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why can't doctors diagnose cte in a living person? | Because the physical degeneration thought to be involved in CTE can only be observed in autopsies. It doesn't really show readily or conclusively is regular brain scans which look for neuron activity or chemical processes. Cracking open a living person's skull soley for research or diagnosis purposes in a very risky surgery is a rather tough sell for an ethical comittee. | [
"Where it is readily available, computed tomography (CT) has become frequently used, especially in people whose diagnosis is not obvious on history and physical examination. Concerns about radiation tend to limit use of CT in pregnant women and children, especially with the increasingly widespread usage of MRI.\n",
"Symptoms from CTE do not typically appear in a subject until many years after the initial injuries, and a conclusive diagnosis of the disease can only be achieved through autopsy. In the years since its inception, the BU CTE Center and Brain Bank has devoted the majority of its time and effort into researching methods for diagnosing CTE in living subjects and developing potential treatments for the disease.\n",
"Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scans may be useful for diagnosing retained hemothorax as this form of imaging can detect much smaller amounts of fluid than a plain chest X-ray. However, CT is less used as a primary means of diagnosis within the trauma setting, as these scans require a critically ill person to be transported to a scanner, are slower, and require the subject to remain supine.\n",
"Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a more sensitive test for pulmonary contusion, and it can identify abdominal, chest, or other injuries that accompany the contusion. In one study, chest X-ray detected pulmonary contusions in 16.3% of people with serious blunt trauma, while CT detected them in 31.2% of the same people. Unlike X-ray, CT scanning can detect the contusion almost immediately after the injury. However, in both X-ray and CT a contusion may become more visible over the first 24–48 hours after trauma as bleeding and edema into lung tissues progress. CT scanning also helps determine the size of a contusion, which is useful in determining whether a patient needs mechanical ventilation; a larger volume of contused lung on CT scan is associated with an increased likelihood that ventilation will be needed. CT scans also help differentiate between contusion and pulmonary hematoma, which may be difficult to tell apart otherwise. However, pulmonary contusions that are visible on CT but not chest X-ray are usually not severe enough to affect outcome or treatment.\n",
"Multiphase CT examinations are very important for the detection and characterization of certain clinical conditions, but should not be generalized for every patient undergoing CT of the abdomen and pelvis. A recent survey demonstrated that many physicians are routinely performing multiphase CT for the majority of patients in an attempt to prospectively characterize potential lesions detected during the scan. However, unindicated multiphase CT examinations are an important source of medical radiation that does not contribute to the care of patients. Adherence to published standards such as the ACR appropriateness criteria can both decrease medical radiation and optimize imaging for the specific clinical indication.\n",
" The detection of CTCs may have important prognostic and therapeutic implications but because their numbers can be very small, these cells are not easily detected. It is estimated that among the cells that have detached from the primary tumor, only 0.01% can form metastases.\n",
"Currently, CTE can only be definitively diagnosed by direct tissue examination after death, including full and immunohistochemical brain analyses. Abnormal p-tau accumulation in \"neurons, astrocytes, and cell processes in an irregular pattern at the depths of the cortical sulci\" is the most specific feature of CTE and required for pathological diagnosis.\n"
] |
if clouds are water in a gaseous state (aren't they?), why aren't they at a greater than boiling temperature, and is evaporating water boiling? | Let me try to put this in a 5YO level of understanding.
Remember when it was December and you went outside and you could see your breath? That was water vapor. The water inside you was not boiling. If it was, you would have been boiling, and we don't want that to happen.
Remember in the summer when you felt that cold water pipe and there was water droplets on it? The pipe was cold, but there was cold water drops on it.
Then in the fall when I took you camping and you saw the mist over the lake when I woke you up to go fishing. You saw the mist even though it was too cold for you to get out of your sleeping bag.
Clouds work the same way. The cold air can hold water vapor. For reasons that will have to wait until you get into a good college, warm air can hold more water vapor. The thing is that the water vapor wants to hang out together in colder areas. If the air gets full enough of this water vapor, you see clouds. The warmer the air is, the higher the clouds will have to be, usually.
There is still a lot of stuff about atmospheric pressure and transference of heat that you will have to ask your mother about, but why not, it's Mother's Day. Go wake her up while I make breakfast. | [
"Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible. Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is less dense than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds.\n",
"For example, water has a critical temperature of , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist. In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures, therefore, gaseous water (known as water vapor) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently.\n",
"In the case of evaporation of water to steam, the place occupied by water would be occupied by water vapor, which has a density vastly lower than that of liquid water (the exact number depends on pressure and temperature; at standard conditions, steam is about as dense as liquid water). Because of this lower density (of mass, and consequently of atom nuclei able to absorb neutrons), light water's neutron-absorption capability practically disappears when it boils. This allows more neutrons to fission more U-235 nuclei and thereby increase the reactor power, which leads to higher temperatures that boil even more water, creating a thermal feedback loop.\n",
"Clouds that have low densities, such as cirrus clouds, contain very little water, thus resulting in relatively low liquid water content values of around .03 g/m. Clouds that have high densities, like cumulonimbus clouds, have much higher liquid water content values that are around 1-3 g/m, as more liquid is present in the same amount of space. Below is a chart giving typical LWC values of various cloud types (Thompson, 2007).\n",
"Since the saturation vapor pressure is proportional to temperature, cold air has a lower saturation point than warm air. The difference between these values is the basis for the formation of clouds. When saturated air cools, it can no longer contain the same amount of water vapor. If the conditions are right, the excess water will condense out of the air until the lower saturation point is reached. Another possibility is that the water stays in vapor form, even though it is beyond the saturation point, resulting in supersaturation.\n",
"Clouds form when invisible water vapor ( in gas phase) condenses into microscopic water droplets ( in liquid phase) or into microscopic ice crystals ( in solid phase). This may happen when air with a high proportion of gaseous water cools. A distrail forms when the heat of engine exhaust evaporates the liquid water droplets in a cloud, turning them back into invisible, gaseous water vapor.\n",
"Supersaturation of more than 1–2% relative to water is rarely seen in the atmosphere, since cloud condensation nuclei are usually present. Much higher degrees of supersaturation are possible in clean air, and are the basis of the cloud chamber.\n"
] |
is x86 software made for 32-bit os or 64-bit? | If it just says x86 then it is probably 32-bit. It will still work just fine, but unless you have a reason otherwise, you should typically get the 64-bit version, which should be labeled x86_64. | [
"Modern x86 is relatively uncommon in embedded systems, however, and small low power applications (using tiny batteries) as well as low-cost microprocessor markets, such as home appliances and toys, lack any significant x86 presence. Simple 8-bit and 16-bit based architectures are common here, although the x86-compatible VIA C7, VIA Nano, AMD's Geode, Athlon Neo and Intel Atom are examples of 32- and 64-bit designs used in some \"relatively\" low power and low cost segments.\n",
"x86-64 (also known as x64, x86_64, AMD64 and Intel 64) is the 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set. It introduces two new modes of operation, 64-bit mode and compatibility mode, along with a new 4-level paging mode. With 64-bit mode and the new paging mode, it supports vastly larger amounts of virtual memory and physical memory than is possible on its 32-bit predecessors, allowing programs to store larger amounts of data in memory. x86-64 also expands general-purpose registers to 64-bit, as well extends the number of them from 8 (some of which had limited or fixed functionality, e.g. for stack management) to 16 (fully general), and provides numerous other enhancements. Floating point operations are supported via mandatory SSE2-like instructions, and x87/MMX style registers are generally not used (but still available even in 64-bit mode); instead, a set of 32 vector registers, 128 bits each, is used. (Each can store one or two double-precision numbers or one to four single precision numbers, or various integer formats.) In 64-bit mode, instructions are modified to support 64-bit operands and 64-bit addressing mode. The compatibility mode allows 16- and 32-bit user applications to run unmodified coexisting with 64-bit applications if the 64-bit operating system supports them. As the full x86 16-bit and 32-bit instruction sets remain implemented in hardware without any intervening emulation, these older executables can run with little or no performance penalty,\n",
"On the x86 architecture, a 32-bit application normally means software that typically (not necessarily) uses the 32-bit linear address space (or flat memory model) possible with the 80386 and later chips. In this context, the term came about because DOS, Microsoft Windows and OS/2 were originally written for the 8088/8086 or 80286, 16-bit microprocessors with a segmented address space where programs had to switch between segments to reach more than 64 kilobytes of code or data. As this is quite time-consuming in comparison to other machine operations, the performance may suffer. Furthermore, programming with segments tend to become complicated; special \"far\" and \"near\" keywords or \"memory models\" had to be used (with care), not only in assembly language but also in high level languages such as Pascal, compiled BASIC, Fortran, C, etc.\n",
"x86-based 64-bit systems sometimes lack equivalents of software that is written for 32-bit architectures. The most severe problem in Microsoft Windows is incompatible device drivers for obsolete hardware. Most 32-bit application software can run on a 64-bit operating system in a compatibility mode, also termed an emulation mode, e.g., Microsoft WoW64 Technology for IA-64 and AMD64. The 64-bit Windows Native Mode driver environment runs atop 64-bit NTDLL.DLL, which cannot call 32-bit Win32 subsystem code (often devices whose actual hardware function is emulated in user mode software, like Winprinters). Because 64-bit drivers for most devices were unavailable until early 2007 (Vista x64), using a 64-bit version of Windows was considered a challenge. However, the trend has since moved toward 64-bit computing, more so as memory prices dropped and the use of more than 4 GB of RAM increased. Most manufacturers started to provide both 32-bit and 64-bit drivers for new devices, so unavailability of 64-bit drivers ceased to be a problem. 64-bit drivers were not provided for many older devices, which could consequently not be used in 64-bit systems.\n",
"The x86-64 architecture is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture (formerly IA-64), which is not compatible on the native instruction set level with the x86 architecture. Operating systems and applications written for one cannot be run on the other.\n",
"Starting with the AMD Opteron processor, the x86 architecture extended the 32-bit registers into 64-bit registers in a way similar to how the 16 to 32-bit extension took place. An R-prefix identifies the 64-bit registers (RAX, RBX, RCX, RDX, RSI, RDI, RBP, RSP, RFLAGS, RIP), and eight additional 64-bit general registers (R8-R15) were also introduced in the creation of x86-64. However, these extensions are only usable in 64-bit mode, which is one of the two modes only available in long mode. The addressing modes were not dramatically changed from 32-bit mode, except that addressing was extended to 64 bits, virtual addresses are now sign extended to 64 bits (in order to disallow mode bits in virtual addresses), and other selector details were dramatically reduced. In addition, an addressing mode was added to allow memory references relative to RIP (the instruction pointer), to ease the implementation of position-independent code, used in shared libraries in some operating systems.\n",
"The minimal implementation of the x86-64 architecture provides 48-bit addressing encoded into 64 bits; future versions of the architecture can expand this without breaking properly written applications.\n"
] |
what is the simplest way to explain gauss' law and how its used? (algebra based physics) thank you in advance | You can tell how much charge is in an enclosed space by looking at the electric field along the boundary. | [
"One of the main practical uses of the Gaussian law is to model the empirical distributions of many different random variables encountered in practice. In such case a possible extension would be a richer family of distributions, having more than two parameters and therefore being able to fit the empirical distribution more accurately. The examples of such extensions are:\n",
"Gauss's law has a close mathematical similarity with a number of laws in other areas of physics, such as Gauss's law for magnetism and Gauss's law for gravity. In fact, any inverse-square law can be formulated in a way similar to Gauss's law: for example, Gauss's law itself is essentially equivalent to the inverse-square Coulomb's law, and Gauss's law for gravity is essentially equivalent to the inverse-square Newton's law of gravity.\n",
"In the classical differential geometry of surfaces, the Gauss–Codazzi–Mainardi equations consist of a pair of related equations. The first equation, sometimes called the Gauss equation (named after Carl Friedrich Gauss), relates the \"intrinsic curvature\" (or Gauss curvature) of the surface to the derivatives of the Gauss map, via the second fundamental form. This equation is the basis for Gauss's theorema egregium. The second equation, sometimes called the Codazzi–Mainardi equation, is a structural condition on the second derivatives of the Gauss map. \n",
"Gauss's law was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835, but was not published until 1867, meaning that the formulation and use of D were not earlier than 1835, and probably not earlier than the 1860s.\n",
"Gauss also made important contributions to number theory with his 1801 book \"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae\" (Latin, Arithmetical Investigations), which, among other things, introduced the symbol for congruence and used it in a clean presentation of modular arithmetic, contained the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity, developed the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms, stated the class number problem for them, and showed that a regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) can be constructed with straightedge and compass. It appears that Gauss already knew the class number formula in 1801.\n",
"Gauss's Theorema Egregium (Latin for \"Remarkable Theorem\") is a major result of differential geometry proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss that concerns the curvature of surfaces. The theorem is that Gaussian curvature can be determined entirely by measuring angles, distances and their rates on a surface, without reference to the particular manner in which the surface is embedded in the ambient 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In other words, the Gaussian curvature of a surface does not change if one bends the surface without stretching it. Thus the Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic invariant of a surface.\n",
"Gauss' law states that \"the total electric flux through any closed surface in free space of any shape drawn in an electric field is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed by the surface.\" Mathematically, Gauss's law takes the form of an integral equation:\n"
] |
Was the Sherman tank a name resented by US soldiers from the south during WWII? | If this question isn't relevant, feel free to remove mods.
Given the nicknames M3 Lee, M3 Stuart, M3 Grant, and M4 Sherman, why were Union and Confederate general names given to tanks, or any modern weapons for that matter? | [
"The M4 was the best known and most used American tank of World War II. Christened \"Sherman\" by the British, it was named for the famous US Civil War General, William Tecumseh Sherman. The M4 Sherman was a medium tank that proved itself in the Allied operations in North Africa, Europe and the Pacific theaters of war in World War II. The Sherman was a relatively inexpensive, easy to maintain and produce combat system. Similar to production efforts on the part of the Soviet Union with their T-34 tank system, the M4 Sherman was the same class of tank weapon under an American guise.\n",
"The first Shermans to see battle in World War II were M4A1s (Sherman IIs) with the British Eighth Army at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. The tanks had been supplied in a hurry from the USA, which had removed them from their own army units. They were then hastily modified to meet British military requirements and for desert and hot-weather conditions, such as the addition of sandshields over the tracks. Over 250 of these US-supplied Shermans, which were divided among 12 regiments, participated in the battle. They formed the so-called \"heavy squadrons\" (16 tanks in each) of one brigade in each division of X Corps and some other squadrons of the other units taking part in the battle, with the other heavy squadrons still being equipped with M3 Lee/Grant tanks and light squadrons possessing M3 Stuart 'Honey' light tanks and Crusader cruiser tanks. The British Shermans were able to tackle enemy rearguard units and defending troops by using high-explosive (HE) shells which were fired indirectly at them whilst the German 5 cm Pak 38 anti-tank gun was only effective against the Sherman if it could engage it from the more-vulnerable sides. More of the British armoured units in North Africa were converted to increasingly-larger quantities of Shermans over time from their successful outcome at El Alamein, including the addition of Sherman IIIs (M4A2s) aside from the previous Sherman II, although the infantry tank units retained use of their Churchill tanks.\n",
"The M4 Sherman served with the U.S. Army and Marine Corps during World War II. The U.S. also supplied large numbers to the various Allied countries. Shermans were used during the war by British and Commonwealth armies, the Soviet Union's Red Army, Free French forces, the Polish army in exile, China's National Revolutionary Army, and Brazil's Expeditionary Force.\n",
"Sherman's advance through Georgia and South Carolina was characterized by widespread destruction of civilian supplies and infrastructure. Although looting was officially forbidden, historians disagree on how well this regulation was enforced. Union soldiers who foraged from Southern homes became known as bummers. The speed and efficiency of the destruction by Sherman's army was remarkable. The practice of heating rails and bending them around trees, leaving behind what came to be known as \"Sherman's neckties,\" made repairs difficult. Accusations that civilians were targeted and war crimes were committed on the march have made Sherman a controversial figure to this day, particularly in the American South.\n",
"The M4 Sherman, officially Medium Tank, M4, was the most widely used medium tank by the United States and Western Allies in World War II. The M4 Sherman proved to be reliable, relatively cheap to produce, and available in great numbers. Thousands were distributed through the Lend-Lease program to the British Commonwealth and Soviet Union. The tank was named by the British for the American Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman.\n",
"BULLET::::- Sherman lent his name to the Sherman tank. Formally named the Medium Tank, M4, it acquired the name \"Sherman\" from the British Army, who received M4 tanks under the Lend-Lease Act. The combined name \"M4 Sherman\" or just \"Sherman\" spread to American personnel and it has since become common to refer to it by that name.\n",
"The M46 was the first tank to be named after General George S. Patton Jr., commander of the U.S. Third Army during World War II and one of the earliest American advocates for the use of tanks in battle.\n"
] |
i often hear how states around the country are hemorrhaging due to the lack of teachers, why isn't there a greater demand for teachers? | There is a demand in terms of students who need teachers. But the lack is due to the budgets of the states, who tend to undervalue teachers, as is traditional. | [
"Moreover, a lack of governmental legislation and intervention can be to blame. In parts of South America (with the exception of Chile and Colombia), there are no laws that make physical education compulsory: thus, it is omitted from many schools.\n",
"The problems of state's education system are complex. Due to public apathy the public schools are run inefficiently. Privately run schools (including those run by Christian missionaries) are functional, but expensive and so beyond the reach of ordinary people.\n",
"Reports show that on any day over 5,000 women are unable to use services because of a lack of funding or space. Many states have also cut their funds for women's shelters. In 2009, Governor Schwarzenegger of California cut $16 million in state funding to domestic violence programs because of the state's budget deficit. In late 2011 Washington governor Christine Gregoire released a budget proposal stripping all state funding for domestic violence and women's shelters across Washington State. These types of budget cuts caused several shelters to close their doors, leaving women with no safe haven to escape Intimate partner violence. Local communities are now also taking it upon themselves to create a safe place for domestic violence refugees. In Grand Forks, British Columbia, a small community of less than 3,600, people organized the Boundary Women's Coalition, to support their local women's shelter.\n",
"Teachers and administrators in the public school systems of the United States come in contact with a wide variety of sub-cultures and are at the forefront of the challenge of bringing diverse groups together within a larger American society. Issues confronting teachers and administrators on a daily basis include student learning disabilities, student behavioral problems, child abuse, drug addiction, mental health, and poverty, most of which are handled differently within different cultures and communities.\n",
"The academic disparities in the United States are also caused by other factors. One is that qualified, effective teachers are often concentrated in school districts that offer higher salaries Yet these districts are inhabited mainly by wealthier families and less by students of color. Another cause is that impoverished circumstances prevent children from learning in school, increasing the achievement gap. Studies have also revealed that the trend of school choice is a hindrance to social mobility, as more affluent families have access to schools with greater resources that are often private. This tendency has generated greater school segregation not only amongst students of various races but also of different socioeconomic classes.\n",
"The topic of educational funding in various states within the United States has become a controversial subject. In early 2018, teachers in the states of Arizona, Colorado, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and West Virginia conducted strikes. In Colorado, the strikes occurred because of low teacher salaries and insignificant benefits. Colorado teachers were represented by the Colorado Education Association (CEA) and were opposed by officials of state government. The CEA demanded a two percent salary increase and a significant favorable adjustment to the Colorado Public Employees’ Retirement Association (PERA). In response, on April 20th, 2018, Colorado Senator Bob Gardner and Representative Paul Lundeen introduced Senate Bill 18-264. Gardner and Lundeen intended to discourage teachers from conducting protests. “The bill prohibits public school teachers and teacher organizations from directly or indirectly inducing, instigating, encouraging, authorizing, ratifying, or participating in a strike against any public-school employer” (SB18-264, n.d.). However, Senate Bill 18-264 was heavily criticized and was dismissed. Despite the threat of the bill, Colorado teachers began to strike on April 27th, 2018 and continued to do so until May 12th, 2018. Ultimately, the state government of Colorado agreed to give teachers a two percent salary increase.\n",
"The government provides services throughout the entire US territory. As a result, the state is more politically and economically stable. In general, citizens have more time to concentrate on political and social activities because they do not have to worry about daily subsistence. Thus, civil society has a strong presence in the United States and provides an arena through which the government can affect daily life.\n"
] |
Why does my voice tend to go higher around new company or in formal situations? | Higher pitched voices are often perceived as less threatening. So it is a way of reassuring new people you are not a threat. It could also be the excitement of meeting a new person being expressed as a higher pitch. | [
"Deep voice privilege, an idea in sociology and psychology, is the privilege that a man gains from having a deeper speaking voice. According to one study, there is a correlation between voice pitch, CEO salary, and size of firm that the CEO runs.\n",
"The ability and right to a voice is linked with feelings of respect and value, which emphasizes the importance of the interpersonal factors of procedural justice. This is important in the workplace because employees will feel more satisfied and respected, which can help to increase job task and contextual performance. There is an emphasis on the interpersonal and social aspects of the procedure, which result in employees feeling more satisfied when their voices are able to be heard. This was argued by Greenberg and Folger. Procedural justice also is a major factor that contributes to the expression of employee dissent. It correlates positively with managers' upward dissent. With procedural justice there is a greater deal of fairness in the workplace. There are six rules that apply to procedural justice, \"Leventhal's rules\", are consistence, bias suppression, accuracy, correctability, representativeness, and ethicality. With procedural justice in the workplace and in communication, things need to be fair to everyone, when something is applied it has to be applied to everyone and procedures need to be consistent with the moral and ethical values.\n",
"Voice refers to any attempt to change, rather than escape from, the dissatisfying situation. Voice can be constructive response, such as recommending ways for management to improve the situation, or it can be more confrontational, such as by filing formal grievances. In the extreme, some employees might engage in counterproductive behaviors to get attention and force changes in the organization.\n",
"Most of the voice change begins around puberty. Adult pitch is reached 2–3 years later but the voice does not stabilize until the early years of adulthood. It usually happens months or years before the development of significant facial hair. Under the influence of androgens, the voice box, or larynx, grows in both sexes. This growth is far more prominent in boys than in girls and is more easily perceived. It causes the voice to drop and deepen. Along with the larynx, the vocal folds (vocal cords) grow significantly longer and thicker.\n",
"Some studies confirm Hirschman's assertion that greater exit and entry costs heighten the likelihood of voice. Particularly when examining dispute resolution in contexts with limited exit opportunities, increased entry costs make workers' voice more likely.\n",
"The facial bones begin to grow as well. Cavities in the sinuses, the nose, and the back of the throat grow bigger, thus creating more space within the head to allow the voice to resonate. Occasionally, voice change is accompanied by unsteadiness of vocalization in the early stages of untrained voices. Due to the significant drop in pitch to the vocal range, people may unintentionally speak in head voice or even strain their voices using pitches which were previously chest voice, the lowest part of the modal voice register.\n",
"The pitch of a male voice is about half as high in males in comparison to females. Even after controlling for body height and volume, the male voice remains lower. Some scientists have suggested that human voice evolved through intersexual sexual selection, via female male choices. Puts (2005) showed that preference for male voice pitch changed according to the stage of the menstrual cycle whilst Puts (2006) found women preferred lower male voices mainly for short-term, sexual relationships. Intrasexual selection, via male competition, also causes a selection in voice pitch. Pitch is related to interpersonal power and males tend to adjust their pitch according to their perceived dominance when speaking to a competitor.\n"
] |
Is it possible to cryogenically freeze an entire ovary to save the eggs for later? | I don't believe we've reached a point where we can 'revive' tissue after cryopreservation. In the case of gametes and embryos, special freezing media is required to protect them from cold shock and freezing damage. Cryoprotectants such as low density lipoproteins and glycerol stabilise the plasma membrane during chilling and replace intracellular fluid to prevent ice crystals forming within the cell. As the follicular fluid does not have these properties, I doubt the oocytes would survive being frozen within the ovary itself. | [
"Cryopreservation in humans with regards to infertility involves preservation of embryos, sperm, or oocytes via freezing. Conception, \"in vitro\", is attempted when the sperm is thawed and introduced to the 'fresh' eggs, the frozen eggs are thawed and sperm is placed with the eggs and together they are placed back into the uterus or a frozen embryo is introduced to the uterus. Vitrification has flaws and is not as reliable or proven as freezing fertilized sperm, eggs, or embryos as traditional slow freezing methods because eggs alone are extremely sensitive to temperature. Many researchers are also freezing ovarian tissue in conjunction with the eggs in hopes that the ovarian tissue can be transplanted back into the uterus, stimulating normal ovulation cycles. In 2004, Donnez of Louvain in Belgium reported the first successful ovarian birth from frozen ovarian tissue. In 1997, samples of ovarian cortex were taken from a woman with Hodgkin's lymphoma and cryopreserved in a (Planer, UK) controlled-rate freezer and then stored in liquid nitrogen. Chemotherapy was initiated after the patient had premature ovarian failure. In 2003, after freeze-thawing, orthotopic autotransplantation of ovarian cortical tissue was done by laparoscopy and after five months, reimplantation signs indicated recovery of regular ovulatory cycles. Eleven months after reimplantation, a viable intrauterine pregnancy was confirmed, which resulted in the first such live birth – a girl named Tamara.\n",
"Cryoconservation is the process of freezing cells and tissues using liquid nitrogen to achieve extreme low temperatures with the intent of using the preserved sample to prevent the loss of genetic diversity. Semen, embryos, oocytes, somatic cells, nuclear DNA, and other types of biomaterial such as blood and serum can be stored using cryopreservation, in order to preserve genetic materials. The primary benefit of cryoconservation is the ability to save germplasms for extended periods of time, therefore maintaining the genetic diversity of a species or breed. There are two common techniques of cryopreservation: slow freezing and vitrification. Slow freezing helps eliminate the risk of intracellular ice crystals. If ice crystals form in the cells, there can be damage or destruction of genetic material. Vitrification is the process of freezing without the formation of ice crystals.\n",
"Human oocyte cryopreservation (egg freezing) is a procedure to preserve a woman's eggs (oocytes). This technique has been used to enable women to postpone pregnancy to a later date - whether for medical reasons such as cancer treatment or for social reasons such as employment or studying. Several studies have proven that most infertility problems are due to germ cell deterioration related to ageing. Surprisingly, the uterus remains completely functional in most elderly women. This implies that the factor which needs to be preserved is the woman's eggs. The eggs are extracted, frozen and stored. The intention of the procedure is that the woman may choose to have the eggs thawed, fertilized, and transferred to the uterus as embryos to facilitate a pregnancy in the future. The procedure's success rate (the chances of a live birth using frozen eggs) varies depending on the age of the woman, and ranges from 14.8 percent (if the eggs were extracted when the woman was 40) to 31.5 percent (if the eggs were extracted when the woman was 25).\n",
"Cryoconservation is limited by the cells and tissues that can be frozen and successfully thawed. Cells and tissues that can be successfully frozen are limited by their surface area. To keep cells and tissues viable, they must be frozen quickly to prevent ice crystal formation. Thus, a large surface area is beneficial. Another limitation is the species being preserved. There have been difficulties using particular methods of cryoconservation with certain species. For example, artificial insemination is more difficult in sheep than cattle, goats, pigs, or horses due to posterior folds in the cervix of ovines. Cryopreservation of embryos is dependent on the species and the stage of development of the embryo. Pig embryos are the most difficult to freeze, thaw, and utilize produce live offspring due to their sensitivity to chilling and high lipid content.\n",
"Cryo-preservation or cryo-conservation is a process where organelles, cells, tissues, extracellular matrix, organs, or any other biological constructs susceptible to damage caused by unregulated chemical kinetics are preserved by cooling to very low temperatures (typically −80 °C using solid carbon dioxide or −196 °C using liquid nitrogen). At low enough temperatures, any enzymatic or chemical activity which might cause damage to the biological material in question is effectively stopped. Cryopreservation methods seek to reach low temperatures without causing additional damage caused by the formation of ice crystals during freezing. Traditional cryopreservation has relied on coating the material to be frozen with a class of molecules termed cryoprotectants. New methods are constantly being investigated due to the inherent toxicity of many cryoprotectants. By default it should be considered that cryopreservation alters or compromises the structure and function of cells unless it is proven otherwise for a particular cell population. Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is the process in which animal genetic material is collected and stored with the intention of conservation of the breed.\n",
"Cryopreservation was applied to humans beginning in 1954 with three pregnancies resulting from the insemination of previously frozen sperm. Fowl sperm was cryopreserved in 1957 by a team of scientists in the UK directed by Christopher Polge. During 1963, Peter Mazur, at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the U.S., demonstrated that lethal intracellular freezing could be avoided if cooling was slow enough to permit sufficient water to leave the cell during progressive freezing of the extracellular fluid. That rate differs between cells of differing size and water permeability: a typical cooling rate around 1 °C/minute is appropriate for many mammalian cells after treatment with cryoprotectants such as glycerol or dimethyl sulphoxide, but the rate is not a universal optimum.\n",
"Oocyte cryopreservation is an option for individuals undergoing IVF who object, either for religious or ethical reasons, to the practice of freezing embryos. Having the option to fertilize only as many eggs as will be utilized in the IVF process, and then freeze any remaining unfertilized eggs can be a solution. In this way, there are no excess embryos created, and there need be no disposition of unused frozen embryos, a practice which can create complex choices for certain individuals.\n"
] |
how do we know that pet euthanasia is truly painless? | First, I'm sorry to hear you're going through this. It's the absolute worst part of owning a pet.
To answer your question, though, pet euthanasia is essentially done with a large dose of anesthesia. Have you ever had surgery? It's the same process, but with an alternative end. The feeling you felt while being put under is the same feeling your pet will feel. No pain at all. They'll slowly drift away peacefully. | [
"People deal with their unwanted pets in many ways. Some people have the pet euthanized (also known as \"putting it down\" or \"putting it to sleep\"), although many veterinarians do not consider this to be an ethical use of their resources for young and healthy animals, while others argue that euthanasia is a more humane option than leaving a pet in a cage for very long periods of time. Other people simply release the pet into the wild or otherwise abandon it, with the expectation that it will be able to take care of itself or that it will be found and adopted. More often, these pets succumb to hunger, weather, traffic, or common and treatable health problems. Some people euthanize pets because of terminal illnesses or injuries, while others even do it for common health problems that they cannot, or will not, pay for treating. More responsible owners will take the pet to a shelter, or call a rescue organization, where it will be cared for properly until a home can be found. One more way is to rehome a dog (find another owner for this dog) that can occur because of allergy to a dog, pet-owner death, divorce, baby born or even relocation. Homes cannot always be found, however, and euthanasia is often used for the excess animals to make room for newer pets, unless the organization has a no-kill policy. The Humane Society of the United States estimates that 2.4 million healthy, adoptable cats and dogs are euthanized each year in the US because of a lack of homes. Animal protection advocates campaign for adoption instead of buying animals in order to reduce the number of animals who have to be euthanized. Many shelters and animal rescues encourage the education of spaying or neutering a pet in order to reduce the number of animals euthanized in shelters and to help control the pet population.\n",
"Recently, PETA have been accused of mass euthanasia of animals within PETA owned shelters in violations with the euthanasia laws of the state of Virginia. These actions have prompted the creation of the no kill movement.\n",
"PETA opposes the no-kill movement, attempts to address the animal-overpopulation crisis at its source through spaying and neutering companion animals as well as by opposing breeders and puppy mills, transfers adoptable animals to open-admission shelters, and euthanizes most of the animals who end up at its \"shelter of last resort.\" According to its 2014 recent filing with the Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (VDACS), PETA euthanized 81 percent of the animals who ended up at its shelter. According to VDACS, PETA took 3,017 animals into its shelters in 2014, of which 2,455 were euthanized, 162 were adopted, 353 were released to other shelters, and 6 were reclaimed by their original owners. The group justifies its euthanasia policies toward animals who are not adopted by saying that it takes in feral cat colonies with diseases such as feline AIDS and leukemia, stray dogs, litters of parvo-infected puppies, and backyard dogs and says that it would be unrealistic to follow a \"no-kill\" policy in such instances. PETA offers free euthanasia services to counties that kill unwanted animals via gassing or shooting—the group recommends the use of an intravenous injection of sodium pentobarbital if administered by a trained professional and for severely ill or dying animals when euthanasia at a veterinarian is unaffordable. The group recommends not breeding pit bulls and supports euthanasia in certain situations for animals in shelters: for example, for those living for long periods in cramped cages.\n",
"PAWS recommends using the methods that cause a rapid loss of consciousness and that cause minimal pain, distress, and suffering in the animal. PAWS opposes any euthanasia methods or techniques that do not meet these humane principles. PAWS opposes “tambucho” gassing and electrocution as methods of euthanasia.\n",
"The Humane Society of the United States reports that about 4 million cats and dogs are euthanized yearly in shelters in the US. But, the NAIA says that the Humane Society does not differentiate in its reporting on euthanasia between the number of adoptable animals and others. For instance, shelters generally consider feral cats as unadoptable, as are a number of dogs that are too old, too sick or have behavior problems.\n",
"The SPCA (HK)'ｓpolicy on animal euthanasia has long been controversial among animal lovers and pet owners. According to the SPCA (HK)'ｓannual report, 4128 animals were put down by the society in 2007 to 08.\n",
"BULLET::::- Euthanasia of Shelter Animals: recognizing that the number of animals in shelter exceeds the number of responsible people available to adopt them, the society condones euthanasia but condemns the use of high-altitude decompression chambers, electrocution, injectable paralytic agents, unfiltered and uncooled carbon monoxide, and drowning for this purpose\n"
] |
Why not send a drone to Mars that can recharge with solar panels? | NASA is considering the possibility of a helicopter drone for a future Mars mission. You can read about this [from NASA](_URL_3_), as well as some articles on others sites, such as [this](http://www._URL_0_/28360-nasa-mars-helicopter-drone.html) (from _URL_0_) and [this](https://www._URL_1_/extreme/229937-nasa-testing-helicopter-drone-to-accompany-next-mars-rover) (from _URL_1_).
Though it's a different kind of thing, there is also consideration of a [glider](_URL_5_). | [
"Although spacecraft are protected by Whipple shields, solar panels, which are exposed to the Sun, wear from low-mass impacts. These produce a cloud of plasma which is an electrical risk to the panels.\n",
"Even at a destination, the SEP system can be configured to provide power to maintain the systems or prevent propellant boil-off before the crew arrives. However, existing flight-qualified solar-electric propulsion is at levels of 1–5 kW. A Mars cargo mission would require ~100 kW, and a crewed flight ~150–300 kW.\n",
"On 25 February 2007, the craft was scheduled for a low-altitude flyby of Mars, to correct the trajectory. This was not without risk, as the estimated altitude of the flyby was a mere . During that encounter, the solar panels could not be used since the craft was in the planet's shadow, where it would not receive any solar light for 15 minutes, causing a dangerous shortage of power. The craft was therefore put into standby mode, with no possibility to communicate, flying on batteries that were originally not designed for this task. This Mars manoeuvre was therefore nicknamed \"The Billion Euro Gamble\". The flyby was successful, with \"Rosetta\" even returning detailed images of the surface and atmosphere of the planet, and the mission continued as planned.\n",
"For a 500-day crewed Mars mission NASA has studied using solar power and nuclear power for its base, as well as power storage systems (e.g. batteries). Some of the challenges for solar power include a reduction in solar intensity because Mars is farther from the sun, dust accumulation, and periodic dust storms, in addition to the usual challenges of solar power such as storing power for the night-time. One of the difficulties is enduring the global Mars dust storms, which cause lower temperatures and reduce sunlight reaching the surface. Two ideas for overcoming this are to use an additional array deployed during a dust storm and to use some nuclear power to provide base-line power that is not affected by the storms. NASA has studied nuclear-power fission systems in the 2010s for Mars surface missions. One design was planned for an output of 40 kilowatts, and its more independent of the sunlight reaching the surface of Mars which can be affected by dust storms.\n",
"Robotic missions do not require an abort capability or radiation minimization, and because modern launchers routinely meet \"instantaneous\" launch windows, space probes to the Moon and other planets generally use direct injection to maximize performance. Although some might coast briefly during the launch sequence, they do not complete one or more full parking orbits before the burn that injects them onto an Earth escape trajectory.\n",
"Using solar power on the Martian surface is challenging because the Martian atmosphere has a significant amount of dust suspended in it. In addition to blocking sunlight from reaching Mars's surface, dust particles gradually settle out of the air and onto objects. As \"Pathfinder\" was NASA's first Mars surface mission to be solar-powered, the effect of Martian dust settling on solar cells was not well understood before the mission. It was predicted at the time that dust particles in the Martian atmosphere would settle on the solar cells powering \"Pathfinder\", blocking sunlight from striking them and slowly causing \"Pathfinder\" to lose power. Since knowing how the settling of dust out of Mars's atmosphere would affect solar cell performance would be critical to subsequent solar-powered missions on Mars, the MAE was included aboard the \"Sojourner\" rover to measure the degradation in performance of a solar cell as dust settled.\n",
"The power to the two orbiter craft was provided by eight 1.57 × 1.23 m solar panels, two on each wing. The solar panels comprised a total of 34,800 solar cells and produced 620 W of power at Mars. Power was also stored in two nickel-cadmium 30-A·h batteries.\n"
] |
Conspiracy people claim the Apollo Astronauts would have been killed by radiation outside of the protection of the Van Allen Belt. How much of this is pseudo science? | Well all of it. Apollo 11 that carried Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin was deliberately launched from the descending node of the geomagnetic plane specifically so that it would be almost completely out of reach of the Van Allen Belts by the time it was far enough away from the Earth to no longer be protected. The trajectory was carefully planned, is very well known, and you can verify this fact for yourself.
The Van Allen Belts aren't like a sphere of death that surrounds the planet.
edit: Also, the title of the post seems to insinuate that space everywhere is deadly radiant and the "Van Allen Belt" is something that protects from it. This is almost the opposite of the truth, the background radiation in space is not terribly harmful, it's the Van Allen Belts themselves that are a deadly concentration of radiation. | [
"Reliable projections for CNS risks from space radiation exposure cannot be made at this time due to a paucity of data on the subject. Existing animal and cellular data do suggest that space radiation can produce neurological and behavioral effects; therefore, it is possible that mission operations will be impacted. The significance of these results on the morbidity to astronauts has not been elucidated, however. It is to be noted that studies, to date, have been carried out with relatively small numbers of animals (10 per dose group); this means that testing of dose threshold effects at lower doses (0.5 Gy) has not yet been carried out to a sufficient extent. As the problem of extrapolating space radiation effects in animals to humans will be a challenge for space radiation research, such research could become limited by the population size that is typically used in animal studies. Furthermore, the role of dose protraction has not been studied to date. An approach has not been discovered to extrapolate existing observations to possible cognitive changes, performance degradation, or late CNS effects in astronauts. Research on new approaches to risk assessment may be needed to provide the data and knowledge that will be necessary to develop risk projection models of the CNS from space radiation. A vigorous research program, which will be required to solve these problems, must rely on new approaches to risk assessment and countermeasure validation because of the absence of useful human radio-epidemiology data in this area.\n",
"1. The astronauts could not have survived the trip because of exposure to radiation from the Van Allen radiation belt and galactic ambient radiation (see radiation poisoning and health threat from cosmic rays). Some conspiracists have suggested that Starfish Prime (a high-altitude nuclear test in 1962) was a failed attempt to disrupt the Van Allen belts.\n",
"Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by solar flares and associated solar particle events (SPEs). Lawrence Townsend of the University of Tennessee and others have studied the overall most powerful solar storm ever recorded. The flare was seen by the British astronomer Richard Carrington in September 1859. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a Carrington-type storm could cause acute radiation sickness and possibly even death. Another storm that could have incurred a lethal radiation dose if astronauts were outside the Earth's protective magnetosphere occurred during the Space Age, in fact, shortly after Apollo 16 landed and before Apollo 17 launched. This solar storm of August 1972 would likely at least have caused acute illness.\n",
"During spaceflight, particularly flights beyond low Earth orbit (LEO), astronauts are exposed to both galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) and solar particle event (SPE) radiation. Evidence indicates past SPE radiation levels that would have been lethal for unprotected astronauts. One possible such event occurred in 1859, but another occurred during the Space Age, in fact in a few months gap between Apollo missions, in early August 1972. GCR levels that might lead to acute radiation poisoning are less well understood.\n",
"Sibrel's claims that the moon landing was a hoax making claims about supposed photographic anomalies; disasters such as the destruction of Apollo 1; technical difficulties experienced in the 1950s and 1960s; and the problems of traversing the Van Allen radiation belts. Sibrel proposes that the most condemning evidence is a piece of footage that he claims was secret, and inadvertently sent to him by NASA; he alleges that the footage shows Apollo 11 astronauts attempting to create the illusion that they were from Earth (or roughly halfway to the Moon) when, he claims, they were only in a low Earth orbit.\n",
"Occurring between Apollo missions, the storm has long been chronicled within NASA. Apollo 16 had returned home in April, and the final Apollo mission was a Moon landing planned for the following December. Those inside an Apollo command module would be shielded from 90% of incoming radiation, which could still have exposed astronauts to radiation sickness if they were located outside the protective magnetic field of Earth, which was the case for much of a lunar mission. A moonwalker or one on EVA in orbit could have faced severe acute illness and potentially a nearly universally fatal dose. An enhanced risk of contracting cancer would have been unavoidable regardless of the location of astronauts or spacecraft. This is one of only a handful of solar storms occurring in the Space Age that could cause severe illness, and was the most hazardous thus far. Had the most intense solar activity of early August occurred during a mission it would have forced contingency measures up to an emergency return landing for medical treatment.\n",
"Mary Bennett and David Percy have claimed in \"Dark Moon: Apollo and the Whistle-Blowers\", that, with all the known and unknown hazards, NASA would not risk broadcasting an astronaut getting sick or dying on live television. The counter-argument generally given is that NASA in fact \"did\" incur a great deal of public humiliation and potential political opposition to the program by losing an entire crew in the Apollo 1 fire during a ground test, leading to its upper management team being questioned by Senate and House of Representatives space oversight committees. There was in fact no video broadcast during either the landing or takeoff because of technological limitations.\n"
] |
how does the body store water? | It gets absorbed and distributed throughout all your cells within your body. It's not really stored anywhere, but when your cells are at a nice hydrated state, any access water that enters your body will go to your bladder, which is why the more water you drink, the clearer, or more like water, your urine gets. | [
"Water is found both inside and outside the body’s cells. It forms part of the blood, helping to carry the blood cells around the body and keeping oxygen and important nutrients in solution so that they can be taken up by tissues such as glands, bone and muscle. Even the organs and muscles are mostly water.\n",
"In physiology, body water is the water content of an animal body that is contained in the tissues, the blood, the bones and elsewhere. The percentages of body water contained in various fluid compartments add up to total body water (TBW). This water makes up a significant fraction of the human body, both by weight and by volume. Ensuring the right amount of body water is part of fluid balance, an aspect of homeostasis.\n",
"Water is the most important substance for life on Earth. It provides the medium in which all metabolic processes proceed. As such it is necessary for the absorption of macronutrients, but it provides no nutritional value in and of itself. Water often contains naturally occurring micronutrients such as calcium and salts, and others can be introduced to the water supply such as chlorine and fluoride for various purposes such as sanitation or dental health.\n",
"Water in the animal body performs a number of functions: as a solvent for transportation of nutrients; as a medium for excretion; a means for heat control; as a lubricant for joints; and for shock absorption.\n",
"About two thirds of the total body water of humans is held in the cells, mostly in the cytosol, and the remainder is found in the extracellular compartment. The extracellular fluids may be divided into three types: interstitial fluid in the \"interstitial compartment\" (surrounding tissue cells and bathing them in a solution of nutrients and other chemicals), blood plasma and lymph in the \"intravascular compartment\" (inside the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels), and small amounts of transcellular fluid such as ocular and cerebrospinal fluids in the \"transcellular compartment\". The interstitial and intravascular compartments readily exchange water and solutes but the third extracellular compartment, the transcellular, is thought of as separate from the other two and not in dynamic equilibrium with them.\n",
"Water is collected from the atmosphere in windtraps that condense the humidity and add it to the underground water store (caches). Water can also be collected from dead animals and people, using a deathstill to remove the water from a corpse for addition to the sietch water store. The Fremen who obtains the body — through discovery or honorable killing — is then given a set of water rings whose markings denote the volume collected. These rings are used as a form of currency, and are backed by fixed volumes of water (analogous to the historical gold standard). For example, the victor of a sanctioned duel would claim his dead opponent's water, and a dead Fremen's water can be inherited by his/her spouse or children. Water rings have a profound significance in matters of birth, death, and courtship ritual.\n",
"The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on body size. To function properly, the body requires between of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, though the British Dietetic Association advises that 2.5 liters of total water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration, including 1.8 liters (6 to 7 glasses) obtained directly from beverages. Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.\n"
] |
dual citizenship | Some countries allow dual citizenships but there are some countries which do not allow it. And then there are some countries which are very vague if they allow it or not.
