterate the star. These explosions are rare, perhaps about one per 100,000 supernovae.\n",
"On May 9, 1998 a supernova event was observed in this galaxy. Designated SN 1998bu, this was a Type Ia supernova explosion. It reached maximum light on May 21, then steadily declined in magnitude thereafter. Observations of the ejecta a year later showed that the explosion created 0.4 times the mass of the Sun worth of iron. The spectrum of the supernova remnant confirmed the presence of radioactive Co, which decays into Fe.\n",
"Supernovae can result from the death of an extremely massive star, many times heavier than the Sun. At the end of the life of this massive star, a non-fusible iron core is formed from fusion ashes. This iron core is pushed towards the Chandrasekhar limit till it surpasses it and therefore collapses.\n",
"A supernova remnant (SNR) results from the gigantic explosion of a star, the resulting supernova expelling much or all of the stellar material with velocities as much as 1% the speed of light and forming a shock wave that can heat the gas up to temperatures as high as 10 million K, forming a plasma.\n",
"SN 1979C was a supernova about 50 million light-years away in Messier 100, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices. The Type II supernova was discovered April 19, 1979 by Gus Johnson, a school teacher and amateur astronomer. This type of supernova is known as a core collapse and is the result of the internal collapse and violent explosion of a large star. A star must have at least 9 times the mass of the Sun in order to undergo this type of collapse. The star that resulted in this supernova was estimated to be in the range of 20 solar masses.\n"
] |
I just learned about foreign accent syndrome, when brain damage makes it sound like you have a foreign accent. Do those who suffer from it actually speak with an accent from one they know or is it just the new speech patterns that come with the syndrome making it sound similar to an existing accent? | I'll answer this with the caveat that this is a very rare condition [( < 20 cases worldwide to date)](_URL_0_) and with an etiology that is not perfectly understood.
The basic idea is that after a stroke regions of the brain are damaged that result in a changed prosody. Most of the time, the change in speech pattern becomes close to but does not perfectly correspond with another accent (not necessarily one known to the patient). The current thinking is that observers hear this atypical speech and attribute it to an accent that they are familiar with, even if there are inconsistencies. | [
"Its symptoms result from distorted articulatory planning and coordination processes and although popular news articles commonly attempt to identify the closest regional accent, speakers suffering from foreign accent syndrome acquire neither a specific foreign accent nor any additional fluency in a foreign language. Despite an unconfirmed news report in 2010 that a Croatian speaker had gained the ability to speak fluent German after emergence from a coma, there has been no verified case where a patient's foreign language skills have improved after a brain injury.\n",
"To the untrained ear, those with the syndrome sound as though they speak their native languages with a foreign accent; for example, an American native speaker of English might sound as though he spoke with a south-eastern English accent, or a native English speaker from Britain might speak with a New York American accent. However, researchers at Oxford University have found that certain specific parts of the brain were injured in some foreign accent syndrome cases, indicating that particular parts of the brain control various linguistic functions, and damage could result in altered pitch and/or mispronounced syllables, causing speech patterns to be distorted in a non-specific manner. Contrary to popular beliefs that individuals with FAS exhibit their accent without any effort, these individuals feel as if they are suffering from a speech disorder. More recently, there is mounting evidence that the cerebellum, which controls motor function, may be crucially involved in some cases of foreign accent syndrome, reinforcing the notion that speech pattern alteration is mechanical, and thus non-specific.\n",
"After experiencing brain injury, some people may begin speaking in an accent not native to their country of origin, as discussed in the preceding sections, but more common forms of dysprosody consist of alterations in vocal pitch, timing, rhythm, and control, not necessarily resulting in a foreign dialect. In addition, there have been some cases in which seizures began to develop in patients also suffering from dysprosody, but no decisive conclusions connecting dysprosody and seizure activity have been made.\n",
"There is also the rare condition called Foreign Accent Syndrome in which someone who has suffered a brain injury will appear to speak in a new language or dialect. This is typically thought to be due to an injury to the linguistic center of the brain causing speech impairment that just happens to sound like a persons non-native language. This is thought to be the reasoning behind the urban legend where someone wakes from a coma or surgery and suddenly speaks a new language.\n",
"Foreign accent syndrome usually results from a stroke, but can also develop from head trauma, migraines or developmental problems. The condition was first reported in 1907, and between 1941 and 2009 there were 62 recorded cases.\n",
"The perception of a foreign accent is likely to be a case of pareidolia on the part of the listener. Nick Miller, Professor of Motor Speech Disorders at Newcastle University has explained: \"The notion that sufferers speak in a foreign language is something that is in the ear of the listener, rather than the mouth of the speaker. It is simply that the rhythm and pronunciation of speech has changed.\"\n",
"Cases of foreign accent syndrome often receive significant media coverage, and cases have been reported in the popular media as resulting from various causes including stroke, allergic reaction, physical injury, and migraine. A woman with foreign accent syndrome was featured on both \"Inside Edition\" and Discovery Health Channel's \"Mystery ER\" in October 2008, and in September 2013 the BBC published an hour-long documentary about Sarah Colwill, a woman from Devon, whose \"Chinese\" foreign accent syndrome resulted from a severe migraine. In 2016, a Texas woman, Lisa Alamia, was diagnosed with Foreign Accent Syndrome when, following a jaw surgery, she developed what sounded like a British accent. Ellen Spencer, a woman from Indiana who has foreign accent syndrome, was interviewed on the American public radio show Snap Judgment.\n"
] |
Is the Out of Africa hypothesis still widely accepted? Are all humans really "african?" | The good fellows over at /r/AskAnthropology gave me some [wonderful answers](_URL_0_) | [
"Alan Templeton (1997) asserted that the study did \"not support the hypothesis of a recent African origin for all of humanity following a split between Africans and non-Africans 100,000 years ago\" and also did \"not support the hypothesis of a recent global replacement of humans coming out of Africa.\"\n",
"The recent African origin of modern humans paradigm assumes the dispersal of non-African populations of anatomically modern humans after 70,000 years ago. Dispersal within Africa occurred significantly earlier, at least 130,000 years ago. The \"out of Africa\" theory originates in the 19th century, as a tentative suggestion in Charles Darwin's \"Descent of Man\", but remained speculative until the 1980s when it was supported by study of present-day mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence from physical anthropology of archaic specimens.\n",
"According to the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans, the predominantly held belief among most archaeologists, East Africa is the area where anatomically modern humans first appeared. There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus or several; a multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory. A growing number of researchers suspect that North Africa was instead the original home of the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent.\n",
"There were several reasons that it took decades for the field to accept Dart's claim that \"Australopithecus africanus\" was in the human line of descent. First, the British scientific establishment had been fooled by the hoax of the Piltdown Man, which had a large brain and ape-like teeth. Expecting human ancestors to have evolved a large brain very early, they found that the Taung Child's small brain and human-like teeth made it an unlikely ancestor to modern humans.\n",
"In 1925 Raymond Dart announced the discovery of \"Australopithecus africanus\", which he claimed was evidence for an early human ancestor in Africa. The British anthropologists of the time, who firmly believed in the European hypothesis, did not accept finds outside of their own soil. Keith, for example, described “Darts child” as a juvenile ape and nothing to do with human ancestry.\n",
"Diop consistently held that Africans could not be pigeonholed into a rigid type that existed somewhere south of the Sahara, but they varied widely in skin color, facial shape, hair type, height, and a number of additional factors, just like other human populations. In his \"Evolution of the Negro World\" in \"Présence Africaine\" (1964), Diop castigated European scholars who posited a separate evolution of various types of humankind and denied the African origin of \"homo sapiens\".\n",
"In September 2016, scientists reported that, based on human DNA genetic studies, all non-Africans in the world today can be traced to a single population that exited Africa between 50,000 and 80,000 years ago.\n"
] |
How do stains work on the molecular level? | I can tell you how bleach works on some types of stains. So some Compounds have color because of the molecule is a conjugated system. Meaning that more than 8 groups of alternating double then single bonds in a row all share electrons. When light hits this conjugated system it absorbs then releases energy that we see in the visible spectrum. Bleach comes in and breaks double bond(s) in this system making them single bonds. This breaks the conjugated system up either completely or into smaller conjugated systems. So for example, where you had 8 groups of alternating double then single bonds you now have 2 conjugated systems of 4 groups which emit light in the ultraviolet spectrum and it’s not visible, BUT the stain is still there, you just can’t see it.
I suspect the stains are hard to remove because intermolecular forces between the stain maker to the fabric. | [
"Staining is a technique used to enhance contrast in samples, generally at the microscopic level. Stains and dyes are frequently used in histology (the study of tissue under the microscope) and in the medical fields of histopathology, hematology, and cytopathology that focus on the study and diagnoses disease at a microscopic level. Stains may be used to define biological tissues (highlighting, for example, muscle fibers or connective tissue), cell populations (classifying different blood cells, or organelles within individual cells.\n",
"For tissues that are not directly acidic or basic, it can be difficult to use only one stain to reveal the necessary structures of interest. A combination of the three different stains in precise amounts applied in the correct order reveals the details selectively. This is the result of more than just electrostatic interactions of stain with the tissue and the stain not being washed out after each step. Collectively the stains compliment one another.\n",
"Differential Staining is a staining process which uses more than one chemical stain. Using multiple stains can better differentiate between different microorganisms or structures/cellular components of a single organism.\n",
"A stain is a discoloration that can be clearly distinguished from the surface, material, or medium it is found upon. They are caused by the chemical or physical interaction of two dissimilar materials. Staining is used for biochemical research, metal staining, and art (e.g., wood staining, stained glass).\n",
"Different stains react or concentrate in different parts of a cell or tissue, and these properties are used to advantage to reveal specific parts or areas. Some of the most common biological stains are listed below. Unless otherwise marked, all of these dyes may be used with fixed cells and tissues; vital dyes (suitable for use with living organisms) are noted.\n",
"H&E staining does not always provide enough contrast to differentiate all tissues, cellular structures, or the distribution of chemical substances, and in these cases more specific stains and methods are used.\n",
"Biological tissue has little inherent contrast in either the light or electron microscope. Staining is employed to give both contrast to the tissue as well as highlighting particular features of interest. When the stain is used to target a specific chemical component of the tissue (and not the general structure), the term histochemistry is used.\n"
] |
What were the extent of Anglo-Saxon and German Saxon Relations until the Carolingian Conquest of Saxony? | To answer briefly, there was a massive amount of contact between the two cultures. Trade continued between them in the early years, and after the Anglo-Saxon conversions were complete numerous missionaries were sent to different parts of Germany, the most famous being Boniface and Willibrord in the eighth century. I do not know, but I can't imagine that any Anglo-Saxons would have fought on the side of the pagan Saxons against Charlemagne, nor that they would have felt more kin with the Saxons specifically than other Germanic groups on the continent. Connections continued after Charlemagne, with one of Alfred's advisers being John the Old Saxon. If I remember right, there is also some evidence that the Old Saxon poem *Heliand* was copied in England in the late tenth century, but I forget the details on this at the moment. | [
"In the late 6th century there was another period of Saxon expansion, starting with the capture of Searoburh in 552 by the dynasty that later ruled Wessex, and including entry into the Cotswolds area after the Battle of Deorham (577), though the accuracy of the entries in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\" for this period has been questioned. These conquests are often said by modern writers, on no clear evidence, to have separated the Britons of South West England (known later as the West Welsh) from those of Wales. (Just after the period being discussed, the Battle of Chester in 611 might have separated the latter from those of the north of England.) Until the 570s, the Britons were still in control of about half of England and Wales.\n",
"The Anglo-Saxons were the members of Germanic-speaking groups who migrated to the southern half of the island of Great Britain from nearby northwestern Europe and their cultural descendants. Anglo-Saxon history thus begins during the period of Sub-Roman Britain following the end of Roman control, and traces the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the 5th and 6th centuries (conventionally identified as seven main kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex), their Christianisation during the 7th century, the threat of Viking invasions and Danish settlers, the gradual unification of England under the Wessex hegemony during the 9th and 10th centuries, and ending with the Norman conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066.\n",
"In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain from the middle of the fourth century, present day England was progressively settled by Germanic groups. Collectively known as the \"Anglo-Saxons\", these were Angles and Saxons from what is now the Danish/German border area and Jutes from the Jutland peninsula. The Battle of Deorham was a critical in establishing Anglo-Saxon rule in 577. Saxon mercenaries existed in Britain since before the late Roman period, but the main influx of population probably happened after the fifth century. The precise nature of these invasions is not fully known; there are doubts about the legitimacy of historical accounts due to a lack of archaeological finds. Gildas Sapiens's \"De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae\", composed in the 6th century, states that when the Roman army departed the Isle of Britannia in the 4th century CE, the indigenous Britons were invaded by Picts, their neighbours to the north (now Scotland) and the Scots (now Ireland). Britons invited the Saxons to the island to repel them but after they vanquished the Scots and Picts, the Saxons turned against the Britons.\n",
"Under Carolingian rule, the Saxons were reduced to tributary status. There is evidence that the Saxons, as well as Slavic tributaries such as the Abodrites and the Wends, often provided troops to their Carolingian overlords. The dukes of Saxony became kings (Henry I, the Fowler, 919) and later the first emperors (Henry's son, Otto I, the Great) of Germany during the 10th century, but they lost this position in 1024. The duchy was divided in 1180 when Duke Henry the Lion refused to follow his cousin, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, into war in Lombardy.\n",
"While the English Saxons were no longer raiders, the political history of the continental Saxons is unclear until the time of the conflict between their semi-legendary hero Widukind and the Frankish emperor Charlemagne. While the continental Saxons are no longer a distinctive ethnic group or country, their name lives on in the names of several regions and states of Germany, including Lower Saxony (which includes central parts of the original Saxon homeland known as Old Saxony), Saxony in Upper Saxony, as well as Saxony-Anhalt (which includes Old, Lower and Upper Saxon regions). The current state of Saxony has its name from dynastic history, and not their ethnic history.\n",
"While the Saxons were facing pressure from Charlemagne's Franks, they were also facing a westward push by Slavs to the east. The territory of the Free State of Saxony, called White Serbia was, since the 5th century, populated by Slavs before being conquered by Germans e.g. Saxons and Thuringii. A legacy of this period is the Sorb population in Saxony. Eastern parts of present Saxony were ruled by Poland between 1002 and 1032 and by Bohemia since 1293.\n",
"The Saxon Wars, also called the Saxon War or Saxon Uprising (not to be confused with the Saxon Rebellion of 1073–75), were the campaigns and insurrections of the thirty-three years from 772, when Charlemagne first entered Saxony with the intent to conquer, to 804, when the last rebellion of disaffected tribesmen was crushed. In all, eighteen campaigns were fought, primarily in what is now northern Germany. They resulted in the incorporation of Saxony into the Frankish realm and their forcible conversion from Germanic paganism to Catholicism.\n"
] |
What was the mentality/practice behind conducting electro-shock therapy on homosexuals as a "cure"? | I'm no expert on this, but I'm currently reading [Steve Silberman's Neurotribes](_URL_0_), which is a cultural history of autism. It's not specifically about homosexuality, but it does delve into the use of electro-shock therapy on autistic children, as what's known as aversion therapy. Basically, the psychiatrist gives an order, and if it isn't followed, a shock is administered. Theoretically, the subject will learn to avoid the behavior on his/her own.
[This article](_URL_1_) from the Huffington Post (but written by an archivist at the National Gay and Lesbian Archives)
Silberman proposes that those administering these "cures" believed they were acting humanely. Given that it was deemed impossible to change the attitude of society toward homosexuality, it was more humane to change the undesired behavior.
[This article](_URL_1_) (from the National Gay and Lesbian Archives) might also shed some light on your question. Remember that homosexuality was considered a mental disorder before 1973, and the prevailing attitude of psychologists seemed to rest on curing disorders, instead of either encouraging acceptance or studying how best to integrate into mainstream society. | [
"In the early 1970s, Ford McBride did research in electroshock therapy while a student at Brigham Young University (BYU); he performed it on volunteer homosexual students to help cure them of ego-dystonic sexual orientation. This was a standard type of aversion therapy used to treat homosexuality, which was considered a mental illness at the time.\n",
"In an independent BYU newspaper article two men describe their experience with the BYU Aversion therapy program during the early 1970s. After confessing to homosexual feelings they were referred to the BYU Counseling Center where the electroshock aversion therapy took place using pornographic pictures of males and females. Jon, one of the individuals, implied that the treatment was completely ineffective. The experiences match most reports which state that shock therapy was ineffective in changing sexual orientation.\n",
"The Aversion Project was a medical torture program in South Africa led by Dr. Aubrey Levin during apartheid. The project identified gay soldiers as conscripts who used drugs in the South African Defence Forces (SADF). Victims were forced to submit to \"curing\" their homosexuality because the SADF considered homosexuality to be \"subversive\" and those who were homosexual were subject to punishment. The approach taken by the SADF to treating the homosexual and transsexual patients were done with extremely old knowledge that can be taken back to the ideologies of Havelock Ellis. The requirement for homosexuals going through gender reassignment surgery is to have extensive assessment and a period of supervision for two years. In 1995 the Medical Association of South Africa issued a public apology for past wrongdoings.\n",
"Throughout the 1970s, gay activism had significant successes. One of the first and most important was the \"zap\" in May 1970 by the Los Angeles GLF at a convention of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). At a conference on behavior modification, during a film demonstrating the use of electroshock therapy to decrease same-sex attraction, Morris Kight and GLF members in the audience interrupted the film with shouts of \"Torture!\" and \"Barbarism!\" They took over the microphone to announce that medical professionals who prescribed such therapy for their homosexual patients were complicit in torturing them. Although 20 psychiatrists in attendance left, the GLF spent the hour following the zap with those remaining, trying to convince them that homosexual people were not mentally ill. When the APA invited gay activists to speak to the group in 1972, activists brought John E. Fryer, a gay psychiatrist who wore a mask, because he felt his practice was in danger. In December 1973—in large part due to the efforts of gay activists—the APA voted unanimously to remove homosexuality from the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual\".\n",
"Some lesbians who were discovered in this period were forced to undergo conversion therapy, voluntarily submitting to it because they viewed themselves as defective and sick in the head. The creation by Freud of psychoanalysis encouraged many to believe that the method could be used to cure homosexuality. These cures often involved chemical and surgical approaches, with hormone treatments first which were then followed by drugs designed to remove a women's sexual libido. If this failed, women would be subjected to aversion therapy, which sometimes included shock therapy. If a woman still had homosexual thoughts, surgical treatments would be undertaken, including removal of the uterus or ovaries. In a few cases, lobotomies were also performed. To avoid this, many lesbians just went into deep denial.\n",
"Advocates for the mentally ill and some psychiatrists such as Thomas Szasz have asserted that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is torture when used without a \"bona fide\" medical benefit against recalcitrant or non-responsive patients. A similar argument and opposition apply to the use of painful shocks as punishment for behavior modification, a practice that is openly used only at the Judge Rotenberg Institute.\n",
"Lesbians were at risk of imprisonment during this period because of their orientation. Families also highly disapproved, and conversion therapy using electroshock treatment was not unheard of. Some women died within a few years of being given electroshock treatment. This sort of conversion therapy and problems with family estrangement would continue on into the Spanish transition to democracy. For many lesbians, it would be a tough choice as to which was worse: prison or mental institutions where conversion therapy took place. In addition to the threat of conversion therapy, lesbians had to worry about other aspects of their family discovering their orientation. This included being disowned by their family or being assaulted by family members because of their orientation.\n"
] |
Why didn't the Greeks try to explore west? | Precisely because they were able to calculate the circumference of the Earth. Ancient Greek ships weren't able to handle the open ocean, and it was thought all the way up until Columbus' time that there was nothing but open ocean between Europe and Asia. Sailors and explorers at the time would have wisely figured that they would die of thirst, starvation, or to a storm before they ever made it to the other side, and this was actually a huge obstacle for Columbus himself to get funding since everyone thought he would die. Any Greeks setting out to the West would know they would find a watery grave, and if any tried that's exactly what they got with their ships at the time. | [
"The Greeks had to fight off Scythian and Sarmatian (Alan) raiders who prevented them from progressing inland but retained the shores which became the wheat basket of the ancient Greek world. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Roman conquest the provinces maintained active trading relations with the interior for centuries.\n",
"The Greeks founded along the coast from the 8th Century. Colonies flourished, but near the sea there was little suitable defense. The Greeks felt the need to unite in a safer and more suitable place for defense of all villages, abandoning the coast because of malaria and Saracen pirate invasions. It is believed that Santa Caterina dello Ionio arose following the Saracen invasions (650-1086 AD), by the union of the colonies in the territory. Originally, it was a small village surrounded by defensive walls, which opened four doors. Only one door \"Porta dell'acqua\", which translates to \"Gateway of the water\", remains. Around 1060, Santa Caterina dello Ionio became part of the county of Badolato.\n",
"There were no hostilities with Athens yet, but Athens was threatened by the Macedonian party which Philip's gold created in Euboea. From 352 to 346 BC, Philip did not again travel south. He was active in completing the subjugation of the Balkan hill-country to the west and north, and in reducing the Greek cities of the coast as far as the Hebrus. To the chief of these coastal cities, Olynthus, Philip continued to profess friendship until its neighbouring cities were in his hands.\n",
"While the concept of a \"West\" did not exist until the emergence of the Roman Republic, the roots of the concept can be traced back to Ancient Greece. Since Homeric literature (the Trojan Wars), through the accounts of the Persian Wars of Greeks against Persians by Herodotus, and right up until the time of Alexander the Great, there was a paradigm of a contrast between Greeks and other civilizations. Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves (in the formulation of Aristotle) as something between the advanced civilisations of the Near East (who they viewed as soft and slavish) and the wild barbarians of most of Europe to the west.\n",
"This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject; but Strabo, Polybius, and Ptolemy doubted the description. Egyptologist A. B. Lloyd suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the Sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that \"It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing\" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure of Sataspes' attempt to circumnavigate Africa under Xerxes the Great. Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus and Pliny.\n",
"The Greeks led by Indian campaign of Alexander the Great had invaded north-western India during 327-325 BCE. Alexander left India in 325 BCE, leaving the control of his newly-conquered territories under Greek governors and local vassals.\n",
"After the victory in Thessaly which ended the first book of the trilogy, \"Child of a Dream\", Alexander and his army march towards the East. The first step of the expedition is to free the Greek cities from the Persian domination in order to establish a strong and united Pan-Hellenic League. Once that is achieved, the target is the Persian Empire itself and its immense Asian territory.\n"
] |
who decided the #2 pencil was the one to rule them all? | The #2 is a measure of the "hardness" of the pencil lead (which is actually graphite, but that's a different thread).
#1 pencils are very "soft", meaning they wear fast, smudge often, and it's difficult to keep the writing point sharp. Numbers #3 and higher stay nice and sharp, but make lighter markings, which is why they aren't recommended for machine graded "fill in the bubble" forms.
I've used #5 pencils, and I like the sharp points for drawing math equations and graphs. I understand that they are commonly used for drafting. I prefer #3s, or "extra hard" pencils which are kinda like a #2-and-a-half.
But #2 is, for most people, the"just right" of pencils, that don't smudge much, stay sharp fairly well, but still make a dark mark when writing. | [
"Similar to the role of the writers, few pencillers stuck around for more than one or two issues, with exception being Sal Velluto, who, alongside David Michelinie created the book, and pencilled 22 issues of the title. The only other regular artist was Ramon Bernado, who pencilled nine issues in total and pencilled the title's last few issues.\n",
"Unlike usual penciled pages, \"Marvel 1602\" used a technique called \"enhanced pencils\", whereby the finished pencil drawings are sent straight to the colorist instead of to an inker first. This technique had been used before on Kubert's \"Origin\", and results in cleaner and more elaborate lines.\n",
"At the 1889 World Fair in Paris, the Hardtmuth's displayed their pencils rebranded as \"Koh-I-Noor Hardtmuth\". Each pencil was encased in a yellow cedar-wood barrel. The inspiration for the name was the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond (Persian for \"Mountain of Light\"), part of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, and the largest diamond in the world at the time.\n",
"Dixon Ticonderoga makes a variety of pencils, including the Classic, Black, Noir, Tri-Conderoga, Microban, Laddie, My First (formerly Beginners), SenseMatic, and colored pencils. The pencils are available in different grades: #1 (Extra Soft), #2 (Soft), #2½ (Medium), #3 (Hard), and #4 (Extra Hard).\n",
"With the pencils laid out on his desk as they were on Heller's, Wolfe explains that the book he consulted earlier was on the history of mathematics. The two groups of pencils were arranged to symbolize a three and a two, and he originally assumed that the eraser between them stood for multiplication; hence his focus on the number six. However, the mention of the horse's name made him realize that the eraser was meant to stand for a zero. Before he was killed, Heller had laid out the pencils to form the number 302 – the death toll in the hospital bombing.\n",
"Colletta's first confirmed work as an inker of another artist's pencils is unknown, largely due to credits not being given routinely in 1950s comics. Two possibilities suggested by historians and researchers are the cover of Atlas' \"Annie Oakley Western Tales\" #10 (April 1956), co-inking with Sol Brodsky over Brodsky's pencils, and the three-page story \"I Met My Love Again\", penciled by Matt Baker, in \"My Own Romance\" #65 (Sept. 1958). Additionally assigned to ink stories in Atlas' emerging science-fiction/fantasy and giant-monster comics, Colletta entered what fans and historians call \"pre-superhero Marvel\" with three Baker-penciled stories: \"The Green Fog\" in \"Journey into Mystery\" #50 (Jan. 1959), \"I Fell to the Center of the Earth\" in \"Tales to Astonish\" #2 (March 1959), and \"The Brain Picker\" in \"World of Fantasy\" #17 (April 1959).\n",
"The \"Core Rulebook\" also features numerous full-color character illustrations by Brent Sprecher, Scott Brewer, Tom Martin, and Derek Hand, all in a deliberate \"superhero realism\" style (as opposed to a cartoon or manga type style). The cover was done by Brent Sprecher and depicts many heroes and villains created by him before the creation of the game. Most of these characters appear as fully fleshed out, playable heroes and villains in the book, also (including Americana, Breaker, Deathstalker, Lillith, Moon Girl, and Vector).\n"
] |
why can't we just like take a giant telescope and look at the planets that nasa discovered? similar to how our satellites can zoom in on earth. | Satellites take pictures of things from about 100 miles away. A planet that's 40 light years away is 235,100,000,000,000 miles away. So, you'd need a camera that is about one trillion times more powerful than what's on a satellite. | [
"It has been estimated that a telescope with a diameter of 80 meters would be able to spectroscopically analyse Earth-size planets around the forty nearest sun-like stars. As such, this telescope could help in the exploration of exoplanets and extraterrestrial life (because the spectrum from the planets could reveal the presence of molecules indicative of life).\n",
"The sensitivity of current detection methods makes it difficult for scientists to search for terrestrial planets smaller than this. To allow smaller bodies to be detected, NASA was studying a project called the Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF), a two-telescope concept slated to begin launching around 2014. However, Congressional spending limits under House Resolution 20 passed on January 31, 2007 by the U.S. House of Representatives and February 14 by the U.S. Senate have all but canceled the program.\n",
"Planets are usually observed with the aid of a telescope or binoculars. Venus is likely the easiest planet to observe without the aid of any instruments, as it is very bright, and can even be seen in daylight. However, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn can also be seen without the aid of telescopes or binoculars.\n",
"Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space, many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet. Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.\n",
"If a planet cannot be detected through at least one of the other detection methods, it can be confirmed by determining if the possibility of a Kepler candidate being a real planet is significantly larger than any false-positive scenarios combined. One of the first methods was to see if other telescopes can see the transit as well. The first planet confirmed through this method was Kepler-22b which was also observed with a Spitzer space telescope in addition to analyzing any other false-positive possibilities. Such confirmation is costly, as small planets can generally be detected only with space telescopes.\n",
"To get around all of these issues, the second approach suggested is the use of space-based telescopes which can observe a much larger region of the sky around Earth. Although they still cannot point directly towards the Sun, they do not have the problem of blue sky to overcome and so can detect asteroids much closer in the sky to the Sun than ground-based telescopes. Unaffected by weather or airglow they can also operate 24 hours per day all year round. Finally, telescopes in space have the advantage of being able to use infrared sensors without the interference of the Earth's atmosphere. These sensors are better for detecting asteroids than optical sensors, and although there are some ground based infrared telescopes such as UKIRT, they are not designed for detecting asteroids. Space-based telescopes are more expensive, however, and tend to have a shorter lifespan. Therefore, Earth-based and space-based technologies complement each other to an extent. Although the majority of the IR spectrum is blocked by Earth's atmosphere, the very useful thermal (long-wavelength infrared) frequency band is not blocked (see gap at 10 μm in the diagram below). This allows for the possibility of ground based thermal imaging surveys designed for detecting near earth asteroids, though none are currently planned.\n",
"BULLET::::5. Planetary assessment: The final step in extrasolar planet studies would be the ability to study these distant worlds in the same way that Earth-observing systems study the Earth's surface. Such a telescope would need to be extremely large, to collect enough light to resolve and analyze small details on the planet's surface. However, these kinds of studies do not lie in the foreseeable future, for it takes square kilometers of collecting area to capture the needed signal.\n"
] |
why is it that most of us won't think twice about spending £3.00 on a beer but will hesitate and think far too long about buying something that'll actually be useful and last for a long time? | Where the fuck are you getting a beer for £3.00? | [
"The Act has caused some controversy. On one side of the argument is the frustration some British drinkers and many tourists have with the traditional closing time of 23:00, as opposed to the more liberal drinking regulations of continental Europe and further afield. They believe that a liberalisation of the drinking-up time will reduce 'drinking against the clock', a precursor to binge drinking. Those against the legislation, on the other hand, believe that binge drinking will increase, as drinkers will have more time to get drunk.\n",
"Clive Hamilton and Richard Denniss's book, \"\", poses the question: \"If the economy has been doing so well, why are we not becoming happier?\" They argue that affluenza causes overconsumption, \"luxury fever\", consumer debt, overwork, waste, and harm to the environment. These pressures lead to \"psychological disorders, alienation and distress\", causing people to \"self-medicate with mood-altering drugs and excessive alcohol consumption\".\n",
"Some studies suggest, however, that people are happier after spending money on experiences, rather than physical things, and after spending money on others, rather than themselves. However, purchases that buy ‘time’, for instance, cleaners or cooks typically increase individual well-being.\n",
"Binge drinking costs the UK economy approximately £20 billion a year; 17 million working days are estimated to be lost due to hangovers and drink-related illness each year. The cost of binge drinking to employers is estimated to be £6.4 billion and the cost per year of alcohol harm is estimated to cost the National Health Service £2.7 billion. Urgent action has been recommended to understand the binge drinking culture and its aetiology and pathogenesis and urgent action has been called for to educate people with regard to the dangers of binge drinking.\n",
"Keynes defines psychological law of consumption in terms of \"the fundamental psychological law, upon which we are entitled to depend with great confidence both a priori from our knowledge of human nature and from the detailed facts of experience, is that men are disposed, as a rule and on the average, to increase their consumption as their income increases but not by as much as the increase in the income.\" It simply means that Marginal Propensity to consume is positive but less than unity (0 but 1).\n",
"In contrast, Orwell works out that before the war he was spending £20 a year on beer and tobacco and that he currently spends £40 per year on tobacco. He works out the national average spent on beer and tobacco to be £40 a year. Noting that it is difficult to establish a relationship between the price of different types of books and the value derived from them, Orwell works out that if books are read simply recreationally, the cost per hour is less than the cost of a cinema seat. Therefore, reading is one of the cheapest recreations.\n",
"\"All marketers tell stories. And if they do it right, we believe them. We believe that wine tastes better in a $20 glass than a $1 glass. We believe that an $80,000 Porsche Cayenne is vastly superior to a $36,000 VW Touareg, even if it is virtually the same car. We believe that $225 Pumas will make our feet feel better--and look cooler--than $20 no names. . . and believing it makes it true.\"\n"
] |
why do they market toys and collectibles before their respective movies come out? | It's better to have them released beforehand, so when people see the movie and get excited they can immediately find them on the shelves in stores, than risk a delay and them not getting into stores when demand is highest.
