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4,200 | AR6_WGII | 638 | 6 | However, residual risks will remain, especially at higher levels of warming | medium | 1 | train |
4,201 | AR6_WGII | 638 | 10 | WaSH interventions have been demonstrated to reduce diarrhoea risk by 25–75% depending on the specific intervention (Wolf et al., 2018) | high | 2 | train |
4,202 | AR6_WGII | 638 | 11 | Conversely, inadequate WaSH is associated with an estimated annual loss of 50 million daily adjusted life years (Prüss-Ustün et al., 2019), of which 89% of deaths are due to diarrhoea, and 8% of deaths from acute respiratory infections (Chapter 7 WGII 7.3.2), making universal access to WaSH (i.e., achievement of SDG 6.1, 6.2) a critical adaptation strategy | high | 2 | train |
4,203 | AR6_WGII | 638 | 16 | Improved integrated (urban) water resources management (Kirshen et al., 2018; Tosun and Leopold, 2019) and governance (Chu, 2017; Miller et al., 2020) and enhanced ecosystem management (Adhikari et al., 2018b) lead to policies and regulations that reduce water insecurity and, when developed appropriately, reduce inequities | medium | 1 | train |
4,204 | AR6_WGII | 638 | 17 | Supply (source) augmentation, including dams, storage and rainwater/fog harvesting, can increase the supply or reliability of water for drinking, sanitation and hygiene (DeNicola et al., 2015; Pearson et al., 2015; Majuru et al., 2016; Poudel and Duex, 2017; Lucier and Qadir, 2018; Goodrich et al., 2019) | high | 2 | train |
4,205 | AR6_WGII | 638 | 22 | Demand for water can be decreased through reductions in water loss from the system (e.g., pipe leakage) (Orlove et al., 2019) and water conservation measures (Duran-Encalada et al., 2017) | medium | 1 | train |
4,206 | AR6_WGII | 639 | 22 | Further analyses of co-benefits, particularly employing a gender lens, are required to improve adaptation strategies (McIver et al., 2016).In summary, ensuring access to climate-resilient WaSH infrastructure and practices represents a key adaptation strategy that can protect beneficiaries against water-related diseases induced by climate change | high | 2 | train |
4,207 | AR6_WGII | 639 | 23 | Better management of water resources, supply augmentation and demand management are important adaptation strategies | high | 2 | train |
4,208 | AR6_WGII | 640 | 15 | In summary, although water-related adaptation is underway in the urban, peri-urban and municipal sectors of some nations, governance, technical and economic barriers remain in implementing locally informed strategies, particularly in developing countries (high confidence).4.6.6 Adaptation for Communities Dependent on Freshwater Ecosystems AR5 concluded that some adaptation responses in the urban and agricultural sectors could negatively impact freshwater ecosystems | medium | 1 | train |
4,209 | AR6_WGII | 640 | 17 | These have been implemented in many locations around the world, yet, challenges remain, including improving the evidence base of their effectiveness, scaling up of these interventions, mainstreaming across sectors and receiving more adaptation finance | medium | 1 | train |
4,210 | AR6_WGII | 640 | 25 | These measures also require further financial support, mainstreaming across sectors and the scaling up of individual measures | medium | 1 | train |
4,211 | AR6_WGII | 640 | 27 | However, challenges remain, including improving the evidence base of their effectiveness, scaling up these interventions, mainstreaming across sectors and receiving more adaptation finance | medium | 1 | train |
4,212 | AR6_WGII | 643 | 11 | At the urban and peri-urban scale, the use and effectiveness of NbS is a crucial feature to build resilience in cities for urban stormwater management and heat mitigation (Depietri and McPhearson, 2017; Carter et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2020; Babí Almenar et al., 2021) | high | 2 | train |
4,213 | AR6_WGII | 643 | 20 | Moreover, several NbS– —for example, natural (blue and green) and grey infrastructure—can help address water-related hazards such as coastal hazards, heavy precipitation, drought, erosion and low water quality | high | 2 | train |
4,214 | AR6_WGII | 644 | 4 | Vulnerable populations exposed to hydrological changes may become trapped due to a lack of economic and social capital required for migration (Adams, 2016; Zickgraf, 2018) | medium | 1 | train |
4,215 | AR6_WGII | 644 | 7 | Migration has increased vulnerability among women and female-headed households (Patel and Giri, 2019), but has also triggered gender-positive processes such as increased female school enrolment (Gioli et al., 2014) | medium | 1 | train |
4,216 | AR6_WGII | 644 | 8 | Remittances, that is, transfers of money from migrants to beneficiaries in sending areas, may reduce vulnerability and increase adaptive capacity to climate-induced hydrological changes (Ng’ang’a et al., 2016; Jha et al., 2018b) | medium | 1 | train |
