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6,000 | AR6_WGII | 1,968 | 12 | Expanding HABs, pathogens and altered ocean chemistry (OA and dissolved oxygen) will reduce yields and increase closures of fisheries along all North American coasts | medium | 1 | train |
6,001 | AR6_WGII | 1,968 | 14 | Warming waters and OA have impacted aquaculture production in North America | high | 2 | train |
6,002 | AR6_WGII | 1,969 | 4 | Ecosystem-based practices and sustainable intensification (increasing yields while minimising resource demand and ecosystem impacts) (Cassman and Grassini, 2020; Rockström et al., 2021) will help the sector meet food production demands under climate change (medium confidence), but effectiveness generally declines and is less certain after 2050 in scenarios without carbon mitigation | high | 2 | train |
6,003 | AR6_WGII | 1,969 | 5 | Across the sector, successful adaptation is underpinned by approaches that meaningfully consider the coupled social–ecological networks around food and fibre production and value IK | very high | 3 | train |
6,004 | AR6_WGII | 1,969 | 6 | Integrated modelling, participatory planning and inclusive decision making promote effective and equitable adaptation responses | very high | 3 | train |
6,005 | AR6_WGII | 1,970 | 5 | Irrigation is an effective adaptation strategy in key agricultural areas (Miller, 2017; Lund et al., 2018) and could stabilise food security in rain-fed regions (e.g., southeast Mexico) (Spring, 2014); water allocation must balance multiple needs and rights | medium | 1 | train |
6,006 | AR6_WGII | 1,973 | 2 | Climate-informed and standardised aquaculture governance, and increased coordination with fishery and coastal management, is needed for climate resilience | high | 2 | train |
6,007 | AR6_WGII | 1,973 | 13 | These environmental conditions also stress natural assets (e.g., urban forests, wetlands, household gardens, green walls) and performance of green infrastructure leading to higher operation and maintenance costs | high | 2 | train |
6,008 | AR6_WGII | 1,974 | 6 | Climate change (RCP8.5) interacting with urban form, development and systemic racism (Schell et al., 2020; Hsu et al., 2021) could worsen risks from extreme heat in North American cities, especially where there is limited adaptation | high | 2 | train |
6,009 | AR6_WGII | 1,974 | 23 | In Canada, SLR is expected to increase the frequency and magnitude of extreme high-water-level events (Greenan et al., 2018) and to create widespread impacts on natural and human systems | high | 2 | train |
6,010 | AR6_WGII | 1,975 | 3 | Barriers to adaptation include challenges related to the local physical and environmental setting, effects of colonialism and racism, socioeconomic attributes of the population, institutional frameworks and competing interests of city stakeholders | medium | 1 | train |
6,011 | AR6_WGII | 1,975 | 4 | The current scale of adaptation is generally not commensurate with reducing risks from projected climatic hazards, although resources exist that provide guidance and examples of effective adaptation | medium | 1 | train |
6,012 | AR6_WGII | 1,975 | 10 | Public health measures to address extreme heat events are more common across North America, with a focus on vulnerable populations (e.g., City of Toronto, 2019) and innovative approaches for reaching at-risk populations with an overarching intent of prevention | medium | 1 | train |
6,013 | AR6_WGII | 1,975 | 12 | Other adaptation responses to reduce temperature effects include modifying structures (roofs, engineered materials) and the urban landscape through green infrastructure (e.g., urban trees, wetlands, green roofs), which increases climate resilience and quality of life by reducing urban heat island effects, while additionally improving air quality, capturing stormwater and delivering other co-benefits to the community (e.g., access to food, connection to nature, social connectivity) | high | 2 | train |
6,014 | AR6_WGII | 1,975 | 23 | Adaptation planning and implementation to address SLR and coastal flooding have been initiated across many cities and settlements in North America, but preparedness varies | high | 2 | train |
6,015 | AR6_WGII | 1,978 | 11 | Adaptation to the risks of wildland–urban interface fire is underway (see Box 14.2; Kovacs et al., 2020), but the scope of adaptation required to sufficiently minimise wildfire risks for cities and settlements across North America has not been assessed | medium | 1 | train |
6,016 | AR6_WGII | 1,978 | 13 | Cities and settlements in North America can be susceptible to multiple flooding hazards (i.e., coastal SLR, pluvial or fluvial flooding); each presents unique adaptation challenges that can be addressed through structural (e.g., armouring coastlines, reservoirs, levees, floodgates; New York City commuter tunnels) and non-structural approaches (e.g., land- use planning and zoning, expanding green infrastructure; Chetumal, Mexico) | high | 2 | train |
6,017 | AR6_WGII | 1,978 | 20 | The civil engineering profession is playing an active role in facilitating an understanding of risks and prioritisation of adaptation investments in communities (Tye and Giovannettone, 2021).The high concentration of valuable assets in cities requires mechanisms to facilitate replacement of assets including use of existing and proposed insurance mechanisms | medium | 1 | train |
