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4,700
AR6_WGII
1,058
2
Targeted investments in health and other systems, including multi-sectoral, integrated approaches to protect against key health risks can effectively increase resilience
high
2
train
4,701
AR6_WGII
1,058
3
Increased investment in strengthening general health systems, along with targeted investments to enhance protection against specific climate-sensitive exposures (e.g., hazard early warning and response systems, and integrated vector control programmes for VBDs) will increase resilience if implemented to at least keep pace with climate change
high
2
train
4,702
AR6_WGII
1,058
7
These short-term responses can be complemented by longer-term urban planning and design, including nature-based solutions (NbS) that mitigate urban heat island (UHI) effects
high
2
train
4,703
AR6_WGII
1,058
9
The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the value of coordinated and multi-sectoral planning, social protection systems, safety nets and other capacities in societies to cope with a range of shocks and stresses
high
2
train
4,704
AR6_WGII
1,058
10
The pandemic has posed a severe shock to many socioeconomic systems, resulting in substantial changes in vulnerability and exposure of people to climate risks
high
2
train
4,705
AR6_WGII
1,058
11
The pandemic emphasises the inter-connected and compound nature of risks, vulnerabilities, and responses to emergencies that are simultaneously local and global
high
2
train
4,706
AR6_WGII
1,058
12
Pathways to climate resilient development can be pursued simultaneously with recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic
high
2
train
4,707
AR6_WGII
1,058
13
The COVID-19 pandemic has aggravated climate risks, demonstrated the global and local vulnerability to cascading shocks and illustrated the importance of integrated solutions that tackle ecosystem degradation and structural vulnerabilities in human societies
high
2
train
4,708
AR6_WGII
1,058
14
Transitioning towards equitable, low-carbon societies has multiple benefits for health and well-being
very high
3
train
4,709
AR6_WGII
1,058
15
Benefits for health and well-being can be gained from wide-spread, equitable access to affordable renewable energy (high confidence); active transport (e.g., walking and cycling) (high confidence); green buildings and nature-based solutions, such as green and blue urban infrastructure (high confidence); and by transitioning to a low-carbon, well-being-oriented and equity-oriented economy consistent with the aims of the SDGs
high
2
train
4,710
AR6_WGII
1,058
16
Plant-rich diets consistent with international recommendations for healthy diets could contribute to lower GHG emissions while also generating health co-benefits, such as reducing ill health related to over-consumption of animal-based products
high
2
train
4,711
AR6_WGII
1,058
17
Reducing future risks of involuntary migration and displacement due to climate change is possible through cooperative international efforts to enhance institutional adaptive capacity and sustainable development
high
2
train
4,712
AR6_WGII
1,058
18
Institutional and cross-sectoral efforts to build adaptive capacity, coupled with policies aimed at ensuring safe and orderly movements of people within and between states, can form part of the CRDPs that reduce future risks of climate-related involuntary migration, displacement and immobility
medium
1
train
4,713
AR6_WGII
1,058
19
In locations where permanent, government- assisted relocation becomes unavoidable, active involvement of local populations in planning and decision-making increases the likelihood of successful outcomes
medium
1
train
4,714
AR6_WGII
1,058
20
People who live on small island states do not view relocation as an appropriate or desirable means of adapting to the impacts of climate change
high
2
train
4,715
AR6_WGII
1,058
21
Adaptation and sustainable development build peace in conflict- prone regions by addressing the drivers of grievances that lead to conflict and vulnerability to climate change
high
2
train
4,716
AR6_WGII
1,058
22
Environmental peacebuilding (EP) through natural resource sharing, conflict-sensitive adaptation and climate-resilient peacebuilding offer promising avenues for addressing conflict risk, but their efficacy is still to be demonstrated through effective monitoring and evaluation
high
2
train
4,717
AR6_WGII
1,058
23
Formal institutional arrangements for natural resource management contribute to wider cooperation and peacebuilding (high confidence) and gender-based approaches provide under-utilised pathways to achieving sustainable peace
medium
1
train
4,718
AR6_WGII
1,058
24
Inclusion, cross-issue and cross-sectoral integration in policy and programming, and approaches that incorporate different geographical scales and work across national boundaries can support climate- resilient peace
high
2
train
4,719
AR6_WGII
1,059
5
Specific observations of current impacts included the expansion of the geographical ranges of some diseases into previously unaffected areas and changes in the distributions of some food-, water- and vector- borne diseases
high
2
train
4,720
AR6_WGII
1,059