Back when Star Wars (the original movie) came out in theatres, the toys weren't ready yet. For Christmas of that year parents could give their kids a card printed by Kenner that promised delivery of the action figures in February of the following year, IIRC. | [
"Many successful films, television programs, books and sport teams have official merchandise, which often includes related toys. Some notable examples are \"Star Wars\" (a space fantasy franchise) and Arsenal, an English football club.\n",
"Toys are big business: the global toy market is estimated at over 80 billion US dollars annually. In 2013 the average household in the United Kingdom spent the equivalent of $438 US per child on toys, while US families spent $336 per child. In advertising, \"educational toys\" are sometimes differentiated from \"promotional\" toys, which are marketed primarily as part of a group of related products (e.g. American Girl dolls, Transformers, Steven Universe toys). It is also possible for these categories to overlap (e.g. Star Wars Legos).\n",
"Promotional toys can fall into any of the other toy categories; for example they can be dolls or action figures based on the characters of movies or professional athletes, or they can be balls, yo-yos, and lunch boxes with logos on them. Sometimes they are given away for free as a form of advertising. Model aircraft are often toys that are used by airlines to promote their brand, just as toy cars and trucks and model trains are used by trucking, railroad and other companies as well. Many food manufacturers run promotions where a toy is included with the main product as a prize. Toys are also used as premiums, where consumers redeem proofs of purchase from a product and pay shipping and handling fees to get the toy. Some people go to great lengths to collect these sorts of promotional toys.\n",
"Early versions of a product, manufactured in smaller quantities before its popularity as a collectable developed, sometimes command exorbitant premiums on the secondary market. Dolls and other toys made during an adult collector's childhood can command such premiums. Unless extremely rare or made as a one-of-a-kind, in a mature market, collectables rarely prove to be a spectacular investment.\n",
"In addition, the company produces collectibles, some of which are based on popular films or pop culture characters. Previous designs include: Superman; Batman; Wonder Woman; Elvis Presley; Pirates of the Caribbean; Flash; Green Lantern; Snoopy, Pokémon; Star Wars; Chronicles of Narnia; Cars; and The Matrix.\n",
"There are many ways to make deal toys, the most common material used is acrylic due to its versatility and price; however, crystal, resin, faux or real stone, wood, metal, and glass are used. Prices of these deal toys vary based on size, type of material(s) used and the amount of customization.\n",
"Prior to 1977, toys were released together with films as merchandising tie-ins. Films that were suitably toyetic spawned numerous licensed properties, often marketed heavily to children. Beginning in the late 1970s, this approach was flipped as films began to appear that were based on popular toys. In 1977, \"\" debuted as the first theatrical motion picture in which a consumer toy was the star. During the 1980s, action figures got their own films, such as Masters of the Universe (\"The Secret of the Sword\") and Transformers (\"\"), as did dolls, such as Pound Puppies (\"Pound Puppies and the Legend of Big Paw\") and My Little Pony (\"\"). Also in the 1980s, the greeting card companies American Greetings and Hallmark Cards created popular characters that were made into toys, on which films were later based, such as The Care Bears (\"The Care Bears Movie\"), Rainbow Brite (\"Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer\"), and Strawberry Shortcake (\"\").\n"
] |
Did the USSR have any kind of youth counterculture movement like the USA during the late 1960s? | [Punk in the Soviet Union](_URL_0_)
edit: not in the 60's, but might be interesting. | [
"Several factors distinguished the counterculture of the 1960s from the anti-authoritarian movements of previous eras. The post-World War II \"baby boom\" generated an unprecedented number of potentially disaffected young people as prospective participants in a rethinking of the direction of the United States and other democratic societies. Post-war affluence allowed many of the counterculture generation to move beyond a focus on the provision of the material necessities of life that had preoccupied their Depression-era parents. The era was also notable in that a significant portion of the array of behaviors and \"causes\" within the larger movement were quickly assimilated within mainstream society, particularly in the US, even though counterculture participants numbered in the clear minority within their respective national populations.\n",
"Hippie culture emerged in the late 60s and early 70s. Although very similar in terms of aesthetic to their western cousins, Soviet hippies were more passive. The Soviet hippie movement did not develop the same radical social and political sensibilities as did the New Left in the United States. Elsewhere in the eastern bloc, however, rockers and hippies were quite politically active and in the Prague Spring of 1968 numerous concerts were held in support of greater liberalization.\n",
"In the United States, the counterculture of the 1960s became identified with the rejection of conventional social norms of the 1950s. Counterculture youth rejected the cultural standards of their parents, especially with respect to racial segregation and initial widespread support for the Vietnam War, and, less directly, the Cold War—with many young people fearing that America's nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union, coupled with its involvement in Vietnam, would lead to a nuclear holocaust.\n",
"Documentation provided by various Boys State programs across the country refer to these as \"Young Pioneer Camps\" and alternately describe them as either fascist- or communist-inspired. Since the Young Pioneer Camps was the name of a youth program based in the Soviet Union that made inroads in the U.S. in the early 20th Century, it is likely that these left-wing movements are what Kennedy was responding to, and not the growth of the radical left. Kennedy felt that a counter movement must be started among the ranks of the nation's youth to stress the importance and value of a democratic form of government and maintain an effort to preserve and perpetuate it.\n",
"The stilyagi, the first youth counterculture movement in the Soviet Union, emerged in the 1950s. The stilyagi, meaning stylish in Russian, listened to the music and copied the western fashion trends. Unlike later youth movements, the regime made no attempt to infiltrate and channel the movement toward their own ends, opting instead for public oppression. The stilyagi virtually disappeared by the early 1960s because many restrictions on the flow of information were relaxed, showing that the styles the stilyagi drew inspiration from were outdated.\n",
"Playgrounds in the Soviet Union were also designed to stimulate children's excitement about space, as this was an ideology supported across Communist states. Eastern Europe \"followed the Soviet playgrounds movement and was under the influence of the Cold War fashion.\"\n",
"The counterculture of the 1960s was an anti-establishment cultural phenomenon that developed throughout much of the Western world between the mid-1960s and the mid-1970s. The aggregate movement gained momentum as the Civil Rights Movement continued to grow, and, with the expansion of the US government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam, would later become revolutionary. As the 1960s progressed, widespread social tensions also developed concerning other issues, and tended to flow along generational lines regarding human sexuality, women's rights, traditional modes of authority, experimentation with psychoactive drugs, and differing interpretations of the American Dream. Many key movements related to these issues were born or advanced within the counterculture of the 1960s.\n"
] |
if the 4th dimension exist does that mean im already dead somewhere/when in time? | The way I like to think about all these dimensions, is that the one before it is a just a slice.
So like a point is just a slice of a line, a line is just a slice of a square and a square is just a slice of a cube.
Now we're in the 4th dimension, meaning we can fully experience the first three, which we interpret as length, width, and height. We can only experience the fourth, time, as a straight line, continually moving. Now think back to the points, lines, squares, and cubes. If you drag a point, you get a line, if you drag a line, you get a square (Think painting with the edge/line of a paintbrush), if you drag a square, you get a cube.
So theoretically, next dimension experiences ALL of time at once (Kind of like how we experience all of the lines of a square at once to form a square), so yes, in the next dimension up, you are already dead, but also alive, all at the same time. | [
"In the \"Brothers Karamazov\", Dostoevsky's last work completed in 1880, the fourth dimension is used to signify that which is ungraspable to someone with earthly (or three-dimensional) concerns. In the book, Ivan Karamazov laments to his younger brother:\n",
"In the first volume of \"In Search of Lost Time\" (or \"Remembrance of Things Past\") published in 1913, Marcel Proust envisioned the extra dimension as a temporal one. The narrator describes a church at Combray being \"..for me something entirely different from the rest of the town; an edifice occupying, so to speak, a four-dimensional space – the name of the fourth being time.\"\n",
"With the 3rd dimension as the origin, each dimension is referred to by name, such as the “astral world” of the fourth dimension and the “spiritual world” of the fifth dimension, but according to Takahashi, the numbers are merely appellations; in reality, these stages are considered as existing inexorably, confirmed when the third eye is open.\n",
"3. The final section of the story focuses on HG Wells himself, as he tries to discern if the fourth dimension is actually something that can be broken through, or if it is just a storytelling mechanism in stories (like the ones he writes). He discovers the \"Map Of Time\" in a house in London (that is reputedly haunted), he discovers that time is not a plaything - and his actions could have serious repercussions.\n",
"In philosophy, four-dimensionalism (also known as the \"doctrine of temporal parts\") is an ontological position that an object's persistence through time is like its extension through space. Thus, an object that exists in time has temporal parts in the various subregions of the total region of time it occupies, just like an object that exists in a region of space has at least one part in every subregion of that space.\n",
"\"There is a fifth dimension, beyond that which is known to man. It is a dimension as vast as space, and as timeless as infinity. It is the middle ground between light and shadow, between science and superstition, and it lies between the pit of man's fears and the summit of his knowledge. This is the dimension of imagination. It is an area which we call \"The Twilight Zone\".\"\n",
"\"Has it never glimmered upon your consciousness that nothing stood between men and a geometry of four dimensions - length, breadth, thickness, and \"duration\" - but the inertia of opinion? ..When we take up this new light of a fourth dimension and reexamine our physical science in its illumination.. ..we find ourselves no longer limited by hopeless restriction to a certain beat of time.\" \n"
] |
What does "punk" mean in this context? | "Punk" was used to mean listless or generally poor. So this could be taken to mean that he was going to a party that was bland and he wasn't having a good time. Would that make sense in the context? Context is everything. References to this use of the term in North American slang appears in the Oxford English Dictionary. | [
"\"Punk\" explores \"the music, the fashion, the art and the DIY attitude of a subculture of self-described misfits and outcasts.\". Each episode focuses on an individual era of punk, beginning with protopunk in the 1960s up until the present day. \n",
"Art punk or avant punk refers to punk rock and post-punk music of an experimental bent, or with connections to art school, the art world, or the avant-garde. Examples of Art punk artists include A Frames, Art Brut, the Blood Brothers, Glenn Branca, Chicks on Speed, Chimera, Country Teasers, Crass, Daughters, the Death Set, and Devo.\n",
"\"The Word Punk is an Insult in Urban Dictionary ( it means Fag ) and because All of Us that Started the Style of Dance Were Punks ! The Description when they saw us was ! Oh ! Their just Punks and they are Punking! So there you Have it.\"\n",
"The term \"punk rock\" was first used by American rock critics in the early 1970s to describe 1960s garage bands and subsequent acts understood to be their stylistic inheritors. When the movement now bearing the name developed between 1974-1976, acts such as Television, Patti Smith, and the Ramones in New York City, the Sex Pistols, the Clash, and the Damned in London, and the Saints in Brisbane formed its vanguard. As 1977 approached, punk became a major cultural phenomenon in the UK. It spawned a punk subculture expressing youthful rebellion through distinctive styles of clothing and adornment (such as deliberately offensive T-shirts, leather jackets, studded or spiked bands and jewelry, safety pins, and bondage and S&M clothes) and a variety of anti-authoritarian ideologies.\n",
"The punk subculture includes a diverse array of ideologies, fashion, and other forms of expression, visual art, dance, literature and film. It is largely characterised by anti-establishment views and the promotion of individual freedom, and is centred on a loud, aggressive genre of rock music called punk rock. Its adherents are referred to as \"punks\".\n",
"Art punk is a subset of punk in which artists go beyond the genre's rudimentary garage rock and are considered more sophisticated than their peers. These groups generated punk's aesthetic of being simple, offensive, and free-spirited, in contrast to the angry, working-class audience generated by pub rock. In the late 1970s, the term was used as a pejorative for punk bands who were out of step with the genre's ideologies (i.e. post-punk).\n",
"\"Human Punk\" covers many aspects of the punk scene, from the original music and bands to its DIY ethos. It is also a novel that charts some major shifts in British society, from the failing Labour government of 1977 to Thatcherism in the 1980s (when Joe almost literally “gets on his bike”), and later the New Labour of Tony Blair and a Cool Britannia that means little to those portrayed in the book. \"Human Punk\" reflects a version of punk that is anti-fashion, its roots to be found in the broader culture of the main characters.\n"
] |
if i sat in a bathtub of liquor would i get drunk? | Not a doctor. Do know several though that work ER. Since "butt-chugging" of alcohol is a thing I would be more concerned about the alcohol getting in there. Or just burning like hell on your bits. But if it did make it in, the effect is much stronger than if you drink it, which is why these idiots end up in the ER.
I get what you're after though- is absorbing it thru the skin going to impact you. I don't see how it could make it to the bloodstream, which is where it would need to go. But again, not a doctor. I do agree with others in here though that the fumes would most likely get to you regardless as they would be replacing the oxygen you're breathing. I believe that was actually a brief thing- oxygen bar-type with alcohol instead, but I'm fuzzy on whether that was just a rumor. | [
"BULLET::::- Sauna or steam-bath: Medical opinion holds this may be dangerous, as the combination of alcohol and hyperthermia increases the likelihood of dangerous cardiac arrhythmia}abnormal heart rhythms.\n",
"Unfortunately, there are the quite a number of cases of unruly drunk patrons who vomit or urinate on the premises, making a public nuisance of themselves, as well as ere cases of serious bar-fights and ugly brawls and damage when Molotov Cocktails (fiery-lit beer bottles filled with petrol or flammable liquid) were thrown in a fight in September 2016 and serious cases of bar brawls in 2012.\n",
"BULLET::::- To alleviate a shortage of drinking water, a well was dug, but the water had a greenish tinge and smelled of hydrogen sulphide, and after several cases of stomach pain Goldsmith pronounced it unsafe to drink, contradicting Finniss's stated opinion. Finniss had for himself several tanks of rainwater, collected from the roof of his residence. Surveyor George Warland, one of those affected by the well water, was caught helping himself to the rainwater and upbraided within hearing of other officers.\n",
"When we are intoxicated with strong drink we drown our rational powers, by which we are distinguished from the brutal creation--we unman ourselves, and bring ourselves not only level with the beasts of the field, but seven degrees beneath them...How many [drunkards] have been drowned in our rivers, and how many frozen to death in the winter season! And now let me exhort you all to break off from your drunkenness...Take warning by this doleful sight before us, and by all the dreadful judgments that have befallen poor drunkards.\n",
"Alcohol intoxication, also known as drunkenness or alcohol poisoning, is the negative behavior and physical effects due to the recent drinking of ethanol (alcohol). Symptoms at lower doses may include mild sedation and poor coordination. At higher doses, there may be slurred speech, trouble walking, and vomiting. Extreme doses may result in a decreased effort to breathe (respiratory depression), coma, or death. Complications may include seizures, aspiration pneumonia, injuries including suicide, and low blood sugar.\n",
"His elder son, Christopher, had a drink problem, and – when drunk – other problems: \"when sober he is sometimes passable enough, but not without discovering by fits notions very extravagant. When drunk no man in Bedlam more wild or more dangerous. The reflections he pretends to make afterwards, but if either dice or strong drink come in his way, he never yet resisted the temptation.\" complained Lowther, who disinherited him with an allowance of £2 a week.\n",
"There have been reported incidents of people drinking the gel in prisons and hospitals, where alcohol consumption is not allowed, to become intoxicated leading to its withdrawal from some establishments.\n"
] |
difference between enlisted and officers in army and how different are their selection process. | Almost anyone can enlist, and it's basically the entry level to the military. Officers are required to have at least a bachelors degree, and are placed into leadership positions. The [rank](_URL_0_) system is completely different, and they are also sent to different boot camps to be trained in their respective positions. | [
"With regard to rank, a U.S. Army officer candidate exists in a gray area. AR 600-20, Army Command Policy, places their rank as outranking all enlisted members of the service and rank directly below all officers. They are not yet officers. They are enlisted soldiers who lose all rank status when reporting to the course. Regardless of pay grade, traditionally, but technically incorrect, candidates are outranked by any course cadre or permanent party enlisted soldiers they may encounter. Although their status does not correspond to a position of authority within the standard U.S. Army ranks, candidates serve in leadership training roles at the platoon or company level. They are addressed as \"candidate\" by the OCS cadre. During the first few weeks of indoctrination, candidates are treated much the same as a new recruit. In the final weeks of training, OCS platoons may achieve \"senior\" status and senior officer candidates may be addressed as \"Sir\" or \"Ma'am\" by more junior candidates, but never by other enlisted ranks.\n",
"Military service selection is done at a designated date and time at a local school or assembly hall. Each selection station has a quota for recruitment. The process begins with a call for volunteers. Those who volunteer will have the option to choose the branch of service and their date of induction. If the number of volunteers is fewer than the quota for the selection station, the remaining men will be asked to draw a card from an opaque box. The box contains red cards and black cards. Drawing a black card results in exemption from military service. Drawing a red card results in conscription in the branch of service and induction date on the card. \n",
"An enlisted rank (also known as an enlisted grade or enlisted rate) is, in some armed services, any rank below that of a commissioned officer. The term can be inclusive of non-commissioned officers or warrant officers, except in United States military usage where warrant officers/chief warrant officers are a separate officer category ranking above enlisted grades and below commissioned officer grades. In most cases, enlisted service personnel perform jobs specific to their own occupational specialty, as opposed to the more generalized command responsibilities of commissioned officers. The term \"enlistment\" refers solely to a military commitment (whether officer or enlisted) whereas the terms \"taken of strength\" and \"struck off strength\" refer to a servicemember being carried on a given unit's roll.\n",
"Basic branches - contain groupings of military occupational specialties (MOS) in various functional categories, groups, and areas of the army in which officers are commissioned or appointed (in the case of warrant officers) and indicate an officer's broad specialty area. (For example, Infantry, Signal Corps, and Adjutant General's Corps.) Generally, officers are assigned to sequential positions of increasing responsibility and authority within one of the three functional categories of the army branches (Maneuver, Fires and Effects; Operations Support; Force Sustainment) to develop their leadership and managerial skills to prepare them for higher levels of command. The branches themselves are administrative vice operational command structures that are primarily involved with training, doctrine, and manpower concerns. Each branch has a Branch Chief who is the Head of the Branch and usually serves as the respective branch school commandant or director.\n",
"Special branches - contain those groupings of military occupational specialties (MOS) of the army in which officers are commissioned or appointed after completing advanced training and education and/or receiving professional certification in one of the classic professions (i.e., theology, law, or medicine), or other associated health care areas (e.g., dentistry, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, registered nurse, physician's assistant). Officers of most special branches are restricted to command of units and activities of their respective department/branch only, regardless of rank or seniority. This means, for example, that Army Medical Department (AMEDD) branch officers may only command AMEDD units and activities. Likewise, Chaplains are essentially \"officers without command\" and are ineligible to command operational units and activities. They do, however, supervise junior ranking chaplains and enlisted chaplain's assistants. As an exception to this general rule, JAG Corps officers are eligible to command and may be assigned (with permission from the Judge Advocate General) to non-legal command positions, although ordinarily, like other Special branch officers, a JAG officer will only lead JAG Corps units and activities during their career.\n",
"As in most militaries, members of the U.S. Armed Forces hold a rank, either that of officer, warrant officer or enlisted, to determine seniority and eligibility for promotion. Those who have served are known as veterans. Rank names may be different between services, but they are matched to each other by their corresponding paygrade. Officers who hold the same rank or paygrade are distinguished by their date of rank to determine seniority, while officers who serve in certain positions of office of importance set by law, outrank all other officers in active duty of the same rank and paygrade, regardless of their date of rank. In 2012, it was reported that only one in four persons in the United States of the proper age meet the moral, academic and physical standards for military service.\n",
"The U.S. Army is also divided into several branches and functional areas. Branches include officers, warrant officers, and enlisted Soldiers while functional areas consist of officers who are reclassified from their former branch into a functional area. However, officers continue to wear the branch insignia of their former branch in most cases, as functional areas do not generally have discrete insignia. Some branches, such as Special Forces, operate similarly to functional areas in that individuals may not join their ranks until having served in another Army branch. Careers in the Army can extend into cross-functional areas for officer, warrant officer, enlisted, and civilian personnel.\n"
] |
why is it that links are repeated on different pages in reddit? | Going to the next page asks reddit to give you the 25 links following the link that's at the bottom of your current page. But the rankings of links are constantly changing - if that link has moved up the reddit rankings since you loaded your old page, it can jump over links you've already seen, and you'll get them again. | [
"This phenomenon also occurs in the Internet. Counting the number of links to a page can give us a general estimate of its prominence on the Web, but a page with very few incoming links may also be prominent, if two of these links come from the home pages of sites like Yahoo!, Google, or MSN. Because these sites are of very high importance but are also search engines, a page can be ranked much higher than its actual relevance.\n",
"If a web page is not listed in the first pages of any search, the odds of someone finding it diminishes greatly (especially if there is other competition on the first page). Very few people go past the first page, and the percentage that go to subsequent pages is substantially lower. Consequently, getting proper placement on search engines, a practice known as SEO, is as important as the website itself..\n",
"A variety of methods can increase the prominence of a webpage within the search results. Cross linking between pages of the same website to provide more links to important pages may improve its visibility.\n",
"End users often use the term \"posting\" to refer to a single message or file posted to Usenet. For articles containing plain text, this is synonymous with an article. For binary content such as pictures and files, it is often necessary to split the content among multiple articles. Typically through the use of numbered Subject: headers, the multiple-article postings are automatically reassembled into a single unit by the newsreader. Most servers do not distinguish between single and multiple-part postings, dealing only at the level of the individual component articles.\n",
"BULLET::::- Missing Links - The show's website features a list of links to odd and/or humorous websites. Many links are submitted by listeners, while others are found by the hosts. Before Head Up Your Ass Headlines begins, new additions to the Missing Links section are announced.\n",
"\"Caption\" (1998) is a black web page showing only an image and a string of text. Usually, the pair appears to have a meaning of some sort, making it seem like the text was written specifically to go with the image. However, the image and text are chosen completely at random. (This can be verified by simply reloading the page until the same image appears twice, in which case it will most likely be matched with a different text string.) The project serves to illustrate how the human mind will find a link between any two randomly matched items.\n",
"A backlink is a reference comparable to a citation. The quantity, quality, and relevance of backlinks for a web page are among the factors that search engines like Google evaluate in order to estimate how important the page is. PageRank calculates the score for each web page based on how all the web pages are connected among themselves, and is one of the variables that Google Search uses to determine how high a web page should go in search results. This weighting of backlinks is analogous to citation analysis of books, scholarly papers, and academic journals. A Topical PageRank has been researched and implemented as well, which gives more weight to backlinks coming from the page of a same topic as a target page. \n"
] |
if spider webs are one of the most stiky things we know, why do spiders dont get stuck if they get tangled in them? and what aobout nest like spider webs? | Spider webs are not completely sticky.
Some of the "silk" (sorry, don't know the name in English), is sticky, but spider can produce some that are not.
So, when a bug come in contact with the web, it get glued on it, but the spider, who know where it put the sticky or non sticky silk, can move around and stay on the non sticky part | [
"As these spiders live in constant proximity to humans, they are not usually aggressive and will even let a human hand approach their web. Like any other spider, however, they are afraid of bigger foes, and, in most cases, will retreat behind an obstacle (such as a dried leaf or prey remains) upon perceiving more than usual disturbance to their web. Further disturbance may lead to the spider dropping down on a thread, then running away from the web. If the distance is not considerable, it will usually return to its web within a couple of days. Otherwise, it will start a new one.\n",
"These spiders are frequently seen in cellars. When light contact disturbs their web their characteristic response is to set the entire web moving the way a person would jump up and down on a trampoline. It is unclear why they cause their webs to vibrate in this way; moving their webs back and forward may increase the possibility that insects flying close by may be ensnared, or the rapid gyrations caused by the spider in its web may make the spider harder to target by predators.\n",
"Spiders in this genus are specialised spider killers. They spin no web but are slow moving, stalking or ambushing their prey. They sometimes invade the web of their potential victim, vibrating the silk to mislead the owner. An individual will attack a potential victim by biting one of its legs and injecting toxins. It then retreats and the prey spider quickly becomes paralysed. The attacker then advances and starts to feed, sucking out the body fluids of its victim.\n",
"The webs built by the giant house spider are flat and messy with a funnel at one end. They do not contain sticky threads. The spider lurks in the funnel until a small invertebrate happens to get trapped in the web, at which point the spider runs out and attacks it. They usually build their webs in corners (on both the floor and ceiling), between boxes in basements, behind cupboards, in attics, or any other area that is rarely disturbed by large animals or humans. Often found near window openings.\n",
"As is common with other members of the family Theridiidae, \"S. grossa\" constructs a cobweb, i.e. an irregular tangle of sticky silken fibers. As with other web weavers, these spiders have very poor eyesight and depend mostly on vibrations reaching them through their webs to orient themselves to prey or warn them of larger animals that could pose a danger. They are not aggressive, and most injuries to humans are due to defensive bites delivered when a spider gets unintentionally squeezed or pinched. It is possible that some bites may result when a spider mistakes a finger thrust into its web for its normal prey, but ordinarily intrusion by any large creature will cause these spiders to flee.\n",
"Like other spiders in the subfamily Nephilinae it can weave webs so strong that sometimes even birds and bats get caught. Its webs can be found in damp places such as large trees and unpolluted areas to which no cars have access; normally several are strung together to form enormous \"homes\" so as to cover as much surface area as possible.\n",
"Because of the relatively large size of web, they are often infested with kleptoparasitic split-faced silver spiders (\"Argyrodes fissifrons\"). While able to build webs of their own, dewdrop spiders (genus \"Argyrodes\") prefer to live and even reproduce in the webs of other spiders, stealing prey in the process. They can be permanently associated with one web or move around between several other tent webs in the immediate vicinity. The size of the web is directly proportional to the number of \"A. fissifrons\" inhabiting them. The relationships can sometimes be commensal or even mutual, as \"A. fissifrons\" eat prey entangled in the webs that are too small for the larger double-tailed tent spiders. However, they often help themselves to food stores or even food in the process of being consumed by the hosts as well. Larger individuals are more audacious, but they usually stay on the tangle webs and out of the way of their hosts. Double-tailed tent spiders seem to tolerate their presence though they sometimes have to shove them away when they catch larger prey.\n"
] |
Can someone explain to me what ricci flatness is? | A manifold is Ricci-flat if the Ricci curvature tensor is zero. This roughly means that small cubes whose edges are geodesics have the same volume as cubes in the corresponding Euclidean space of the same dimension. But the geodesic cube itself may be twisted or curled into a different shape. (Think of distorting a spherical ball into an ellipsoid of the same volume.)