6,018 | AR6_WGII | 1,979 | 11 | Rising temperatures are projected to increase heat-related mortality across emission scenarios this century in North America | very high | 3 | train |
6,019 | AR6_WGII | 1,979 | 13 | Warming temperatures are also projected to increase heat-related morbidity | medium | 1 | train |
6,020 | AR6_WGII | 1,979 | 15 | While heat-related mortality is projected to increase across emissions scenarios and shared socioeconomic pathways, fewer deaths are projected under both lower-emissions scenarios and higher-adaptation scenarios in North America | very high | 3 | train |
6,021 | AR6_WGII | 1,979 | 18 | It is important to differentiate between Table 14.5 | A summary of adaptation options for different health outcomes in North America Health outcome Adaptation options Heat-related mortality and morbidityFuture temperature-related health impacts can be reduced by adaptation measures (Petkova et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2014; Mills et al., 2015b; Kingsley et al., 2016; Anderson et al., 2018b; Marsha et al., 2018; Morefield et al., 2018), including more effective warning and response systems and building designs, enhanced pollution controls, urban planning strategies and resilient health infrastructure | very high | 3 | train |
6,022 | AR6_WGII | 1,979 | 23 | Water-borne diseaseClimate change is projected to increase water-borne disease risks (medium confidence), particularly in areas with ageing water and wastewater infrastructure in North America | high | 2 | train |
6,023 | AR6_WGII | 1,979 | 26 | Food-borne diseaseFood safety programmes play important roles in reducing the risk of climate-related food-borne disease | high | 2 | train |
6,024 | AR6_WGII | 1,980 | 1 | Warmer temperatures do not always equate to lower winter mortality: many cold-related deaths do not occur during the coldest times of year or in the coldest places | high | 2 | train |
6,025 | AR6_WGII | 1,980 | 20 | Climate change is projected to increase disease spread into new geographic regions, lengthen the season of disease transmission and increase tick-borne disease risk in North America across emissions scenarios throughout this century | very high | 3 | train |
6,026 | AR6_WGII | 1,980 | 23 | Climate change is projected to impact the distribution, abundance and infection rates of mosquitoes in North America (high confidence), which will increase risk of mosquito-borne diseases including West Nile virus, chikungunya and dengue | medium | 1 | train |
6,027 | AR6_WGII | 1,981 | 9 | In North America, stormwater and water treatment infrastructure play important roles in reducing water-borne disease risk during precipitation events | high | 2 | train |
6,028 | AR6_WGII | 1,981 | 20 | Climate change is projected to increase food safety risks (medium confidence); however, the actual burden of food-borne disease will depend on the efficacy of public health interventions | high | 2 | train |
6,029 | AR6_WGII | 1,981 | 25 | Climate change is projected to increase human food-borne exposure to chemical contaminants | medium | 1 | train |
6,030 | AR6_WGII | 1,981 | 28 | Climate-related food-borne disease risks vary temporally, and are influenced, in part, by food availability, accessibility, preparation and preferences | medium | 1 | test |
6,031 | AR6_WGII | 1,982 | 7 | Substitution of seafood with non-traditional foods (e.g., chicken, canned tuna) would not replace the projected nutrients lost (Marushka et al., 2019), challenging assumptions that market food substitutions could be effective adaptation strategies for Indigenous Peoples 14.5.6.8 Mental Health and Wellness Climate change has had, and will continue to have, negative impacts on mental health in North America | high | 2 | train |
6,032 | AR6_WGII | 1,982 | 19 | Season length for snowmobiling and cross-country skiing is projected to decrease more dramatically | high | 2 | train |
6,033 | AR6_WGII | 1,984 | 9 | The risk of a major accident or incident among Arctic-going yachts and some expedition passenger vessels is very high relative to other ships | high | 2 | train |
6,034 | AR6_WGII | 1,984 | 24 | However, the cascading nature of climate impacts related to trade (see Box 14.5), labour productivity (Section 14.5.8.1.5) and infrastructure (Section 14.5.8.1.2) means that there is no economic sector in North America that will be unaffected by climate change | very high | 3 | train |
6,035 | AR6_WGII | 1,986 | 3 | Operational efficiency and human safety at mining and energy production sites is expected to be adversely affected by increases in extreme events (Section 14.2), including storms, heavy rains, riverine flooding and wildfires | high | 2 | train |
6,036 | AR6_WGII | 1,986 | 4 | General remoteness of many mining sites (especially in the North American Arctic) exacerbates risks related to emergency responses to extreme events such as wildfire | medium | 1 | train |
6,037 | AR6_WGII | 1,986 | 18 | Permafrost thaw in northern North America will result in increased construction and reconstruction needs | medium | 1 | train |