4,217 | AR6_WGII | 644 | 11 | However, they often fail to include affected populations in the process and may lead to greater impoverishment and increased vulnerability (Wilmsen and Webber, 2015) | medium | 1 | train |
4,218 | AR6_WGII | 644 | 14 | In summary, measures that facilitate successful migration and inclusive resettlement may facilitate adaptation to climate-induced hydrological changes | medium | 1 | train |
4,219 | AR6_WGII | 644 | 28 | However, relocation can be culturally, socially, financially, politically and geographically constrained due to the importance of cultural relationships with traditional, customary or ancestral lands | high | 2 | train |
4,220 | AR6_WGII | 645 | 6 | In sum, although some Indigenous Peoples, local communities and traditional peoples can adapt, and are adapting to climate-driven hydrological changes, and their impacts on and risks to culturally significant practices and beliefs (medium confidence), these strategies are constrained by structural barriers and adaptation limits | high | 2 | train |
4,221 | AR6_WGII | 646 | 26 | Most of these adaptation case studies are from Asia and Africa, and agriculture is the predominant sector where most of these adaptation responses are being implemented | high | 2 | train |
4,222 | AR6_WGII | 646 | 28 | Agriculture is the most important sector in all continents, except Europe and Australasia, where most adaptation occurs in the urban sector | high | 2 | train |
4,223 | AR6_WGII | 648 | 6 | These top four responses provide several benefits such as higher incomes and yields, better water use efficiencies and related outcomes | high | 2 | train |
4,224 | AR6_WGII | 648 | 9 | Responses such as migration, including spontaneous and planned relocation, are also relatively well documented (medium confidence), as are responses such as collective action, training and capacity building and economic and financial measures for increasing adaptive capacities | medium | 1 | train |
4,225 | AR6_WGII | 654 | 16 | In developing countries, most adaptation measures improve economic outcomes | high | 2 | train |
4,226 | AR6_WGII | 654 | 17 | Adaptation responses also have benefits in terms of water outcomes and environmental and ecological parameters, and these benefits are more commonly manifested in developed countries | high | 2 | train |
4,227 | AR6_WGII | 654 | 18 | Of the papers assessed for water-related adaptation, roughly one fourth reported adaptation co-benefits | high | 2 | train |
4,228 | AR6_WGII | 654 | 19 | In contrast, one third of studies reported maladaptive outcomes, now or in the future | high | 2 | train |
4,229 | AR6_WGII | 654 | 20 | Despite many adaptation case studies, there is a knowledge gap in understanding if the benefits of adaptation also translate into a reduction of climate impacts, and if so, to what extent, and under what conditions | high | 2 | train |
4,230 | AR6_WGII | 656 | 19 | Results show a range of effectiveness levels across regions and warming levels and vary depending on the tested response options (Qin et al., 2018) (Figure 4.29), with moderate to small effectiveness, large residual impacts or potential maladaptive outcomes, as well as decreasing effectiveness with increasing warming (Figure 4.28) | high | 2 | train |
4,231 | AR6_WGII | 656 | 28 | For all regions, a reduction in effectiveness is apparent from 1.5°C to higher levels of warming, leading to increased residual risk with increasing warming | high | 2 | train |
4,232 | AR6_WGII | 656 | 29 | Irrigation can increase yield relative to present day, showing co-benefits for some regions, though the share of co-benefits decreases with higher warming | high | 2 | train |
4,233 | AR6_WGII | 658 | 22 | Adaptation generally performs more effectively at 1.5°C, though residual damages are projected at this warming level across sectors and regions | high | 2 | train |
4,234 | AR6_WGII | 660 | 8 | Reduction in the effectiveness of future adaptation at higher global warming levels emphasises the need for limiting warming to 1.5°C, as space for adaptation solution starts to shrink beyond that for most options for which future projections exists | high | 2 | train |
4,235 | AR6_WGII | 660 | 10 | First, the nature of literature on current adaptation makes it challenging to infer their effectiveness in reducing climate risks, even though the benefits of adaptation are clear | high | 2 | train |
4,236 | AR6_WGII | 660 | 15 | SR1.5 also shows that water-related risks can be reduced substantially by limiting warming to 1.5°C | high | 2 | train |
4,237 | AR6_WGII | 660 | 17 | The SRCCL further highlighted the critical importance of water-related climate change adaptation and potential limits to adaptation in the land sector when extreme forms of desertification lead to a complete loss of land productivity | high | 2 | train |
4,238 | AR6_WGII | 660 | 18 | Institutional constraints, including path dependency and lengthy decision- making processes, remain major limitations to successful adaptation globally | high | 2 | train |