In general relativity, a Ricci-flat spacetime is one which is a vacuum solution to the Einstein field equations. That is, there are no matter fields: no baryonic matter, no radiation, no energy or any kind. All of the spacetime curvature is caused by gravitational energy.
All of the classical black hole solutions that get talked about most often (Schwarzschild, Kerr, Nordstrom, etc.) are all vacuum solutions, and thus represent Ricci-flat spacetimes. Minkowski space of special relativity is also Ricci-flat. The FLRW metric, which models our expanding universe, is *not* Ricci-flat.
There are some interesting mathematical questions about Ricci-flat manifolds. For instance, if a (Lorentzian) manifold is Ricci-flat and geodesically complete (i.e., singularity-free), is the manifold flat? The answer turns out to be "no", and one such family of spacetimes is the pp-wave spacetimes, which model a universe with massless plane wave radiation only. | [
"In mathematics, Ricci-flat manifolds are Riemannian manifolds whose Ricci curvature vanishes. Ricci-flat manifolds are special cases of Einstein manifolds, where the cosmological constant need not vanish.\n",
"Richard Strier additionally notes the complexity of the word \"flatter\" not only within Sonnet 87 but within other Shakespeare sonnets as well. While the word has been used \"in contexts of purely negative self-deception\" as well as \"in the context of providing genuine beauty,\" it is utilized within this poem as an \"evocation of joy that is brief and delusive, but potent while it lasts\". The phrase \"as a dream doth flatter\" correlates strongly with the Petrarchan view that earthly joys are briefly.\n",
"Flatness in homological algebra and algebraic geometry means, of an object formula_1 in an abelian category, that formula_2 is an exact functor. See flat module or, for more generality, flat morphism.\n",
"\"Flatline\" is a song by English girl group Mutya Keisha Siobhan, which consists of the original line-up of the group Sugababes. Written by the trio alongside British artist Dev Hynes, who also produced it, it was released via digital retailers on 6 September 2013 by Polydor Records, who signed the band in 2012. It is a synth-pop song in which the drums and the male backing vocals get gradually stronger until a climactic part. Lyrically, it addresses the deterioration of a relationship.\n",
"Flatulence is defined in the medical literature as \"flatus expelled through the anus\" or the \"quality or state of being flatulent\", which is defined in turn as \"marked by or affected with gases generated in the intestine or stomach; likely to cause digestive flatulence\". The root of these words is from the Latin \"flatus\" – \"a blowing, a breaking wind\". Flatus is also the medical word for gas generated in the stomach or bowels. Despite these standard definitions, a proportion of intestinal gas may be swallowed environmental air, and hence flatus is not totally generated in the stomach or bowels. The scientific study of this area of medicine is termed flatology.\n",
"In intonation, flat can also mean \"slightly lower in pitch\" (by some unspecified amount). If two simultaneous notes are slightly out-of-tune, the lower-pitched one (assuming the higher one is properly pitched) is \"flat\" with respect to the other. Furthermore, the verb \"flatten\" means to lower the pitch of a note, typically by a small musical interval.\n",
"In mathematics, a Riemannian manifold is said to be flat if its curvature is everywhere zero. Intuitively, a flat manifold is one that \"locally looks like\" Euclidean space in terms of distances and angles, e.g. the interior angles of a triangle add up to 180°.\n"
] |
What will replace integrated circuits once they reach the smallest size possible? | [Three-dimensional integrated circuit](_URL_0_) | [
"IEDM papers from Intel in 2002, 2004, and 2005 illustrate the industry trend that the transistor sizes can no longer scale along with the rest of the feature dimensions (gate width only changed from 220 nm to 210 nm going from 90 nm to 65 nm technologies). However, the interconnects (metal and poly pitch) continue to shrink, thus reducing chip area and chip cost, as well as shortening the distance between transistors, leading to higher-performance devices of greater complexity when compared with earlier nodes.\n",
"Integrated circuits were made practical by technological advancements in MOS (metal-oxide-silicon) semiconductor device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed, and capacity of chips have progressed enormously, driven by technical advances that fit more and more MOS transistors on chips of the same size – a modern chip may have many billions of MOS transistors in an area the size of a human fingernail. These advances, roughly following Moore's law, make computer chips of today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s.\n",
"As techniques have improved, the scale of microelectronic components has continued to decrease. At smaller scales, the relative impact of intrinsic circuit properties such as interconnections may become more significant. These are called parasitic effects, and the goal of the microelectronics design engineer is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects, while delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices.\n",
"As the limit in reduction of transistor size is reached with current technology, active networking concepts are being explored as a more efficient means accomplishing computation and communication. More on this can be found in nanoscale networking.\n",
"The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of transistors that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can dissipate. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.\n",
"According to Moore's law, the dimensions of individual devices in an integrated circuit have been decreased by a factor of approximately two every two years. This scaling down of devices has been the driving force in technological advances since the late 20th century. However, as noted by ITRS 2009 edition, further scaling down has faced serious limits related to fabrication technology and device performances as the critical dimension shrunk down to sub-22 nm range. The limits involve electron tunneling through short channels and thin insulator films, the associated leakage currents, passive power dissipation, short channel effects, and variations in device structure and doping. These limits can be overcome to some extent and facilitate further scaling down of device dimensions by modifying the channel material in the traditional bulk MOSFET structure with a single carbon nanotube or an array of carbon nanotubes.\n",
"Producing MOSFETs with channel lengths much smaller than a micrometre is a challenge, and the difficulties of semiconductor device fabrication are always a limiting factor in advancing integrated circuit technology. Though processes such as ALD have improved fabrication for small components, the small size of the MOSFET (less than a few tens of nanometers) has created operational problems:\n"
] |
Did any significant amount of early-ish American settlers return to Europe? | In the seventeenth century it was pretty common for people to settle in the New World for a few years to fish, trap, or log before returning to Europe. Merchants in particular would often only stay in the New World long enough to set up agents or to collect enough goods to fuel their European operations. Newfoundland in particular was notable for a largely temporary and transient population during the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century as workers, merchants, and planters would often return to Europe after a few seasons.
It may be unfair to call these people settlers since many of them never set out with the intention of permanently staying in the New World. | [
"The first permanent European settlers arrived in the early 19th century. People came from the Bahamas to South Florida and the Keys to hunt for treasure from the ships that ran aground on the treacherous Great Florida Reef. Some accepted Spanish land offers along the Miami River. At about the same time, the Seminole Indians arrived, along with a group of runaway slaves. The area was affected by the Second Seminole War, during which Major William S. Harney led several raids against the Indians. Most non-Indian residents were soldiers stationed at Fort Dallas. It was the most devastating Indian war in American history, causing almost a total loss of population in Miami.\n",
"European-American settlers arrived in the area by 1798, after the Revolutionary War. Fur traders had preceded them. Scots traders had intermarried with Native American women and had families with them. Both sides thought these relationships could benefit them. Most of the settlers were migrants from Virginia and North Carolina, part of a western movement after the American Revolutionary War. Others came after a generation in Kentucky.\n",
"Europeans started arriving, among them French, British and American fur traders. Some European colonists stayed and began to compete with the Mille Lacs Band for resources and to encroach on their land. Such settlers continued to violate the treaties and agreements which the Mille Lacs Band made with the United States and British representatives over the decades.\n",
"From 1815 to 1932, 60 million people left Europe (with many returning home), primarily to \"areas of European settlement\" in the Americas (especially to the United States, Canada, Brazil, the Southern Cone such as Argentina, and Uruguay), Australia, New Zealand and Siberia.\n",
"Permanent European-American settlement did not take place until after the American Revolution, about 1801, after most of the Iroquois had been forced to cede their lands to New York and had emigrated to Upper Canada.\n",
"Among the first European settlements in North America were Spanish settlements in what would later become the state of Florida; the earliest was Tristán de Luna y Arellano's failed colony in what is now Pensacola in 1559. More successful was Pedro Menéndez de Avilés's St. Augustine, founded in 1565; St. Augustine remains the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the continental United States. Spain also colonized parts of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Spain issued land grants in the South from Kentucky to Florida and into the southwestern areas of what is now the United States. There was also a Spanish colony location near King Powhatan's ruling town in the Chesapeake Bay area of what is now Virginia and Maryland. It preceded Jamestown, the English colony, by as much as one hundred years.\n",
"By 1914, Europeans had migrated to the colonies in the millions. Some intended to remain in the colonies as temporary settlers, mainly as military personnel or on business. Others went to the colonies as immigrants. British people were by far the most numerous population to migrate to the colonies: 2.5 million settled in Canada; 1.5 million in Australia; 750,000 in New Zealand; 450,000 in the Union of South Africa; and 200,000 in India. French citizens also migrated in large numbers, mainly to the colonies in the north African Maghreb region: 1.3 million settled in Algeria; 200,000 in Morocco; 100,000 in Tunisia; while only 20,000 migrated to French Indochina. Dutch and German colonies saw relatively scarce European migration, since Dutch and German colonial expansion focused on commercial goals rather than settlement. Portugal sent 150,000 settlers to Angola, 80,000 to Mozambique, and 20,000 to Goa. During the Spanish Empire, approximately 550,000 Spanish settlers migrated to Latin America.\n"
] |
Why do frozen foods thaw faster on granite countertops? | Granite has a very high thermal mass. This means that it takes a lot of heat to change its temperature - much more than a laminate counter top.
So, you put some cold food on the granite. The heat transfers from the granite to the food, but since it has so much thermal capacity, its temperature does not decrease as quickly as laminate (its heat capacity is not used up as quickly). And since the rate of heat transfer is greater when the temperature difference is greater, his means that the transfer rate remains higher. The laminate, on the other hand, also loses heat to the food, but since it's capacity is much lower, its temperature drops faster, the heat transfer rate goes down more quickly, and as a result, it takes longer to transfer the heat to the food.
| [
"Due to its properties of rapid cooling/melting, the small size of granular ice is used widely by the process industries, particularly food manufacture for cooling products made in mixers or bowl choppers such as dough or sausage meat, here it is mostly known as \"fine ice\" or \"micro ice\". It is also used in laboratories where it is often referred to as \"crushed ice\".\n",
"The speed of the freezing has a direct impact on the size and the number of ice crystals formed within a food product's cells and extracellular space. Slow freezing leads to fewer but larger ice crystals while fast freezing leads to smaller but more numerous ice crystals. Large ice crystals can puncture the walls of the cells of the food product which will cause a degradation of the texture of the product as well as the loss of its natural juices during thawing. That is why there will be a qualitative difference observed between food products frozen by ventilated mechanical freezing, non-ventilated mechanical freezing or cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen.\n",
"Conventional freezing methods of the time were commonly done at higher temperatures, thus the freezing occurred much more slowly, giving ice crystals more time to grow. It is now known that fast freezing produces smaller ice crystals, which cause less damage to the tissue structure. When 'slow' frozen foods thaw, cellular fluids leak from the ice crystal-damaged tissue, giving the resulting food a mushy or dry consistency upon preparation. Birdseye solved this problem.\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"In the US, soft serve ice cream is not sold prepackaged in supermarkets, but is common at fairs, carnivals, amusement parks, restaurants (especially fast food and buffet), and specialty shops. All ice cream must be frozen quickly to avoid crystallization. With soft serve, this is accomplished by a special machine that holds pre-mixed product at a very low, but non-frozen temperature, at the point of sale.\n"
] |
- what does it mean when a file is encrypted? | Encryption is mixing up the message, such that it can only be made readable again with a key.
To explain what hackers do, It might be easier to use an example:
Let's say you want to send a book to a friend on the other side of the country, but you don't want anyone else to see it.
You could stick the book in a box, and send it to your friend.
A hacker, could intercept the box, open it, and access the book.
You can also put the book in a box with a padlock on it, and send it to your friend, and send the key in another box.
However, if the hacker grabs both the locked box, and the key, he can open it anyway.
The last option, is that your friend first sends you a padlock, and keeps the key. You can now put your book in a box, lock it with the padlock your friend sent you, and then send it back.
Even if the hacker intercepts the box, he cannot open the padlock, and he cannot intercept any keys, since they are not being sent.
Your friend can then receive the box, and open it.
On the internet, the box, would be a message, and the padlock+keys an encryption.
In RSA-encryption, one of the most used encryptions today, the padlock and key are both huge numbers, chosen specially.
While the key-number is kept secret and the numbers are long enough, the encryption is impossible to break. (It can be broken, but doing so would take longer than the universe has existed) | [
"File level encryption encrypts only the file contents. This leaves important information such as file name, size and timestamps unencrypted. Parts of the content of the file can be reconstructed from other locations, such as temporary files, swap file and deleted, unencrypted copies.\n",
"The process of encryption involves converting plain text into a series of unreadable characters known as the ciphertext. If the encrypted text is stolen or attained while in transit, the content is unreadable to the viewer. This guarantees secure transmission and is extremely useful to companies sending/receiving critical information. Once encrypted information arrives at its intended recipient, the decryption process is deployed to restore the ciphertext back to plaintext.\n",
"With transparent encryption, the files are accessible immediately after the key is provided, and the entire volume is typically mounted as if it were a physical drive, making the files just as accessible as any unencrypted ones. No data stored on an encrypted volume can be read (decrypted) without using the correct password/keyfile(s) or correct encryption keys. The entire file system within the volume is encrypted (including file names, folder names, file contents, and other meta-data).\n",
"In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only authorized parties can access it and those who are not authorized cannot. Encryption does not itself prevent interference, but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor. In an encryption scheme, the intended information or message, referred to as plaintext, is encrypted using an encryption algorithm – a cipher – generating ciphertext that can be read only if decrypted. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a pseudo-random encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is in principle possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key, but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.\n",
"Normally, ciphertexts decrypt to a single plaintext that is intended to be kept secret. However, one form of deniable encryption allows its users to decrypt the ciphertext to produce a different (innocuous but plausible) plaintext and plausibly claim that it is what they encrypted. The holder of the ciphertext will not be able to differentiate between the true plaintext, and the bogus-claim plaintext. In general, decrypting one ciphertext to multiple plaintexts is not possible unless the key is as large as the plaintext, so this is not practical for most purposes. However, some schemes allow decryption to decoy plaintexts that are close to the original in some metric (such as edit distance).\n",
"In application-level encryption, the process of encrypting data is completed by the application that has been used to generate or modify the data that is to be encrypted. Essentially this means that data is encrypted before it is written to the database. This unique approach to encryption allows for the encryption process to be tailored to each user based on the information (such as entitlements or roles) that the application knows about its users.\n",
"When encrypting data using a block cipher in cipher block chaining (or another) mode, it is common to introduce an initialization vector to the first stage of the encryption process. It is typically required that this vector be chosen randomly (a nonce) and that it is not repeated for any given secret key under which the block cipher operates. This provides semantic security, by means of ensuring the same plain text is not encrypted to the same cipher text, allowing an attacker to infer a relationship exists.\n"
] |
When NSDAP wanted to replace Roman law with German law, what did they meant? | A little while ago, there we had [a thread](_URL_0_) concerning this rather obscure topic. Perhaps you want to take a look at it. | [
"The statute drew legal influence from previous measures, including those undertaken by the Holy Roman Empire and Prussian states. It was amended several times. The Nazis broadened the law in 1935; in the prosecutions that followed, thousands died in concentration camps as a widespread social persecution of homosexuals took place.\n",
"Under the Act, the government had acquired the authority to pass laws without either parliamentary consent or control. These laws could (with certain exceptions) even deviate from the Constitution. The Act effectively eliminated the Reichstag as active players in German politics. While its existence was protected by the Enabling Act, for all intents and purposes it reduced the Reichstag to a mere stage for Hitler's speeches. It only met sporadically until the end of World War II, held no debates and enacted only a few laws. Within three months of the passage of the Enabling Act, all parties except the Nazi Party were banned or pressured into dissolving themselves, followed on 14 July by a law that made the Nazi Party the only legally permitted party in the country. With this, Hitler had fulfilled what he had promised in earlier campaign speeches: \"I set for myself one aim ... to sweep these thirty parties out of Germany!\"\n",
"\"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" was \"de facto\" abolished in 1945 after Nazi Germany's defeat, but text from the penal code continued to be used by the Federal Republic of Germany. On 25 August 1998 and 23 July 2002, after lengthy debate, the Bundestag removed the Nazi-era sentences from the German criminal justice system and all Nazi military sentencing for conscientious objection, desertion, and all other forms of \"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" were repealed as unjust. Current German military law neither contains the term \"undermining the military\" nor its extensive rules, but a few offences included under the umbrella of \"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" remain on the statute books in a vague form.\n",
"In March 1933, the Enabling Act, an amendment to the Weimar Constitution, passed in the Reichstag by a vote of 444 to 94. This amendment allowed Hitler and his cabinet to pass laws—even laws that violated the constitution—without the consent of the president or the Reichstag. As the bill required a two-thirds majority to pass, the Nazis used intimidation tactics as well as the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to keep several Social Democratic deputies from attending, and the Communists had already been banned. On 10 May, the government seized the assets of the Social Democrats, and they were banned on 22 June. On 21 June, the SA raided the offices of the German National People's Party – their former coalition partners – and they disbanded on 29 June. The remaining major political parties followed suit. On 14 July 1933 Germany became a one-party state with the passage of a law decreeing the NSDAP to be the sole legal party in Germany. The founding of new parties was also made illegal, and all remaining political parties which had not already been dissolved were banned. The Enabling Act would subsequently serve as the legal foundation for the dictatorship the NSDAP established. Further elections in November 1933, 1936, and 1938 were Nazi-controlled, with only members of the NSDAP and a small number of independents elected.\n",
"\"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" was enacted in 1938 by decree as Germany moved closer to World War II to suppress criticism of the Nazi Party and \"Wehrmacht\" leadership in the military, and in 1939, a second decree was issued extending the law to civilians. \"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" consolidated and redefined paragraphs already in the military penal code to punish \"seditious\" acts such as conscientious objection, defeatist statements, self-mutilation, and questioning the \"Endsieg\". Convictions were punishable by the death penalty, heavy sentences in military prisons, concentration camps, and forced mobilization in combat or penal units.\n",
"The Lex Heinze (Latin: \"Heinze Law\") was a controversial law of 1900 amending Germany's Reich Criminal Code, named after the Berlin pimp Heinze, who was accused and convicted of committing \"bodily injury resulting in death\". It censored the public display of the \"immoral\" in artworks, literature and theatre and made pimping a criminal offence. After numerous public protests and resistance by several circles within the liberal middle class and the Social Democrats, the Reichstag passed a looser version of the draft law and added a \"morality clause\" into the Reich Criminal Code as a compromise proposal.\n",
"The Nazis took power nationally in January 1933 and lost little time in converting the German state into a one-party dictatorship. Party political activity (unless in support of the Nazi party) became illegal. Early on Klug spoke out in public against the rapid withdrawal of human rights. Under the provisions of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (\"\"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service\"\") which had been in force since 7 April 1933 Klug was identified for permanent exclusion from the schools service on 17 June 1933. The law in question is generally cited as a device for removing Jews from public service, but there was also scope for applying it to other public servants, including teachers, who fell out of official favour for non race-based political reasons. Klug's name appeared in an advertisement in several Hamburg which listed a number of teachers \"on leave from the schools service\" (\"\"\"aus dem Schuldienst beurlaubt\"\"\").\n"
] |
Were left leaning student beatnik types any less hostile towards the Soviet Union in 1960s than most "normal" Americans at the time? | [Students for a Democratic Society](_URL_0_) was one of the most popular and powerful of the "New Left" student groups. SDS was founded in 1960, and permitted Communist party members within their ranks (this was a change from previous leftist student groups). SDS campaigned against the Cold War and militarism. They became the primary student opposition group to the Vietnam war, and grew immensely as that conflict developed. SDS didn't engage in overtly pro-Soviet activities (though they did allow Communists to march with them), but they were widely seen as being sympathetic to the Communist cause and agenda.
| [
"As for the PPR on American side, some examples are also present. Between 1946 to 1956, there was a censorship campaign against schools and libraries in an effort to remove literature, described as 'radical'. The political move was explained through the danger that such literature was posing to the American democracy. During 1950s the members of the Communist party and supporters of their ideas were persecuted and faced hostilities and rejection both by the side of the government and the society. The anti-Soviet sentiment in America during the first half of the Cold War was measured to be greater than in European countries that were directly facing the consequences of the communist ideology. The anti-Soviet campaign that led to the ban of many literary works during the Cold War entailed similar consequences for the modern art, described as an outlet of communist influence as well. Prominent artists that were allegedly having ties to communist supporters and thus presumably sharing sentiments to Communism suffered significant consequences as a result of their affiliation. The U.S. authorities decided for works of such artists that \"no matter how innocuous the subject matter, be banned from publicly supported arts institutions and most especially from federally sponsored cultural exchange\". This political move was intended to portray America as a non-materialist society that deeply cares for the culture and the arts and is ready to exchange ideas with other countries that share the same values. The American Cold War culture enjoyed much more independence than the artists in the East due to the numerous checks that the works had to go through in order to ensure compliance with the goals of the state policies. At the same time, the literature and the arts in the U.S. were still influenced to a large extent by the ideological war between capitalism and communism. Critical theorists in International Relations see the period of the Cold War as a time-frame of intensive building and confirmation of the state's identity. It is achieved through the construction of an \"enemy\" in the eyes of the public while at the same time a real material threat was not present to an extent to which the undertaken measures would be justified by concrete facts about the strategic interests of the U.S. or its security.\n",
"In the early 1930s, the country had seen what many believed to be the failure of capitalism. Banks were failing; the high unemployment rate resulted in bread lines and the dust bowl resulted in a great westward migration of homeless and desperate farm families, as a consequence, many Americans, whether intellectuals, artists or factory workers had their eyes on the Soviet Union, thinking it was possible that an economy based on something other than \"free enterprise\" might lead to a more stable society. Many American writers and artists joined the Communist Party. In his 1956 paperback, \"The Left Side of the Screen\", Bob Herzberg described Rowland Brown as \"an angry and short-tempered Communist\" who \"punched out a Fox producer in the early 1930s.\" Brown was neither a member of the Communist Party, nor a fellow traveler,\" but because of the implied critique of capitalism some found in his gangster movies, he was suspected. Brown, himself, furthered that reputation by announcing that he had sent a congratulatory telegram to the U.S.S.R. on the anniversary of the Russian Revolution. Furthermore, Brown and his brother, Gilson Brown, had accepted a Soviet invitation to make a film in Russia. They got as far as New York before changing their minds and turning back. Neither of the brothers was included on the Hollywood blacklist during the McCarthy Era. Even though Samuel Ornitz, who had worked with Brown on \"Hell's Highway,' was one of The Hollywood Ten, Brown was never called to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee.\n",
"The domestic policies advocated by the adherents of the New Politics movement stressed strong support for civil rights legislation, while in foreign affairs the movement favored a less aggressive posture toward the Soviet Union (criticizing \"Cold War liberals\" within the party such as Harry Truman and Dean Acheson), prompting its critics to accuse it of being \"soft on Communism.\" Younger adults accounted for many of its members, and provided it with an aura of youthful vibrance — this fact leading some opponents to attempt to link it to so-called \"beatniks\" (that term having been coined in 1958 by \"San Francisco Chronicle\" columnist Herb Caen). However, this may not have been accurate as most of the prominent \"Beat\" writers of that era expressed little if any interest in electoral politics.\n",
"This came about because of conflict and disillusionment among Soviet youth who romanticised the spontaneity and destruction characteristic of War Communism (1918-1921) and the Civil War period. They saw it as their duty, and the duty of the Communist Party itself, to eliminate all elements of Western culture from society. However, the NEP had the opposite effect: after it started, many aspects of Western social behavior began to reemerge. The contrast between the \"Good Communist\" extolled by the Party and the capitalism fostered by NEP confused many young people. They rebelled against the Party's ideals in two opposite ways: radicals gave up everything that had any Western or capitalist connotations, while the majority of Russian youths felt drawn to the Western-style popular culture of entertainment and fashion. As a result, there was a major slump in interest and membership in the Party-oriented Komsomol.\n",
"Like \"Revolution\" and \"Piggies\", \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\" prompted immediate responses from the New Left and the Right. Among the latter, the John Birch Society's magazine cited the song as further evidence of the Beatles' supposed pro-Soviet sentiments. The line \"You don't know how lucky you are, boys\" left many anti-communist groups stunned. \n",
"CPUSA came after attack following World War II when anti-communist sentiment was on the rise. The party's steadfast support for the Soviet Union was not received well. Coupled with anti-Soviet sentiment in the US, communism became increasingly unwelcome in the United States. CPUSA historically took its power from labor unions. However, as these unions were dispelled in 1949 and 1950, the party did not have a solid support system to rely on. Furthermore, left wing organizations were faced with McCarthyism in the early 1950s.\n",
"Toward Soviet America is a book written by Communist Party, USA Chairman William Z. Foster in 1932. The book documented the rise of socialism in the Soviet Union, the crisis facing capitalism, the need for revolution, and a vision of what a socialist society would be like. The book also attacks social-democrats and liberals calling them \"Social Fascists\" because they seek to give the masses concessions in order to calm them and prevent communist revolution. The book was reprinted in 1961 by the House Un-American Activities Committee as an exposé of the purported communist conspiracy. The book remains popular among orthodox Marxist-Leninists and Stalinists.\n"
] |
How come the Abwehr were so inefficient and seemingly completely useless in gathering intelligence? | Look up what they did in the Netherlands. They were very effective in gathering intelligence before the invasion, trained, supplied and provided information for the Brandenburgers who took vital bridges during the Invasion of May 1940, and managed to capture almost all Allied spies active in the Netherlands between 1940 and 1943, as part of Operation Northpole.
My source: Kingdom of the Netherlands during WW2, Loe de Jong | [
"\"Abwehr II\" was a section of German Intelligence which amongst its other duties was tasked with seeking out the disaffected and anti-authoritarian in opposing nations to give arms, assistance, or whatever means to increase disharmony. Following the successful 1940 campaign to defeat France, and the capture of British Army personnel throughout the period, a decision was taken within the \"Abwehr\" to sound out captured enemy soldiers in POW camps as to whether they would consider fighting for the German Army and/or German Intelligence. While it is likely that this was normal procedure for the \"Abwehr\", the decision may have been influenced by Seán Russell, then IRA Chief of Staff, who had suggested a new \"Irish Brigade\" during his meetings with German Intelligence and the Foreign Ministry in Berlin during the summer of 1940. These attempts were made through the German Stalag network. The training and the induction of Irish-nationality POW's into German service was attempted at Friesack Camp. Attempts such as these were also tried amongst other POW groups with some success.\n",
"Nazi Germany used intelligence gathering to help inform its decisions. Intelligence gathering is not an exact science and the Abwehr was not a particularly professional organisation until after it was reorganised in 1938. \n",
"British intelligence also suffered from internal suspicion that may or may not have been directed at the right targets, but caused suspicion to be thrown at the highest counter-intelligence officers, with severe effects on morale. Peter Wright, while later extremely controversial about revelations his 1987 book, \"Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer\", also developed techniques that allowed the UK to track numerous Soviet clandestine agents, and agents under diplomatic cover .\n",
"The report also questioned the quality of military intelligence professionals. Specifically, the report criticized the “somewhat haphazard method employed by the services in the selection of officers for important intelligence posts.” The report pointed out that in recent years, several chiefs of Army intelligence lacked previous experience. The committee also suggested that the military services should establish intelligence careers as an option for serviceman.\n",
"The Abwehr () was the German military intelligence service for the Reichswehr and Wehrmacht from 1920 to 1945. Despite the fact that the Treaty of Versailles prohibited the Germans altogether from establishing an intelligence organization of their own, they formed an espionage group in 1920 within the Ministry of Defense, calling it the \"Abwehr\". The initial purpose of the \"Abwehr\" was defense against foreign espionage—an organizational role which later evolved considerably. Under General Kurt von Schleicher the individual military services' intelligence units were combined and, in 1929, centralized under his Ministry of Defense, forming the foundation for the more commonly understood manifestation of the \"Abwehr\".\n",
"He counters the argument that \"lack of direct knowledge of a certain business or its technology has been cited as a significant obstacle to intelligence services engaging in economic espionage. Yet during the Cold War, intelligence services spent significant amounts of time and energy, with some success, trying to obtain intelligence on various complex military technologies of which the case officers would not have had a profound knowledge. If intelligence services were trusted to obtain such information, a shift of focus to complex commercial technologies and intelligence would not be unthinkable. The same techniques used to obtain military secrets could be turned to complex commercial technologies or strategies without too much difficulty.\"\n",
"The intelligence networks were by far the most numerous and substantial of Resistance activities. They collected information of military value, such as coastal fortifications of the Atlantic Wall or Wehrmacht deployments. The BCRA and the different British intelligence services often competed with one another to gather the most valuable information from their Resistance networks in France.\n"
] |
by what method does google translate detect the language of input texts? | Matching words with words it knows from various languages. Also what characters you input. Like, if you were to input the Kanji lettering for the term "Horse stuffer", it'd detect that it was Kanji first, then what words it is, then makes the connection.
