manu/mldr-zoomed-100char-total-queries-documents

chunk_id stringlengths 3 9	chunk stringlengths 1 100
9837_66	Dialectal writing
9837_67	Until the early 20th century, formal writing employed Literary Chinese, based on the vocabulary and
9837_68	syntax of classical works.
9837_69	The script was also used less formally to record local varieties, which had over time diverged from
9837_70	the classical language and each other.
9837_71	The logographic script easily accommodated differences in pronunciation, meaning and word order,
9837_72	but often new characters were required for words that could not be related to older forms.
9837_73	Many such characters were created using the traditional methods, particularly phono-semantic
9837_74	compounds.
9837_75	Adaptations for other languages
9837_76	The Chinese script was for a long period the only writing system in East Asia, and was also hugely
9837_77	influential as the vehicle of the dominant Chinese culture. Korea, Japan and Vietnam adopted
9837_78	Chinese literary culture as a whole. For many centuries, all writing in neighbouring societies was
9837_79	done in Classical Chinese, albeit influenced by the writer's native language. Although they wrote
9837_80	in Chinese, writing about local subjects required characters to represent names of local people and
9837_81	places; leading to the creation of Han characters specific to other languages, some of which were
9837_82	later reimported as Chinese characters. Later they sought to use the script to write their own
9837_83	languages. Chinese characters were adapted to represent the words of other languages using a range
9837_84	of strategies, including
9837_85	representing loans from Chinese using their original characters,
9837_86	representing words with characters for similar-sounding Chinese words,
9837_87	representing words with characters for Chinese words with similar meanings,
9837_88	creating new characters using the same formation principles as Chinese characters, especially
9837_89	phono-semantic compounds, and
9837_90	creating new characters in other ways, such as compounds of pairs of characters indicating the
9837_91	pronunciation of the initial and final parts of a word respectively (similar to Chinese fanqie
9837_92	spellings).
9837_93	The principle of representing one monosyllabic word with one character was readily applied to
9837_94	neighbouring languages to the south with a similar analytic structure to Chinese, such as
9837_95	Vietnamese and Zhuang. The script was a poorer fit for the polysyllabic agglutinative languages of
9837_96	the north-east, such as Korean, Japanese and the Mongolic and Tungusic languages.
9837_97	Korean
9837_98	Chinese characters adapted to write Korean are known as Hanja. From the 9th century, Korean was
9837_99	written using a number of systems collectively known as Idu, in which Hanja were used to write both
9837_100	Sino-Korean and native Korean roots, and a smaller number of Hanja were used to write Korean
9837_101	grammatical morphemes with similar sounds. The overlapping uses of Hanja made the system complex
9837_102	and difficult to use, even when reduced forms for grammatical morphemes were introduced with the
9837_103	Gugyeol system in the 13th and 14th centuries.
9837_104	The Hangul alphabet introduced in the 15th century was much simpler, and specifically designed for
9837_105	the sounds of Korean. The alphabet makes systematic use of modifiers corresponding to features of
9837_106	Korean sounds. Although Hangul is unrelated to Chinese characters, its letters are written in
9837_107	syllabic blocks that can be interspersed with Hanja. Such a Korean mixed script became the usual
9837_108	way of writing the language, with roots of Chinese origin denoted by Hanja and all other elements
9837_109	rendered in Hangul. Hanja is still used (but not very commonly like the Japanese) and is required
9837_110	in both North and South Korea.
9837_111	Historically, a few characters were coined in Korea, such as ; these are known as gukja (/).
9837_112	Japanese
9837_113	Chinese characters adapted to write Japanese words are known as kanji. Chinese words borrowed into
9837_114	Japanese could be written with the Chinese character, while Japanese words could be written using
9837_115	the character for a Chinese word of similar meaning. Because there have been multiple layers of
9837_116	borrowing into Japanese, a single kanji may have several readings in Japanese.
9837_117	Other systems, known as kana, used Chinese characters phonetically to transcribe the sounds of
9837_118	Japanese syllables. An early system of this type was Man'yōgana, as used in the 8th century
9837_119	anthology Man'yōshū. This system was not quite a syllabary, because each Japanese syllable could
9837_120	be represented by one of several characters, but from it were derived two syllabaries still in use
9837_121	today. They differ because they sometimes selected different characters for a syllable, and
9837_122	because they used different strategies to reduce these characters for easy writing: the angular
9837_123	katakana were obtained by selecting a part of each character, while hiragana were derived from the
9837_124	cursive forms of whole characters. Such classic works as Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji were
9837_125	written in hiragana, the only system permitted to women of the time.
9837_126	Modern Japanese writing uses a composite system, using kanji for word stems, hiragana for
9837_127	inflexional endings and grammatical words, and katakana to transcribe non-Chinese loanwords.
9837_128	A few hundred characters have been coined in Japan; these are known as kokuji (), and include
9837_129	natural phenomena, particularly fish, such as 鰯 (sardine), together with everyday terms such as 働
9837_130	(work) and technical terms such as 腺 (gland).
9837_131	Vietnamese
9837_132	Vietnamese was first written from the 13th century using the Chữ Nôm script based on Chinese
9837_133	characters, but the system developed in a quite different way than in Korea or Japan.
9837_134	Vietnamese was and is a strongly analytic language with many distinct syllables (roughly 4,800 in
9837_135	the modern standard language), so there was little motivation to develop a syllabary.
9837_136	As with Korean and Japanese, characters were used to write borrowed Chinese words, native words
9837_137	with a similar sound and native words with a similar meaning.
9837_138	In the Vietnamese case, the latter category consisted mainly of early loans from Chinese that had
9837_139	come to be accepted as native.
9837_140	The Vietnamese system also involved creation of new characters using Chinese principles, but on a
9837_141	far greater scale than in Korea or Japan.
9837_142	The resulting system was highly complex and was never mastered by more than 5% of the population.
9837_143	It was completely replaced in the 20th century by the Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet.
9837_144	Zhuang
9837_145	Zhuang has been written using Sawndip for over a thousand years. The script uses both Chinese
9837_146	characters and new characters formed using the traditional methods, as well as some formed by
9837_147	combining pairs of characters to indicate the pronunciation of a word by the fanqie method. The
9837_148	number of new created characters is similar in scale to the Chu nom of Vietnam. Even though an
9837_149	official alphabet-based writing system for Zhuang was introduced in 1957, Sawndip is still more
9837_150	often used in less formal situations.
9837_151	Others
9837_152	Several peoples in southwest China recorded laws, songs and other religious and cultural texts by
9837_153	representing words of their languages using a mix of Chinese characters with a similar sound or
9837_154	meaning, or pairs of Chinese characters indicating pronunciation using the fanqie method.
9837_155	The languages so recorded included Miao, Yao, Bouyei, Kam, Bai and Hani.
9837_156	All these languages are now written using Latin-based scripts.
9837_157	Chinese characters were also used to transcribe the Mongolian text of The Secret History of the
9837_158	Mongols.
9837_159	Descendent scripts by type Logographic
9837_160	Oracle Bone Script, Seal script, Clerical script, Standard Script, Semi-cursive script, Cursive
9837_161	script, Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese, Zhuang logogram, Zetian characters, Hanja, Chữ
9837_162	Hán, Chữ Nôm and Kanji.
9837_163	Syllabary Hiragana, Katakana, Man'yōgana and Nüshu.
9837_164	Semi-syllabary Zhuyin Fuhao, Gugyeol, Hyangchal, Idu. Scripts influenced by Chinese
9837_165	Between the 10th and 13th centuries, northern China was ruled by foreign dynasties that created

