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7,200 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 18 | Governments across scales can support urban sustainable water management by undertaking projects to recycle wastewater and runoff through green infrastructure; enabling greater coherence between urban water and riverine basin management; decentralising water systems; supporting networks for sharing best practices in water supply and storm runoff treatment to scale sustainable management; and foregrounding equity and justice concerns, especially through participation involving informal settlement residents | medium | 1 | train |
7,201 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 19 | Strong and equitable health systems can protect the health of populations in the face of known and unexpected stressors | medium | 1 | train |
7,202 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 20 | Health and health systems adaptation is feasible where capacity is well developed, and where options align with national priorities and engage local and international communities | medium | 1 | train |
7,203 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 21 | Socio-cultural acceptability of health and health systems adaptation is high and there is significant potential for risk-mitigation and social co-benefits where adaptation addresses the needs of vulnerable regions and populations | medium | 1 | train |
7,204 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 22 | Microeconomic feasibility and socioeconomic vulnerability reduction potentials are also high (high confidence), although economic feasibility may pose a significant challenge in low-income settings | medium | 1 | train |
7,205 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 23 | However, inadequate institutional capacity and resource availability represent major barriers, particularly for health systems struggling to manage current health risks | high | 2 | train |
7,206 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 24 | There is strong evidence that disaster risk management (DRM) is highly feasible when supported by strong institutions, good governance, local engagement and trust across actors | medium | 1 | train |
7,207 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 25 | DRM is constrained by lack of capacity, inadequate institutions, limited coordination across levels of government (high confidence), lack of transparency and accountability, and poor communication | medium | 1 | train |
7,208 | AR6_WGII | 2,781 | 26 | There is a preference for top-down DRM processes, which can undermine local institutions and perpetuate uneven power relationships | medium | 1 | train |
7,209 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 1 | Moves towards community-based and ecosystem-based DRM are promising but uneven and may increase vulnerability if they fail to address underlying and structural determinants of vulnerability | high | 2 | train |
7,210 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 2 | Climate services that are demand-driven and context-specific (e.g., to a particular crop or agricultural system) build adaptation capacity and enable short- and longer-term risk management decisions | high | 2 | train |
7,211 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 3 | Metrics to assess the economic outcomes of climate services remain insufficient to capture longer-term benefits of interventions | medium | 1 | train |
7,212 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 4 | While technological capacity and political acceptance is high | medium | 1 | train |
7,213 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 5 | Risk insurance can be a feasible tool to adapt to climate risks and support sustainable development | high | 2 | train |
7,214 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 7 | Insurance mechanisms enjoy wide legal and regulatory acceptability among policymakers and are institutionally feasible | high | 2 | train |
7,215 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 8 | However, socio-cultural and financial barriers make insurance spatially and temporally challenging to implement (high confidence), even though it can improve the health and well-being of populations | medium | 1 | train |
7,216 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 9 | The risk of generating maladaptive outcomes can further limit the uptake of insurance, as it can provide disincentives for reducing risk over the long term | medium | 1 | train |
7,217 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 11 | Ensuring equitable access to and benefits from innovative financial products (e.g., loans) is needed to guarantee successful uptake of insurance across all the population | high | 2 | train |
7,218 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 12 | Migration has been used by millions around the world to maintain and improve their well-being in the face of changed circumstances, often as part of labour or livelihood diversification | very high | 3 | train |
7,219 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 13 | Properly supported and, where levels of agency and assets are high, migration as a climate response can reduce exposure and socioeconomic vulnerability | medium | 1 | train |
7,220 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 15 | These households can undertake distress migration, which results in negative adaptive and resilience outcomes | high | 2 | train |