Or for other roman lettering, it just knows what words belong to what language. Such as "Pferd Stuffer" it knows there's no word in english that's spelled Pferd, so it checks it's database and sees that Pferd matches a word in German. | [
"Google Translate can translate multiple forms of text and media, including text, speech, images, sites, or real-time video, from one language to another. It supports over 100 languages at various levels and , serves over 500 million people daily. For some languages, Google Translate can pronounce translated text, highlight corresponding words and phrases in the source and target text, and act as a simple dictionary for single-word input. If \"Detect language\" is selected, text in an unknown language can be automatically identified. If a user enters a URL in the source text, Google Translate will produce a hyperlink to a machine translation of the website. Users can save translations in a \"phrasebook\" for later use. For some languages, text can be entered via an on-screen keyboard, through handwriting recognition, or speech recognition.\n",
"The service uses a self-learning statistical machine translation, developed by Yandex. The system constructs the dictionary of single-word translations based on the analysis of millions of translated texts. In order to translate the text, the computer first compares it to a database of words. The computer then compares the text to the base language models, trying to determine the meaning of an expression in the context of the text.\n",
"Behind this ostensibly simple procedure lies a complex cognitive operation. To decode the meaning of the source text in its entirety, the translator must interpret and analyse all the features of the text, a process that requires in-depth knowledge of the grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms, etc., of the source language, as well as the culture of its speakers. The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the target language.\n",
"Although, Google deployed a new system called “Neural Machine Translation” for better quality translation, there are languages that still use the traditional translation method called “Statistical Machine Translation.” It is a “rule-based” translation method that utilizes predictive algorithms to guess ways to translate texts in foreign languages. It aims to translate whole phrases rather than single words then gather overlapping phrases for translation. Moreover, it also analyzes bilingual text corpora to generate statistical model that translates texts from one language to another.\n",
"Launched in April 2006 as a statistical machine translation service, it used United Nations and European Parliament transcripts to gather linguistic data. Rather than translating languages directly, it first translates text to English and then to the target language. During a translation, it looks for patterns in millions of documents to help decide on the best translation. Its accuracy has been criticized and ridiculed on several occasions. In November 2016, Google announced that Google Translate would switch to a neural machine translation engine - Google Neural Machine Translation (GNMT) - which translates \"whole sentences at a time, rather than just piece by piece. It uses this broader context to help it figure out the most relevant translation, which it then rearranges and adjusts to be more like a human speaking with proper grammar\". Originally only enabled for a few languages in 2016, GNMT is gradually being used for more languages.\n",
"Hypermedia has found a place in foreign language instruction as well. Hypermedia reading texts can be purchased or prepared so that students can click on unfamiliar words or phrases in a foreign language and then access all the information needed to understand the word or phrase. Information can be in any medium, for example, text-based translations, definitions, grammatical explanations, and cultural references. Also, audio recordings of the pronunciation as well as images, animations and video for visualization. Some of the innovations in this area were the original products from Transparent Language as well as Ottmar Foelsche's Annotext and Thom Thibeault's hypermedia editor, FLAn.\n",
"When Google Translate generates a translation, it looks for patterns in hundreds of millions of documents to help decide on the best translation. By detecting patterns in documents that have already been translated by human translators, Google Translate makes intelligent guesses as to what an appropriate translation should be.\n"
] |
What population density could t-rex realistically have had? | [Here's a paper from a time this was previously asked](_URL_1_).
Short answer seems to be that they don't know.
There are a number of factors (prey density, metabolism, hunting strategy) that are all pretty speculative, making it difficult to get something approaching a real answer. There's even [some evidence](_URL_0_) of social behaviors - pack hunting remains a possibility. Hard to be very sure of specific animal behaviors from ~~150~~ 66 million years ago. | [
"Remains of tortoises at this site and a dig at Die Kelders, have been used to assess a correlation between tortoise size and human population, with a decrease in tortoise sizes as the human population grows.\n",
"An estimate of 36.5 million by Burton was based on extrapolating up from a density of 2.5 animals/ha (one per acre), but this was based on limited data and is probably an overestimate. A more recent estimate of 1,550,000 in Great Britain (England 1,100,000, Scotland 310,000, Wales 140,000) is more reliable, but still has a high degree of uncertainty as it is based on very limited information about hedgehog density estimates for different habitat types. Given this figure, and more firmly established rates of decline, it is now thought likely that there are fewer than a million hedgehogs in Great Britain.\n",
"Marsupials have adapted to many habitats, reflected in the wide variety in their build. The largest living marsupial, the red kangaroo, grows up to 1.8m (5'11\") in height and in weight, but extinct genera, such as \"Diprotodon\", were significantly larger and heavier. The smallest members of this group are the marsupial mice, which often reach only in body length.\n",
"Another group of multituberculates, the taeniolabids, were heavier and more massively built, indicating that they lived a fully terrestrial life. The largest specimens weighted probably as much as 100 kg, making them comparable in size to large rodents like \"Castoroides\".\n",
"Opossums, like most marsupials, have unusually short lifespans for their size and metabolic rate. The Virginia opossum has a maximal lifespan in the wild of only about two years. Even in captivity, opossums live only about four years. The rapid senescence of opossums is thought to reflect the fact that they have few defenses against predators; given that they would have little prospect of living very long regardless, they are not under selective pressure to develop biochemical mechanisms to enable a long lifespan. In support of this hypothesis, one population on Sapelo Island, off the coast of Georgia, which has been isolated for thousands of years without natural predators, was found by Dr. Steven Austad to have evolved lifespans up to 50% longer than those of mainland populations.\n",
"\"Elpidia minutissima\" is one of a number of echinoderm species that show great variations in population density. Researchers in one study found that, over a sixteen-year period, two deep sea holothurians, \"E. minutissima\" and \"Peniagone vitrea\", underwent a decline in density of the order of one to two magnitudes. It has been hypothesized that two factors that increase the likelihood of large swings in population are broadcast spawning and the possession of planktotrophic larvae. These factors provide a positive feedback loop so that once populations decline, recovery is very slow. When individual organisms are further apart, broadcast spawning is less likely to result in fertilisation and this means fewer larvae available for recruitment.\n",
"BULLET::::- The most massive living member of this highly diverse reptilian order is the green anaconda (\"Eunectes murinus\") of the neotropical riverways. These may exceed and , although such reports are not fully verified. Rumors of larger anacondas also persist. The reticulated python (\"Python reticulatus\") of Southeast Asia is longer but more slender, and has been reported to measure as much as in length and to weigh up to .Burmese python, a south-east Asian species is known to weight as much 183 kg and is generally the heaviest snake on average modern wild specimens. The fossil of the largest snake ever, the extinct boa \"Titanoboa\" were found in coal mines in Colombia. This snake was estimated to reach a length of and weighed about .\n"
] |
why do some people cry during sex? is it biological or psychological? both? are there performance or dysfunction related to crying during intercourse? | I can only speak for myself, but if I cry during sex, it's because the sex is so overwhelming, both physically and emotionally, that I need a quick, accessible outlet for it. You'd think that an orgasm would be a good outlet, given the circumstance, but that just makes it more overwhelming, and more tearful. For me, I believe it's psychological. Tears are a quick and easy outlet for *any* strong emotion I have. Rage and bliss are the two big ones.
There is a huge difference between crying during sex because you don't want to be having it and crying during sex because you don't want to ever NOT be having it. | [
"In nearly all cultures, crying is associated with tears trickling down the cheeks and accompanied by characteristic sobbing sounds. Emotional triggers are most often sadness and grief but crying can also be triggered by anger, happiness, fear, laughter or humor, frustration, remorse, or other strong, intense emotions. Crying is often associated with babies and children. Some cultures consider crying to be undignified and infantile, casting aspersions on those who cry publicly, except if it is due to the death of a close friend or relative. In most Western cultures, it is more socially acceptable for women and children to cry than men, reflecting masculine sex-role stereotypes. In some Latin regions, crying among men is more acceptable. There is evidence for an interpersonal function of crying as tears express a need for help and foster willingness to help in an observer.\n",
"On a study conducted by the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel, emotional tears from women have been found to reduce sexual arousal in men. Also, emotional tears are made up of a different chemical component than those evoked by eye irritants and can relay chemical messages to others. The change in sex drive could be attributed to a drop in testosterone provoked by the tear chemicals, reducing aggression. In animals other than humans, it has been found that some blind mole rats rub tears all over their bodies as a strategy to keep aggressive mole rats away.\n",
"The question of the function or origin of emotional tears remains open. Theories range from the simple, such as response to inflicted pain, to the more complex, including nonverbal communication in order to elicit altruistic helping behavior from others. Some have also claimed that crying can serve several biochemical purposes, such as relieving stress and clearance of the eyes. Crying is believed to be an outlet or a result of a burst of intense emotional sensations, such as agony, surprise or joy. This theory could explain why people cry during cheerful events, as well as very painful events.\n",
"William H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \"better\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too high. However, tears have a limited ability to eliminate chemicals, reducing the likelihood of this theory.\n",
"It can be very difficult to observe biological effects of crying, especially considering many psychologists believe the environment in which a person cries can alter the experience of the crier. However, crying studies in laboratories have shown several physical effects of crying, such as increased heart rate, sweating, and slowed breathing. Although it appears that the type of effects an individual experiences depends largely on the individual, for many it seems that the calming effects of crying, such as slowed breathing, outlast the negative effects, which could explain why people remember crying as being helpful and beneficial.\n",
"Infants cry as a form of basic instinctive communication. A crying infant may be trying to express a variety of feelings including hunger, discomfort, overstimulation, boredom, wanting something, or loneliness.\n",
"The most common side effect of crying is feeling a lump in the throat of the crier, otherwise known as a globus sensation. Although many things can cause a globus sensation, the one experienced in crying is a response to the stress experienced by the sympathetic nervous system. When an animal is threatened by some form of danger, the sympathetic nervous system triggers several processes to allow the animal to fight or flee. This includes shutting down unnecessary body functions, such as digestion, and increasing blood flow and oxygen to necessary muscles. When an individual experiences emotions such as sorrow, the sympathetic nervous system still responds in this way. Another function increased by the sympathetic nervous system is breathing, which includes opening the throat in order to increase air flow. This is done by expanding the glottis, which allows more air to pass through. As an individual is undergoing this sympathetic response, eventually the parasympathetic nervous system attempts to undo the response by decreasing high stress activities and increasing recuperative processes, which includes running digestion. This involves swallowing, a process which requires closing the fully expanded glottis to prevent food from entering the larynx. The glottis, however, attempts to remain open as an individual cries. This fight to close the glottis creates a sensation that feels like a lump in the individual's throat.\n"
] |
who owns the united states federal reserve? if it is the government, explain why we need to pay interest on the created money? | The Federal Reserve doesn't really have an owner. The leadership is appointed by the government, but the government doesn't claim any ownership rights over the organization or its stuff.
Why do we do it this way? Well, the Federal Reserve sets what's known as monetary policy (roughly, the policies regarding how many dollars are around), and it's very important that monetary policy be *stable*. If politicians could just print off a bunch of money to pay for things, it would be hard to trust US currency, because you'd never know when it would be devalued by a new wave of printing. The Federal Reserve makes it clear when and why they will print money, so this doesn't happen, letting US dollars be one of the most commonly used currencies in the world. | [
"According to the board of governors of the Federal Reserve, \"It is not 'owned' by anyone and is 'not a private, profit-making institution'. Instead, it is an independent entity within the government, having both public purposes and private aspects.\" The U.S. Government does not own shares in the Federal Reserve System or its component banks, but does receive all of the system's annual profits after a statutory dividend of 6% on their capital investment is paid to member banks and a capital account surplus is maintained. The government also exercises some control over the Federal Reserve by appointing and setting the salaries of the system's highest-level employees.\n",
"The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the board of governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"BULLET::::4. Every business day, the Federal Reserve System engages in Open market operations. If the Federal Reserve wants to increase the money supply, it will buy securities (such as U.S. Treasury Bonds) anonymously from banks in exchange for dollars. If the Federal Reserve wants to decrease the money supply, it will sell securities to the banks in exchange for dollars, taking those dollars out of circulation. When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). The money that it deposits into the seller's account is not transferred from any existing funds, therefore it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created High-powered money.\n",
"The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. Each member bank (commercial banks in the Federal Reserve district) owns a nonnegotiable share of stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank. However, holding Federal Reserve Bank stock is unlike owning stock in a publicly traded company. The charter of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and cannot be altered by the member banks. Federal Reserve Bank stock cannot be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock. They do, however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks' boards of directors. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.\n",
"The U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to \"borrow money on the credit of the United States\". Congress has exercised that power by authorizing Federal Reserve Banks to issue Federal Reserve Notes. Those notes are \"obligations of the United States\" and \"shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank\". Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as \"legal tender\" for the payment of debts. Congress has also authorized the issuance of more than 10 other types of banknotes, including the United States Note and the Federal Reserve Bank Note. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s.\n",
"The Society has been active in supporting the auditing of, and aims to eventually dismantle, the Federal Reserve System. The JBS holds that the United States Constitution gives only Congress the ability to coin money, and does not permit it to delegate this power, or to transform the dollar into a fiat currency not backed by gold or silver.\n",
"Legal cases involving the Federal Reserve Banks have concluded that they are neither \"private\" nor \"governmental\" as a general rule, but may be treated as either depending on the particular law at issue. In \"United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation v. Western Union Telegraph Co.\", the U.S. Supreme Court stated, \"Instrumentalities like the national banks or the federal reserve banks, in which there are private interests, are not departments of the government. They are private corporations in which the government has an interest.\" The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In \"Lewis v. United States\", the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: \"The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.\" The opinion went on to say, however, that: \"The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.\" Another relevant decision is \"Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City\", in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.\n"
] |
why fight to have student loans forgiven? | For what it's worth, I agree with you, but I'll try to explain the mentality behind it - today's 20-somethings were brought up their whole lives believing that college was the ticket to a bright future. You did decently in high school, went to a respectable college, and got a suitable white collar job that put you squarely in the middle class.
Forget for a moment that this mythos isn't and never has been entirely true - an English degree didn't directly lead to a job any more in 1985 than it did in 2005 - but this belief in the merits and inevitability of college has been pounded into everyone's heads over the last 20 years, leading to skyrocketing enrollment rates.
...but also skyrocketing costs. Since the 1980's, college costs have risen 2-3x the pace of inflation, leaving the '00s graduates with a lot more debt burden than previous generations. At the same time, because of the recession, opportunities are much scarcer for college grads at any point in many decades. Yes, it's still more likely you'll be employed if you have a college education than if you don't, but it's also much more likely you'll be underemployed, running a register at Banana Republic instead of working in the field of your degree (that $10/hr doesn't help much when you have 6 figures worth of student loans.)
So in summary: recent grads have had the desirability of a college education driven into their heads since elementary school. They followed that advice and went to college, taking on more debt than ever before, only to graduate and find that the jobs weren't there. You mention that it's not like they were tricked, but a lot of them feel like they were. I definitely don't think loan forgiveness is the solution, but I can't blame them for being frustrated. | [
"BULLET::::- The federal government should enact partial or total loan forgiveness for students who have taken out student loans. One advocate for college loan forgiveness has argued that \"Since forgiveness does not require the printing of new dollars (i.e., \"too much money chasing too few goods\"), it is not inflationary.\" Other advocates have argued the same thing from the opposite angle, namely that the \"lack of consumer protections,\" particularly \"removing bankruptcy protections,\" for college loans, has led to inflation.\n",
"A third theory claims that as a result of federal law that severely restricts the ability of students to discharge their federally guaranteed student loans in bankruptcy, lenders and colleges know that students are on the hook for any amount that they borrow, including late fees and interest (which can be capitalized and increase the principal loan amount), thus removing the incentive to only provide students loans that the students can be reasonably expected to repay. As proof of this theory, it has been shown that returning bankruptcy protections (and other Standard Consumer Protections) to Student Loans would cause lenders to be more cautious, thereby causing a sharp decline in the availability of student loans, which, in turn, would decrease the influx of dollars to colleges and universities, who, in turn, would have to sharply decrease tuition to match the lower availability of funds. Under this theory, if student loans did not have the ability to file for bankruptcy, it would be more profitable for the lender if the student defaulted (due to the increases in the amount of the loan after fees and interest are capitalized), and thus there is no free market pressure-type motive for the lender or the college to help the student avoid default. This is especially true because the government, if it is the lender or guarantor of the loan, has the ability to garnish the borrower's wages, tax return, and Social Security Disability income without a court order. Some have called the Federal Government 'predatory' for making loans which will have such a high default rate, since the default rate for Student Loans is projected to reach 46.3% of all federal dollars disbursed to students at for-profit colleges in 2008 (Budget lifetime default rate, loan default rate only 18.6%, meaning that 18.6% of all loans contain 46.3% of all dollars loaned out).\n",
"BULLET::::- Minimize the risk of investment in higher education through loan forgiveness or insurance programs. The federal government should enact partial or total loan forgiveness for students who have taken out student loans.\n",
"One view is that most colleges award aid using a mix of both. Further, student loans can lessen the immediate difficulty of large tuition bills but can saddle a student with debt after graduation; in contrast, grants and scholarships do not have to be paid back.\n",
"Loans usually must be repaid, in contrast to other forms of financial aid such as scholarships, which never have to be repaid, and grants, which rarely have to be repaid. Research indicates the increased usage of student loans has been a significant factor in college cost increases. \n",
"\"It is an outrage that the federal government offers loans to students at low-quality institutions even when we know those schools don’t boost their earnings and that those borrowers won’t be able to repay their loans. It is an outrage that we make parent PLUS loans to the poorest families when we know they almost surely will default and have their wages and social security benefits garnished and their tax refunds confiscated, as $2.8 billion was in 2017. It is an outrage that we saddled several million students with loans to enroll in untested online programs, that seem to have offered no labor market value. It is an outrage that our lending programs encourage schools like USC to charge $107,484 (and students to blithely enroll) for a master’s degree in social work (220 percent more than the equivalent course at UCLA) in a field where the median wage is $47,980. It’s no wonder many borrowers feel their student loans led to economic catastrophe.\"\n",
"Because they are private loans, loans granted under the FFEL program are not eligible for the Public Service Loan Forgiveness program. There have been media reports of many FFEL borrowers unaware their loans were ineligible. FFEL borrows can gain access to loan forgiveness by refinancing an existing loan with the Federal Direct Student Loan Program, but payments made before refinancing do not count toward loan forgiveness.\n"
] |
why does it feel good to sleep in the fetal position decade after being in the womb? | It's a psychological thing; regression. The fetal position inside your mothers womb is a safe, warm time in your life so subconsciously you go back (regress) to that time of safety and so on.
Source: 1 intro class of Psych last semester. | [
"It has been argued that co-sleeping evolved over five million years, that it alters the infant's sleep experience and the number of maternal inspections of the infant, and that it provides a beginning point for considering possibly unconventional ways of helping reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).\n",
"Many parents try to understand, once the baby is asleep, how to keep them sleeping through the night. It is thought that it is important to have structure in the way a child is put to sleep so that he or she can establish good sleeping patterns. Dr Sylvia Bell of Johns Hopkins University reported: by the end of the first year individual differences in crying reflect the history of maternal responsiveness rather than constitutional differences in infant irritability. She also notes: consistency and promptness of maternal response is associated with decline in frequency and duration of infant crying. The sleep position is also important to prevent SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome).\n",
"In the weeks after a human baby is born, as its nervous system matures, neural patterns in sleep begin to show a rhythm of REM and non-REM sleep. (In faster-developing mammals this process occurs in utero.) Infants spend more time in REM sleep than adults. The proportion of REM sleep then decreases significantly in childhood. Older people tend to sleep less overall but sleep in REM for about the same absolute time, and therefore spend a greater proportion of sleep in REM.\n",
"Besides physical developmental advantages, co-sleeping may also promote long-term emotional health. In long-term follow-up studies of infants who slept with their parents and those who slept alone, the children who co-slept were happier, less anxious, had higher self-esteem, were less likely to be afraid of sleep, had fewer behavioral problems, tended to be more comfortable with intimacy, and were generally more independent as adults.\n",
"This advice was based on the epidemiology of SIDS and physiological evidence which shows that infants who sleep on their back have lower arousal thresholds and less slow-wave sleep (SWS) compared to infants who sleep on their stomachs. In human infants sleep develops rapidly during early development. This development includes an increase in non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM sleep) which is also called quiet sleep (QS) during the first 12 months of life in association with a decrease in rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep) which is also known as active sleep (AS). In addition, slow wave sleep (SWS) which consists of stage 3 and stage 4 NREM sleep appears at 2 months of age and it is theorized that some infants have a brain-stem defect which increases their risk of being unable to arouse from SWS (also called deep sleep) and therefore have an increased risk of SIDS due to their decreased ability to arouse from SWS.\n",
"BULLET::::- Promotes peaceful sleep: Infants who co-sleep were found to rarely cry during the night compared to infants who slept in a separate room, who startled throughout the night and spent four times more minutes crying than co-sleeping infants.\n",
"Lastly, temperament also seems to yield correlations with sleep patterns. Researchers believe that infants classified as “difficult,” as well as those who are very sensitive to changes in the environment, tend to have a harder time sleeping through the night. Parents whose infants sleep through the night generally rate their infant’s temperaments more favorably than parents whose infant continue to wake; however, it is hard to determine if a given temperament causes sleep problems or if sleep problems promote specific temperaments or behaviors.\n"
] |
[Physics] Why can I hit a tennis ball pretty far with minimal effort, but I have to work a lot harder to throw it the same? | 2 things going on here.
1. Leverage. The longer the moment arm you use (tennis bat) the more force you can exert on the ball. Ball goes further.
2. Tension. Tension of the strings in the bat make for a small ammount of elasticity which work for you, in terms of transfering forces to the ball more directly. Ball goes further. | [
"A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play.\n",
"Some players also smash the ball with high vertical leaps like Olympic volleyball but there is no setter in team. In this game, the players hit the ball with both hands by punching it with both hands. They try to hit as fast as they can in order to force a mistake from opponent players and try to get rebound as a set ball for any player to smash it with jump, using one hand and if the player standing under the net misses the ball than defender tries to take the ball using the under hand and give maximum height to it. \n",
"A player will typically execute a smash when the opponent has returned a ball that bounces too high or too close to the net. It is nearly always done with a forehand stroke. \"Smashing\" use rapid acceleration to impart as much speed on the ball as possible so that the opponent cannot react in time. The racket is generally perpendicular to the direction of the stroke. Because the speed is the main aim of this shot, the spin on the ball is often minimal, although it can be applied as well. An offensive table tennis player will think of a rally as a build-up to a winning smash. Smash is used more often with penhold grip. \n",
"The purpose of the game is to hit the ball (either a racquetball, or a spaldeen, kick pinkie, tennis ball or soft golf ball) in such a way that the opponent cannot return the shot before its second bounce after hitting the wall. In its simplest form two players can play for points. More players can play an elimination game or Ace-King-Queen.\n",
"If an opponent is deep in his court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpected \"drop shot\", by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to \"skid\" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return.\n",
"Another key to success with this tactic is understanding the ins and outs of returning a serve, and what is involved when choosing to hit down the line as opposed to a crosscourt return. For example, it is harder to change the direction of the ball when it is travelling quickly. Also, there is a higher margin of error when hitting the ball crosscourt, because the distance between the net and the baseline is longer and the net is lower in the centre where the ball path crosses the net.\n",
"Balls are struck back and forth with a wooden cylinder, called a \"bracciale\", worn over the forearm: if carelessly played, a broken arm can result because a bracciale weighs 1 to 2 kilograms. Originally the ball was inflated, but now a hard rubber ball is used: this ball has circumference of 39 centimetres and weighs 350 grams (originally 750 grams). Scoring is by fifteens and tens, as in tennis, in this manner: 15 – 30 – 40 – 50 or victory of a game but early was 15 – 30 – 45 – 60; the team which wins 12 games is final winner of the match. A notable feature is that the ball is put into play by a designated server, called the \"mandarino\", who otherwise is not part of the game. The receivers can reject serves at will. Pallone is often played on courts marked out on town streets.\n"
] |
feeling weak while having a cold. what causes that? | Your body is spending so much energy on fighting the cold that it doesn't spare energy for much else. A proper immune response requires a bit of energy, and fighting infection becomes job 1 (aside from breathing, heart function, etc.). Your immune system is activating chemical and cellular systems that are normally dormant.
Additionally, a raised temperature means that some regular enzymes may not work as well. Enzymes are picky about temperature. Changing from your body's normal temperature (usually 36.5–37.5 °C or 97.7–99.5 °F) can cause some enzymes to become less active, erratic, or even dysfunctional-- leading to a general feeling of lethargy. | [
"One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n",
"The colloquial term for this condition, \"cold sore\" comes from the fact that herpes labialis is often triggered by fever, for example, as may occur during an upper respiratory tract infection (i.e. a cold).\n",
"Shivering (also called shaking) is a bodily function in response to cold in warm-blooded animals. When the core body temperature drops, the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis. Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements, creating warmth by expending energy. Shivering can also be a response to a fever, as a person may feel cold. During fever the hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise (pyrexia), but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached. Severe chills with violent shivering are called rigors. Rigors occur because the patient's body is shivering in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point.\n",
"BULLET::::- Feeling heavy specially the eyelids and the head, getting puffy and swollen, feeling cold (in contrast with people with sanguine temperament), breaking into cold sweat, getting sweaty palms, getting pale, not feeling thirsty or feeling false thirst, increased mucus production (getting runny nose or watery eyes), stringy or thick saliva, weakness, weakened muscle, sagging of skin, sleepiness, having trouble waking up especially in dam places or northern cities with high humidity and during cold seasons, memory loss, dizziness, difficulty learning or remembering something, having difficulty digesting food, bloating, frequent urination, sour burp, and diarrhea are the symptoms of excessive phlegm in the body.\n",
"Knee pain is more common among people working in the cold than in those in normal temperature. Cold-induced knee pain may also be due to tenosynovitis of the tendons around the knee, in which cold exposure has a specific role, either as a causative or a contributing factor. Frank arthritis has been reported in children due to frostbite from extreme cold causing direct chondrocyte injury.\n",
"The typical symptoms of a cold include cough, runny nose, sneezing, nasal congestion, and a sore throat, sometimes accompanied by muscle ache, fatigue, headache, and loss of appetite. A sore throat is present in about 40% of cases and a cough in about 50%, while muscle ache occurs in about half. In adults, a fever is generally not present but it is common in infants and young children. The cough is usually mild compared to that accompanying influenza. While a cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of influenza in adults, a great deal of similarity exists between these two conditions. A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in asymptomatic infections.\n",
"There is also a hereditary disease, familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome (FCAS), which often features knee pain, in addition to hives, fever and pain in other joints, following general exposure to cold.\n"
] |
what causes photos of screens to look so bad? | It's called the moire effect.