> Are you responsible for both nation's laws?
As a citizen or non-citizen, you are always responsible for any country's laws. And ignorance is never accepted as an excuse.
> Do you pay two taxes?
For the most part, no. However, the one big exception to this rule is the USA. The USA demands that all USA citizens residing in the USA or abroad earning income, must file for their taxes.
It can get very complicated and expensive and for this reason many USA citizens living abroad have renounced their USA citizenship.
> Can you come and go as you please?
If you have the money, yes.
> Do you have to have two houses?
There is no requirement to own property.
| [
"Based on the U.S. Department of State regulation on dual citizenship (7 FAM 082), the Supreme Court of the United States has stated that dual citizenship is a \"status long recognized in the law\" and that \"a person may have and exercise rights of nationality in two countries and be subject to the responsibilities of both. The mere fact he asserts the rights of one citizenship does not, without more, mean that he renounces the other\", \"Kawakita v. U.S.\", 343 U.S. 717 (1952). In \"Schneider v. Rusk\", 377 U.S. 163 (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a naturalized U.S. citizen has the right to return to his native country and to resume his former citizenship, and also to remain a U.S. citizen even if he never returns to the United States.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dual Nationality does not necessarily refer to two citizenship, it can mean more than that. The definition dual-Citizenship in international law is the base for obtaining MANY citizenships. If, for instance, a person is granted Irish-South African Citizenship AT birth then later on moved to New Zealand, they can obtain New Zealand Citizenship should they wish. This is a common misinterpretation.\n",
"In the United States, dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Contrary to common misconceptions, dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in the United States. As a matter of fact, if a security clearance applicant's dual citizenship is \"based solely on parents' citizenship or birth in a foreign country\", that can be a mitigating condition. However, taking advantage of the entitlements of a non-US citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying one from security clearance and \"is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or the identity of the foreign country\" as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that \"any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government\".\n",
"Later, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2005, expanded the scope of grant of OCI for PIOs of all countries except Pakistan and Bangladesh as long as their home country allows dual citizenship under their local law. It must be noted here that the OCI is not actually a dual citizenship as the Indian constitution forbids dual nationality (Article 9).\n",
"BULLET::::2. If dual citizenship was obtained at birth. Some countries do not accept the \"dual-citizenship-by-birth principle,\" so the concerned person must later choose one citizenship and renounce the other.\n",
"Dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in the USA. If a security clearance applicant's dual citizenship is \"based solely on parents' citizenship or birth in a foreign country\", that can be a mitigating condition. However, \"exercising\" (taking advantage of the entitlements of) a non-U.S. citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession and/or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying from security clearance and \"is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or the identity of the foreign country\" as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that \"any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government\". This guideline has been followed in administrative rulings by the Department of Defense (DoD) Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA) office of Industrial Security Clearance Review (ISCR), which decides cases involving security clearances for Contractor personnel doing classified work for all DoD components. In one such case, an administrative judge ruled that it is not clearly consistent with U.S. national interest to grant a request for a security clearance to an applicant who was a dual national of the United States and Ireland. DOHA can rule on issues involving the granting of security clearances.\n",
"There are a lot of objections against dual citizenship; some are based on the following questions that come to mind. If people hold more than one citizenship, which state is responsible? Are dual citizens subject to two conflicting sets of laws (i.e., marriage and divorce laws) and obligations (i.e., taxes and military duty)? Usually these problems are easily solved. In most cases the laws and obligations of the state in which the person lives need to be followed.\n"
] |
physiologically speaking, how do falls from heights kill people? | Its not the fall that kills you, its the sudden deceleration at the end.
So your body is tough, but its not unbreakable. Hitting concrete at 120 miles per hour (roughly terminal velocity for a human I believe) is a lot of force.
So your bones are breaking into pieces which is going to wreck, rip and tear all sorts of things in your body.
Meanwhile your vital organs (which are being shredded by your now fragmented bones) are smashed into the ground or into the bones around them. This is not good for the organs and most of your insides would be pulp. This includes your brain which is not going to be in great shape having just smashed itself into your unyielding skull.
Then the impact (and bones again) will probably break a lot of blood vessels so internal/external bleeding is a nasty option as well.
End of the day, a whole lot of different stuff combines to just kill you. People have survived falls like this, but those are rare cases. | [
"According to the HSE “Falls from height are one of the biggest causes of workplace fatalities and major injuries. Common causes are falls from ladders and through fragile roofs. The purpose of WAHR is to prevent death and injury from a fall from height.\"\n",
"Falling from height in the workplace accounts for nearly half of fatal injuries per year (on average), the majority of these fatalities are within the Construction Industry. There are roughly 40 fatalities per year from people falling from a height. “The most common hazards associated with scaffolding are falls, falling objects from a higher level of scaffolding, electric shock from nearby power lines and failures of either the scaffolding itself or the planks used as flooring.”\n",
"Jumping from height is the act of jumping from high altitudes, for example, from a window (self-defenestration or auto-defenestration), balcony or roof of a high rise building, cliff, dam or bridge. This method, in most cases, results in severe consequences if the attempt fails, such as paralysis, organ damage, and bone fractures.\n",
"Most people experience a degree of natural fear when exposed to heights, known as the fear of falling. On the other hand, those who have little fear of such exposure are said to have a head for heights. A head for heights is advantageous for those hiking or climbing in mountainous terrain and also in certain jobs such as steeplejacks or wind turbine mechanics. Some people may also be afraid of the high wind, as an addition of falling. This is actually known as added ancraophobia.\n",
"Injuries caused by falls from buildings vary depending on the building's height and the age of the person. Falls from a building's second floor/story (American English) or first floor/storey (British English and equivalent idioms in continental European languages) usually cause injuries but are not fatal. Overall, the height at which 50% of children die from a fall is between four and five storey heights (around ) above the ground.\n",
"A study of 1998 (Joyce & Fleminger) reported that according to the Office of Census and Surveys 1990-1994, 4% of all deaths by suicide were accountable by falling from height or jumping in front of a moving object.\n",
"The fear of falling (FOF), also referred to as basophobia (or basiphobia), is a natural fear and is typical of most humans and mammals, in varying degrees of extremity. It differs from acrophobia (the fear of heights), although the two fears are closely related. The fear of falling encompasses the anxieties accompanying the sensation and the possibly dangerous effects of falling, as opposed to the heights themselves. Those who have little fear of falling may be said to have a head for heights. Basophobia is sometimes associated with astasia-abasia, the fear of walking/standing erect.\n"
] |
how do microchips know time? | Crystal oscillators
[Wikipedia](_URL_1_)
> A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators."
Hope that helps.
You were also asking about the flashing LED
The LED is wired up to another little chip, which again gets its clock from some kind of an crystal oscillator. But you dont need a new crystal for every chip.
It´s possible to divide the clock rate in half by using [JK latches](_URL_0_). (Linking fixed, thanks to droneprime) | [
"Time capture is the concept of making sense of time-related data based on timestamps generated by system software. Software that run on PCs and other digital devices rely on internal software clocks to generate timestamps. In turn, these timestamps serve as the basis for representing when an event has occurred (i.e. when an outgoing call was made), and for how long that event lasted (i.e. the duration of a phone call).\n",
"In March 2016 a security researcher based in Barcelona, demonstrated laboratory techniques using time measurement via JavaScript at the 1-millisecond level could potentially identify and correlate a user's unique mouse movements provided the user has visited the same \"fingerprinting\" website with both the Tor browser and a regular browser. This proof of concept exploits the \"time measurement via JavaScript\" issue which has been an open ticket on the Tor Project for ten months.\n",
"Biometric time clocks are a feature of more advanced time and attendance systems. Rather than using a key, code or chip to identify the user, they rely on a unique attribute of the user, such as a hand print, finger print, finger vein, palm vein, facial recognition, iris or retina. The user will have their attribute scanned into the system. Biometric readers are often used in conjunction with an access control system, granting the user access to a building, and at the same time clocking them in recording the time and date. These systems also attempt to cut down on fraud such as \"buddy clocking.\" When combined with an access control system they can help prevent other types of fraud such as 'ghost employees', where additional identities are added to payroll but don't exist.\n",
"Timepix is device conceptually originating from Medipix-2. It adds two more modes to the pixels, in addition to counting of detected signals: Time-over-Threshold (TOT) and Time-of-Arrival (TOA). The detected pulse height is recorded in the pixel counter in the TOT mode. The TOA mode measures time between trigger and arrival of the radiation into each pixel.\n",
"Time capture software use data mining techniques to index, cleanse and make sense of this data. Applications include automated time tracking, where software can track the time a user spends on various PC-based tasks, such as time in applications, files/documents, web pages (via browser), and emails.\n",
"Microcontrollers operating within embedded systems (such as the Raspberry Pi, Arduino, and other similar systems) do not always have internal hardware to keep track of time. Many such controller systems operate without knowledge of the external time. Those that require such information typically initialize their base time upon rebooting by obtaining the current time from an external source, such as from a time server or external clock, or by prompting the user to manually enter the current time.\n",
"Two layers of encoding make up Unix time. The first layer encodes a point in time as a scalar real number which represents the number of seconds that have passed since 00:00:00UTC Thursday, 1 January 1970. The second layer encodes that number as a sequence of bits or decimal digits.\n"
] |
Does light and sound truly travel in a wave-like manner as we draw it (sine wave), or is the pattern of travel misrepresented by our pictures of the sine wave and the actual travel motion something different? | No, they don't 'travel' in a sine wave. Rather, if you take a sound wave, and you measure the air pressure along its path, you'll notice that you will measure a sine wave in pressure.
Similarly, for light, if you measure the electric field along the path of light, you will measure a sine wave. | [
"For example, when a wave travels through an anisotropic medium, such as light waves through an asymmetric crystal or sound waves through a sedimentary rock, the wave vector may not point exactly in the direction of wave propagation.\n",
"Associated with propagation of a disturbance are several different velocities. For definiteness, consider an amplitude modulated electromagnetic carrier wave. The phase velocity is the speed of the underlying carrier wave. The group velocity is the speed of the modulation or envelope. Initially it was thought that the group velocity coincided with the speed at which \"information\" traveled. However, it turns out that this speed can exceed the speed of light in some circumstances, causing confusion by an apparent conflict with the theory of relativity. That observation led to consideration of what constitutes a \"signal\".\n",
"The direction in which the wave vector points must be distinguished from the \"direction of wave propagation\". The \"direction of wave propagation\" is the direction of a wave's energy flow, and the direction that a small wave packet will move, i.e. the direction of the group velocity. For light waves, this is also the direction of the Poynting vector. On the other hand, the wave vector points in the direction of phase velocity. In other words, the wave vector points in the normal direction to the surfaces of constant phase, also called wavefronts.\n",
"This two-dimensionality, compared with the apparent four-dimensionality of light, is because light travels in rays (0D at a point in time, 1D over time), while by Huygens–Fresnel principle, a sound wave front can be modeled as spherical waves (2D at a point in time, 3D over time): light moves in a single direction (2D of information), while sound simply expands in every direction. However, light travelling in non-vacuous media may scatter in a similar fashion, and the irreversibility or information lost in the scattering is discernible in the apparent loss of a system dimension.\n",
"Travelling waves are the current and voltage waves that creates a disturbance and moves along the transmission line from the sending end of a transmission line to the other end at a constant speed. The travelling wave plays a major role in knowing the voltages and currents at all the points in the power system. These waves also help in designing the insulators, protective equipment, the insulation of the terminal equipment, and overall insulation coordination.\n",
"If a traveling wave has a fixed shape that repeats in space or in time, it is a \"periodic wave\". Such waves are sometimes regarded as having a wavelength even though they are not sinusoidal. As shown in the figure, wavelength is measured between consecutive corresponding points on the waveform.\n",
"Waves that are sinusoidal in time but propagate through a medium whose properties vary with position (an \"inhomogeneous\" medium) may propagate at a velocity that varies with position, and as a result may not be sinusoidal in space. The figure at right shows an example. As the wave slows down, the wavelength gets shorter and the amplitude increases; after a place of maximum response, the short wavelength is associated with a high loss and the wave dies out.\n"
] |
what processes or treatments are performed upon meat to classify it as a carcinogen according to the who study? what can i look for on the nutrition facts label to determine whether it's relatively safe? | The most recent one (about processed or red meat like bacon, sausage, and steak) is actually a report based on over 800 independent studies they've aggregated the information on.
The methods vary, but the results show that consumption of those products leads to an increased cancer risk, thus they are "carcinogens". They do not cause cancer, they've merely shown a link between consumption and raised risk.
It's important to note, almost everything is a carcinogen. So many things, in fact, it's not worth worrying about. There is no labeling to indicate carcinogen status.
For instance: anything that is browned or burned, from toast to roasted garlic to a marshmallow, is carcinogenic. Sunlight is carcinogenic. Birth control pills, alcohol, vinyl chloride (used to make the white PVC pipes in your house), diesel exhaust, ginger, salted fish, wood dust, mineral oil, various dyes, nickle, breathing non-filtered air, and many other things are all in the same "Group 1" of carcinogens, along with many other things. | [
"There are concerns about a relationship between the consumption of meat, in particular processed and red meat, and increased cancer risk. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, \"\"carcinogenic to humans\" (Group 1), based on \"sufficient evidence\" in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer.\" IARC also classified red meat as \"\"probably carcinogenic to humans\" (Group 2A), based on \"limited evidence\" that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and \"strong\" mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect.\"\n",
"The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, \"\"carcinogenic to humans\" (Group 1), based on \"sufficient evidence\" in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer.\" IARC also classified red meat as \"\"probably carcinogenic to humans\" (Group 2A), based on \"limited evidence\" that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and \"strong\" mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect.\" Subsequent studies have shown that taxing processed meat products could save lives, particularly in the West where meat intensive diets are the norm. If the amount of taxation was linked to the level of harm they caused, some processed meats, such as bacon and sausages, would nearly double in price.\n",
"In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, that is, meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, or smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n",
"On 26 October 2015, a Working Group of 22 experts from 10 countries evaluated the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat and classified the consumption of red meat as \"probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A)\", mainly related to colorectal cancer, and to pancreatic and prostate cancer. It also evaluated processed meat to be \"carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)\", due to \"sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer\".\n",
"The International Agency for Research on Cancer at the World Health Organization classifies processed meat as Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans), because the IARC has found sufficient evidence that consumption of processed meat by humans causes colorectal cancer.\n",
"Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n",
"A 2013 systematic review by the German Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) examined more than 1000 epidemiological studies, animal studies, and \"in vitro\" studies. It found that \"no classification and labelling for carcinogenicity is warranted\" and did not recommend a carcinogen classification of either 1A or 1B. It provided the review to EFSA in January 2014 which published it in December 2014.\n"
] |
How did walled cities deal with urban sprawl when walls were critical for city defense? | In the case of Rome, they would just build a new, larger wall around the city. It is important to note that city walls were huge undertakings that were extremely costly, so usually walls were only built when it was believed that the cost of not building a wall would exceed the cost of building one. By the time gunpowder was popular, city walls had generally ceased to be effective enough to merit the investment in their construction. | [
"In the wake of city growth and the ensuing change of defensive strategy, focusing more on the defense of forts around cities, many city walls were demolished. Also, the invention of gunpowder rendered walls less effective, as siege cannons could then be used to blast through walls, allowing armies to simply march through. Today, the presence of former city fortifications can often only be deduced from the presence of ditches, ring roads or parks.\n",
"Many areas did little or nothing to change their city defences, perhaps an indication that they were left untouched by the wars. City walls were either left in their ruinous state or only partially rebuilt. In the case of London, the city was able to avoid being devastated by convincing the York and Lancaster armies to stay out after the inability to recreate the defensive city walls.\n",
"All cities were protected by a city wall (two consecutive walls in the case of Shabwa), with at least two gates, which could be protected by towers. The course of the walls, which was either simply structured or included bastions, had to follow the terrain, especially in mountainous regions, and this is what created irregular city plans. Sometimes cities were protected by citadels, as in Shabwa, Raidan, Qana', and the Citadel of Rada'a.\n",
"Some of the walls were probably enclosing towns for the first time. Others, such as at Worcester, were to extend walls in order to bring suburbs inside the town, or to fund the repair of existing walls, as was the case at Canterbury, to which murage was granted in 1378, 1379, 1385, 1399 and 1402.\n",
"When bastides were founded most had no city walls or fortifications. This was because it was a peaceful time in history, and walls were prohibited by the Treaty of Paris (1229). Fortifications were added later. This was paid for either through a special tax, or carried out through a law that required that the people of the city helped build the walls. A good example is Libourne. Ten years after the city was founded, the people asked for money to build city walls. Once they had received the money, they spent it on making their city prettier, rather than building walls.\n",
"Urban areas outside the city walls, so-called Vorstädte, were often enclosed by their own set of walls and integrated into the defense of the city. These areas were often inhabited by the poorer population and held the \"noxious trades\". In many cities, a new wall was built once the city had grown outside of the old wall. This can often still be seen in the layout of the city, for example in Nördlingen, and sometimes even a few of the old gate towers are preserved, such as the \"white tower\" in Nuremberg. Additional constructions prevented the circumvention of the city, through which many important trade routes passed, thus ensuring that tolls were paid when the caravans passed through the city gates, and that the local market was visited by the trade caravans.\n",
"With increased stability and freedom, many walled cities removed such fortifications as city gates, although many still survive; albeit for historic interest rather than security. Many surviving gates have been heavily restored, rebuilt or new ones created to add to the appearance of a city, such as Bab Bou Jalous in Fes. With increased levels of traffic, city gates have come under threat in the past for impeding the flow of traffic, such as Temple Bar in London which was removed in the 19th century.\n"
] |
Do people transitioning through HRT experience changes in muscle tone and physical ability? | I am unaware of any studies specifically about muscle tone in transgender people, if anyone knows about them I'd love to read up on them.
In terms of policy, the International Olympics Committee recognizes that hormone replacement therapy significantly alters an athlete's abilities. Transgender people who have been on HRT for at least two years and have had sex reassignment surgery are eligible to compete in sports as their recognized gender. | [
"The psychological changes are harder to define, since HRT is usually the first physical action that takes place when transitioning. This fact alone has a significant psychological impact, which is hard to distinguish from hormonally induced changes. Most trans men report an increase of energy and an increased sex drive. Many also report feeling more confident.\n",
"EMG can also be used for indicating the amount of fatigue in a muscle. The following changes in the EMG signal can signify muscle fatigue: an increase in the mean absolute value of the signal, increase in the amplitude and duration of the muscle action potential and an overall shift to lower frequencies. Monitoring the changes of different frequency changes the most common way of using EMG to determine levels of fatigue. The lower conduction velocities enable the slower motor neurons to remain active.\n",
"Neural changes like reduced motor unit discharge rates, increased variability of motor unit discharge activity, altered recruitment and derecruitment behavior mediate modifications in muscle control. On the other hand, physiological deleterious factors including motor unit loss, increased motor unit innervation ratios also affect muscle force. Through strength training, old adults can significantly improve their force control. The rapid adaptation suggests modifications in motor unit activation, increased excitability of motoneuron pool, and decreased antagonist cocontraction.\n",
"This IL-6 increase is also observed during times of increased psychological stress. In a laboratory setting, individuals exposed to psychological stressors have had raised IL-6 (and acute phase protein CRP) measured especially in those who displayed anger or anxiety in response to stressful stimulus. Just as the human body responds to inflammation-inducing illness with increased fatigue or reduced sleep quality, so too does it respond to psychological stress with a sickness behaviour of tiredness and poor sleep quality. While sleep is important for recovery from stress, as with an inflammatory illness, continuous and long term increases of inflammatory markers with its associated behaviours may be considered maladaptive. \n",
"All aforementioned physical changes can, and reportedly do, change the experience of sensation compared to prior to HRT. Areas affected include, but aren't limited to, the basic senses, erogenous stimulus, perception of emotion, perception of social interaction, and processing of feelings and experiences.\n",
"Evidence has shown that increases in strength occur well before muscle hypertrophy, and decreases in strength due to detraining or ceasing to repeat the exercise over an extended period of time precede muscle atrophy. To be specific, strength training enhances motor neuron excitability and induces synaptogenesis, both of which would help in enhancing communication between the nervous system and the muscles themselves. However, neuromuscular efficacy is not altered within a two-week time period following cessation of the muscle usage; instead, it is merely the neuron's ability to excite the muscle that declines in correlation with the muscle's decrease in strength. This confirms that muscle strength is first influenced by the inner neural circuitry, rather than by external physiological changes in the muscle size.\n",
"High intensity exercise has been shown to result in reduced DNA methylation in skeletal muscle. Promoter methylation of PGC-1α and PDK4 were immediately reduced after high intensity exercise, whereas PPAR-γ methylation was not reduced until three hours after exercise. By contrast, six months of exercise in previously sedentary middle-age men resulted in increased methylation in adipose tissue. One study showed a possible increase in global genomic DNA methylation of white blood cells with more physical activity in non-Hispanics.\n"
] |
is there really a difference between large tv screens and computer screens anymore? | Many TVs actually have post-processing in order to make their picture look better than similar competitors. This software causes slight input lag that may not be noticeable for some, but with PC gamers it can be noticeable.
| [
"Recently \"widescreen\" has spread from television to computing where both desktop and laptop computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this may subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls, subtitles or their Taskbar, as opposed to viewing content full-screen.\n",
"When electronics became more advanced, it became clear that adding some extra devices for an OSD was cheaper than adding a second display device. TV screens had become much bigger and could display much more information than a small second display. OSDs display graphical information superimposed over the picture, which is done by synchronizing the reading from OSD video memory with the TV signal.\n",
"The primary reason for this move was considered to be production efficiency - since display panels for TVs use the aspect ratio, it became more efficient for display manufacturers to produce computer display panels in the same aspect ratio as well. A 2008 report by DisplaySearch also cited a number of other reasons, including the ability for PC and monitor manufacturers to expand their product ranges by offering products with wider screens and higher resolutions, helping consumers to adopt such products more easily and \"stimulating the growth of the notebook PC and LCD monitor market\".\n",
"A home screen, homescreen, or start screen is the main screen on a mobile operating system or computer program. Home screens are not identical because users rearrange icons as they please, and home screens often differ across mobile operating systems. Almost every smartphone has some form of home screen, which typically displays links to applications, settings, and notifications.\n",
"Televisions and other displays typically list their size by their diagonal. Given the same diagonal, a 4:3 screen has more area compared to 16:9. For CRT-based technology, an aspect ratio that is closer to square is cheaper to manufacture. The same is true for projectors, and other optical devices such as cameras, camcorders, etc. For LCD and plasma displays, however, the cost is more related to the area. Producing wider and shorter screens can yield the same advertised diagonal, but with less area.\n",
" the majority of desktop and laptop computers used microprocessors compatible with the 32- and 64-bit x86 instruction sets. Smaller portable devices use processors with different and incompatible instruction sets, such as ARM. The difference between larger and smaller devices is such that detailed software operation is different; an application designed to display suitably on a large screen cannot simply be ported to a pocket-sized smartphone with a tiny screen even if the functionality is similar.\n",
"Finally, very terses layouts might better utilize modern wide-screen computer displays. In the past screens were limited to 40 or 80 characters (such limits originated far earlier: manuscripts, printed books, and even scrolls, have for millennia used quite short lines (see for example Gutenberg Bible). Modern screens can easily display 200 or more characters, allowing extremely long lines. Most modern coding styles and standards do not take up that entire width. Thus, if using one window as wide as the screen, a great deal of available space is wasted. On the other hand, with multiple windows, or using an IDE or other tool with various information in side panes, the available width for code is in the range familiar from earlier systems.\n"
] |
Why does drinking whiskey help my throat when it is sore? | When you drink whiskey (and don't have a sore throat) it feels kind of hot and tingly, right? That happens because compounds in the whiskey (primarily alcohol and some tannins) are able to partially turn on the same neurons that normally sense heat and pain. It's a relatively weak effect, and short lived, but it happens.
So, neurons that transmit pain and heat information to the brain run in networks with other neurons that sense benign stimuli like touch and pressure, and these adjacent neurons influence the signalling of one-another. The overall neuron network has a limited information carrying capacity (since neurons can only conduct information at a limited rate, and have a period of time after firing during which they cannot fire again).
Think about a time when you've poked a finger, stubbed a toe, or banged you knee on a table. What did you do next? Probably started shaking your finger, walking around quickly (saying "ouch, ouch, ouch") on the toe, or rubbed your knee. Right? This is behavior that exploits the limited information carrying capacity of the pain network. You flood the neuron "pipe" with benign, non-pain, information and thus effectively block some of the pain signal from getting to the brain.
The whiskey on your sore throat has a similar effect. The neurons that sense warmth and one type of pain get stimulated by the whiskey, and temporarily block the other pain neurons from delivering their "my throat is sore" information to the brain. It also increases the latency period of the pain neurons for a while, meaning they are able to fire less often, and thus deliver less total pain signal to your brain. | [
"Home remedies for throat irritation include gargling with warm water twice a day, sipping honey and lemon mixture or sucking on medicated lozenges. If the cause is dry air, then one should humidify the home. Since smoke irritates the throat, stop smoking and avoid all fumes from chemicals, paints and volatile liquids.\n",
"Also, note that alcohol consumption does not cause chronic gastritis. It does, however, erode the mucosal lining of the stomach; low doses of alcohol stimulate hydrochloric acid secretion. High doses of alcohol do not stimulate secretion of acid.\n",
"In Eastern culture, opium is more commonly used in the form of paregoric to treat diarrhea. This is a weaker solution than laudanum, an alcoholic tincture which was prevalently used as a pain medication and sleeping aid. Tincture of opium has been prescribed for, among other things, severe diarrhea. Taken thirty minutes prior to meals, it significantly slows intestinal motility, giving the intestines greater time to absorb fluid in the stool.\n",
"The eugenol in clove smoke causes a numbing of the throat which can diminish the gag reflex in users, leading researchers to recommend caution for individuals with respiratory infections. There have also been a few cases of aspiration pneumonia in individuals with normal respiratory tracts possibly because of the diminished gag reflex.\n",
"A sore throat is usually from irritation or inflammation. The most common cause (80%) is acute viral pharyngitis, a viral infection of the throat. Other causes include other infections (such as streptococcal pharyngitis), trauma, and tumors. Gastroesophageal (acid) reflux disease can cause stomach acid to back up into the throat and also cause the throat to become sore. In children streptococcal pharyngitis is the cause of 37% of sore throats.\n",
"Studies have shown that heavy drinkers put themselves at greater risk for heart disease and developing potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause higher blood pressure, increased cholesterol levels and weakened heart muscles. Studies have shown that moderate wine drinking can improve the balance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL or \"bad\" cholesterol) to high-density lipoprotein (HDL or \"good\" cholesterol), which has been theorized as to clean up or remove LDL from blocking arteries. The main cause of heart attacks and the pain of angina is the lack of oxygen caused by blood clots and atheromatous plaque build up in the arteries. The alcohol in wine has anticoagulant properties that limits blood clotting by making the platelets in the blood less prone to stick together and reducing the levels of fibrin protein that binds them together.\n",
"This affliction is a common cause of throat irritation. Normally the stomach produces acid in the stomach which is neutralized in the small intestine. To prevent acid from flowing backwards, the lower part of the swallowing tube (esophagus) has a valve which closes after food passes through. In some individuals, this valve becomes incompetent and acid goes up into the esophagus. Reflux episodes often occur at night and one may develop a bitter taste in the mouth. The throat can be severely irritated when acid touches the vocal cords and can lead to spasms of coughing. To prevent throat irritation from reflux, one should lose weight, stop smoking, avoid coffee beverages and sleep with the head elevated.\n"
] |
why is it hard to get a good picture of something that "glows in the dark?" | Your eyes are magnificent sensors, and cameras are not as good. Your eye has adaptive gain control, which allows you to see better in the dark by trading "frame rate" for sensitivity. To get the same effect in a camera, you need a longer exposure. If you have a nice camera and a tripod, you should be able to get great images. The camera on your cell phone just has too small a lens. You eye also slightly blooms glowing objects in a dark space, which the camera would not. | [
"Light direction is very important to the quality of a photoclinometric image. Light that comes from directly over the surface (behind the camera) makes it hard to distinguish the shadows. Multiple light sources are also a problem, since they destroy important shadows required for the algorithms to work properly.\n",
"\"As a painter - when I pick up a camera it becomes a drawing tool. Night photography has so many things about it that fit my aesthetic - a way to truly capture light and movement. Since the light is limited at that time of day and I'm using a hand held camera I can't expect to get a \"picture.\" What I get instead is an image of long exposure red, white, yellow and green light line tracings; from street lights, signals, car and porch lights – the reseeding and approaching sunlight for its beautiful blues and violets and any other accidental light source that finds its way onto the sensor of my camera.\"\n",
"A skilled photographer can manipulate how a viewer is likely to react to the content of a photo by manipulating the lighting. Outdoors that can require changing location, waiting for the ideal time of day or in some cases the ideal time of year for the lighting to create the desired impression in the photo or manipulating the natural lighting by using reflectors or flash. In a studio setting there is no limit to options for lighting objects to ether make them look \"seen by eye\" normal or surreal as the goals for the photograph require. But more often than not the reaction on the part of the view will be from the baseline of whether the lighting seems normal/natural or not compared to other clues. Mistakes less skilled photographer often make when mixing flash and natural lighting is not matching with the flash the highlight and shadow clues seen in the ambient lit background. If the background is illuminated by the setting sun but the face in the foreground appears to have been photographed at noon it will not seem normal because the clues don't match.\n",
"The goal in all photographs is not to create an impression of normality. But as with magic, knowing what the audience normally expects to see required to pull off a lighting strategy which fools the brain or creates an other than normal impression. Light direction relative to the camera can make a round ball appear to be a flat disk or a sphere. The position of highlights and direction and length of shadows will provide other clues to shape and outdoors the time of day. The tone of the shadows on an object or provide contextual clues about the time of day or environment and by inference based on personal experience the mood of person.\n",
"You will catch these pictures on a piece of white paper, which placed vertically in the room not far from that opening, and you will see all the above-mentioned objects on this paper in their natural shapes or colors, but they will appear smaller and upside down, on account of crossing of the rays at that aperture. If these pictures originate from a place which is illuminated by the sun, they will appear colored on the paper exactly as they are. The paper should be very thin and must be viewed from the back.\n",
"Photographic lighting is the illumination of scenes to be photographed. A photograph simply records patterns of light, color, and shade; lighting is all-important in controlling the image. In many cases even illumination is desired to give an accurate rendition of the scene. In other cases the direction, brightness, and color of light are manipulated for effect. Lighting is particularly important for monochrome photography, where there is no color information, only the interplay of highlights and shadows. Lighting and exposure are used to create effects such as low-key and high-key.\n",
"Using just a key light results in a high-contrast scene, especially if the background is not illuminated. A fill light decreases contrast and adds more details to the dark areas of an image. An alternative to the fill light is to reflect existing light or to illuminate other objects in the scene (which in turn further illuminate the subject).\n"
] |
What should I know about Arendt before reading her? The good and bad. | Here is a [haAretz article on what's controversial with her writings on Eichmann](_URL_1_). [That controversy was made into a film](_URL_0_).
For her writings on Totalitarianism she had no access to Russian language sources. She relies on the sayings out of date with what she is using them for not sourced and taken, as google reveals, from news papers, from Trotskist pamphlets etc.
In her «Reflections on Little Rock» she voiced opposition towards Black Suffrage in US America.
Her support for Heidegger was controversial because Heidegger would refuse to show remorse for what he had done in the Nazi regime. | [
"Dan Gardner argues that Ehrlich has been insufficiently forthright in acknowledging errors he made, while being intellectually dishonest or evasive in taking credit for things he claims he got \"right\". For example, he rarely acknowledges the mistakes he made in predicting material shortages, massive death tolls from starvation (as many as one billion in the publication \"Age of Affluence\") or regarding the disastrous effects on specific countries. Meanwhile, he is happy to claim credit for \"predicting\" the increase of AIDS or global warming. However, in the case of disease, Ehrlich had predicted the increase of a disease based on overcrowding, or the weakened immune systems of starving people, so it is \"a stretch to see this as forecasting the emergence of AIDS in the 1980s.\" Similarly, global warming was one of the scenarios that Ehrlich described, so claiming credit for it, while disavowing responsibility for failed scenarios is a double standard. Gardner believes that Ehrlich is displaying classical signs of cognitive dissonance, and that his failure to acknowledge obvious errors of his own judgement render his current thinking suspect.\n",
"Schildt's books have a reputation for being riddled with errors. Their technical accuracy has been challenged by many reviewers, including ISO C committee members Peter Seebach and Clive Feather, C FAQ author Steve Summit, and numerous \"C Vu\" reviewers from the Association of C and C++ Users (ACCU).\n",
"Journalist Dan Gardner has criticized Ehrlich both for his overconfident predictions and his refusal to acknowledge his errors. \"In two lengthy interviews, Ehrlich admitted making not a single major error in the popular works he published in the late 1960s and early 1970s … the only flat-out mistake Ehrlich acknowledges is missing the destruction of the rain forests, which happens to be a point that supports and strengthens his world view—and is therefore, in cognitive dissonance terms, not a mistake at all. Beyond that, he was by his account, off a little here and there, but only because the information he got from others was wrong. Basically, he was right across the board.\"\n",
"Weil has been criticized for specific cases where he has appeared to reject aspects of evidence-based medicine, or promote unverified beliefs; and critiques by scientific watchdog organizations for his failing to disclaim in cases of his writings that have had connections to his own commercial interests, as well as for his and his peers downplaying social, structural, and environmental factors that contribute to the etiology of disease in the West, and for the clear component of entrepreneurialism associated with his establishing his brand of health care services and products. He refused to be interviewed by \"Frontline\" for their January 19, 2016 episode about health supplements.\n",
"As he told \"The Observer\", \"The last bit of the book is very foody. But that is how it was. Towards the end I finally get rid of these two people in my life I did not like [his father and stepmother, who had been the family's cleaning lady]—and to be honest I was really very jubilant—and thereafter all I wanted to do was cook.\" Slater's negative portrayal of his stepmother is challenged, however, by his stepsisters.\n",
"Arendt was profoundly shocked by the response, writing to Karl Jaspers \"People are resorting to any means to destroy my reputation ... They have spent weeks trying to find something in my past that they can hang on me\". Now she was being called arrogant, heartless and ill-informed. She was accused of being duped by Eichmann, of being a \"self-hating Jewess\", and even an enemy of Israel. Her critics included The Anti-Defamation League and many other Jewish groups, editors of publications she was a contributor to, faculty at the universities she taught at and friends from all parts of her life. Her friend Gershom Scholem, a major scholar of Jewish mysticism, broke off relations with her, publishing their correspondence without her permission. Arendt was criticized by many Jewish public figures, who charged her with coldness and lack of sympathy for the victims of the Holocaust. Because of this lingering criticism neither this book nor any of her other works were translated into Hebrew until 1999. Arendt responded to the controversies in the book's Postscript.\n",
"The story relates Ashenden's recollections of his past associations with the Driffields, especially Rosie. Due to his intimate association with her he hesitates to reveal how much information he will divulge to Driffield's second wife and Kear, who ostensibly wants a \"complete\" picture of the famous author, but who routinely glosses over the untoward stories that might upset Driffield's surviving wife. Ashenden holds the key to the deep mystery of love, and the act of love, in the life of each character, as he recounts a history of creativity, infidelity and literary memory.\n"
] |
the relationship between the legislative, judicial and executive branches of the us government. | They're mutually independent branches of government that have (many) various, different responsibilities and, generally, have the capacity to limit the actions of one another. | [
"The executive branch is headed by the president and is formally independent of both the legislature and the judiciary. The cabinet serves as a set of advisers to the president. They include the vice president and heads of the executive departments. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch (or judiciary), composed of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, exercises judicial power. The judiciary's function is to interpret the United States Constitution and federal laws and regulations. This includes resolving disputes between the executive and legislative branches. The federal government's structure is codified in the Constitution.\n",
"The executive power is exercised by the executive branch, which is headed by the President, advised by a cabinet of secretaries that are independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary and the collegiate, unitary and district tribunals.\n",
"The executive power is exercised by the executive branch, which is headed by the president and his Cabinet, which, together, are independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a bicameral legislature comprising the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary, and the collegiate, unitary, and district courts.\n",
"The Government consists of three branches: executive, legislative and judicial. The Executive branch consists of the Cabinet and is led by the Prime Minister. It is totally independent of the legislative branch that consists of a bicameral parliament. The Upper House is the Senate whilst the National Assembly is the lower house. The Judicial branch forms with the composition of the Supreme Court as an apex court, alongside the high courts and other inferior courts. The judiciary's function is to interpret the Constitution and federal laws and regulations.\n",
"Executive power is exercised by the executive, headed by the President, advised by a Cabinet of Ministers. The President is both the head of state and the head of government. Legislative power is vested upon the National Congress, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Federal Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Federal Court, the Superior Court of Justice and other Superior Courts, the National Justice Council and the regional federal courts.\n",
"The executive branch is headed by the president, who is also the chief of state and of the army. The legislative branch consists of the Union of Congress and is divided into an upper and lower chamber. The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation and does not participate in federal elections.\n",
"The federal government exercises control over the central government and is divided into three independent branches: executive, legislative and judicial. Executive power is exercised by the President, advised by a cabinet. Legislative power is vested upon the National Congress, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Federal Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Federal Court, the Superior Court of Justice and other Superior Courts, the National Justice Council and the Regional Federal Courts.\n"
] |
what is a power over ethernet interface module | Some modern networking equipment can get power via the Ethernet cord along with network access. You see it in devices that may be hardwired with ethernet, but that would otherwise be difficult to get power to - like security cameras, access points and conference phones.
However, in order for Power over Ethernet (PoE) to work, you need a router that can do PoE. If you don't have a router that supports it, you can get a PoE Interface module that connects after the router and supplies the power. | [
"Power over Ethernet or PoE describes any of several standard or ad-hoc systems which pass electric power along with data on twisted pair Ethernet cabling. This allows a single cable to provide both data connection and electric power to devices such as wireless access points, IP cameras, and VoIP phones.\n",
"The I/O subsystem provides the system with an 8-bit single-ended SCSI bus, 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, serial line, the Serial Desktop Bus and analog audio. SCSI is provided by a NCR 53C94 ASC (Advanced SCSI Controller). Ethernet is provided by an AMD Am7990 LANCE (Local Area Network Controller for Ethernet) and an AMD Am7992 SIA (Serial Interface Adapter) that implements the AUI interface. A single serial port capable of 50 to 19,200 baud with full modem control capability is provided by a Zilog Z85C30 SCC (Serial Communications Controller). Analog audio and ISDN support is provided by an AMD 79C30A DSC (Digital Subscriber Controller). These devices are connected to IOCTL ASIC via two 8-bit buses or one 16-bit bus. The ASIC interfaces the subsystem to the TURBOchannel interconnect.\n",
"The I/O subsystem provides the DEC 3000 AXP with Ethernet, ISDN and audio capability, four serial lines, and a real time clock. The I/O subsystem is interfaced to TURBOchannel by the IOCTL ASIC, which also implements two 8-bit buses, known as IOBUS HI and IOBUS LO, to which the I/O devices connect to. These two 8-bit buses can be combined to serve as one 16-bit bus to provide an I/O device with more bandwidth. Ethernet is provided by an AMD Am7990 LANCE (Local Area Network Controller for Ethernet), an AMD Am7992 SIA (Serial Interface Adapter) that implements the 10BASE-T or AUI Ethernet interface, and an ESAR (Ethernet Station Address ROM) that stores the MAC address. The Am7990 is the only I/O device in the subsystem to have a 16-bit interface to the IOCTL ASIC. ISDN and telephone-quality audio is provided by an AMD Am79C30A DSC (Digital Subscriber Controller). The four serial lines are provided by two Zilog Z85C30 SCC (Serial Communications Controller) dual UARTs, and the real time clock is a Dallas Semiconductor DS1287A.\n",
"Ethernet Local Management Interface (E-LMI) is an Ethernet layer operation, administration, and management (OAM) protocol defined by the Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF) for Carrier Ethernet networks. It provides information that enables auto configuration of customer edge (CE) devices.\n",
"\"Power sourcing equipment\" (PSE) are devices that provide (\"source\") power on the Ethernet cable. This device may be a network switch, commonly called an \"endspan\" (IEEE 802.3af refers to it as \"endpoint\"), or an intermediary device between a non-PoE-capable switch and a PoE device, an external PoE \"injector\", called a \"midspan\" device.\n",
"Energy-Efficient Ethernet (EEE) is a set of enhancements to the twisted-pair and backplane Ethernet family of computer networking standards that reduce power consumption during periods of low data activity. The intention is to reduce power consumption by 50% or more, while retaining full compatibility with existing equipment.\n",
"Virtual Distributed Ethernet is a set of programs to provide virtual software-defined Ethernet Network Interface Controllers across multiple devices, typically computers, which are either virtual or physical. It forms part of the Virtual Square project from the Italian Bologna University whose code is available on public servers using free software licenses, mostly GPLv2. Researchers at the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Xavier University, Cincinnati OH are also working on the project.\n"
] |
what happens to money lost due to depreciation? | The $5000 wasn't lost. The guy you bought the car from has it. | [
"Depreciation has been defined as the diminution in the utility or value of an asset. Depreciation is a non cash expense. It does not result in any cash outflow. Causes of depreciation are natural wear and tear.\n",
"Depreciation is applied to tangible assets when those assets have an anticipated lifespan of more than one year. This process of depreciation is used instead of allocating the entire expense to one year.\n",
"Depreciation expense does not require current outlay of cash. However, since depreciation is an expense to the P&L account, provided the enterprise is operating in a manner that covers its expenses (e.g. operating at a profit) depreciation is a source of cash in a statement of cash flows, which generally offsets the cash cost of acquiring new assets required to continue operations when existing assets reach the end of their useful lives.\n",
"While depreciation expense is recorded on the income statement of a business, its impact is generally recorded in a separate account and disclosed on the balance sheet as accumulated under fixed assets, according to most accounting principles. Accumulated depreciation is known as a contra account, because it separately shows a negative amount that is directly associated an accumulated depreciation account on the balance sheet, depreciation expense is usually charged against the relevant asset directly. The values of the fixed assets stated on the balance sheet will decline, even if the business has not invested in or disposed of any assets. The amounts will roughly approximate fair value. Otherwise, depreciation expense is charged against accumulated depreciation. Showing accumulated depreciation separately on the balance sheet has the effect of preserving the historical cost of assets on the balance sheet. If there have been no investments or dispositions in fixed assets for the year, then the values of the assets will be the same on the balance sheet for the current and prior year (P/Y).\n",
"The fact that assets and material in the real world eventually wear down, and thence break, is a situation that must be accounted for. Depreciation itself is defined by the decreasing of value of any given asset, though some exceptions do exist. Valuation can be considered the basis for depreciation in a basic sense, as any decrease in \"value\" would be based on an \"original value\". The idea and existence of depreciation becomes especially relevant to engineering and project management is the fact that capital equipment and assets used in operations will slowly decrease in worth, which will also coincide with an increase in the likelihood of machine failure. Hence the recording and calculation of depreciation is important for two major reasons.\n",
"Depreciation is a corresponding concept for tangible assets. Methodologies for allocating amortization to each accounting period are generally the same as these for depreciation. However, many intangible assets such as goodwill or certain brands may be deemed to have an indefinite useful life and are therefore not subject to amortization (although goodwill is subjected to an impairment test every year).\n",
"If creditors (note holders of gold originally deposited) lost faith in the ability of a bank to pay their notes, however, many would try to redeem their notes at the same time. If, in response, a bank could not raise enough funds by calling in loans or selling bills, the bank would either go into insolvency or default on its notes. Such a situation is called a bank run and caused the demise of many early banks.\n"
] |
How was it like on Earth immediately after the impact that formed the moon? | I think the prevailing theory is that the impact was so energetic that within hours the entire surface of the planet was raised to somewhere in the neighborhood of 3,000 degrees Celsius, meaning that it was entirely molten rock and a great deal of vaporized rock as well. If there was liquid water on the Earth before the impact, it was certainly vaporized, so I guess that means sea levels would have risen, in so far as they were all up in the air somewhere.
