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241_3 | The museum proved to be successful. The New Yorker had a discussion about it in 1929: "They have unusual machines: Under a microscope you can see how much you can bend a steel rail with the pressure of your finger, a movie shows air currents moving, etc. The collection was started in 1913 by a group of business men. For the last two years it has been in the present museum which is supported, largely, by a bequest of two and a half million dollars from the late Henry F. Towne."
Fay Cluff Brown (1881-1968) was a physicist and inventor who created and supervised the development of educational exhibits, most notably in the Museum of Science and Industry at New York City's Museums of the Peaceful Arts. Much of his scientific research focused on the element selenium. Early in his career, Brown invented a device using selenium, which translated printed text into sound. |
241_4 | Among the items owned by the Museum of the Peaceful Arts was America's first submarine: "Dr. Peter J. Gibbons and his son, Austin Flint Gibbons, who recently bought the old United States submarine boat Holland from junk dealers, yesterday presented the relic in perpetuity to the Association for the Establishment and Maintenance for the People of the City of New York of a Museum of the Peaceful Arts." Dr. George F. Kunz, the expert on gems, President of Tiffany & Co., is President of the new Association.
Several notable inventors of the time were interested in the new museum. Orville Wright wrote to Dr. Kunz in May 1925, about giving one of the original Wright airplanes to the museum, and his experiences with other museums: |
241_5 | In a book on the history of science, George Sarton says: "This museum is quoted here only pro memoria. The idea was originated by George F. Kunz (1856-1932): The projected Museum of the Peaceful Arts (paper read before the American Association of Museums's Meeting, New York, 1912, 12 pages). Great efforts were made to obtain sufficient capital but failed. It was more or less replaced by the New York Museum of Science and Industry. G. Sarton has in his archives a considerable correspondence on this subject."
References |
241_6 | Bibliography
"THE FORD EXHIBIT AT THE MUSEUM OF THE PEACEFUL ARTS." Science. 1925 Dec 18 ;62(1616):xii.
Kunz, George F. "Museums of the Peaceful Arts: Album of Plans." 1927. Unpaged, no place of publication given. (Library of Congress)
Kunz, George F. "The Projected Museum of Peaceful Arts in the City of New York." New York, 1913. 8vo. 12 pages. Presented at the international conference relating to the program for celebration of the centenary signing of the Treaty of Ghent and one hundredth anniversary of peace among English speaking nations. (American Museum of Natural History) (Library of Congress)
Alexander Konta. "MODERN RECORDS MUSEUMS; Founder of Association Welcomes Dr. Kunz's Project." New York Times. November 19, 1913, Page 08,
"The Projected Museum of Peaceful Arts." Proceedings. American Association of Museums, vol. 6, pages 30-42. Press Notice, Sun, Jan. 5, 1912. Press Notice, Evening Post, Jan. 5, 1912. |
241_7 | Museums of the Peaceful Arts. Collection of reports, photographs, and other materials related to the Museums of the Peaceful Arts, years: 1912, 1930. (Publications type: Mixed Materials. 10 volumes; 29-41 cm. Vol. 1 contains founding documents and miscellaneous newspaper clippings; v. 2-5, supplements to the president's report; v. 6 and v. 9, photograph albums; v. 7, album of plans; v. 8, "What other museums are doing: a volume of miscellaneous information"; v. 10, "The Newark Museum, a study." Typescript documents, records, photographs, blueprints, plans, newspaper clippings, and miscellaneous printed materials related to the establishment of the Museums of the Peaceful Arts. This collection of reports and scrapbooks documents the creation of the Museums of the Peaceful Arts and the institution's early years under its president, George F. Kunz. Much general information is included on standards of museum stewardship in the United States during the 1910s and 1920s, along with examples |
241_8 | of contemporary printed materials issued by other museums. The final volume is a study of the Newark Museum (for comparison purposes), prepared with the assistance of the Newark Museum Association and curator Alice W. Kendall). Smithsonian Institution Libraries, Dibner Library of the History of Science and Technology. |
241_9 | "MUSEUM OF THE PEACEFUL ARTS." Science 27 August 1926: Vol. 64 no. 1652 pp. 199-200. DOI: 10.1126/science.64.1652.199-a |
241_10 | Museums established in 1912
Industry museums in New York (state)
Technology museums in New York (state)
Science museums in New York City
1912 establishments in New York City |
242_0 | Combined small cell lung carcinoma (or c-SCLC, and rarely rendered as "small-cell lung carcinoma") is a form of multiphasic lung cancer that is diagnosed by a pathologist when a malignant tumor arising from transformed cells originating in lung tissue contains a component of small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) admixed with one (or more) components of non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). |