Cameras have pixels, and those pixels are arranged in symmetric rectangular grids. Displays have pixels, also arranged in symmetric grids. When those grids perfectly align, the image is fine. However, if the grid is off a little then camera pixel A sees display pixel A and a little bit of pixel B. Then camera pixel B sees display pixel B and a little more of pixel C. This small disturbance produces waves of uneven intensity in the image. Since the automatic gain control in the camera looks at the whole image, it can't eliminate the intensity waves. The result is dark bands across the camera image. | [
"The image may seem garbled, poorly saturated, of poor contrast, blurry or too faint outside the stated viewing angle range, the exact mode of \"failure\" depends on the display type in question. For example, some projection screens reflect more light perpendicular to the screen and less light to the sides, making the screen appear much darker (and sometimes colors distorted) if the viewer is not in front of the screen. Many manufacturers of projection screens thus define the viewing angle as the angle at which the luminance of the image is exactly half of the maximum. With LCD screens, some manufacturers have opted to measure the contrast ratio, and report the viewing angle as the angle where the contrast ratio exceeds 5:1 or 10:1, giving minimally acceptable viewing conditions.\n",
"Because of the reflective nature of the display, in most lighting conditions that include direct light sources facing the screen, glossy displays create reflections, which can be distracting to the user of the computer. This can be especially distracting to users working in an environment where the position of lights and windows is fixed, such as in an office, as these create unavoidable reflections on glossy displays.\n",
"Highly reflective flat screens tend to suffer from hot spots, when part of the screen seems much more bright than the rest. This is a result of the high directionality (mirror-likeness) of such screens. Screens with high gain also have a narrower usable viewing angle, as the amount of reflected light rapidly decreases as the viewer moves away from front of such screen. Because of the said effect, these screens are also less vulnerable to ambient light coming from the sides of the screen, as well.\n",
"It was reported that the optical image stabilization systems on some iPhone 6 Plus models were faulty, failing to properly stabilize when the phone is being held perfectly still, leading to blurry photos and \"wavy\"-looking videos. The optical image stabilization system was also found to have been affected by accessories that use magnets, such as third-party lens attachments; Apple issued advisories to users and its licensed accessory makers, warning that magnetic or metallic accessories can cause the OIS to malfunction.\n",
"Some widescreen LCD monitors optionally display lower resolutions without scaling or stretching an image, so that the image will always be in full sharpness, although it will not occupy the full screen. This is most often recognizable upon close inspection, as there will typically be black edges visible on either side of the panel horizon.\n",
"Video screens have a design process for user interface. Video screens can cause eyestrain from prolonged viewing. Cathode ray tubes are what are used to display the information on your computer. These send off radiation. This is a concern that has been taken into account when designing better computer screens for user interface.\n",
"A page or photograph with the same image twice slightly displaced (from a printing mishap, or a camera moving during the shot) can cause eye strain by the brain misinterpreting the image fault as diplopia and trying in vain to adjust the sideways movements of the two eyeballs to fuse the two images into one. \n"
] |
how does the conservation of mass and energy, and the expansion of the universe correlate/allow for the other? | You can have nothing. That's what a vacuum is, the absence of something. While space is not a perfect vacuum, it's pretty close. So as space expands, you get a bigger vacuum. | [
"The critical density of the universe is dependent upon the rate at which the universe is still expanding. The universe is expanding at an accelerated rate, but was originally thought to be slowing down. Furthermore, the rate at which this is changing gives the overall mass density of the universe which is denoted by the Greek letter omega. If omega is less than one, the mass density would be insufficient to stop the universe's expansion and it would go on expanding forever. If omega is more than one, the universe will eventually stop expanding and will thus collapse in on itself to again form another fireball not unlike the one from which it came. If omega is exactly 1, the universe's expansion will continuously slow, but never quite halt. Tryon's theory requires that omega be equal to or less than one. Through calculations it has been found that omega is 1 as far as instruments are able to determine. However, the universe could be so vast that its curvature is undetectable. The universe's rate of expansion is accelerating and is projected to continue accelerating due to dark energy, thus omega must be lower than 1.\n",
"The second equation states that both the energy density and the pressure cause the expansion rate of the universe formula_33 to decrease, i.e., both cause a deceleration in the expansion of the universe. This is a consequence of gravitation, with pressure playing a similar role to that of energy (or mass) density, according to the principles of general relativity. The cosmological constant, on the other hand, causes an acceleration in the expansion of the universe.\n",
"There is no clear way to define the total energy in the universe using the most widely accepted theory of gravity, general relativity. Therefore, it remains controversial whether the total energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each photon that travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the redshift effect. This energy is not obviously transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. On the other hand, some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense; this follows the law of conservation of energy.\n",
"As the universe expands, both matter and radiation in it become diluted. However, the energy densities of radiation and matter dilute at different rates. As a particular volume expands, mass energy density is changed only by the increase in volume, but the energy density of radiation is changed both by the increase in volume and by the increase in the wavelength of the photons that make it up. Thus the energy of radiation becomes a smaller part of the universe's total energy than that of matter as it expands. The very early universe is said to have been 'radiation dominated' and radiation controlled the deceleration of expansion. Later, as the average energy per photon becomes roughly 10 eV and lower, matter dictates the rate of deceleration and the universe is said to be 'matter dominated'. The intermediate case is not treated well analytically. As the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes even further and the cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an acceleration in the universe's expansion.\n",
"A much greater density comes from the unidentified dark matter; both ordinary and dark matter contribute in favour of contraction of the universe. However, the largest part comes from so-called dark energy, which accounts for the cosmological constant term. Although the total density is equal to the critical density (exactly, up to measurement error), the dark energy does not lead to contraction of the universe but rather may accelerate its expansion. Therefore, the universe will likely expand forever.\n",
"In general relativity, the total invariant mass of photons in an expanding volume of space will decrease, due to the red shift of such an expansions. The conservation of both mass and energy therefore depends on various corrections made to energy in the theory, due to the changing gravitational potential energy of such systems.\n",
"In special relativity, the conservation of mass does not apply if the system is open and energy escapes. However, it does continue to apply to totally closed (isolated) systems. If energy cannot escape a system, its mass cannot decrease. In relativity theory, so long as any type of energy is retained within a system, this energy exhibits mass.\n"
] |
Are there any examples of a unit or part of an army effectively going rogue and that started doing their own thing? | There are many, many examples of this in Roman civilisation alone. Not to put too fine a point on it, but are you aware of Julius Caesar and [crossing the Rubicon](_URL_0_)? | [
"In a multi-part story titled \"The Marauders\", Rogue encounters a group of deserters from both Nort and Southern sides, who operate as scavengers from a hidden base and attack both Nort and Southers in order to obtain food, ammunition and supplies. Unknown to Rogue, the commander of The Marauders is the Traitor General he is seeking, but has been burned by a malfunctioning escape pod from the satellite he was stationed on and is unrecognisable. The General later reveals himself to Rogue, then captures and tortures him. Rogue eventually escapes, and with the help of one of the Marauders – a Souther pilot known as 'Player' – defeats the Marauders that pursue him. The Traitor General, however, escapes, destroying the Marauder base as he does so.\n",
"Rogues' Regiment is a 1948 film noir action film directed by Robert Florey starring Dick Powell, Märta Torén and Vincent Price. It is the first American feature film to be set in the First Indochina War.\n",
"Rogue Squadron mourns their lost comrades from the Battle of Brentaal, while on a mission of mercy on Corellia. The newly defected Baron Fel's family has been taken hostage, and its up to Rogue Squadron to get them out safely. Along the way the Rogues encounter future allies and enemies in the form of 2 maverick CorSec officers, and an incompetent Imperial Liaison Officer.\n",
"Because, with some exceptions, they were seen as undisciplined and less battleworthy, they were used for less onerous guard and garrison duties. In the so-called \"petty wars\", the \"Freikorps\" interdicted enemy supply lines with guerrilla warfare. In the case of capture, their members were at risk of being executed as irregular fighters. In Prussia the \"Freikorps\", which Frederick the Great had despised as \"vermin\", were disbanded. Their soldiers were given no entitlement to pensions or invalidity payments.\n",
"However, irregulars can excel at many other combat duties besides main-line combat, such as scouting, skirmishing, harassing, pursuing, rear-guard actions, cutting supply, sabotage, raids, ambushes and underground resistance. Experienced irregulars often surpass the regular army in these functions. By avoiding formal battles, irregulars have sometimes harassed high quality armies to destruction. \n",
"In July 2009, the leader of the Monster Army, Generalissimo Takada was \"killed\" when a new enemy by the name of \"King RIKI\" (played by actor/singer Riki Takeuchi) showed up at the \"HUSTLE AID 2009\" event and repelled one of Takada's lasers, sending it back towards him and wounding him. The following show the Monster Army was disbanded, as the direction of the company started to change.\n",
"The LARP battle of \"Nevermore\" is accidentally started early, and the LARPers begin fighting. Amidst the combat, the LARPers are ambushed by the paintballers from much earlier, who proceed to shoot them, scaring some of them away, while others take a stand against them. To make matters worse, the succubus monster suddenly appears and slaughters many of the LARPers, including Ronnie, and the aforementioned paintballers, with Johnny, one of the assistant game masters being the only survivor, due to Gunther's timely arrival. Joe, Eric, and Gwen arrive to confront the beast, and they manage to pin it in place with the paintballers' truck. Joe, brandishing a mystical gem taken from the spine of the grimoire, sings a spell in a metal style, causing a spectral version of Hung to appear and defeat the monster. Six months later, Joe and Gwen are shown to have started a doom metal band, vowing to never LARP again, and that Joe has \"gotten over\" his breakup with Beth. In light of the monster's rampage, Gunther's belief that he is an actual warrior is reinforced. Ronnie was posthumously recognized as \"game master extraordinaire\", Eric is learning Enochian, having become a \"27 level sorcerer\", and Hung's fight against the monster is now immortalized as legendary.\n"
] |
When an animal is born with two fully functioning heads, how do their brains deliberate and balance control over the body? | Tried a quick google for some research but couldn’t find any. I assume it’s different from person to person. It would all depend on how their brains were connected to each other and the rest of the body I would assume | [
"The function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.\n",
"Heads develop in animals by an evolutionary trend known as cephalization. In bilaterally symmetrical animals, nervous tissues concentrate at the anterior region, forming structures responsible for information processing. Through biological evolution, sense organs and feeding structures also concentrate into the anterior region; these collectively form the head.\n",
"Head direction (HD) cells are neurons found in a number of brain regions that increase their firing rates above baseline levels only when the animal's head points in a specific direction. They have been reported in rats, monkeys, mice, chinchillas and bats, but are thought to be common to all mammals, perhaps all vertebrates and perhaps even some invertebrates, and to underlie the \"sense of direction\". When the animal's head is facing in the cell's \"preferred firing direction\" these neurons fire at a steady rate (i.e., they do not show adaptation), but firing decreases back to baseline rates as the animal's head turns away from the preferred direction (usually about 45° away from this direction).\n",
"In other animals, the organs that coordinate balance and motor coordination do not operate independently from the organs that control the eyes. A fish, for instance, moves its eyes by reflex when its tail is moved. Humans have semicircular canals, neck muscle \"stretch\" receptors, and the utricle (gravity organ). Though the semicircular canals cause most of the reflexes which are responsive to acceleration, the maintaining of balance is mediated by the stretch of neck muscles and the pull of gravity on the utricle (otolith organ) of the inner ear.\n",
"The brain uses information from the vestibular system in the head and from proprioception throughout the body to enable the animal to understand its body's dynamics and kinematics (including its position and acceleration) from moment to moment. How these two perceptive sources are integrated to provide the underlying structure of the sensorium is unknown.\n",
"At the anterior end of the animal, the nerves branch from a dense, circular nerve (nerve ring) round surrounding the pharynx, and serving as the brain. Smaller nerves run forward from the ring to supply the sensory organs of the head.\n",
"The two strategies result in different brain sizes of the newborns compared to adults. Precocial animals' brains are large at birth relative to their body size, hence their ability to fend for themselves. However, as adults, their brains are not much bigger or more able. Altricial animals' brains are relatively small at birth, thus their need for care and protection, but their brains continue to grow. As adults, altricial animals end up with comparatively larger brains than their precocial counterparts. Thus the altricial species have a wider skill set at maturity.\n"
] |
cocaine | Cocaine basically causes loads of a chemical called dopamine to be produced and this chemical is normal produced in small amounts that then produces a signal that is turned into an action the amount of dopamine affects how big the signal is. This over production of dopamine means BIG signals are constantly being made and the nervous system goes into over drive and you feel high. | [
"Cocaine is an SNDRI. Cocaine is made from the leaves of the coca shrub, which grows in the mountain regions of South American countries such as Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. In Europe, North America, and some parts of Asia, the most common form of cocaine is a white crystalline powder. Cocaine is a stimulant but is not normally prescribed therapeutically for its stimulant properties, although it sees clinical use as a local anesthetic, in particular in ophthalmology. Most cocaine use is recreational and its abuse potential is high (higher than amphetamine), and so its sale and possession are strictly controlled in most jurisdictions. Other tropane derivative drugs related to cocaine are also known such as troparil and lometopane but have not been widely sold or used recreationally.\n",
"Cocaine is a naturally occurring SNDRI with a fast onset and short duration (about two hours) that is widely encountered as a drug of abuse. Although their primary mechanisms of action are as NMDA receptor antagonists, ketamine and phencyclidine are also SNDRIs and are similarly encountered as drugs of abuse.\n",
"In the United States, cocaine is a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act, indicating that it has a high abuse potential but also carries a medicinal purpose. Under the Controlled Substances Act, crack and cocaine are considered the same drug.\n",
"The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime reports that cocaine is typically transported to the United States by water vessels from Colombia to Mexico or Central America. At this time, cocaine from Colombia remains the primary source for Europe and other countries.\n",
"Cocaine seems to arrive in Kosovo through postal deliveries or couriers from Serbia and/or South American countries, which are traditionally known for their cocaine production. It is first sent to Italy or Greece and usually in small quantities. The price for 1 gram of cocaine varied from EUR 45 to EUR 65 in 2007 and from EUR 50 to EUR 70 in 2008. The table below shows seizures of Cocaine from 2007-2010.\n",
"Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug. It is commonly snorted, inhaled as smoke, or dissolved and injected into a vein. Mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation. Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, and large pupils. High doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature. Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes. Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery.\n",
"Cocaine addiction is the compulsive use of cocaine despite adverse consequences. It arises through epigenetic modification (e.g., through HDAC, sirtuin, and G9a) and transcriptional regulation (primarily through ΔFosB's AP-1 complex) of genes in the nucleus accumbens.\n"
] |
why is it that mac operating systems rarely need to be updated yet windows seemingly needs to be updated every few days? | OS X does need to be updated~~graded~~ fairly often. The thing is, Apple makes it a fairly seamless process. Rarely does an update require a restart, for instance, while Windows updates tend to be very intrusive. If you select autoupdate for both systems, you rarely notice an OS X update, while Windows will kick you in the face and force you to submission every time it wants to apply an update.
That, and the fact that, for many different reasons, OS X tends to be a more stable environment than Windows.
| [
"Windows 10 contains major changes to Windows Update Agent operations; it no longer allows the manual, selective installation of updates. All updates, regardless of type (this includes hardware drivers), are downloaded and installed automatically, and users are only given the option to choose whether their system would reboot automatically to install updates when the system is inactive, or be notified to schedule a reboot. Microsoft offers a diagnostic tool that can be used to hide troublesome device drivers and prevent them from being reinstalled, but only after they had been already installed, then uninstalled without rebooting the system.\n",
"Windows 10 Home is permanently set to download all updates automatically, including cumulative updates, security patches, and drivers, and users cannot individually select updates to install or not. Microsoft offers a diagnostic tool that can be used to hide updates and prevent them from being reinstalled, but only after they had been already installed, then uninstalled without rebooting the system. Tom Warren of \"The Verge\" felt that, given web browsers such as Google Chrome had already adopted such an automatic update system, such a requirement would help to keep all Windows10 devices secure, and felt that \"if you're used to family members calling you for technical support because they've failed to upgrade to the latest Windows service pack or some malware disabled Windows Update then those days will hopefully be over.\"\n",
"Windows 10 Home is permanently set to download all updates automatically, including cumulative updates, security patches, and drivers, and users cannot individually select updates to install or not. Microsoft offers a diagnostic tool that can be used to hide updates and prevent them from being reinstalled, but only after they had been already installed, then uninstalled without rebooting the system. Tom Warren of \"The Verge\" felt that, given web browsers such as Google Chrome had already adopted such an automatic update system, such a requirement would help to keep all Windows10 devices secure, and felt that \"if you're used to family members calling you for technical support because they've failed to upgrade to the latest Windows service pack or some malware disabled Windows Update then those days will hopefully be over.\"\n",
"According to Microsoft a \"device needs to install the latest version (feature update) before [the] current version reaches end of service to help keep your device secure and have it remain supported by Microsoft\". As with previous Windows operating systems, any device running such an unsupported version of Windows (which no longer receives security patches) is potentially affected by the \"unfixed vulnerabilities\" issue beginning with the \"end of support\" date. To counter this Microsoft has designed the update system for the Home and Pro editions of Windows 10 so that in most cases if technically possible the latest Windows version is downloaded and installed automatically - this has however drawn criticism due to other problems such forced upgrades can introduce.\n",
"Microsoft originally announced that users who did not install the update would not receive any other updates after May 13, 2014. However, meeting this deadline proved challenging: The ability to deploy Windows 8.1 Update through Windows Server Update Services (WSUS) was disabled shortly after its release following the discovery of a bug which affects the ability to use WSUS as a whole in certain server configurations. Microsoft later fixed the issue but users continued to report that the update may fail to install. Microsoft's attempt to fix the problem was ineffective, to the point that Microsoft pushed the support deadline further to June 30, 2014. On 16 May, Microsoft released additional updates to fix a problem of BSOD in the update.\n",
"The original RTM release of Windows10 (\"Windows10, released in July 2015\") receives mainstream support for five years after its original release, followed by five years of extended support, but this is subject to conditions. Microsoft's support lifecycle policy for the operating system notes that \"Updates are cumulative, with each update built upon all of the updates that preceded it\", that \"a device needs to install the latest update to remain supported\", and that a device's ability to receive future updates will depend on hardware compatibility, driver availability, and whether the device is within the OEM's \"support period\"a new aspect not accounted for in lifecycle policies for previous versions. This policy was first invoked in 2017 to block Intel Clover Trail devices from receiving the Creators Update, as Microsoft asserts that future updates \"require additional hardware support to provide the best possible experience\", and that Intel no longer provided support or drivers for the platform. Microsoft stated that these devices would no longer receive feature updates, but would still receive security updates through January 2023.\n",
"Because PCs with unsupported processors could not receive new features updates, Microsoft agreed to extend support for these PCs with the bug fixes and security updates for the latest compatible version of Windows 10.\n"
] |
Why are batteries arrays made with cylindrical batteries rather than square prisms so they can pack even better? | First of all, some packs are made with prismatic cells. The pros and cons of cylindrical vs prismatic cells themselves are more important than packing efficiency. Notably, cylindrical manufacturing is more mature, and cylindrical cells tend to be better (in energy density and cost per kWh) at lower capacities, which most packaged battery packs are.
Here's an in-depth article on the cylindrical vs prismatic question: _URL_0_ | [
"Correctly made rectangular or square lens hoods are generally more efficient than cylindrical or conical ones because those shapes closely resemble the shape of the photograph. However, rectangular or square lens hoods should not be used with zoom lenses whose front elements rotate as the focal length is changed, as the hood will rotate as well, blocking parts of the angle of view. The same also applies to petal lens hoods. For these types of lenses, only cylindrical or conical lens hoods will work effectively.\n",
"A significant majority of battery designs are two–dimensional and rely on layered construction. Recent research has taken the electrodes into three-dimensions. This allows for significant improvements in battery capacity; a significant increase in areal capacity occurs between a 2d thick film electrode and a 3d array electrode.\n",
"A wedge base is a type of electrical connector used as a fitting for small light bulbs. It is similar to the bi-pin connector, except that the two \"pins\" are the same wires that extend into the bulb (rather than being rigid), and the wires are bent up onto the sides of the base, where they make contact with the socket. The wires are usually inserted into a plastic base that the bulb is mounted in, and which is often narrower at the tip than at the bulb, giving it a wedge shape and usually ensuring a tight connection, depending on manufacturing tolerances. Some bulbs have no plastic base, and the wires are simply bent up to the sides of the bulb's glass base.\n",
"Solid state batteries employ geometry most similar to traditional thin-film batteries. Three-dimensional thin-films use the third dimension to increase the electrochemically active area. Thin film two dimensional batteries are restricted to between 2-5 micrometres, limiting areal capacity to significantly less than that of three-dimensional geometries.\n",
"PBC requires the unit cell to be a shape that will tile perfectly into a three-dimensional crystal. Thus, a spherical or elliptical droplet cannot be used. A cube or rectangular prism is the most intuitive and common choice, but can be computationally expensive due to unnecessary amounts of solvent molecules in the corners, distant from the central macromolecules. A common alternative that requires less volume is the truncated octahedron.\n",
"Low-dispersion glasses are particularly used to reduce chromatic aberration, most often used in achromatic doublets. The positive element is made of a low-dispersion glass, the negative element from a high-dispersion glass. To counteract the effect of the negative lens, the positive lens has to be thicker. Achromatic doublets therefore have higher thickness and weight than the equivalent non-chromatic-corrected single lenses.\n",
"A storage space with a rectangular plan is much harder to dome than a circular one. It is not known why architects in particular places chose rectangular or circular layouts, considering that cylindrical spaces were easier to cover, and were deemed more hygienic for water storage due to lack of any corners in the space. Cylindrical tanks also had the advantage of experiencing homogenous forces throughout the walls caused by earth pressures, as opposed to the rectangular designs. Rectangular plans however have the advantage of containing larger volumes of water within rectangular property limits. Examples of ab anbars with a square plan include the Sardar-e Bozorg ab anbar in Qazvin by Sardar Hosein Qoli Khan Qajar and his brother Hasan Khan Qajar Some required columns to be built inside the storage space. The Sardar e Kuchak ab anbar in Qazvin for example, uses a massive column in the center that splits the space up into four 8.5 X 8.5 meter contiguous spaces, each separately domed. The Zananeh Bazaar ab anbar of Qazvin e.g. uses 4 columns inside its storage tank. The Seyed Esmail ab anbar in Tehran for example, is said to have had 40 columns.\n"
] |
Were more artillery shells fired in WWII or WWI per capita? | per capita what? Per artilleryman? Per frontline infantryman? Per European population? | [
"The total production of 75 mm shells during World War I exceeded 200 million rounds, mostly by private industry. In order to increase shell production from 20,000 rounds per day to 100,000 in 1915, the government turned to civilian contractors, and, as a result, shell quality deteriorated. This led to an epidemic of burst barrels which afflicted 75 mm artillery during 1915. Colonel Sainte-Claire Deville corrected the problem, which was due to microfissures in the bases of the shells, due to shortcuts in manufacturing. Shell quality was restored by September 1915, but never to the full exacting standards of pre-war manufacture.\n",
"During World War I an estimated one tonne of explosives was fired for every square meter of territory on the Western front. As many as one in every three shells fired did not detonate. In the Ypres Salient, an estimated 300 million projectiles that the British and the German forces fired at each other during World War I were duds, and most of them have not been recovered. In 2013, 160 tonnes of munitions, from bullets to 15 inch naval gun shells, were unearthed from the areas around Ypres.\n",
"It had been found during World War I that most of the casualties in an artillery bombardment occur within the first few seconds. During those first few seconds, troops may be in the open and may not be prone. After that, enemy troops have gone prone and/or sought cover. This dramatically lessens the casualties from shrapnel or high explosive blast. World War II Allied artillery units were often trained to fire their guns in a precise order, so that all shells would hit a target at the same time, delivering the maximum possible damage.\n",
"In World War II the gun was responsible for the longest range shell-hit ever scored by one battleship on another in combat. At the Battle of Calabria on 9 July 1940, gained a hit on the Italian battleship with her first salvo at . In the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, when the French fleet was largely neutralised following the fall of France to the Germans, the BL 15-inch Mark I gun (arming , and HMS ) was responsible for the destruction by a magazine explosion of the old battleship , and the disabling and beaching (deliberate running aground in shallow water) of the old battleship and the new battleship . Dunkerque's main 225mm armour belt was twice penetrated by 15-inch shells, which destroyed its fighting and steaming abilities.\n",
"By the early 20th century, infantry weapons had become more powerful, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon proved highly effective during World War I, directly or indirectly causing over 75% of casualties. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they were more suited at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried more explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army had the advantage here as they began the war with many more howitzers than the French. World War I also saw the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This calibre gun was used by the Germans against Paris and could hit targets more than away.\n",
"By the early 20th century, infantry weapons became more powerful and accurate, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon still proved highly effective during World War I, causing over 75% of casualties. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they fired at a steep angle, and were thus better suited than guns at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried larger amounts of explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army took advantage of this, beginning the war with many more howitzers than the French. World War I also marked the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This caliber gun was used by the Germans to bombard Paris, and was capable of hitting targets more than away.\n",
"Cannon also transformed naval warfare: the Royal Navy, in particular, took advantage of their firepower. As rifling became more commonplace, the accuracy of cannon was significantly improved, and they became deadlier than ever, especially to infantry. In World War I, a considerable majority of all deaths were caused by cannon; they were also used widely in World War II. Most modern cannon are similar to those used in the Second World War, including autocannon—with the exception of naval guns, which are now significantly smaller in caliber.\n"
] |
Why do we have primary colours? | > Why can it be split up into distinct colours in a prism?
When light crosses a material boundary it is deflected (refracted) by a certain angle depending on its frequency. So different frequencies will be refracted in different angles.
> What makes these frequencies special over any of the other ones?
There's nothing special about the frequencies. What's special about the *colors* (frequency mixture) is that they consist of only one frequency—namely the one refracted to that particular angle.
> Why are blue, red and green special in the rainbow?
They aren't. It's our eyes that make them special. We have three different kinds of color sensors in our eyes, and they respond differently to different frequencies. One kind responds most to blue light, another to red, and so on.
> Why only 3? (I know you can make all the colours from them, but I don't understand why).
Because that's how human vision works (see previous answer). Each color we see depends on the response from the three kinds of sensors. There's nothing particularly special about the number three.
> Is it possible to combine IR or UV with each other, or light, to get light?
No, light of different frequencies won't interfere with each other. This is due to the linearity of the wave model, or as physicists like to call it: the principle of “superposition.”
> Why do we have distinct primary colours?
I'm not sure I understand. They can't be the same because you lose a dimension of the color space.
> Is it possible to pick 3 different colours as a base for the rest?
So long as they're linearly independent. E.g. you couldn't choose something like dark red, red and light red. You would only ever be able to make different shades of red. | [
"First, \"color\" refers to the human brain's subjective interpretation of combinations of a narrow band of wavelengths of light. For this reason, the definition of \"color\" is not based on a strict set of physical phenomena. Therefore, even basic concepts like \"primary colors\" are not clearly defined. For example, traditional \"Painter's Colors\" use red, blue, and yellow as the primary colors, \"Printer's Colors\" use cyan, yellow, and magenta, and \"Light Colors\" use red, green, and blue. \"Light colors\", more formally known as additive colors, are formed by combining red, green, and blue light. This article refers to additive colors and refers to red, green, and blue as the primary colors.\n",
"Elementary art education materials, dictionaries, and electronic search engines often define primary colors effectively as conceptual colors (generally red, yellow, and blue; or red, green, and blue) that can be used to mix \"all\" other colors and often go further and suggest that these conceptual colors correspond to specific hues and precise wavelengths. Such sources do not present a coherent, consistent definition of primary colors since real primaries cannot be complete.\n",
"By convention, the three primary colors in additive mixing are red, green, and blue. In the absence of light of any color, the result is black. If all three primary colors of light are mixed in equal proportions, the result is neutral (gray or white). When the red and green lights mix, the result is yellow. When green and blue lights mix, the result is a cyan. When the blue and red lights mix, the result is magenta. \n",
"In modern color theory, also known as the RGB color model, red, green and blue are additive primary colors. Red, green and blue light combined together makes white light, and these three colors, combined in different mixtures, can produce nearly any other color. This is the principle that is used to make all of the colors on your computer screen and your television. For example, magenta on a computer screen is made by a similar formula to that used by Cennino Cennini in the Renaissance to make violet, but using additive colors and light instead of pigment: it is created by combining red and blue light at equal intensity on a black screen. Violet is made on a computer screen in a similar way, but with a greater amount of blue light and less red light.\n",
"BULLET::::- The number of \"primary colors\" : A large array of color is displayed in ammolite, including all the spectral colors found in nature. Red and green are far more common than blue or purple due to the latter's fragility (see properties). There are also certain hues, like crimson or violet or gold, which are derived from a combination of the primary colors, that are the rarest and in highest demand. The most valuable grades have three or more primary colors or 1–2 bright and even colors, with the lowest grades having one comparatively dull color predominant.\n",
"The age when infants begin showing a preference for color is at about 12 weeks old. Generally, children prefer the colors red/pink and blue, and cool colors are preferred over warm colors. Purple is a color favored more by girls than by boys. Color perception of children 3–5 years of age is an indicator of their developmental stage. Color preferences tend to change as people age.\n",
"When mixing colored light (additive color models), the achromatic mixture of spectrally balanced red, green, and blue (RGB) is always white, not gray or black. When we mix colorants, such as the pigments in paint mixtures, a color is produced which is always darker and lower in chroma, or saturation, than the parent colors. This moves the mixed color toward a neutral color—a gray or near-black. Lights are made brighter or dimmer by adjusting their brightness, or energy level; in painting, lightness is adjusted through mixture with white, black or a color's complement.\n"
] |
how do they decide, during sports broadcasts that vary in length, which ads to play? | They buy ads based on when they show in the game, not for a specific time. So I may set up a deal with them for an ad at the end of the first and third quarters, plus a commercial for halftime.
| [
"A number of segments appear before the game or in between innings. In addition to entertaining the audience, these exist because UK broadcasting standards effectively prevent Five from running commercials every time the US broadcasters do so.\n",
"The numbers can show who is listening to a particular station, the most popular times of day for listeners in that group, and the percentage of the total listening audience that can be reached with a particular schedule of advertisements. The numbers also show exactly how many people are listening at each hour of the day. This allows an advertiser to select the strongest stations in the market with specificity and tells them what times of day will be the best times to run their ads.\n",
"In many European countries, television advertisements appear in longer, but less frequent advertising breaks. For example, instead of 3 minutes every 8 minutes, there might be around 6 minutes every half-hour. European Union legislation limits the time taken by commercial breaks to 12 minutes per hour (20%), with a minimum segment length of 20 or 30 minutes, depending on the programme content. Live imported telecasts with shorter segments, such as U.S. sporting events, replace the original ads with promotional material. Advertising broadcast time can vary within the EU and other countries and between networks depending on local policy. Unlike in the United States, in Europe the advertising agency name may appear at the beginning or at the end of the advert.\n",
"The airdate and time of the program's broadcast as well as the name and/or logo of the station or network that the program will be broadcast on are displayed either at the end of or throughout the promo (in the latter case, the airtime and network/station may be displayed before it is mentioned verbally by the announcer). Until the mid-1980s on broadcast television stations, the text showing the date and time, along with the station logo were displayed on the bottom of the screen (unlike with broadcast and cable television, airtime information is not pre-displayed on promos for syndicated programs as syndicated programs are typically aired at different times depending on the market, and are instead inserted by the station itself); however, stations now posterize graphics over the tail end of a syndicated program promos where the program's logo is shown (many stations use this treatment on promos for programs airing on networks that the station maintains an affiliation, such as Fox and The CW) or show the latter portion of the promo within a box surrounded by the graphic.\n",
"Promos typically run from 15 to 60 seconds, with 30-second spots being the most common, although some occasionally last run as little as five seconds or as long as 90 seconds. Most promos show select video or audio clips of scenes or segments from an upcoming program (such as a television or radio series, film or special). Some television promos (particularly for an upcoming television series) utilize a monologue format in which a star or host of the program breaks the fourth wall, which is often done in a humorous and/or parodical manner. Most radio promos utilize this format as well, with a host of the program discussing the show itself, though some feature audio clips from past editions of the radio broadcast. Broadcast television stations promote upcoming newscasts by featuring teases of select story packages to be featured in the broadcast, such as an investigative report or a special-interest feature segment.\n",
"In sports broadcasting, a sports commentator (also known as sports announcer, sportscaster or play-by-play announcer) gives a running commentary of a game or event in real time, usually during a live broadcast, traditionally delivered in the historical present tense. Radio was the first medium for sports broadcasts, and radio commentators must describe all aspects of the action to listeners who cannot see it for themselves. In the case of televised sports coverage, commentators are usually presented as a voiceover, with images of the contest shown on viewers' screens and sounds of the action and spectators heard in the background. Television commentators are rarely shown on screen during an event, though some networks choose to feature their announcers on camera either before or after the contest or briefly during breaks in the action.\n",
"Programs making use of timeouts are usually live-action sporting events. However, other live programs occasionally make use of timeouts for advertising purposes, such as the Academy Awards and the Eurovision Song Contest.\n"
] |
Did medieval knights lift? | I highly recommend [this thread](_URL_1_) by /u/knight117 and [this one](_URL_0_) by /u/kardlonoc which both deal with the question you ask.