7,221 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 16 | Outcomes can be improved through a systematic examination of the political economy of local and regional sectors that employ precarious communities and by addressing vulnerabilities that pose barriers to in situ adaptation and livelihood strategies | medium | 1 | train |
7,222 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 17 | Migrants and their sending and receiving communities can be supported through temporary labour-migration schemes, improving discourses on migration, and matching existing migration agreements with development objectives | medium | 1 | train |
7,223 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 18 | Planned relocation and resettlement have low feasibility as climate responses | medium | 1 | train |
7,224 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 19 | Previous disaster- and development-related relocation has been expensive, contentious, posed multiple challenges for governments and amplified existing, and generated new, vulnerabilities for the people involved | high | 2 | train |
7,225 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 20 | Planned relocation will be increasingly required as climate change undermines habitability, especially for coastal areas | medium | 1 | train |
7,226 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 21 | Full participation of those affected, ensuring human rights-based approaches, preserving cultural, emotional and spiritual bonds to place, and dedicated governance structures and associated funding are associated with improved outcomes | high | 2 | train |
7,227 | AR6_WGII | 2,782 | 22 | Improving the feasibility of planned relocation and resettlement is a high priority for managing climate risks | high | 2 | train |
7,228 | AR6_WGII | 2,784 | 15 | Since SR1.5, there has not been significant change in the feasibility of the first two options as they continue to be implemented successfully, allowing for power generation to maintain or increase its reliability during extreme weather events | high | 2 | train |
7,229 | AR6_WGII | 2,784 | 17 | The main difference from SR1.5 is that resilient power infrastructure now includes distributed generation utilities, such as microgrids, as there is increasing evidence of its role in reducing vulnerability, especially within underserved populations | high | 2 | train |
7,230 | AR6_WGII | 2,785 | 3 | As with previous options, the technological means exist to create redundancy in power generation, transmission and distribution systems and their implementation ensures the continuous functionality of emergency services, such as communications, health and water pumping, amongst others, in urban, peri-urban and rural landscapes | high | 2 | train |
7,231 | AR6_WGII | 2,791 | 9 | Moreover, while once neglected, rapidly increasing attention has been paid to the equity and justice dimensions of planning and implementing green infrastructure initiatives, such as inclusion of citizens in decision making or the allocation of benefits and impacts of projects (Anguelovski et al., 2019b; Buijs et al., 2019; Langemeyer et al., 2020; Venter et al., 2020) Institutional barriers constrain the feasibility of urban green infrastructure | medium | 1 | train |
7,232 | AR6_WGII | 2,840 | 1 | The major drivers of the increase are climate hazards including droughts, floods and storms.Over the past 30 years, major crop yields decreased by 4–10% globally due to climate change | high | 2 | train |
7,233 | AR6_WGIII | 18 | 23 | By 2019, the largest growth in absolute emissions occurred in CO2 from fossil fuels and industry followed by CH4, whereas the highest relative growth occurred in fluorinated gases, starting from low levels in 1990 | high | 2 | train |
7,234 | AR6_WGIII | 18 | 24 | Net anthropogenic CO2 emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry (CO2-LULUCF) are subject to large uncertainties and high annual variability, with low confidence even in the direction of the long-term trend.9 (Figure SPM.1) {Figure 2.2, Figure 2.5, 2.2, Figure TS.2} B.1.3 Historical cumulative net CO2 emissions from 1850 to 2019 were 2400 ± 240 GtCO2 | high | 2 | train |
7,235 | AR6_WGIII | 19 | 2 | The annual average CO2-FFI emissions reduction in 2020 relative to 2019 was about 5.8% [5.1–6.3%], or 2.2 [1.9–2.4] GtCO2 | high | 2 | train |
7,236 | AR6_WGIII | 20 | 6 | Emissions growth in AFOLU, comprising emissions from agriculture (mainly CH4 and N2O) and forestry and other land use (mainly CO2) is more uncertain than in other sectors due to the high share and uncertainty of CO2-LULUCF emissions | medium | 1 | train |
7,237 | AR6_WGIII | 20 | 7 | About half of total net AFOLU emissions are from CO2-LULUCF, predominantly from deforestation14 | medium | 1 | train |
7,238 | AR6_WGIII | 20 | 13 | For comparison, the carbon intensity of primary energy is projected to decrease globally by about 3.5% yr–1 between 2020 and 2050 in modelled scenarios that limit warming to 2°C (>67%), and by about 7.7% yr–1 globally in scenarios that limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot.16 | high | 2 | train |
7,239 | AR6_WGIII | 21 | 6 | Least developed countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) have much lower per capita emissions (1.7 tCO2-eq and 4.6 tCO2-eq, respectively) than the global average (6.9 tCO2-eq), excluding CO2-LULUCF.18 | high | 2 | train |
7,240 | AR6_WGIII | 23 | 26 | Innovation has provided opportunities to lower emissions and reduce emission growth and created social and environmental co-benefits | high | 2 | train |