242_1 | Classification
Lung cancer is a large and exceptionally heterogeneous family of malignancies. Over 50 different histological variants are explicitly recognized within the 2004 revision of the World Health Organization (WHO) typing system ("WHO-2004"), currently the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme. Many of these entities are rare, recently described, and poorly understood. However, since different forms of malignant tumors generally exhibit diverse genetic, biological, and clinical properties — including response to treatment — accurate classification of lung cancer cases are critical to assuring that patients with lung cancer receive optimum management. |
242_2 | Approximately 99% of lung cancers are carcinoma, a term that indicates that the malignant neoplasm is composed of, or descended from, cells of epithelial lineage (i.e. derived from embryonic endoderm, as is the case in lung carcinomas, or from ectoderm), and/or that the malignant cells exhibit tissue architectural, cytological, or molecular features characteristically found in epithelial cells. Under WHO-2004, lung carcinomas are divided into 8 major taxa:
Squamous cell carcinoma
Small cell carcinoma
Adenocarcinoma
Large cell carcinoma
Adenosquamous carcinoma
Sarcomatoid carcinoma
Carcinoid tumor
Salivary gland-like carcinoma |
242_3 | SCLC is generally considered to be the most aggressive of these major forms of lung cancer, with the worst long term prognosis and survival rates. As a result, it is recommended that all multiphasic malignant lung tumors (i.e. those with more than one histological pattern) that are found to contain any proportion of SCLC cells should be classified as c-SCLC, and not as combined forms of any of the other histological variants present in the tumor. Currently, the only exception to this recommendation occurs in cases where anaplastic large cell lung carcinoma (LCLC) is the second histological component. In these instances, a minimum of 10% of the viable malignant cells present must be identified as LCLC before the tumor is considered to be a c-SCLC. Under the WHO-2004 classification scheme, c-SCLC is the only recognized variant of SCLC. |
242_4 | Histogenesis
The exact mechanisms and histogenesis of lung cancers are topics of intense interest and research. It is currently thought that most cases of lung cancer probably occur after damage to genomic DNA causes malignant transformation of a single multipotent cell. This newly formed entity, sometimes referred to as a cancer stem cell, then begins to divide uncontrollably, giving rise to new daughter cancer cells in an exponential (or near exponential) fashion. Unless this runaway cell division process is checked, a clinically apparent tumor will eventually form as the mass reaches sufficient size to be detected clinically, or begins to cause signs or symptoms. Approximately 98% of lung cancers are eventually diagnosed as a histological variant of carcinoma, a term that signifies that the tumor derives from transformed epithelial cells, or cells that have acquired epithelial characteristics as a result of cell differentiation. |
242_5 | The histogenesis of c-SCLC and other multiphasic forms of lung cancer appear to be complex and varied phenomena. In most cases of c-SCLC, genomic and immunohistochemical studies suggest that the morphological divergence of the separate components occurs when a SCLC-like cell is transformed into a cell with the potential to develop NSCLC variant characteristics, and not vice versa. Daughter cells of this transdifferentiated SCLC-like cell then repeatedly divide and, under both intrinsic genomic and extrinsic environmental influences, acquire additional mutations (a process known as tumor progression). The end result is that the tumor acquires specific cytologic and architectural features suggesting a mixture of SCLC and NSCLC. |
242_6 | Other analyses suggest that, in at least in some cases, more highly differentiated variants of NSCLC (i.e. adenocarcinoma) can "progress" to give rise to areas within the primary (original) tumor (or its metastases) that develop histological and molecular characteristics of SCLC.
Other molecular studies, however, suggest that — in at least a minority of cases — independent development of the components in c-SCLC occurs via mutation and transformation in two different cells in close spatial proximity to each other, due to field cancerization. In these cases, repeated division and mutational progression in both cancer stem cells generate a biclonal "collision tumor". |
242_7 | Regardless of which of these mechanisms give rise to the tumor, recent studies suggest that, in the later stages of c-SCLC oncogenesis, continued mutational progression within each tumor component results in the cells of the combined tumor developing molecular profiles that more closely resemble each other than they do cells of the "pure" forms of the individual morphological variants. This molecular oncogenetic convergence likely has important implications for treatment of these lesions, given the differences between standard therapeutic regimens for SCLC and NSCLC.