6,038 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 5 | Climate risks may create shocks to the trade system by damaging infrastructure and disrupting supply chains in North America | medium | 1 | train |
6,039 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 8 | Due to the transnational nature of trade, extreme weather disruptions in one region are likely to lead to cascading effects in other regions | high | 2 | train |
6,040 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 10 | Climate-change impacts may alter current trade practices and patterns with implications for regional economic development in North America, especially in the Arctic | medium | 1 | train |
6,041 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 15 | Effective and equitable trade policies can act as important adaptation strategies | medium | 1 | train |
6,042 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 22 | These differences have been often underpinned by social and economic inequalities and have been observed between households, social groups, rural and urban communities, and Indigenous Peoples | high | 2 | train |
6,043 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 23 | These vulnerabilities have also been observed to contribute to maladaptation | medium | 1 | train |
6,044 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 24 | Social and economic trends and development will determine near-term impacts on livelihoods from projected climate hazards; livelihoods will also adapt to the risks and opportunities | high | 2 | train |
6,045 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 25 | Actions to enhance the livelihoods of the most vulnerable social groups in North America will lessen the impacts of climate hazards on them | high | 2 | train |
6,046 | AR6_WGII | 1,988 | 28 | Past and current patterns of development in North America have propagated and perpetuated vulnerabilities that have created differential impacts on livelihoods from climate hazards | high | 2 | train |
6,047 | AR6_WGII | 1,989 | 1 | Direct, indirect and non-market economic damages from extreme events have increased in some parts of North America | high | 2 | train |
6,048 | AR6_WGII | 1,989 | 11 | The effect of climate change has been identified in aggregate measures of economic performance, such as GDP, in North America and globally (medium confidence), although the magnitude of these changes is difficult to constrain | medium | 1 | train |
6,049 | AR6_WGII | 1,989 | 12 | Climate change has been observed to affect national GDP level and economic growth | low | 0 | test |
6,050 | AR6_WGII | 1,989 | 15 | Projected Risks Projections of market and non-market economic damages demonstrate the substantial economic risks of climate impacts associated with high-temperature pathways (RCP8.5) | high | 2 | train |
6,051 | AR6_WGII | 1,989 | 21 | Market and non-market risks and costs will not be experienced equally across countries, sectors and regions in North America | high | 2 | train |
6,052 | AR6_WGII | 1,989 | 26 | Economics of Adaptation Opportunities Economic analysis can help reveal where the avoided economic damages are greater than the costs of adaptation, improving decision making for adaptation planning and efforts in North America | high | 2 | train |
6,053 | AR6_WGII | 1,990 | 3 | Climate impacts have damaged livelihoods across North America, especially those of marginalised people (high confidence) and deepened inequalities for these groups | medium | 1 | train |
6,054 | AR6_WGII | 1,990 | 10 | Migration and mobility have been an important part of livelihoods in North America | high | 2 | train |
6,055 | AR6_WGII | 1,990 | 13 | Temporary or semi- permanent labour migration, generally followed by remittances, has been an important part of livelihoods for rural areas in Mexico | high | 2 | train |
6,056 | AR6_WGII | 1,990 | 17 | Pre-existing social vulnerabilities have also led to forced displacement from extreme weather events | low | 0 | test |
6,057 | AR6_WGII | 1,990 | 25 | Improving projections of future economic risk and damages facilitates the development of tools that can be used for economic analysis of climate policies | high | 2 | train |
6,058 | AR6_WGII | 1,991 | 8 | Livelihoods, however, can be undermined by many of the projected climate risks with the impacts depending on adaptive capacity and adaptation limits | high | 2 | train |
6,059 | AR6_WGII | 1,991 | 12 | Future climate hazards will deepen patterns of social inequality as vulnerable groups may also experience intersecting impacts that adversely affect their livelihoods | medium | 1 | train |
6,060 | AR6_WGII | 1,991 | 15 | Displacement, migration and resettlement will increase along higher- emission pathways | medium | 1 | train |
6,061 | AR6_WGII | 1,991 | 22 | Many actions that enhance and promote resilient livelihoods can have substantial benefit for adaptation to climate hazards | medium | 1 | train |
6,062 | AR6_WGII | 1,991 | 29 | Migration is a common adaptation strategy to maintain and diversify people’s livelihoods and will continue to play an important role when households manage climate and social risks | high | 2 | train |