9837_66

Dialectal writing

9837_67

Until the early 20th century, formal writing employed Literary Chinese, based on the vocabulary and

9837_68

syntax of classical works.

9837_69

The script was also used less formally to record local varieties, which had over time diverged from

9837_70

the classical language and each other.

9837_71

The logographic script easily accommodated differences in pronunciation, meaning and word order,

9837_72

but often new characters were required for words that could not be related to older forms.

9837_73

Many such characters were created using the traditional methods, particularly phono-semantic

9837_74

compounds.

9837_75

Adaptations for other languages

9837_76

The Chinese script was for a long period the only writing system in East Asia, and was also hugely

9837_77

influential as the vehicle of the dominant Chinese culture. Korea, Japan and Vietnam adopted

9837_78

Chinese literary culture as a whole. For many centuries, all writing in neighbouring societies was

9837_79

done in Classical Chinese, albeit influenced by the writer's native language. Although they wrote

9837_80

in Chinese, writing about local subjects required characters to represent names of local people and

9837_81

places; leading to the creation of Han characters specific to other languages, some of which were

9837_82

later reimported as Chinese characters. Later they sought to use the script to write their own

9837_83

languages. Chinese characters were adapted to represent the words of other languages using a range

9837_84

of strategies, including

9837_85

representing loans from Chinese using their original characters,

9837_86

representing words with characters for similar-sounding Chinese words,

9837_87

representing words with characters for Chinese words with similar meanings,

9837_88

creating new characters using the same formation principles as Chinese characters, especially

9837_89

phono-semantic compounds, and

9837_90

creating new characters in other ways, such as compounds of pairs of characters indicating the

9837_91

pronunciation of the initial and final parts of a word respectively (similar to Chinese fanqie

9837_92

spellings).

9837_93

The principle of representing one monosyllabic word with one character was readily applied to

9837_94

neighbouring languages to the south with a similar analytic structure to Chinese, such as

9837_95

Vietnamese and Zhuang. The script was a poorer fit for the polysyllabic agglutinative languages of

9837_96

the north-east, such as Korean, Japanese and the Mongolic and Tungusic languages.

9837_97

Korean

9837_98

Chinese characters adapted to write Korean are known as Hanja. From the 9th century, Korean was

9837_99

written using a number of systems collectively known as Idu, in which Hanja were used to write both

9837_100

Sino-Korean and native Korean roots, and a smaller number of Hanja were used to write Korean

9837_101

grammatical morphemes with similar sounds. The overlapping uses of Hanja made the system complex

9837_102

and difficult to use, even when reduced forms for grammatical morphemes were introduced with the

9837_103

Gugyeol system in the 13th and 14th centuries.