C-SCLC also occurs quite commonly after treatment of "pure" SCLC with chemotherapy and/or radiation, probably as a result of a combination of tumor genome-specific "progressional" mutations, stochastic genomic phenomena, and additional mutations induced by the cytotoxic therapy. |
242_8 | The most common forms of NSCLC identified as components within c-SCLC are large cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma. Rarer variants of NSCLC are seen less commonly, such as combinations with carcinoids, spindle cell carcinoma, and giant cell carcinoma. Giant cell carcinoma components are seen much more commonly in patients who have undergone radiation. With the approval and use of newer "molecularly targeted" agents revealing differential efficacies in specific subtypes and variants of NSCLC, it is becoming more important for pathologists to correctly subclassify NSCLC's as distinct tumor entities, or as components of c-SCLC's.
Staging
Staging of c-SCLC patients is usually performed in an analogous fashion to patients with "pure" small cell lung carcinoma. |
242_9 | For several decades, SCLC has been staged according to a dichotomous distinction of "limited disease" (LD) vs. "extensive disease" (ED) tumor burdens. Nearly all clinical trials have been conducted on SCLC patients staged dichotomously in this fashion. LD is roughly defined as a locoregional tumor burden confined to one hemithorax that can be encompassed within a single, tolerable radiation field, and without detectable distant metastases beyond the chest or supraclavicular lymph nodes. A patient is assigned an ED stage when the tumor burden is greater than that defined under LD criteria — either far advanced locoregional disease, malignant effusions from the pleura or pericardium, or distant metastases. |
242_10 | However, more recent data reviewing outcomes in very large numbers of SCLC patients suggests that the TNM staging system used for NSCLC is also reliable and valid when applied to SCLC patients, and that more current versions may allow better treatment decisionmaking and prognostication in SCLC than with the old dichotomous staging protocol.
Treatment
A very large number of clinical trials have been conducted in "pure" SCLC over the past several decades. As a result, evidence-based sets of guidelines for treating monophasic SCLC are available. While the current set of SCLC treatment guidelines recommend that c-SCLC be treated in the same manner as "pure" SCLC, they also note that the evidence supporting their recommendation is quite weak. It is likely, then, that the optimum treatment for patients with c-SCLC remains unknown. |
242_11 | The current generally accepted standard of care for all forms of SCLC is concurrent chemotherapy (CT) and thoracic radiation therapy (TRT) in LD, and CT only in ED. For complete responders (patients in whom all evidence of disease disappears), prophylactic cranial irradiation (PCI) is also given. TRT serves to increase the probability of total eradication of residual locoregional disease, while PCI aims to eliminate any micrometastases to the brain. |
242_12 | Surgery is not often considered as a treatment option in SCLC (including c-SCLC) due to the high probability of distant metastases at the time of diagnosis. This paradigm was driven by early studies showing that the administration of systemic therapies resulted in improved survival as compared to patients undergoing surgical resection. Recent studies, however, have suggested that surgery for highly selected, very early-stage c-SCLC patients may indeed improve outcomes. Other experts recommend resection for residual masses of NSCLC components after complete local tumor response to chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy in c-SCLC. |
242_13 | Although other combinations of drugs have occasionally been shown to be noninferior at various endpoints and in some subgroups of patients, the combination of cisplatin or carboplatin plus etoposide or irinotecan are considered comparable first-line regimens for SCLC. For patients who do not respond to first line therapy, or who relapse after complete remission, topotecan is the only agent which has been definitively shown to offer increased survival over best supportive care (BSC), although in Japan amirubicin is considered effective as salvage therapy.