& #x200B;
The TL;DR is "sort of". They trained but primarily in a more functional sense. Weapons practice, horsemanship, hunting, exercises in armor etc are all demanding activites. Added to this there seems to have been a relatively widespread focus on more general fitness among knights-to-be which involved things like lifting or throwing rocks, wrestling, climbing, jumping and running. | [
"In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists – much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome – were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German \"Teufelskralle\"), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.\n",
"In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists - much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome - were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German \"Teufelskralle\"), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.\n",
"Knights were expected, above all, to fight bravely and to display military professionalism and courtesy. When knights were taken as prisoners of war, they were customarily held for ransom in somewhat comfortable surroundings. This same standard of conduct did not apply to non-knights (archers, peasants, foot-soldiers, etc.) who were often slaughtered after capture, and who were viewed during battle as mere impediments to knights' getting to other knights to fight them.\n",
"Knight: Knights are the heaviest of all classes. They use large, two-handed weapons, such as the longsword and battleaxe. They can also use bigger shields than the other classes. Sacrificing speed for armor, they are the slowest class in the game, as they move very slowly and their attacks leave them open for longer periods of time than other classes. The unique skill of the Knight allows him to wield a main sword (but not the axes or hammers) in a single hand, use a shield, or increase his speed at the expense of base damage.\n",
"The woman ties a red sash around the knight's arm, which he is meant to return, a medieval custom which assured both parties that they would be reunited, alive and well. A griffin on the newel post of the stairs is a symbol of strength and military courage. The knight departs through a castle gate with portcullis; others can be seen leaving through the gate.\n",
"It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures (see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First, as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike a siege tower, but with the column in the middle of the structure (\"Mechanica\" 3.5). Second, a multitude of capstans were placed on the ground around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than treadwheels, capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and, moreover, by draught animals). This use of multiple capstans is also described by Ammianus Marcellinus (17.4.15) in connection with the lifting of the Lateranense obelisk in the Circus Maximus (c. 357 AD). The maximum lifting capability of a single capstan can be established by the number of lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the Baalbek architrave blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes suggest an allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron, that is per capstan. Lifting such heavy weights in a concerted action required a great amount of coordination between the work groups applying the force to the capstans.\n",
"BULLET::::- Knights are slow, heavily armoured fighters that have a single-handed flail as well as a heater shield. This class has a unique 360° swing rather than a stab, theoretically making it good for fights against larger groups of enemies. Like the crusaders, knights can use throwing knives to deal damage at range.\n"
] |
what mass an object should have so objects start orbiting it? | Any object that has mass has a gravitational field. You have a gravitational field. A feather has a gravitational field. Those fields are, however, extremely weak.
You could in theory, have an object orbiting around you, but in order to do this you'd have to be very far from any larger gravitational fields (such as that of Earth) that would disrupt it. The radius within which an object can orbit a body that is itself orbiting a larger body is called the [Hill sphere](_URL_0_). It depends on both the mass of the two bodies and the distance between them. For example, Earth has a Hill radius of about 1.5 million km. Objects within that radius can form a stable orbit around the Earth. Outside that radius, the orbit would quickly destabilize and the object would end up orbiting the Sun instead.
If the Hill sphere is smaller than the size of the object (as is the case for most spacecraft in Earth orbit), then that object cannot have a satellite - the gravitational field is dominated by the mass of the heavier body.
The other constraint is the shape of the object - a spherical bodies of constant density have a gravitational field that turns out to be equivalent to a point mass. All orbits around such a body are stable. If the object is irregularly shaped, or it's mass is not distributed evenly, then orbits may not be stable, and the satellite may end up crashing into the body. | [
"While the \"weight\" of an object varies in proportion to the strength of the gravitational field, its \"mass\" is constant, as long as no energy or matter is added to the object. For example, although a satellite in orbit (essentially a free-fall) is \"weightless\", it still retains its mass and inertia. Accordingly, even in orbit, an astronaut trying to accelerate the satellite in any direction is still required to exert force, and needs to exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10ton satellite at the same rate as one with a mass of only 1 ton.\n",
"The mass and density of is unknown. A definite mass and density estimate cannot be given as the two lobes of are in contact rather than orbiting each other. Although a possible natural satellite orbiting could help determine its mass, no satellites were found orbiting . Under the assumption that both lobes of are bound by self-gravity, the object is measured to have a very low density similar to that of comets, with the minimum estimate of . With this minimum density estimate, the mutual gravity of the two lobes would overcome centrifugal forces that would otherwise separate the lobes, indicating that the neck region between the two lobes is compressed by their mutual gravity. Under an alternative comet-like density of around , the lobes would separate due to centrifugal forces if the entire object had a rotation period of at least 12 hours.\n",
"Given the total mass and the scalars \"r\" and \"v\" at a single point of the orbit, one can compute the specific orbital energy formula_23, allowing an object orbiting a larger object to be classified as having not enough energy to remain in orbit, hence being \"suborbital\" (a ballistic missile, for example), having enough energy to be \"orbital\", but without the possibility to complete a full orbit anyway because it eventually collides with the other body, or having enough energy to come from and/or go to infinity (as a meteor, for example).\n",
"If the mass of the central body is not known, its standard gravitational parameter, and hence its mass, can be determined by the deflection of the smaller body together with the impact parameter and approach speed. Because typically all these variables can be determined accurately, a spacecraft flyby will provide a good estimate of a body's mass.\n",
"While the weight of an object is dependent on the strength of the local gravitational field, the mass of an object is independent of gravity, as mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor; they are \"weightless\". However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, an astronaut must exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10kilogram object at the same rate as a 1kilogram object.\n",
"BULLET::::- If the planet has natural satellites, its mass can be calculated using Newton's law of universal gravitation to derive a generalization of Kepler's third law that includes the mass of the planet and its moon. This permitted an early measurement of Jupiter's mass, as measured in units of the solar mass.\n",
"A satellite of mass formula_4 at a distance formula_5 from the centre of Earth possesses both kinetic energy, formula_6, (by virtue of its motion) and gravitational potential energy, formula_7, (by virtue of its position within the Earth’s gravitational field; Earth's mass is formula_8).\n"
] |
why are all cells considered to be living structures? | The cells have all the traits we associate with living things. They eat food, they procreate etc. The cells in the human body isn't all that different from the cells of single cell organisms. | [
"Cellular components are the complex biomolecules and structures of which cells, and thus living organisms, are composed. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. The smallest organisms are single cells, while the largest organisms are assemblages of trillions of cells. DNA is found in nearly all living cells; each cell carries chromosome(s) having a distinctive DNA sequence.\n",
"Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes.\n",
"Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). \n",
"Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. Cell theory was formulated by Henri Dutrochet, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others during the early nineteenth century, and subsequently became widely accepted. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and between them. Cells contain hereditary information that is carried forward as a genetic code during cell division.\n",
"Cells in many ways can be seen as their own form of naturally occurring wetware, similar to the concept that the human brain is the preexisting model system for complex wetware. In his book \"Wetware: A Computer in Every Living Cell\" (2009) Dennis Bray explains his theory that cells, which are the most basic form of life, are just a highly complex computational structure, like a computer. To simplify one of his arguments a cell can be seen as a type of computer, utilizing its own structured architecture. In this architecture, much like a traditional computer many smaller components operate in tandem to receive input, process the information, and compute an output. In an overly simplified, and non-technical analysis cellular function can be broken into the following components. Information and instructions for execution are stored as DNA in the cell, RNA acts as a source for distinctly encoded input which processed by ribosomes and other transcription factors to access and process the DNA and to output a protein. Bray's argument in favor of viewing cells and cellular structures as models of natural computational devices is important when considering the more applied theories of wetware in relation to biorobotics.\n",
"Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.\n",
"Cells, which were once invisible to the naked eye, were first seen in 17th century Europe with the invention of the compound microscope. Robert Hooke was the first person to term the building block of all living organisms as \"cells\" after looking at cork. The cell theory states that all living things are made up of cells. The theory also states that both plants and animals are composed of cells which was confirmed by plant scientist, Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist, Theodor Schwann in 1839. 19 years later, Rudolf Virchow contributed to the cell theory, arguing that all cells come from the division of preexisting cells. In recent years, there have been many studies which question the cell theory. Scientists have struggled to decide whether viruses are alive or not. Viruses lack common characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes, cell organelles, and the ability to reproduce by themselves. Viruses range from 0.005 to 0.03 micrometers in size whereas bacteria range from 1-5 micrometers. Modern day cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, to derive treatments and other medications, etc. The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Advancement in microscopic techniques and technology such as fluorescence microscopy, phase-contrast microscopy, dark field microscopy, confocal microscopy, cytometry, transmission electron microscopy, etc. have allowed scientists to get a better idea of the structure of cells.\n"
] |
what happens to people in colorado who were already convicted of marijuana - related offenses? | You serve the remainder of your sentence. The change in law does not make something retroactively legal. | [
"In April 2019, Dallas County District Attorney John Creuzot announced that individuals caught possessing misdemeanor amounts of cannabis would no longer be prosecuted for first-time offenses. Individuals who commit subsequent offenses would be offered diversionary courses to avoid a criminal conviction.\n",
"In 1975, during a decade-long wave of increased penalties and prosecutions in the country, including dramatic increases in the length of prison sentences, a 53% increase in drug arrests, a 188% increase in the number of people arrested for marijuana offenses, and a 52% increase in the number of people in state prisons for drug offenses, Colorado continued to prosecute people and incarcerate individuals for marijuana possession. The War On Marijuana: In Black And White\n",
"Since that time, some people with minor convictions for cannabis possession are asking whether the Government of Canada plans to give them pardons that would allow them to travel to the United States and to get employment in certain fields. As of 22 December 2015, a decision had not yet been made in this regard. Wilson-Raybould said that conversations with various levels of government will be required before making a decision on this issue.\n",
"There are cases of users of medical cannabis in the United States who, on being persecuted in their own country, have fled across the border to Canada as \"cannabis refugees\", where they have sought asylum under the United Nations refugee convention. This began occurring in the early part of the 2000s when the U.S. Attorney General, John Ashcroft, ordered a clampdown on the use of medical cannabis in the United States. Some of those who have fled are wanted by the U.S. federal government on charges related to their use of cannabis.\n",
"Cannabis problems are a common occurrence in Pike County: in 2010, 22,000 cannabis plants were seized by authorities in Latham, west of Piketon; and a major cannabis growth site was discovered by police in August 2012, with about 1,200 cannabis plants being destroyed by investigators. In both cases, police suspected connections to Mexican drug cartels.\n",
"Colorado law has recently been changed via Colorado HB 11-1167, which allows drug conviction to be sealed. This requires strict conditions to be met concerning the original violation and the time and behavior since the conviction. This is part of a greater movement by the Colorado Criminal Justic Reform Coalition (ccjrc.org) to create a way for forgiveness and redemption for people who have been convicted based on past drug convictions.\n",
"Like other states, driving while impaired by any drug is illegal in Colorado, though it took the legislature six attempts and three years to pass marijuana intoxication measures. Ultimately the legislators decided on a nanogram limit in the bloodstream, though the number they picked was scoffed at by activists. Today Colorado law states that juries may convict a person of marijuana intoxication if they have five or more nanograms of THC per milliliter of blood, but defendants are allowed to argue that they were not intoxicated despite having such levels of THC in their bloodstream.\n"
] |
this siphon water experiment | So you understand that it's a siphon. You could siphon between the two glasses if there was just a single tube.
The bottle doesn't actually change anything - it could just as easily be a rubber hose connecting the two straws. When the water drops out of the bottle, it creates a vacuum, sucking water into the bottle from the upper glass. The only reason you start with water in the bottle is because you need to have the siphon primed (full of water) in order to get it going. | [
"BULLET::::- David James, a 28-year old graduate student in chemistry at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, demonstrated his discovery of a solution made by combining one part polyethylene oxide to 199 parts of water that could cause water to flow upward, in what he described as a \"tubeless siphon.\n",
"Four accounts of Berti's experiment exist, but a simple model of his experiment consisted of filling with water a long tube that had both ends plugged, then standing the tube in a basin already full of water. The bottom end of the tube was opened, and water that had been inside of it poured out into the basin. However, only part of the water in the tube flowed out, and the level of the water inside the tube stayed at an exact level, which happened to be , the same height Baliani and Galileo had observed that was limited by the siphon. What was most important about this experiment was that the lowering water had left a space above it in the tube which had no intermediate contact with air to fill it up. This seemed to suggest the possibility of a vacuum existing in the space above the water.\n",
"The simplest siphon tubes are operated by simply filling the tube with water (by immersion in the canal, or other means), keeping one end in the canal and with the other end sealed, placing it in the area to be irrigated. The seal can then be removed and the water will siphon transferring the water from the submerged higher end to the lower end.\n",
"Microfluidic manipulation of liquids by electrowetting was demonstrated first with mercury droplets in water and later with water in air and water in oil. Manipulation of droplets on a two-dimensional path was demonstrated later.\n",
"A siphon (or syphon) at its simplest is a bent tube, with one end placed in the water to be moved, and the other end into the vessel to receive the water. The receiving vessel must be at a lower level than the supplying vessel. Water will always try to find its lowest level. Using this principle, very simple pumps with plastic or rubber bulb with flap valve at each end are used for emptying fuel or water cans into tanks. Once the bulb is full, the fluid will flow without further effort from the higher to the lower container. Many hand pumps will allow the passage of fluid through them in the direction of flow and diaphragm pumps are particularly good at this. Thus where the levels are correct large volumes of liquid such as swimming pools can be emptied with very little effort and no expensive energy use.\n",
"Once started, a siphon requires no additional energy to keep the liquid flowing up and out of the reservoir. The siphon will draw liquid out of the reservoir until the level falls below the intake, allowing air or other surrounding gas to break the siphon, or until the outlet of the siphon equals the level of the reservoir, whichever comes first.\n",
"Watercooling is a method of heat-dissipation by transferring the heat through a conductive material which is in contact with a liquid, such as demineralised water with an additive to prevent bacterial growth. This water travels in a loop that usually contains a reservoir, radiator and pump. Modern 12 V DC pump technologies allow extremely powerful and quiet designs.\n"
] |
what is the definition of life? | All known life has a few things in common, organisms (things that are alive) have these in common: they're composed of a cell or cells, undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. There are a few things that seem to do a few but not all of these processes, like viruses, which is why they're classified as nonlife or as some kind of intermediate gray area between life and nonlife.
We don't necessarily "know" nonlife mutated into life sometime in the past, but we view it as the most likely scenario because we do know that the Earth once had no life, and now, today, it does have life, and also because we know the processes it would have to undergo are theoretically possible. | [
"Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. In biology, the science of living organisms, \"life\" is the condition which distinguishes active organisms from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, functional activity and the continual change preceding death.\n",
"Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, most current definitions in biology are descriptive. Life is considered a characteristic of something that preserves, furthers or reinforces its existence in the given environment. This characteristic exhibits all or most of the following traits:\n",
"There is currently no consensus regarding the definition of life. One popular definition is that organisms are open systems that maintain homeostasis, are composed of cells, have a life cycle, undergo metabolism, can grow, adapt to their environment, respond to stimuli, reproduce and evolve. However, several other definitions have been proposed, and there are some borderline cases of life, such as viruses or viroids.\n",
"Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms.\n",
"Life is a characteristic that distinguishes physical entities that have biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased (they have died), or because they never had such functions and are classified as inanimate. Various forms of life exist, such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. The criteria can at times be ambiguous and may or may not define viruses, viroids, or potential synthetic life as \"living\". Biology is the science concerned with the study of life.\n",
"The meaning of life as we perceive it is derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about existence, social ties, consciousness, and happiness. Many other issues are also involved, such as symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, the existence of one or multiple gods, conceptions of God, the soul, and the afterlife. Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about the universe, exploring the context and parameters concerning the \"how\" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well-being and a related conception of morality. An alternative, humanistic approach poses the question, \"What is the meaning of \"my\" life?\"\n",
"Biology depends on the precise coincidence of the laws of nuclear physics, gravity, electro-magnetic forces and thermodynamics that allow stars, habitable planets, chemistry and biology to exist. Further, life has an effective purpose, self-propagation. Therefore a universe that contains life, contains purpose. In these respects the universe came to a unique point in life.\n"
] |
Would we really have made more scientific progress today if it where not for the decline of the roman empire and the dark ages? | For one, the Roman Empire was actually not a very innovative entity. There are a few pieces of advanced technology like concrete which would not be re-discovered until after the renaissance but for the most part the Empire was simply good at achieving the economy of scale through mass deployment of capital to accomplish public works projects (i.e roads, Coliseum) using existing technology.
Second of all the Medieval era had a -higher- rate of technological advancements than the Roman period. The medieval period saw significant advances in agricultural techniques (i.e the two fields/three fields system), equipment (i.e the heavy plow, better shipping) and machinery (i.e the windmill and the mechanical clock). While they "looked" less impressive than the Coliseum those are in fact more important in enhancing productivity and building up the basis for industrialization (i.e the first mechanical looms in the 18th century).
The other big thing is that people have a tendency to emphasis hardware (i.e steam engines, concrete) but it was really "software" (i.e commercial institutions which allows capital to be routed towards industrialization) which was probably the more important factor in industrialization.
Last of all it should noted that the eastern half of the Empire (Byzantium) actually did survive for another 1000 years and did not industrialize. The idea that Rome was a lost technological paradise when compare to the Medieval era doesn't hold water upon closer examination. | [
"In summary, Rome contributed numerous advances in technology to the Ancient World. However, it is also viewed that \"the ancient world under the domination of Rome [in fact] reached a kind of climax in the technological field [as] many technologies had advanced as far as possible with the equipment then available\". This concept of perfecting the unperfected was a theme that governed Roman technological supremacy throughout its 1,470 year reign. Ideas that had already been invented or designed: like the pontoon bridge, aqueduct, and military surgery, were constructed or utilized to perfection by Roman innovators. It's the innovation of technology that contributed to Rome's military success.\n",
"In 2005 Jonathan Huebner, a physicist working at the Pentagon's Naval Air Warfare Center, argued on the basis of both U.S. patents and world technological breakthroughs, per capita, that the rate of human technological innovation peaked in 1873 and has been slowing ever since. In his article, he asked \"Will the level of technology reach a maximum and then decline as in the Dark Ages?\" In later comments to \"New Scientist\" magazine, Huebner clarified that while he believed that we will reach a rate of innovation in 2024 equivalent to that of the Dark Ages, he was not predicting the reoccurrence of the Dark Ages themselves.\n",
"The Roman Empire was one of the most technologically advanced civilizations of antiquity, with some of the more advanced concepts and inventions forgotten during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages. Gradually, some of the technological feats of the Romans were rediscovered and/or improved upon during the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era; with some in areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and certain inventions such as the mechanical reaper, not improved upon until the 19th century. The Romans achieved high levels of technology in large part because they borrowed technologies from the Greeks, Etruscans, Celts, and others.\n",
"This combination of new methodologies, technical innovation, and creative invention in the military gave Rome the edge against its adversaries for half a millennium, and with it, the ability to create an empire that even today, more than 2000 years later, continues to leave its legacy in many areas of modern life.\n",
"BULLET::::- Joseph Tainter in \"The Collapse of Complex Societies\" suggested that there were diminishing returns to complexity, due to which, as states achieved a maximum permissible complexity, they would decline when further increases actually produced a negative return. Tainter suggested that Rome achieved this figure in the 2nd century CE.\n",
"That said, the Romans also developed a huge array of new technologies and innovations. Many came from common themes but were vastly superior to what had come before, whilst others were totally new inventions developed by and for the needs of Empire and the Roman way of life.\n",
"Roman technology supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. The Roman Empire had an advanced set of technology for their time. Some of the Roman technology in Europe may have been lost during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Roman technological feats in many different areas like: civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and some inventions such as the mechanical reaper went unmatched until the 19th century.\n"
] |
why are black holes not infinitely bright? | If the photon is permanently caught, it cannot make it to your eye. | [
"Black holes are difficult to find because they do not let out any light. They can be found when black holes suck in other stars. When black holes suck in other stars, the black hole lets out X-rays, which can be seen by telescopes.\n",
"A black star with a radius slightly greater than the predicted event horizon for an equivalent-mass black hole will appear very dark, because almost all light produced will be drawn back to the star, and any escaping light will be severely gravitationally redshifted. It will appear almost exactly like a black hole. It will feature Hawking radiation, as virtual particle pairs created in its vicinity may still be split, with one particle escaping and the other being trapped. Additionally, it will create thermal Planckian radiation that will closely resemble the expected Hawking radiation of an equivalent black hole.\n",
"Primordial black holes belong to the class of massive compact halo objects (MACHOs). They are naturally a good dark matter candidate: they are (nearly) collision-less and stable (if sufficiently massive), they have non-relativistic velocities, and they form very early in the history of the Universe (typically less than one second after the Big Bang). Nevertheless, tight limits on their abundance have been set up from various astrophysical and cosmological observations, so that it is now excluded that they contribute significantly to dark matter over most of the plausible mass range.\n",
"Black holes are talked about in this chapter. Black holes are stars that have collapsed into one very small point. This small point is called a \"singularity\". Black holes suck things into their center because they have very strong gravity. Some of the things it can suck in are light and stars. Only very large stars, called \"super-giants\", are big enough to become a black hole. \n",
"A view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might be interpreted as shedding some light on the nature of classical white holes. Some researchers have proposed that when a black hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the core, which would create a new universe that expands outside of the parent universe. See also Fecund universes.\n",
"In a globular cluster 65 million light years from Earth evidence is accumulating that a black hole, one thousand times more massive than the sun, has caused the destruction of a white dwarf star. It appears that the white dwarf is heating up as it falls toward the black hole. This event creates an intense stellar astrophysical X-ray source, called an ultraluminous X-ray source. The indication of this type of strong X-ray source means that it is more luminous than any known stellar X-ray source, but less luminous than the X-ray intensity of supermassive black holes, which places it in the range of theorized intermediate black holes. Their exact nature of ULXs has remained a mystery, but one suggestion is that some ULXs are black holes with masses between about a hundred and a thousands times that of the Sun.\n",
"There are three reasons the black holes in the ELIRGs could be massive. First, the embryonic black holes might be bigger than thought possible. Second, the Eddington limit was exceeded. When a black hole feeds, gas falls in and heats, emitting light. The pressure of the emitted light forces the gas outward, creating a limit to how fast the black hole can continuously absorb matter. If a black hole broke this limit, it could theoretically increase in size at a fast rate. Black holes have previously been observed breaking this limit; the black hole in the study would have had to repeatedly break the limit to grow this large. Third, the black holes might just be bending this limit, absorbing gas faster than thought possible, if the black hole is not spinning fast. If a black hole spins slowly, it will not repel its gas absorption as much. A slow-spinning black hole can absorb more matter than a fast-spinning black hole. The massive black holes in ELIRGs could be absorbing matter for a longer time.\n"
] |
How much does drinking a cold drink really affect your body temperature? | I'm an anesthesiologist. We monitor body temperature during surgery because anesthesia inhibits your ability to autoregulate temperature. Essentially you are turned into a poikilotherm like a snake, and lose heat to the cold operating room. An inability to contract your muscles prevents you from generating heat. We have a rule of thumb that 1 liter of room temperature intravenous fluids will reduce a patient's body temperature by 0.25 degrees Celsius. We used forced air warming blankets and heated IV fluids to maintain a normal body temperature, which helps the body to metabolize medications predictably and the blood to clot properly.
After reading comments I want to add that the reason I brought up anesthesia here is that only when you remove the body's ability to generate heat can you actually measure a reduction in temperature, unless you infuse the fluid very quickly. When we drink cold fluids, the body generates heat to correct the drop in temperature before an appreciable difference can be measured.
Furthermore, there are some interesting studies out there on this. Many involve rapidly administering cold IV fluids in attempt to show that hypothermia is protective against neurologic injury in situations such as cardiac arrest.
Here is one study:
Ann Emerg Med. 2008 Feb;51(2):153-9. Epub 2007 Nov 28.
They infuse cold and room temperature fluids rapidly in non anesthetized patients and measure a temperature change before compensatory mechanisms (shivering) can restore the body to normal temp. This is better than my rule of thumb as it uses weight-based dosing for IV fluids. Interesting, 30ml/kg of room temp fluid reduced the body core temp by 0.5 Celsius degrees. That would be 3 liters of fluid for a 100kg (220lb) person. Cold fluid reduced the body temp by a full degree Celsius. | [
"Temperature is increased after eating or drinking anything with calories. Caloric restriction, as for a weight-loss diet, decreases overall body temperature. Drinking alcohol decreases the amount of daily change, slightly lowering daytime temperatures and noticeably raising nighttime temperatures.\n",
"For people who are alert and able to swallow, drinking warm sweetened liquids can help raise the temperature. Many recommend alcohol and caffeinated drinks be avoided. As most people are moderately dehydrated due to cold-induced diuresis, warmed intravenous fluids to a temperature of are often recommended.\n",
"BULLET::::- Alcoholic beverages do not make the entire body warmer. The reason that alcoholic drinks create the sensation of warmth is that they cause blood vessels to dilate and stimulate nerve endings near the surface of the skin with an influx of warm blood. This can actually result in making the core body temperature lower, as it allows for easier heat exchange with a cold external environment.\n",
"A study on the common cold found that \"Greater numbers of alcoholic drinks (up to three or four per day) were associated with decreased risk for developing colds because drinking was associated with decreased illness following infection. However, the benefits of drinking occurred only among nonsmokers. [...] Although alcohol consumption did not influence risk of clinical illness for smokers, moderate alcohol consumption was associated with decreased risk for nonsmokers.\"\n",
"The drink is said to be effective in preventing or alleviating common ailments such as ulcer, fever or toothache which can occur as a result of too much \"heatiness\" within the body. Other general symptoms indicating heatiness include red eyes, profuse sweating, irritability, loss of concentration, and fatigue. A diet with too much fried or spicy food, consumption of alcohol, stress, smoking, late nights and a humid weather are also some factors that can easily upset the body and cause the condition of \"heatiness\".\n",
"He criticized moreover Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate \"humors\" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (\"Cf.\" I. E. Goodman)\n",
"Alcohol consumption increases the risk of hypothermia in two ways: vasodilation and temperature controlling systems in the brain. Vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin, resulting in heat being lost to the environment. This produces the effect of an individual \"feeling\" warm, when they are actually losing heat. Alcohol also affects the temperature-regulating system in the brain, decreasing the body's ability to shiver and use energy that would normally aid the body in generating heat. The overall effects of alcohol lead to a decrease in body temperature and a decreased ability to generate body heat in response to cold environments. Alcohol is a common risk factor for death due to hypothermia. Between 33% and 73% of hypothermia cases are complicated by alcohol.\n"
] |
Is it possible to develop astigmatism over time? | My optometrist has informed me that in more serious cases of myopia, astigmatism usually develops. I myself are about -10 and -11 for myopia, and has astigmatism (although I forgot the axes figures).