I imagine that for a short while the Earth looked like a little, tiny star. Not even remotely as bright since the light would have been black body radiation from the molten rock, rather than light emitted from fusion reactions, but still, a cute, tiny little star.
Check this out: _URL_0_
Edit: FYI, the real jam starts right around 5:50 | [
"Samples brought back from the Apollo program showed that the Moon was composed of the same material as the mantle of the Earth. This surprising result was still unexplained in the early 1970s, when Cameron began work on an explanation of the Moon's origins. He theorized that the formation of the Moon was the result of a tangential impact of an object at least the size of Mars on the early Earth. In this model, the outer silicates of the body hitting the Earth would be vaporized, whereas a metallic core would not. The more volatile materials that were emitted during the collision would escape the Solar System, whereas silicates would tend to coalesce. Hence, most of the collisional material sent into orbit would consist of silicates, leaving the coalescing Moon deficient in iron and volatile materials, such as water.\n",
"Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a large planetoid with the Earth. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. More recent potassium isotopic studies suggest that the Moon was formed by a smaller, high-energy, high-angular-momentum giant impact cleaving off a significant portion of the Earth. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.\n",
"The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but actually were formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form. Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be a caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera.\n",
"The prevailing hypothesis is that the Earth–Moon system formed after an impact of a Mars-sized body (named \"Theia\") with the proto-Earth (giant impact). The impact blasted material into Earth's orbit and then the material accreted and formed the Moon.\n",
"A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya. A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object, named Theia, hit Earth. In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth, it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth. Between approximately 4.1 and , numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.\n",
"Grove Karl Gilbert suggested in 1893 that the Moon's craters were formed by large asteroid impacts. Ralph Baldwin in 1949 wrote that the Moon's craters were mostly of impact origin. Around 1960, Gene Shoemaker revived the idea. According to David H. Levy, Gene \"saw the craters on the Moon as logical impact sites that were formed not gradually, in eons, but explosively, in seconds.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Research by UCLA provides further evidence that the Moon was formed by a violent, head-on collision between the early Earth and a “planetary embryo” called Theia, roughly 100 million years after the Earth formed.\n"
] |
why were old movies like "gone with the wind" and "wizard of oz" in color when movies were still in black in white until the late 50s/early 60s | Technicolor was cumbersome and required expensive specialty cameras and lighting. It was at first only suitable for big-budget pictures, sort of like 3D today.
Also, many directors preferred black and white for stylistic reasons. This is even true today; look at Schindler's List.
Edit: Jesus, I get it. Schindler's List is over twenty years old. You're all very clever for pointing that out.
My point was that it was made in black and white for stylistic purposes even though color film was cheap and had long become the norm. | [
"Richard O'Brien originally intended for the film to be in black and white for the first 20 minutes and turning to color when Frank-N-Furter appeared, starting with red color on his lipstick and spreading color throughout the picture as the song continued—a direct allusion to \"The Wizard of Oz\". It was vetoed by 20th Century Fox for a more conventional look. In the 25th Anniversary DVD, an Easter egg appears that converts the film to a semblance of O'Brien's original vision, with the film switching to color instantly when Riff Raff swings open the doorway during the Time Warp.\n",
"Like \"The Wizard of Oz\", the film utilizes the contrast of color and black-and-white as a narrative device. In this case, the black-and-white represents the sadness and despair brought about by the storm.\n",
"From the beginning \"The Wizard of Oz\" was telecast in color, although few people owned color television sets in 1956. Except for 1961, all U.S. telecasts have been in color, an effect that seemed much more striking in the early 1960s, when there were still relatively few color programs on television. It was not televised in color in 1961 because color telecasts had to be paid for by their sponsors, who declined to do so that year. Between 1956 and 1965, the \"Wizard of Oz\" showings were rare exceptions to the black and white program schedule at CBS. During this period, CBS had the ability to broadcast programs in color, but generally chose not to do so unless a sponsor paid for a film or program to be shown in color. During this period, the competing network NBC was owned by RCA, which by 1960 manufactured 95% of the color sets sold in the U.S. Hence, CBS perceived that increased use of color broadcasting would primarily benefit its rival by promoting sales of RCA color television sets.\n",
"Since the late 1960s, few mainstream films have been shot in black-and-white. The reasons are frequently commercial, as it is difficult to sell a film for television broadcasting if the film is not in color. 1961 was the last year in which the majority of Hollywood films were released in black and white.\n",
"\"The Wizard of Oz\" (1939) is in color when Dorothy is in Oz, but in black-and-white when she is in Kansas, although the latter scenes were actually in sepia when the film was originally released. In a similar manner, in \"Stalker\" (1979), the \"zone\", in which natural laws do not apply, is in colour, and the world outside the \"zone\" generally in sepia. In contrast, the British film \"A Matter of Life and Death\" (1946) depicts the other world in black-and-white (a character says \"one is starved of Technicolor … up there\"), and earthly events in color. Similarly, Wim Wenders's film \"Wings of Desire\" (1987) uses sepia-tone black-and-white for the scenes shot from the angels' perspective. When Damiel, the angel (the film's main character), becomes a human the film changes to color, emphasising his new \"real life\" view of the world.\n",
"Very few of the original camera negatives of movies made in Technicolor Process 2 or 3 survive. In the late 1940s, most were discarded from storage at Technicolor in a space-clearing move, after the studios declined to reclaim the materials. Original Technicolor prints that survived into the 1950s were often used to make black-and-white prints for television and simply discarded thereafter. This explains why so many early color films exist today solely in black and white.\n",
"The film is introduced by George Burns, who tells viewers that they were about to see an old-style double feature. In the old days, he explains, movies were in black-and-white, except sometimes \"when they sang it came out in color.\"\n"
] |
Geologists: What forces caused these adjacent mountain formations to end up looking so different? | Looks like the darker mountains are cinder cones of volcanic origin. | [
"At the time of their deposition the rocks of the Northern Limestone Alps were located several hundred kilometres south of their present position. About 35 million years ago, tectonic forces, that are still active today, began to push these geological units northwards. At that time several kilometres of rock and several hundred metres of water lay on top of the rocks visible today. As a result there was a massive overlapping pressure that prevented the formations underneath from breaking up as they were pushed together.\n",
"The formation of the Rocky Mountains began in the Late Cretaceous Period and finished in the Early Tertiary Period. The pressure on the fault line caused thousands of metres of rock to thrust upward. The contorted beds near the summit of Mount Michener are visible evidence of the tremendous force that caused its formation. A system of limestone caves does exist within the mountain, but they remain undocumented.\n",
"The chain-like arrangement of summits and the formation of long, jagged mountain crests – known in Spanish as sierras (\"saws\") – is a consequence of their collective formation by mountain building forces. The often linear structure is linked to the direction of these thrust forces and the resulting mountain folding which in turn relates to the fault lines in the upper part of the earth's crust, that run between the individual mountain chains. In these fault zones, the rock, which has sometimes been pulverised, is easily eroded, so that large river valleys are carved out. These, so called longitudinal valleys reinforce the trend, during the early mountain building phase, towards the formation of parallel chains of mountains.\n",
"The tendency, especially of fold mountains (e. g. the Cordilleras) to produce roughly parallel chains is due to their rock structure and the propulsive forces of plate tectonics. The uplifted rock masses are either magmatic plutonic rocks, easily shaped because of their higher temperature, or sediments or metamorphic rocks, which have a less robust structure, that are deposited in the synclines. As a result of orogenic movements, strata of folded rock are formed that are crumpled out of their original horizontal plane and thrust against one another. The longitudinal stretching of the folds takes place at right angles to the direction of the lateral thrusting. The overthrust folds of a nappe belt (e.g. the Central Alps) are formed in a similar way.\n",
"Further south, an unusual subduction may have caused the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States, where the Farallon plate dove at a shallow angle below the North American plate. This low angle moved the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than the normal . Scientists hypothesize that the shallow angle of the subducting plate increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous thrusts piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the broad, high Rocky Mountain range.\n",
"These mountains were created when the surface of the earth was being stretched, forming a horst or a pulling force, forming grabens. The crust ruptured because of this force, and as a result, lava erupted and ended up deposited on top of the preceding sedimentary rock.\n",
"The mountains' geological history began in tropical climes, on the edge of a broad and shallow sea: the Alpine Tethys. To begin with, material was deposited that had been washed into the sea from the land; then the sea level rose and limestone-forming organisms began to populate it. Marine deposits that were near the shore, made of limestones, dolomitic rocks and breccias, are still layered in places in a narrow strip of land between Langlehn and Igelskar (Reichenhall Strata). Because they weather relatively easily, they form cols (\"Scharte\") and \"Törle\" like the \"Biberwierer Scharte\" or the \"Tajatörl\".\n"
] |
why does the weather say 39 but "feels like 30" wouldnt it just be 30 outside? | Ambient temperature in a general area VS perceived temperature due to humidity and wind chill making it colder. | [
"It is the approximate southern border of the horse latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, meaning that much of the land area touching the 30th parallel is arid or semi-arid. If there is a source of wind from a body of water the area would more likely be subtropical.\n",
"It is in Earth's middle latitudes, between roughly 30° to 60° North and South, that a significant portion of \"weather\" can be said to happen, that is, where meteorological phenomena do not persist over the long term, and where it may be warm, sunny, and calm one day, and cold, overcast and stormy the next.\n",
"Weather folklore, therefore, refers to this mid-latitude region of daily variability. While most of it applies equally to the Southern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere resident may need to take into account the fact that weather systems rotate opposite to those in the North. For instance, the \"crossed winds\" rule (see below) must be reversed for the Australian reader.\n",
"BULLET::::- Due to the thin atmosphere, the temperature difference between day and night is much larger than on Earth, typically around 70 °C (125 °F). However, the day/night temperature variation is much lower during dust storms when very little light gets through to the surface even during the day, and instead warms the middle atmosphere.\n",
"Due to its latitude temperatures can vary wildly, especially in the summer when there is a large night-day difference. There is a train station situated in Diamante, which is linked to major cities like Naples and Messina.\n",
"Heavy Weather is a novel by P. G. Wodehouse, first published in the United States on 28 July 1933 by Little, Brown and Company, Boston, and in the United Kingdom on 10 August 1933 by Herbert Jenkins, London. It had been serialised in \"The Saturday Evening Post\" from 27 May to 15 July 1933.\n",
"The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude, and a range of geographic features, including mountains and deserts. Generally, on the mainland, the climate of the U.S. becomes warmer the further south one travels, and drier the further west, until one reaches the West Coast.\n"
] |
Does rinsing or just running water over my hands without soap after using the bathroom do anything? | I dont think that rubbing your hands together will kill bacteria. They are too small to unfluence that way.
About the hot and cold water. You would need to put your hand in boiling water for an extended amount of time (hours) before it even remotely kills enough bacteria to be considered clean. And switching between hot and cold probably isnt gonna cut it either.
As already said the water makes it easier for bacteria to get loose from your hands. So that woulf only spread more.
Best case scenario: wash with water and soap and dry using a (papr) towel and not those blowers | [
"Washing hands with soap and water eliminates microorganisms from the skin and hands. This provides some protection against transmission of VHF and other diseases. This requires at least cake soap cut into small pieces, soap dishes with openings that allow water to drain away, running water or a bucket kept full with clean water, a bucket for collecting rinse water and a ladle for dipping, if running water is not available, and one-use towels.\n",
"Hand dishwashing detergents utilize surfactants to play the primary role in cleaning. The reduced surface tension of dishwashing water, and increasing solubility of modern surfactant mixtures, allows the water to run off the dishes in a dish rack very quickly. However, most people also rinse the dishes with pure water to make sure to get rid of any soap residue that could affect the taste of the food.\n",
"In use, the shaving brush is dunked into the wide spout, allowing it to soak into the water and heat up. The soap is placed in the soap holder. When needed, one can take the brush and brush it against the soap, bringing up a layer of lather; excess water is drained back. This allows conservation of water and soap, whilst retaining enough heat to ensure a long shave.\n",
"There are certain situations during which hand washing with water and soap are preferred over hand sanitizer, these include: eliminating bacterial spores of \"Clostridioides difficile\", parasites such as \"Cryptosporidium\", and certain viruses like norovirus depending on the concentration of alcohol in the sanitizer (95% alcohol was seen to be most effective in eliminating most viruses). In addition, if hands are contaminated with fluids or other visible contaminates, hand washing is preferred as well as when after using the toilet and if discomfort develops from the residue of alcohol sanitizer use. Furthermore, CDC recommends hand sanitizers are not effective in removing chemicals such as pesticides.\n",
"BULLET::::- Handwashing Hygiene: Frequent handwashing with soap and water (or with an alcohol-based hand sanitizer) is very important, especially after coughing or sneezing, and after contact with other people or with potentially contaminated surfaces (such as handrails, shared utensils, etc.)\n",
"Hand sanitizer is a liquid generally used to decrease infectious agents on the hands. Formulations of the alcohol-based type are preferable to hand washing with soap and water in most situations in the healthcare setting. It is generally more effective at killing microorganisms and better tolerated than soap and water. Hand washing should still be carried out if contamination can be seen or following the use of the toilet. The general use of non-alcohol based versions has no recommendations. Outside the health care setting evidence to support the use of hand sanitizer over hand washing is poor. They are available as liquids, gels, and foams.\n",
"A hard shaving soap is used with a shaving brush to create lather for shaving. For soap in the form of a puck or bar, the brush is first soaked in water and then swirled vigorously over the surface of the soap, causing moist soap to coat the brush's bristles. The brush is then transferred either to a separate bowl or to the shaver's face to be lathered.\n"
] |
why does beer make you crave salty/fatty food? | Alcohol releases dopamine in your brain, when it starts to wear off you start looking for something else that will release dopamine.
Fat and salt are particular good for this (to do with evolution of humans.) | [
"Several colloquial terms used to refer to central obesity, and to people who have it, refer to beer drinking. However, there is little scientific evidence that beer drinkers are more prone to central obesity, despite its being known colloquially as \"beer belly\", \"beer gut\", or \"beer pot\". One of the few studies conducted on the subject did not find that beer drinkers are more prone to central obesity than nondrinkers or drinkers of wine or spirits. Chronic alcoholism can lead to cirrhosis, symptoms of which include gynecomastia (enlarged breasts) and ascites (abdominal fluid). These symptoms can suggest the appearance of central obesity.\n",
"Fatty alcohols are mainly used in the production of detergents and surfactants. They are components also of cosmetics, foods, and as industrial solvents. Due to their amphipathic nature, fatty alcohols behave as nonionic surfactants. They find use as co-emulsifiers, emollients and thickeners in cosmetics and food industry. About 50% of fatty alcohols used commercially are of natural origin, the remainder being synthetic.\n",
"Alcohol affects the nutritional state of the chronic drinkers. It can decrease food consumption and lead to malabsorption. It can create imbalance in the skeletal muscle mass and cause muscle wasting. Chronic consumption alcohol can also increase breakdown of important proteins in our body which can affect gene expression.\n",
"It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly, rather than beer consumption. A 2004 study, however, found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption, it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself. Several diet books quote beer as having an undesirably high glycemic index of 110, the same as maltose; however, the maltose in beer undergoes metabolism by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose.\n",
"Though all lagers are well attenuated, a more fully fermented pale lager in Germany goes by the name \"Diät-Pils\" or \"\". \"Diet\" in the instance not referring to being \"light\" in calories or body, rather its sugars are fully fermented into alcohol, allowing the beer to be targeted to diabetics due to its lower carbohydrate content. Because the available sugars are fully fermented, dry beers often have a higher alcohol content, which may be reduced in the same manner as low-alcohol beers. \n",
"With an ever growing health conscious market segment, breweries began to produce craft non-alcoholic beers with as little as 10 calories per can, so that those who crave beer can fulfill their cravings without breaking their health resolution.\n",
"Light beers with significantly lower alcohol content allow consumers to drink more beers in a shorter period without becoming intoxicated. Low alcohol content can also mean a less expensive beer, especially where excise is determined by alcohol content.\n"
] |
how do usb plugs built in to outlets work with phones and other devices that use usb? don’t you need to convert ac to dc? | There is either a converter built into the wall before the usb. So it goes wires > converter > USB. Or the cube is used because the normal outlet uses the two prongs and not USB. | [
"Since the Universal Serial Bus specification provides for a five-volt power supply (with limited maximum power), it is possible to use a USB cable to connect a device to a power supply. Products based on this approach include chargers for cellular phones, portable digital audio players, and tablet computers. They may be fully compliant USB peripheral devices adhering to USB power discipline, or uncontrolled in the manner of USB decorations.\n",
"USB connector types multiplied as the specification progressed. The original USB specification detailed standard-A and standard-B plugs and receptacles.The connectors were different so that users could not connect one computer receptacle to another. The data pins in the standard plugs are recessed compared to the power pins,so that the device can power up before establishing a data connection. Some devices operate in different modes depending on whether the data connection is made. Charging docks supply power and do not include a host device or data pins, allowing any capable USB device to charge or operate from a standard USB cable. Charging cables provide power connections, but not data. In a charge-only cable, the data wires are shorted at the device end, otherwise the device may reject the charger as unsuitable.\n",
"USB connector types multiplied as the specification progressed. The original USB specification detailed standard-A and standard-B plugs and receptacles. The connectors were different so that users could not connect one computer receptacle to another. The data pins in the standard plugs are recessed compared to the power pins, so that the device can power up before establishing a data connection. Some devices operate in different modes depending on whether the data connection is made. Charging docks supply power and do not include a host device or data pins, allowing any capable USB device to charge or operate from a standard USB cable. Charging cables provide power connections, but not data. In a charge-only cable, the data wires are shorted at the device end, otherwise the device may reject the charger as unsuitable.\n",
"Some wireless range extending devices connect via a USB port. These USB adapters add Wi-Fi capability to desktop PCs and other devices that have standard USB ports. USB supports not only the data transfers required for networking, but it also supplies a power source so that these adapters do not require electrical plugs.\n",
"Traditional USB Y-cables exist to enable one USB peripheral device to receive power from two USB host sockets at once, while only transceiving data with one of those sockets. As long as the host has two available USB sockets, this enables a peripheral that requires more power than one USB port can supply (but not more than two ports can supply) to be used without requiring a mains adaptor. Portable hard disk drives and optical disc drives are sometimes supplied with such Y-cables, for this reason.\n",
"The USB connector (and voltage) has emerged as a de facto standard in low-power AC adapters for many portable devices. In addition to serial digital data exchange, the USB standard also provides , up to ( over USB 3.0). Numerous accessory gadgets (\"USB decorations\") were designed to connect to USB only for DC power and not for data interchange. The USB Implementers Forum in March, 2007 released the USB Battery Charging Specification which defines, \"...limits as well as detection, control and reporting mechanisms to permit devices to draw current in excess of the USB 2.0 specification for charging ...\". Electric fans, lamps, alarms, coffee warmers, battery chargers, and even toys have been designed to tap power from a USB connector. Plug-in adapters equipped with USB receptacles are widely available to convert or power or automotive power to USB power (see photo at right).\n",
"Some USB devices require more power than is permitted by the specifications for a single port. This is common for external hard and optical disc drives, and generally for devices with motors or lamps. Such devices can use an external power supply, which is allowed by the standard, or use a dual-input USB cable, one input of which is for power and data transfer, the other solely for power, which makes the device a non-standard USB device. Some USB ports and external hubs can, in practice, supply more power to USB devices than required by the specification but a standard-compliant device may not depend on this.\n"
] |
how humid would air need to be for a human to breath their liquid requirements in a 24 hour period? | It couldn't happen. At 100 degrees F (38C) the partial pressure of water vapor at 100% relative humidity is 49mmHg and change. Humans exhale 47mmHg of water vapor. So at 100% humidity in a 100 degree environment that would effectively "stop" the water loss that comes from exhaling, but not add a huge amount of water back to the system. To increase the partial pressure further, you have to increase the temperature, but as you do so we'll start to lose volume from sweat which competes against the cause. To get to a point where we were in effect breathing in 2x as much water as we were exhaling, you'd have to have 100% humidty at around 122-123 degrees F (50-51C). At that temperature you have to worry not just about sweat loss but heat radiation, and at 100% RH you're looking at heat stroke and death becoming likely.
From a theoretical standpoint (assuming we don't die of heat stroke, and assuming that we don't start losing volume as sweat as temperature increases), there probably is a point where it can happen. Assuming that a normal alveolar ventilation is on the order of 6000L per day (12 breaths per minute, 350ml of alveolar ventilation per breath), you could then figure out how many grams of water you'd need in the air to offset the 2.5L of water an average person on an average day loses. But that math is getting beyond me, I just posted these values as a starting point for anyone who actually wants to work out the ideal gas law of it for a further answer. | [
"Even with quiet breathing, the inspiratory flow rate at the nares of an adult usually exceeds 12 liters a minute, and can exceed 30 liters a minute for someone with mild respiratory distress. Traditional oxygen therapy is limited to six liters a minute and does not begin to approach the inspiratory demand of an adult and therefore the oxygen is then diluted with room air during inspiration.\n",
"Definition: Non-invasive delivery of oxygen air mixture delivered via a nasal cannula at flows that exceed the patient’s inspiratory flow demands with gas that has been optimally conditioned by warming and humidifying the gas to close to 100% relative humidity at body temperature.\n",
"A typical human breathes between 12 and 20 times per minute at a rate primarily influenced by carbon dioxide concentration, and thus pH, in the blood. With each breath, a volume of about 0.6 litres is exchanged from an active lung volume (tidal volume + functional residual capacity) of about 3 litres. Normal Earth atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, carbon dioxide, and other gases. After just two or three breaths of nitrogen, the oxygen concentration in the lungs would be low enough for some oxygen already in the bloodstream to exchange back to the lungs and be eliminated by exhalation.\n",
"Increased water intake may also help in acclimatization to replace the fluids lost through heavier breathing in the thin, dry air found at altitude, although consuming excessive quantities (\"over-hydration\") has no benefits and may cause dangerous hyponatremia.\n",
"There is, however, a complication that increases the volume of air that needs to be inhaled per minute (respiratory minute volume) to provide the same amount of oxygen to the lungs at altitude as at sea level. During inhalation the air is warmed and saturated with water vapor during its passage through the nose passages and pharynx. Saturated water vapor pressure is dependent only on temperature. At a body core temperature of 37 °C it is 6.3 kPa (47.0 mmHg), irrespective of any other influences, including altitude. Thus at sea level, where the ambient atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, the moistened air that flows into the lungs from the trachea consists of water vapor (6.3 kPa), nitrogen (74.0 kPa), oxygen (19.7 kPa) and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases (a total of 100 kPa). In dry air the partial pressure of O at sea level is 21.0 kPa (i.e. 21% of 100 kPa), compared to the 19.7 kPa of oxygen entering the alveolar air. (The tracheal partial pressure of oxygen is 21% of [100 kPa – 6.3 kPa] = 19.7 kPa). At the summit of Mt. Everest (at an altitude of 8,848 m or 29,029 ft) the total atmospheric pressure is 33.7 kPa, of which 7.1 kPa (or 21%) is oxygen. The air entering the lungs also has a total pressure of 33.7 kPa, of which 6.3 kPa is, unavoidably, water vapor (as it is at sea level). This reduces the partial pressure of oxygen entering the alveoli to 5.8 kPa (or 21% of [33.7 kPa – 6.3 kPa] = 5.8 kPa). The reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the inhaled air is therefore substantially greater than the reduction of the total atmospheric pressure at altitude would suggest (on Mt Everest: 5.8 kPa \"vs.\" 7.1 kPa).\n",
"Exhaled breath on Earth normally contains about 4% carbon dioxide and 16% oxygen, along with 78% nitrogen, plus about 0.2 to 0.3 liters of water. Carbon dioxide slowly becomes increasingly toxic in high concentrations, and must be scrubbed from the breathing gas. A concept to scrub carbon dioxide from breathing air is to use re-usable amine bead carbon dioxide scrubbers. While one carbon dioxide scrubber filters the astronaut's air, the other can vent scrubbed carbon dioxide to the Mars atmosphere. Once that process is completed, another scrubber can be used, and the one that was used can take a break. Another more traditional way to remove carbon dioxide from air is by a lithium hydroxide canister, however these need to be replaced periodically. Carbon dioxide removal systems are a standard part of habitable spacecraft designs, although their specifics vary. One idea to remove carbon dioxide is to use a zeolite molecular sieve, and then later the carbon dioxide can be removed from the material.\n",
"The first study consisted of human breath test in an enclosure for several hours. A room of square meters was used, with an air storage cell, loaded to 79 atmospheres and a storage capacity of 0.5 m. In addition to instruments to measure the temperature and moisture, there was a tube to re-oxygenate the air supply to the crew through a waterproof cloak and three water buckets to maintain the moisture. Six people locked themselves inside the room; one had to leave an hour and quarter later, but the rest remained for a total of five hours, and the test was considered a total success.\n"
] |
laser thermometers. | The laser part is just to visually indicate where you are measuring, the actual temperature is read by a calibrated infra red sensor. Similar to on a remote control. | [
"Thermopile laser sensors (Fig 1) are used for measuring laser power from a few µW to several W (see section 2.4). The incoming radiation of the laser is converted into heat energy at the surface. This heat input produces a temperature gradient across the sensor. Making use of the thermoelectric effect a voltage is generated by this temperature gradient. Since the voltage is directly proportional to the incoming radiation, it can be directly related to the irradiation power (see section 2.1).\n",
"An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called black-body radiation emitted by the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure temperature from a distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity, the object's temperature can often be determined within a certain range of its actual temperature. Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as \"thermal radiation thermometers\".\n",
"Thermopile laser sensors find their use mainly where sensitivity to a wide spectral range is needed or where high laser powers need to be measured. Thermopile sensors are integrated into laser systems and laser sources and are used for sporadic as well as continuous monitoring of laser power, e.g. in feedback control loops. Some of the applications are\n",
"Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation, typically visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It is possible to measure radiative intensities of only a few μW/cm with commercially available thermopile sensors. For example, some laser power meters are based on such sensors; these are specifically known as thermopile laser sensor.\n",
"Laser schlieren deflectometry (LSD) is a method for a high-speed measurement of the gas temperature in microscopic dimensions, in particular for temperature peaks under dynamic conditions at atmospheric pressure. The principle of LSD is derived from schlieren photography: a narrow laser beam is used to scan an area in a gas where changes in properties are associated with characteristic changes of refractive index. Laser schlieren deflectometry is claimed to overcome limitations of other methods regarding temporal and spatial resolution.\n",
"In laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a laser that is divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer.\n",
"A strontium vapor laser is a laser that produces at its output, high-intensity pulsed light at a wavelength of 430.5 nm in the blue-violet region of the visible spectrum via vaporized strontium metal gas contained within a glass tube.\n"
] |
Do waves move faster then light because of the sinusoidal path they take? | Light "waves" do not move sinusoidally. This is a convenient way of representing light's wave-like properties, but they don't actually slew ftom side to side like an old truck with a sloppy steering box. | [
"Waves that are sinusoidal in time but propagate through a medium whose properties vary with position (an \"inhomogeneous\" medium) may propagate at a velocity that varies with position, and as a result may not be sinusoidal in space. The figure at right shows an example. As the wave slows down, the wavelength gets shorter and the amplitude increases; after a place of maximum response, the short wavelength is associated with a high loss and the wave dies out.\n",
"Assuming a sinusoidal wave moving at a fixed wave speed, wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency of the wave: waves with higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths.\n",
"A wave can be longitudinal where the oscillations are parallel (or antiparallel) to the propagation direction, or transverse where the oscillations are perpendicular to the propagation direction. These oscillations are characterized by a periodically time-varying displacement in the parallel or perpendicular direction, and so the instantaneous velocity and acceleration are also periodic and time varying in these directions. (the apparent motion of the wave due to the successive oscillations of particles or fields about their equilibrium positions) propagates at the phase and group velocities parallel or antiparallel to the propagation direction, which is common to longitudinal and transverse waves. Below oscillatory displacement, velocity and acceleration refer to the kinematics in the oscillating directions of the wave - transverse or longitudinal (mathematical description is identical), the group and phase velocities are separate.\n",
"Consider a wave going from one material to another where its speed is slower as in the figure. If it reaches the interface between the materials at an angle one side of the wave will reach the second material first, and therefore slow down earlier. With one side of the wave going slower the whole wave will pivot towards that side. This is why a wave will bend away from the surface or toward the normal when going into a slower material. In the opposite case of a wave reaching a material where the speed is higher, one side of the wave will speed up and the wave will pivot away from that side.\n",
"Wave functions change as time progresses. The Schrödinger equation describes how wave functions change in time, playing a role similar to Newton's second law in classical mechanics. The Schrödinger equation, applied to the aforementioned example of the free particle, predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain with time. This also has the effect of turning a position eigenstate (which can be thought of as an infinitely sharp wave packet) into a broadened wave packet that no longer represents a (definite, certain) position eigenstate.\n",
"An acoustic travelling wave can be reflected by a solid surface. If a travelling wave is reflected, the reflected wave can interfere with the incident wave causing a standing wave in the near field. As a consequence, the local pressure in the near field is doubled, and the particle velocity becomes zero.\n",
"If the waves are propagating through an anisotropic (i.e., not rotationally symmetric) medium, for example a crystal, then the phase velocity vector and group velocity vector may point in different directions.\n"
] |
how does apple make more money than google / android? | Android isn't a company. Google doesn't completely own the phones that have their operating system in it, so they only get a portion of the profit from them. Apple owns the entire process. I also wouldn't be surprised if the profit on an individual phone was more for an iPhone than an android phone for a lot of reasons.
Android phones might be a bigger part of the phone market, but they share that profit with tons of people, apple doesn't have to really share their profit. | [
"Apple amassed 65% of all profits made by the eight largest worldwide smartphone manufacturers in quarter one of 2014, according to a report by Canaccord Genuity. In the first quarter of 2015, the company garnered 92% of all earnings.\n",
"Similar to the Android Market, Google shared in the revenue generated by all sales through One Pass. On its launch date, revenue was split between the publisher and Google in a 90%/10% respectively. That was significantly less than Apple's competing product that provided only 70% of the revenue to the publisher and kept the remaining 30%.\n",
"Apple is well known for its size and revenues. Its worldwide annual revenue totaled $265billion for the 2018 fiscal year. Apple is the world's largest technology company by revenue and one of the world's most valuable companies. It is also the world's third-largest mobile phone manufacturer after Samsung and Huawei. In August 2018, Apple became the first public U.S. company to be valued at over $1 trillion. The company employs 123,000 full-time employees and maintains 504 retail stores in 24 countries . It operates the iTunes Store, which is the world's largest music retailer. , more than 1.3 billion Apple products are actively in use worldwide. The company also has a high level of brand loyalty and is ranked as the world's most valuable brand. However, Apple receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors, its environmental practices and unethical business practices, including anti-competitive behavior, as well as the origins of source materials.\n",
"Google Inc.’s Android has overtaken Apple Inc.’s iOS in the wildly growing arena of app downloads. In the second quarter of 2011, 44% of all apps downloaded from app marketplaces across the web were for Android devices while 31% were for Apple devices, according to new data from ABI Research. The remaining apps were for various other mobile operating systems, including BlackBerry and Windows Phone 7.\n",
"Apple when introduced to the highly competitive computer environment retailed for about $2000 but cost less than $500, as over 70% of its components were outsourced (Choo 1995). Instead, Apple focused on the design, logistics, software and product assembly. Due to the concentration of only a few knowledge adding services, Apple was able to rise to the top of the highly competitive PC market and attain great sales (Gupta, Sharma 2004).\n",
"Since 2005, Apple's revenues, profits, and stock price have grown significantly. On May 26, 2010, Apple's stock market value overtook Microsoft's, and Apple's revenues surpassed those of Microsoft in the third quarter of 2010. After giving their results for the first quarter of 2011, Microsoft's net profits of $5.2 billion were lower for the quarter than those of Apple, which earned $6 billion in net profit for the quarter. The late April announcement of profits by the companies marked the first time in 20 years that Microsoft's profits had been lower than Apple's, a situation described by \"Ars Technica\" as \"unimaginable a decade ago\".\n",
"Market research firm Gartner predicted that 102 billion apps would be downloaded in 2013 (91% of them free), which would generate $26 billion in the US, up 44.4% on 2012's US$18 billion. By Q2 2015, the Google Play and Apple stores alone generated $5 billion. An analyst report estimates that the app economy creates revenues of more than €10 billion per year within the European Union, while over 529,000 jobs have been created in 28 EU states due to the growth of the app market.\n"
] |
What was Richard III's role in the end of The War of the Roses? | Is this related to your [High School English Assignment](_URL_0_) or a separate homework? | [
"The Wars of the Roses began the following year, with the First Battle of St Albans. Initially, Richard aimed only to purge his Lancastrian political opponents from positions of influence over the king. It was not until October 1460 that he claimed the throne for the House of York. In that year the Yorkists had captured the king at the battle of Northampton, but victory was short-lived. Richard and his second son Edmund were killed at the battle of Wakefield on 30 December.\n",
"The Wars of the Roses were a series of conflicts between various English lords and nobles in support of two different royal families descended from Edward III. In 1461 the conflict reached a milestone when the House of York supplanted its rival, the House of Lancaster, as the ruling royal house in England. Edward IV, leader of the Yorkists, seized the throne from the Lancastrian king, Henry VI, who was captured in 1465 and imprisoned in the Tower of London. The Lancastrian queen, Margaret of Anjou, and her son, Edward of Lancaster, fled to Scotland and organised resistance. Edward IV crushed the uprisings and pressured the Scottish government to force Margaret out; the House of Lancaster went into exile in France. As the Yorkists tightened their hold over England, Edward rewarded his supporters, including his chief adviser, Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, elevating them to higher titles and awarding them land confiscated from their defeated foes. The Earl grew to disapprove of the King's rule, however, and their relationship later became strained.\n",
"The ascension of Richard III occurred under a cloud of controversy, and shortly after assuming the throne, the wars sparked anew with Buckingham's rebellion, as many die-hard Yorkists abandoned Richard to join Lancastrians. While the rebellions lacked much central coordination, in the chaos the exiled Henry Tudor, son of Henry VI's half-brother Edmund Earl of Richmond, and the leader of the Lancastrian cause, returned to the country from exile in Brittany at the head of an army of combined Breton and English forces. Richard avoided direct conflict with Henry until the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485. After Richard III was killed and his forces defeated at Bosworth Field, Henry assumed the throne as Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the two claims. The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603, with the death of Elizabeth I, granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. \n",
"The Wars of the Roses was a 1963 theatrical adaptation of William Shakespeare's first historical tetralogy (\"1 Henry VI\", \"2 Henry VI\", \"3 Henry VI\" and \"Richard III\"), which deals with the conflict between the House of Lancaster and the House of York over the throne of England, a conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. The plays were adapted by John Barton, and directed by Barton himself and Peter Hall at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. The production starred David Warner as Henry VI, Peggy Ashcroft as Margaret of Anjou, Donald Sinden as the Duke of York, Paul Hardwick as the Duke of Gloucester, Janet Suzman as Joan la Pucelle, Brewster Mason as the Earl of Warwick, Roy Dotrice as Edward IV, Susan Engel as Queen Elizabeth and Ian Holm as Richard III.\n",
"\"Richard III\" aired in 2016 as part of the concluding cycle \"The Hollow Crown: The Wars of the Roses\", along with a two-part adaptation of the other plays in Shakespeare's first tetralogy, \"Henry VI, Part 1\", \"Henry VI, Part 2\" and \"Henry VI, Part 3\". Benedict Cumberbatch was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Leading Actor and \"The Wars of the Roses\" was nominated for Best Mini-Series.\n",
"The Wars of the Roses were civil wars over the throne of the Kingdom of England fought among the descendants of King Edward III through his five surviving adult sons. Each branch of the family had competing claims through seniority, legitimacy, and/or the sex of their ancestors, despite patriarchal rule of the day. Thus, the senior Plantagenet line was ended with the death of Richard II, but not before the execution of Thomas of Woodstock for treason. The heirs presumptive through Lionel of Antwerp were passed over in favour of the powerful Henry IV, descendant of Edward III through John of Gaunt. These Lancaster kings initially survived the treason of their Edmund of Langley (York) cousins but eventually were deposed by the merged Lionel/Edmund line in the person of Edward IV. Internecine killing among the Yorks left Richard III as king, supported and then betrayed by his cousin Buckingham, the descendant of Thomas of Woodstock. Finally, the Yorks were dislodged by the remaining Lancastrian candidate, Henry VII of the House of Tudor, another descendant of John of Gaunt, who married the eldest daughter of Yorkist King Edward IV.\n",
"BULLET::::- Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) – in England and Wales; Richard III was the last English king to die in combat, The Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. They were fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet, the houses of Lancaster and York. They were fought in several sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487.\n"
] |
why is there such a significant price gap between canadian crude oil prices and us crude oil prices? | There isn't a price gap between the price of west texas crude this is what the stock market is looking at when saying the price of oil is xx per barrel.
The price gap is caused by a misnomer what you are calling canadian crude oil is not actual crude. It is bitumen. Now for Canada to ship it it needs to be diluted so that it flows better.
Bitumen is more costly to refine into petroleum products than crude oil. The current infrastructure in place for Canada to get this to market has minimal going to tide water (oceans) within Canada. This means that the only market that is purchasing the raw product from Canada is the u.s. and typically it's about 50 to 60 percent of the oil price.
Canada would get a better price per barrel if more markets are available to sell to. This is why there is an importance to pipelines to tide water. Environmental concerns are the push back to this. But what is not looked at or ignored is oil is going to tide water by rail already. Just not in any capacity to affect market prices. | [
"More recently, between 2011 and 2014 the price of crude oil was relatively stable, fluctuating around $US100 per barrel. It dropped sharply in late 2014 to below $US70 where it remained for most of 2015. In early 2016 it traded at a low of $US27. The price drop has been attributed to both oversupply and reduced demand as a result of the slowing global economy, OPEC reluctance to concede market share, and a stronger US dollar. These factors may be exacerbated by a combination of monetary policy and the increased debt of oil producers, who may increase production to maintain liquidity.\n",
"The US Energy Information Administration attributes the price spread between WTI and Brent to an oversupply of crude oil in the interior of North America (WTI price is set at Cushing, Oklahoma) caused by rapidly increasing oil production from Canadian oil sands and tight oil formations such as the Bakken Formation, Niobrara Formation, and Eagle Ford Formation. Oil production in the interior of North America has exceeded the capacity of pipelines to carry it to markets on the Gulf Coast and east coast of North America; as a result, the oil price on the US and Canadian east coast and parts of the US Gulf Coast since 2011 has been set by the price of Brent Crude, while markets in the interior still follow the WTI price. Much US and Canadian crude oil from the interior is now shipped to the coast by railroad, which is much more expensive than pipeline.\n",
"From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under $25/barrel. A rebound in the price of oil worldwide led to big provincial surpluses in Alberta since the mid-1990. During 2004, the price of oil rose above $40, and then $50. A series of events led the price to exceed $60 by August 11, 2005, leading to a record-speed hike that reached $75 by the middle of 2006.\n",
"In late 2014, as the global demand for oil slows down, and production of crude oil remains high in the United States, Canada and in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the oil market collapsed into a bear market. While the decision by OPEC to \"hold their production steady at 30 million bpd\" contributed to the continued price decline of oil, there was a rebound in oil futures on 1 December 2014. The price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI), the benchmark for North American crude dropped to $US68.93 and to the decline in the price of Western Canadian Select, which is the benchmark for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes to US$51.93. By early December 2014, Connacher was one of several oilsands bitumen-focused producers to struggle financially due to the drop in the price of oil and a tightening of capital markets. Others include OPTI Canada Inc., Southern Pacific Resources Corp., and Sunshine Oilsands Ltd.. On 1 December Connacher which is $1.05 billion in debt hired BMO Capital Markets advisors to undertake a review process of its \"liquidity and capital structure.\" If the price of WTI per barrel was US$75, the Connacher could generate $C70 million of EBITDA in 2015, but it has $90 million in debt payments.\n",
"From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation-adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under US$25/barrel. During 2003, the price rose above $30, reached $60 by 11 August 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July 2008. Commentators attributed these price increases to many factors, including Middle East tension, soaring demand from China, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, reports showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, and financial speculation.\n",
"Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the retail price of petroleum in Canada consistently remained close to the price of gasoline in the United States (and at oftentimes lower than prices seen in the U.S., especially during the price spikes of the 1970s). Following NEP (which raised the price of fuel in the West and coincided with a hike in provincial gas taxes in Ontario and Quebec), the retail price of gasoline in Canada became noticeably higher than in the U.S. (a trend which continues to this day).\n",
"October 18 Crude Oil for November delivery falls to its lowest level since August 1999 on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). Light, sweet crude falls 50 cents per barrel to settle at $21.31 per barrel. Brent crude for. Poor economic prospects in the next few months, and OPEC's inability to respond so far are seen as factors contributing to the sliding prices of crude oil. (OD)\n"
] |
who are you genetically closer to? | Your kids. As you said, kids are 50% "you". But your siblings are only 25% "you" in average.