Importantly, c-SCLC is usually much more resistant to CT and RT than "pure" SCLC. While the mechanisms for this increased resistance of c-SCLC to conventional cytotoxic treatments highly active in "pure" SCLC remain mostly unknown, recent studies suggest that the earlier in its biological history that a c-SCLC is treated, the more likely it is to resemble "pure" SCLC in its response to CT and RT. |
242_14 | Targeted agents
In recent years, several new types of "molecularly targeted" agents have been developed and used to treat lung cancer. While a very large number of agents targeting various molecular pathways are being developed and tested, the main classes and agents that are now being used in lung cancer treatment include:
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs):
Erlotinib (Tarceva)
Gefitinib (Iressa)
Cetuximab (Erbitux)
Inhibitors of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
Bevacizumab (Avastin)
Inhibitors of folate metabolism
Pemetrexed (Alimta) |
242_15 | To date, most clinical trials of targeted agents, alone and in combination with previously tested treatment regimens, have either been ineffective in SCLC or no more effective than standard platinum-based doublets. While there have been no randomized clinical trials of targeted agents in c-SCLC, some small case series suggest that some may be useful in c-SCLC. Many targeted agents appear more active in certain NSCLC variants. Given that c-SCLC contains components of NSCLC, and that the chemoradioresistance of NSCLC components impact the effectiveness of c-SCLC treatment, these agents may permit the design of more rational treatment regimens for c-SCLC. |
242_16 | EGFR-TKI's have been found to be active against variants exhibiting certain mutations in the EGFR gene. While EGFR mutations are very rare (<5%) in "pure" SCLC, they are considerably more common (about 15–20%) in c-SCLC, particularly in non-smoking females whose c-SCLC tumors contain an adenocarcinoma component. These patients are much more likely to have classical EGFR mutations in the small cell component of their tumors as well, and their tumors seem to be more likely to respond to treatment with EGFR-TKI's. EGFR-targeted agents appear particularly effective in papillary adenocarcinoma, non-mucinous bronchioloalveolar carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma with mixed subtypes.
The role of VEGF inhibition and bevacizumab in treating SCLC remains unknown. Some studies suggest it may, when combined with other agents, improve some measures of survival in SCLC patients and in some non-squamous cell variants of NSCLC. |
242_17 | Pemetrexed has been shown to improve survival in non-squamous cell NSCLC, and is the first drug to reveal differential survival benefit in large cell lung carcinoma.
C-SCLC appear to express female hormone (i.e. estrogen and/or progesterone) receptors in a high (50–67%) proportion of cases, similar to breast carcinomas. However, it is at present unknown whether blockade of these receptors affects the growth of c-SCLC.
Prognosis
Current consensus is that the long-term prognosis of c-SCLC patients is determined by the SCLC component of their tumor, given that "pure" SCLC seems to have the worst long-term prognosis of all forms of lung cancer. Although data on c-SCLC is very sparse, some studies suggest that survival rates in c-SCLC may be even worse than that of pure SCLC, likely due to the lower rate of complete response to chemoradiation in c-SCLC, although not all studies have shown a significant difference in survival. |
242_18 | Untreated "pure" SCLC patients have a median survival time of between 4 weeks and 4 months, depending on stage and performance status at the time of diagnosis.
Given proper multimodality treatment, SCLC patients with limited disease have median survival rates of between 16 and 24 months, and about 20% will be cured. In patients with extensive disease SCLC, although 60% to 70% will have good-to-complete responses to treatment, very few will be cured, with a median survival of only 6 to 10 months.
Some evidence suggests that c-SCLC patients who continue to smoke may have much worse outcomes after treatment than those who quit. |
242_19 | Incidence
Reliable comprehensive incidence statistics for c-SCLC are unavailable. In the literature, the frequency with which the c-SCLC variant is diagnosed largely depends on the size of tumor samples, tending to be higher in series where large surgical resection specimens are examined, and lower when diagnoses are based on small cytology and/or biopsy samples. Tatematsu et al. reported 15 cases of c-SCLC (12%) in their series of 122 consecutive SCLC patients, but only 20 resection specimens were examined. In contrast, Nicholson et al. found 28 c-SCLC (28%) in a series of 100 consecutive resected SCLC cases. It appears likely, then, that the c-SCLC variant comprises 25% to 30% of all SCLC cases. |
242_20 | As the incidence of SCLC has declined somewhat in the U.S. in recent decades, it is likely that c-SCLC has also decreased in incidence. Nevertheless, small cell carcinomas (including the c-SCLC variant) still comprise 15–20% of all lung cancers, with c-SCLC probably accounting for 4–6%. With 220,000 cases of newly diagnosed lung cancer in the U.S. each year, it can be estimated that between 8,800 and 13,200 of these are c-SCLC.