4,239 | AR6_WGII | 661 | 12 | Water-related impacts that occurred despite implemented adaptation have been documented across all world regions | high | 2 | test |
4,240 | AR6_WGII | 663 | 4 | In summary, institutional constraints (governance, institutions, policy), including path dependency and financial and information constraints, are the main challenge to adaptation implementation in the water sector | high | 2 | train |
4,241 | AR6_WGII | 663 | 5 | Water-related losses and damages that manifest despite or beyond implemented adaptation have been observed across world regions, primarily for exposed and vulnerable communities | high | 2 | train |
4,242 | AR6_WGII | 663 | 20 | So, while there is general agreement about negative impacts on GDP due to water-related risks in the future, the magnitude of GDP loss estimates varies substantially and depends on various model assumptions | high | 2 | train |
4,243 | AR6_WGII | 664 | 1 | In summary, climate change impacts on water resources are projected to lower GDP in many low-and middle-income countries without adequate adaptation measures | high | 2 | train |
4,244 | AR6_WGII | 664 | 4 | Still, more work needs to be done on actual benefits and costs of adaptation strategies and residual impacts and risks of delaying adaptation action | medium | 1 | train |
4,245 | AR6_WGII | 664 | 5 | In addition, better evidence on the costs and benefits of low-regret solutions, such as water pricing, increasing water use efficiency through technology and service improvements, and enhanced support for autonomous adaptation, is also needed for informed decision-making | high | 2 | train |
4,246 | AR6_WGII | 664 | 8 | Different mitigation pathways can either increase or decrease water withdrawals or water consumption (or both, or either) depending on the specific combination of mitigation technologies deployed | high | 2 | train |
4,247 | AR6_WGII | 665 | 14 | Some DAC technologies that include solid sorbents also produce water as a by-product, but not in quantities that can offset total water losses (Beuttler et al., 2019; Fasihi et al., 2019) | medium | 1 | train |
4,248 | AR6_WGII | 665 | 16 | Results from a simulation study on retrofitting coal- fired power plants built after 2000 with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies show an increase in global water consumption, currently at 9.66 km3 yr–1, by 31–50% (to 12.66 km3 yr–1 and 14.47 km3 yr–1, respectively) depending on the cooling and CCS technology deployed, and hence are best deployed in locations which are not water scarce (Rosa et al., 2020c) | medium | 1 | train |
4,249 | AR6_WGII | 665 | 18 | Carbon can be ‘scrubbed’ from thermoelectric power plant emissions and injected for storage in deep geological strata (Turner et al., 2018), but this can lead to pollution of deep aquifers (Chen et al., 2021) and have health consequences | low | 0 | train |
4,250 | AR6_WGII | 665 | 32 | Overall, extensive BECCS and afforestation/reforestation deployment can alter the water cycle at regional scales | high | 2 | train |
4,251 | AR6_WGII | 666 | 2 | Many mitigation measures have a considerable water footprint | high | 2 | train |
4,252 | AR6_WGII | 666 | 34 | The effectiveness of technology in reducing climate-related risks depends on its appropriateness to the local context (Biagini et al., 2014; Mfitumukiza et al., 2020) and other factors, including institutional and governance frameworks | high | 2 | train |
4,253 | AR6_WGII | 667 | 2 | Water-related technologies can also have adverse distributional outcomes when gains from technology adoption accrue disproportionately to a small section of the population; for example, only rich and male farmers can adopt high-cost technologies like solar irrigation pumps (Gupta, 2019) | medium | 1 | test |
4,254 | AR6_WGII | 667 | 14 | Such financing focuses on returns and scale (Cholibois, 2020), and as such, local needs, especially those of the poor, may not be adequately represented (Manuamorn et al., 2020; Williams, 2020) | medium | 1 | test |
4,255 | AR6_WGII | 667 | 19 | In summary, water garners a significant share of public and private adaptation funds | high | 2 | train |
4,256 | AR6_WGII | 667 | 31 | The necessity of water collection takes away time from income-generating activities and education | high | 2 | train |
4,257 | AR6_WGII | 668 | 8 | Hence, a lack of gender-sensitive analysis before implementing water management projects can lead to maladaptation and increase gender vulnerability (Phan et al., 2019; Eriksen et al., 2021) | high | 2 | train |
4,258 | AR6_WGII | 668 | 17 | SRCCL found that IKLK contribute to enhancing resilience against climate change and combating desertification | medium | 1 | train |
4,259 | AR6_WGII | 668 | 25 | Community-led actions and restoration measures are helping to ameliorate climate impacts and provide ‘safe havens’ to affected freshwater species | high | 2 | train |