It is true that they are made 50% your mum and 50% your dad as well. But consider that your dad's DNA is made of copy A and B of each chromosome, and your mum copy C and D. Then you could have got copy A from your dad and C from your mum, making you A-C for example. While your siblings could have got A-C (same as you), A-D, B-C, or B-D. Repeat this idea for all 23 pairs of chromosomes. So by probablity only in 25% of the cases you will have the same combination. | [
"Second, presuming a panmictic population, the vast majority of pairs of individuals exhibit a roughly average level of relatedness. For a given individual, the majority of others are not worth helping or harming. While it is easy to identify the few most closely related ones (see: kin recognition), it is hard to identify the most genetically distant ones.\n",
"No two humans—not even monozygotic twins—are genetically identical. Genes and environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility and mental abilities. The exact influence of genes and environment on certain traits is not well understood.\n",
"The other approach, that of Evolutionary psychology, continues to take the view that genetic relatedness (or genealogy) is key to understanding human kinship patterns. In contrast to Sahlin's position (above), Daly and Wilson argue that \"the categories of 'near' and 'distant' do not 'vary independently of consanguinal distance', not in any society on earth.\" (Daly et al. 1997, p282). A current view is that humans have an inborn but culturally affected system for detecting certain forms of genetic relatedness. One important factor for sibling detection, especially relevant for older siblings, is that if an infant and one's mother are seen to care for the infant, then the infant and oneself are assumed to be related. Another factor, especially important for younger siblings who cannot use the first method, is that persons who grew up together see one another as related. Yet another may be genetic detection based on the major histocompatibility complex (See Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection). This kinship detection system in turn affects other genetic predispositions such as the incest taboo and a tendency for altruism towards relatives.\n",
"W. D. Hamilton published an influential paper on altruism in 1964 to explain why genetic kin tend to help each other. He argued that genetically related individuals are likely to carry the copies of the same alleles; thus, helping kin may ensure that copies of the actors' alleles pass onto next generations of both the recipient and the actor.\n",
"No two humans are genetically identical. Even monozygotic twins (who develop from one zygote) have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene copy-number variation. Differences between individuals, even closely related individuals, are the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting.\n",
"All Gen-Active humans have a telepathic link to each other. This link usually is very weak, even unnoticeable to most, but stronger between relatives (they sometimes can feel when a relative is in extreme pain). The link also allows sensitive Gen-Actives to notice the presence of other Gen-Actives. In case of Team 7, the link also made the sum of their powers greater than each member's individual powers.\n",
"Scientists who have written on the conceptual significance of intersex individuals include Anne Fausto-Sterling, Katrina Karkazis, Rebecca Jordan-Young, and Joan Roughgarden. While the medical literature focuses increasingly on genetics of intersex traits, and even their deselection, some scholars on the study of culture, such as Barbara Rogoff, argue that the traditional distinction between biology and culture as independent entities is overly simplistic, pointing to the ways in which biology and culture interact with one another.\n"
] |
why does white meat chicken always taste dryer than dark meat chicken? | There's more fat in the dark meat. Fats and oils will keep the dark meat moist even when the water in the white meat has cooked off.
> [Dark meat contains 2.64 times more saturated fat than white meat, per gram of protein.](_URL_0_) | [
"In nutritional studies however, \"white meat\" includes poultry and fish, but excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat. The United States Department of Agriculture classifies meats as red if the myoglobin level is higher than 65%. This categorization is controversial as some types of fish, such as tuna, are red when raw and turn white when cooked; similarly, certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as \"white meat\" are actually red when raw, such as duck and goose.\n",
"Within poultry, there are two types of meats—white and dark. The different colours are based on the different locations and uses of the muscles. White meat can be found within the breast of a chicken or turkey. Dark muscles are fit to develop endurance or long-term use, and contain more myoglobin than white muscles, allowing the muscle to use oxygen more efficiently for aerobic respiration. White meat contains large amounts of protein. \n",
"In poultry standards, solid white is coloration of plumage in chickens (\"Gallus gallus domesticus\") characterized by a uniform pure white color across all feathers, which is not generally associated with depigmentation in any other part of the body.\n",
"Dark meat, which avian myologists refer to as \"red muscle\", is used for sustained activity—chiefly walking, in the case of a chicken. The dark colour comes from the protein myoglobin, which plays a key role in oxygen uptake and storage within cells. White muscle, in contrast, is suitable only for short bursts of activity such as, for chickens, flying. Thus, the chicken's leg and thigh meat are dark, while its breast meat (which makes up the primary flight muscles) is white. Other birds with breast muscle more suitable for sustained flight, such as ducks and geese, have red muscle (and therefore dark meat) throughout. Some cuts of meat including poultry expose the microscopic regular structure of intracellular muscle fibrils which can diffract light and produce iridescent colours, an optical phenomenon sometimes called structural colouration.\n",
"The characteristics of dark meat from poultry; such as its color, low plasticity, and high fat content; are caused by myoglobin, a pigmented chemical compound found in muscle tissue that undergoes frequent use. Because domestic poultry rarely fly, the flight muscles in the breast contain little myoglobin and appear white. Dark meat which is high in myoglobin is less useful in industry, especially fast food, because it is difficult to mold into shapes. Processing dark meat into a slurry makes it more like white meat, easier to prepare.\n",
"In culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. The most common kind of white meat is the lighter-colored meat of poultry (light meat), coming from the breast, as contrasted with dark meat from the legs. Poultry white (\"light\") meat is made up of fast-twitch muscle fibres, while red (\"dark\") meat is made up of muscles with fibres that are slow-twitch. In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals (in particular veal and lamb), and pork.\n",
"Red meats such as beef, lamb, and venison, and certain game birds are often roasted to be \"pink\" or \"rare\", meaning that the center of the roast is still red. Roasting is a preferred method of cooking for most poultry, and certain cuts of beef, pork, or lamb. Although there is a growing fashion in some restaurants to serve \"rose pork\", temperature monitoring of the center of the roast is the only sure way to avoid foodborne disease.\n"
] |
why almost no smartphone protective case has a cover for the camera glass? | A decent quality smartphone will have a hard protective layer (e.g. gorilla glass) over the lens so it doesn't get scratched. It will resist scratches pretty well.
On the other hand, smartphone cases are made of cheaper materials, usually some kind of plastic, and are much easier to scratch. So if you had a case over the lens, over time, there would be a bunch of scratches in front of the lens, all your pictures would come out blurry and terrible.
Also, even if the case is nice and clear with no scratches, it will tend to add distortion, extra glare, and so forth to your photos.
So bottom line is, they make a cut-out for the camera so your photos aren't potato quality. | [
"iFixit gave the phone a 2 out of 10 in terms of repairability, praising the solid construction which improved durability, but mentions that it is \"very difficult\" to open the device without damaging the glass camera cover due to the unibody design, and panned the difficulty in replacing the screen and the adhesive holding the rear cover panels and battery in place.\n",
"A lens cover or lens cap provides protection from scratches and minor collisions for camera and camcorder lenses. Lens covers come standard with most cameras and lenses. Some mobile camera phones include lens covers, such as the Sony Ericsson W800, the Sony Ericsson K750 and the Sony Ericsson K550.\n",
"Security films are applied to glass so when the glass is broken it holds together, preventing dangerous shards from flying about, or to make it more difficult for an intruder to gain entry. Typically applied to commercial glass, these films are made of heavy-gauge plastic and are intended to maintain the integrity of glass when subject to heavy impact. The most robust security films are capable of preventing fragmentation and the production of hazardous glass shards from forces such as bomb blasts. Some companies have even experimented with bullet ballistics and multiple layers of security film. Another key application for security window films (safety window films) is on large areas of \"flat glass\" such as storefront windows, sliding glass doors, and larger windows that are prone to hurricane damage. These security films, if applied properly, can also provide protection for vehicles. These security films are often tinted and can be up to 400 micrometers (µm) thick, compared to less than 50 µm for ordinary tint films. If anchored correctly, they can also provide protection for architectural glazing in the event of an explosion. A layer of film (of 100 µm thickness or greater) can prevent the ejection of spall when a projectile impacts on its surface, which otherwise creates small dagger-like shards of glass that can cause injury.\n",
"Some owners however complain that the all-glass construction leads to a phone that is fragile and easily broken. Additionally, if the earlier phones are left on a smooth surface, an alarm with vibration will cause the phone to \"walk\" off the surface and fall. The glass screen is also sensitive to breakage due to the thin plastic \"surround\" that leaves little margin if the edge of the phone is crushed in an impact or when dropped, making either the plastic \"bumper\" or better still, a well-made, impact-absorbing case a necessity.\n",
"Screen protectors are made of either plastics, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), or of tempered glass, similar to the device’s original screen they are meant to protect. Plastic screen protectors cost less than glass and are thinner, around thick, compared to for glass. At the same price, glass will resist scratches better than plastic, and feel more like the device's screen, though higher priced plastic protectors may be better than the cheapest tempered glass models, since glass will shatter or crack with sufficient impact force.\n",
"Camera phones, or more specifically, widespread use of such phones as cameras by the general public, has increased exposure to laws relating to public and private photography. The laws that relate to other types of cameras also apply to camera phones. There are no special laws for camera phones. Enforcing bans on camera phones has proven nearly impossible. They are small and numerous and their use is easy to hide or disguise, making it hard for law enforcement and security personnel to detect or stop use. Total bans on camera phones would also raise questions about freedom of speech and the freedom of the press, since camera phone ban would prevent a citizen or a journalist (or a citizen journalist) from communicating to others a newsworthy event that could be captured with a camera phone.\n",
"Safety and security films are used where there is a potential for injury from broken glass (such as glass doors or overhead glazing). These films can be applied to toughened, annealed, or laminated glass.\n"
] |
does tire tread help when driving on wet surfaces? if so; how? | Tread refers specifically to the channels cut into the surface of a tire. The tread is designed to shed water displaced from under the road contacting surfaces of the tire, though the actual pattern isn't actually terribly important so long as certain key criteria are met, and is highly stylized.
An over-inflated tire has a significant impact on improving said displacement, as the bulging center can more easily press the water from the center out. I'm not advocating you over-inflate your tires - while it also reduces rolling resistance, increasing fuel economy, it also reduces traction, so you're more likely to lose control of your vehicle, especially at higher speeds, and it wears the center of your tire excessively, greatly reducing durability.
If you can't displace water fast enough, typically due to speed, lack of tread, or an under inflated tire having too much displacement, you'll hydroplane - the car will literally be floating. That's not driving, that's sailing.
Snow and ice tires are hard rubber with bold edges to dig into the snow and ice, and use *that* as the road surface. They make pretty bad rain tires because if it's warm enough to rain and not snow, you're still driving on hard rubber that doesn't really care all that much about gripping the road surface.
Tread is the gaps between the road contacting surfaces of the tire, and the less tire you have in contact with the road, the less friction. Tread actually reduces traction in ideal conditions by virtue of being "not tire", which is why performance tires for ideal conditions have little to no tread. Racing tires, aka "slicks" (which are anything but, depending on the compound, they can be as sticky as duct tape when *cold*) are illegal for road use because they are dangerous to drive on in the presence of any amount of moisture on the road. They have no means of displacing water but by casting a wake in front of the point of contact. I was in a Dodge Viper that nearly wiped out at 25 mph driving through a neighborhood because it rained, *two days prior*, because of the tires on it at the time.
So treads are a compromise in the design, and all season tires are the ultimate compromise. | [
"BULLET::::- \"Wet traction—\"Wet traction is the tire's traction, or grip, under wet conditions. Wet traction is improved by the tread design's ability to channel water out of the tire footprint and reduce hydroplaning. However, tires with a circular cross-section, such as those found on racing bicycles, when properly inflated have a sufficiently small footprint to not be susceptible to hydroplaning. For such tires, it is observed that fully slick tires will give superior traction on both wet and dry pavement.\n",
"High traction is desired for tires for automobile dirt track racing, off-road racing, off-road vehicles, and off-road motorcycles, so their tread is therefore coarse. Nevertheless, some riders will lower the tire pressure to cause the tread to spread out and create a larger contact patch. This practice can create a safety hazard, as there may not be enough pressure to adequately secure the tire beads to the wheel. Reactive ground forces push a tire to one side or the other, especially the outside rear tire of a racing vehicle when it is turning in a corner of a track. This could cause a bead of the tire to come off the rim completely, or enough to cause partial loss of air. It is also possible for the tire to have more traction on the ground than there is friction between the tire and rim. In this case the wheel would slip around the tire beads without turning the tire. Beadlocks, of one form or another including adhesive, are therefore used to keep the beads of off-road tires firmly seated and prevent slip, even when inflation pressure is low.\n",
"The technique works best on loose or wet surfaces where the friction between the tires and the road is not too high, but can also be used on asphalt or other surfaces with high friction if the vehicle has enough power to maintain speed. \n",
"The grooves in the rubber are designed to allow water to be expelled from beneath the tire and prevent hydroplaning. The proportion of rubber to air space on the road surface directly affects its traction. Design of tire tread has an effect upon noise generated, especially at freeway speeds. Generally there is a tradeoff of tread friction capability; deeper patterns often enhance safety, but simpler designs are less costly to produce and actually may afford some roadway noise mitigation. Tires intended for dry weather use will be designed with minimal pattern to increase the contact patch. Tires with a smooth tread (i.e., having no tread pattern) are known as slicks and are generally used for racing only, since they are quite dangerous if the road surface is wet.\n",
"Sticky materials, such as mud, may adhere to the smooth outer tire surface, while smooth loose objects, such as stones, can become temporarily embedded in the tread grooves as the tire rolls over the ground. These materials can be ejected from the surface of the tire at high velocity as the tire imparts kinetic energy to the attached objects. For a vehicle moving forward, the top of the tire is rotating upward and forward, and can throw objects into the air at other vehicles or pedestrians in front of the vehicle.\n",
"When accelerating or braking a vehicle equipped with tires, the observed angular velocity of the tire does not match the expected velocity for pure rolling motion, which means there appears to be apparent sliding between outer surface of the rim and the road in addition to rolling due to deformation of the part of tire above the area in contact with the road. When driving on dry pavement the fraction of slip that is caused by actual sliding taking place between road and tire contact patch is negligible in magnitude and thus does not in practice make slip ratio dependent on speed. It is only relevant in soft or slippery surfaces, like snow, mud, ice, etc and results constant speed difference in same road and load conditions independently of speed, and thus fraction of slip ratio due to that cause is inversely related to speed of the vehicle. The difference between theoretically calculated forward speed based on angular speed of the rim and rolling radius, and actual speed of the vehicle, expressed as a percentage of the latter, is called ‘slip ratio’. This slippage is caused by the forces at the contact patch of the tire, not the opposite way, and is thus of fundamental importance to determine the accelerations a vehicle can produce.\n",
"Mountain bike and some motorcycle tires feature tread similar to off-road tires used on cars and trucks but may sometimes include an unbroken tread that runs along its center. This feature provides better traction and lower noise on asphalt at high speed and on high tire pressure, but retains the ability to provide grip on a soft or loose surface- lower tire pressure or soft ground will cause the side lugs to come into contact with the surface. Road bike tires may have shallow grooves for aesthetic purposes, but such grooves are unnecessary in narrow applications.\n"
] |
why is that when i say "a university student" it sounds right but when i say "an university student" like it should be in english, it sounds completely wrong. | Someone posted something similar the other day on here, and it more has to do with pronunciation not lettering.
You use the singular designator "a," for words that follow don't have a vowel sound. You use "an" if it is a vowel sound. | [
"In the UK a university student is said to \"study\", to \"read\" or, informally, simply to \"do\" a subject. In the recent past the expression 'to read a subject' was more common at the older universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. In the US a student \"studies\" or \"majors in\" a subject (although \"concentration\" or \"emphasis\" is also used in some US colleges or universities to refer to the major subject of study). \"To major in\" something refers to the student's principal course of study; \"to study\" may refer to any class being taken. \n",
"In this interaction, the cues received by the student's style of speaking suggests that they are speaking to an authority figure, because they are deferring through the use of questions. Furthermore, you can see the formality in their language throughout the brief interaction. The student speaks in elongated sentences, saying things such as \"I don't understand well\" rather than just the informal \"I don't get it.\" In examining the professor's use of language, they switch between the informal form (\"I (definitely) think so, you know.\") and the formal form (\"After all, do you mind (their behavior)?\"). This suggests that the professor used cues to learn that the student would prefer to remain in the formal form, and molded their language style to fit that. The reverse is seen within the next example: \n",
"Some errors that second-language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, Spanish speakers learning English may say \"Is raining\" rather than \"It is raining\", leaving out the subject of the sentence. This kind of influence of the first language on the second is known as \"negative\" language transfer. French speakers learning English, however, do not usually make the same mistake of leaving out \"it\" in \"It is raining.\" This is because pronominal and impersonal sentence subjects can be omitted (or as in this case, are not used in the first place) in Spanish but not in French. The French speaker knowing to use a pronominal sentence subject when speaking English is an example of \"positive\" language transfer. It is important to note that not all errors occur in the same ways; even two individuals with the same native language learning the same second language still have the potential to utilize different parts of their native language. Likewise, these same two individuals may develop near-native fluency in different forms of grammar.\n",
"While teaching at the University of Florida, Alfred Korzybski counseled his students to eliminate the infinitive and verb forms of \"to be\" from their vocabulary, whereas a second group continued to use \"I am,\" \"You are,\" \"They are\" statements as usual. For example, instead of saying, \"I am depressed,\" a student was asked to eliminate that emotionally primed verb and to say something else, such as, \"I feel depressed when ...\" or \"I tend to make myself depressed about ...\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Student: Etymologically derived through Middle English from the Latin second-type conjugation verb \"stŭdērĕ\", which means \"to direct one's zeal at\"; hence a student is one who directs zeal at a subject. Also known as a disciple in the sense of a religious area of study, and/or in the sense of a \"discipline\" of learning. In widest use, \"student\" is used to mean a school or class attendee. In many countries, the word \"student\" is however reserved for higher education or university students; persons attending classes in primary or secondary schools being called pupils.\n",
"Some students may have problems due to the incoherence in rules like were, a noun is a noun and a verb is a verb because grammarians say they are. For e.g. In \"I am suffering terribly\" \"suffering\" is the verb, but in \"My suffering is terrible\", it is a noun. But both sentences expresses the same idea using the same words. Other students might have problems due to the prescribing and proscribing nature of rules in the language formulated by amateur grammarians rather than ascribing to the functional and descriptive nature of languages evidenced from distribution. For example, a cleric, Robert Lowth introduced the rule to never end a sentence with a preposition, inspired from Latin grammar through his book \"A Short Introduction to English Grammar\". Due to the inconsistencies brought from Latin language standardization of English language lead to classifying and sub-classyfing an otherwise simple language structure. Like many alphabetic writing systems English also have incorporated the principle that graphemic units should correspond to the phonemic units, however, the fidelity to the principle is compromised, compared to an exemplar like Finnish language. This is evident in the Oxford English Dictionary, for many years they experimented with many spellings of SIGN to attain a fidelity with the said principle, among them are SINE, SEGN, and SYNE, and through the diachronic mutations they settled on SIGN. Cultural differences in communication styles and preferences are also significant. For example, a study among Chinese ESL students revealed that preference of not using tense marking on verb present in the morphology of their mother tongue made it difficult for them to express time related sentences in English. Another study looked at Chinese ESL students and British teachers and found that the Chinese learners did not see classroom 'discussion and interaction' type of communication for learning as important but placed a heavy emphasis on teacher-directed lectures.\n",
"English subject pronouns are generally not translated into Spanish when neither clarity nor emphasis is an issue. \"I think\" is generally translated as just \"Pienso\" unless the speaker is contrasting his or her views with those of someone else or placing emphasis on the fact that their views are their own and not somebody else's.\n"
] |
why did adam sandler seemingly stop being funny some years ago? | I'd say that your sense of humor has changed, Adam Sandler's humor has always been childish/frat guy's humor | [
"Sandler has been referenced multiple times in various media, including in the TV shows \"The Simpsons\" in the episode \"Monty Can't Buy Me Love\", in \"Family Guy\" in the episode \"Stew-Roids\", and in \"South Park\" in the episode \"You're Getting Old\". He was also referenced in the video game \"\". The HBO series \"Animals\" episode \"The Trial\" features a mock court case to decide whether Sandler or Jim Carrey is a better comedian.\n",
"In 1994, Sandman changed his gimmick after ECW owner Tod Gordon suggested that he channel his own personality into his character, creating an edgier gimmick. He began a feud with his former tag team partner Tommy Cairo, after The Sandman was temporarily blinded following a match and inadvertently struck Peaches. When The Sandman regained his sight and saw Cairo assisting Peaches to her feet, he attacked Cairo. The Sandman subsequently became estranged from his wife (claiming \"life's a bitch, and then you marry one\"). After losing a match against Cairo, that led to Peaches hitting him with a strap profusely, Woman attacked Peaches and led her back to the ring where Sandman held her and Woman applied the strap to her skin before Cairo returned to save her. After this event Sandman adopted Woman as his new manager. In keeping with The Sandman's character, Woman would open his beers and light his cigarettes prior to matches. She began carrying a Singapore cane with which she would strike The Sandman's opponents.\n",
"For decades, film critics and historians have theorized that because Dumont never broke character or smiled at Groucho's jokes, she did not \"get\" the Marxes' humor. On the contrary, Dumont, a seasoned stage professional, maintained her \"straight\" appearance to enhance the Marxes' comedy. In 1965, shortly before Dumont's death, \"The Hollywood Palace\" featured a recreation of \"Hooray for Captain Spaulding\" (from the Marxes' 1930 film \"Animal Crackers\") in which Dumont can be seen laughing at Groucho's ad-libs — proving that she got the jokes.\n",
"The reasons for Astaire's (temporary) retirement remain a source of debate: his own view that he was \"tired and running out of gas,\" the sudden collapse in 1945 of the market for Swing music which left many of his colleagues in jazz high and dry, a desire to devote time to establishing a chain of dancing schools, and a dissatisfaction with roles, as in this film, where he was relegated to playing second fiddle to the lead. Ironically, it is for his celebrated solo performance of \"Puttin' On The Ritz,\" which featured Astaire leading an entire dance line of Astaires, that this film is most remembered by some today.\n",
"Keaton claimed he was having so much fun that he would sometimes begin laughing as his father threw him across the stage. Noticing that this drew fewer laughs from the audience, he adopted his famous deadpan expression whenever he was working.\n",
"Sandler's recent comedy films, including \"Grown Ups\" and \"Grown Ups 2\", have received strongly negative reviews. In reviewing the latter, critic Mark Olsen of \"The Los Angeles Times\" remarked that Sandler had become the antithesis of Judd Apatow; he was instead \"the white Tyler Perry: smart enough to know better, savvy enough to do it anyway, lazy enough not to care.\"\n",
"The incident was later parodied on several TV shows, including \"MadTV\", \"Family Guy\", \"South Park\", and \"Extras\". In an episode of \"Curb Your Enthusiasm\", Richards appeared as himself and poked fun at the incident. In a 2012 episode of Seinfeld's web series \"Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee\", Richards admitted that the outburst still haunted him, and was a major reason for his withdrawal from performing stand-up.\n"
] |
what is with the weird "bubble in your throat" phenomenon? | I am pretty sure it's just some mucus messing with your vocal cords, as ,usually, coughing to clear your voice will get rid of it.The voice changes, usually gets a deeper pitch, because the air you are exiling is not just making the vocal cord vibrate, but also all the mucus covering them and all the temporary mucus membranes between them. | [
"Gargling (same root as 'gurgle') is the act of bubbling liquid in the mouth. It is also the washing of one's mouth and throat with a liquid that is kept in motion by breathing through it with a gurgling sound. Vibration caused by the muscles in the throat and back of the mouth cause the liquid to bubble and flurry around inside the mouth cavity.\n",
"Bubble is awoken by a newspaper which features an advert for a funfair. Bubble is intrigued and seems eager; but Squeek would rather work. However, Squeek quickly changes his mind when he sees a shining three-tone horn for grand prize. They can't get knock the coconut down, which is how they will get the horn. Until, a fortune-teller gives them another ball to knock it down, but that does not work. Ashamed and empty-handed, Bubble tries to kill himself, but Squeek diverts the gun and ends up destroying the funfair and the coconut, which makes them win the grand prize.\n",
"Bubbles are also known to form within other tissues, where they may cause damage leading to symptoms of decompression sickness. This damage is likely to be caused by mechanical deformation and stresses on the cells rather than local hypoxia, which is an assumed mechanism in the case of gas embolism of the capillaries.\n",
"\"The Boy in the Bubble\" is a song by the American singer-songwriter Paul Simon. It was the third single from his seventh studio album, \"Graceland\" (1986), released on Warner Bros. Records. Written by Simon and Forere Motloheloa (an accordionist from Lesotho), its lyrics explore starvation and terrorism, juxtaposed with wit and optimism.\n",
"Musically, \"Bubble Butt\" is an electronic dance music (EDM), hip hop, and dancehall song. It is a \"swaggering\" and energetic number that draws heavily from crunk inspirations. It was composed with the intention of being played at clubs. The track features squawking samples, heavy bass, \"squiggly synths\", clap beats, and bubble-popping sound effects, culminating with the \"bub-bub-bubbing hook\". \"Consequence of Sound\"s Derek Staples noted the resemblance between \"Bubble Butt\" and Major Lazer’s \"Pon de Floor\" (2009). Both songs feature lyrics that are seen as an anthem to twerking, \"ass-shaking\" and big buttocks. Mars repeats the chorus multiple times, \"Bubble butt, bubble butt, turn around, stick it out, show the world you got a bubble butt\", which draws inspiration from Rihanna's \"Rude Boy\" (2010), while Tyga raps \"Damn, bitch, talk much?/I don't want interviews/Ha! I'm tryin' ta get into you/then make you my enemy\". Mystic is found \"lyrically wining circles around Bruno Mars and Tyga\". Critics found that the combination of the track's lyrics and its catchy beat would make a \"dance-floor hit\".\n",
"\"Bubble Butt\" is a song by American electronic dance music trio Major Lazer from their second studio album, \"Free the Universe\" (2013). It was released as the album's fourth single on May 24, 2013, for digital download. The track features American singer-songwriter Bruno Mars, and rappers Tyga and Mystic. The single version also features verses from American rapper 2 Chainz. Thomas Pentz, David Taylor, Mars, Michael Stevenson and Mystic co-wrote the track, while production was handled by Major Lazer and Valentino Khan. Musically, it is an electronic dance, hip hop and dancehall track with lyrics implying that girls twerk and show off their giant buttocks.\n",
"In radiology, the double bubble sign is a feature of pediatric imaging seen on radiographs or prenatal ultrasound in which two air filled bubbles are seen in the abdomen, representing two discontiguous loops of bowel in a proximal, or 'high,' small bowel obstruction. The finding is typically pathologic, and implies either duodenal atresia, duodenal web, annular pancreas, and on occasion midgut volvulus, a distinction that requires close clinical correlation and, in most cases, surgical intervention. \n"
] |
a fever. | Hi i am a doctor.
In response to an invading pathogen (bug) the body starts an inflammatory cascade (attacks the bug). Lots of chemicals are released (cytokines etc) these chemicals cause the brain to reset the normal body temperature to a higher value, say 40 degrees Celsius. This is believed to help the immune system fight the infection but has not been scientifically confirmed. Although the brain raises the set point the body has to actually heat up to this new set point so you may have a temperature of 39 but the brain says that it should be 40 so you feel cold (even though you are not) and start shivering in order to generate more heat. This is a fever and when you shiver its called "rigoring"
When you get a fever from heat stroke/exhaustion the brain doesn't raise the set point and as you heat up you actually feel hot this time, this is called hyperthermia (not a fever) | [
"A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from non serious to life-threatening. This includes viral, bacterial and parasitic infections such as the common cold, urinary tract infections, meningitis, malaria and appendicitis among others. Non-infectious causes include vasculitis, deep vein thrombosis, side effects of medication, and cancer among others. It differs from hyperthermia, in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss.\n",
"Fever during treatment can be due to a number of causes. It can occur as a natural effect of tuberculosis (in which case it should resolve within three weeks of starting treatment). Fever can be a result of drug resistance (but in that case the organism must be resistant to two or more of the drugs). Fever may be due to a superadded infection or additional diagnosis (patients with TB are not exempt from getting influenza and other illnesses during the course of treatment). In a few patients, the fever is due to drug allergy. The clinician must also consider the possibility that the diagnosis of TB is wrong. If the patient has been on treatment for more than two weeks and if the fever had initially settled and then come back, it is reasonable to stop all TB medication for 72 hours. If the fever persists despite stopping all TB medication, then the fever is not due to the drugs. If the fever disappears off treatment, then the drugs need to be tested individually to determine the cause. The same scheme as is used for test dosing for drug-induced hepatitis (described below) may be used. The drug most frequently implicated as causing a drug fever is RMP: details are given in the entry on rifampicin.\n",
"Fever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not.\n",
"Intermittent fever is a type or pattern of fever in which there is an interval where temperature is elevated for several hours followed by an interval when temperature drops back to normal. This type of fever usually occurs during the course of an infectious disease. Diagnosis of intermittent fever is frequently based on the clinical history but some biological tests like complete blood count and blood culture are also used. In addition radiological investigations like chest X-ray, abdominal ultrasonography can also be used in establishing diagnosis. \n",
"A fever occurs when the core temperature is set higher, through the action of the pre-optic region of the anterior hypothalamus. For example, in response to a bacterial or viral infection, certain white blood cells within the blood will release pyrogens which have a direct effect on the anterior hypothalamus, causing body temperature to rise, much like raising the temperature setting on a thermostat.\n",
"Fever is one of the most common medical signs. It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick. While fever is a useful defense mechanism, treating fever does not appear to worsen outcomes. Fever is viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than it usually deserves, a phenomenon known as fever phobia.\n",
"Fever phobia is the name given by medical experts to parents' misconceptions about fever in their children. Among them, many parents incorrectly believe that fever is a disease rather than a medical sign, that even low fevers are harmful, and that any temperature even briefly or slightly above the oversimplified \"normal\" number marked on a thermometer is a clinically significant fever. They are also afraid of harmless side effects like febrile seizures and dramatically overestimate the likelihood of permanent damage from typical fevers. The underlying problem, according to professor of pediatrics Barton D. Schmitt, is \"as parents we tend to suspect that our children’s brains may melt.\"\n"
] |
the sudden outrage towards dr. oz | This doesn't explain why it's suddenly become such a big issue, but as for the outrage itself...
He uses (abuses) his status as a medical doctor (specifically, he seems to be an excellent heart surgeon) in order to make large piles of money by promoting bullshit alternative medicine to people who don't know any better.
There was a pretty funny montage on Youtube recently of all the times he has said on his show "I have this magic weight loss pill that will burn the fat right off you without you doing anything..." or some close variation, and then cuts to his recent congressional hearing, being asked "is there a magic weight loss pill?" and him trying to evade the question but finally answering "no." | [
"He is a proponent of alternative medicine, and has been criticized by physicians, government officials, and publications, including \"Popular Science\" and \"The New Yorker\", for giving non-scientific advice and promoting pseudoscience. In 2014 the British Medical Journal examined over 400 medical or health recommendations from 40 episodes of his program and found that only 46% of his claims were supported by reputable research, while 15% of his claims contradicted medical research and the remainder of Oz's advice were either vague banalities or unsupported by research.\n",
"\"The Dr. Oz Show\" is an American daytime television syndicated talk series, which debuted in 2009. Over the course of its run, various episodes and segment features have been criticized for a lack of scientific credibility in reference to the medical claims on \"The Dr. Oz Show\". A study by the British Medical Journal in 2014 concluded that less than half the claims made on the Dr Oz Show were backed by \"some\" evidence, and that fell to a third when the threshold was raised to \"believable\" evidence. The website Science Based Medicine goes even further, claiming: \"No other show on television can top The Dr. Oz Show for the sheer magnitude of bad health advice it consistently offers, all while giving everything a veneer of credibility.\" What follows is a selection of claims proven to be false and misleading.\n",
"Mehmet Oz, the head of cardiac surgery at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in NYC and better known to millions of Winfrey's viewers as \"Dr. Oz\", regularly appeared on Tuesdays during the 2008–2009 season. In 2009, Dr. Oz debuted \"The Dr. Oz Show\" in first-run syndication. The series is co-produced by Harpo Productions and Sony Pictures Television. Dr. Oz has been criticized as promoting pseudo-science, and was the 2009 winner of the Pigasus Award.\n",
"In April 2015, a group of ten physicians from across the United States, including Henry Miller, a fellow in scientific philosophy and public policy at Stanford University's Hoover Institute, sent a letter to Columbia University calling Oz's faculty position unacceptable. They accused Oz of \"an egregious lack of integrity by promoting quack treatments and cures in the interest of personal financial gain\".\n",
"The Dr. Oz Show is an American daytime television talk series. Each episode has segments on health, wellness and medical information, sometimes including true crime stories and celebrity interviews. It is co-produced by Oprah Winfrey's Harpo Productions and distributed by Sony Pictures Television.\n",
"BULLET::::- Mehmet Oz (born 1960), as host of \"The Dr. Oz Show\", has promoted pseudoscientific health treatments and supplements and faced a hearing at the United States Senate for helping companies sell fraudulent medicine.\n",
"On the show, Oz addressed issues like Type 2 diabetes and promoted resveratrol supplements, which he stated were anti-aging. His \"Transplant!\" television series won both a Freddie and a Silver Telly award. He served as medical director for Denzel Washington's \"John Q\".\n"
] |
Who is generally credited with being the first musician/band/musical act etc. to have branched beyond performance to merchandise their name as a brand? | Some professional signers of the baroque period and later had sweet merch, although I don't believe any of them profited from it directly through royalties or such, only indirectly through spreading their celebrity. It was a bit of a "thing" to have little enamel miniatures of your favorite singer and you could put them on your dress as a pin, on a chain as a necklace, or on the tops of your shoes (like decorative buckles). Luigi Marchesi and Farinelli are the only ones I know off the top of my head who got fangirls enough to merit shoe-toppers. [Here is an example of one of those enamel miniatures for Farinelli.](_URL_0_) There were also plaster busts of signers that were popular to collect, [here is one of an unknown man](_URL_1_), they were very fragile and very few survived, I don't know of any for opera singers that survived to today, but we have mentions of women collecting them for their favorite signers in satires and newspapers. There were also some direct musical appeals to celebrity from music publishers, like publishing "Favorite Songs of Sig. Farinelli" using singer's names and their famous arias, not sure if that would count.
But for who first deliberately cultivated such non-musical branding opportunities for their own direct commercial gain like "Pickles Nickels," not sure, but there's not really an equivalent in the 17th-19th centuries. The idea of "personality rights" wasn't really there yet. Some vague movement towards moral rights of artistry (like the right not to have your music ripped off and published at someone else's gain) but even that was very sketchy, and depended on where you were working in Europe. | [
"By 1982, musical performers played the Horse on a regular basis, with many performers being nationally known or critically renowned artists. Some now well known acts such as Suzanne Vega, Stanley Jordan, George Winston, Michelle Shocked, Tracy Chapman, Dar Williams, Northampton-area native Sonya Kitchell and comedian Steven Wright performed at the Iron Horse before they became nationally known artists. The lineup of musicians has also included legendary reggae group Toots & the Maytals, Michael Franti, pop-rock icon John Mayer, monster guitarist Jorma Kaukonen (a founding member of Jefferson Airplane), pioneering free-jazz pianist Cecil Taylor, jazz pianist Mose Allison, folk-blues legend Taj Mahal, alternative-rock band They Might Be Giants, psychedelic-folk act The Incredible String Band, rock musician Jesse Malin, folk-rocker Steve Forbert, Chicago blues guitarist Jimmy Dawkins, children's musician Mister G the Five Blind Boys of Alabama, and rapper George Watsky. The Iron Horse closed for a time in the 90's, but was eventually reopened.\n",
"The world's most popular / famous / revered music artists of the 20th century include : Louis Armstrong, Little Richard, Igor Stravinsky, Gustav Mahler, George Gershwin, Sergei Prokofiev, Benjamin Britten, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schoenberg, Dmitri Shostakovich, Aaron Copland, Béla Bartók, Ernesto Lecuona, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Richard Strauss, Thelonious Monk, Ella Fitzgerald, Duke Ellington, Bing Crosby, ABBA, The Beach Boys, The Beatles, Harry Belafonte, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Eagles, Michael Jackson, Elton John, Bee Gees, Barbra Streisand, Cher, Nat \"King\" Cole, Robert Johnson, Led Zeppelin, Leonard Cohen, Queen, Madonna, Bob Marley, Metallica, Charlie Parker, Pink Floyd, Elvis Presley, The Rolling Stones, Frank Sinatra, Stevie Wonder, Aretha Franklin, Tupac Shakur, Nirvana (band), The Notorious B.I.G., Amr Diab, Fairuz, Umm Kulthum, Abdel Halim Hafez, Randy Newman and many more.\n",
"The \"New Musical Express\" (NME) carried a series of articles about famous members of bands whose musical contribution to their bandmates' success was negligible. The newspaper used the name \"Bez\" as a generic label for the likes of Chas Smash of Madness, Andrew Ridgeley of Wham!, Paul Morley of Art of Noise, Linda McCartney of Wings, and Paul Rutherford of Frankie Goes to Hollywood.\n",
"The earliest recording artists included co-owner Mercer, Johnnie Johnston, Morse, Jo Stafford, the Pied Pipers, Tex Ritter, Tilton, Paul Weston, Whiteman, and Margaret Whiting Capitol's first gold single was Morse's \"Cow Cow Boogie\" in 1942. \n",
"As a musician He was open to different music styles and played classical, operetta, Broadway musical, as well as popular music. He sold more than 20 million records all over the world and received 13 golden albums as well as one golden cassette.\n",
"BULLET::::- There are several well-known bands that have endured for decades – bands that are promoted and perceived to be continuations of the original. These types of bands are analogous to franchises, except, instead of multiple bands touring under the same name, only one band performs, but with a turnover of musicians. Examples includeTower of Power (currently, in its year)\n",
"Shortly after, VH1 created a companion series, \"Legends\" (originally sponsored by AT&T), profiling artists who have made a more significant contribution to music history to qualify as \"Legends\" (that is, those artists who have gone beyond the category of \"Behind the Music\" biographies). The artists profiled so far have included Aerosmith; the Bee Gees; David Bowie; Johnny Cash; Eric Clapton; The Clash; George Clinton; Sam Cooke; Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; The Doors; John Fogerty; Aretha Franklin; Marvin Gaye; The Grateful Dead; Guns N' Roses; Jimi Hendrix; Michael Jackson; Eminem; Elton John; Janis Joplin; B. B. King; Led Zeppelin; John Lennon; Curtis Mayfield; Nirvana; Pink Floyd; The Pretenders; Red Hot Chili Peppers; Queen; Bruce Springsteen; Tina Turner; U2; Stevie Ray Vaughan; The Who, and Neil Young.\n"
] |
how come household incomes haven't gone up significantly in decades if more and more women have joined the labor force? | In part precisely because more and more women have entered the labor force. Labor supply went up faster than demand, so labor became cheaper. The other issue is that technically compensation has continued to increase. People tend to only look at wage and say that people get paid the same as three decades ago. That's not true though, because healthcare benefits are compensation too, but they've eaten up a larger share of compensation (hence the push to reduce healthcare costs with the ACA). | [
"However, as indicated by the charts below, household income has still increased significantly since the late 1970s and early 80s in real terms, partly due to higher individual median wages, and partly due to increased opportunities for women.\n",
"During the Great Recession, which spanned December 2007 to June 2009, the average duration of unemployment reached a record high in the United States, which led to an increased incidence of the added worker effect (Rampell, 2010). The labor force participation rate of the wife rises with the expectation that her husband will be unemployed permanently due to aging or other factors (Maloney, p. 183). Women who expect their husbands will be unemployed for the long-run are more likely to accept a job when they have the opportunity, but without the intention of dropping out implied by the Added Worker Effect.\n",
"However, much of this can be attributed to employment rates. The employment rate of women in their 30s has increased from 39% in 1964 to 70% in 2004; whereas, the rate of employment for men in this same age group has decreased from 91% in 1964 to 86% in 2004. This sharp increase in income for working women, in addition to stable male salaries, is the reason upward economic mobility is attributed to women.\n",
"When it comes to income and earning ability in the United States, women are once again at an economic disadvantage. Indeed, for a same level of education and an equivalent field of occupation, men earn a higher wage than women. Though the pay-gap has narrowed over time, according U.S Census Bureau Survey, it was still 21% in 2014. Additionally, pregnancy negatively affects professional and educational opportunities for women since \"an unplanned pregnancies can prevent women from finishing their education or sustaining employment (Cawthorne, 2008)\".\n",
"For added workers to enter the labor market when earning power decreases, the negative income effect must outweigh the positive substitution effect (Mincer, p. 68). In families whose male head of household loses his job, “the relative decline in family income is much stronger than the relative decline in the 'expected' wage rate of the wife.” In this case, the net effect leads the wife to enter the labor market, thereby increasing the labor supply. An example of the effect can be found in a study by Arnold Katz, who attributes the bulk of the increase in married female workers in the depression of 1958 “to the distress[ed] job seeking of wives whose husbands were out of work” (1961, p. 478).\n",
"The statistics for the labor market participation of women show growth. In 1990, 36% of the female population was employed, which had grown to 52% in 2003. 74% of the male population was employed, which shows a disparity, but the gap is closing. The unemployment rate for women, 7.4%, is higher than men, who are at a 3.6% unemployment rate.\n",
"Women's participation in economic development increased from 22.5 percent to 40 percent between 1976 and 2002. As of 2002, 44 percent of women worked. Women living in urban areas tend to have the least paying and unproductive types of jobs, which is believed to be due to the lack of educational opportunities for women and educational requirements for better jobs. In rural areas women struggle more due to their gender and of being indigenous. As of 1992 rural working women had risen from 18.3 percent in 1976 to 38.1 percent, but working conditions are often poor, wages low and have low productivity. Some employers require women to sign agreements not to get pregnant. Indigenous women tend to work long hours as street vendors or domestic worker. Women who work the latter tend to work more hours, with less days off and low pay.\n"
] |
Will the GPS coordinates of a fixed point on land change due to Continental Drift? Also, why is 0 lattitude 0 longitude in the ocean instead of on land? | > Will the GPS coordinates of a fixed point on land change due to Continental Drift?
Yes, Very Very VERY slowly.. at most [2-6 inches a year](_URL_2_).
> Also, why is 0 latitude 0 Longitude in the ocean instead of on land?
Well the Earth is a sphere so 0 latitude is the equator. Runs right round the middle of the world in a North/South orientation
0 longitude is a bit different. The world power at the time of the definition of the prime meridian (0 longitude), Was England. They set 0 longitude as the line running right down the middle of the [Royal Observatory front door](_URL_1_).