In a study of 408 consecutive patients with SCLC, Quoix and colleagues found that presentation as a solitary pulmonary nodule (SPN) is particularly indicative of a c-SCLC — about 2/3 of their SPN's were pathologically confirmed to be c-SCLC's containing a large cell carcinoma component. |
242_21 | Significance
In terms of case numbers, the estimated 8,800 to 13,200 c-SCLC cases occurring annually in the U.S. makes this disease roughly comparable in incidence to Hodgkin's Disease (8,500), testicular cancer (8,400), cervical cancer (11,300), and cancers of the larynx (12,300). However, these four "better-known" cancers all have exceptionally high (85%-95%) cure rates. In contrast, less than 10% of c-SCLC patients will be cured, and thus the number of annual cases of c-SCLC is a reasonable approximation of the annual number of deaths. Therefore, given the significant incidence and mortality attributable to this malignancy, (see Prognosis and survival) it is arguably critical to better understand these aggressive lesions so specific strategies for their management can be rationally designed. |
242_22 | However, as patients with tumors containing mixtures of histological subtypes are usually excluded from clinical trials, the properties of multiphasic tumors like c-SCLC are much less well understood than those of monophasic tumors. C-SCLC contains both SCLC and NSCLC by definition, and since patients with SCLC and NSCLC are usually treated differently, the lack of good data on c-SCLC means there is little evidence available with which to form consensus about whether c-SCLC should be treated like SCLC, NSCLC, or uniquely.
References
External links
Lung Cancer Home Page. The National Cancer Institute site containing further reading and resources about lung cancer.
. World Health Organization Histological Classification of Lung and Pleural Tumours. 4th Edition.
Lung cancer |
243_0 | Govind Madhav Solegaonkar (1912–1986) was a versatile artist who created works on murals, portraits, landscapes and abstract paintings.
Early life
Govind Solegaonkar was born in 1912 at Sehore in British India. He was introduced to art at a very early age. He received his initial lessons at home from his father who was a student of Sir J.J. School (1905) and was part of Ajanta copying team from J.J. School. While schooling, G. M. Solegaonkar simultaneously took training in drawing, painting at "Devlalikar Institute" in Indore. (1927) Devlalikar too was a past student of Sir J.J. School of Art. Thus the academic influence of J.J. School started molding G. M. Solegaonkar much before he himself joined the school. |
243_1 | In 1928 an important incident took place which exerted an indirect influence of Revivalists Movement on his mind. ’’Pravasi Vanga Sahitya Sammelan" was held in Indore. On this occasion, an exhibition of the paintings from all over India was held. G.M. Solegaonkar participated in it and was felicitated with silver medal at the hands of Lady Dobson, member of London Royal Academy. The program of the Parishad included among other items the lectures by Dr. Cousins, on Indian Art. In his lectures, he gave references from Havell's book, "The Ideals of Indian Art". The lectures inspired him arousing curiosity about the qualities of Indian Art and its philosophical background; which he pursued all through.
He had excelled in Elementary & Intermediate Drawing examinations. During this period he started painting portraits. The British soldiers at Mhow Contonment wanted to send their small portraits to their beloved and were very happy to get their miniature portraits done by G.M. Solegaonkar. |
243_2 | He joined Sir J.J. School of Art - Mumbai, in 1930, for Diploma in painting & completed it in 1933 in first class. He continued to win many awards during this period. He was appointed a Fellow at Sir J.J. School of Art – Mumbai for 1935–1936 in Mural Department.
Career
While a student his award-winning painting "Love Pilgrimage" was exhibited in an exhibition at the Burlington Gallery, London.
In 1935, he won the Gold medal of Bombay Art Society for his painting ‘Mahiyari’[4][5] Presently the painting is with Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya - Mumbai (then Prince of Wales Museum). The same was on display in recent exhibition organised as tribute to G. Solomon, Dean Sir J.J. School of Art. (http://www.csmvs.in/about-us/press-room/press-release/210-pravaha.html) |
243_3 | For next twenty years, he continued to receive many awards, prizes and trophies from Simla Fine Art Society, Art Society of India, Bombay Art Society and in various Art exhibitions in India. During an exhibition at Fine art Society, Simla. His poster painting 'Ajanta Frescos' was awarded a special prize by the publicity department of Indian Railways.
Post independence, a planning committee was formed to draw detailed plan to decorate the Parliament House of India, with paintings of eminent artists depicting great moments in the history of this country. G. M. Solegaonkar was selected to create a panel painting. His mural titled Bhojshala continues to be displayed at the Indian Parliament House.
He held his solo exhibitions in Jehangir Art Gallery in 1954, 1957 and 1958. |
243_4 | G. M. Solegaonkar visited Europe in 1958 particularly England, Belgium, Holland. He spent about two years there, studying the paintings and sculptures by visiting various galleries and exhibitions. His work during this period contained numerous paintings in his own style and predominantly with various Indian subjects. He held many exhibitions in Europe, with three of them being held in Belgium.