9837_104

The Hangul alphabet introduced in the 15th century was much simpler, and specifically designed for

9837_105

the sounds of Korean. The alphabet makes systematic use of modifiers corresponding to features of

9837_106

Korean sounds. Although Hangul is unrelated to Chinese characters, its letters are written in

9837_107

syllabic blocks that can be interspersed with Hanja. Such a Korean mixed script became the usual

9837_108

way of writing the language, with roots of Chinese origin denoted by Hanja and all other elements

9837_109

rendered in Hangul. Hanja is still used (but not very commonly like the Japanese) and is required

9837_110

in both North and South Korea.

9837_111

Historically, a few characters were coined in Korea, such as ; these are known as gukja (/).

9837_112

Japanese

9837_113

Chinese characters adapted to write Japanese words are known as kanji. Chinese words borrowed into

9837_114

Japanese could be written with the Chinese character, while Japanese words could be written using

9837_115

the character for a Chinese word of similar meaning. Because there have been multiple layers of

9837_116

borrowing into Japanese, a single kanji may have several readings in Japanese.

9837_117

Other systems, known as kana, used Chinese characters phonetically to transcribe the sounds of

9837_118

Japanese syllables. An early system of this type was Man'yōgana, as used in the 8th century

9837_119

anthology Man'yōshū. This system was not quite a syllabary, because each Japanese syllable could

9837_120

be represented by one of several characters, but from it were derived two syllabaries still in use

9837_121

today. They differ because they sometimes selected different characters for a syllable, and

9837_122

because they used different strategies to reduce these characters for easy writing: the angular

9837_123

katakana were obtained by selecting a part of each character, while hiragana were derived from the

9837_124

cursive forms of whole characters. Such classic works as Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji were

9837_125

written in hiragana, the only system permitted to women of the time.

9837_126

Modern Japanese writing uses a composite system, using kanji for word stems, hiragana for

9837_127

inflexional endings and grammatical words, and katakana to transcribe non-Chinese loanwords.

9837_128

A few hundred characters have been coined in Japan; these are known as kokuji (), and include

9837_129

natural phenomena, particularly fish, such as 鰯 (sardine), together with everyday terms such as 働

9837_130

(work) and technical terms such as 腺 (gland).

9837_131

Vietnamese

9837_132

Vietnamese was first written from the 13th century using the Chữ Nôm script based on Chinese

9837_133

characters, but the system developed in a quite different way than in Korea or Japan.

9837_134

Vietnamese was and is a strongly analytic language with many distinct syllables (roughly 4,800 in

9837_135

the modern standard language), so there was little motivation to develop a syllabary.

9837_136

As with Korean and Japanese, characters were used to write borrowed Chinese words, native words

9837_137

with a similar sound and native words with a similar meaning.

9837_138

In the Vietnamese case, the latter category consisted mainly of early loans from Chinese that had

9837_139

come to be accepted as native.

9837_140

The Vietnamese system also involved creation of new characters using Chinese principles, but on a

9837_141

far greater scale than in Korea or Japan.

9837_142

The resulting system was highly complex and was never mastered by more than 5% of the population.

9837_143

It was completely replaced in the 20th century by the Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet.

9837_144

Zhuang

9837_145

Zhuang has been written using Sawndip for over a thousand years. The script uses both Chinese

9837_146

characters and new characters formed using the traditional methods, as well as some formed by

9837_147

combining pairs of characters to indicate the pronunciation of a word by the fanqie method. The

9837_148

number of new created characters is similar in scale to the Chu nom of Vietnam. Even though an

9837_149

official alphabet-based writing system for Zhuang was introduced in 1957, Sawndip is still more

9837_150

often used in less formal situations.

9837_151

Others

9837_152

Several peoples in southwest China recorded laws, songs and other religious and cultural texts by

9837_153

representing words of their languages using a mix of Chinese characters with a similar sound or

9837_154

meaning, or pairs of Chinese characters indicating pronunciation using the fanqie method.

9837_155

The languages so recorded included Miao, Yao, Bouyei, Kam, Bai and Hani.

9837_156

All these languages are now written using Latin-based scripts.

9837_157

Chinese characters were also used to transcribe the Mongolian text of The Secret History of the

9837_158

Mongols.

9837_159

Descendent scripts by type Logographic

9837_160

Oracle Bone Script, Seal script, Clerical script, Standard Script, Semi-cursive script, Cursive

9837_161

script, Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese, Zhuang logogram, Zetian characters, Hanja, Chữ

9837_162

Hán, Chữ Nôm and Kanji.

9837_163

Syllabary Hiragana, Katakana, Man'yōgana and Nüshu.

9837_164

Semi-syllabary Zhuyin Fuhao, Gugyeol, Hyangchal, Idu. Scripts influenced by Chinese

9837_165

Between the 10th and 13th centuries, northern China was ruled by foreign dynasties that created