6
Increasing future health risks were projected from injury, disease and death due to more intense heatwaves and fires (very high confidence), undernutrition in poor regions (high confidence), food- and waterborne diseases (very high confidence) and VBDs
medium
1
train
4,721
AR6_WGII
1,059
7
AR5 found that climate change is a multiplier of existing health vulnerabilities, including food insecurity and limited access to safe water, improved sanitation, healthcare and education, and that the most effective measures to reduce vulnerability in the near term are programmes that implement and improve basic public health
very high
3
train
4,722
AR6_WGII
1,059
8
Opportunities for co-benefits from mitigation actions were identified through such actions as reducing local emissions of short-lived climate pollutants from energy systems (very high confidence) and expanding transport systems that promote active travel
high
2
train
4,723
AR6_WGII
1,060
15
Access to green spaces was also closely associated with well-being
high
2
train
4,724
AR6_WGII
1,061
9
The exposure to hazards of populations, infrastructure, ecosystem capital, socioeconomic systems and cultural assets critical to health and well-being varies considerably across and within regions
high
2
train
4,725
AR6_WGII
1,069
5
The most vulnerable groups include smallholder farmers, pastoralists, agricultural laborers, poorer households, refugees, indigenous groups, women, children, the elderly and those who are socioeconomically marginalised (FAO et al., 2018; IPCC, 2019b)
high
2
train
4,726
AR6_WGII
1,070
5
Observed Impacts of Climate Change on Health, Well-Being, Migration and Conflict 7.2.1 Observed Impacts on Health and Well-Being Eleven categories of diseases and health outcomes have been identified in this assessment as being climate-sensitive through direct pathways (e.g., heat and floods) and indirect pathways mediated through natural and human systems and economic and social disruptions (e.g., disease vectors, allergens, air and water pollution, and food system disruption)
high
2
train
4,727
AR6_WGII
1,073
7
Figure 7.5 illustrates how climatic and non-climatic drivers and responses determine VBD outcomes.Evidence has increased since AR5 that the vectorial capacity has increased for dengue fever, malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases and that higher global average temperatures are making wider geographic areas more suitable for transmission
very high
3
train
4,728
AR6_WGII
1,073
8
Transmission rates of malaria are directly influenced by climatic and weather variables such as temperature, with non-climatic socioeconomic factors and health system responses counteracting the climatic drivers
very high
3
train
4,729
AR6_WGII
1,074
7
Changing climatic patterns are facilitating the spread of CHIKV, Zika, Japanese encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever in Asia, Latin America, North America and Europe
high
2
train
4,730
AR6_WGII
1,074
13
Changes in temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity have been implicated as drivers of West Nile fever in southeastern Europe
medium
1
train
4,731
AR6_WGII
1,074
16
Climate change has contributed to the spread of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis, a corresponding increase in cases of Lyme disease in North America
high
2
train
4,732
AR6_WGII
1,075
3
Ixodes ricinus, the primary vector in Europe for both Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis is sensitive to humidity and temperature (Daniel et al., 2018; Estrada- Peña and Fernández-Ruiz, 2020)
high
2
train
4,733
AR6_WGII
1,075
14
Since AR5 there is a growing body of evidence that increases in temperature (very high confidence), heavy rainfall (high confidence), flooding (medium confidence) and drought
low
0
train
4,734
AR6_WGII
1,075
21
Heavy rainfall and higher than normal temperatures are associated with increased cholera risk in affected regions
very high
3
train
4,735
AR6_WGII
1,075
25
Heavy rainfall, warmer weather and drought are linked to increased risks for other GI infections
high
2
train
4,736
AR6_WGII
1,076
11
A strong association exists between increases in FBDs and high air and water temperatures and longer summer seasons
very high
3
train
4,737
AR6_WGII
1,077
2
There is a strong association observed between the increase in average ambient temperature and increases in Salmonella infections
high
2
train
4,738
AR6_WGII
1,077
6
Significant associations exist between FBDs due to Campylobacter, precipitation and temperature
medium
1
train
4,739
AR6_WGII
1,078
8
COVID-19 and environmental connections Infectious diseases may emerge and spread through multiple climate-related avenues, including direct effects of climatic conditions on disease reproduction and transmission and various indirect effects, often interlinked with ecosystem degradation
high
2
train
4,740
AR6_WGII
1,078
9
Climate change is affecting the risk of emerging infectious diseases by contributing to factors that drive the movements of species, including vectors and reservoirs of diseases, into novel human populations and vice versa
high
2
train
4,741
AR6_WGII
1,078
11