On return from Europe visit, he served Art Society of India as President in 1962.
He held his exhibitions in Jehangir Art Gallery in 1962 and in Taj Art Gallery in 1970. |
243_5 | He spent years researching the master key and technique deployed in paintings at Ajanta and Bagh Caves . As he could see that this invaluable cultural heritage was showing signs of getting ravaged by onslaught of time, he had a strong desire to make this treasure available for the future generations. With this background he had planned a detailed scheme, of having a replica of Ajanta caves. The scheme would provide training to the art-students as well as patronage to painters. He had commenced corresponding with Government authorities. The then Education Minister Madhukarrao Chaudhary and Defense Minister Yashwantrao Chavan were favorably inclined towards the scheme and had indicated their consent. Unfortunately, due to paucity of funds with Maharashtra Government, this scheme could not see the light of the day.
In July 1971, an exhibition of 40 of his paintings was held in India House, London. |
243_6 | He continued to wield his brush and pallet till the day he breathed his last on 5 January 1986.
Subsequently, his works have been auctioned by several art auction houses such as Christie's and SaffronArt.
Style
The following paragraph taken from his diary, sets tone to his Art-journey:
"India had art of long standing. The artistic value need not necessarily depend upon fulfilling the standards set by the latest fashion or theory or values current in Europe.
Our artistic activity came to a standstill practically with the loss of freedom and cultural decline. England forced upon India, European art ideals, methods and values. It is not that European culture has done India no good. Some great and eternal values like freedom, individual and collective, for general progress are the elements bound to lead men to progress. |
243_7 | Let us not be servile imitators of the dead past or living present of Europe. Let us find out whether we have anything to give – contribute. Let us free ourselves from the false notion that is holding on to Indian technique, period or school. This is the way to express the soul of India in art forms."
Similarly following quote from his diary defines his approach to technique and style:
"Mastery over technique gives discipline to the artist. The discipline, the control of the material which the mastery over the technique gives is very precious.....
Mere technique is not art. The artist must learn and then forget the technique."
Throughout his life he experimented with different styles. He tried various types of subjects from figurative compositions in Indian decorative style, genre, portraits, still-life, outdoor scenes - landscapes, abstract as well as non-objective paintings. All of these showed a continuous handling of color and forms with new experiments. |
243_8 | Style in The Early Period
He started with portraits, even before formal training in J. J. School of Art. He was successful in bringing perfect likeness and his portraits were known for his masterly treatment in realistic rendering. In J.J. School, he was introduced to the painting style based on academic realism. All the same, there was a deep influence of the great frescoes of Ajanta and especially Bagh Caves on his mind from very early age when he was in Indore. Influenced by Havell's book & Dean Gladston Solomon he ardently followed Bombay Revivalism and his work represented the Indian art. The fascination about Indian art and its decorative style was combined with the academic training of Bombay School. Iconographic paintings - ' Dattatreya', 'Trimurti', 'Samudra Manthan' |
243_9 | These paintings illustrate his mastery over pure, delicate, rhythmic yet powerful line acquired by his in depth study of Frescos Art. These were a very remarkable example of wall decoration on traditional lines.
He experimented illusionistic paintings in the academic style and made compositions in Indian decorative style. His work in the early period of his career was earmarked as replete with Iconographic paintings making subtle use of different styles. He belonged to the transition period. He was known to be the first modern artist from J.J. School of Art. |
243_10 | Given below are the illustrations of expert use of different styles as seen in some of his prize winning work during the early period –
‘Dadhi Manthan’ (Churning) - In the art world this work was distinctively noticed then for its theme. It depicted artistically the rhythmic movement of churning and included minute details such as the flowing movement of a background curtain etc. The color combination showed traces of Neo Rajput style. |
243_11 | ‘Love Pilgrimage’ was a large decorative panel of the divine couple - Shiva & his consort Uma and captured their lilting movement. This painting using hastmudra – hand gestures influenced by Ajanta frescos was considered an example of obsession with the Indian decorative style and ingenious mannerism. It recorded a new enterprise in decorative line and color and won the ‘Nizam silver medal’ for best work by student of any art school in India in Simla Fine Art exhibition. This painting was much appreciated for its line work reminding iconography of ancient Indian Art on the backdrop of Ancient Buddhist Art. It was eventually selected for the exhibition of Modern Indian Art arranged by the Indian Society of London at the New Burlington Galleries (1934).