Why 0,0 is out at sea.. well that's the way the World lines up when [divided into Graticules](_URL_0_) based on those standards.
| [
"If a global reference frame (such as WGS84, for example) is used, the longitude of a place on the surface will change from year to year. To minimize this change, when dealing just with points on a single plate, a different reference frame can be used, whose coordinates are fixed to a particular plate, such as \"NAD83\" for North America or \"ETRS89\" for Europe.\n",
"Determination of longitude at sea was not possible without a considerable margin of error until the mid 18th century. One of the methods that was used instead was dead reckoning, from the last point of land sighted. Lizard Point in Cornwall was a famous starting point for this, as was the 3,718 metre Teide volcano of Tenerife. From the early 1640s some Dutch cartographers were using Tenerife as a prime meridian in maps, with a significant increase in use after 1662. Joan Blaeu started using it in 1663, Frederik de Wit in 1670, and German mapmakers Weigel and Homann in the 1720s/1730s. After 1675 Tenerife was the predominant meridian on Dutch maps and in 1787 the Amsterdam Admiralty issued a formal statement of support to the meridian.\n",
"Cook estimated the coordinates of his Point Hicks (from a great distance) to be located at , a location in the sea over 60 km to the South West. Though measuring longitude in Cook's time was problematic due to the paucity of reliable [[marine chronometers]], Cook and his astronomer's measurements of latitude were usually very accurate. Nevertheless, the latitude of 38 degrees S placed the point more than 20 km out to sea from the East-West running coastline. It is likely that the reckoning was an error, that a cloudbank was mistaken for land, and that the true location of landfall by \"Endeavour\" lies somewhat to the East of Cape Everard.\n",
"Determining longitude on land was fairly easy compared to the task at sea. A stable surface to work from, known coordinates to refer to, a sheltered environment for the unstable chronometers of the day, and the ability to repeat determinations over time made for great accuracy.\n",
"Determining longitude at sea was also much harder than on land. A stable surface to work from, a comfortable location to live in while performing the work, and the ability to repeat determinations over time made various astronomical techniques possible on land (such as the observation of eclipses) that were unfortunately impractical at sea. Whatever could be discovered from solving the problem at sea would only improve the determination of longitude on land.\n",
"Once out of sight of the coast, Portuguese and Spanish ship pilots could rely upon the astrolabe and quadrant to determine their location on a north/south reference, however longitude was noticeably more difficult to acquire. The problem was time. Out on the vast stretches of the ocean, it is very difficult to keep track of time once leaving port. In order to calculate longitude a sailor would need to know the time difference between his current location and a fixed point somewhere on earth, usually the port of call. Even if one could determine the time of day while in deep waters, they still needed to know the time at their home port. The answer was the ephemerides, astronomical charts plotting the location of the stars over a distinct period of time. The German astronomer Regiomontanus published an accurate day-to-day Ephemerides in 1474. \n",
"Due to the movement of Earth's tectonic plates, the line of 0° longitude along the surface of the Earth has slowly moved toward the west from this shifted position by a few centimetres; that is, towards the Airy Transit Circle (or the Airy Transit Circle has moved toward the east, depending on your point of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map. With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning.\n"
] |
How do people in space (ex: living on the ISS) keep track of time? Do they adjust their sleep-wake schedules according to one master clock? | Pretty much. There is so much to do for astronauts whether it's science, maintenance, spacewalks etc. that their days are fairly choreographed and planned. Then they just block off time for sleeping each 24 hour period. One of the physiological issues with life on the ISS is there is a sunset/sunrise every 90 minutes and it can mess with your circadian rhythm and sleep cycles. | [
"Orbiting spacecraft typically experience many sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour period, or in the case of Apollo program astronauts travelling to the moon, none. Thus it is not possible to calibrate time zones with respect to the sun, and still respect a 24-hour sleep/wake cycle. A common practice for space exploration is to use the Earth-based time zone of the launch site or mission control. This keeps the sleeping cycles of the crew and controllers in sync. The International Space Station normally uses Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).\n",
"The amount and quality of sleep experienced in space is poor due to highly variable light and dark cycles on flight decks and poor illumination during daytime hours in the space craft. Even the habit of looking out of the window before retiring can send the wrong messages to the brain, resulting in poor sleep patterns. These disturbances in circadian rhythm have profound effects on the neurobehavioural responses of crew and aggravate the psychological stresses they already experience (see Fatigue and sleep loss during spaceflight for more information). Sleep is disturbed on the ISS regularly due to mission demands, such as the scheduling of incoming or departing space vehicles. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high because the atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon; fans are required at all times to allow processing of the atmosphere, which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-g) environment. Fifty percent of space shuttle astronauts take sleeping pills and still get 2 hours less sleep each night in space than they do on the ground. NASA is researching two areas which may provide the keys to a better night's sleep, as improved sleep decreases fatigue and increases daytime productivity. A variety of methods for combating this phenomenon are constantly under discussion.\n",
"Human spaceflight often requires astronaut crews to endure long periods without rest. Studies have shown that lack of sleep can cause fatigue that leads to errors while performing critical tasks. Also, individuals who are fatigued often cannot determine the degree of their impairment.\n",
"Human spaceflight often requires astronaut crews to endure long periods without rest. Studies have shown that lack of sleep can cause fatigue that leads to errors while performing critical tasks. Also, individuals who are fatigued often cannot determine the degree of their impairment.\n",
"Astronauts must remain alert and vigilant while operating complicated equipment. Therefore, getting enough sleep is a crucial factor of mission success. Weightlessness, a confined and isolated environment, and busy schedules coupled with the absence of a regular 24-hour day make sleep difficult in space. Astronauts typically average only about six hours of sleep each night. Cumulative sleep loss and sleep disruption could lead to performance errors and accidents that pose significant risk to mission success. Sleep and circadian cycles also temporally modulate a broad range of physiological, hormonal, behavioral, and cognitive functions.\n",
"The International Space Station (ISS) does not use an MET clock since it is a \"permanent\" and international mission. The ISS observes Coordinated Universal Time (UTC/GMT). When the shuttle visited ISS the ISS-crew usually adjusted their workday to the MET clock to make work together easier. The shuttles also had UTC clocks so that the astronauts could easily figure out what the \"official\" time aboard ISS was.\n",
"Astronauts have reported performance errors and decreased cognitive ability during periods of extended working hours and wakefulness as well as due to sleep loss caused by circadian rhythm disruption and environmental factors.\n"
] |
Is it technically possible that somewhere in the Universe some of the fundamental constants are actually variable? | Is it possible in the sense that we can't conclusively rule it out? I guess I have to reluctantly say yes; that's the price of having empirical science.
Is it possible in the sense that there is *any* reason to believe it happens, or in the sense that it's consistent with our present observations? Absolutely not. | [
"In a more philosophical context, the conclusion that these quantities are constant raises the question of why they have the specific value they do in what appears to be a \"fine-tuned Universe\", while their being variable would mean that their known values are merely an accident of the current time at which we happen to measure them.\n",
"\"N\" and \"ε\" govern the fundamental interactions of physics. The other constants (\"D\" excepted) govern the size, age, and expansion of the universe. These five constants must be estimated empirically. \"D\", on the other hand, is necessarily a nonzero natural number and cannot be measured. Hence most physicists would not deem it a dimensionless physical constant of the sort discussed in this entry.\n",
"Although not a physical constant, appears routinely in equations describing fundamental principles of the universe, often because of 's relationship to the circle and to spherical coordinate systems. A simple formula from the field of classical mechanics gives the approximate period of a simple pendulum of length , swinging with a small amplitude ( is the earth's gravitational acceleration):\n",
"The premise of the fine-tuned universe assertion is that a small change in several of the dimensionless physical constants would make the universe radically different. As Stephen Hawking has noted, \"The laws of science, as we know them at present, contain many fundamental numbers, like the size of the electric charge of the electron and the ratio of the masses of the proton and the electron. ... The remarkable fact is that the values of these numbers seem to have been very finely adjusted to make possible the development of life.\"\n",
"It is known that the Universe would be very different if these constants took values significantly different from those we observe. For example, a few percent change in the value of the fine structure constant would be enough to eliminate stars like our Sun. This has prompted attempts at anthropic explanations of the values of some of the dimensionless fundamental physical constants.\n",
"Some physicists have explored the notion that if the dimensionless physical constants had sufficiently different values, our Universe would be so radically different that intelligent life would probably not have emerged, and that our Universe therefore seems to be fine-tuned for intelligent life. The anthropic principle states a logical truism: the fact of our existence as intelligent beings who can measure physical constants requires those constants to be such that beings like us can exist. There are a variety of interpretations of the constants' values, including that of a divine creator (the apparent fine-tuning is actual and intentional), or that ours is one universe of many in a multiverse (e.g. the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics), or even that, if information is an innate property of the universe and logically inseparable from consciousness, a universe without the capacity for conscious beings cannot exist.\n",
"The Universe may be \"fine-tuned\"; the Fine-tuned Universe hypothesis is the proposition that the conditions that allow the existence of observable life in the Universe can only occur when certain universal fundamental physical constants lie within a very narrow range of values, so that if any of several fundamental constants were only slightly different, the Universe would have been unlikely to be conducive to the establishment and development of matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, or life as it is understood. The proposition is discussed among philosophers, scientists, theologians, and proponents of creationism.\n"
] |
who was jeffrey epstein? why is him committing suicide suspicious? what does him committing suicide mean? | Had a child sex slave trafficking ring with multiple elite billionaires involved but hasn’t given much info and was supposed to go to trial soon also was on suicide watch but somehow still committed “suicide” it’s suspicious because there’s a high chance it’s a coverup | [
"Epstein died of an overdose of Carbitral, a form of barbiturate or sleeping pill, in his locked bedroom on 27 August 1967. He was discovered after his butler had knocked on the door and then, hearing no response, asked the housekeeper to call the police. Epstein was found on a single bed, dressed in pyjamas, with various correspondence spread over a second single bed. At the statutory inquest his death was officially ruled an accident, caused by a gradual buildup of Carbitral combined with alcohol in his system. It was revealed that he had taken six Carbitral pills in order to sleep, which was probably normal for him, but in combination with alcohol they reduced his tolerance.\n",
"Epstein's lawyers urged the court to allow Epstein to post bail, offering to post up to a $600million bond (including $100million from his brother, Mark) so he could leave jail and submit to house arrest in his New York mansion. Judge Richard M. Berman denied the request on July 18, saying that Epstein posed a danger to the public and a serious flight risk to avoid prosecution. On July 23, Epstein was found injured and semiconscious at 1:30 a.m. on the floor of his cell, with marks around his neck that were suspected to be from a suicide attempt or an assault. His cellmate former New York City police officer, Nicholas Tartaglione, who is charged with four counts of murder, was questioned about Epstein's condition. He denied knowledge of what happened. According to NBC News, two sources said that Epstein might have tried to hang himself, a third said the injuries were not serious and could have been staged, while a fourth source said that an assault by his cellmate, had not been ruled out.\n",
"On February 23, 2003, Epstein died from complications related to drug use. MTV News reported that Epstein's death was caused by a heroin overdose. He was 47. Investigators were told Epstein had been using heroin. On the day of his death, Howie was driven to St. Vincent Hospital in Santa Fe, New Mexico by his girlfriend, who described him as \"under distress\". Epstein was taking antibiotics for an illness and had recently suffered from influenza, stomach problems, and an abscess on his leg, friends said. Additionally, it was reported that he had been extremely distraught over the death of his 16-year-old dog a few days earlier.\n",
"Epstein died of an accidental drug overdose in August 1967, not long after negotiating a contract with the BBC for Black to appear in a television series of her own. Relations between Epstein and Black had somewhat soured during the year prior to his death, largely because he was not paying her career enough attention and the fact that her singles \"A Fool Am I\" (UK No. 13, 1966) and \"What Good Am I?\" (UK No. 24, 1967) were not big successes.\n",
"Epstein attended a traditional shiva in Liverpool after his father died, having just come out of the Priory clinic where he had been trying to cure his acute insomnia and addiction to amphetamines. A few days before his death he made his last visit to a Beatles recording session on 23 August 1967, at the Chappell Recording Studios on Maddox Street in Mayfair, London.\n",
"Police began an 11-month undercover investigation of Epstein, followed by a search of his home. The Federal Bureau of Investigation also became involved in the investigation. Subsequently, the police alleged that Epstein had paid several girls to perform sexual acts with him. Interviews with five alleged victims and 17witnesses under oath, a high school transcript and other items found in Epstein's trash and home allegedly showed that some of the girls involved were under 18. The police search of Epstein's home found two hidden cameras and large numbers of photos of girls throughout the house, some of whom the police had interviewed in the course of their investigation.\n",
"On September 1, 1982, he made his live debut at the Santa Cruz Civic Auditorium in Santa Cruz, California, on the tour to promote the album, \"Long After Dark\". Epstein was a member of the Heartbreakers until his departure due to his failing health caused by his heroin addiction. He made his final appearance with the band when they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in March 2002.\n"
] |
if your body, very slowly, began to not get the oxygen it needs, which systems would shut down first? (and last) and why? | Im not aware of any published evidence on this so I will give my professional opinion.
Firstly it depends on why are not getting the oxygen it needs. The two main reasons are because of a lack of oxygen in the air (rare) or your lungs not oxygenating blood properly (common).
Not having enough oxygen in your blood (as measured by a blood test from your artery) is termed respiratory failure. There are two types, one is just not enough oxygen with low carbon dioxide caused by hyperventilating to try to get enough oxygen in. The second type is not enough oxygen AND too much carbon dioxide because the lungs are not moving air in and out efficiently enough.
If you're talking about lack of oxygen then that would typically show the first type of respiratory failure on the arterial blood test. We would still term it respiratory failure even though the lungs were working fine. Without any shadow of a doubt your brain would be the first thing to go. Most of your organs can survive a certain amount of hypoxia but you would go unconscious fairly rapidly. Your liver and kidneys would probably go next - the liver because it is the organ that carries out the most chemical reactions and needs oxygen for this and the kidneys because they require a lot of oxygenated blood flow to keep working.
If you removed the oxygen very very slowly (over days and weeks) then other mechanisms would kick in such as the blood production mechanisms to ensure there is more haemoglobin to mop up as much as possible of the scarce oxygen that you breathe in. This is why mountaineers have to spend time acclimatising and why people who live at high altitude in for example Chile have very high haemoglobin levels. If you kept removing the oxygen though, you'd eventually pass out.
After you'd passed out the liver and kidneys would begin to shut down next and then probably your heart. You wouldn't live long after you'd passed out. The brain is obviously the top priority. After this the body will just keep trying to get as much oxygen as it can until the heart stops.
Tl;dr: The brain.
Source: I am a doctor.
Edit: Grammar | [
"\"One of medicine's new frontiers: treating the dead\", recognizes that cells that have been without oxygen for more than five minutes die, not from lack of oxygen, but rather when their oxygen supply is resumed. Therefore, practitioners of this approach, e.g., at the Resuscitation Science institute at the University of Pennsylvania, \"aim to reduce oxygen uptake, slow metabolism and adjust the blood chemistry for gradual and safe reperfusion.\"\n",
"Mechanical shock forced the oxygen valves closed on the number 1 and number 3 fuel cells, leaving them operating for only about three minutes on the oxygen in the feed lines. The shock also either partially ruptured a line from the number 1 oxygen tank, or caused its check or relief valve to leak, causing its contents to leak out into space over the next 130 minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply.\n",
"From measuring the oxygen buildup in the biodome the scientific task force (Exon's daughter Denise, her fiancé Howard Rogers, Nobel prize winning microbiologist Max Flinders, and a government-backed scientist named only as \"Blowers\",) discover that the oxygen output is so high that if unchecked within twenty years the oxygen balance of the planet will have been doubled to 40%, making current life all but extinct. Another emergency vent of the biodome is required, but a 747 Jumbo jet passes through the escaping oxygen bubble causing it to explode as the engines suck in pure oxygen.\n",
"Since oxygen is carried to tissues in the blood, insufficient blood supply causes tissue to become starved of oxygen. In the highly metabolically active tissues of the heart and brain, irreversible damage to tissues can occur in as little as 3–4 minutes at body temperature. The kidneys are also quickly damaged by loss of blood flow (renal ischemia). Tissues with slower metabolic rates may undergo irreversible damage after 20 minutes.\n",
"Becker discovered that re-introduction of oxygen, rather than loss of oxygen, was primarily responsible for cell death. Cell death can be delayed or stopped through the application of therapeutic hypothermia. In the case of Swedish skier Anna Bågenholm, who fell through ice into freezing water, the cold protected her from brain damage despite being without oxygen for over an hour.\n",
"Oxygen (O) must be present in every breathing gas. This is because it is essential to the human body's metabolic process, which sustains life. The human body cannot store oxygen for later use as it does with food. If the body is deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes, unconsciousness and death result. The tissues and organs within the body (notably the heart and brain) are damaged if deprived of oxygen for much longer than four minutes.\n",
"Under normal conditions, humans cannot store much oxygen in the body. Prolonged apnea leads to severe lack of oxygen in the blood circulation. Permanent brain damage can occur after as little as three minutes and death will inevitably ensue after a few more minutes unless ventilation is restored. However, under special circumstances such as hypothermia, hyperbaric oxygenation, apneic oxygenation (see below), or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, much longer periods of apnea may be tolerated without severe consequences.\n"
] |
how are synthetic materials (such as plastic) unnatural / toxic, if they are made from ingredients found on earth? | Naturally occuring chemicals can be used to make chemicals which do not occur in nature. Think of it like baking a cake. The main ingredients in cake (sugar, flour, oil, eggs) are all naturally occuring but you would never a cake in nature. It's similar with plastics. While the chemicals used in plastic manufacturing (most petroleum based) are naturally occuring, you can combine them in specific ways to make something which is not. | [
"Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they are biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the European Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the United States has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child care articles with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens. Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.\n",
"Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass and often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, however, an array of variants are made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters.\n",
"BULLET::::- Synthetic organic compounds are tens of thousands of synthetic chemical compounds, all containing carbon, that are extremely useful, including medicines, rubbers, plastics, refrigerants, etc.\n",
"Synthetic resins are industrially produced resins, typically viscous substances that convert into rigid polymers by the process of curing. In order to undergo curing, resins typically contain reactive end groups, such as acrylates or epoxides. Some synthetic resins have properties similar to natural plant resins, but many do not.\n",
"Blended into most plastics are additional organic or inorganic compounds. The average content of additives is a few percent. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to the additives: organotin compounds are particularly toxic.\n",
"A commonly used synthetic material is PLA - polylactic acid. This is a polyester which degrades within the human body to form lactic acid, a naturally occurring chemical which is easily removed from the body. Similar materials are polyglycolic acid (PGA) and polycaprolactone (PCL): their degradation mechanism is similar to that of PLA, but they exhibit respectively a faster and a slower rate of degradation compared to PLA. While these materials have well maintained mechanical strength and structural integrity, they exhibit a hydrophobic nature. This hydrophobicity inhibits their biocompatibility, which makes them less effective for in vivo use as tissue scaffolding. In order to fix the lack of biocompatibility, much research has been done to combine these hydrophobic materials with hydrophilic and more biocompatible hydrogels. While these hydrogels have a superior biocompatibility, they lack the structural integrity of PLA, PCL, and PGA. By combining the two different types of materials, researchers are trying to create a synergistic relationship that produces a more biocompatible tissue scaffolding.\n",
"Synthetic resins are of several classes. Some are manufactured by esterification of organic compounds. Some are thermosetting plastics in which the term \"resin\" is loosely applied to the reactant or product, or both. \"Resin\" may be applied to one of two monomers in a copolymer, the other being called a \"hardener\", as in epoxy resins. For thermosetting plastics that require only one monomer, the monomer compound is the \"resin\". For example, liquid methyl methacrylate is often called the \"resin\" or \"casting resin\" while in the liquid state, before it polymerizes and \"sets\". After setting, the resulting PMMA is often renamed acrylic glass, or \"acrylic\". (This is the same material called Plexiglas and Lucite).\n"
] |
what do you do with your invention idea? | Write all plans, print it out and mail it to yourself, never opening it.
It's a poor man's copyright.
Other than that, I don't know. Hopefully someone else has more in-depth knowledge. | [
"Invention is often a creative process. An open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection or relationship can spark an invention. Inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields. Several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention.\n",
"An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process. It may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a completely unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field. An inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure.\n",
"Invention is often an exploratory process with an uncertain or unknown outcome. There are failures as well as successes. Inspiration can start the process, but no matter how complete the initial idea, inventions typically must be developed.\n",
"To invent is to see anew. Inventors often envision a new idea, seeing it in their mind's eye. New ideas can arise when the conscious mind turns away from the subject or problem when the inventor's focus is on something else, or while relaxing or sleeping. A novel idea may come in a flash—a Eureka! moment. For example, after years of working to figure out the general theory of relativity, the solution came to Einstein suddenly in a dream \"like a giant die making an indelible impress, a huge map of the universe outlined itself in one clear vision\". Inventions can also be accidental, such as in the case of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon).\n",
"An invention is useful if it does what it promises; following the directions should result in the desired effect. The inventor does not have to have created the product of the invention, but the specifications must disclose an actual way to do so. \n",
"Idea for an Invention may be developed on paper or on a computer, by writing or drawing, by trial and error, by making models, by experimenting, by testing and/or by making the invention in its whole form. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention. Collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents.\n",
"In the process of developing an invention, the initial idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, or it may even \"morph\" into something totally different. Working on one invention can lead to others too.\n"
] |
how do television ratings work? how long do i have to be tuned in to a channel for the rating to count? and what's the correlation between the rating number (i.e. 13.4) and the number of viewers? | Ratings are based off what are called Nielsen Ratings. The Nielsen Company employs a system where they select families of a certain demographic in every single area code and "hires" out these families to be what are known as The Nielsen Families.
How do they gather what shows they watch? Nielsen employs a box that connects to a family's DVR or cable box as well as connects to their TV so that they know exactly what shows the family is watching, when they watch it, how they watch it (recorded or live), and how often. All of this information gets transferred into the box and that's then transmitted to their data warehouse down in Texas.
There, millions upon millions of data is migrated, mined, and reported out to various companies who have bought media, and they receive a report around GRPs or Gross Rating Points. Gross Rating Points tell you the frequency (how often and length) and reach (# of Nielsen families). Each company has a set threshold that they wish to hit so that's how some shows get cancelled vs others.
Not everyone can impact ratings as this would require tons of data plus not everyone wants to have their viewing habits shared with companies. You cannot choose to become a Nielsen Family, you have to live in a certain area and hit a type of demographic (income, race, make up of the family, etc) for you to be selected by The Nielsen Company.
Ratings count by seconds so you can be on a channel for a brief moment for it to be counted. For example, if you're channel surfing, the box will record exactly what channels you accessed and for how long even if it was for a second or less. They can also tell if you've accessed the channel guide. They can also tell when you switched the tv over to gaming and play a game.
There's a high correlation between the two as the ratings take into account number of viewers (reach) and frequency of viewing (how many times viewed and length of time). | [
"Television rating point (TRP) for calculation purposes is a device attached to the TV set in a few thousand viewers, houses for judging purposes. These numbers are treated as a sample from the overall TV owners in different geographical and demographic sectors. Using a device a special code is telecasted during the programme, It records the time and the programme that a viewer watches on a particular day. The average is taken for a 30-day period, which gives the viewership status for the particular channel. It is also known as \"Target Rating Point\".\n",
"One single television ratings point (Rtg or TVR) represents 1% of television households in the surveyed area in a given minute. As of 2004, there are an estimated 109.6 million television households in the United States. Thus, a single national ratings point represents 1%, or 1,096,000 television households for the 2004–05 season. When used for the broadcast of a program, the average rating across the duration of the show is typically given. Ratings points are often used for specific demographics rather than just households. For example, a ratings point among the key 18- to 49-year-olds demographic is equivalent to 1% of all 18- to 49-year-olds in the country.\n",
"The Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) measures television ratings in the UK. As of November 2017, the average weekly viewing time per person across all broadcast channels was 24 hours 16 minutes. 12 channels have a share of total viewing time across all channels of ≥ 1.0%.\n",
"In the following summary, \"rating\" is the percentage of all households with televisions that tuned to the show, and \"share\" is the percentage of all televisions in use at that time that are tuned in. \"18–49\" is the percentage of all adults aged 18–49 tuned into the show. \"Viewers\" is the number of viewers, in millions, watching at the time. \"Rank\" is how well the show did compared to other TV shows aired that week.\n",
"In the following summary, \"rating\" is the percentage of all households with televisions that tuned to the show, and \"share\" is the percentage of all televisions in use at that time that are tuned in. \"18-49\" is the percentage of all adults aged 18–49 tuned into the show. \"Viewers\" are the number of viewers, in millions, watching at the time. \"Rank\"; how well the show did compared to other TV shows aired that week.\n",
"The rating system is very simple. All the major Japanese television networks make up the television market, so a research firm must determine the size of an average audience. The audience size is determined using two factors: the amount of content that is transmitted and the amount that is received, as market size varies from firm to firm. The viewer count of a given episode is calculated using a variety of polling methods. Ratings are calculated using a percentage or point system. This is based on the episode's viewership numbers divided by the market size. Finally, the numbers are published on the research firm's website. A hard copy is also produced.\n",
"In the following chart, \"rating\" is the percentage of all households with televisions that tuned to the show, and \"share\" is the percentage of all televisions in use at that time that are tuned in. \"18–49\" is the percentage of all adults aged 18–49 tuned into the show. \"Viewers\" are the number of viewers, in millions, watching at the time.\n"
] |
why are smartphones $500-700+ while laptops with the same or better specs are considerably less? | Designing electronics when you have no, or relaxed space constraints is **much** easier and therefore cheaper. Also, the specific parts, while maybe less powerful, are likely more efficient with regards to power (this is highly variable, of course). So even though your particular processor or whatnot is *slower,* it has a more complicated design to ensure better battery life and smaller physical size.
EDIT: A lot of people are nitpicking about the fact that margins are very high in devices like Samsungs phones and the iPhone line. Just because their *raw materials cost* is low, and the profit margin is high on the device, does not mean miniaturization is irrelevant. The reason they can charge those prices, is because miniaturization is **hard** and they've made new, successful, miniature devices. They are recouping their R & D costs. The market will push these prices down (as evidenced by Google's new phones) because the bulk of the R & D is done, and that cost isn't repeated. Companies learn from one another, which is in part some of the issues with patent laws but that's another story. | [
"As far as computers are concerned, off-the-shelf versions are usually newer and hence more powerful than proprietary POS terminals. Custom modifications are added as needed. Other products, like touchscreen tablets and laptops, are readily available in the market, and they are more portable than traditional POS terminals. The only advantage of the latter is that they are typically built to withstand rough handling and spillages; a benefit for food & beverage businesses.\n",
"According to StatCounter web use statistics (a proxy for all use), smartphones (alone without tablets) have majority use globally, with desktop computers used much less (and Android in particular more popular than Windows). Use varies however by continent with smartphones way more popular in the biggest continents, i.e. Asia, and the desktop still more popular in some, though not in North America.\n",
"Unlike desktop computers, only minor internal upgrades (such as memory and hard disk drive) are feasible owing to the limited space and power available. Laptops have the same input and output ports as desktops, for connecting to external displays, mice, cameras, storage devices and keyboards. Laptops are also a little more expensive compared to desktops, as the miniaturized components for laptops themselves are expensive.\n",
"There is a discrepancy between the 2009 numbers due to the various sources cited; i.e. the units sold by all ODMs add up to 144.3 million laptops, which is much more than the given total of 125 million laptops. The market share percentages currently refer to those 144.3 million total. Sources may indicate hard drive deliveries to the ODM instead of actual laptop sales, though the two numbers may be closely correlated.\n",
"The personal computer, also known as the PC, is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility and relatively low price. Laptops are generally very similar, although they may use lower-power or reduced size components, thus lower performance.\n",
"Subnotebooks are smaller than full sized laptops but larger than handheld computers. They often have smaller-sized screens, less than 14 inches, and weigh less than typical laptops, usually being less than 2 kg (4.4 lbs). The savings in size and weight are usually achieved partly by omitting ports and optical disc drives. Many can be paired with docking stations to compensate.\n",
"Smartphones use small displays, but modern smartphone displays have a larger PPI rating, such as the Samsung Galaxy S7 with a quad HD display at 577 PPI, Fujitsu F-02G with a quad HD display at 564 PPI, the LG G6 with quad HD display at 564 PPI or – XHDPI or Oppo Find 7 with 534 PPI on 5.5\" display – XXHDPI (see section below). Sony's Xperia XZ Premium has a 4K display with a pixel density of 807 PPI, the highest of any smartphone as of 2017.\n"
] |
how are these girls doing the math in their head so fast? | Do you notice how they're moving their hands around as the guy reads the numbers? That's because they're using a mental abacus. An abacus allows you to do fast calculations that would be very hard to do in your head. All they have to do is picture what the abacus would look like and they can read off the answer even without actually holding on to one. | [
"In the Team Competition section, each participating school sends in four selected student mathematicians per year level. The participants compete against other schools in the Christchurch Horncastle Arena. It's a speed competition and takes 30 minutes. There are 20 questions for each team to complete, the aim being for each team to answer all questions the fastest. One of the four team members is a runner who runs to a judge to check if the answer to their current question is right. Each question is worth 5 points, allowing a maximum score of 100. A team can only attempt one question at a time and have to keep working on it until they get it right. Passing is allowed, but no points will be received for that question, as well as preventing the team from returning to that question. \n",
"BULLET::::- Don't Forget About Me: Teams have to solve a memory puzzle while hiking up and down a mountain. First, the guys will lift up a 300-pound steel door out of the sand that is connected to a rope for as long as they can. Under the steel door is an answer key that contains various colors of squares and rectangles, which the female partners will have to memorize. Whenever the girls feel that they have memorized the answer key enough, or their male partners are unable to keep the steel doors from shutting, each partner will be required to hike up a mountain with a bag containing their puzzle pieces, to their designated puzzle station, which the girls will have to solve. The process continues back and forth, and the first team to correctly solve their puzzle wins the Power Couple. Initially, the last team to correctly solve their puzzle would be automatically sent to the Dome; however, due to time constraints and the reduced amount of daylight, host T. J. Lavin explained to the last four teams that the team with the fewest correctly-solved puzzle pieces would be sent to the Dome instead.\n",
"In order to answer the questions, each team of students is given a \"clicker\" that connects to a scoring computer on stage. Students then choose their answer by pressing A, B, C, D, or E on their clicker. Once the question has been read aloud by the bowl master (usually Alpaca-In-Chief Daniel Berdichevsky), students are given 15 seconds to submit their answer. The questions gets harder each time and worth more points than the previous one. There are sometimes rapid fire questions which have to be answered in 5 seconds (5 such questions will be present and each question will usually carry 100 points).\n",
"Each morning at 8.40, Jim-Jim & Mark chat to a kid in a car on their way to school. They then must try guess what the kid is thinking about in 20 seconds. If they fail, the kid shouts the catchphrase \"Ha Ha, In Your Face Suckers\"\n",
"BULLET::::- You Can Count On It – Questions related to math were being called out, and players had to guess what number was the answer to the problem. After 30 seconds, the teams had to guess what was the picture on the screen.\n",
"Kids roll around on a green screen floor, revealing pictures (associated with a category) for the parents to guess in 90 seconds. Up to ten are used per family and a right answer scores ten points. Highest score after the game wins. If there is a tie after the 90 second time limit, the team who correctly solved the words in the fastest time wins.\n",
"So often in our society, girls receive signals from an early age that they are not good at math, or that boys are simply better. This can occur at home, when wives ask their husbands for help when it comes to math. In 2013, women received 57% of all Bachelor’s degrees, however they only received 43% of math degrees, 19% of engineering degrees, and 18% of computer science degrees. At school and at home, many young girls receive the message that they either “have the math gene or they do not.” When a mother tells her daughter that she wasn’t good at math in school, oftentimes, the daughter’s mathematical achievement will decrease. Oftentimes, women do not realize they are sending these messages to their daughters.\n"
] |
why it hurts to look at the sky on a cloudy day | * ELI5 version: the sky is still very bright even when you're not looking at the sun, so it can still hurt your eyes.
* Super technical version: [Here is an AskScience question that has a very detailed answer](_URL_0_). | [
"When visibility is poor, as at night during rainstorms or fog, the eye tends to relax and focus on its best distance, technically known as \"empty field\" or \"dark focus\". This distance is usually just under one meter (one yard), but varies considerably among people. The tendency is aggravated by objects close to the eye, drawing focus closer.\n",
"On a regional scale, it can be also worth of note that some extensive areas of Earth experience cloudy conditions virtually all time such as Central America's Amazon Rainforest while other ones experience clear-sky conditions virtually all time such as the Africa's Sahara Desert.\n",
"Due to their high altitude and the curvature of the surface of the Earth, these clouds will receive sunlight from below the horizon and reflect it to the ground, shining brightly well before dawn or after dusk.\n",
"If the observer looks up and does not see dark clouds, or if he runs for shelter but it does not rain, then there is fresh occasion to question the utility or the validity of his knowledge base. But we must leave our foulweather friend for now and defer the logical analysis of this testing phase to another occasion.\n",
"The whiteness or darkness of clouds is a function of their depth. Small, fluffy white clouds in summer look white because the sunlight is being scattered by the tiny water droplets they contain, and that white light comes to the viewer's eye. However, as clouds become larger and thicker, the white light cannot penetrate through the cloud, and is reflected off the top. Clouds look darkest grey during thunderstorms, when they can be as much as 20,000 to 30,000 feet high.\n",
"The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the \"eyewall\". The eyewall typically expands outward with height, resembling an arena football stadium; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the \"stadium effect\". The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found, air rises most rapidly, clouds reach to their highest altitude, and precipitation is the heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone's eyewall passes over land.\n",
"When weather systems predominantly move from west to east, a red sky at night indicates that the high pressure air (and better weather) is westwards. In the morning the light is eastwards, and so a red sky then indicates the high pressure (and better weather) has already passed, and an area of low pressure is following behind.\n"
] |
how did humans discover music? or is there music among animals as well? | "Or is there music among animals as well?"
You - you've never heard of a bird? | [
"This natural history of music begins with Attenborough playing the piano. Searching for the origins of human music, he traces its connections to the musical sounds that other animals make: the beauty of the wolf's howl, the complexity of the bat's cry, the deep rumble of the elephant's signals, the acoustically sophisticated sounds the dolphin produces and the songs of whales and birds. Why do these animals produce this amazing variety of sounds? It's all tied up with sex and territory.\n",
"The origins of music during the Paleolithic are unknown. The earliest forms of music probably did not use musical instruments other than the human voice or natural objects such as rocks. This early music would not have left an archaeological footprint. Music may have developed from rhythmic sounds produced by daily chores, for example, cracking open nuts with stones. Maintaining a rhythm while working may have helped people to become more efficient at daily activities. An alternative theory originally proposed by Charles Darwin explains that music may have begun as a hominin mating strategy. Bird and other animal species produce music such as calls to attract mates. This hypothesis is generally less accepted than the previous hypothesis, but nonetheless provides a possible alternative.\n",
"In \"Cosmic Consciousness\", beginning with Part II, Bucke explains how animals developed the senses of hearing and seeing. Further development culminated in the ability to experience and enjoy music. Bucke states that, initially, only a small number of humans were able to see colors and experience music. But eventually these new abilities spread throughout the human race until only a very small number of people were unable to experience colors and music.\n",
"Composers have evoked or imitated animal sounds in compositions including Jean-Philippe Rameau's \"The Hen\" (1728), Camille Saint-Saëns's \"Carnival of the Animals\" (1886), Olivier Messiaen's \"Catalogue of the Birds\" (1956–58) and Pauline Oliveros's \"El Relicario de los Animales\" (1977). Other examples include Alan Hovhaness's \"And God Created Great Whales\" (1970), George Crumb's \"Vox Balaenae\" (Voice of the Whale) (1971) and Gabriel Pareyon's \"Invention over the song of the Vireo atriccapillus\" (1999) and \"Kha Pijpichtli Kuikatl\" (2003). The Indian zoomusicologist, A. J. Mithra has composed music using bird, animal and frog sounds since 2008.\n",
"Music can be theoretically traced to prior to the Paleolithic age. The anthropological and archaeological designation suggests that music first arose (among humans) when stone tools first began to be used by hominids. The noises produced by work such as pounding seed and roots into meal are a likely source of rhythm created by early humans. The first rhythm instruments or percussion instruments most likely involved the clapping of hands, stones hit together, or other things that are useful to create rhythm. Examples of paleolithic objects which are considered unambiguously musical are bone flutes or pipes; paleolithic finds which are currently open to interpretation include pierced phalanges (usually interpreted as \"phalangeal whistles\"), bullroarers, and rasps. These musical instruments date back as far as the paleolithic, although there is some ambiguity over archaeological finds which can be variously interpreted as either musical or non-musical instruments/tools. \n",
"The study of sound and musical phenomenon prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the mathematical modelling of pitch and tone. The earliest recorded experiments date from the 6th century BCE, most notably in the work of Pythagoras and his establishment of the simple string length ratios that formed the consonances of the octave. This view that sound and music could be understood from a purely physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists as Anaxagoras and Boethius. An important early dissenter was Aristoxenus, who foreshadowed modern music psychology in his view that music could only be understood through human perception and its relation to human memory. Despite his views, the majority of musical education through the Middle Ages and Renaissance remained rooted in the Pythagorean tradition, particularly through the quadrivium of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, and music.\n",
"Music is the only form of communication that saves us from an overwhelming amount of small talk. This is not only a human phenomenon, but happens throughout the animal world. Thomas makes examples of animals from termites and earthworms to gorillas and alligators that perform some sort of rhythmic noise making that can be interpreted as music if we had full range of hearing. From the vast number of animals that participate in music it is clear that the need to make music is a fundamental characteristic of biology. Thomas proposes that the animal world is continuing a musical memory that has been going since the beginning of time.\n"
] |
Who was the first Ottoman Sultan to claim the title of Caliph, and how was he able to legitimize himself as such? | Selim I "the Grim," over the course of his brief reign 1512-1520, secured Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, the three Islamic holy cities, and utterly demolished the Mamelukes of Egypt, who had been seen as the holders/protectors of the Holy Cities. Selim's conquests totally changed the character of the Ottoman holdings, which had previously been majority Christian and heavily European, into a truly Eastern Mediterranean empire with large Muslim populations in Syria and Egypt added. With the collapse of the Mamelukes, the possession of the holy cities, and the rivalry with the Shi'ite Safavids, proclaiming the Ottoman sultan the successor to the caliph tradition and the commander of the faithful etc. was just the natural next step.