7,241 | AR6_WGIII | 23 | 31 | For example, sensors, internet of things, robotics, and artificial intelligence can improve energy management in all sectors, increase energy efficiency, and promote the adoption of many low-emission technologies, including decentralised renewable energy, while creating economic opportunities | high | 2 | train |
7,242 | AR6_WGIII | 23 | 32 | However, some of these climate change mitigation gains can be reduced or counterbalanced by growth in demand for goods and services due to the use of digital devices | high | 2 | train |
7,243 | AR6_WGIII | 23 | 34 | Digital technology supports decarbonisation only if appropriately governed | high | 2 | train |
7,244 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 5 | At least 18 countries that had Kyoto targets for the first commitment period have had sustained absolute emission reductions for at least a decade from 2005, of which two were countries with economies in transition | very high | 3 | test |
7,245 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 6 | The Paris Agreement, with near universal participation, has led to policy development and target-setting at national and sub-national levels, in particular in relation to mitigation, as well as enhanced transparency of climate action and support | medium | 1 | train |
7,246 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 8 | By 2020, over 20% of global GHG emissions were covered by carbon taxes or emissions trading systems, although coverage and prices have been insufficient to achieve deep reductions | medium | 1 | train |
7,247 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 9 | By 2020, there were ‘direct’ climate laws focused primarily on GHG reductions in 56 countries covering 53% of global emissions | medium | 1 | train |
7,248 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 10 | Policy coverage remains limited for emissions from agriculture and the production of industrial materials and feedstocks | high | 2 | train |
7,249 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 12 | Multiple lines of evidence suggest that mitigation policies have led to avoided global emissions of several GtCO2-eq yr–1 | medium | 1 | train |
7,250 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 16 | These financial flows remained heavily focused on mitigation, are uneven, and have developed heterogeneously across regions and sectors | high | 2 | train |
7,251 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 17 | In 2018, public and publicly mobilised private climate finance flows from developed to developing countries were below the collective goal under the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement to mobilise USD100 billion per year by 2020 in the context of meaningful mitigation action and transparency on implementation | medium | 1 | train |
7,252 | AR6_WGIII | 25 | 18 | Public and private finance flows for fossil fuels are still greater than those for climate adaptation and mitigation | high | 2 | train |
7,253 | AR6_WGIII | 26 | 3 | A gap remains between global GHG emissions in 2030 associated with the implementation of NDCs announced prior to COP26 and those associated with modelled mitigation pathways assuming immediate action (for quantification see Table SPM.1).26 The magnitude of the emissions gap depends on the global warming level considered and whether only unconditional or also conditional elements of NDCs27 are considered.28 (high confidence) {3.5, 4.2, Cross-Chapter Box 4 in Chapter 4} B.6.2 Global emissions in 2030 associated with the implementation of NDCs announced prior to COP26 are lower than the emissions implied by the original NDCs29 | high | 2 | train |
7,254 | AR6_WGIII | 26 | 4 | The original emissions gap has fallen by about 20% to one-third relative to pathways that limit warming to 2°C (>67%) with immediate action (category C3a in Table SPM.2), and by about 15–20% relative to pathways limiting warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot (category C1 in Table SPM.2) | medium | 1 | train |
7,255 | AR6_WGIII | 27 | 1 | Continued investments in unabated high-emitting infrastructure and limited development and deployment of low-emitting alternatives prior to 2030 would act as barriers to this acceleration and increase feasibility risks | high | 2 | train |
7,256 | AR6_WGIII | 29 | 15 | Without a strengthening of policies beyond those that are implemented by the end of 2020, GHG emissions are projected to rise beyond 2025, leading to a median global warming of 3.2 [2.2 to 3.5] °C by 210038, 39 | medium | 1 | train |
7,257 | AR6_WGIII | 29 | 17 | This compares with reductions of 43% [34–60%] by 2030 and 84% [73–98%] by 2050 in pathways that limit warming to 1.5°C (>50%) with no or limited overshoot (C1, Table SPM.2) (high confidence).41 In modelled pathways that return warming to 1.5°C (>50%) after a high overshoot,42 GHG emissions are reduced by 23% [0–44%] in 2030 and by 75% [62–91%] in 2050 (C2, Table SPM.2) | high | 2 | train |
7,258 | AR6_WGIII | 29 | 18 | Modelled pathways that are consistent with NDCs announced prior to COP26 until 2030 and assume no increase in ambition thereafter have higher emissions, leading to a median global warming of 2.8 [2.1–3.4] °C by 2100 | medium | 1 | test |
7,259 | AR6_WGIII | 29 | 20 | There are similar reductions of non-CO2 emissions by 2050 in both types of pathways: CH4 is reduced by 45% [25–70%]; N2O is reduced by 20% [–5 to +55%]; and F-gases are reduced by 85% [20–90%].43 Across most modelled pathways, this is the maximum technical potential for anthropogenic CH4 reductions in the underlying models | high | 2 | train |