Chandra Aradhana’ had semblance of Mughal style. |
243_12 | Mahiyari (1935 - Gold medal winning painting) This painting noted for its originality was a strikingly successful attempt to present a truly Indian subject using western style of painting. It was the first time that an effort was made to use Cubism which was an emerging French school of painting then. The beautifully executed face with lost look in her dreaming eyes and expressive face of one waiting for her beloved were captured effectively. Conducive attractive colours, setting Sunrays in the background, play of light & shadow on Mahiyari's multi coloured costume, western proportionality, colour scheme in Rajput style and the light but soft background of the sunlit buildings set off the graceful figure made this an aesthetic masterpiece of art. Critic Karl Khandalawala has noted - 'This painting presented an excellent illustration of how certain principles of Modern French Art can with great advantage be employed by the Indian artist without losing his individuality or becoming an |
243_13 | imitator.' |
243_14 | This artist was not tied down to the rigid principles of reality, which was the chief factor of the paintings of the Bombay school. After realistic phase, he tried to use bold impressionistic strokes. He simplified the forms by omitting unnecessary details - thus deviating from the traditional style executed with microscopic details. He used broad, bold and confident brush-strokes in the paintings. His handling showed rapidity, boldness and precision. For this purpose sometimes he used even flat tones and simplified forms. Through all his work he continued experimenting with feeling of space, arrangement of forms, aspects of light & color eventually to create a good design while keeping the effect of space intact. His efforts are revealed in his line, in individual figures or in the overall design. The experiments with space involved the use of unusual views and levels. |
243_15 | By training and as his core strength he was a muralist. In the paintings or line art, irrespective of size or color, distinctive features of mural paintings can be noticed. His work exhibits mastery over line and its spontaneity created a sense of volume in his drawing. His paintings show a powerful color-sense and a decorative quality. |
243_16 | Abstract Paintings
In his work there is integration between the past and the present. His work displays vital interest in Present - modern trends of the contemporary world, sustained with deeply rooted understanding of the past heritage - inspirations from Frescos of Ajanta & Bagh. He reformed his original style taking cognizance of new references and new directions. Thus started his foray into abstract paintings.
Exposure to modern works of art from the west left impressionistic influences with novel modes in his work. He achieved effects of vast space and good design through interesting arrangement of simplified forms and color orchestration. With his urge for innovation, he continued experimenting in treatment of form & arrangements.
His approach to abstract art was deep rooted in a stylized realism. He adopted specialties of modern paintings to create visual art. His work was marked with his perspective, fine sense of pattern and geometrical rhythm.Landscapes |
243_17 | Fascinated by the beauty of nature, he tried to explore it through his landscapes throughout his life. His landscapes showed a new view to reveal the beauty of nature. Most of his landscapes show the panoramic view revealing the vast space. His landscapes show simplified forms and sure, bold brush-strokes together with pleasant color-schemes derived from natural pigments. He chiefly experimented in aspects of light, space and color. Though his training emphasized on academic realism, his technique of landscape painting showed the influence of the Impressionism and Post-impressionism.
Color |
243_18 | His approach to color was scientific and his color-scheme shows strength and vitality. Limited palette and skillful use of greys derived from different colors was the result of inspiration from the ancient muralists of India. Particularly the cave paintings of Bagh provided inspiration for his experiments in tempera colors. He prepared his own colors from the pigments. It is for this reason his color scheme had become a distinguishing feature of his art work. He used water colors in opaque manner (gouache technique) like the Indian miniature painters. He used indigenous earth colors for chromatic luminosity.