In short, Selim became the first Ottoman caliph in 1517 after his dramatic conquest of all the Mameluke holdings (Egypt, the Levant, and the Hedjaz). | [
"The Ottoman Dynasty embodied the Ottoman Caliphate since the fourteenth century, starting with the reign of Murad I. The Ottoman Dynasty kept the title Caliph, power over all Muslims, as Mehmed's cousin Abdülmecid II took the title. The Ottoman Dynasty left as a political-religious successor to Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim community without borders in a post Ottoman Empire. Abdülmecid II's title was challenged in 1916 by the leader of the Arab Revolt King Hussein bin Ali of Hejaz, who denounced Mehmet V, but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by Ibn Saud in 1925.\n",
"The head of the Ottoman dynasty was just entitled \"Sultan\" originally, but soon it started accumulating titles assumed from subjected peoples. Murad I (reigned 1362–1389) was the first Ottoman claimant to the title of Caliph; claimed the title after conquering Edirne.\n",
"After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles Caesar ( \"Qayser\") of Rûm, and emperor, as well as the caliph of Islam. Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation. A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.\n",
"The first Ottoman ruler to actually claim the title of \"Sultan\" was Murad I, who ruled from 1362 to 1389. The holder of the title Sultan (سلطان in Arabic) was in Arabic-Islamic dynasties originally the power behind the throne of the Caliph in Bagdad and it was later used for various independent Muslim Monarchs. This title was senior to and more prestigious than that of Amir; it was not comparable to the title of Malik 'King', a secular title not yet common among Muslim rulers, or the Persian title of Shah, which was used mostly among Persian or Iranian related rulers.\n",
"The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles. He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic \"şeriat\", known in Arabic as \"sharia\"), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Islamic titles such as \"shadow of God on Earth\" ( \"ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem\") and \"caliph of the face of the earth\" ( \"Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn\"). All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called \"firman\" (). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land. Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (\"beylik\") in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.\n",
"The highest position in Islam, \"caliphate\", was claimed by the sultans starting with Murad I, which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, \"pâdişâh\" or \"lord of kings\", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the \"Sultanate of Women\". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (') was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the \"Enderûn\", which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (').\n",
"The following is a list of Sheikh-ul-Islams of the Ottoman Empire. After the fondation of the Ottoman empire around 1300, the title of Sheikh-ul-Islam, formerly used in the Abbasid Caliphate, was given to a leader authorized to issue legal opinion or fatwa. During the reign of Sultan Murad II, (1421-1444, 1446-1451) the position became an official title, with authority over other muftis in the empire. In the late 16th century, Sheikh-ul-Islam were assigned to appoint and dismiss supreme judges, high ranking college professors, and heads of Sufi orders. Prominent figures include Zenbilli Ali Cemali Efendi (c1445-1526), Ibn-i Kemal (Kemalpasazade) (1468-1533) and Ebussuud Efendi (c1491-1574).\n"
] |
Why did Moscow become the capitol of the USSR even though Petrograd was the center of the revolution? | Firstly, one only has to look at a map of the positions of the soviet civil war/pre 1939. Petrograd was mere miles away from first the German occupied areas of Russia signed away by the bolsheviks, and then also threatened by the breakaway Baltic republics and Finland. Moscow, being in the centre of Bolshevik Russia was a much more defensible position
Secondly, Moscow and st Petersburg have had a sort of duelling cultural meaning in Russian culture. St Petersburg was the city of the tsars and represented, essentially, westernism. Moscow was the cultural heartland of Russia. In picking Moscow, the Bolshevik in part rejected the capitalist west to build a new society out of true Russia | [
"Following the success of the Russian Revolution of 1917, Vladimir Lenin, fearing possible foreign invasion, moved the capital from Saint Petersburg back to Moscow on March 12, 1918. The Kremlin once again became the seat of power and the political centre of the new state.\n",
"In 1918 Moscow became the country's capital after the October Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War (1917–1922) followed; for more than a decade plans to build a metro in St. Petersburg languished.\n",
"The city of Moscow gradually grew around the Moscow Kremlin, beginning in the 14th century. It was the capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow (or Muscovy), from 1340 to 1547 and in 1713 renamed as the Tsardom of Russia by Peter I \"the Great\" (when the capital was moved to Saint Petersburg). Moscow was the capital of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918, which then became the Soviet Union (1922 to 1991), and since 1991 has served as capital of the Russian Federation.\n",
"According to the Russian historian Kluchevsky, the rise of Moscow under Ivan I Kalita was determined by three factors. The first one was that the Moscow principality was situated in the middle of other Russian principalities; thus, it was protected from any invasions from the East and from the West. Compared to its neighbors, Ryazan principality and Tver principality, Moscow was less often devastated. The relative safety of the Moscow region resulted in the second factor of the rise of Moscow – an influx of working and tax-paying people who were tired of constant raids and who actively relocated to Moscow from other Russian regions. The third factor was a trade route from Novgorod to the Volga river.\n",
"For much of its architectural history, Moscow was dominated by Orthodox churches. However, the overall appearance of the city changed drastically during Soviet times, especially as a result of Joseph Stalin's large-scale effort to \"modernize\" Moscow. Stalin's plans for the city included a network of broad avenues and roadways, some of them over ten lanes wide, which, while greatly simplifying movement through the city, were constructed at the expense of a great number of historical buildings and districts. Among the many casualties of Stalin's demolitions was the Sukharev Tower, a longtime city landmark, as well as mansions and commercial buildings The city's newfound status as the capital of a deeply secular nation, made religiously significant buildings especially vulnerable to demolition. Many of the city's churches, which in most cases were some of Moscow's oldest and most prominent buildings, were destroyed; some notable examples include the Kazan Cathedral and the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. During the 1990s, both were rebuilt. Many smaller churches, however, were lost.\n",
"The relocation of the capital from St. Petersburg to Moscow caused an increased need to house civil servants in Moscow. In 1927, a commission decided that a building would be constructed in the Bersenevka neighborhood, opposite the Kremlin, which had been occupied by the Wine and Salt Court, an old distillery and excise warehouse. During the Tsarist era, the area had been used mainly as a mushroom market.\n",
"Moscow is a seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, a medieval city-fortress that is today the residence for work of the President of Russia. The Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council) also sit in the city. Moscow is considered the center of Russian culture, having served as the home of Russian artists, scientists, and sports figures and because of the presence of museums, academic and political institutions and theatres.\n"
] |
How much does an understanding of historical linguistics benefit study of the period? | Do you mean historical linguistics or knowing the languages? Historical linguistics is the study of how languages change over time, it's what's used to reconstruct things like Proto-Indo-European. It's not the same as knowing the languages, a historical linguist doesn't necessarily actually know the language that he's working on, although for obvious reasons it helps. It's also generally not all that helpful for history, although it can be useful for learning the languages (I don't personally think you can learn Greek without some basic idea of how the Greek language changed from prehistory to Attic, because otherwise you have to memorize the paradigms of literally every verb you encounter like a psycho). Knowing the languages, though, is of great use. I would argue that it's nearly impossible to study ancient history and classics without knowing Greek and Latin (although there are a *very* few number of scholars who actually don't). In more contemporary fields maybe it's not as important, I don't know--as a classicist I deal more or less exclusively with the texts themselves, so I would be forced to work from translation, which is very unsatisfactory for any detail or nuance and is not always possible, as some texts have never been translated. What's important in any historical field is being able to read the sources, whether that's direct material or scholarly material | [
"Historical linguistics provides the main basis for the theory, analysing the development and changes of languages, and establishing relations between the various Indo-European languages, including the time frame of their development. It also provides information about shared words, and the corresponding area of the origin of Indo-European, and the specific vocabulary which is to be ascribed to specific regions. The linguistic analyses and data are supplemented with archaeological data and anthropological arguments, which together provide a coherent model that is widely accepted.\n",
"Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic and language-based context is often determined. Research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focuses on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time.\n",
"Historical linguists study the history of specific languages as well as general characteristics of language change. The study of language change is also referred to as \"diachronic linguistics\" (the study of how one particular language has changed over time), which can be distinguished from \"synchronic linguistics\" (the comparative study of more than one language at a given moment in time without regard to previous stages). Historical linguistics was among the first sub-disciplines to emerge in linguistics, and was the most widely practised form of linguistics in the late 19th century. However, there was a shift to the synchronic approach in the early twentieth century with Saussure, and became more predominant in western linguistics with the work of Noam Chomsky.\n",
"Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's \"Cours de linguistique générale\" created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.\n",
"At first, historical linguistics served as the cornerstone of comparative linguistics primarily as a tool for linguistic reconstruction. Scholars were concerned chiefly with establishing language families and reconstructing prehistoric proto-languages, using the comparative method and internal reconstruction. The focus was initially on the well-known Indo-European languages, many of which had long written histories; the scholars also studied the Uralic languages, another European language family for which less early written material exists. Since then, there has been significant comparative linguistic work expanding outside of European languages as well, such as on the Austronesian languages and various families of Native American languages, among many others. Comparative linguistics is now, however, only a part of a more broadly conceived discipline of historical linguistics. For the Indo-European languages, comparative study is now a highly specialized field. Most research is being carried out on the subsequent development of these languages, in particular, the development of the modern standard varieties.\n",
"The critical period hypothesis is the subject of a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age. The hypothesis claims that there is an ideal time window to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.\n",
"Scholarship is therefore interested in this period as a crucial step in the evolution of society—a long and cumulative process whose roots could be seen at the beginning of the Neolithic more than 6000 years earlier and which had picked up steam in the preceding Ubayd period in Mesopotamia. This is especially the case in English-language scholarship, in which the theoretical approaches have been largely inspired by anthropology since the 1970s, and which has studied the Uruk period from the angle of 'complexity' in analysing the appearance of early states, an expanding social hierarchy, intensification of long-distance trade, etc.\n"
] |
the concept of "hanging on" or "fighting" when you're dying from a disease like cancer | It's less from a medical standpoint and more a matter of will. Someone hanging on or fighting means they still want to live. Once someone decides they don't want to live anymore, or they give in to death, a survival part of the brain shuts down and the illness takes over. When someone "hangs on" or "fights to survive" they are still battling their illness mentally. While not everything can be overcome this way, if someone decides they just give up and want to die, it's hard to turn it around. You can't force someone to live who just gives up. | [
"Battle with cancer is a term used by the media when referring to people suffering from cancer. Those who have died are said to have \"lost their battle with cancer\", while the living are described as \"fighting cancer\". It has been argued that words such as \"battle\" and \"fight\" are inappropriate, as they suggest that cancer can be defeated if one fights hard enough.\n",
"\"At the end of the story, the person simultaneously dies and is saved,\" Dailor said. \"It's about going through cancer, going through chemotherapy and all the things associated with that. I didn't want to be literal about it. But it's all in there. You can read between the lines.\"\n",
"It has been used, albeit off the original definition, to describe one's own knowledge that we will die. Writers in the 1990s involved with the grunge music scene often used the term to describe self-awareness of mortality.\n",
"Suicide refers to someone taking their own lives. Opponents feel that this term is appropriate to describe assisted death, because of the social and personal dynamics that can pressure someone into choosing death. Opponents also cite the fact that oncologists and other non-psychiatric physicians responsible for referring patients for counseling are not trained to detect complex, potentially invisible disorders like clinical depression.\n",
"\"Illness as Metaphor\" was a response to Sontag’s experiences as a cancer patient, as she noticed that the cultural myths surrounding cancer negatively impacted her as a patient. She finds that, a decade later, cancer is no longer swathed in secrecy and shame, but has been replaced by AIDS as the disease most demonized by society. She finds that the metaphors that we associate with disease contribute not only to stigmatizing the disease, but also stigmatizing those who are ill. She believes that the distractions of metaphors and myths ultimately cause more fatalities from this disease.\n",
"Proponents feel that \"medical aid in dying\" differs from suicide because a patient must be confirmed by two physicians to be terminally ill with a prognosis of 6 months or less to live and must also be confirmed by two physicians to be mentally capable to make medical decisions. That is why proponents support death certificates that list their underlying condition as the cause of death. According to the proponents, suicide is a solitary, unregulated act whereas aid in dying is medically authorized and is intended to allow for the presence of loved ones. Proponents define \"suicide\" as an irrational act committed in the throws of mental illness. They assert that the latter act is fundamentally distinct from the practice that they are advocating, as it is intended to be a measured act.\n",
"In the United States and some other cultures, cancer is regarded as a disease that must be \"fought\" to end the \"civil insurrection\"; a War on Cancer was declared in the US. Military metaphors are particularly common in descriptions of cancer's human effects, and they emphasize both the state of the patient's health and the need to take immediate, decisive actions himself rather than to delay, to ignore or to rely entirely on others. The military metaphors also help rationalize radical, destructive treatments. \n"
] |
what's wrong with the word 'negro'? how is 'black' politically more correct than 'negro'? | Apparently words that have a neutral definition can become slurs if they are constantly used to describe someone we don't like. Negro, just as a word outside of any context, is completly neutral; it's the Spanish word for black. However, because it was previously used to name people that we oppresed, the word is now bad. Just like Chinaman or Jap. Chinaman is bad but Englishman is good, and Jap is bad but Brit is good. These words are bad because at some point in time, they were used negatively. If there was a big war, and the word "person" was used to describe the enemy in propaganda, you would not be allowed to call anyone a "person" afterwards. | [
"However, during the 1950s and 1960s, some black American leaders, notably Malcolm X, objected to the word \"Negro\" because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second class citizens, or worse. Malcolm X preferred \"Black\" to \"Negro\", but also started using the term \"Afro-American\" after leaving the Nation of Islam.\n",
"Critics use the word \"Negro\" because it is considered archaic, and usually offensive, in modern English. This underlines their message that a \"magical black character\" who goes around selflessly helping white people is a throwback to stereotypes such as the \"Sambo\" or \"noble savage\".\n",
"\"Negro\" superseded \"colored\" as the most polite word for African Americans at a time when \"black\" was considered more offensive. In Colonial America during the 17th century the term Negro was, according to one historian, also used to describe Native Americans. John Belton O'Neall's The Negro Law of South Carolina (1848) stipulated that \"the term negro is confined to slave Africans, (the ancient Berbers) and their descendants. It does not embrace the free inhabitants of Africa, such as the Egyptians, Moors, or the negro Asiatics, such as the Lascars.\" The American Negro Academy was founded in 1897, to support liberal arts education. Marcus Garvey used the word in the names of black nationalist and pan-Africanist organizations such as the Universal Negro Improvement Association (founded 1914), the \"Negro World\" (1918), the Negro Factories Corporation (1919), and the Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World (1920). W. E. B. Du Bois and Dr. Carter G. Woodson used it in the titles of their non-fiction books, \"The Negro\" (1915) and \"The Mis-Education of the Negro\" (1933) respectively. \"Negro\" was accepted as normal, both as exonym and endonym, until the late 1960s, after the later Civil Rights Movement. One well-known example is the identification by Martin Luther King, Jr. of his own race as \"Negro\" in his famous \"I Have a Dream\" speech of 1963.\n",
"By the 1900s, \"nigger\" had become a pejorative word in the United States. In its stead, the term \"colored\" became the mainstream alternative to \"negro\" and its derived terms. After the civil rights movement, the terms \"colored\" and \"negro\" gave way to \"black\". \"Negro\" had superseded \"colored\" as the most polite word for African Americans at a time when \"black\" was considered more offensive. This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the later Civil Rights movement in the late 1960s. One well-known example is the identification by Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. of his own race as \"Negro\" in his famous speech of 1963, I Have a Dream. During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notably Malcolm X, objected to the word \"Negro\" because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse. Malcolm X preferred \"Black\" to \"Negro\", but later gradually abandoned that as well for \"Afro-American\" after leaving the Nation of Islam.\n",
"American racial categories are, since they thus do not give any positive definition of blackness, groundless and have no empirical foundation. She argues that racial designations refer to physical characteristics of individuals, which were for one inherited from their forebears but also inherent in people in a physical way. So if someone is being called “black” in common American usage, this does not only refer to the looks of the person defined but about the looks of all black people and how the person resembles them. What is perceived as typically black is what scientists now view as the mythology of race which is nowadays closely intertwined with the historical conditions under which the now-disproved scientific theories of race were formulated.\n",
"Four decades later, a similar difference of opinion remains. In 2006, one commentator suggested that the term Negro is outdated or offensive in many quarters; similarly, the word \"colored\" still appears in the name of the NAACP, or National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.\n",
"In certain parts of Latin America, the usage of \"negro\" to directly address black people can be colloquial. It is important to understand that this is not similar to the use of the word \"nigga\" in English in urban hip hop subculture in the United States, given that \"negro\" is not a racist term. For example, one might say to a friend, \"\"\" (literally 'Hey, black-one, how are you doing?'). In such a case, the diminutive ' can also be used, as a term of endearment meaning 'pal'/'buddy'/'friend'. ' has thus also come to be used to refer to a person of any ethnicity or color, and also can have a sentimental or romantic connotation similar to 'sweetheart' or 'dear' in English. In other Spanish-speaking South American countries, the word \"\" can also be employed in a roughly equivalent term-of-endearment form, though it is not usually considered to be as widespread as in Argentina or Uruguay (except perhaps in a limited regional and/or social context). It is consequently occasionally encountered, due to the influence of \"nigga\", in Chicano English in the United States.\n"
] |
Do the deaf need to wear hearing protection? | Depends why they're deaf. If it's a neurological thing, the physical ear being in good shape, it would make sense to try and preserve your ears in case of a medical advance that could restore your hearing. | [
"These are generally worn by people with a hearing loss who either prefer a more cosmetic appeal of their hearing aids by being attached to their glasses or where sound cannot be passed in the normal way, via a hearing aids, perhaps due to a blockage in the ear canal. pathway or if the client suffers from continual infections in the ear.\n",
"Workers may want to wear their hearing aids under an earmuff. According to OSHA, hearing aids should not be used in areas with dangerous noise levels. However, OSHA allows for the professional(s) in charge of the hearing loss protection program to decide on a case-by-case basis if a worker can wear their hearing aids under an earmuff in high-level noise environments. Workers are not permitted to wear their hearing aids (even if they are turned off) instead of using HPD. OSHA specifies that hearing aids are not \"hearing protectors\" and do not attenuate enough sound to be used instead of HPD. Wearing hearing aids alone, without the use of earmuffs, could potentially cause additional noise-induced hearing loss. It is recommended that workers should not use their hearing aids without the use of an earmuff when exposed to sound levels over 80 dBA.\n",
"Being deaf or hard of hearing typically has little impact on the development of motor skills, fitness levels, and participation in sports. However, it is still important to accommodate students who are deaf or hard of hearing in the physical education setting.\n",
"Through this lens individuals who are deaf are considered disabled due to their inability to hear, which hearing counterparts in their surroundings have historically viewed as a disadvantage. People with disabilities affirm that the design of the environment often disables them. In more accessible environments where those that are deaf have access to language that is not only spoken they are disabled less, or not at all. Areas where hearing and deaf individuals interact, called contact zones, often leave deaf individuals at a disadvantage because of the environment being tailored to suit the needs of the hearing counterpart. The history of Martha's Vineyard, when looking specifically at Martha's Vineyard Sign Language, supports this notion. At one point in time, the deaf population on the island was so great that it was commonplace for hearing residents to know and use both signed and spoken language to communicate with their neighbors. In this environmental design, it was not \"bad\" or \"disabling\" if one was not able to hear in order to communicate. With certain disabilities, medical intervention can improve subsequent health issues. This is true to parts of the deaf population, as in some cases hearing can be gained with the assistance of medical technologies. The social model acknowledges the hard truth that medical intervention does not address societal issues that prevail - regardless of its extent or success.\n",
"Deafness is a feature of MDP syndrome as a result of the nerves not working well and people often have difficulty getting hearing aids because of the small size of their ears. Digital hearing aids can be helpful and audiometry follow up will be needed.\n",
"Dual hearing protection refers to the use of earplugs under ear muffs. This type of hearing protection is particularly recommended for workers in the Mining industry because they are exposed to extremely high noise levels, such as an 105 dBA TWA. Fortunately, there is an option of adding electronic features to dual hearing protectors. These features help with communication by making speech more clear, especially for those workers who already have hearing loss. \n",
"Not only can communication barriers between deaf and hearing people affect family relationships, work, and school, but they can also have a very significant effect on a deaf individual’s physical and mental health care. As a result of poor communication between the health care professional and the deaf or hard of hearing patient, many patients report that they are not properly informed about their disease and prognosis.\n"
] |
what are 'short-links' such as _url_1_, _url_2_, and _url_0_ used for? | The goal is to make URL's smaller, which is beneficial if e.g. you have a comment section or tweet you want to send and there's a character limit. It may also just look better than a medium to long size url.
An exception is that some of those URL shorteners are also used maliciously by criminals to hide the original URL which may have looked less safe.
So, keep an eye out when clicking those url's. | [
"The shortest possible long-term URLs were generated by NanoURL from December 2009 until about 2011, associated with the top-level \".to\" (Tonga) domain, in the form , where represents a sequence of random numbers and letters.\n",
"The company uses HTTP 301 redirects for its links. The shortcuts are intended to be permanent and cannot be changed once they are created. URLs that are shortened with the bitly service use the codice_3 domain or any other generic domain that the service offers. Information about any short bitly URL codice_4 is available at codice_5 (that is, the URL with a plus sign appended), for example codice_6.\n",
"The main advantage of a short link is that it is, in fact, short, looks neat and clean and can be easily communicated and entered without error. To a very limited extent it may obscure the destination of the URL, though easily discoverable; this may be advantageous, disadvantageous, or irrelevant. A short link which expires, or can be terminated, has some security advantages.\n",
"A permanent URL is not necessarily a good thing. There are security implications, and obsolete short URLs remain in existence and may be circulated long after they cease to point to a relevant or even extant destination. Sometimes a short URL is useful simply to give someone over a telephone conversation for a one-off access or file download, and no longer needed within a couple of minutes.\n",
"TinyURL is a URL shortening web service, which provides short aliases for redirection of long URLs. Kevin Gilbertson, a web developer, launched the service in January 2002 as a way to post links in newsgroup postings which frequently had long, cumbersome addresses.\n",
"Short URL aliases are seen as useful because they are easier to be written down, remembered or distributed. They also fit in text boxes with a limited number of characters allowed. Some examples of limited text boxes are IRC channel topics, email signatures, microblogs, certain printed newspapers (such as \".net\" magazine or even \"Nature\"), and email clients that impose line breaks on messages at a certain length.\n",
"Some URL shorteners offer a time-limited service, which will expire after a specified period. Services available include an ordinary, easy-to-say word as the URL with a lifetime from 5 minutes up to 24 hours, creation of a URL which will expire on a specified date or after a specified period, creation of a very-short-lived URL of only 5 characters for typing into a smartphone, restriction by the creator of the total number of uses of the URL, and password protection. A Microsoft Security Brief recommends the creation of short-lived URLs, but for reasons explicitly of security rather than convenience.\n"
] |
If a planet was orbiting a star, and that star were to go supernova, would the planet continue to orbit it? would there be a delay before it stops orbiting it? | In our current understanding of gravity (general relativity), gravity travels at the speed of light. If you're sitting at the exploding star, any orbiting object 5 light hours away will appear to continue as normal for 10 hours (5 for the effect to reach it, 5 more for that news to make it back to you). If you're sitting on the planet, it will seem to happen immediately, as the gravitational change arrives with the light. (Simultaneity depends on your reference frame in relativity).
The orbit WILL change, though, yes. This happens with binary stars as well as planets. Since the supernova is removing mass from the primary star, there's less gravitational pull on the orbiting object after it happens. But the object is still moving at the old orbital speed. The resulting "kick" that the binary companion has (be it a planet or a star) is called the ["Blaauw kick"](_URL_0_). Looking at the [virial theorem](_URL_1_), it becomes clear that if half the mass of the binary or more is lost in the supernova ejecta, the system won't remain bound. Think of it like spinning a sling around your head and then letting go. In this case, the planet/binary companion will go flying off at high speeds.
There's a bit of extra complication, though, in that supernovae aren't necessarily symmetrical. There's an extra "kick" from a bit more mass being ejected in one direction than another. Depending on how these kicks line up with what the velocity of the orbiting object is at the time of the supernova, it's possible that supernova losing less than half the binary mass results in an unbound system, or that one losing more than half the binary mass remains bound. How big these asymmetric kicks are and how common they are, and whether they apply to black holes as well as neutron stars, is still an active subject of research.
Even if the system remains bound, the orbit will end up being highly elliptical for a while even if it was circular to start with. The supernova gives it a strong push in one direction, mucking about with the symmetry. | [
"Planet Nine could have been captured from outside the Solar System during a close encounter between the Sun and another star. If a planet was in a distant orbit around this star, three-body interactions during the encounter could alter the planet's path, leaving it in a stable orbit around the Sun. A planet originating in a system without Jupiter-massed planets could remain in a distant eccentric orbit for a longer time, increasing its chances of capture. The wider range of possible orbits would reduce the odds of its capture in a relatively low inclination orbit to 1–2 percent. This process could also occur with rogue planets, but the likelihood of their capture is much smaller, with only 0.05–0.10% being captured in orbits similar to that proposed for Planet Nine.\n",
"A planet could possibly get into this situation by evaporating while orbiting inside the gaseous shell of the red giant and at the same time having its orbit decay due to bow-shock friction with the gas. Tides induce on the expanded star by the planet would also cause the orbit to decay, rather than expand as might have been expected to loss of gas from the star. These possibilities have been studied because that is the expected future of the Earth. Another hypothesis is that close-in planets could have formed during the merger of two white dwarfs.\n",
"An encounter with another star could also alter the orbit of a distant planet, shifting it from a circular to an eccentric orbit. The \"in situ\" formation of a planet at this distance would require a very massive and extensive disk, or the outward drift of solids in a dissipating disk forming a narrow ring from which the planet accreted over a billion years. If a planet formed at such a great distance while the Sun was in its original cluster, the probability of it remaining bound to the Sun in a highly eccentric orbit is roughly 10%. A previous article reported that if the massive disk extended beyond 80 AU some objects scattered outward by Jupiter and Saturn would have been left in high inclination (inc 50°), low eccentricity orbits which have not been observed. An extended disk would also have been subject to gravitational disruption by passing stars and by mass loss due to photoevaporation while the Sun remained in the open cluster where it formed.\n",
"It is possible for objects orbiting a star to be ejected due to interaction with a third massive body, thereby becoming interstellar objects. Such a process was initiated in early 1980s when C/1980 E1, initially gravitationally bound to the Sun, passed near Jupiter and was accelerated sufficiently to reach escape velocity from the Solar System. This changed its orbit from elliptical to hyperbolic and made it the most eccentric known object at the time, with an eccentricity of 1.057. It is headed for interstellar space.\n",
"When the O-type star goes supernova any planets that had formed would become free-floating due to the loss of stellar mass unless the natal kick of the resulting remnant pushes it in the same direction as an escaping planet.\n",
"On November 1, 2010, a super-earth was announced orbiting the star along with Gliese 785 b as part of the NASA-UC Eta-Earth program. The planet orbits in just under 9.5 days and was originally thought to have a minimum mass of 8.2 ± 1.2 M. Spurred by the possibility of transits, additional data was acquired for less than a year which found a lower mass for the star and hence reduced the minimum mass of the planet to 6.4 ± 0.7 M, and improved certainty on the time of possible transit. Transits of the planet were apparently detected and announced on September 12, 2011; this would make HD 97658 the second-to-brightest star with a transiting planet after 55 Cancri and indicating a low-density planet like Gliese 1214 b. However, the occurrence of transits was quietly retracted on April 11, 2012, and three days later it was announced that observations by the MOST space telescope could not confirm transits. Transits of radii larger than 1.87 R were ruled out.\n",
"Comets are thought to orbit the Sun at great distances, but then be perturbed by passing stars and the galactic tides. As they come into or leave the inner Solar System they may have their orbit changed by the planets, or alternatively be ejected from the Solar System. It is also possible they may collide with the Sun or a planet.\n"
] |
How were the letters written by Apostle Paul delivered? | First off, Saint Paul never knew Jesus. This is a very common misconception. He was not one of the original 12 apostles. He was a Jewish/Roman military man of the Roman Empire who at first persecuted Christians, then later converted, became a missionary and became arguably the key founder of Christianity. He was from Tarsus, Cilicia. He lived from 5-67 a.d.
Anyway, I'll try to answer the question as best I can, I'm no expert.
The Roman's postal system was incredibly sophisticated and advanced for the time period. It was very simple for one to send a letter almost anywhere in the empire as long as it had an address. Paul's letters were often addressed to cities he or other missionaries had started Christian followings in. Often they were written to answer theological questions that arose in these congregations from a lack of a central or canon Christian law. The beginning of Christianity saw much debate and disagreement with different interpretations of the different gospels and the reality/divinity of Jesus. The letters would often be sent from Paul to the known Christian leaders of specific towns. These letters were to be read aloud to the following of Christians during their time of worship and congregation together. During the infancy of the Church it was common for letters to be sent out, there were always questions that needed to be clarified by one who they believed had an authority on the matter. | [
"Most New Testament scholars believe Paul the Apostle wrote this letter from Corinth, although information appended to this work in many early manuscripts (e.g., Codices Alexandrinus, Mosquensis, and Angelicus) state that Paul wrote it in Athens after Timothy had returned from Macedonia with news of the state of the church in Thessalonica (; ). For the most part, the letter is personal in nature, with only the final two chapters spent addressing issues of doctrine, almost as an aside. Paul's main purpose in writing is to encourage and reassure the Christians there. Paul urges them to go on working quietly while waiting in hope for the return of Christ.\n",
"BULLET::::- First, they have found a difference in these letters' vocabulary, style, and theology from Paul's acknowledged writings. Defenders of the authenticity say that they were probably written in the name and with the authority of the Apostle by one of his companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had to be written, or to whom he gave a written summary of the points to be developed, and that when the letters were finished, Paul read them through, approved them, and signed them.\n",
"The first verse in the letter identifies Paul as its author. While early lists of New Testament books, including Marcion's canon and the Muratorian fragment, attribute the letter to Paul, more recently there have been challenges to Pauline authorship on the basis of the letter's characteristically non-Pauline syntax, terminology, and eschatology.\n",
"If Paul was the author of the letter, then it was probably written from Rome during Paul's first imprisonment (; ; ), and probably soon after his arrival there in the year 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus. However, scholars who dispute Paul's authorship date the letter to between 70–80 AD. In the latter case, the possible location of the authorship could have been within the church of Ephesus itself. Ignatius of Antioch himself seemed to be very well versed in the epistle to the Ephesians, and mirrors many of his own thoughts in his own epistle to the Ephesians.\n",
"By comparing Acts of the Apostles and mentions of Ephesus in the Corinthian correspondence, scholars suggest that the letter was written during Paul's stay in Ephesus, which is usually dated as being in the range of AD 53–57.\n",
"David Trobisch argues that comparison of the oldest manuscripts of Paul’s letters show evidence that several epistles had been previously assembled as an anthology and published separate from the New Testament, and this anthology as a whole was then incorporated into the New Testament. Trobisch further argues for Paul as the assembler of his own letters for publication.\n",
"Martin Luther described Paul's letter to the Romans as \"the most important piece in the New Testament. It is purest Gospel. It is well worth a Christian's while not only to memorize it word for word but also to occupy himself with it daily, as though it were the daily bread of the soul\".\n"
] |
Why did 1960s Communist China engage in so many territorial conflicts over tiniest bits of land with such major powers as India and as the USSR? | It wasn't necessarily "Mao" that was responsible for these actions. If anything, Zhou Enlai played a bigger part, having been China's foreign minister up until the 1960s.
Before we get to the Chola incident and the 1963 Sino-Pakistan agreement, you should understand that the Chola incident was a result of the Sino-Indian War of 1962. This was due to a border conflict between China and India. India was concerned about seeming weak due to territorial conflicts with Pakistan, while China was concerned that India was allying with the Soviets to surround China, as well as subverting Chinese rule in recently annexed Tibet. Indian Prime Minister Nehru instituted the Forward Policy, which authorized Indian troops to move into disputed regions held by Chinese troops. As they moved deeper into these regions, they came into conflict with PRC troops, eventually resulting in several firefights. The Chinese were incensed as they believed this was part of a plan to destabilize Tibet, so they elected to attack India to punish them. The resulting treaty resulted in a peace that more or less demarcates the current borders, although there were still border disputes for years after the war. As a result of this incident, China courted Pakistan as an ally against India, to help offset the Soviet Union's courting of India.
On a similar note, the Sino-Soviet split had already been in motion for a long time. China had significant territorial claims on Russia, who had signed one of the "unequal treaties" in the 1800s to claim Outer Manchuria, or Primorye, as well as the annexation of the area known as Tannu Tava in the West, as well as border incidents in Mongolia and Xinjiang. As a result, to satisfy Chinese revanchism, China attempted to negotiate with the Soviet Union to "revise" these treaties which the Soviet Union found to be unacceptable. As a result, Chinese troops attacked Russian forces in a series of border skirmishes over the island and various other territories.
Sources:
Maxwell, India's China War
Luthi, the Sino-Soviet Split | [
"Relations between the Soviet Union and Japan between the Communist takeover in 1917 and the collapse of Communism in 1991 tended to be hostile. Japan had sent troops to counter the Bolshevik presence in Russia's Far East during the Russian Civil War, and both countries had been in opposite camps during World War II and the Cold War. In addition, territorial conflicts over the Kuril Islands and South Sakhalin were a constant source of tension. These, with a number of smaller conflicts, prevented both countries from signing a peace treaty after World War II, and even today matters remain unresolved.\n",
"In 1931, the Empire of Japan invaded Manchuria and created the puppet state of Manchukuo (1932), which signalled the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. In 1937, a month after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the Soviet Union established a non-aggression pact with the Republic of China. During the World War II-period, the two countries suffered more losses than any other country, with China (in the Second Sino-Japanese war) losing over 35 million and the Soviet Union 27 million people.\n",
"In the 1960s, tensions between two communist nations had emerged into a [[Sino-Soviet border conflict|border conflict]], in which almost resulted with Soviet Union attempt to use nuclear bombs to nuke China. The conflict would only last at 1989 and ended at 1991 with the collapse of USSR, however there is still a modern sense of resentment against Russia by a minority of Chinese, who see Russia as the perpetrator for crimes within the country.\n",
"China and the USSR were rivals after the Sino-Soviet split in 1961, competing for control of the worldwide Communist movement. There was a serious possibility of a major war in the early 1960s; a brief border war took place in 1969. This enmity began to lessen after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, but relations were poor until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.\n",
"China's relations with the USSR remained sour after the conflict, despite the border talks, which began in 1969 and continued inconclusively for a decade. Domestically, the threat of war caused by the border clashes inaugurated a new stage in the Cultural Revolution; that of China's thorough militarization. The 9th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, held in the aftermath of the Zhenbao Island incident, confirmed Defense Minister Lin Biao as Mao's heir apparent. Following the events of 1969, the Soviet Union further increased its forces along the Sino-Soviet border, and in the Mongolian People's Republic.\n",
"Another issue that fueled the split in the Communist Party of India was parting of the ways between the USSR and China. Though the conflict had a long history, it came out in open in 1959, Khrushchev sought to appease the West during a period of the Cold War known as 'The Thaw', by holding a summit meeting with U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower. Two other reasons were USSR's unwillingness to support Chinese nuclear program and their neutrality in the initial days of Sino-Indian border conflict. These events greatly offended Mao Zedong and the other Chinese Communist leaders.\n",
"Sino–Soviet diplomatic ties had been cut following the Sino-Soviet conflict (1929). At the time the Soviet Union was undergoing a country wide program of mass industrialization in preparation for a potential war on two fronts (with Germany and Japan respectively). The establishment of Manchukuo complicated the situation as its territory now housed a colony of 40,000 Soviet citizens working on the Chinese Eastern Railway. Although the Soviets refused to officially recognize the new state, they sold the railway to the Japanese in March 1935, at a cut-rate following a series of Japanese provocations. The Soviets felt unready for a new confrontation with Japan, opting to improve relations with China as a temporary countermeasure. The League of Nations remained silent on the issue of Japanese imperialism, pushing China to reactivate its unofficial communication channels with its only remaining potential ally. The Anti-Comintern Pact, signed on 25 November 1936, erased the last doubts held by both sides regarding the ongoing reconciliation efforts. On 7 July 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. On 21 August, China and the Soviet Union signed a non–aggression pact. Although the pact made no mention of Soviet military support, it de facto established a tacit understanding that the Soviets would provide both military and material aid.\n"
] |
i have terrible vision, but sometimes if i blink hard enough, my vision goes crystal clear til i blink again. why? | As someone who's spent 4 years studying, researching and working clinically with eyeballs, here's my guess:
You're likely forcing your focusing system to focus through as much blur as it possibly can, assuming that while you "blink enough" you're concentrating your gaze, at a single object or direction. Both your cornea and your crystalline lens will change shape in order for you to be able to focus; younger people, especially kids, have a much greater dynamic range for focusing then do older folks, so if you're young, that's probably most of it. If you know you have terrible vision, meaning a high prescription in one and or both eyes, you definitely should not do this. In that case, you'll probably get headaches if you do it enough. Just use glasses. | [
"Blinking results in blurred and incomplete image of the fundus. It is imperative to instruct the patient not to blink when the fundus photo is taken.The patient may blink normally at any other time to prevent the excessive drying of the eye. A dry eye may also lead to a blurred fundus photo. When dry eye is suspected, ask the patient to blink several times to lubricate the eye before continuing.\n",
"When his vision starts to blur, he goes to see a doctor (Halliwell Hobbes), who gives him a grim prognosis: as a result of his old war injury, he will go blind, in a year if he avoids strain, \"not very long\" if he does not.\n",
"Patients who suffer from nutritional optic neuropathy may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the pupils continue to respond normally to light.\n",
"Another symptom includes the fading of visual clarity. This symptom makes the eye create an image commonly described to appear as though looking through a waterfall. If the lens becomes completely opaque the individual will become blind, even though the photoreceptors are completely functional. Other common symptoms include;\n",
"BULLET::::3. When a blurry stimulus is presented to a region of the visual field away from where we are fixating, and we keep our eyes still, that stimulus will disappear even though it is still physically presented. This is called Troxler's fading. It occurs because although our eyes move a little when we are fixating on a point, away from that point (in \"peripheral vision\") the movements are not large enough to shift the lilac discs to new neurons of the visual system. Their afterimages essentially cancel the original images, so that all one sees of the lilac discs is grey, except for the gap where the green afterimage appears.\n",
"When the eyes dry out or become fatigued due to reading on a computer screen, it can be an indication of Computer Vision Syndrome. Computer Vision Syndrome can be prevented by taking regular breaks, focusing on objects far from the screen, having a well-lit workplace, or using a blink reminder application such as EyeLeo or VisionProtect. Studies suggest that adults can learn to maintain a healthy blinking rate while reading or looking at a computer screen using biofeedback.\n",
"Nutritional deficiency may be the cause of a genuine optic neuropathy, sometimes associated with involvement of the peripheral nervous system, called peripheral neuropathy. Loss of vision is usually bilateral, painless, chronic, insidious and slowly progressive. Most often, they present as a non-specific retrobulbar optic neuropathy. Patients may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the pupils continue to respond normally to light.\n"
] |
to anybody who has used nesquik milkshake powder, why is it that the chocolate powder never mixes in with the milk fully, yet the banana powder does? | The primary ingredients in the banana powder are cane sugar and maltodextrin (which is a white powder made from flour starch and used as a food additive). Both are very soluble in water (or milk), so it dissolves easily.
The chocolate powder, the primary ingredients are cane sugar (dissolves easily) and cocoa powder. Cocoa powder is about 22% fat, which is insoluble (doesn't dissolve well in water or milk). So the bits that don't dissolve are the cocoa powder, due largely to the fat.
It will dissolve better using hot water, and vigorous stirring, but may not do it perfectly even then. | [
"Powdered milk is frequently used in the manufacture of infant formula, confectionery such as chocolate and caramel candy, and in recipes for baked goods where adding liquid milk would render the product too thin. Powdered milk is also widely used in various sweets such as the famous Indian milk balls known as gulab jamun and a popular Indian sweet delicacy (sprinkled with desiccated coconut) known as chum chum (made with skim milk powder). Many no-cook recipes that use nut butters use powdered milk to prevent the nut butter from turning liquid by absorbing the oil. \n",
"Makers produce the effect by drizzling melted chocolate into plain milk ice cream towards the end of the churning process; chocolate solidifies immediately coming in contact with the cold ice cream, and is then broken up and incorporated into the ice cream with a spatula. This process creates the shreds of chocolate that give stracciatella its name. (\"Straciatella\" in Italian means \"little shred\".) While straciatella ice cream traditionally involves milk ice cream and milk chocolate, modern variations can also be made with vanilla and dark chocolate.\n",
"Flavonoids exist naturally in cocoa, but because they can be bitter, they are often removed from chocolate, even dark chocolate. Although flavonoids are present in milk chocolate, milk may interfere with their absorption; however this conclusion has been questioned.\n",
"The ad for Nesquik chocolate milkshake stated: \"You know, kids only grow up once, which is why they pack their days full of the good stuff. So start theirs with a tasty glass of Nesquik at breakfast. It has essential vitamins and minerals to help them grow and develop because all this laughing and playing can be hard work.\" An animation showed the ingredients \"Vitamins D, B & C\", \"Iron\", and \"Magnesium\" adjacent to a glass of the product, mixed with milk. On-screen text during the ad read, \"Enjoy Nesquik as part of a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle\".\n",
"Milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a means of improving sales. Chocolate milk has been sold for many years and has been followed more recently by strawberry milk and others. Some nutritionists have criticized flavored milk for adding sugar, usually in the form of high-fructose corn syrup, to the diets of children who are already commonly obese in the U.S.\n",
"The cream is made by whipping egg yolks and sugar together until the yolk is almost white, and then slowly adding hot milk, while whisking. Vanilla beans (seeds) may be added for extra flavour and visual appeal. The sauce is then cooked over low heat (excessive heating may cause the yolks to cook, resulting in scrambled eggs) and stirred constantly with a spoon until it is thick enough to coat the back of a spoon, and then removed from the heat. It is also possible to set the sauce into custard cups and bake in a bain-marie until the egg yolks set. If the sauce reaches too high a temperature, it will curdle, although it can be salvaged by straining into a container placed in an ice bath. Cooking temperature should be between 70 °C (156 °F) and 83 °C (180 °F); the higher the temperature, the thicker the resulting cream, as long as the yolks are fully incorporated into the mixture.\n",
"Hot milk cake gets its distinctive flavor from the scalded milk that is the liquid component of the batter. It differs from traditional sponge cakes in that it contains baking powder as leavening, and the eggs are beaten together whole instead of whipped as yolks and whites separately.\n"
] |
why does a scientific calculator show "0" as a result if i add 1 to a really high number and then substract said high number although it should show "1"? | Your calculator doesn't store all of the digits for 2^50, so the 1 at the very end gets removed from the memory. How many digits a calculator actually holds depends from calculator to calculator. | [
"Most calculators and many computer programs present very large and very small results in scientific notation, typically invoked by a key labelled (for \"exponent\"), (for \"enter exponent\"), , , , or depending on vendor and model. Because superscripted exponents like 10 cannot always be conveniently displayed, the letter \"E\" (or \"e\") is often used to represent \"times ten raised to the power of\" (which would be written as \"× 10\") and is followed by the value of the exponent; in other words, for any two real numbers \"m\" and \"n\", the usage of \"\"m\"E\"n\"\" would indicate a value of \"m\" × 10. In this usage the character \"e\" is not related to the mathematical constant \"e\" or the exponential function \"e\" (a confusion that is unlikely if scientific notation is represented by a capital \"E\"). Although the \"E\" stands for \"exponent\", the notation is usually referred to as \"(scientific) E-notation\" rather than \"(scientific) exponential notation\". The use of E-notation facilitates data entry and readability in textual communication since it minimizes keystrokes, avoids reduced font sizes and provides a simpler and more concise display, but it is not encouraged in some publications.\n",
"As well as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, it had reciprocal and square-root functions, and the ability to multiply by a fixed constant. With an eight-digit display, the calculator could display positive numbers between 0.0000001 and 99,999,999, and negative numbers between -0.000001 and -9,999,999. Calculators of the time tended to have displays of between 3 and 12 digits, as reducing the number of digits was an effective way of reducing the cost of the calculator. A number outside that range leads to an overflow, and the screen flashes and all keys except the clear key are rendered inoperable to inform the user of the error. A independent memory register could read information from the screen, and information could only be taken from the memory onto the screen. Five keys were used for memory operations.\n",
"The same process applies for numbers between 0 and 1. For example, 0.045 would be written as 4.5 × 10. The only difference is that b is now negative, so when adding you are really subtracting. This would yield the result 0.653 − 2, or −1.347.\n",
"where \"a\" is a bias for adjusting the approximation errors. For example, with \"a\" = 0 the results are accurate for even powers of 2 (e.g., 1.0), but for other numbers the results will be slightly too big (e.g.,1.5 for 2.0 instead of 1.414... with 6% error). With \"a\" = -0x4B0D2, the maximum relative error is minimized to ±3.5%.\n",
"Thus the result of the subtraction is 1001 1001 0010 0101 (−925). To confirm the result, note that the first digit is 9, which means negative. This seems to be correct, since 357 − 432 should result in a negative number. The remaining nibbles are BCD, so 1001 0010 0101 is 925. The ten's complement of 925 is 1000 − 925 = 75, so the calculated answer is −75.\n",
"For example, the expression \"5 mod 2\" would evaluate to 1 because 5 divided by 2 has a quotient of 2 and a remainder of 1, while \"9 mod 3\" would evaluate to 0 because the division of 9 by 3 has a quotient of 3 and leaves a remainder of 0; there is nothing to subtract from 9 after multiplying 3 times 3. (Doing the division with a calculator will not show the result referred to here by this operation; the quotient will be expressed as a decimal fraction.)\n",
"For \"x\"′s that are not simple powers of 2, a noticeable error in can occur even when \"x\" is quite large. For example, if \"x\" = 1/1000, then = 9.9999999999989 × 10, an error in the 13-th significant figure. In this case, if Excel simply added and subtracted the decimal numbers, avoiding the conversion to binary and back again to decimal, no round-off error would occur and accuracy actually would be better. Excel has the option to \"Set precision as displayed\". With this option, depending upon circumstance, accuracy may turn out to be better or worse, but you will know exactly what Excel is doing. (It should be noted, however, that only the selected precision is retained, and one cannot recover extra digits by reversing this option.) Some similar examples can be found at this link.\n"
] |
how does regenerative brakes work ? | Electrical induction.
You have probably made an electromagnet out of a coil of wire around a nail and a battery in school. Electricity flowing through a conductor will form a magnetic field around the conductor, and the reverse is true as well. A magnetic field moving around a conductor will cause an electrical current within it.
An electrical motor and an electrical generator are basically the same device, the difference being the input and the output. A generator takes the physical turning of magnets past wires to make electricity and a motor takes electricity moving through wires to make a magnetic field to turn the magnets.