The cause of either disease has never been made clear to me, and I'd be interested to hear from a professional the reasons for it. | [
"Herschel correctly considered astigmatism to be due to irregularity of the cornea and theorised that vision could be improved by the application of some animal jelly contained in a capsule of glass against the cornea. His views were published in an article entitled Light in 1828 and the \"Encyclopædia Metropolitana\" in 1845.\n",
"The second form of astigmatism occurs when the optical system is not symmetric about the optical axis. This may be by design (as in the case of a cylindrical lens), or due to manufacturing error in the surfaces of the components or misalignment of the components. In this case, astigmatism is observed even for rays from on-axis object points. This form of astigmatism is extremely important in vision science and eye care, since the human eye often exhibits this aberration due to imperfections in the shape of the cornea or the lens.\n",
"The cause of astigmatism is unclear. It is believed to be partly related to genetic factors. The underlying mechanism involves an irregular curvature of the cornea or abnormalities in the lens of the eye. Diagnosis is by an eye exam.\n",
"The \"leftover\" astigmatism after a purely surface-guided laser correction can be calculated beforehand, and is called ocular residual astigmatism (ORA). ORA is a calculation of astigmatism due to the noncorneal surface (internal) optics. The purely refraction-based approach represented by wavefront analysis actually conflicts with corneal surgical experience developed over many years.\n",
"In philosophy, the concept of pseudomorphosis was used by the German philosopher Oswald Spengler to describe how the forms of an older, more widely dispersed culture condition the expression forms of a younger, emerging culture, leading the latter to develop into forms that are fundamentally alien to its own world-feeling, and thereby preventing it from fully developing its own self-consciousness.\n",
"Astigmatism is quite common. Studies have shown that about one in three people suffers from it. The prevalence of astigmatism increases with age. Although a person may not notice mild astigmatism, higher amounts of astigmatism may cause blurry vision, squinting, asthenopia, fatigue, or headaches.\n",
"Explanations for the occurrence of intermetamorphosis were first given by psychodynamic theorists. These theories typically involve a psychotic resolution towards an individual’s feelings of intense ambivalence about the misidentified object. These theories may also involve the egos and identity-forming, as well as defense mechanisms involving splitting the negative and positive aspects of the self. Despite their initial popularity, there is not much empirical support for these psychodynamic explanations.\n"
] |
Can you recommend resources that can be used to teach the Enlightenment to high school students? | It depends on how far you wish to go with the ideas. The ideas of Francis Bacon certainly weren't new to Europe, and he really didn't have any breakthrough with science. He didn't make calculus or describe the motions of the stars. Roger Bacon said everything he did many years before; and even he was influenced by Middle Eastern scientists.
Though Diderot was of importance, he is greatly overshadowed by Rousseau and Montesquieu.
Locke v Hegel is incomplete, as Hobbes was greatly against everything Locke stood for, and that's not even mentioning Hume.
Russell's "History of Western Philosophy" is a great text on Western Philosophy, and there's quite a few sections on Enlightenment era philosophy in it that are in detail without being boring. Drawing on that should help quite a bit | [
"In \"Radical Enlightenment\", Jonathan Israel presents a history of the European Enlightenment in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries considering philosophical, political, and geographical complexity. The large-scale thesis of the work concerns the scope of the Enlightenment. The most traditional way of looking at the movement is to see it primarily as a French or English\n",
"Enlightenment includes functions to provide a graphical shell, and it can be used in conjunction with programs written for GNOME or KDE. When used together with the Enlightenment Foundation Libraries (EFL), Enlightenment can refer to an entire desktop environment.\n",
"The philosopher Denis Diderot was editor in chief of the famous Enlightenment accomplishment, the 72,000-article \"Encyclopédie\" (1751–72). It sparked a revolution in learning throughout the enlightened world.\n",
"The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment is a book by Eckhart Tolle. The book is intended to be a guide for day-to-day living and stresses the importance of living in the present moment and avoiding thoughts of the past or future.\n",
"The Association for Research and Enlightenment (A.R.E.), also known as Edgar Cayce's A.R.E., was founded by Edgar Cayce (1877–1945) in 1931 to research and explore subjects such as holistic health, ancient mysteries, personal spirituality, dreams and dream interpretation, intuition, philosophy and reincarnation. A.R.E.'s stated mission is to help people change their lives for the better through the ideas and information found in the Edgar Cayce readings.\n",
"Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress is a 2018 book written by Canadian-American cognitive scientist Steven Pinker. It argues that the Enlightenment values of reason, science, and humanism have brought progress; shows our progress with data that health, prosperity, safety, peace, and happiness have tended to rise worldwide; and explains the cognitive science of why this progress should be appreciated. It is a follow-up to Pinker's 2011 book, \"The Better Angels of Our Nature.\"\n",
"In 1913, the Delphian Society published the Delphian Course of Reading: \"A systematic plan of education, embracing the world's progress and development of the liberal arts.\" This ten volume course covers \"history, literature, philosophy, poetry, fiction, drama, art, ethics, music,\" however, \"Mathematics, being in its higher forms essential to few, has been omitted; languages, requiring the aid of a teacher, and such sciences as make laboratories necessary, are not included.\"\n"
] |
When hate crime laws are passed do they actually reduce the occurrence of that type of crime, or have virtually zero effect on the suspect's motivation to commit the crime? | I think it just affects the punishment mostly, which in turn would affect the occurrences.
It's not only to deter hate crimes, but that a hate crime is punished differently and perceived differently. They've found that hate crimes, or biased crimes, affect the community a lot more that non-binary crimes because they are motivated by different emotions. Hate crime laws protect minorities in that they KNOW that the bias was acknowledged and punished. It's essentially a specific case of assault/homicide/murder based on motivation.
Example:
an assault is usually categorized as a misdemeanor. In Alabama, a misdemeanor assault can be punished up to one year in jail along with fines etc. But if that misdemeanor assault charge was found to be a hate crime (motivated by race, religion, etc). There is a MINIMUM of 3 months in jail.
In Georgia, a felony assault charge is 1-20 years in jail. But a felony hate crime must be punished more severely that an assault of the same level, and the person HAS to serve at least 90% of their time before being released. | [
"Hate crime laws (also known as \"bias crimes laws\") protect against crimes motivated by feelings of enmity against a protected class. Until 2009, a 1969 federal law defined hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's race, color, religion, or nation origin when engaging in a federally protected activity. In October 2009, Congress passed the Matthew Shepard Act, which expanded the definition of hate crimes to include gender, sexual orientation, gender-identity, and disability. It removed the requirement that the victim of a hate crime be engaged in a federally protected activity. President Obama signed the legislation on October 28, 2009.\n",
"Defined in the 1999 National Crime Victim Survey, \"A hate crime is a criminal offence. In the United States, federal prosecution is possible for hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's race, religion, or nation origin when engaging in a federally protected activity.\" In 2009, the Matthew Shepard Act added actual or perceived gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, and disability to the federal definition, and dropped the prerequisite that the victim be engaging in a federally protected activity.\n",
"The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, enacted in note Sec. 280003, requires the United States Sentencing Commission to increase the penalties for hate crimes committed on the basis of the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, or gender of any person. In 1995, the Sentencing Commission implemented these guidelines, which only apply to federal crimes.\n",
"Legal and police response to these types of hate crimes is hard to gauge, however. Lack of reporting by authorities on the statistics of these crimes and under-reporting by the victims themselves are factors for this difficulty. Often a victim will not report a crime as it will shed unwelcome light on their orientation and invite more victimization.\n",
"Penalty-enhancement hate crime laws are traditionally justified on the grounds that, in Chief Justice Rehnquist's words, \"this conduct is thought to inflict greater individual and societal harm... bias-motivated crimes are more likely to provoke retaliatory crimes, inflict distinct emotional harms on their victims, and incite community unrest.\"\n",
"In a 2007 National District Attorneys Association symposium, numerous concerns were voiced that the law could increase crime. This included criminals using the law as a defense for their crimes, more people carrying guns, and that people would not feel safe if they felt that anyone could use deadly force in a conflict. The report also noted that the misinterpretation of clues could result in use of deadly force when there was, in fact, no danger. The report specifically notes that racial and ethnic minorities could be at greater risk because of negative stereotypes.\n",
"Hate crime laws in the United States are state and federal laws intended to protect against hate crimes (also known as \"bias crimes\") motivated by enmity or animus against a protected class of persons. Although state laws vary, current statutes permit federal prosecution of hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's protected characteristics of race, religion, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, and disability. The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ)/FBI, as well as campus security authorities, are required to collect and publish hate crime statistics.\n"
] |
how is my brain able to go into this zoned-out "auto-pilot" state while i'm driving, yet i get to my destination safety with no real recollection of the trip? | Psychologist here. This happens for essentially the same reason that you Can "zone out" while you're walking around, not stumbling or colliding with things. These tasks are called "steriotypic repetitious movements" and they are actually controlled by a different part of the brain after you've fully learned the skill! When you start to learn any skill, like riding a bike, your cortex is the part of the brain doing the work of figuring out how to coordinate your muscles appropriately. Its complicated at first, and it involves your full attention, just like when you learned to walk. However, over time your cortex figures out exactly which muscles need to coordinate in exactly the right way, and it basically "saves" that motion in memory. When you go to do that action again after its already been learned (or saved) a cool thing happens, the cortex isn't nearly as involved anymore, now it's more subcortical (aka below the cortex, so deeper in the brain) regions that control the movement. The result? Now you perform an action while your cortex is free to think (or not think and "zone out") and forget you're actually doing anything complicated at all.
EDIT. Thanks for the Gold :) | [
"Self-driving cars are already exploring the difficulties of determining the intentions of pedestrians, bicyclists, and animals, and models of behavior must be programmed into driving algorithms. Human road users also have the challenge of determining the intentions of autonomous vehicles, where there is no driver with which to make eye contact or exchange hand signals. Drive.ai is testing a solution to this problem that involves LED signs mounted on the outside of the vehicle, announcing status such as \"going now, don't cross\" vs. \"waiting for you to cross\".\n",
"The next level of Drive Pilot (code-named Intelligent Drive) featured on the 2017 E-Class enables the car to negotiate bends on the motorway, while maintaining a safe distance from slower moving vehicles in front at up to speeds of . The system is not a hands free operation and an audible alert will prompt the driver into regaining control if the car detects their attention has wandered.\n",
"The areas of the brain that have decreased activation during a moment of multitasking are areas of spatial processing and spatial attention. Because of this, it is important for drivers to focus on only the task at hand, driving. Even though driving becomes a primary cognitive function, when drivers are distracted (e.g.on their cell phones, talking to passengers, or fiddling with the radio), the areas of the brain that need to be activated to safely operate the vehicle are not.\n",
"Armstrong now addresses what he calls 'the problem of consciousness': how can the personal experience of consciousness be explained by his Materialist theory of the mind? Armstrong considers times when the brain goes on 'auto-pilot' - during long drives without breaks, one might suddenly 'come to' and realize that while one has stayed on the road, stopped at red lights and operated the clutch, one was completely unaware of doing so. This shows that it is possible for mental processes to take place without conscious experience.\n",
"BULLET::::- Level 4 (\"mind off\"): As level 3, but no driver attention is ever required for safety, e.g. the driver may safely go to sleep or leave the driver's seat. Self-driving is supported only in limited spatial areas (geofenced) or under special circumstances, like traffic jams. Outside of these areas or circumstances, the vehicle must be able to safely abort the trip, e.g. park the car, if the driver does not retake control.\n",
"The system is in complete control of vehicle functions such as speed, steering, and monitoring the environment under specific conditions. Such specific conditions may be fulfilled while on fenced-off highway with no intersections, limited driving speed, boxed-in driving situation etc. A human driver must be ready to intervene when requested by the system to do so. If the driver does not respond within a predefined time or if a failure occurs in the system, the system needs to do a safety stop in ego lane (no lane change allowed) . The driver is only allowed to be partially distracted, such as checking text messages, but taking a nap is not allowed.\n",
"The driver must be able to control the vehicle if corrections are needed, but the driver is no longer in control of the speed and steering of the vehicle. Parking assistance is an example of a system that falls into this category along with Tesla's autopilot feature. A system that falls into this category is the DISTRONIC PLUS system created by Mercedes-Benz. It is important to note the driver must not be distracted in Level 0 to Level 2 modes. \n"
] |
why isn't herbalife illegal company | Because it actually offers real products for sale whereas, pyramid schemes do not according to the US FTC (Federal Trade Commission). Therefore, it is categorized in the MLM (multi-level marketing) organizational category, which is a legal business and not a pyramid which is illegal.
Also, MLMs make money by enrolling people into their organization + selling products to those people rather than a pyramid which just makes money from enrolling people (no product to sell).
The fact that MLMs are legal though baffles me as they just take advantage of lesser people by selling them false hopes and setting them up to fail and burn bridges in their personal lives.
| [
"The lawsuit alleged that Herbalife deceived consumers into believing they could earn substantial income from the business opportunity or big money from the retail sale of the company's products. In addition, the complaint charged that one of the fundamental principles of Herbalife's business model—incentivizing distributors to buy products and to recruit others to join and buy products so they could advance in the company's marketing program, rather than in response to actual consumer demand—is an unfair practice in violation of the FTC Act.\n",
"Prior to the changes, critics of the company's structure contended that it was operated as a pyramid scheme. Critics also argue that the company does not make enough effort to curb abuses by individual distributors, though Herbalife has consistently denied such allegations. Herbalife is a member of the Direct Selling Association in most countries in which it operates.\n",
"Herbalife is a multi-level marketing company. As a result of the 2016 FTC settlement, the company is required to prove that at least 80 percent of its sales are made to individuals outside of its distributor network. Distributors are responsible for providing receipts for sales and proving they have legitimate customers. The settlement also required that distributors are only able to earn two-thirds of their rewards based on retail sales of Herbalife products. The company is also required to show a differentiation between individuals who join as a distributor to buy discounted products and those seeking a business opportunity. Discount buyers are unable to earn rewards or sell products. Herbalife is also required to have its practices monitored by an outside party for seven years to ensure compliance.\n",
"In November 2011, the Commercial Court in Brussels, Belgium ruled that Herbalife was an illegal pyramid scheme. The company filed an appeal on March 8, 2012. On December 3, 2013, a Belgian appeals court found for Herbalife, reversing the lower court's finding.\n",
"In March 2015, federal prosecutors and the FBI revealed that they were investigating whether or not individuals paid by Ackman and otherwise had made false statements about Herbalife's business model to regulators and others in order to lower the company's stock price and influence authorities to conduct an investigation.\n",
"Some herbs, such as cannabis and coca, are outright banned in most countries though coca is legal in most of the South American countries where it is grown. The \"Cannabis\" plant is used as an herbal medicine, and as such is legal in some parts of the world. Since 2004, the sales of ephedra as a dietary supplement is prohibited in the United States by the FDA, and subject to Schedule III restrictions in the United Kingdom.\n",
"The company has been criticized by, among others, hedge fund manager Bill Ackman of Pershing Square Capital, who claimed that Herbalife operates a \"sophisticated pyramid scheme\" after taking a $1 billion short position in Herbalife stock. Herbalife agreed to \"fundamentally restructure\" its business and pay a $200 million fine as part of a 2016 settlement with the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) following accusations of it being a pyramid scheme. The FTC said in a press release about the settlement \"it's virtually impossible to make money selling Herbalife products.\" In November 2017, Ackman's hedge fund closed out its short position in Herbalife.\n"
] |
How does the temperature of colder planets core relate to warmer planets core closer to closer to the sun? | The temperature of the core of a planet will depend on several factors: leftover heat from formation of the planet, heat generated through mechanisms like friction and radioactive decay, mass of the planet, ratio of mass to surface area, etc.
So I don't fully understand what you're trying to ask, but mercury is small and has relatively little geological activity. Any heat from formation would have already been dissipated. It's estimated core temp is only around 4000 °F.
Venus, the second and hottest planet, should have a much warmer core, around 10,000 °F.
Jupiter, the largest planet, probably has the hottest core. It emits more heat than it absorbs from the sun, and it's core temp is estimated around 50,000 °F.
I don't know if that answers your question, but hopefully it illustrates that distance from the sun is not the primary factor that determines the core temperature. | [
"Even when taking surface heating from the star into account, many transiting hot Jupiters have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between atmospheric winds and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up, causing it to expand. The hotter the planet, the greater the atmospheric ionization, and thus the greater the magnitude of the interaction and the larger the electric current, leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that planetary temperature is correlated with inflated planetary radii.\n",
"The planet receives 19 times more stellar radiation than Earth. The temperature of the top of its atmosphere is estimated at . The planet is estimated to be hotter than Venus, as higher temperatures may prevail near the surface. \"(cf. Atmosphere of Venus, Colonization of Venus)\" It is possible that one side of the planet is cooler, because it is presumed to be tidally locked due to its proximity to its star; however, under most circumstances where an atmosphere is thick, it would be able to transfer heat to the far side.\n",
"The internal heat may be important for the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere. While Jupiter has a small obliquity of about 3°, and its poles receive much less solar radiation than its equator, the tropospheric temperatures do not change appreciably from the equator to poles. One explanation is that Jupiter's convective interior acts like a thermostat, releasing more heat near the poles than in the equatorial region. This leads to a uniform temperature in the troposphere. While heat is transported from the equator to the poles mainly via the atmosphere on Earth, on Jupiter deep convection equilibrates heat. The convection in the Jovian interior is thought to be driven mainly by the internal heat.\n",
"A planetary core acts as a heat source for the outer layers of a planet. In the Earth, the heat flux over the core mantle boundary is 12 terawatts. This value is calculated from a variety of factors: secular cooling, differentiation of light elements, Coriolis forces, radioactive decay, and latent heat of crystallization. All planetary bodies have a primordial heat value, or the amount of energy from accretion. Cooling from this initial temperature is called secular cooling, and in the Earth the secular cooling of the core transfers heat into an insulating silicate mantle. As the inner core grows, the latent heat of crystallization adds to the heat flux into the mantle.\n",
"Orbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer when \"farther\" from the sun. This is because the Northern Hemisphere has more land than the Southern, and land warms more readily than sea.\n",
"Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up causing it to expand. The more magnetically active a star is the greater the stellar wind and the larger the electric current leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that stellar activity is correlated with inflated planetary radii.\n",
"The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvins (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through a series of nuclear reactions called the p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.\n"
] |
the difference between the german chancellor and the president of germany | The President is the head of state; the chancellor is the head of the government. The head of state refers to a largely ceremonial role -- that's the person who meets other countries' diplomats and royalty, attends non-policy-related diplomatic events, and ceremonially enacts laws by signing them (without the power to veto). The head of the government is the chancellor. They have real power to enact policy, propose laws, and control the bureaucracy and administrative state.
In the US, these are unified (the President does both roles), but most countries have separated them. In England the Queen is the head of state while the Prime Minister is the head of the government; same in Japan. In Russia they have a President and a Prime Minister, with the President as head of state. | [
"The Chancellor of Germany or ' (official German title which means \"Federal Chancellor\") is the title for the head of government in Germany. ' is the exclusively feminine form. In German politics, the ' position is equivalent to that of a prime minister and is elected by the ' (\"Federal Diet\", the directly elected federal parliament) every four years on the beginning of the electoral period after general elections. Between general elections, the Federal Chancellor (together with the whole cabinet) can only be removed from office by a ' (\"constructive motion of no confidence\"), which consists in the candidacy of an opposition candidate for the office of Chancellor in the '. If this candidate gets a majority of the entire membership of the \", he or she will be sworn in immediately as new Federal Chancellor.\n",
"Therefore, the president also receives the chancellor regularly for talks on current policy issues. German presidents also hold talks with individual Federal Ministers and other senior officials at their own discretion. The \"Head of the Office of the President\" represents the will and views of the president in the meetings of the Federal Cabinet and reports back to the president.\n",
"The German head of state is the Federal President. As in Germany's parliamentary system of government, the Federal Chancellor runs the government and day-to-day politics, the role of the Federal President is mostly ceremonial. The Federal President, by their actions and public appearances, represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity. Their office involves an integrative role. Nearly all actions of the Federal President become valid only after a countersignature of a government member.\n",
"The chancellor of Germany is the political leader of Germany and the head of the federal government. The office holder is responsible for selecting all other members of the government and chairing cabinet meetings.\n",
"The former German Empire, the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany had the equivalent position of ' (\"Chancellor of the Reich\") as the head of the executive. Between 1871 and 1918, the Chancellor was appointed by the German Emperor. During the Weimar Republic (1919-1933), the Chancellor was chosen by the \"Reichspräsident\" and stood under his authority. This continued (formally) during the first two years of the Nazi regime until the death of President Paul von Hindenburg in 1934. Between 1934 and 1945, Adolf Hitler, the dictatorial head of state \"and\" government of Nazi Germany, was officially called \"'\" (literally \"Leader and Chancellor of the Reich\").\n",
"The Vice Chancellor of Germany does not assume the position of chancellor, but rather the president chooses a minister to succeed the chancellor position. The vice chancellor is usually a member of the cabinet.\n",
"Germany has a parliamentary system of government in which the chancellor (same rights and duties as a Prime Minister) is the head of government. The president has far-reaching ceremonial obligations, but also the right and duty to act politically. What is more, he can give direction to general political and societal debates and has some important \"reserve powers\" in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81 of the Basic Law). The German presidents, who can be elected to two consecutive five-year terms, have wide discretion about how they exercise their official duties.\n"
] |
why can't we live just off of sunlight energy? | Biologically? Even plants can't live off sunlight alone, and they sit around all day. They still need essential nutrients and water from the soil, despite the fact that they don't move.
Cold-blooded animals (like reptiles) move little and do get some energy from UV light. That's why you might see lizards sitting under a big blue lightbulb in pet stores. However they still need extra sustenance to thrive and grow.
Warm-blooded animals like us humans use a lot of energy. We're constantly heating our bodies, and we move around all the time. We simply need more energy than can be collected from sunlight alone. | [
"The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms. Some living organisms like plants need sunlight directly while other organisms like humans can acquire energy from the sun indirectly. There is however evidence that some bacteria can thrive in harsh environments like Antarctica as evidence by the blue-green algae beneath thick layers of ice in the lakes. No matter what the type of living species, all living organisms must capture, transduce, store, and use energy to live.\n",
"Solar energy has more positive impacts on the environment compared to any other energy source. It is obtained from the sun’s radiation and it can be converted to electricity or heat. It is freely available and thanks to advances in technology, we have installed more of solar energy plants to conserve electricity in a better way.\n",
"Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis, the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy, normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can be used to synthesize carbohydrates and to fuel the organisms' activities.\n",
"Sunlight is one of the deserts most important resource as it is renewable and has sustainable exploitations. Deserts within North America tend to have fields of solar panels, so they can reuse the sun as energy. Areas such as New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and the Great Basin area, put up fields for green energy. We monitored how the sun provides energy for resources such as plants and animals; we decided to make solar panels to produce energy for us. Water is also a resource found in the desert that can be reused and has sustainable exploitations.\n",
"Energy received from the sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation. Light ranges of visible, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves received by the earth through solar energy. The highest power of radiation comes from visible light. Solar power is complicated due to changes in seasons and from day to night. Cloud cover can also add to complications of solar energy, and not all radiation from the sun reaches earth because it is absorbed and dispersed due to clouds and gases within the earth's atmospheres.\n",
"While sunlight is a powerful energy source for life, it is unlikely to be biologically useful on present Mars because it requires life to be at the surface exposed to the extremely lethal radiation and to dry conditions.\n",
"Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement.\n"
] |
What are the factors affecting pressure in a pipe? | So is this like a high school (college) project?
Flow rate you can easily measure using a bucket and a stop watch; just wait a certain amount of time (60 seconds or whatever), then weigh the water that you've collected (or determine its volume).
Pressure, the two gauges will probably be fine. Maybe you could put them onto the straight piece of pipe so that you could try the experiment with different elbow pieces (45 degree, 90 degree, 180 degree).