7,260 | AR6_WGIII | 29 | 21 | Further emissions reductions, as illustrated by the IMP-SP pathway, may be achieved through changes in activity levels and/or technological innovations beyond those represented in the majority of the pathways | medium | 1 | train |
7,261 | AR6_WGIII | 29 | 24 | Pathways that exceed warming of >4°C (≥50%) (C8, SSP5-8.5, Table SPM.2) would imply a reversal of current technology and/or mitigation policy trends | medium | 1 | train |
7,262 | AR6_WGIII | 29 | 25 | Such warming could occur in emission pathways consistent with policies implemented by the end of 2020 if climate sensitivity is higher than central estimates | high | 2 | train |
7,263 | AR6_WGIII | 36 | 12 | In modelled pathways that limit warming to 2°C (>67%) (C3 category), there is no significant difference in warming by 2100 between those pathways that reach net zero GHGs (around 30%) and those that do not | high | 2 | train |
7,264 | AR6_WGIII | 36 | 13 | In pathways that limit warming to 2°C (>67%) or lower and that do reach net zero GHG, net zero GHG occurs around 10–40 years later than net zero CO2 emissions | medium | 1 | train |
7,265 | AR6_WGIII | 37 | 1 | As indicated by the ranges, choices in one sector can be compensated for by choices in another while being consistent with assessed warming levels.52 | high | 2 | train |
7,266 | AR6_WGIII | 40 | 15 | Depending on its availability, CCS could allow fossil fuels to be used longer, reducing stranded assets | high | 2 | train |
7,267 | AR6_WGIII | 40 | 16 | The combined global discounted value of the unburned fossil fuels and stranded fossil fuel infrastructure has been projected to be around USD1–4 trillion from 2015 to 2050 to limit global warming to approximately 2°C, and it will be higher if global warming is limited to approximately 1.5°C | medium | 1 | train |
7,268 | AR6_WGIII | 40 | 20 | About 50–80% of CH4 emissions from these fossil fuels could be avoided with currently available technologies at less than USD50 tCO2-eq–1 | medium | 1 | train |
7,269 | AR6_WGIII | 42 | 4 | With ambitious and immediate mitigation efforts, including high levels of electrification and improved energy and material efficiency, global consumption-based urban CO2 and CH4 emissions could be reduced to 3 GtCO2-eq in 2050 in the modelled scenario with very low GHG emissions (SSP1-1.9).56 (medium confidence) {8.3} C.6.2 The potential and sequencing of mitigation strategies to reduce GHG emissions will vary depending on a city’s land use, spatial form, development level, and state of urbanisation | high | 2 | train |
7,270 | AR6_WGIII | 42 | 7 | New and emerging cities will have significant infrastructure development needs to achieve high quality of life, which can be met through energy efficient infrastructures and services, and people-centred urban design | high | 2 | train |
7,271 | AR6_WGIII | 42 | 8 | For cities, three broad mitigation strategies have been found to be effective when implemented concurrently: (i) reducing or changing energy and material use towards more sustainable production and consumption; (ii) electrification in combination with switching to low-emission energy sources; and (iii) enhancing carbon uptake and storage in the urban environment, for example through bio-based building materials, permeable surfaces, green roofs, trees, green spaces, rivers, ponds and lakes. | very high | 3 | test |
7,272 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 1 | Demand-focused interventions can reduce demand for all transport services and support the shift to more energy efficient transport modes | medium | 1 | train |
7,273 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 2 | Electric vehicles powered by low-emissions electricity offer the largest decarbonisation potential for land-based transport, on a life cycle basis | high | 2 | train |
7,274 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 3 | Sustainable biofuels can offer additional mitigation benefits in land-based transport in the short and medium term | medium | 1 | train |
7,275 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 4 | Sustainable biofuels, low-emissions hydrogen, and derivatives (including synthetic fuels) can support mitigation of CO2 emissions from shipping, aviation, and heavy-duty land transport but require production process improvements and cost reductions | medium | 1 | train |
7,276 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 5 | Many mitigation strategies in the transport sector would have various co-benefits, including air quality improvements, health benefits, equitable access to transportation services, reduced congestion, and reduced material demand | high | 2 | train |
7,277 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 8 | In both categories of scenarios, the transport sector likely does not reach zero CO2 emissions by 2100 so negative emissions are likely needed to counterbalance residual CO2 emissions from the sector | high | 2 | train |
7,278 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 10 | Investments in public inter- and intra-city transport and active transport infrastructure (e.g., bicycle and pedestrian pathways) can further support the shift to less GHG-intensive transport modes | high | 2 | train |
7,279 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 11 | Combinations of systemic changes, including teleworking, digitalisation, dematerialisation, supply chain management, and smart and shared mobility may reduce demand for passenger and freight services across land, air, and sea | high | 2 | train |