Regenerative braking is using the momentum of a moving car to turn the magnets and create electricity. This slows the car down, and the most effective use of that captured electricity is to turn around and use it to accelerate the car again through the reverse process. | [
"Regenerative braking is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or object by converting its kinetic energy into a form which can be either used immediately or stored until needed. In this mechanism, the electric motor uses the vehicle's momentum to recover energy that would be otherwise lost to the brake discs as heat. This contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess kinetic energy is converted to unwanted and wasted heat by friction in the brakes, or with dynamic brakes, where energy is recovered by using electric motors as generators but is immediately dissipated as heat in resistors. In addition to improving the overall efficiency of the vehicle, regeneration can greatly extend the life of the braking system as its parts do not wear as quickly.\n",
"The most common form of regenerative brake involves an electric motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the electricity generated is fed back into the supply system. In battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored chemically in a battery, electrically in a bank of capacitors, or mechanically in a rotating flywheel. Hydraulic hybrid vehicles use hydraulic motors to store energy in the form of compressed air. In a fuel cell powered vehicle, the electric energy generated by the motor is used to break waste water down into oxygen, and hydrogen which goes back into the fuel cell for later reuse.\n",
"Conventional brakes dissipate kinetic energy as heat, which is irrecoverable. Regenerative braking, used by hybrid/electric vehicles, recovers some of the kinetic energy, but some energy is lost in the conversion, and the braking power is limited by the battery's maximum charge rate and efficiency.\n",
"The regenerative brake concept was further developed in the early 1980s by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer, using off-the shelf components, military surplus, and an Opel GT. The voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited fuel efficiency, and plans for it were marketed by Mother Earth News.\n",
"Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.\n",
"BULLET::::- gradual braking: Regenerative brakes re-use the energy of braking, but cannot absorb energy as fast as conventional brakes. Gradual braking recovers energy for re-use, boosting mileage; hard braking wastes the energy as heat, just as for a conventional car. Use of the \"B\" (braking) selector on the transmission control is useful on long downhill runs to reduce heat and wear on the conventional brakes, but it does not recover additional energy. Constant use of \"B\" is discouraged by Toyota as it \"may cause decreased fuel economy\" compared to driving in \"D\".\n",
"Brake fade is caused by a buildup of heat in the braking surfaces and the subsequent changes and reactions in the brake system components and can be experienced with both drum brakes and disc brakes. Loss of stopping power, or fade, can be caused by friction fade, mechanical fade, or fluid fade. Brake fade can be significantly reduced by appropriate equipment and materials design and selection, as well as good cooling.\n"
] |
why do some tv shows have a sign language interpreter on the screen? why can't they just use subtitles? | As far as the interpreter goes, though, some deaf people may prefer it because they're accessing information in their own language (one that is readily accessible)... English is usually the second language learned for deaf people, so that may be a secondary choice. | [
"There have also been a few local stations that have broadcast programming in American Sign Language, accompanied by English closed captioning. Prior to the development of closed captioning, it was not uncommon for some public television programs to incorporate ASL translations by an on-screen interpreter. An interpreter may still be utilized for the deaf and hard-of-hearing community for on-air emergency broadcasts (such as severe weather alerts given by local governments) as well as televised press conferences by local and state government officials accompanied by closed captioning.\n",
"In television, subtitles are used for \"clarification, translation, services for the deaf, as well as identifying places or people in the news.\" In movies, subtitles are mainly used for translations from foreign languages. \n",
"Sometimes, mainly at film festivals, subtitles may be shown on a separate display below the screen, thus saving the film-maker from creating a subtitled copy for perhaps just one showing. Television subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing is also referred to as closed captioning in some countries.\n",
"The producers Andrew Form and Bradley Fuller said they initially planned not to provide on-screen subtitles for sign-language dialogue with \"context clues,\" but realized that for the scene in which the deaf daughter and her hearing father argue about the modified hearing aid, subtitles were necessary. The producers subsequently added subtitles for all sign-language dialogue in the film. Producer Brad Fuller said, \"And I think once you put one subtitle in, you subtitle the whole movie. You don't take liberties like, 'Oh they probably know what I love you is, but we don't subtitle it.' It's just gonna live everywhere and that's the world we live by.\"\n",
"In the 1980s, supertitles (sometimes called surtitles) began to appear. Although supertitles were first almost universally condemned as a distraction, today many opera houses provide either supertitles, generally projected above the theatre's proscenium arch, or individual seat screens where spectators can choose from more than one language. TV broadcasts typically include subtitles even if intended for an audience who knows well the language (for example, a RAI broadcast of an Italian opera). These subtitles target not only the hard of hearing but the audience generally, since a sung discourse is much harder to understand than a spoken one—even in the ears of native speakers. Subtitles in one or more languages have become standard in opera broadcasts, simulcasts, and DVD editions.\n",
"In the Netherlands, Flanders, Nordic countries, Estonia and Portugal, films and television programmes are shown in the original language (usually English) with subtitles, and only cartoons and children's movies and programs are dubbed, such as the \"Harry Potter\" series, \"Finding Nemo\", \"Shrek\", \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory\" and others. Cinemas usually show both a dubbed version and one with subtitles for this kind of movie, with the subtitled version shown later in the evening.\n",
"In the United States, the National Captioning Institute noted that English as a foreign or second language (ESL) learners were the largest group buying decoders in the late 1980s and early 1990s before built-in decoders became a standard feature of US television sets. This suggested that the largest audience of closed captioning was people whose native language was not English. In the United Kingdom, of 7.5 million people using TV subtitles (closed captioning), 6 million have no hearing impairment.\n"
] |
"the core of the planet earth is made of iron and nickel": how scientists can determine that if no one has been in the core of the earth? | We have a pretty good idea about what's on the inside of the Earth, based on the geologist's equivalent of a CAT scan or an MRI -- earthquake data. When an earthquake happens, it sends waves bouncing around the inside of the planet. These waves change direction and speed based on the kinds of materials they pass through. Geologists can detect the movement of these waves by taking measurements at different locations all across the planet, and in so doing, build a picture of how the inside of the planet is constructed.
That's how we know that the interior of the Earth is separated into four layers, that the innermost is made of something solid, and that at least one of them is an actual liquid. From here, scientists can use other information to get an idea of what elements the interior is actually composed of.
Based on the estimated density of the solid inner core, we can guess that it's probably made of iron. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that iron appears to be exceedingly plentiful in the solar system. Given how plentiful it is, and given that we know it's a very dense element, and given what we know about how a dense metal like iron would behave in a still-molten Earth when it was forming, it makes sense that Iron is probably what our core is made of.
We can guess a few more things about how the inner and outer cores behave, based on the fact that the Earth has a magnetic field. We know that the inner core must be rotating, and that the outer core must be convecting, because without those two things, the Earth would not have a magnetic field. So the existence of some external factors can tell us a lot about the internal factors of our planet. | [
"Earth's core is believed to be mostly an alloy of iron and nickel. The density indicates that it also contains a significant amount of lighter elements. Elements such as hydrogen would be stable in the Earth's core, however the conditions at the formation of the core would not be suitable for its inclusion. Carbon is a very likely constituent of the core. Preferential partitioning of the carbon isotopeC into the metallic core, during its formation, may explain why there seems to be more C on the surface and mantle of the Earth compared to other solar system bodies (−5‰ compared to -20‰). The difference can also help to predict the value of the carbon proportion of the core.\n",
"BULLET::::- A radical new theory of the composition of the Earth's core is published. It proposes that the shape of the solid iron core is determined by the atomic structure of the different forms of iron of which it consists.\n",
"Herndon suggested that the composition of the inner core of Earth is nickel silicide; the conventional view is that it is iron–nickel alloy More recently, he has suggested \"georeactor\" planetocentric nuclear fission reactors as energy sources for the gas giant outer planets. \n",
"There are no samples of the Earth's core available for direct measurement, as there are for the Earth's mantle. The information that we have about it mostly comes from analysis of seismic waves and the magnetic field. The inner core is believed to be composed of an iron–nickel alloy with some other elements. The temperature at the inner core's surface is estimated to be approximately or 9806 °F, which is about the temperature at the surface of the Sun.\n",
"Theories about the age of the core are necessarily part of theories of the history of Earth as a whole. This has been a long debated topic and is still under discussion at the present time. It is widely believed that the Earth's solid inner core formed out of an initially completely liquid core as the Earth cooled down. However, there is still no firm evidence about the time when this process started.\n",
"The Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its molten outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann, who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth's surface. She inferred a radius of 1400 km for the inner core, not very far from the currently accepted value of 1221 km. In 1938, B. Gutenberg and C. Richter analyzed a more extensive set of data and estimated the thickness of the outer core as 1950 km with a steep but continuous 300 km thick transition to the inner core; implying a radius between 1230 and 1530 km for the inner core.\n",
"Although the presence of carbon in the Earth's core is well-constrained, recent studies suggest large inventories of carbon could be stored in this region. Shear (S) waves moving through the inner core travel at about fifty percent of the velocity expected for most iron-rich alloys. Because the core's composition is believed to be an alloy of crystalline iron and a small amount of nickel, this seismic anomaly indicates the presence of light elements, including carbon, in the core. In fact, studies using diamond anvil cells to replicate the conditions in the Earth's core indicate that iron carbide (FeC) matches the inner core's wave speed and density. Therefore, the iron carbide model could serve as an evidence that the core holds as much as 67% of the Earth's carbon. Furthermore, another study found that in the pressure and temperature condition of the Earth's inner core, carbon dissolved in iron and formed a stable phase with the same FeC composition—albeit with a different structure from the one previously mentioned. In summary, although the amount of carbon potentially stored in the Earth's core is not known, recent studies indicate that the presence of iron carbides can explain some of the geophysical observations.\n"
] |
Were the British involved in instigating the 19th century revolutions against Spain in Latin America? | Sorry for the long delay in getting to this, unfortunately it has been a hectic week. The British were definitely involved in the Latin American revolutions to a greater or lesser extent. It is worth noting that the British were fighting Napoleon during the early 19th century and had a giant army all ready to go and get involved in the Western hemisphere. Not only that, but following the American Revolution, the British adopted a trade policy that allowed them to trade with countries that they would not formally recognize. Furthermore, many of the leaders of the Revolutions were anglophiles who actively sought British aid and support. Simon Bolivar, of obvious fame, wanted the British to get involved and even suggested placing the newly free countries under the British wing, though not their direct control. Though it wasn't a revolution, the British pressure on King Joao was the direct cause of his declaring Brazil a sovereign kingdom, equal to Portugal and any other country, for that matter.
So that's the prelude, on the ground, The British Legion, which consisted of 800 soldiers on five ships, were sent to aid Bolivar in his revolution, those these were not official troops. Meaning that the government was not willing to officially endorse the Revolution, but were willing to help out of they could. Not all of those troops made it to Venezuela, and they were not particularly helpful, but they were sent.
After the Revolutions, the British were very big on nation building, sending tons of ships to trade with the new nations. especially British manufactured goods for the various export goods of Latin America. Whether or not this was a good thing has been a huge debate in Latin American history, since some, building on extraction theory, have said that is simply changed them from a de jure colony to a de facto colony, but nevertheless, they were welcomed at the time. For a while the British was the largest shipping country in the western hemisphere, outdoing even the United States.
Sources: John Chasteen, *Americanos*, Leon Fink, *Sweatshops at Sea* | [
"Multiple revolutions in Latin America allowed the region to break free of the mother country. Repeated attempts to regain control failed, as Spain had no help from European powers. Indeed, Britain and the United States worked against Spain, enforcing the Monroe Doctrine. British merchants and bankers took a dominant role in Latin America. In 1824, the armies of generals José de San Martín of Argentina and Simón Bolívar of Venezuela defeated the last Spanish forces; the final defeat came at the Battle of Ayacucho in southern Peru. After the loss of its colonies, Spain played a minor role in international affairs. Spain kept Cuba, which repeatedly revolted in three wars of independence, culminating in the Cuban War of Independence. The United States demanded reforms from Spain, which Spain refused. The U.S. intervened by war in 1898. Winning easily, the U.S. took Cuba and gave it independence. The U.S. also took the Spanish colonies of the Philippines and Guam. Though it still had small colonial holdings in North Africa, Spain's role in international affairs was essentially over.\n",
"Great Britain's trade with Latin America greatly expanded during the revolutionary period, which until then was restricted due to Spanish mercantilist trade policies. British pressure was sufficient to prevent Spain from attempting any serious reassertion of its control over its lost colonies.\n",
"The British had a strong interest in ensuring the demise of Spanish colonialism, as the Spanish followed a mercantilist policy that imposed restrictions on trade between Spanish colonies and foreign powers. In October 1823, Ambassador Rush informed Secretary of State Adams that Foreign Secretary George Canning desired a joint declaration to deter any other power from intervening in Central and South America. Canning was motivated in part by the restoration of King Ferdinand VII of Spain by France. Britain feared that either France or the \"Holy Alliance\" of Austria, Prussia, and Russia would help Spain regain control of its colonies, and sought American cooperation in opposing such an intervention. Monroe and Adams deliberated the British proposal extensively, and Monroe conferred with former presidents Jefferson and Madison.\n",
"The British had a strong interest in ensuring the demise of Spanish colonialism, as the Spanish followed a mercantilist policy that imposed restrictions on trade between Spanish colonies and foreign powers. In October 1823, Ambassador Rush informed Secretary of State Adams that Foreign Secretary George Canning desired a joint declaration to deter any other power from intervening in Central and South America. Canning was motivated in part by the restoration of King Ferdinand VII of Spain by France. Britain feared that either France or the \"Holy Alliance\" of Austria, Prussia, and Russia would help Spain regain control of its colonies, and sought American cooperation in opposing such an intervention. Monroe and Adams deliberated the British proposal extensively, and Monroe conferred with former presidents Jefferson and Madison.\n",
"The colonial status quo seemed to be guaranteed in 1809, when a pact was signed between the Spanish government and the United Kingdom, which established aid against the French invasion. This agreement was ambiguous with regard to South America, since the efforts of Bonaparte they felt they didn't need to invade Spanish territory there. A weakened Spain distracted and virtually cut off from her colonies, meant that insurrections there would flare up. The Royal Navy nevertheless were allowed to reach Spanish ports of both hemispheres. Thus, while the American revolutionaries rejected the French commissioners, and their adhesion to Napoleonic Spain, the British improved their own colonial interests.\n",
"Some issues were eventually resolved in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid, but illegal British trade with the Spanish colonies continued to flourish. The Spanish Empire in the Caribbean remained intact and victorious despite several English attempts to seize some of its heavily defended and fortified colonies. Spain would later use its trading routes and resources to help the rebels' cause in the American Revolution. \n",
"Britain had a strong interest in ensuring the demise of Spanish colonialism, and to open the newly independent Latin American colonies to its trade. The Latin Americans received a certain amount of unofficial aid – arms and volunteers – from outside, but no outside official help at any stage from Britain or any other power. Britain refused to aid Spain and opposed any outside intervention on behalf of Spain by other powers. The Royal Navy was a decisive factor in the struggle for independence of certain Latin American countries.\n"
] |
the event horizon of a black hole | Because any direction past the event horizon points inward. Space itself is warped so massively beyond the horizon that nothing can get out not only because the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, but there is literally no direction that is "out". | [
"The event horizon of a black hole may be thought of as a surface moving outward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between escaping and falling back. The event horizon of a white hole is a surface moving inward at the local speed of light and is just on the edge between being swept outward and succeeding in reaching the center. They are two different kinds of horizons—the horizon of a white hole is like the horizon of a black hole turned inside-out.\n",
"The event horizons bounding the black hole and white hole interior regions are also a pair of straight lines at 45 degrees, reflecting the fact that a light ray emitted at the horizon in a radial direction (aimed outward in the case of the black hole, inward in the case of the white hole) would remain on the horizon forever. Thus the two black hole horizons coincide with the boundaries of the future light cone of an event at the center of the diagram (at \"T\"=\"X\"=0), while the two white hole horizons coincide with the boundaries of the past light cone of this same event. Any event inside the black hole interior region will have a future light cone that remains in this region (such that any world line within the event's future light cone will eventually hit the black hole singularity, which appears as a hyperbola bounded by the two black hole horizons), and any event inside the white hole interior region will have a past light cone that remains in this region (such that any world line within this past light cone must have originated in the white hole singularity, a hyperbola bounded by the two white hole horizons). Note that although the horizon looks as though it is an outward expanding cone, the area of this surface, given by \"r\" is just formula_46, a constant. I.e., these coordinates can be deceptive if care is not exercised.\n",
"The location of the event horizon is determined by the larger root of formula_58. When formula_59 (i.e. formula_60), there are no (real valued) solutions to this equation, and there is no event horizon. With no event horizons to hide it from the rest of the universe, the black hole ceases to be a black hole and will instead be a naked singularity.\n",
"The defining feature of a black hole is the appearance of an event horizon—a boundary in spacetime through which matter and light can only pass inward towards the mass of the black hole. Nothing, not even light, can escape from inside the event horizon. The event horizon is referred to as such because if an event occurs within the boundary, information from that event cannot reach an outside observer, making it impossible to determine if such an event occurred.\n",
"One of the best-known examples of an event horizon derives from general relativity's description of a black hole, a celestial object so massive that no nearby matter or radiation can escape its gravitational field. Often, this is described as the boundary within which the black hole's escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. However, a more accurate description is that within this horizon, all lightlike paths (paths that light could take) and hence all paths in the forward light cones of particles within the horizon, are warped so as to fall farther into the hole. Once a particle is inside the horizon, moving into the hole is as inevitable as moving forward in time, and can actually be thought of as equivalent to doing so, depending on the spacetime coordinate system used.\n",
"The black hole event horizon is teleological in nature, meaning that we need to know the entire future space-time of the universe to determine the current location of the horizon, which is essentially impossible. Because of the purely theoretical nature of the event horizon boundary, the traveling object does not necessarily experience strange effects and does, in fact, pass through the calculatory boundary in a finite amount of proper time.\n",
"In astrophysics, an event horizon is a boundary beyond which events cannot affect an observer on the opposite side of it. An event horizon is most commonly associated with black holes, where gravitational forces are so strong that light cannot escape.\n"
] |
what does it mean when a wound gets "infected?" | It means that bacteria or fungus has set in the wound and has begun to grow off of the tissue in that area. | [
"The symptoms of an infection depends on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as fatigue, loss of appetite, weight loss, fevers, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin rashes, coughing, or a runny nose.\n",
"Infection will complicate healing of surgical wounds and is commonly observed. Most infections are present within the first 30 days after surgery. Surgical wounds can become infected by bacteria, regardless if the bacteria is already present on the patient's skin or if the bacteria is spread to the patient due to contact with infected individuals. Wound infections can be superficial (skin only), deep (muscle and tissue), or spread to the organ or space where the surgery occurred.\n",
"Several complications may occur. Usually, the infection slowly spreads to the surrounding tissue while still remaining localized to the area around the original wound. However, sometimes the fungi may spread through the blood vessels or lymph vessels, producing metastatic lesions at distant sites. Another possibility is secondary infection with bacteria. This may lead to lymph stasis (obstruction of the lymph vessels) and elephantiasis. The nodules may become ulcerated, or multiple nodules may grow and coalesce, affecting a large area of a limb.\n",
"Infection results when the wound’s micro-organisms overcome the immune system’s natural defense to fight off replicating micro-organisms. Chronic wounds that persist for more than 12 weeks should be evaluated for delayed healing, increase exudate, foul odor, additional areas of skin breakdown or slough on the wound bed, and bright red discoloration of granulation tissue, which may be indicative of infection.\n",
"Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter are the various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as \"Corynebacteria sp.\" and \"viridans streptococci\", prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing.\n",
"A hospital-acquired infection (HAI), also known as a nosocomial infection, is an infection that is acquired in a hospital or other health care facility. To emphasize both hospital and nonhospital settings, it is sometimes instead called a health care–associated infection (HAI or HCAI). Such an infection can be acquired in hospital, nursing home, rehabilitation facility, outpatient clinic, or other clinical settings. Infection is spread to the susceptible patient in the clinical setting by various means. Health care staff also spread infection, in addition to contaminated equipment, bed linens, or air droplets. The infection can originate from the outside environment, another infected patient, staff that may be infected, or in some cases, the source of the infection cannot be determined. In some cases the microorganism originates from the patient's own skin microbiota, becoming opportunistic after surgery or other procedures that compromise the protective skin barrier. Though the patient may have contracted the infection from their own skin, the infection is still considered nosocomial since it develops in the health care setting.\n",
"Infection first presents with severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and weakness, which gradually lessens and progresses to fever, and then to central nervous system (CNS) symptoms and severe headache and stiffness of the neck.\n"
] |
do painkillers (advil, tylenol, etc) reduce pain in the specific area that is hurting or do they affect the whole body but you only notice it woking on the area that is in pain? | The pain killers you listed reduce inflammation in different ways so they would help calm down a throbbing injury where inflammatory response is strongest -- they act at the site of the pain. However, the effective anti-inflammation molecules are in your blood so its not like they can't affect more than one region. If you took Tylenol for a sore back and later stubbed your toe you wouldn't have to take more Tylenol for the new injury.
Pain killers like Vicodin act in the central nervous system and lower your emotional response to pain. These don't affect the inflamed area at all -- they just make your perception of pain less unpleasant. | [
"Oral and topical pain killers are effective to treat the pain caused by otitis media. Oral agents include ibuprofen, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and opiates. Evidence for the combination over single agents is lacking. Topical agents shown to be effective include antipyrine and benzocaine ear drops. Decongestants and antihistamines, either nasal or oral, are not recommended due to the lack of benefit and concerns regarding side effects. Half of cases of ear pain in children resolve without treatment in three days and 90% resolve in seven or eight days. The use of steroids is not supported by the evidence for acute otitis media. \n",
"Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine. NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.\n",
"Various analgesics (painkillers) may be used in controlling the headaches of intracranial hypertension. In addition to conventional agents such as paracetamol, a low dose of the antidepressant amitriptyline or the anticonvulsant topiramate have shown some additional benefit for pain relief.\n",
"The approach to acute pain should take into account the severity of the pain. Non-opioid analgesics, such as acetaminophen and NSAIDs, can be used alone to treat mild pain. For moderate to severe pain, it is optimal to use a combination of multiple agents, including opioid and non-opioid agents. \n",
"Management of pain often requires intravenous administration of NSAIDs or opioids. NSAIDs appear somewhat better than opioids or paracetamol in those with normal kidney function. Medications by mouth are often effective for less severe discomfort. The use of antispasmodics does not have further benefit.\n",
"Such action extends the duration of enkephalin effect where the natural pain killers are released physiologically in response to specific potentially painful stimuli, in contrast with administration of narcotics, which floods the entire body and causes many undesirable adverse reactions, including addiction liability and constipation.\n",
"The pain is not harmful and does not signify the presence of disease. No treatment is usually necessary. Pain relievers (analgesics) such as NSAIDS (Non-steroidal anti inflammatories) may be needed in cases of prolonged or intense pain.\n"
] |
What benefits would the addition of a third eye bring? | Eyes (and cameras) are basically devices for taking in a bunch of light, and sorting it out by angle. If you see something in one eye, you know that it's somewhere along a ray starting at your eye and going out in a particular direction, but you don't know where along the ray it is.
Adding a second eye gives you another ray, starting in a different place, and pointing in a different direction. The intersection of these rays is a *unique* point in space; there's no more ambiguity.
The best way to improve depth perception (I'll be a bit more specific and define "improve depth perception" as "reduce the uncertainty in range") is to move the eyes further apart.
A third camera can improve estimated positions of points in 3D space just by providing an additional measurement, but I don't think this is much of a problem for animals. The main benefit of a third eye would be, as pointed out in *300*, having another spare. | [
"While the cornea contributes most of the eye's focusing power, its focus is fixed. Accommodation (the refocusing of light to better view near objects) is accomplished by changing the geometry of the lens. Medical terms related to the cornea often start with the prefix \"\"kerat-\"\" from the Greek word κέρας, \"horn\".\n",
"The work of Weihhs and Moser (1981) showed that the eye's elliptical shape allows a stylophthalmine to dramatically enlarge its field of view through rotation on the stalk, giving a much larger effective pupil size.\n",
"During the accommodation reflex, the pupil constricts to increase the depth of focus of the eye by blocking the light scattered by the periphery of the cornea. The lens then increases its curvature to become more biconvex, thus increasing refractive power. The ciliary muscles are responsible for the lens accommodation response.\n",
"In humans, the total optical power of the relaxed eye is approximately 60 dioptres. The cornea accounts for approximately two-thirds of this refractive power (about 40 dioptres) and the crystalline lens contributes the remaining one-third (about 20 dioptres). In focusing, the ciliary muscle contracts to reduce the tension or stress transferred to the lens by the suspensory ligaments. This results in increased convexity of the lens which in turn increases the optical power of the eye. The amplitude of accommodation is about 15 to 20 dioptres in the very young, decreasing to about 10 dioptres at age 25, and to around 1 dioptre above age 50.\n",
"Adjustable focus eyeglasses are eyeglasses with an adjustable focal length. They compensate for refractive errors (such as presbyopia) by providing variable focusing, allowing users to adjust them for desired distance or prescription, or both.\n",
"The lens is metabolically active and requires nourishment in order to maintain its growth and transparency. Compared to other tissues in the eye, however, the lens has considerably lower energy demands.\n",
"The reduced eye is an idealized model of the optics of the human eye. Introduced by Franciscus Donders, the reduced eye model replaces the several refracting bodies of the eye (the cornea, lens, aqueous humor, and vitreous humor) are replaced by an ideal air/water interface surface that is located 20 mm from a model retina. This, converts a system with six cardinal points (two focal points, two principal points and two nodal points) into one with three cardinal points (two focal points and one nodal point).\n"
] |
Rules Roundtable VI: No Historical "What-If?" Questions or Counterfactuals | What Ifs are *really* popular questions sometimes, but the thing is, with a little work most 'what if' questions can actually be turned into really good, really interesting questions that match the rules. It's all about the angle and perspective you have when asking the question. If you never need a bit of help phrasing things, let us know! | [
"Counterfactuals refer to things that are contrary to the actual situation. In English, counterfactuals can be expressed implicitly in \"if\"-clauses by using a tense form that normally refers to a time prior to the time actually semantically referred to in the \"if\"-clause. For example, \"If I knew that, I wouldn't have to ask\" contains the counterfactual \"If I knew\", which refers to the present tense despite the form of the verb, and which denies the proposition \"I know that\". This contrasts with the construction \"If I know that...\", which is not a counterfactual because it means that maybe I know it and maybe I don't (or maybe I will know it, and maybe I will not). Likewise, \"If I had known that, I would have gone there\" contains the counterfactual \"If I had known\", denying the proposition that I had known.\n",
"In probabilistic logic, the Fréchet inequalities, also known as the Boole–Fréchet inequalities, are rules implicit in the work of George Boole and explicitly derived by Maurice Fréchet that govern the combination of probabilities about logical propositions or events logically linked together in conjunctions (AND operations) or disjunctions (OR operations) as in Boolean expressions or fault or event trees common in risk assessments, engineering design and artificial intelligence. These inequalities can be considered rules about how to bound calculations involving probabilities without assuming independence or, indeed, without making any dependence assumptions whatsoever. The Fréchet inequalities are closely related to the Boole–Bonferroni–Fréchet inequalities, and to Fréchet bounds.\n",
"A counterfactual conditional (abbreviated ), is a conditional with a false if-clause. The term \"counterfactual conditional\" was coined by Nelson Goodman in 1947, extending Roderick Chisholm's (1946) notion of a \"contrary-to-fact conditional\". The study of counterfactual speculation has increasingly engaged the interest of scholars in a wide range of domains such as philosophy, human geography, psychology, cognitive psychology, history, political science, economics, social psychology, law, organizational theory, marketing, and epidemiology.\n",
"Lindley's paradox is a counterintuitive situation in statistics in which the Bayesian and frequentist approaches to a hypothesis testing problem give different results for certain choices of the prior distribution. The problem of the disagreement between the two approaches was discussed in Harold Jeffreys' 1939 textbook; it became known as Lindley's paradox after Dennis Lindley called the disagreement a paradox in a 1957 paper.\n",
"\"The term \"Counterfactual\"\" is defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as contrary to the facts. A counterfactual thought occurs when a person modifies a factual prior event and then assesses the consequences of that change. A person may imagine how an outcome could have turned out differently, if the antecedents that led to that event were different. For example, a person may reflect upon how a car accident could have turned out by imagining how some of the factors could have been different, for example, \"If only I hadn't been speeding...\". These alternatives can be better or worse than the actual situation, and in turn give improved or more disastrous possible outcomes, \"If only I hadn't been speeding, my car wouldn't have been wrecked\" or \"If I hadn't been wearing a seatbelt, I would have been killed\".\n",
"Berkson's paradox also known as Berkson's bias or Berkson's fallacy is a result in conditional probability and statistics which is often found to be counterintuitive, and hence a veridical paradox. It is a complicating factor arising in statistical tests of proportions. Specifically, it arises when there is an ascertainment bias inherent in a study design. The effect is related to the explaining away phenomenon in Bayesian networks.\n",
"Finally, as in English, counterfactual conditions in the past are expressed by backshifting the apparent time reference. In English this backshifted form is called the pluperfect subjunctive, and unless it is expressed in inverted form it is identical in form to the pluperfect indicative; it is called subjunctive because of the change in implied time of action. In French, however, there is a distinction in form between the seldom used pluperfect subjunctive and the pluperfect indicative, which is used in this situation. For example,\n"
] |
Are all sperm Clones? It doesn't matter Which sperm got to the egg, i was going to be me no matter what correct? (contemplating the miracle of my existence) | No, they are not clones at all.
Each sperm represents a completely different shuffled assortment of your dad's genetic material.
Because of recombination, there are millions and millions of possible sperm and eggs that your parents can create.
IT IS NOT TRUE that your parents are giving you a set of fully intact chromosomes, as suggested by hobo & abbe ("Chromosome 1, 3, 9, 10, 20, etc. could be from your dad's dad, but the rest could be from your dad's mom") These answers are ignoring the process of recombination.
It is possible to sometimes share a chromosome with only one grandparent or the other, but the most likely outcome is that the child will inherit a recombined chromosome containing DNA from both the child's paternal grandfather and paternal grandmother (or maternal grandfather and maternal grandmother if we're talking about the egg rather than the sperm).
[Graph One](_URL_3_) All of this child's maternal chromosomes contain both grandparents' DNA -- she shares some of her DNA with her grandfather (segments shown in green) and some with her grandmother (not pictured but her DNA would fill in the grey gaps). For example, on chromosome 10, she shares roughly the first half of the chromosome with her grandfather, but then a recombination event took place and she shares the second half with her grandmother.
[Graph Two](_URL_1_) This child is a bit different, she does have several chromosomes that she shares only with one grandparent. She shares no DNA with her maternal grandmother (pictured in blue) on chromosomes 5, 15, 16, 18, and 22, meaning she inherited those chromosomes entirely from the maternal grandfather.
The places in the genome where these recombination events occur are not fixed (although it's true that [recombination does occur more often](_URL_2_) in certain spots). This is why there are sooooo many possible combinations of sperm that your dad can make -- [there are roughly 27.6 recombinations per paternal meoisis](_URL_0_) and the location/size etc. of these recombination events is highly variable from one gamete to another.
TL;DR Genetically, you really are a unique little snowflake. | [
"A human egg contains only one set of chromosomes (23) and is said to be haploid. Sperm also have only one set of 23 chromosomes and are therefore haploid. When an egg and sperm fuse at fertilization, the two sets of chromosomes come together to form a unique \"diploid\" individual with 46 chromosomes.\n",
"The belief in intrinsic dignity, nonetheless, leads the Christians who hold this belief to also argue that if the soul enters the body at the moment when the sperm and the egg unite, producing cloned zygotes that are unlikely to survive is equivalent to murder. Therefore, if one believes, as Catholics do, that the zygotes have souls and are therefore human, in the words of John Paul II, \"regardless of the objective for which it was done, human embryonic cloning conflicts with the international legal norms that protect human dignity.\" Some Christian conservatives even express concern that cloned embryos would have no soul, since it is, in their view, born outside of God's parameters, as its creation is in a laboratory setting rather than natural conception.\n",
"In the case where the sperm is the genetic cause of 48, XXXY syndrome, the sperm would have to contain two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome. This would be caused by two non-disjunction events in spermatogenesis, both meosis I and meiosis II. The duplicated X chromosome in the sperm would have to fail to separate in both meiosis I and meiosis II for a sperm as well as the X and Y chromosomes would have to be in the same sperm. Then the XXY sperm would fertilize a normal oocyte to make a XXXY zygote.\n",
"Since the gonad tissue develops into testes rather than ovaries, they are thus unable to create ova but may be able to create sperm. Male fertility can still be possible if viable sperm is present in the testes and is able to be extracted. In general, individuals with 5-ARD are capable of producing viable sperm.\n",
"Sperm undergoes a process of natural selection when millions of sperm enter vagina but only few reach the egg cell and then only one is usually allowed to fertilize it. The sperm is selected not only by its highest motility but also by other factors such as DNA integrity, production of reactive oxygen species and viability. This selection is largely circumvented in case of in-vitro fertilization which leads to higher incidence of birth defects associated with assisted reproductive techniques. Egg cells are often fertilized by sperm which would have low chance of fertilizing it in natural conditions. Sperm sorting could thus be used to decrease risks associated with assisted reproduction. Additionally, there is ongoing debate about using sperm sorting for choosing the child's sex.\n",
"Contrary to some assertions by medical professionals, if the human sperm penetrates the hamster egg, a hybrid embryo is indeed created. The resulting hamster-hybrid is known as a humster. These embryos are typically destroyed before they divide into two cells and are never known to have been implanted in either a hamster or human uterus to develop.\n",
"Since the late 1980s, scientists have explored how to produce sperm where all of the chromosomes come from a female donor. In the late 1990s, this concept became a partial reality when scientists in Japan developed chicken female sperm by injecting bone marrow stem cells from a female chicken into a rooster's testicles. This technique proved to fall below expectations, however, and has not yet been successfully adapted for use on humans.\n"
] |
Why do people seem to make mistakes more often when in front of people? | If you're longboarding and showing people (or not, I guess), it's likely that you start (subconsciously or not) focusing on doing it "properly" by thinking through the steps you take one by one, instead of focusing on the whole--which would be the same reason most sports coaches become worse at their sport when they start teaching.
That, or self-consciousness. | [
"Mistakes in conversation occur when participants in the conversation are operating with different implicit rules and expectations for the SPEAKING model. Mistakes often results from disagreements about inclusion of participants, mismatched ends, unexpected act sequences, keys or instrumentalities. In general mistakes and conflicts arise when there is a deviation in the conversation from the norm. In some genres, such as gossip, rapid turn-taking and interrupting is not only accepted, but expected. If one participant is not active in this type of speech they may come across as ambivalent to the conversation; this would be an example of a mistake.\n",
"People base their decisions and contribution based on their own point of view. When there is a lack of common ground in the points of views of individuals within a team, misunderstandings occur. Sometimes these misunderstandings remain undetected, which means that decisions would be made based on ignorant or misinformed point of views, which in turn lead to multiple ignorances. The team may not be able to find the right solution because it does not have a correct representation of the problem.\n",
"BULLET::::2. Call attention to people's mistakes indirectly. No one likes to make mistakes, especially in front of others. Scolding and blaming only serve to humiliate. If we subtly and indirectly show people mistakes, they will appreciate us and be more likely to improve.\n",
"Human error is inevitable and everyone makes mistakes at some time. The consequences of these errors are varied and depend on many factors. Most errors are minor and do not cause significant harm, but others can have catastrophic consequences. Examples of human error leading to accidents are available in vast numbers, as it is the direct cause of 60% to 80% of all accidents.\n",
"In any education environment, careless mistakes are those errors that occur in areas within which the student has had training. Careless mistakes are common occurrences for students both within and outside of the learning environment. They are often associated with a lapse in judgment or what are known as mind slips because the students had know-how to have avoided making the mistakes, but did not for undeterminable reasons. Given that students that are competent of the subject and focused are most likely to make careless mistakes, concerns for students exhibiting careless mistakes often turn toward neurological disorders as the cause.\n",
"People often make poor choices – and look back at them with bafflement! We do this because as human beings, we all are susceptible to a wide array of routine biases that can lead to an equally wide array of embarrassing blunders in education, personal finance, health care, mortgages and credit cards, happiness, and even the planet itself.\n",
"Speech errors are made on an occasional basis by all speakers. They occur more often when speakers are nervous, tired, anxious or intoxicated. During live broadcasts on TV or on the radio, for example, nonprofessional speakers and even hosts often make speech errors because they are under stress. Some speakers seem to be more prone to speech errors than others. For example, there is a certain connection between stuttering and speech errors. Charles F. Hockett explains that \"whenever a speaker feels some anxiety about possible lapse, he will be led to focus attention more than normally on what he has just said and on what he is just about to say. These are ideal breeding grounds for stuttering.\" Another example of a \"chronic sufferer\" is Reverend William Archibald Spooner, whose peculiar speech may be caused by a cerebral dysfunction, but there is much evidence that he invented his famous speech errors (spoonerisms).\n"
] |
why isn't the night sky just one big light? | Two things:
1) Regardless of how big the universe is, light still takes time to get places. The universe is 13.77 billion years old, so light has only had 13.77 billion years to get here. Because the universe is expanding, we can see stuff from much farther away than that, but there's still a limit on how far away stars can be and still have had time for the light to get to us.
2) As the universe expands, it stretches light passing through it, causing the light to be redshifted, which means it lowers in wavelength. Visible light from the very edges of the visible universe can get redshifted out of the visible spectrum and into infrared or radio waves. That's why the Cosmic Microwave Background is, well, microwaves. It used to include a *lot* of visible light, but it's so old and it's been shifted so much that it's all microwaves, now. | [
"The term night sky refers to the sky as seen at night. The term is usually associated with skygazing and astronomy, with reference to views of celestial bodies such as stars, the Moon, and planets that become visible on a clear night after the Sun has set. Natural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night can be easily observed. Were the sky (in the absence of moon and city lights) absolutely dark, one would not be able to see the silhouette of an object against the sky.\n",
"The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night, even in the absence of moonlight and city lights, can be easily observed, since if the sky were absolutely dark, one would not be able to see the silhouette of an object against the sky.\n",
"Jennifer Barlow states, \"The night sky is a gift of such tremendous beauty that should not be hidden under a blanket of wasted light. It should be visible so that future generations do not lose touch with the wonder of our universe.\" Barlow explains, \"It is my wish that people see the night sky in all of its glory, without excess light in the sky as our ancestors saw it hundreds of years ago.\"\n",
"Sky brightness refers to the visual perception of the sky and how it scatters and diffuses light. The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night is easily visible. If light sources (e.g. the Moon and light pollution) were removed from the night sky, only direct starlight would be visible. \n",
"During daylight, the sky appears to be blue because air scatters more blue sunlight than red. At night, the sky appears to be a mostly dark surface or region spangled with stars. During the day, the Sun can be seen in the sky unless obscured by clouds. In the night sky (and to some extent during the day) the Moon, planets and stars are visible in the sky. Some of the natural phenomena seen in the sky are clouds, rainbows, and aurorae. Lightning and precipitation can also be seen in the sky during storms. Birds, insects, aircraft, and kites are often considered to fly in the sky. Due to human activities, smog during the day and light pollution during the night are often seen above large cities.\n",
"However, in other places, especially those with skyglow, astronomical twilight may be almost indistinguishable from night. In the evening, even when astronomical twilight has yet to end and in the morning when astronomical twilight has already begun, most casual observers would consider the entire sky fully dark. Because of light pollution, observers in some localities, generally in large cities, may never have the opportunity to view even fourth-magnitude stars, irrespective of the presence of any twilight at all, and to experience truly dark skies.\n",
"The term night sky, usually associated with astronomy from Earth, refers to the nighttime appearance of celestial objects like stars, planets, and the Moon, which are visible in a clear sky between sunset and sunrise, when the Sun is below the horizon.\n"
] |
Why does northern Canada look so strange on Google Maps? | What you are seing here are features left by the passage of the last continental glaciation. Most of Canada was under 2-3 km of ice a mere 12 000 years ago. That ice sheet flowed, and then melted, leaving behind all kinds of features.
In this one, I note a prominent group of elongated hills trending NW-SE, probably [drumlins](_URL_2_) or perhaps some kind of [moraine](_URL_1_). There are a few N-S trending [eskers](_URL_0_) (essentially sand and gravel infilling of meltwater channels in the decaying glacier). | [
"Northerns are similar to westerns but are set in the frozen north of North America; that is, Canada or Alaska. Of the two, Canada was the most common setting, although many tropes could apply to both. Popular locations within Canada are the Yukon, the Barren Grounds, and area around Hudson Bay. Generic names used for this general setting included the \"Far North\", the \"Northlands\", the \"North Woods\", and the \"Great Woods\".\n",
"The territories situated within Northern Canada in particular have been technologically divided compared to the rest of the country due to economic and geographical obstacles creating challenges regarding having high speed internet connections set up between distant and sparsely populated towns, along with the low digital literacy rates and lack of access to technology that some northern residents possess.\n",
"While Canada, like other jurisdictions, has raised the issue of privacy concerns regarding Google Street View, the presence of Google cameras in one Canadian city in March 2009 gave rise to a different complaint. Les MacPherson, a columnist with the Saskatoon Star-Phoenix, complained in a March 28, 2009, column that the timing of the imaging, at the end of a protracted winter season and before the true onset of spring would cast an unfavourable image of Saskatoon and other cities. \"What worries me more than any loss of privacy is the prospect of presenting to the world a highly unflattering impression of Canadian cities. With the possible exception of Victoria, they do not show off well in the spring. Google could not have picked a more inauspicious time to do its scanning. Saskatoon is unfortunately typical. For Google to record its images of the city at this most visually unappealing time of year is like photographing a beautiful woman who has just awakened from a six-month coma,\" he wrote. In early October 2009, the first Canadian cities began to appear on Street View; several, including Saskatoon, were not included in the initial roll-out. One city that was included, Calgary, included images taken in both summer and winter. Images of Saskatoon were rolled out on December 2, 2009.\n",
"While Canada, like other jurisdictions, has raised the issue of privacy concerns regarding Google Street View, the presence of Google cameras in one Canadian city in March 2009 gave rise to a different complaint. Les MacPherson, a columnist with the Saskatoon Star-Phoenix, complained in a March 28, 2009, column that the timing of the imaging, at the end of a protracted winter season and before the true onset of spring would cast an unfavourable image of Saskatoon and other cities. \"What worries me more than any loss of privacy is the prospect of presenting to the world a highly unflattering impression of Canadian cities. With the possible exception of Victoria, they do not show off well in the spring. Google could not have picked a more inauspicious time to do its scanning. Saskatoon is unfortunately typical. For Google to record its images of the city at this most visually unappealing time of year is like photographing a beautiful woman who has just awakened from a six-month coma,\" he wrote. In early October 2009, the first Canadian cities began to appear on Street View; several, including Saskatoon, were not included in the initial roll-out. One city that was included, Calgary, included images taken in both summer and winter. Images of Saskatoon were rolled out on December 2, 2009.\n",
"Northern Canada, colloquially the North, is the vast northernmost region of Canada variously defined by geography and politics. Politically, the term refers to three territories of Canada: Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. Similarly, \"the Far North\" (when contrasted to \"the North\") may refer to the Canadian Arctic: the portion of Canada that lies north of the Arctic Circle, east of Alaska and west of Greenland. This area covers about 39% of Canada's total land area, but has less than 1% of Canada's population.\n",
"The Canadian Arctic tundra is a biogeographic designation for Northern Canada's terrain generally lying north of the tree line or boreal forest, that corresponds with the Scandinavian Alpine tundra to the east and the Siberian Arctic tundra to the west inside the circumpolar tundra belt of the Northern Hemisphere.\n",
"The term is used by the Canadian government that has a set system for measuring nordicity. This system is used for determining a number of regulations in fields such as environmental protection, infrastructure, and many others. Northern Canada, apropos, is normally divided into three areas. The \"Middle North\" covering the northern parts of most provinces, as well as parts of the territories is largely populated by those of European descent and has significant resource extraction if a low population. The \"Far North\" covers the northern part of the continent and the southern Arctic Archipelago. The \"Extreme North\" covers the northernmost islands and is largely uninhabitable. Other countries have their own systems of measuring nordicity.\n"
] |
How would bread have been cut/served prior to the invention of the sandwich? | This isn't perhaps the cutting techniques you're looking for, but stale bread often used to be cut into a square shape and used as a plate, in what was called a 'trencher'. A 'good trencherman' would be one who ate a lot of food. These bits of bread would be given out as alms after a nobleman's meal if those eating didn't want them. | [
"The modern concept of a sandwich using slices of bread as found within the West can arguably be traced to 18th-century Europe. However, the use of some kind of bread or bread-like substance to lie under (or under \"and\" over) some other food, or used to scoop up and enclose or wrap some other type of food, long predates the eighteenth century, and is found in numerous much older cultures worldwide.\n",
"Sliced bread is a loaf of bread that has been sliced with a machine and packaged for convenience. It was first sold in 1928, advertised as \"the greatest forward step in the baking industry since bread was wrapped\". This led to the popular idiom \"greatest thing since sliced bread\".\n",
"In 1927 Rohwedder successfully designed a machine that not only sliced the bread but wrapped it. He applied for patents to protect his invention and sold the first machine to a friend and baker Frank Bench, who installed it at the Chillicothe Baking Company, in Chillicothe, Missouri, in 1928. The first loaf of sliced bread was sold commercially on July 7, 1928. Sales of the machine to other bakeries increased and sliced bread became available across the country.\n",
"That is, the patent described a sandwich with a layer of filling in between two pieces of bread which are crimped shut and have their crust removed. The other nine claims of the patent elaborate the idea further, including the coating of two sides of the bread with peanut butter first before putting the jelly in the middle, so that the jelly would not seep into the bread—the layers of filling \"are engaged to one another to form a reservoir for retaining the second filling in between\".\n",
"In 1930 Continental Baking Company introduced Wonder Bread as a sliced bread. It was followed by other major companies when they saw how the bread was received. By 1932 the availability of standardized slices had boosted sales of automatic, pop-up toasters, an invention of 1926 by Charles Strite. In 1933 American bakeries for the first time produced more sliced than unsliced bread loaves.\n",
"Before the development of the electric toaster, sliced bread was toasted by placing it in a metal frame or on a long-handled toasting-fork and holding it near a fire or over a kitchen grill. Utensils for toasting bread over open flames appeared in the early 19th century, including decorative implements made from wrought iron.\n",
"About 1939 or 1940 Antonio Rodilla opened a confectionery shop in Callao Square in downtown Madrid. After some years he decided to sell a new line of products, cold meat (\"fiambre\") sandwiches. Since it was difficult at the time to find a good bread supplier he decided to make his own sliced bread as well, called \"English bread\", or \"pan de molde\" (as opposed to the more traditional baguette-like bread).\n"
] |
how has the economy managed to compensate for a majority of women entering the workforce in the past several decades, along with a rise in unmarried households - essentially doubling the demand for high paying jobs in a short period of time? | The economy hasn't doubled high-paying jobs. An interesting book on the subject is called "The Two-Income Trap" by Elizabeth Warren.