4,260 | AR6_WGII | 668 | 29 | Community-led applications of IKLK in conjunction with external knowledge and funding can improve water security | high | 2 | train |
4,261 | AR6_WGII | 669 | 7 | In summary, IKLK are dynamic and have developed over time to adapt to climate and environmental change in culturally specific and place-based ways | high | 2 | train |
4,262 | AR6_WGII | 669 | 13 | Effective participation of these actors in climate change adaptation planning in the water sector can contribute to more just adaptation actions | high | 2 | train |
4,263 | AR6_WGII | 669 | 28 | Therefore, the legitimacy of the decisions taken by multiple decision-makers at different levels of water governance derives from the perceived fairness of the decision-making process (Baldwin et al., 2018) and the inclusion of women, Indigenous Peoples and young people (Iza, 2019) | medium | 1 | train |
4,264 | AR6_WGII | 670 | 1 | Polycentric governance systems require cross- scale information sharing, coordination and democratic participation to work appropriately (Pahl-Wostl and Knieper, 2014; Carlisle and Gruby, 2017; Morrison et al., 2017; Biesbroek and Lesnikowski, 2018; Frey et al., 2021) | high | 2 | test |
4,265 | AR6_WGII | 670 | 4 | These, in turn, can produce better environmental outcomes and improve water governance outcomes | high | 2 | train |
4,266 | AR6_WGII | 670 | 8 | For instance, historical inequities and injustices due to settler colonialism and top-down water policies, governance and laws (Collins et al., 2017; Arsenault et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2018; Robison et al., 2018) have resulted in long-term water insecurity in many indigenous communities in North America (Simms et al., 2016; Medeiros et al., 2017; Conroy-Ben and Richard, 2018; Diver, 2018; Emanuel, 2018) | high | 2 | train |
4,267 | AR6_WGII | 670 | 12 | In summary, polycentric governance can enable improved water governance and effective climate change adaptation | medium | 1 | train |
4,268 | AR6_WGII | 670 | 13 | However, it can also exacerbate existing inequalities as long as less powerful actors, such as women, Indigenous Peoples and young people, are not adequately involved in the decision-making process | high | 2 | train |
4,269 | AR6_WGII | 670 | 30 | Evidence suggests that adaptation failure in the water sector is due to policy and regulatory failures (Keohane and Victor, 2016; Oberlack and Eisenack, 2018; Javeline et al., 2019), reflecting political myopia (Muller, 2018; Empinotti et al., 2019; Pralle, 2019) | high | 2 | train |
4,270 | AR6_WGII | 670 | 31 | International donors and supranational/transnational legislation (e.g., EU law) can support the capacity of national and sub-national governments to act and remove possible barriers to the effective implementation of climate change adaptation policies in the water sector, including obstacles posed due to lack of financial support for the developing countries (Massey et al., 2014; Tilleard and Ford, 2016; Biesbroek et al., 2018; Rahman and Tosun, 2018) | medium | 1 | train |
4,271 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 1 | Human-induced warming has slowed growth of agricultural productivity over the past 50 years in mid and low latitudes | medium | 1 | train |
4,272 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 2 | Crop yields are compromised by surface ozone | high | 2 | train |
4,273 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 3 | Methane emissions have negatively impacted crop yields by increasing temperatures and surface ozone concentrations | medium | 1 | train |
4,274 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 4 | Warming is negatively affecting crop and grassland quality and harvest stability | high | 2 | train |
4,275 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 5 | Warmer and drier conditions have increased tree mortality and forest disturbances in many temperate and boreal biomes (high confidence), negatively impacting provisioning services | medium | 1 | train |
4,276 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 6 | Ocean warming has decreased sustainable yields of some wild fish populations | high | 2 | train |
4,277 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 7 | Ocean acidification and warming have already affected farmed aquatic species | high | 2 | train |
4,278 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 10 | At higher latitudes, warming has expanded potential area but has also altered phenology (high confidence), potentially causing plant–pollinator and pest mismatches | medium | 1 | train |
4,279 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 11 | At low latitude, temperatures have crossed upper tolerance thresholds, more frequently leading to heat stress | high | 2 | train |