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"In the pressure system, the air in the tube and the pneumatic are normally at atmospheric pressure. Depressing a key increases the pressure in the tube, inflating the pneumatic, which opens the pipe's valve.\n",
"On the characteristic curve at the flow rates below ṁS provides lower pressure as seen in the fig. at D and E. But now the pipe pressures due to further reduction of flow by valve (let at point D) will be higher than the pressure at D and E. This unbalance between the pipe pressure and the compressor delivery pressure only exist for a very short time. This is because there is higher pressure in the pipe than the gas pressure produced by the compressor and due to this reversing of the flow takes place and it leads to a complete break-down of the normal steady flow from the compressor to the pipe.\n",
"Pressure has dimensions of energy per unit volume, therefore the pressure drop between two points must be proportional to , which has the same dimensions as it resembles (see below) the expression for the kinetic energy per unit volume. We also know that pressure must be proportional to the length of the pipe between the two points as the pressure drop per unit length is a constant. To turn the relationship into a proportionality coefficient of dimensionless quantity, we can divide by the hydraulic diameter of the pipe, , which is also constant along the pipe. Therefore,\n",
"While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear.\n",
"Discharge pressure (also called high side pressure or head pressure) is the pressure generated on the output side of a gas compressor in a refrigeration or air conditioning system. The discharge pressure is affected by several factors: size and speed of the condenser fan, condition and cleanliness of the condenser coil, and the size of the discharge line. An extremely high discharge pressure coupled with an extremely low suction pressure is an indicator of a refrigerant restriction.\n",
"A pressure drop occurs when frictional forces, caused by the resistance to flow, act on a fluid as it flows through the tube. The main determinants of resistance to fluid flow are fluid velocity through the pipe and fluid viscosity. Pressure drop increases proportionally to the frictional shear forces within the piping network. A piping network containing a high relative roughness rating as well as many pipe fittings and joints, tube convergence, divergence, turns, surface roughness, and other physical properties will affect the pressure drop. High flow velocities and/or high fluid viscosities result in a larger pressure drop across a section of pipe or a valve or elbow. Low velocity will result in lower or no pressure drop. The fluid may also be biphasic as in pneumatic conveying with a gas and a solid, in this case, the friction of the solid must also be taken into consideration for calculating the pressure drop \n",
"The increase in pressure will decrease the volume of the unit cell of the Fe(phen)(SCN) and increase the T of the system. Figure 16 shows a linear relationship between T and pressure for the Fe(phen)(SCN), where the slope of the line is math\\frac{\\partial \n"
] |
the way i understand aging, is that cells make a slightly less perfect copy of its predecessor each time until its eventually “no good” and we just fall apart and die, if we could find a way to make cells reproduce or clone perfectly, would we be able to live forever? | That's just part of it. Aging is a complicated process with several factors at play. The ends of each chromsome, called telomeres, gets degraded progressively each time the cell divides. Eventually the degradation gets to the actual sequence you care about and the cell is no longer viable. This is a very basic biological clock for the life of a cell. But aging affects the whole organism. Cells get damaged due to all sorts of reasons, like UV from sunlight and oxidative stress from metabolism alone. And when damaged a cell often commits suicide. We don't have an infinite reservoir of cells, some specialized cells have only a limited number of stem cells. And when the we run out, renewal runs out. Besides that, you have many many processes that affect us gradually at the big picture level. Like nephrons (filtering units in the kidney) get less and less over a life time. These are relatively big structures made of many many cells so if they're gone they're really gone. Then you have things like atherosclerosis, plaques accumulating in your vessels, hardening them and narrowing them. You get strokes and ischemia and die from heart or brain issues. Or you may get proteins aggregating just due to random chance of misfolding, this happens in the brain and almost everywhere else. And we're horribly bad at dealing with aggregates so they end up killing cells and you eventually. Then you got random mutations that are bound to once hit critical genes that then cause cancer. I barely even scratched the surface here, fixing a cell by allowing it to renew its telomeres has been investigated before. But the risk of cancer is too high. And even if it wasn't, we got a million other things that are bound to go south over a lifetime. We're simply not built to forever, if you want to be immortal you have to change your body altogether. | [
"Permanent cells are cells that are incapable of regeneration. These cells are considered to be terminally differentiated and non proliferative in postnatal life. This includes brain cells, neurons, heart cells, skeletal muscle cells, and red blood cells. Although these cells are considered permanent in that they neither reproduce nor transform into other cells, this does not mean that the body can not create new versions of these cells. For instance, structures in the bone marrow produce new red blood cells constantly, while skeletal muscle damage can be repaired by underlying satellite cells which fuse to become a new skeletal muscle cell. Disease and virology studies can use permanent cells to maintain cell count and accurately quantify the effects of vaccines. Some embryology studies also use permanent cells to avoid harvesting embryonic cells from pregnant animals; since the cells are permanent, they may be harvested at a later age when an animal is fully developed.\n",
"The stem cell theory of aging postulates that the aging process is the result of the inability of various types of stem cells to continue to replenish the tissues of an organism with functional differentiated cells capable of maintaining that tissue's (or organ's) original function. Damage and error accumulation in genetic material is always a problem for systems regardless of the age. The number of stem cells in young people is very much higher than older people and thus creates a better and more efficient replacement mechanism in the young contrary to the old. In other words, aging is not a matter of the increase in damage, but a matter of failure to replace it due to a decreased number of stem cells. Stem cells decrease in number and tend to lose the ability to differentiate into progenies or lymphoid lineages and myeloid lineages.\n",
"There are also several challenges when it comes to therapeutic use of stem cells and their ability to replenish organs and tissues. First, different cells may have different lifespans even though they originate from the same stem cells (\"See\" T-cells and erythrocytes), meaning that aging can occur differently in cells that have longer lifespans as opposed to the ones with shorter lifespans. Also, continual effort to replace the somatic cells may cause exhaustion of stem cells.\n",
"\"S. cerevisiae\" has since become a useful model for aging. It has been shown that as yeast ages, it loses functional mitochondrial DNA, which leads to replicative senescence, or the inability to further replicate. It has been suggested that there is a link between mitochondrial DNA loss and replicative life span (RLS), or the number of times a cell can reproduce before it dies, as it has been found that an increase in RLS is established with the same changes in the genome that enhance the propagation of cells that do not contain mitochondrial DNA. Genetic screens for replicative life span associated genes and pathways could be made easier and quicker by selecting genetic suppressors of the petite negative mutants. \n",
"Some of the cells in our bodies cannot be replaced, or can be only replaced very slowly—more slowly than they die. This decrease in cell number affects some of the most important tissues of the body. Muscle cells are lost in skeletal muscles and the heart, causing them to become frailer with age. Loss of neurons in the substantia nigra causes Parkinson's disease, while loss of immune cells impairs the immune system.\n",
"Most other cells cannot divide indefinitely as after a few cycles of cell division the cells stop expressing an enzyme telomerase. The genetic material, in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), continues to shorten with each cell division, and cells eventually stop dividing when they sense that their DNA is critically shortened. However, this enzyme in \"youthful\" cells replaces these lost bits (nucleotides) of DNA, thus making almost unlimited cycles of cell division possible. It is believed that the above-mentioned tissues have a constitutional elevated expression of telomerase. When ultimately many cells are produced by a single cell, \"clonal expansion\" is said to have taken place.\n",
"George Otto Gey, the first researcher to study Lacks's cancerous cells, observed that her cells were unique in that they reproduced at a very high rate and could be kept alive long enough to allow more in-depth examination. Until then, cells cultured for laboratory studies survived for only a few days at most, which wasn't long enough to perform a variety of different tests on the same sample. Lacks's cells were the first to be observed that could be divided multiple times without dying, which is why they became known as \"immortal.\" After Lacks' death, Gey had Mary Kubicek, his lab assistant, take further HeLa samples while Henrietta's body was at Johns Hopkins' autopsy facility. The roller-tube technique was the method used to culture the cells obtained from the samples that Kubicek collected. Gey was able to start a cell line from Lacks's sample by isolating one specific cell and repeatedly dividing it, meaning that the same cell could then be used for conducting many experiments. They became known as HeLa cells, because Gey's standard method for labeling samples was to use the first two letters of the patient's first and last names.\n"
] |
What impact does a tsunami have on ships at sea? | they wouldnt even notice it (they'd notice it, but not as a threat).
a tsunami does not really "present" itself as a wave until the water depth is about < 1.3x the height of the wave itself. the drag on the bottom of the ocean slows the flow and the top moves ahead and creates the circulation we see.
When you look at a regular ocean, it looks pretty calm, but when it gets to shore, things become more violent. | [
"A tsunami is an unusual form of wave caused by an infrequent powerful event such as an underwater earthquake or landslide, a meteorite impact, a volcanic eruption or a collapse of land into the sea. These events can temporarily lift or lower the surface of the sea in the affected area, usually by a few feet. The potential energy of the displaced seawater is turned into kinetic energy, creating a shallow wave, a tsunami, radiating outwards at a velocity proportional to the square root of the depth of the water and which therefore travels much faster in the open ocean than on a continental shelf. In the deep open sea, tsunamis have wavelengths of around , travel at speeds of over 600 miles per hour (970 km/hr) and usually have a height of less than three feet, so they often pass unnoticed at this stage. In contrast, ocean surface waves caused by winds have wavelengths of a few hundred feet, travel at up to and are up to high.\n",
"Normal tsunamis generated at sea result from movement of the sea floor. They have a small wave height offshore, are very long (often hundreds of kilometres), and generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually of the order of above the normal sea surface. When they reach land, the wave height increases dramatically as the base of the wave pushes the water column above it upwards.\n",
"Coastal areas can be significantly flooded as the result of tsunami waves which propagate through the ocean as the result of the displacement of a significant body of water through earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and glacier calvings. There is also evidence to suggest that significant tsunami have been caused in the past by meteor impact into the ocean. Tsunami waves are so destructive due to the velocity of the approaching waves, the height of the waves when they reach land and the debris the water entrains as it flows over land can cause further damage.\n",
"Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water—including when an earthquake occurs at sea. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass , and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600–800 kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.\n",
"Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves, because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason they are often referred to as \"tidal waves\". Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called \"wave train\". Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history with at least 290,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean.\n",
"Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it, even with waves that do not appear to be large.\n",
"Tsunamis have a small wave height offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometres long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength of only 30 or 40 metres), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a wave shoaling process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas.\n"
] |
is there a radio frequency camera? | Yes, a radiotelescope is such a device. | [
"A number of passive millimeter-wave cameras for concealed weapons detection operate at 94 GHz. A frequency around 77 GHz is used for automotive cruise control radar. The atmospheric radio window at 94 GHz is used for imaging millimeter-wave radar applications in astronomy, defense, and security applications. \n",
"Unlike an optical telescope, which produces a magnified image of the patch of sky being observed, a traditional radio telescope dish contains a single receiver and records a single time-varying signal characteristic of the observed region; this signal may be sampled at various frequencies. In some newer radio telescope designs, a single dish contains an array of several receivers; this is known as a focal-plane array.\n",
"The FM broadcast band is also used by some inexpensive wireless microphones sold as toys for karaoke or similar purposes, allowing the user to use an FM radio as an output rather than a dedicated amplifier and speaker. Professional-grade wireless microphones generally use bands in the UHF region so they can run on dedicated equipment without broadcast interference.\n",
"The AN/TRC-97 Radio Set, or TRC-97, is a radio set that has 12 multiplex channels and 16 telegraph channels connected to an analog radio. The radio set is a mobile terminal that can transmit up to 40 miles straight line-of-sight at up to 1 watt, using a traveling wave tube amplifier, or 96 miles in tropospheric scatter at up to 1 kilowatt, using a tunable klystron amplifier, at a frequency range of 4.4 to 5 gigahertz and 1.2 to 2.2 gigahertz. The set has been manufactured by RCA, Camden, N.J.\n",
"FM transmitters have been used to construct miniature wireless microphones for espionage and surveillance purposes (covert listening devices or so-called \"bugs\"); the advantage to using the FM broadcast band for such operations is that the receiving equipment would not be considered particularly suspect. Common practice is to tune the bug's transmitter off the ends of the broadcast band, into what in the United States would be TV channel 6 (87.9 MHz) or aviation navigation frequencies (107.9 MHz); most FM radios with analog tuners have sufficient overcoverage to pick up these slightly-beyond-outermost frequencies, although many digitally tuned radios have not.\n",
"In some countries, small-scale (Part 15 in United States terms) transmitters are available that can transmit a signal from an audio device (usually an MP3 player or similar) to a standard FM radio receiver; such devices range from small units built to carry audio to a car radio with no audio-in capability (often formerly provided by special adapters for audio cassette decks, which are becoming less common on car radio designs) up to full-sized, near-professional-grade broadcasting systems that can be used to transmit audio throughout a property. Most such units transmit in full stereo, though some models designed for beginner hobbyists might not. Similar transmitters are often included in satellite radio receivers and some toys.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Radio telescope\" - specialized antenna and radio receiver used as a scientific instrument to study weak radio waves from astronomical radio sources in space like stars, nebulas and galaxies in radio astronomy. They are the most sensitive radio receivers that exist, having large parabolic (dish) antennas up to 500 meters in diameter, and extremely sensitive radio circuits. The RF front end of the receiver is often cryogenically cooled by liquid nitrogen to reduce radio noise.\n"
] |
Can microbes ever become UV Resistant? Why or why not? | It’s very possible over time the microbes in question will evolve to be more UV-resilient by upregulating enzymes associated with repairing UV-induced damage (for example, base excision repair). But there’s a limit to even the most efficient repair mechanisms. UV intensity will eventually overwhelm the defenses. So, at least imo, no. More resilient but never entirely resistant. | [
"There is evidence that some bacterial lifeforms are able to overcome perchlorates and even live off them. However, the added effect of the high levels of UV reaching the surface of Mars breaks the molecular bonds, creating even more dangerous chemicals which in lab tests on Earth were shown to be more lethal to bacteria than the perchlorates alone. \n",
"All classes of microbes develop resistance: including fungi (antifungal resistance), viruses (antiviral resistance), protozoa (antiprotozoal resistance), and bacteria (antibiotic resistance). This is to be expected when considering that all life exhibits universal genetic code and is therefore subject to the process of evolution through its various mechanisms.\n",
"\"Legionella\" bacteria themselves can be inactivated by UV light. However, \"Legionella\" bacteria that grow and reproduce in amoebae or that are sheltered in corrosion particles cannot be killed by UV light alone.\n",
"In many systems, redundancy in exposing microorganisms to UV is achieved by circulating the air or water repeatedly. This ensures multiple passes so that the UV is effective against the highest number of microorganisms and will irradiate resistant microorganisms more than once to break them down.\n",
"Exposure of organisms like fish, algae, and humans to low levels of triclocarban and other antibacterial chemicals kills weak microbes and allows the stronger, resistant strains to proliferate. As microbes share genes, an increase in resistant strains increases the probability that weak microbes acquire these resistance genes. The consequence is a new colony of drug resistant microbes.\n",
"It used to be thought that UV disinfection was more effective for bacteria and viruses, which have more-exposed genetic material, than for larger pathogens that have outer coatings or that form cyst states (e.g., Giardia) that shield their DNA from UV light. However, it was recently discovered that ultraviolet radiation can be somewhat effective for treating the microorganism Cryptosporidium. The findings resulted in the use of UV radiation as a viable method to treat drinking water. Giardia in turn has been shown to be very susceptible to UV-C when the tests were based on infectivity rather than excystation. It has been found that protists are able to survive high UV-C doses but are sterilized at low doses.\n",
"Microorganisms suffer a reduction in viability on contact with ozone which compromises the integrity of their cell walls. Gram-negative bacteria are more vulnerable to ozone than gram-positive organisms.\n"
] |
why college football schools needs that large stadiums (90k+ attendance)? | The supply (90,000+ capacity stadia) exists because the demand exists. Some universities lose money on their football programs, but the big name ones--Alabama, Florida, Southern Cal, Ohio State, Michigan, LSU, Georgia, Texas, Oklahoma--make tons of money. Tickets sell out years in advance, for $100 per ticket in some cases. They also make tons on media deals. Most D1 colleges also have huge student bodies--30,000 or more--which means they need to give a big section to the students at a discounted rate. So they need an extra 60,000 seats to sell to alumni and the general public to make their money.
Your average college football stadium is pretty old, too. The stadium at my alma mater was built in the 1920s and has been expanded since then. They're nowhere near as nice as what you'd find for an NFL or MLB team, pretty much just concrete, stairs, and some walkways with concession stands. They're almost all outdoors--I can't think of a major blueblood or semi-blueblood team that has an indoors one, in fact. So upkeep is loads cheaper than an indoor one with HVAC systems and all that jazz. | [
"Although the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs — the highest level — playing in huge stadiums, six of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000 people. In many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests (although many stadiums do have a small number of chairback seats in addition to the bench seating). This allows them to seat more fans in a given amount of space than the typical professional stadium, which tends to have more features and comforts for fans. (Only three stadiums owned by U.S. colleges or universities — Cardinal Stadium at the University of Louisville, Georgia State Stadium at Georgia State University and FAU Stadium at Florida Atlantic University — consist entirely of chairback seating).\n",
"In their normal configurations, 29 of the league's 31 stadiums have a seating capacity of at least 60,000 spectators; of those, a majority (16) have less than 70,000 seats, while eight have between 70,000 and 80,000 and five can seat 80,000 or more. In contrast to college football stadiums, the largest of which can and regularly do accommodate over 100,000 spectators, no stadium in the league currently has a listed seating capacity of more than 82,500. Teams rarely build their stadiums far beyond the 80,000 seat threshold (and even then, only in the largest markets) because of the league's blackout policy, which prohibited the televising of any NFL game within 75 miles of its home market if a game does not sell all of its non-premium seating. For this reason, until the blackout was suspended in 2015, the Los Angeles Rams cap capacity at the 93,607-seat Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum to 80,000 seats for most games. Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, the stadium that hosts the Oakland Raiders, has over 60,000 seats, but the team has restricted capacity to under 57,000 in more recent seasons. In the opposite direction, the league has a firm minimum on the number of seats an NFL stadium should have; since 1971 the league has not allowed any stadium under 50,000 seats to host a full-time NFL team (not counting Dignity Health Sports Park; there have been two exceptions to this: 45,000-seat Metropolitan Stadium in Minnesota was not replaced until 1982, and 40,000-seat Vanderbilt Stadium hosted the Tennessee Oilers for one season in 1998 after a planned two-year residency in Memphis was cut in half). In normal circumstances, all NFL stadiums are all-seaters.\n",
"The following is an incomplete list of current American football stadiums ranked by capacity. The list contains the home stadiums of all 32 professional teams playing in the NFL as well as the largest stadiums used by college football teams in the NCAA. The largest stadium used by a professional team falls at number 9 on the list. Not included are several large stadiums used by teams in the now-defunct NFL Europa, as these were all built for and used mainly for association football, or Rogers Centre, located in Canada (although it does host occasional American football games). Currently all football stadiums with a capacity of 30,000 or more are included.\n",
"BULLET::::- Stadiums seating less than 50,000 were declared to be inadequate for professional football's needs, thus compelling teams in stadiums with capacities under that number to expand their current stadiums (most notably the expansion of the Denver Broncos' Mile High Stadium in 1968) or move to newer, larger homes—most notably the Chicago Bears' move from Wrigley Field to Soldier Field in 1971, and the opening of new stadiums for the New England Patriots (Schaefer Stadium in 1971), Kansas City Chiefs (Arrowhead Stadium in 1972), and Buffalo Bills (Rich Stadium in 1973). (The Minnesota Vikings stayed at Metropolitan Stadium, the only sub-50,000 capacity stadium after the merger, until the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome opened in 1982.) It was this stadium issue that prevented Seattle and Tampa Bay from receiving their expansion teams until 1976; both cities were recruiting the Bills and Patriots to relocate to their cities (in defiance of Rozelle's promise) should they not be able to build a compliant stadium in their home market, and only after those stadiums were built and relocation of existing teams ruled out that the league could issue expansion teams to Seattle and Tampa Bay. Since the 1970's, the league has only played occasionally in sub-50,000 seat stadiums. Exceptions include the 1998 NFL season when the Tennessee Oilers played one season at 40,550 seat Vanderbilt Stadium and also from 2017 to present when the Chargers returned to Los Angeles and temporarily moved into the 27,000 seat Dignity Health Sports Park (known as StubHub Center before 2019) until Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park opens in 2020.\n",
" – Largest football crowd. Larger attendance records may exist for other configurations of the stadium. Also, a few stadiums now have lower football capacity than in the past; one example is California Memorial Stadium, whose capacity dropped by more than 9,000 in its most recent renovation.br – Year of most recent completed stadium expansion/major upgrade\n",
"The stadium seating capacity can be expanded by 8,800 for \"mega-events\" such as college bowls, NFL Super Bowls, the NFC Championship Game, and the Final Four by adding risers and ganged, portable \"X-frame\" folding seats. The endzone area on the side of the facility where the field tray rolls in and out of the facility can be expanded to accommodate the additional seats.\n",
"Most of the stadiums with a capacity of at least 10,000 are used for association football. Other popular stadium sports include gridiron football, baseball, cricket, the various codes of rugby, field lacrosse, bandy, and bullfighting. A large number of large sports venues are also used for concerts.\n"
] |
why do sound deviations from “normal sounds” like those used in horror movies and games cause a fear response in us? | Another factor not mentioned in the comments is that some music is different and dissonant on purpose, not fitting into the rhythm or the harmony of the normal music, making you feel a sense of unease. They feel different and wrong, like it doesn't belong there. This appears in classical music as well, but it's usually used as a passage, with complementary notes played straight after. Meanwhile, using such notes gets you ready for complementary notes that are not going to come, if that makes any sense. It's the heart and soul of horror: suspense. It the same as when in a horror movie a protag explores a dark and creepy place and you expect a jumpscare and never get one, anticipating it more and more. | [
"Anempathetic sound in a film is the opposite of empathetic sound: it consists of music or sound effects that exhibit an indifference to the current tone, emotion, or plot-point of the film. This type of sound can thereby enhance a sense of tragic apathy and insignificance, as when a radio continues to play a happy tune when a character dies, or in Hitchcock's \"Psycho\" the continued sound of the shower running after Marion Crane has been killed, as if nothing has happened. \n",
"Inspired by the screams of a baby marmot, he conducted a study, published in Biology Letters, investigating nonlinearities in sound and their effect on response. The report found that the addition of non-linear elements produced stronger responses and valence, which implies that nonlinearities in sounds make them more frightening.\n",
"While each individual is sensitive to different sounds, there are some nearly universal saccular acoustical stimulants. For example, the sound of fingernails scratching a blackboard will stimulate negative emotions along with chills in the majority of the population. Trevor J. Cox, of the University of Salford, was fascinated by this fact and conducted an online study to identify the \"most horrible sound\" in the world. Participants were asked to listen to recordings of various \"bad\" noises and rate them by their horribleness. \"Vomiting\" was selected as the most horrible sound by a wide margin. Surprisingly, \"nails on a blackboard\" was only ranked 16.\n",
"Certain sounds, such as fingernails drawn down a blackboard, cause strong feelings of aversion or even fear in most humans. A 2004 study claimed that the blackboard sound was very similar to the warning cry of Siamang gibbons and hypothesized that a vestigial reflex is what causes the fight or flight reaction in humans. Other sounds, such as a person coughing or vomiting, provoke responses of disgust. These emotional reactions are thought to be caused by the body's natural tendency to avoid disease.\n",
"Psychological horror films generally differ from the traditional horror film, where the source of the fear is typically something material, such as grotesque or horrifying creatures, monsters, serial killers, or aliens, as well as the splatter film, which derives its frightening effects from gore and graphic violence, in that tension in psychological horror films is more frequently built through atmosphere, eerie sounds and exploitation of the viewer's and the character's psychological fears. Psychological horror films sometimes frighten or unsettle by relying on the viewer's or character's own imagination or the anticipation of a threat rather than an actual threat or a material source of fear portrayed onscreen. However, some psychological horror films may in fact contain a material or overt threat or a physical source of fear, as well as scenes of graphic gore or violence, yet still rely or focus mainly on atmosphere and the psychological, mental, and emotional states of the characters and viewers to frighten or disturb. For instance, some psychological horror films may portray psychotic murderers and scenes of graphic violence while still maintaining an atmosphere that focuses on either the villain's, protagonist's, or audience's psychological, mental, or emotional status.\n",
"A reviewer for \"Next Generation\" said it \"manages to be as genuinely scary as a good horror film - no small achievement. There are a lot of things that work around games being this frightening ... In this case, however, the fine character work, creepy and well-executed sound effects, and just the right music in just the right places all have a subtle, cumulative effect ...\" While criticizing the \"laughable\" dialogue and voice acting, he felt they were overridden by the game's positive aspects. He pointed out that the lack of genuinely confounding puzzles allows the game to move at a good pace, and the use of prerendered backgrounds allowed the PlayStation to handle much more detailed characters. Yasuhiro Hunter of \"Maximum\" stated that \"The game has the greatest atmosphere of any other game in existence - naming a game that makes you jump as much as when encountering your first pair of Cereberos in this title would be very difficult.\" He also praised the heavy difficulty of the puzzles, the great care required in combat, the 3D graphics, and the exceptionally high replay value. \"Computer Gaming World\" gave a more mixed review for the Windows version, explaining that they \"tried to hate it with its graphic violence, rampant sexism, poor voice acting and use of every horror cliché, however...it's actually fun.\"\n",
"Empathetic sound in a film is sound—music or sound effects—whose mood matches the mood of the present action or scene, such as a sad song playing during a depressing or upsetting scene. The opposite of empathetic sound is anempathetic sound.\n"
] |
the psychological reason people can still not believe an argument when presented with evidence. | It's because they believe in something else more than the validity of the argument. The argument might have flaws, after all.
Let's say you think wine causes lung cancer and they think cigarettes do. If they are 99.99% sure that cigarettes cause cancer and your argument that it's caused by wine has only a 95% chance of being valid, they should rightfully (given their beliefs) ignore it. And in this case, they ARE right!
Since people can have irrational beliefs that they are near-certain of, no amount of argument can change those beliefs - they always think it's more likely that the argument is wrong rather than their belief. | [
"3. Judgments can be true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become \"evidently\" true to us. This evidence, a psychological process that \"guarantees\" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds by saying that truth itself, as well as logical laws, always remain valid regardless of psychological \"evidence\" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the \"a priori\" objectivity of these logical truths.\n",
"Additionally, when confronted with evidence that a consensus does not exist, people often assume that those who do not agree with them are defective in some way. There is no single cause for this cognitive bias; the availability heuristic, self-serving bias, and naïve realism have been suggested as at least partial underlying factors. Maintenance of this cognitive bias may be related to the tendency to make decisions with relatively little information. When faced with uncertainty and a limited sample from which to make decisions, people often \"project\" themselves onto the situation. When this personal knowledge is used as input to make generalizations, it often results in the false sense of being part of the majority.\n",
"Arguments involving underdetermination attempt to show that there is no reason to believe some conclusion because it is underdetermined by the evidence. Then, if the evidence available at a particular time can be equally well explained by at least one other hypothesis, there is no reason to believe it rather than the equally supported rival, which can be considered observationally equivalent (although many other hypotheses may still be eliminated).\n",
"That is, they will select out those views and facts which agree with their own (cf. confirmation bias). However this view fails to explain why, for example, people will do things which are not in their self-interest, based on what they believe to be an objective approach.\n",
"Other critics have objected that Lewis's argument from reason fails because the causal origins of beliefs are often irrelevant to whether those beliefs are rational, justified, warranted, etc. Anscombe, for example, argues that \"if a man has reasons, and they are good reasons, and they are genuinely his reasons, for thinking something—then his thought is rational, whatever causal statements we make about him\" (Anscombe 1981: 229). On many widely accepted theories of knowledge and justification, questions of how beliefs were ultimately caused (e.g., at the level of brain neurochemistry) are viewed as irrelevant to whether those beliefs are rational or justified. Some defenders of Lewis claim that this objection misses the mark, because his argument is directed at what he calls the \"veridicalness\" of acts of reasoning (i.e., whether reasoning connects us with objective reality or truth), rather than with whether any inferred beliefs can be rational or justified in a materialistic world.\n",
"The view that faith underlies all rationality holds that rationality is dependent on faith for its coherence. Under this view, there is no way to comprehensively \"prove\" that we are actually seeing what we appear to be seeing, that what we remember actually happened, or that the laws of logic and mathematics are actually real. Instead, all beliefs depend for their coherence on \"faith\" in our senses, memory, and reason, because the foundations of rationalism cannot be proven by evidence or reason. Rationally, you can not prove anything you see is real, but you can prove that you yourself are real, and rationalist belief would be that you can believe that the world is consistent until something demonstrates inconsistency. This differs from faith based belief, where you believe that your world view is consistent no matter what inconsistencies the world has with your beliefs.\n",
"There are criticisms against theories of cognitive biases based on the fact that both sides in a debate often claim each other's thoughts to be in human nature and the result of cognitive bias, while claiming their own viewpoint as being the correct way to \"overcome\" cognitive bias. This is not due simply to debate misconduct but is a more fundamental problem that stems from psychology's making up of multiple opposed cognitive bias theories that can be non-falsifiably used to explain away any viewpoint.\n"
] |
why is seafood much more fragrant/smelly than land based animals? | Trimethylamine oxide. It's odorless, but after you kill the fish bacteria break it down into ammonia. | [
"\"Odorigui\" refers to the consumption of live seafood while it is still moving, or the consumption of moving animal parts. Animals usually consumed in odorigui style include octopus, squids, ice gobies, and other similar animals. Consumption of live seafood without remarkable movements, such as sea urchins, is usually not included in \"odorigui.\"\n",
"Petrels can be attracted to boats with \"chum\", a malodorous mixture typically containing fish heads, bones and offal, with added fish oil and popcorn to aid flotation. An apparently empty ocean will soon fill with hundreds of birds attracted by the smell. The attraction of the fishy odour is sometimes enhanced by the addition of dimethylsulphide (DMS) a chemical also naturally produced by some planktonic organisms, although there are doubts about the safety of this possible carcinogen.\n",
"The differences are ecological adaptations to different environments over a relatively dry-wet climate. Species in less humid environment are smaller or less robust, with less abundant and thinner foliage and have oleifera cells that produce trees with a more fragrant aroma.\n",
"Our insatiable appetite for seafood of all types has led to overfishing and has already significantly strained marine food stocks to the point of collapse in many cases. With seafood being a major protein source for so much of the population, there are inherent health risks associated with global warming. As mentioned above increased agricultural runoff and warmer water temperature allows for eutrophication of ocean waters. This increased growth of algae and phytoplankton in turn can have dire consequences. These algal blooms can emit toxic substances that can be harmful to humans if consumed. Organisms, such as shellfish, marine crustaceans and even fish, feed on or near these infected blooms, ingest the toxins and can be consumed unknowingly by humans. One of these toxin producing algae is Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta. This species produces a substance called domoic acid which is responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning. The toxicity of this species has been shown to increase with greater concentrations associated with ocean acidification. Some of the more common illnesses reported from harmful algal blooms include; Ciguatera fish poisoning, paralytic shellfish poisoning, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and the above-mentioned amnesic shellfish poisoning.\n",
"Over 33,000 species of fish and many more marine invertebrate species have been described. Bromophenols, which are produced by marine algae, gives marine animals an odor and taste that is absent from freshwater fish and invertebrates. Also, a chemical substance called dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) that is found in red and green algae is transferred to animals in the marine food chain. When broken down, dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is produced, and is often released during food preparation when fresh fish and shellfish are heated. In small quantities it creates a specific smell one associates with the ocean, but which in larger quantities gives the impression of rotten seaweed and old fish. Another molecule known as TMAO occurs in fishes and give them a distinct smell. It also exists in freshwater species, but becomes more numerous in the cells of an animal the deeper it lives, so that fish from the deeper parts of the ocean has a stronger taste than species who lives in shallow water. Eggs from seaweed contains sex pheromones called dictyopterenes, which are meant to attract the sperm. These pheromones are also found in edible seaweeds, which contributes to their aroma. However, only a small number of species are commonly eaten by humans.\n",
"This feature of island life came at a price. When Henry Brougham visited in 1799, he noted that \"the air is infected by a stench almost insupportable – a compound of rotten fish, filth of all sorts and stinking seafowl\". An excavation of the \"Taigh an t-Sithiche\" (the \"house of the faeries\" – see below) in 1877 by Sands unearthed the remains of gannet, sheep, cattle and limpets amidst various stone tools. The building is between 1,700 and 2,500 years old, which suggests that the St Kildan diet had changed little over the millennia. Indeed, the tools were recognised by the St Kildans, who could put names to them as similar devices were still in use.\n",
"Some of the animals live along a typical coast. There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.\n"
] |
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