The simple answer is that women entering the workforce made quality housing more expensive and made it so unmarried mothers have almost no chance to move up in social classes - most unmarried mothers have low-paying jobs. In general terms, the highest paying jobs are held by men and women who are married, have college degrees, and they combine incomes. To move up in life you really need both incomes.
Our economy in the past fifty years has seen an explosion of low-paying service jobs like retail and customer service and an explosion in creative jobs like computer programming. There is very little in the middle. | [
"A prolonged period of unemployment can lead to what economists call the discouraged worker effect, where workers drop out of the labor supply. The wives of discouraged workers do not behave as secondary workers, altering their labor supply in response to their spouses' transitory bouts with unemployment, but rather, these wives become breadwinners (Maloney, p. 183). Between 2007 and 2009, the United States saw a large increase in women's contribution to family income, resulting from a decrease in husband's earnings because three out of four eliminated jobs had belonged to men (Mattingly & Smith, p. 344). Working wives also worked more hours if their spouses stopped working (Mattingly & Smith, p. 355).\n",
"Despite many improvements in women's economic status over the past three decades, employment discrimination and unfairness in the workplace are still a fact of life for many women. On average, women make only 80 cents for every dollar a man makes, and can lose an immense amount of wages over a lifetime due to the wage gap which persists despite education level. A disproportionate number of women are clustered in low-paying, part-time jobs, often without benefits or dependable hours.\n",
"But the income disparity is not the only form of disadvantage that women face in the labor market. Many women are unable to obtain a full time job not just due to gender discrimination, but also because of unavailable, expensive, or inadequate day care. This problem is only amplified when considering the issue of the segregation of women into underpaid work, limiting possibilities of economic growth.\n",
"Women in the workforce earning wages or salary are part of a modern phenomenon, one that developed at the same time as the growth of paid employment for men, but women have been challenged by inequality in the workforce. Until modern times, legal and cultural practices, combined with the inertia of longstanding religious and educational conventions, restricted women's entry and participation in the workforce. Economic dependency upon men, and consequently the poor socio-economic status of women, have had the same impact, particularly as occupations have become professionalized over the 19th and 20th centuries.\n",
"Women, in contrast, are still expected to fulfill the caretaker role and take time off for domestic needs such as pregnancy and ill family members, preventing them from conforming to the \"ideal-worker norm\". With the current norm in place, women are forced to juggle full-time jobs and family care at home. Others believe that this difference in wage earnings is likely due to the supply and demand for women in the market because of family obligations. Eber and Weichselbaumer argue that \"over time, raw wage differentials worldwide have fallen substantially. Most of this decrease is due to better labor market endowments of females\".\n",
"Unemployment, underemployment, differences in wages and occupational segregation are the four main factors in the economy that impact women’s level of labor. In terms of unemployment, 15% of men are unemployed while 25% of women are unemployed and 82% of young women ages 15–29 are unemployed. Women are underemployed as they tend to be hired less than men with lesser education because large sections of the Jordanian economy are and have traditionally been closed off to women. Less educated men often hold more jobs while women are often better educated, leading to many women settling for jobs requiring lesser education than they have. Wage discrimination in Jordan is no different from anywhere else in the world, but in combination with traditional and cultural factors – like being responsible for the private sphere (the family and the home) – women are driven away from the workforce. Jordanian law suggests that wives should be obedient to their husbands because the men financially support the family, and if she is disobedient her husband can discontinue financial support. In addition, men have assumed the power to forbid their wives from working, and the Jordanian courts have upheld these laws. Furthermore, as honor killings consistently occur and are currently on the rise, women are less motivated to leave the safety of their homes. Laws in Jordan regarding honor killings continue to make it possible for courts to deal with perpetrators leniently.\n",
"\"The past two decades have witnessed a sharp decline in men's provider role, caused in part by growing female labor participation and in part by the weakening of men's absolute power due to increased rates of unemployment and underemployment,\" states sociologist Jiping Zuo. She continues, \"Women's growing earning power and commitment to the paid workforce together with the stagnation of men's social mobility make some families more financially dependent on women. As a result, the foundations of the male dominance structure have been eroded.\"\n"
] |
what does the president of france do as co-prince of andorra? | The coprinses have, like most heads of state of modern monarchies, more of a ceremonial function than a political one. The don't even have the right to veto governmental decisions. They are also have representatives in place so the President of France will normally not directly concern Andorran affairs that often.
The real power lies with the parliament and their head of government, Antoni Martí. So not much difference there compared to other democracies. | [
"Official diplomatic relations between Andorra and France were established after the signing of a joint \"Treaty of Good Neighborhood, Friendship and Cooperation\" between Andorra, France and Spain; after Andorra adopted a new constitution establishing them as a parliamentary democracy. The President of France acts as a co-Prince (along with the Spanish Bishop of Urgell) in Andorra. In 1993, France opened a resident embassy in Andorra la Vella. In October 1967, French President (and co-Prince) Charles de Gaulle paid a visit to Andorra. It was the first visit by a French President to the nation. President de Gaulle paid a second visit in 1969. Since then, there have been several bilateral visits between leaders of both nations.\n",
"BULLET::::- October 23 – Charles de Gaulle becomes the first French Co-Prince of Andorra to visit his Andorran subjects. In addition to being President of France, de Gaulle is a joint ruler (along with Spain's Bishop of Urgel of the tiny nation located in the mountains between France and Spain, pursuant to the 1278 agreement creating the nation.\n",
"François Gérard Georges Nicolas Hollande (; born 12 August 1954) is a French politician who served as President of the French Republic and \"ex officio\" Co-Prince of Andorra from 2012 to 2017. He was previously the First Secretary of the Socialist Party from 1997 to 2008, Mayor of Tulle from 2001 to 2008, and President of the Corrèze General Council from 2008 to 2012. Hollande also served in the National Assembly of France twice for the department of Corrèze's 1st constituency from 1988 to 1993, and again from 1997 to 2012.\n",
"Under the 1993 constitution, the co-princes continue as heads of state, but the head of government retains executive power. The two co-princes serve coequally with limited powers that do not include veto over government acts. Both are represented in Andorra by a delegate, although since 1993, both France and Spain have their own embassies. As co-princes of Andorra, the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell maintain supreme authority in approval of all international treaties with France and Spain, as well as all those that deal with internal security, defense, Andorran territory, diplomatic representation, and judicial or penal cooperation. Although the institution of the co-princes is viewed by some as an anachronism, the majority sees them as both a link with Andorra's traditions and a way to balance the power of Andorra's two much larger neighbors.\n",
"Under the 1993 constitution, the co-princes continue as heads of state, but the head of government retains executive power. The two co-princes serve coequally with limited powers that do not include veto over government acts. Both are represented in Andorra by a delegate, although since 1993, both France and Spain have their own embassies. As co-princes of Andorra, the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell maintain supreme authority in approval of all international treaties with France and Spain, as well as all those that deal with internal security, defense, Andorran territory, diplomatic representation, and judicial or penal cooperation. Although the institution of the co-princes is viewed by some as an anachronism, the majority sees them as both a link with Andorra's traditions and a way to balance the power of Andorra's two much larger neighbors.\n",
"The way the two co-princes are chosen makes Andorra one of the most politically distinct nations on Earth. One co-prince is the current sitting President of France, currently Emmanuel Macron (it has historically been any head of state of France, including kings and emperors of the French). The other is the current Roman Catholic bishop of the Catalan city of La Seu d'Urgell, currently Joan Enric Vives i Sicilia. As neither prince lives in Andorra, their role is almost entirely ceremonial.\n",
"Jacques René Chirac (; born 29 November 1932) is a French politician who served as President of the French Republic and \"ex officio\" Co-Prince of Andorra from 1995 to 2007. Chirac previously was Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976 and from 1986 to 1988, as well as Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995.\n"
] |
What do most people not understand or realize about WWI? | The toll that it took on the British aristocracy in terms of casualties and the impact that had on the loosening of the class system in subsequent decades. In terms of proportion of aristocratic males killed it was a greater rate than the English Civil war of the 17th c. This changed the social fabric in unexpected ways, it ended dynasties, caused many women to have to marry 'below' them, eradicated many of the serving jobs, brought much land out of private ownership.
It was WWI that gutted the landed gentry that had existed since time immemorial, they had been in decline for centuries but WWI was a blow from which they would never recover, there are a few remnants today but nothing the like the pre-war generation. | [
"World War I had a lasting impact on social memory. It was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period, and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed. Historian Samuel Hynes explained:\n",
"These beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of World War I. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a 'fight about nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory.\n",
"the truth about the causes of the World War is one of the livest and most important practical issues of the present day. It is basic to the whole matter of the present European and world situation, resting as it does upon an unfair and unjust Peace Treaty, which was itself erected upon a most uncritical and complete acceptance of the grossest forms of war-time illusions concerning war guilt.\n",
"Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I, \"Those events that are most important are hardest to understand because they attract the greatest attention from myth makers and charlatans.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Rising nationalism and increasing national awareness were among the many causes of World War I (1914–1918), the first of two wars to involve many major world powers including Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Russia/USSR, the British Empire and the United States. World War I led to the creation of many new countries, especially in Eastern Europe. At the time, it was said by many to be the \"war to end all wars\".\n",
"Also, I was very interested in the Great War, as it was called then, because it was the initial twentieth-century shock to European culture. By the time we got to the Second World War, everybody was more or less used to Europe being badly treated and people being killed in multitudes. The Great War introduced those themes to Western culture, and therefore it was an immense intellectual and cultural and social shock.\n",
"The experiences of the war in the west are commonly assumed to have led to a sort of collective national trauma afterward for all of the participating countries. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought became what is known as \"the Lost Generation\" because they never fully recovered from their suffering. For the next few years, much of Europe mourned privately and publicly; memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns.\n"
] |
Grover Cleveland met his wife when she was born and he was 27. He took care of her after her father died and married her when she turned 21. How was this relationship viewed by the public? | More input is always welcome; in the meantime, this exact question came up last month, and you may be interested in what u/WovenCoverlet and u/sunagainstgold [had to say on the topic](_URL_0_). | [
"Cleveland's fifth son, Grover Cleveland, became the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, the only president to serve non-consecutive terms. He was 16 years old at the time of his father's death and reputedly learned of the event from a boy hawking newspapers. Grover Cleveland spoke highly of his father in later life, praising his godliness and devotion to family, and named one of his sons (Richard F. Cleveland) after him. His sister Rose (the family's youngest child) acted as First Lady for the first year or so of his presidency, before his marriage to Frances Folsom.\n",
"Douglas suggested she had what she referred to as \"blank periods\" before and during her marriage, but they were brief. She connected these lapses to her mother's insanity. She eventually quit the newspaper, but after her father's death in 1941 she suffered a third and final breakdown, when her neighbors found her roaming the neighborhood one night screaming. She realized she had a \"father complex\", explaining it by saying, \"Having been brought up without him all those years, and then coming back and finding him so sympathetic had a powerful effect\".\n",
"Cleveland was born in Princeton, New Jersey, the eldest son of Grover Cleveland, the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, and Frances Folsom. He was born nearly eight months after the end of his father's second term, and was named for his grandfather, Richard Falley Cleveland. He was the next to youngest of five siblings: sisters Ruth (1891–1904), Esther (1893–1980), and Marion (1895–1977), and brother Francis Grover (1903–1995).\n",
"Ruth Cleveland (October 3, 1891 – January 7, 1904), popularly known as Baby Ruth, was the eldest of five children born to United States President Grover Cleveland and First Lady Frances Cleveland. Her birth between Cleveland's two terms of office caused a national sensation. Interest in her continued even after her father's second presidential term was over. A sickly child, Ruth Cleveland contracted diphtheria on January 2, 1904. Doctors thought her case was mild, but she died five days after her diagnoses. She is buried in Princeton Cemetery.\n",
"Cleveland entered the White House as a bachelor, and his sister Rose Cleveland acted as hostess for the first two years of his administration. On June 2, 1886, Cleveland married Frances Folsom in the Blue Room at the White House. He was the second president to wed while in office, after John Tyler. Though Cleveland had supervised Frances's upbringing after her father's death, the public took no exception to the match. At 21 years, Frances Folsom Cleveland was the youngest First Lady in history, and the public soon warmed to her beauty and warm personality.\n",
"Cleveland was born in 1903 in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, a part of the Town of Bourne. His father, Grover Cleveland, was the 22nd and 24th president of the United States; his mother, Frances Folsom, was First Lady. He had a brother, Richard, and three sisters, Ruth, Marion and Esther \n",
"After her husband's death in 1908, Cleveland remained in Princeton, New Jersey. On February 10, 1913, at the age of 48, she married Thomas J. Preston, Jr., a professor of archaeology at her alma mater, Wells College. She was the first presidential widow to remarry. She was vacationing at St. Moritz, Switzerland, with her daughters Marion and Esther and her son Francis when World War I started in August 1914. They returned to the United States via Genoa on October 1, 1914. Soon afterwards, she became a member of the pro-war National Security League, becoming its director of the Speaker's Bureau and the \"Committee on Patriotism through Education\" in November 1918.\n"
] |
how do criminal defendants end up with charges like "four counts of murder" when only two people are killed? | Sometimes it is hard to prove that an accused murderer had all the requirements of a crime. With 1st degree murder, the prosecution needs to prove everything in 2nd degree murder, PLUS the act/s were premeditated.
If the jury agreed that he was reacting, and not making specific plans, that would eliminate 1 st degree. If the jury found at any point the defendant was in fear, using self-defense of life, or local versions of 'stand your ground, and 'castle doctrine', they could nullify any of the murder charges.
Each States laws are a little different, some would call them 'included offenses'. In this case, if you prove murder 1, you have to also prove murder 2- even though the same act . Technically, that act could also be murder 3, manslaughter, and aggravated assault.
But our system only punishes the highest crime of the inclusive 'stack' - for each separate action.
The jury instructions are [here](_URL_0_). Thee jury was asked to determine if the facts met all 4possible crimes, jury says yes.
Unless there is something I missed that makes these 2crimes x2victims, the sentencing will only show a conviction and penalty for the most heinous criminal act.
If these other charges were not given to the jury now, they could not choose to convict, and the defendant might be protected under double jeopardy. Many times a criminal will be charged with lesser versions of the same crime, just to avoid letting them walk on a paperwork issue .
| [
"If a person committing a predicate felony directly contributed to the death of the victim then the person will be charged with murder in the first degree - felony murder which is a capital felony. The only two sentences available for that statute are life in prison and the death penalty. \n",
"A count of murder may be joined with a count charging another offence of murder, or a count charging a different offence. A count of conspiracy to murder may be joined with a count of aiding and abetting murder.\n",
"An example of this are the charges of \"conspiring to commit murder\" and \"murder\". Both charges typically have facts distinct from each other. A person can be charged with \"conspiring to commit murder\" even if the murder never actually takes place if all facts necessary to support the charge can be demonstrated through evidence. Further, a person convicted or acquitted of murder can, additionally, be tried on conspiracy as well if it has been determined after the conviction or acquittal that a conspiracy did, in fact, take place.\n",
"Where multiple offences are tried together, the greatest number applicable is used (i.e., in an offence involving first-degree murder and armed robbery, the accused and the prosecutor are each entitled to twenty peremptory challenges) [s. 634 (3), Criminal Code of Canada]. \n",
"The court further distinguishes that if a defendant intends to kill a target and also kills others in the kill zone, then they are guilty of the murder of each person killed, i.e., is guilty of multiple counts of murder. However, if the defendant by the same act fails to kill anyone, defendant is only guilty of a single count of attempted murder by the act.\n",
"If a person commits a predicate felony, but was not the direct contributor to the death of the victim then the person will be charged with murder in the second degree - felony murder which is a felony of the first degree. The maximum prison term is life.\n",
"When multiple accused are tried together, each accused is entitled to the same number that they would receive if tried separately, while the prosecutor has as many challenges as the total number available to all of the accused (i.e., in a case wherein two co-accused are charged with first-degree murder, each receives twenty peremptory challenges, and the prosecutor receives forty) [s. 634 (4), Criminal Code of Canada].\n"
] |
How far did the KGB infiltrate the American government? | As a follow-up, would the handling of foreign spies for the USSR generally be the responsibility of GRU, KGB, or a different agency? Or all three? | [
"Aldrich Ames, a CIA counterintelligence agent working in the SE Division, approached the Soviet Embassy in Washington, D.C. on April 16, 1985, and within a month received $50,000 from the KGB in exchange for espionage service. Meeting with Soviet official and go-between Sergey Dmitriyevich Chuvakhin on June 13, Ames passed him copied documents identifying over ten Soviet agents working for the CIA and FBI. As a CIA review related, the Soviets began arresting and sometimes executing U.S. operatives later in 1985, and the CIA realized that it \"was faced with a major CI problem.\" Suspicions initially fell on Edward Lee Howard, a former CIA officer who also compromised CIA operations in 1985 and defected to the Soviet Union on September 21. However, the CIA realized by fall 1985 that Howard was not responsible for all of the damage. Three agents arrested in fall 1985 and later executed, some of the CIA's most valuable sources, had been betrayed by Ames, not Howard. By December, six SE agents had vanished, a trend which continued into 1986; according to a congressional report, the over 20 operations Ames revealed \"amounted to a virtual collapse of the CIA's Soviet operations.\" Ames, who stated that he spied for the KGB due to his financial debt, gave thousands of pages of classified documents to the Soviets and later admitted to disclosing over 100 CIA, FBI, military, and allied operations; he was deemed responsible for the arrests and executions of ten U.S. sources.\n",
"The KGB also begin to take action to retrieve the two rogue agents and send Major Grishina - a darkly attractive female officer - to the United Kingdom in order to bring them back to the Soviet Union. Her arrival alerts the CIA and MI5 that something big must be happening for the KGB to send such a high-ranking officer to Britain. Her arrival also shakes up the Soviet representatives in the UK. The chief KGB officer in the UK is more decadent than the locals and is originally discovered watching an American baseball game on the TV.\n",
"During the 1980s, he was Chief of the First (American) Department within the KGB's Second Chief Directorate, which placed him in charge of investigating and disrupting the operations of the American Central Intelligence Agency in the Soviet Union's capital of Moscow. Prior to that he headed up the Second Department of the SCD, which targeted the intelligence operations of the United Kingdom.\n",
"In 1985, Aldrich Ames gave the KGB a significant amount of information on CIA agents, and the Soviet government swiftly moved to arrest these individuals. Soviet intelligence feared this rapid action would alert the CIA that Ames was a spy. In order to reduce the chances the CIA would discover Ames's duplicity, the KGB manufactured disinformation as to the reasoning behind the arrests of U.S. intelligence agents. During summer 1985, a KGB officer who was a double agent working for the CIA on a mission in Africa traveled to a dead drop in Moscow on his way home but never reported in. The CIA heard from a European KGB source that their agent was arrested. Simultaneously the FBI and CIA learned from a second KGB source of their agent's arrest. Only after Ames had been outed as a spy for the KGB did it become apparent that the KGB had known all along that both of these agents were double agents for the U.S. government, and had played them as pawns to send disinformation to the CIA in order to protect Ames.\n",
"The operation began in 1959 when U.S. Army First Sergeant Joseph Edward Cassidy (1920-2011), assigned to the Army's nuclear power office near Washington, D.C., was approached (with Army permission) by the FBI. Cassidy, despite having no previous training, was able to make contact with a Soviet naval attache believed to be a spy, and set up an arrangement where he would provide information to the Soviets in exchange for money. Soviet requests for information were passed to the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, and various classified information provided as a result. \n",
"In October 1979 Stanislav Levchenko, head of the Active Measures Line of the KGB Rezidentura in Tokyo, contacted American officials and was granted political asylum in the United States. Levchenko explained the workings of the Soviet apparatus and how it was carried out, under his direction, in Japan. Levchenko's information, combined with that of Ladislav Bittman, who had been the deputy head of the Czechoslovakian Intelligence Service's Disinformation Department, was instrumental in helping the CIA understand many of the operations that were being carried out against the United States. This information was also reported to policy makers and Congress.\n",
"In return for money, they gave the KGB the names of officers of the KGB residency in Washington, DC, and other places, who cooperated with the FBI and/or the CIA. Line KR officers immediately arrested a number of people, including Major General Dmitri Polyakov, a high-ranking military intelligence officer (GRU). He was cooperating with the CIA and FBI. Ames reported that Colonel Oleg Gordievsky, London resident, had spied for the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6). Line KR officers arrested many others, whom they sent to Moscow. There they were passed into the hands of the KGB Second Chief Directorate (counterintelligence).\n"
] |
Why do quasars emit so much light? | Essentially, because there is a lot of material falling into the black hole. When things fall down a gravity well, they lose gravitational potential energy. Drop something off a cliff, and gravitational energy gets transformed into kinetic energy, which upon hitting the ground will partly turn into thermal energy. Of course, if you drop something off a cliff, then even ignoring air resistance it will probably only be going tens of meters per second. If you drop something into a black hole from very far away, then as it approaches the event horizon, its speed will approach the speed of light. Now, typically things don't just fall in on a single trajectory, it's usually a longer process of orbital decay and tidal forces that eventually usher the particles to their ultimate fate, but nevertheless they gain a tremendous amount of kinetic energy, and much of that gets transformed into radiation. That's why quasars are so bright.
The specifics of how energy gets turned into light (and particle jets) in an Active Galactic Nucleus is more complicated. First of all, you've got a rapidly spinning [accretion disk](_URL_0_) of matter around the black hole. As you get closer to the inner edge of this disk, it gets hotter and denser, so that the inner edge is radiating mainly in the X-ray regime. Since this material is a plasma, you've got magnetohydrodynamical effects that come into play. That's a fancy term for a combination of fluid dynamics and electromagnetism. We don't yet have a precise understanding of the process, but basically the disk creates powerful electromagnetic fields which shoot some of the infalling particles out in jets rather than letting them fall toward the event horizon. | [
"Quasars (/ˈkweɪzɑr/) or quasi-stellar radio sources are the most energetic and distant members of active galactic nuclei. Quasars are extremely luminous and were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible light, that appeared to be similar to stars, rather than extended sources similar to galaxies. Their luminosity can be 100 times greater than that of the Milky Way.\n",
"Radiation from quasars is partially 'nonthermal' (i.e., not due to black body radiation), and approximately 10 percent are observed to also have jets and lobes like those of radio galaxies that also carry significant (but poorly understood) amounts of energy in the form of particles moving at relativistic speeds. Extremely high energies might be explained by several mechanisms (see Fermi acceleration and Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration). Quasars can be detected over the entire observable electromagnetic spectrum including radio, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-ray and even gamma rays. Most quasars are brightest in their rest-frame near-ultraviolet wavelength of 121.6 nm Lyman-alpha emission line of hydrogen, but due to the tremendous redshifts of these sources, that peak luminosity has been observed as far to the red as 900.0 nm, in the near infrared. A minority of quasars show strong radio emission, which is generated by jets of matter moving close to the speed of light. When viewed downward, these appear as blazars and often have regions that seem to move away from the center faster than the speed of light (superluminal expansion). This is an optical illusion due to the properties of special relativity.\n",
"Quasars inhabit the center of active galaxies, and are among the most luminous, powerful, and energetic objects known in the universe, emitting up to a thousand times the energy output of the Milky Way, which contains 200–400 billion stars. This radiation is emitted across the electromagnetic spectrum, almost uniformly, from X-rays to the far-infrared with a peak in the ultraviolet-optical bands, with some quasars also being strong sources of radio emission and of gamma-rays. With high-resolution imaging from ground-based telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope, the \"host galaxies\" surrounding the quasars have been detected in some cases. These galaxies are normally too dim to be seen against the glare of the quasar, except with special techniques. Most quasars, with the exception of 3C 273 whose average apparent magnitude is 12.9, cannot be seen with small telescopes.\n",
"A quasar () (also known as a quasi-stellar object abbreviated QSO) is an extremely luminous active galactic nucleus (AGN), in which a supermassive black hole with mass ranging from millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun is surrounded by a gaseous accretion disk. As gas in the disk falls towards the black hole, energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation, which can be observed across the electromagnetic spectrum. The power radiated by quasars is enormous: the most powerful quasars have luminosities thousands of times greater than a galaxy such as the Milky Way.\n",
"This also explains why quasars were more common in the early universe, as this energy production ends when the supermassive black hole consumes all of the gas and dust near it. This means that it is possible that most galaxies, including the Milky Way, have gone through an active stage, appearing as a quasar or some other class of active galaxy that depended on the black hole mass and the accretion rate, and are now quiescent because they lack a supply of matter to feed into their central black holes to generate radiation.\n",
"Quasars, a class of active galactic nuclei (AGN), were considered a good candidate source because they are highly efficient at converting mass to energy, and emit a great deal of light above the threshold for ionizing hydrogen. It is unknown, however, how many quasars existed prior to reionization. Only the brightest of quasars present during reionization can be detected, which means there is no direct information about dimmer quasars that existed. However, by looking at the more easily observed quasars in the nearby universe, and assuming that the luminosity function (number of quasars as a function of luminosity) during reionization will be approximately the same as it is today, it is possible to make estimates of the quasar populations at earlier times. Such studies have found that quasars do not exist in high enough numbers to reionize the IGM alone, saying that \"only if the ionizing background is dominated by low-luminosity AGNs can the quasar luminosity function provide enough ionizing photons.\"\n",
"Quasars are believed—and in many cases confirmed—to be powered by accretion of material into supermassive black holes in the nuclei of distant galaxies, as suggested in 1964 by Edwin Salpeter and Yakov Zel'dovich. Light and other radiation cannot escape from within the event horizon of a black hole, but the energy produced by a quasar is generated \"outside\" the black hole, by gravitational stresses and immense friction within the material nearest to the black hole, as it orbits and falls inward. The huge luminosity of quasars results from the accretion discs of central supermassive black holes, which can convert between 6% and 32% of the mass of an object into energy, compared to just 0.7% for the p-p chain nuclear fusion process that dominates the energy production in Sun-like stars. Central masses of 10 to 10 solar masses have been measured in quasars by using reverberation mapping. Several dozen nearby large galaxies, including our own Milky Way galaxy, that do not have an active center and do not show any activity similar to a quasar, are confirmed to contain a similar supermassive black hole in their nuclei (galactic center). Thus it is now thought that all large galaxies have a black hole of this kind, but only a small fraction have sufficient matter in the right kind of orbit at their center to become active and power radiation in such a way as to be seen as quasars.\n"
] |
why is it that "time flies when you're having fun"? | I think because you focus much harder on the task at hand you stop thinking about the time so much. | [
"\"Funny How Time Flies (When You're Having Fun)\" is the seventh and final single from American R&B singer Janet Jackson's third studio album, \"Control\" (1986). While \"Funny How Time Flies (When You're Having Fun)\" was officially released in the United Kingdom and Australia, it was released solely for airplay in the United States in 1987. The song was written by Jackson and collaborators/producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. It performed poorly on the UK Singles Chart, only reaching number fifty-nine but peaked at #24 on the Irish Singles Chart. In the U.S., though it never charted, it became a famed quiet storm staple on adult R&B and soul radio stations. No music video was filmed for the single. Jazz musician Stanley Clarke covered the song for his 1988 album \"If This Bass Could Only Talk\". The song was also sampled on The Lost Boyz's \"Renee\" and on Camp Lo's \"Coolie High\", both from 1996. In 2014, it was sampled on Tinashe's \"How Many Times\" from her debut album \"Aquarius\". Two years later, it was sampled on SWV's MCE (Man Crush Everyday). The song's main melody (excluding the verses and the French speaking introductions), bears resemblance to the melody of her brother's 1982 hit \"The Lady In My Life\" released four years earlier.\n",
"According to Johan Huizinga, fun is \"an absolutely primary category of life, familiar to everybody at a glance right down to the animal level.\" Psychological studies reveal both the importance of fun and its effect on the perception of time, which is sometimes said to be shortened when one is having fun. As the adage states: \"Time flies when you're having fun\".\n",
"\"Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana\" is a humorous saying that is used in linguistics as an example of a garden path sentence or syntactic ambiguity, and in word play as an example of punning, double entendre, and antanaclasis.\n",
"It has been suggested that games, toys, and activities perceived as fun are often challenging in some way. When a person is challenged to think consciously, overcome challenge and learn something new, they are more likely to enjoy a new experience and view it as fun. A change from routine activities appears to be at the core of this perception, since people spend much of a typical day engaged in activities that are routine and require limited conscious thinking. Routine information is processed by the brain as a \"chunked pattern\": \"We rarely look at the real world\", according to game designer Raph Koster, \"we instead recognize something we have chunked, and leave it at that. [...] One might argue that the essence of much of art is in forcing us to see things as they really are rather than as we assume them to be\". Since it helps people to relax, fun is sometimes regarded as a \"social lubricant\", important in adding \"to one's pleasure in life\" and helping to \"act as a buffer against stress\".\n",
"The words \"happy\" and \"hour\" have appeared together for centuries when describing pleasant times. In act I, scene 2 of William Shakespeare's King Henry V, he says, \"Therefore, my lords, omit no happy hour/That may give furtherance to our expedition...\" The use of the phrase \"happy hour,\" to refer to a scheduled period of entertainment is, however, of much more recent vintage.\n",
"\"It's About Time\" is a 1960s typical \"silly\" comedy of the times (in the style of \"Gilligan's Island\", also created by Sherwood Schwartz) about two astronauts who accidentally break the speed of light with their spacecraft and travel back in time to prehistoric Earth, replete with cavemen (and cavewomen) and, anachronistically, dinosaurs. Unable to return to the future, they make friends with the \"natives\", usually through humorous interactions, misunderstandings, and dilemmas. Eventually, they do return to \"modern day\" Earth, taking some of the cavepeople back with them, who must then adjust to living in 1960s Los Angeles.\n",
"Some people behave like the fly because one day at random they will find the way out. Some behave like the trapped fish: the more they move the more they are entangled. Others behave like those lost in a maze: they try to escape using the faculties of mind.\n"
] |
what are the grey areas that we can see in the moon from down here? | They're called mares. It means "sea," but these are actually more like patches of the surface that had melted and re-hardened in the distant past. | [
"The lunar landscape used in the film is Vasquez Rocks, a popular television and feature film shooting location near Los Angeles. A red camera filter was used to make the blue sky photograph very dark on the black-and-white film, but the result is still far from the ideal starry black. Bits of scrubby vegetation can be seen in the background of some shots. No attempt is made to convince the viewer that the Moon is an airless void where humans would weigh one-sixth their normal Earth weight. When one of the space-suited astronauts is forced into direct sunlight, unshielded from its intensity, he bursts into flames, despite the lack of an external oxygen atmosphere; in seconds he is reduced to a skeleton.\n",
"The dark areas visible on Earth's moon, the lunar maria, are plains of flood basaltic lava flows. These rocks were sampled by the manned American Apollo program, the robotic Russian Luna program, and are represented among the lunar meteorites.\n",
"White is a lunar impact crater. It lies on the far side of the Moon from the Earth, to the southwest of the huge walled plain Apollo. About one crater diameter to the south-southwest is the small crater Hendrix.\n",
"Unlike the Earth, whose umbral shadow appears black, as the Moon has no atmosphere, the surface appears not just black but red and brown, according to the Danjon scale. This is because the only sunlight available is refracted through the Earth's atmosphere on the edges of the Earth, forming an atmospheric ring.\n",
"The following simulation shows the approximate appearance of the Moon passing through the Earth's shadow. The Moon's brightness is exaggerated within the umbral shadow. The northern portion of the Moon was closest to the center of the shadow, making it darkest, and most red in appearance.\n",
"Earth's Moon is a grey disc in the sky with cratering visible to the naked eye. It spans, depending on its exact location, 29-33 arcminutes - which is about the size of a thumbnail at arm's length, and is readily identified. Over 27.3 days, the moon goes through a full cycle of lunar phases. People can generally identify phases within a few days by looking at the moon. Unlike stars and most planets, the light reflected from the moon is bright enough to be seen during the day. (Venus can sometimes be seen even after sunrise.)\n",
"The following simulation shows the approximate appearance of the Moon passing through Earth's shadow. The Moon's brightness is exaggerated within the umbral shadow. The northern portion of the Moon was closest to the center of the shadow, making it darkest, and most red in appearance.\n"
] |
since blue whales have aortas large enough to swim in, do they have fewer issues with blood clots? | considering they have an extremely active lifestyle (swimming constantly all the time) and a relatively low cholesterol diet (mostly plankton and krill iirc) they are presumably at very low risk for blood clots in the first place. | [
"All squamates and turtles have a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria, one variably partitioned ventricle, and two aortas that lead to the systemic circulation. The degree of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart varies depending on the species and physiological state. Under different conditions, deoxygenated blood can be shunted back to the body or oxygenated blood can be shunted back to the lungs. This variation in blood flow has been hypothesized to allow more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species, but has not been shown to be a fitness advantage.\n",
"The aorta is relatively short, and soon divides into two main vessels, one supplying the visceral mass, and the other supplying the head and foot. In some groups, these two vessels arise directly from the heart, so that the animal may be said to have two aortas. These two vessels in turn divide into many finer vessels throughout the body, and deliver haemolymph to open arterial sinuses where it bathes and oxygenates the tissues. \n",
"Along with its presence in avian egg shells, other studies have also shown that biliverdin is present in the blue-green blood of many marine fish, the blood of tobacco hornworm, the wings of moth and butterfly, the serum and eggs of frogs, and the placenta of dogs. With dogs this can lead, in extremely rare cases, to the birth of puppies with green fur; however, the green colour fades out soon after birth. In the garfish (\"Belone belone\") and related species, the bones are bright green because of biliverdin.\n",
"The placenta for a rock cavy is similar to other hystricomorph rodents. They have several lobes that are lined with blood vessels and undergo a counter-current blood flow. There are blood vessels running from the mother along the placenta and then vessels running from the fetus back over the mothers vessels. This allows for a better flow of oxygen between the mother and the fetus.\n",
"The mare has two ovaries, usually in length and thick, that generally tend to decrease in size as the mare ages. In equine ovaries, unlike in humans, the vascular tissue is cortical to follicular tissue, so ovulation can only occur at an ovulation fossa near the infundibulum. The ovaries connect to the fallopian tubes (oviducts), which serve to move the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. To do so, the oviducts are lined with a layer of cilia, which produce a current that flows toward the uterus. Each oviduct attaches to one of the two horns of the uterus, which are approximately in length. These horns attach to the body of the uterus ( long). The equine uterus is bipartite, meaning the two uterine horns fuse into a relatively large uterine body (resembling a shortened bicornuate uterus or a stretched simplex uterus). Caudal to the uterus is the cervix, about long, which separates the uterus from the vagina. Usually in diameter with longitudinal folds on the interior surface, it can expand to allow the passage of the foal. The vagina of the mare is long, and is quite elastic, allowing it to expand. The vulva is the external opening of the vagina, and consists of the clitoris and two labia. It lies ventral to the rectum. The mare has two mammary glands, which are smaller in maiden mares. They have two ducts each, which open externally.\n",
"Some mares have natural alloantibodies, usually to the Ca blood group, without ever having a known exposure to that blood group. This is seen in 10% of Thoroughbred mares and 20% of Standardbred mares. In this case, Ca alloantibodies are thought to actually suppress a response against Aa blood groups, and therefore these mares do not make Aa alloantibodies if the foal has both Ca positive and Aa positive blood. These natural alloantibodies have not been shown to produce isoerythrolysis in foals, and are actually thought to help prevent NI by desensitization of the immune system and preventing the more harmful Aa alloantibodies from forming.\n",
"Crocodilians have a completely separated ventricle with deoxygenated blood from the body, or systemic circulation, in the right ventricle and oxygenated blood from the lungs, or pulmonary circulation, in the left ventricle, as in birds and mammals. Two vessels, the left aorta and the pulmonary artery, exit the right ventricle. Blood from the right ventricle goes to the lungs through the pulmonary artery, as in mammals and birds. However, when a unique active valve leading to the pulmonary artery contracts, pressure in the right ventricle can increase and blood can leave the right ventricle, enter the left aortic arch, and therefore bypass the pulmonary circulation. The foramen of Panizza connects the left and right aorta. Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle, sitting in the left aorta, can flow into the right aorta through the foramen of Panizza. When the heart is relaxed, some oxygenated blood from the left ventricle, sitting in the right aorta, can flow into the left aorta across the foramen of Panizza. However, some species of Crocodilians have regulatory sphincters that prevent unwanted flow of blood through the foramen of Panizza during non-diving.\n"
] |
When heating something to high temperatures it becomes “red hot” and then continues to change color to orange, yellow, and then white; why doesn’t the hot object start to glow green or blue after yellow? | The "red hot" appearance of an object is due to its thermal radiation. This is EM radiation emitted by every object and the spectrum of which is determined by the temperature. Objects at room temperature emit thermal radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum, but once objects get hotter, the spectrum of thermal radiation shifts more towards the visible part.
However, this radiation is a broader spectrum, not a single line. So a red hot object will emit red visible light along with plenty of IR light. Since the red light is the only thing visible to us, we see the object as red. If you heat up the object further, shorter wavelength visible light gets added to the mixture, making the combined color shift towards orange.
If you heat the object enough, the thermal radiation will cover the entire visible light part of the spectrum, making the combined radiation appear white. At no point does the object only emit green or blue light. By the time it's hot enough to emit green or blue, it's also emitting plenty of light in other colors (with longer wavelengths) and what we see is the mixture of all visible light that is emitted. | [
"It is true that objects at specific temperatures do radiate visible light. Objects whose surface is at a temperature above approximately will glow, emitting light at a color that indicates the temperature of that surface. See the section on red heat for more about this effect. It is a misconception that one can judge the temperature of a fire by the color of its flames or the sparks in the flames. For many reasons, chemically and optically, these colors may not match the red/orange/yellow/white heat temperatures on the chart. Barium nitrate burns a bright green, for instance, and this is not present on the heat chart.\n",
"The colder part of a diffusion (incomplete combustion) flame will be red, transitioning to orange, yellow, and white as the temperature increases as evidenced by changes in the black-body radiation spectrum. For a given flame's region, the closer to white on this scale, the hotter that section of the flame is. The transitions are often apparent in fires, in which the color emitted closest to the fuel is white, with an orange section above it, and reddish flames the highest of all. A blue-colored flame only emerges when the amount of soot decreases and the blue emissions from excited molecular radicals become dominant, though the blue can often be seen near the base of candles where airborne soot is less concentrated.\n",
"BULLET::::- A piece of metal heated by a blow torch first becomes \"red hot\" as the very longest visible wavelengths appear red, then becomes more orange-red as the temperature is increased, and at very high temperatures would be described as \"white hot\" as shorter and shorter wavelengths come to predominate the black body emission spectrum. Before it had even reached the red hot temperature, the thermal emission was mainly at longer infrared wavelengths, which are not visible; nevertheless, that radiation could be felt as it warms one's nearby skin.\n",
"Warm colors (red, orange, and yellow) are signs of warmness and can increase the temperature in a confined area. These colors are associated with danger, threat, warning, and movement and the way they affect the brain they increase metabolism and heat in the body and put it on alert which from Iranian traditional medicine point of view are sign of excessive heat.\n",
"The flame is yellow because of its temperature. To produce enough soot to be luminous, the flame is operated at a lower temperature than its efficient heating flame (see Bunsen burner). The colour of simple incandescence is due to black-body radiation. By Planck's law, as the temperature decreases, the peak of the black-body radiation curve moves to longer wavelengths, i.e. from the blue to the yellow. However, the blue light from a gas burner's premixed flame is primarily a product of molecular emission (Swan bands) rather than black-body radiation.\n",
"Getchellite turns darker red when heated, becoming black by the time it reaches its melting point. Close to this temperature it sublimes (changes directly from a solid to a vapor) and recrystallizes on cooler surfaces as minute acicular black crystals.Melting point: 340 °C to 355 °C. Boiling point: near 470 °C.\n",
"The hottest part of a candle flame is just above the very dull blue part to one side of the flame, at the base. At this point, the flame is about . However note that this part of the flame is very small and releases little heat energy. The blue color is due to chemiluminescence, while the visible yellow color is due to radiative emission from hot soot particles. The soot is formed through a series of complex chemical reactions, leading from the fuel molecule through molecular growth, until multi-carbon ring compounds are formed. The thermal structure of a flame is complex, hundreds of degrees over very short distances leading to extremely steep temperature gradients. On average, the flame temperature is about . The color temperature is approximately 1000 K.\n"
] |
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