Human-to-human transmission is the prominent driver in the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, rather than climatic drivers
high
2
train
4,742
AR6_WGII
1,078
14
The impact of COVID-19 containment measures resulted in a temporary reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and reduced air pollution
high
2
train
4,743
AR6_WGII
1,079
7
During the pandemic, extreme weather and climate events such as droughts, storms, floods, wildfires and heatwaves continued, resulting in disastrous compounding impacts
high
2
train
4,744
AR6_WGII
1,079
12
Responses and implications for adaptation and climate resilient development The pandemic emphasises the inter-connected and compound nature of risks, vulnerabilities and responses to emergencies that are simultaneously local and global
high
2
train
4,745
AR6_WGII
1,080
1
The management of the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the value of scientific (including medical and epidemiological) expertise and the importance of fast, accurate and comprehensive data to inform policy decisions and to anticipate and manage risk
high
2
train
4,746
AR6_WGII
1,080
9
There is a considerable evidence base of specific actions that have co-benefits for reducing pandemic and climate change risks while enhancing social justice and biodiversity conservation
high
2
train
4,747
AR6_WGII
1,080
13
In particular, given their immense scale, COVID-19 recovery investments may offer an opportunity to contribute to climate resilient development pathways (CRDPs) through a green, resilient, healthy and inclusive recovery
high
2
train
4,748
AR6_WGII
1,080
14
However, windows of opportunity to enable such transitions are only open for a limited period and need to be swiftly acted upon to effect change
high
2
train
4,749
AR6_WGII
1,080
17
In addition, heightened societal and political attention to one crisis often comes at the cost of other policy priorities
high
2
train
4,750
AR6_WGII
1,082
9
Climate change affects the risk of CVD through high temperatures and extreme heat (assessed in Section 7.2.4.1) and through other mechanisms
medium
1
train
4,751
AR6_WGII
1,082
19
Several non-communicable respiratory diseases are climate sensitive based on their exposure pathways
very high
3
train
4,752
AR6_WGII
1,082
21
Burdens of allergic disease, particularly allergic rhinitis and allergic asthma may be changing in response to climate change
medium
1
train
4,753
AR6_WGII
1,083
15
People with chronic illnesses are at particular risk during and after extreme weather events due to treatment interruptions and lack of access to medication
medium
1
train
4,754
AR6_WGII
1,083
23
Heat continues to pose a significant health risk due to increases in exposure, changes in the size and spatial distribution of the human population, mounting vulnerability and an increase in extreme heat events
high
2
train
4,755
AR6_WGII
1,083
24
Some regions are already experiencing heat stress conditions approaching the upper limits of labour productivity and human survivability
high
2
train
4,756
AR6_WGII
1,084
8
Several lines of evidence point to a possible decrease in population sensitivity to heat, albeit mainly for high-income countries
high
2
train
4,757
AR6_WGII
1,084
15
Excess deaths during extreme heat events occur predominantly in older individuals and are overwhelmingly cardiovascular in origin
very high
3
train
4,758
AR6_WGII
1,084
26
Heat- and cold-related health outcomes vary by location (Dialesandro et al., 2021; Hu et al., 2019; Phung et al., 2016), suggesting outcomes are highly moderated by socioeconomic, occupational and other non-climatic determinants of individual health and socioeconomic vulnerability (Åström et al., 2020; McGregor et al., 2017; McGregor et al., 2017; Schuster et al., 2017; Benmarhnia et al., 2015; Watts et al., 2019)
high
2
train
4,759
AR6_WGII
1,086
1
It is as likely as not that climate change has increased the current burden of disease from injuries related to extreme weather, particularly in low- income settings
low
0
train
4,760
AR6_WGII
1,087
2
Consumption of mercury-contaminated fish has been found to be linked to neurological disorders due to methyl mercury poisoning (i.e., Minamata disease) that is associated with climate change-contaminant interactions that alter the bioaccumulation and biomagnification of toxic and fat-soluble persistent organic pollutants and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Alava et al., 2017) in seafood and marine mammals
medium
1
train
4,761
AR6_WGII
1,087
14
There is an observable association between high temperatures and mental health decrements
high
2
train
4,762
AR6_WGII
1,087
21
Discrete climate hazards including storms (Kessler et al., 2008; Boscarino et al., 2013; Boscarino et al., 2017; Obradovich et al., 2018), floods (Baryshnikova and Pham, 2019), heatwaves, wildfires and drought (Hanigan et al., 2012; Carleton, 2017; Zhong et al., 2018; Charlson et al., 2021) have significant negative consequences for mental health
very high
3
train
4,763
AR6_WGII
1,089
3
Mental health impacts can emerge as result of climate impacts on economic, social and food systems
high
2
train
4,764
AR6_WGII
1,089
9