4,280 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 14 | Droughts, floods and marine heatwaves contribute to reduced food availability and increased food prices, threatening food security, nutrition and livelihoods of millions | high | 2 | train |
4,281 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 15 | Droughts induced by the 2015–2016 El Niño, partially attributable to human influences (medium confidence), caused acute food insecurity in various regions, including eastern and southern Africa and the dry corridor of Central America | high | 2 | train |
4,282 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 16 | In the northeast Pacific, a recent 5-year warm period impacted the migration, distribution and abundance of key fish resources | high | 2 | train |
4,283 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 27 | Increasing competition for land, energy and water exacerbates impacts of climate change on food security | high | 2 | train |
4,284 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 29 | Current global crop and livestock areas will increasingly become climatically unsuitable under a high- emission scenario | high | 2 | train |
4,285 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 30 | Increased, potentially concurrent climate extremes will periodically increase simultaneous losses in major food-producing regions | medium | 1 | train |
4,286 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 32 | Climate change will increase the number of people at risk of hunger in mid-century, concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Central America | high | 2 | train |
4,287 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 33 | Increased CO 2 concentrations will reduce nutrient density of some crops | high | 2 | train |
4,288 | AR6_WGII | 728 | 36 | The number of days with climatically stressful conditions for outdoor workers will increase by up to 250 workdays per year by century’s end in some parts of South Asia, tropical sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Central and South America under Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) 5-8.5, with negative consequences such as reduced food productivity, higher costs and prices | medium | 1 | train |
4,289 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 1 | Meat and milk productivity will be reduced | medium | 1 | train |
4,290 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 3 | Climate change will reduce the effectiveness of pollinator agents as species are lost from certain areas, or the coordination of pollinator activity and flower receptiveness is disrupted in some regions | high | 2 | train |
4,291 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 4 | Greenhouse-gas emissions will negatively impact air, soil and water quality, exacerbating direct climatic impacts on yields | high | 2 | train |
4,292 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 6 | Climate change will reduce marine fisheries and aquaculture productivity, altering the species that will be fished or cultured, and reducing aquaculture habitat in tropical and subtropical areas | high | 2 | train |
4,293 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 7 | Global ocean animal biomass will decrease by 5–17% under RCP2.6 and 8.5, respectively, from 1970 to 2100 with an average decline of 5% for every 1°C of warming, affecting food provisioning, revenue value and distribution | medium | 1 | train |
4,294 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 8 | Global marine aquaculture will decline under warming and acidification from 2020 to 2100, with potential short-term gains for temperate finfish and overall negative impacts on bivalve aquaculture from habitat reduction (50–100% for some countries in the Northern Hemisphere) | medium | 1 | train |
4,295 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 9 | Changes in precipitation, sea level, temperature and extreme climate events will affect food provisioning from inland and coastal aquatic systems | high | 2 | train |
4,296 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 10 | Sea level rise and altered precipitation will increase coastal inundation and water conflicts between water-dependent sectors, such as rice production, direct human use and hydropower | medium | 1 | train |
4,297 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 15 | In temperate and boreal regions, some productivity gains are projected, but tree mortality will increase in some areas | high | 2 | train |
4,298 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 16 | In tropical forests, change in species composition and forest structure will lower production | medium | 1 | train |
4,299 | AR6_WGII | 729 | 17 | Some models project a possible increase in global wood supply and lowering of average wood prices, but they do not account for the negative impacts of extreme events and thus possibly overestimate the wood supply | medium | 1 | train |
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