7,280 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 12 | Some of these changes could lead to induced demand for transport and energy services, which may decrease their GHG emissions reduction potential | medium | 1 | train |
7,281 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 14 | Costs of electrified vehicles, including automobiles, two- and three-wheelers, and buses, are decreasing and their adoption is accelerating, but they require continued investments in supporting infrastructure to increase scale of deployment | high | 2 | train |
7,282 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 15 | Advances in battery technologies could facilitate the electrification of heavy-duty trucks and complement conventional electric rail systems | medium | 1 | train |
7,283 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 17 | Material and supply diversification strategies, energy and material efficiency improvements, and circular material flows can reduce the environmental footprint and material supply risks for battery production | medium | 1 | train |
7,284 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 18 | Sourced sustainably and with low-GHG emissions feedstocks, bio-based fuels, blended or unblended with fossil fuels, can provide mitigation benefits, particularly in the short and medium term | medium | 1 | train |
7,285 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 19 | Low-GHG emissions hydrogen and hydrogen derivatives, including synthetic fuels, can offer mitigation potential in some contexts and land-based transport segments | medium | 1 | train |
7,286 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 21 | For aviation, such technologies include high energy density biofuels (high confidence), and low-emission hydrogen and synthetic fuels | medium | 1 | train |
7,287 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 22 | Alternative fuels for shipping include low-emission hydrogen, ammonia, biofuels, and other synthetic fuels | medium | 1 | train |
7,288 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 23 | Electrification could play a niche role for aviation and shipping for short trips (medium confidence) and can reduce emissions from port and airport operations | high | 2 | train |
7,289 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 24 | Improvements to national and international governance structures would further enable the decarbonisation of shipping and aviation | medium | 1 | train |
7,290 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 25 | Such improvements could include, for example, the implementation of stricter efficiency and carbon intensity standards for the sectors | medium | 1 | train |
7,291 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 28 | Integrated transport and energy infrastructure planning and operations can enable sectoral synergies and reduce the environmental, social, and economic impacts of decarbonising the transport and energy sectors | high | 2 | train |
7,292 | AR6_WGIII | 44 | 29 | Technology transfer and financing can support developing countries leapfrogging or transitioning to low-emissions transport systems thereby providing multiple co-benefits | high | 2 | train |
7,293 | AR6_WGIII | 45 | 13 | Assisting countries to overcome barriers will help to achieve significant mitigation | medium | 1 | train |
7,294 | AR6_WGIII | 46 | 18 | SM.2, 8.4, 9.5, 10.2, 11.3, 11.4, Table 11.6, Box TS.12} C.10.4 Choice architecture62 can help end-users adopt, as relevant to consumers, culture and country contexts, low-GHG-intensive options such as balanced, sustainable healthy diets61 acknowledging nutritional needs; food waste reduction; adaptive heating and cooling choices for thermal comfort; building-integrated renewable energy; and electric light-duty vehicles, and shifts to walking, cycling, shared pooled and public transit; and sustainable consumption by intensive use of longer-lived repairable products | high | 2 | train |
7,295 | AR6_WGIII | 46 | 19 | Addressing inequality and many forms of status consumption63 and focusing on wellbeing supports climate change mitigation efforts | high | 2 | train |
7,296 | AR6_WGIII | 48 | 4 | CDR methods vary in terms of their maturity, removal process, time scale of carbon storage, storage medium, mitigation potential, cost, co-benefits, impacts and risks, and governance requirements | high | 2 | train |
7,297 | AR6_WGIII | 48 | 5 | Specifically, maturity ranges from lower maturity (e.g., ocean alkalinisation) to higher maturity (e.g., reforestation); removal and storage potential ranges from lower potential (<1 GtCO2 yr–1, e.g., blue carbon management) to higher potential (>3 GtCO2 yr–1, e.g., agroforestry); costs range from lower cost (e.g., USD-45–100 per tCO2 for soil carbon sequestration) to higher cost (e.g., USD100–300 per tCO2 for DACCS) | medium | 1 | train |
7,298 | AR6_WGIII | 48 | 6 | Estimated storage time scales vary from decades to centuries for methods that store carbon in vegetation and through soil carbon management, to 10,000 years or more for methods that store carbon in geological formations | high | 2 | train |
7,299 | AR6_WGIII | 48 | 8 | Afforestation, reforestation, improved forest management, agroforestry and soil carbon sequestration are currently the only widely practiced CDR methods | high | 2 | train |
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