Anxiety about the potential risks of climate change and awareness of climate change itself can affect mental health even in the absence of direct impacts
low
0
test
4,765
AR6_WGII
1,089
21
Heat is one of the best-studied aspects of climate change observed to reduce well-being
high
2
train
4,766
AR6_WGII
1,090
4
Both heat and air pollution also impair human capabilities through a negative effect on cognitive performance (Taylor et al., 2016b) and even impair skills acquisition, reducing the ability to learn (Park et al., 2021) and affecting marginalised groups more strongly (Park et al., 2020), although findings are inconsistent and depend in part on the nature of the task
low
0
train
4,767
AR6_WGII
1,090
5
Systematic reviews have found an association between higher ambient levels of fine airborne particles with cognitive impairment in the elderly and with behavioural problems (related to impulsivity and attention problems) in children (Power et al., 2016; Yorifuji et al., 2017; Younan et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2018b)
medium
1
train
4,768
AR6_WGII
1,090
8
A general theme across studies from all regions is that climate-related migration outcomes are diverse
high
2
train
4,769
AR6_WGII
1,090
11
The diversity of potential migration and displacement outcomes reflects (a) the variable nature of climate hazards in terms of the rate of onset, intensity, duration, spatial extent and severity of damage caused to housing, infrastructure and livelihoods and (b) the wide range of social, economic, cultural, political and other non-climatic factors that influence exposure, vulnerability, adaptation options and the contexts in which migration decisions are made (Neumann and Hermans, 2015; McLeman, 2017; Barnett and McMichael, 2018; Cattaneo et al., 2019; Hoffmann et al., 2020)
high
2
train
4,770
AR6_WGII
1,090
12
Weather events and climate conditions can act as direct drivers of migration and displacement (e.g., destruction of homes by tropical cyclones) and as indirect drivers (e.g., rural income losses and/or food insecurity due to heat- or drought-related crop failures that in turn generate new population movements)
high
2
train
4,771
AR6_WGII
1,090
15
The diversity of potential migration and displacement outcomes reflects the scale and physical impacts of specific climate hazard events and the wide range of social, economic, cultural, political and other non-climatic factors that influence exposure, vulnerability, adaptation options and the contexts in which migration decisions are made
high
2
train
4,772
AR6_WGII
1,090
18
Climate-related migration and displacement outcomes display high variability in terms of migrant success, often reflecting pre-existing socioeconomic conditions and household wealth
high
2
train
4,773
AR6_WGII
1,091
3
Climatic conditions, events and variability are important drivers of migration and displacement (high confidence) (Table MIGRATE.1 in Chapter 7), with migration responses to specific climate hazards being strongly influenced by economic, social, political and demographic processes
high
2
train
4,774
AR6_WGII
1,091
5
Involuntary displacement occurs when adaptation alternatives are exhausted or not viable and reflects non-climatic factors that constrain adaptive capacity and create high levels of exposure and vulnerability
high
2
train
4,775
AR6_WGII
1,091
6
There is strong evidence that climatic disruptions to agricultural and other rural livelihoods can generate migration
high
2
train
4,776
AR6_WGII
1,091
7
Specific climate events and conditions may cause migration to increase, decrease or flow in new directions
high
2
train
4,777
AR6_WGII
1,091
9
Most climate-related migration and displacement observed currently takes place within countries
high
2
train
4,778
AR6_WGII
1,091
10
The climate hazards most commonly associated with displacement are tropical cyclones and flooding in most regions, with droughts being an important driver in sub-Saharan Africa, parts of south Asia and South America
high
2
train
4,779
AR6_WGII
1,091
14
The additional impacts of climate change anticipated to generate future migration and displacement include mean sea level rise that increases flooding and saltwater contamination of soil and/or groundwater in low-lying coastal areas and small islands
high
2
train
4,780
AR6_WGII
1,092
1
There is growing evidence about the future prospects of immobile populations: groups and individuals that are unable or unwilling to move away from areas highly exposed to climatic hazards
high
2
train
4,781
AR6_WGII
1,092
3
Managed retreat and organised relocations of people from hazardous areas in recent years have proven to be politically and emotionally charged, socially disruptive and costly
high
2
train
4,782
AR6_WGII
1,093
23
Policy interventions can remove barriers to and expand the alternatives for safe, orderly and regular migration that allows vulnerable people to adapt to climate change
high
2
train
4,783
AR6_WGII
1,094
6
Reducing the future risk of large-scale population displacements, including those requiring active humanitarian interventions and organised relocations of people, requires the international community to meet the requirements of the Paris Agreement and take further action to control future warming