6,063 | AR6_WGII | 1,991 | 34 | If social relationships prevailing now and in the recent past continue, projections show future crime rates in the USA and Mexico increasing with increasing temperatures | low | 0 | train |
6,064 | AR6_WGII | 1,993 | 21 | While there is expert scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change, rhetoric, misinformation and politicisation of science have contributed to misperceptions, polarisation on the severity of impacts and risks to society, indecision and delayed action | high | 2 | test |
6,065 | AR6_WGII | 1,993 | 23 | KR2: Risk to life, safety and property from intensifying extreme events Human life and safety across North America, and especially along the coasts of Mexico, the Hawaiian Islands, Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic Canada and southeast USA, will be placed at risk from SLR and severe storms and hurricanes, even at 1.5°C GWL | very high | 3 | train |
6,066 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 1 | KR3: Cumulative damages from climate hazards which pose a substantial risk to economic well-being and shared prosperity Climate-change impacts are projected to cause large market and non- market damages | high | 2 | train |
6,067 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 6 | KR4: Risk of degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems, including loss of biodiversity, function and related services with cascading effects for communities and livelihoods Ocean warming will increase the frequency and intensity of MHWs (see Box 14.3), accelerate unprecedented rates of sea ice loss, and alter ocean circulation, chemistry and nutrient cycling in ways that profoundly impact marine productivity, biodiversity and food webs | very high | 3 | train |
6,068 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 7 | Collectively these impacts pose a risk to nearshore ecological and human systems (high confidence), increasing the probability of phenological mismatches, large-scale redistribution of species, and species population declines (Section 14.5.4) with cascading impacts that strain cultural and economic systems reliant on marine productivity across North America | high | 2 | train |
6,069 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 9 | KR5: Risk to major terrestrial ecosystems leading to disruptions of species, ecosystems and their services Major risks to terrestrial ecosystems across North America, such as semiarid landscapes, rangelands, boreal and temperate forests, and Arctic tundra, include significant ecosystem transformations and shifts in species abundances and ranges, and major vegetation types (e.g., transitions from forests to grasslands), with cascading implications for regional biodiversity | very high | 3 | train |
6,070 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 10 | Warming increases the risk of permafrost thaw with propagating impacts on species and communities in the Canadian and US Arctic | high | 2 | train |
6,071 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 12 | These changes will reduce services provided by terrestrial ecosystems, including timber yields and carbon sequestration | medium | 1 | train |
6,072 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 14 | Streams in North America are expected to continue to warm, with important ramifications for aquatic ecosystems | high | 2 | train |
6,073 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 15 | Warming and drying coupled with other stressors (e.g., pollutants, nutrients and invasive species) pose a risk to ecosystem structure and function in lakes, streams and reservoirs across many parts of North America | high | 2 | train |
6,074 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 17 | KR7: Risk to human health and well-being, including mental health Heat-related human mortality is projected to increase in North America as a result of climate change and ageing populations, poverty, chronic diseases and inadequate public health systems | very high | 3 | train |
6,075 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 18 | Gradual changes to temperature and precipitation are impacting urban ecosystems and creating ecosystem regime changes resulting in the poleward expansion among insects that bring risks related to vector-borne diseases such as West Nile virus and Lyme disease | high | 2 | train |
6,076 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 19 | Climate change is expected to lead to wide-ranging mental health challenges related to an increase in the psychological burdens of climate change | high | 2 | train |
6,077 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 20 | KR8: Risk to food and nutritional security through changes in agriculture, livestock, hunting, fisheries and aquaculture productivity and access Cascading and interacting impacts of climate change threatens food systems as well as food and nutritional security for many North Americans, especially those already experiencing food and nutritional scarcity, women and children with high nutritional needs and Indigenous Peoples reliant on subsistence resources | high | 2 | train |
6,078 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 21 | In agricultural regions experiencing aridification and where water scarcity precludes substantial expansion of irrigation, warming and extreme heat pose a risk to food and forage crop and livestock production | high | 2 | train |