high
2
train
4,784
AR6_WGII
1,094
10
Populations in low-income countries and small-island states that have historically had low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are at particular risk of involuntary migration and displacement due to climate change, reinforcing the urgency for industrialised countries to continue lowering GHG emissions, to support adaptive capacity-building initiatives under the UNFCCC and to meet objectives expressed in the Global Compacts regarding safe, orderly and regular migration and the support and accommodation of displaced people (Sections 4.3.7, 4.5.7, 5.12.2, 7.4.5.5, 8.4.2; Box 8.1; Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3).Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE (continued) Climate-related migration originates most often in rural areas in low- and middle-income countries, with migrant destinations usually being other rural areas or urban centres within their home countries (i.e., internal migration)
medium
1
train
4,785
AR6_WGII
1,095
9
Regional distribution of displacement events has been consistent throughout the IDMC data collection period
high
2
train
4,786
AR6_WGII
1,095
10
Relative to their absolute population size, small island states experience a disproportionate risk of climate-related population displacements (Desai et al., 2021)
high
2
train
4,787
AR6_WGII
1,095
11
Tropical cyclones and extreme storms are a particularly significant displacement risk in East and Southeast Asia, the Caribbean region, the Bay of Bengal region and southeast Africa (IDMC 2020)
high
2
train
4,788
AR6_WGII
1,096
1
Riverine flood displacement can lead to increases or decreases in temporary or short-distance migration flows, depending on the local context
medium
1
train
4,789
AR6_WGII
1,096
10
The most common response to drought is an increase in short-distance, rural–urban migration
medium
1
train
4,790
AR6_WGII
1,097
10
These latter may be attributable to a sense of loss or fear (Schwerdtle et al., 2018; Torres and Casey, 2017) as well as due to the interruption of healthcare; occupational injuries; sleep deprivation; non-hygienic lodgings and insufficient sanitary facilities; heightened exposure to vector- and WBDs; vulnerability to psychosocial, sexual and reproductive issues; behavioural disorders; substance abuse; and violence (Farhat et al., 2018; Wickramage et al., 2018)
high
2
train
4,791
AR6_WGII
1,097
15
The chapter concluded that some of the factors that increase the risk of violent conflict within states are sensitive to climate change (medium evidence, medium agreement), that people living in places affected by violent conflict are particularly vulnerable to climate change
medium
1
train
4,792
AR6_WGII
1,101
10
Under the high emissions scenario, climate change was projected to result in approximately 85 deaths equivalents per 100,000 population.Temperature increases are projected to exceed critical risk thresholds for six key climate-sensitive health outcomes, highlighting the criticality of building adaptive capacity in health systems and in other sectors that influence health and well-being
high
2
train
4,793
AR6_WGII
1,102
4
Population heat exposure will increase under climate change
very high
3
train
4,794
AR6_WGII
1,102
10
Further, for North America and Europe, where rural depopulation is projected, the predominant driver of increases in exposure is urban growth (Jones et al., 2018).Comparisons of heatwave exposure for 1.5°C and 2.0°C warming for different SSPs indicate strong geographical contrasts in potential heatwave risk
high
2
train
4,795
AR6_WGII
1,102
16
Regional level assessments of changes in population heat exposure for Africa, Europe, the USA, China and India corroborate general findings at the global level, that the impact of warming is amplified under divergent regional development pathways (e.g., SSP4 – inequality) compared to those fostering sustainable development (e.g., SSP1 – sustainability)
high
2
train
4,796
AR6_WGII
1,102
17
For some regions, such as Europe, changes in exposure are projected to be largely a consequence of climate change, while for others, such as Africa and to a lesser extent Asia, Oceania, North America and South America, the interactive effects of demographic and climate change are projected to be important (Jones et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2017; Russo et al., 2016; Ma and Yuan, 2021)
medium
1
train
4,797
AR6_WGII
1,103
1
Estimates of heat-related mortality based solely on changes in temperature point to elevated levels of global and regional level mortality compared to the present, with the magnitude of this increasing from RCP4.5 through to RCP8.5
high
2
train
4,798
AR6_WGII
1,103
2
Further support comes from the projection that heat-related health impacts for a 2°C increase in global temperatures will be greater than those for 1.5°C warming
very high
3
train
4,799
AR6_WGII
1,103
3
Estimates of future mortality that incorporate adaptation in addition to temperature change point to increases in heat-related mortality under global warming, albeit at lower levels than the case of no adaptation
high
2
train