6,079 | AR6_WGII | 1,995 | 22 | Ocean warming and MHWs will continue to disrupt commercial capture fisheries through species redistribution and changes to yield (high confidence), and warming waters and OA will increasingly impact aquaculture production | high | 2 | train |
6,080 | AR6_WGII | 1,996 | 1 | KR9: Risks to major infrastructure supporting commerce and trade with implications for sustainable economic development, regional connections and livelihoods Climate change and extreme events are expected to increase risks to the North American economy via infrastructure damage and deterioration (high confidence), disruption to operations, unsafe conditions for workers (medium confidence) and interruptions to international and inter-regional supply chains | medium | 1 | train |
6,081 | AR6_WGII | 1,996 | 2 | These climatic impacts will have cascading implications for local livelihoods, sustainable economic development pathways and regional connectivity, and will reinforce pre-existing social inequities | medium | 1 | test |
6,082 | AR6_WGII | 1,996 | 3 | Infrastructure damage will also disrupt economic activities, including manufacturing, tourism, fisheries, natural resource extraction and energy production | high | 2 | train |
6,083 | AR6_WGII | 1,996 | 4 | KR10: Risk to the quality of life in North American communities, cities and towns In major North American cities and settlements, vulnerability to climate change has increased and is projected to continue to rise | medium | 1 | train |
6,084 | AR6_WGII | 1,996 | 6 | Coastal, riverine and urban flooding displacing communities and coastal ecosystems (Section 14.5.5.2) will become a dominant risk to urban centres | high | 2 | train |
6,085 | AR6_WGII | 1,996 | 13 | Under low- mitigation scenarios, compounding risks and higher-carbon-emission scenarios increase the potential that amplifying feedback loops and fatal synergies across sectors could lead to existential threats to the social–ecological systems of North America | medium | 1 | train |
6,086 | AR6_WGII | 1,996 | 16 | Multiple lines of evidence across sectors assessed in this chapter suggest that after mid-century and without carbon mitigation, climate-driven changes to ecological and social boundary conditions may rapidly push many systems into disequilibrium | medium | 1 | train |
6,087 | AR6_WGII | 2,000 | 1 | Support for, and implementation of, adaptation policies, plans and measures have not been equal across the public and private sectors, regions or varying levels of governance | high | 2 | train |
6,088 | AR6_WGII | 2,000 | 2 | To date, reactive (coping-based) and incremental adaptations have helped North Americans avoid greater damages from observed climate impacts | medium | 1 | train |
6,089 | AR6_WGII | 2,000 | 3 | There is increasing agreement that worsening impacts and expanding risk conditions may exceed current adaptation capacities by mid-century under high-emissions scenarios (RCP8.5) | medium | 1 | train |
6,090 | AR6_WGII | 2,000 | 10 | These efforts largely have focused on planning and less on implementation | high | 2 | train |
6,091 | AR6_WGII | 2,000 | 11 | Some subnational governments, namely states and provinces, have engaged in advanced adaptation planning efforts | high | 2 | train |
6,092 | AR6_WGII | 2,002 | 19 | The absence of evidence about the current effectiveness of proposed adaptation actions to guide future actions and investments presents a serious risk to North America, especially at higher GWLs | medium | 1 | train |
6,093 | AR6_WGII | 2,002 | 22 | At current warming levels, social–ecological systems have been reaching limits to adaptation in regions with high exposure and high sensitivity | medium | 1 | train |
6,094 | AR6_WGII | 2,004 | 2 | Adaptation actions in one place or sector can have adverse side effects elsewhere | medium | 1 | train |
6,095 | AR6_WGII | 2,004 | 15 | Incorporating different values and knowledge systems, consideration of equity and justice as core objectives and addressing underlying vulnerabilities are principles that can guide transformational adaptation and resilience | medium | 1 | train |
6,096 | AR6_WGII | 2,007 | 2 | Successful nature-based adaptation draws from existing adaptation approaches (Borsje et al., 2011; Temmerman et al., 2013; Law et al., 2018; Reguero et al., 2018; Buotte et al., 2019) and is applied across ecological and human systems | high | 2 | train |
6,097 | AR6_WGII | 2,007 | 4 | Nature-based adaptation is generally less expensive and strengthens over time, as compared with built infrastructure which erodes with time | medium | 1 | train |
6,098 | AR6_WGII | 2,008 | 2 | Effective nature-based adaptation requires a well-coordinated suite of adaptation efforts (e.g., assessment, planning, funding, implementation and evaluation) that is co- produced among stakeholders and across sectors | high | 2 | train |
6,099 | AR6_WGII | 2,056 | 2 | The observed impacts of climate change differ between urban and rural contexts, island types and tropical and non-tropical islands | high | 2 | train |
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