Paintings
Some paintings by Mr Solegaonkar: |
243_19 | Awards
Govind Solegaonkar was the recipient of many awards including:
Topiwala Prize 1934 This prize was for the best composition on Indian History or Mythology
The Miss Dolly Cursetji First Prize 1934
Medals and Awards by Fine Art Society, Simla in 1933,1934
Gold medal of the Bombay Art Society 1935
The Bombay Government Fellow-ship in painting and commercial art 1935
The Lord Hardings senior most scholarship 1934
Patel Trophy winner of the Art Society of India 1953 |
243_20 | Exhibitions
Some of the exhibitions of Govind Solegaonkar's works are listed below:
Exhibits in All India Fine arts exhibition, Indore - 1928
Exhibits in All India Fine arts exhibition, Simla - 1932
Exhibition at the Burlington Gallery, London - 1933
Exhibits in Bombay Art Society's 44th annual exhibitions held, won Gold Medal - 1935
Exhibits in Exhibition organized by Bombay School of Art - 1936
Exhibits in Exhibition by 'Academy of Fine Arts, Calcutta - 1937
Exhibits in Bombay Art Society's Golden Jubilee year exhibition held in 1939
Show in Jehangir Art Gallery - Dec 1954, Jan 1957, Feb 1958, Nov 1962
Shows in Europe during his tour, including 3 Exhibitions in Belgium - 1958-60
Show in Taj Art Gallery - 1970
Show in India House, London July, 1971
Exhibits in Pravaha: Exhibition Highlighting Early Phase of Sir J.J. School of Art and the Progressive Art Movement, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (formerly Prince of Wales Museum of Western India) - 2017 |
243_21 | Displayed works
Govind Solegaonkar's works on display as of August 2017 include:
Bhojashala - Indian Parliament - Panel No 41
Mahiyari - Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya
Gandhiji - In Mahatma Gandhi's birthplace at Porbandar
Mural/Painting - Tata Institute Of Fundamental Research (TIFR)
References
1912 births
1986 deaths
20th-century Indian painters
Indian male painters
Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art alumni
People from Sehore district
Painters from Madhya Pradesh |
244_0 | Alex Poole (born October 4, 1986) is an American multi-instrumentalist musician from Nashville, Tennessee. Poole has prolifically contributed to the Black Metal genre having led or contributed to a number of black metal bands including Chaos Moon, Manetheren, Krieg, Skaphe, Martrod, and Gardsghastr. He has also played live with a number of bands to fill in for missing guitarists or bassists over the years (e.g. Adzalaan, Benighted in Sodom, Dagger Lust, Heimnar, In Ruins, and Triumvir Foil).
Stage names
Alex Poole first recorded music under Alexander during his project, Troglodytic. After that, he used Esoterica as a pseudonym up until 2012 when he began releasing music under a band with the same name. At that point, he began using A. Poole as his stage name. Still later in his career in 2016, Poole began using his initials, A.P., as a pseudonym.
Music career |
244_1 | Early independent work in Nashville (2000 – 2011)
Poole began to independently record and release black metal in Nashville, Tennessee with his bands Troglodytic (2000 – 2004) and Coffin (2004). He recorded multiple EPs and demos between 2000 and 2004 which have a lo-fi quality and an ambient black metal style.
In 2004, Poole also started the first incarnations of Ringare and Chaos Moon. Poole started Ringare by playing all instruments and independently releasing an EP and a Demo. However, it wasn’t until 2019 when Swedish vocalist, Likpredikaren, joined Ringare that they release their first full length album, Under the Pale Moon, on Iron Bonehead Productions. Its symphonic black metal style has been compared to Dimmu Borgir, Deafheaven, and Wolves in the Throne Room. |
244_2 | Poole independently worked on Chaos Moon in the beginning as well. That changed in 2007 when he was joined by American vocalist, Mark Hunter, to record albums, Origin of Apparition and Languor Into Echoes, Beyond. The next big line-up change occurred a decade later in 2017 when Poole is joined by Eric Baker (vocals), Steven Blackburn (additional guitars), and Jack Blackburn (drums). Together, they released Eschaton Mémoire which achieved more notoriety than previous Chaos Moon releases. Spyros Stasis of PopMatters says, "It might have taken a while for Chaos Moon to reach this state, a surprising result considering how potent and promising the two early records of the band were. From these diamonds in the rough, Chaos Moon has further explored its sound, and with Eschaton Memoire Poole and company have reached the summit." Moreover, Jacob Buczarski of Mare Cognitum opines that Poole’s “rejection of traditional black metal tropes in favor his own signature method of building atmosphere |
244_3 | creates an experience that manages to be both meditative and punishing simultaneously.” Regarding Eschaton Mémoire, Decibel comments, “While guitarists Alex Poole and Steven Blackburn ensorcell the din and beauty of the two-part “The Pillar, the Fall, and the Key” songs are easy rabbit holes to fall into, Eric Baker growls and squawks an end-time message that paints a very dark picture. The Philadelphians are journeymasters, able to cast off into dreamland with the quickest of turns or descend into the vantablack abyss with ease, often within the same song.” |
244_4 | Collaborations and moving to philadelphia (2012 – 2015)
In 2012, Poole expanded his style with Esoterica which tended to have more Ambient music and Shoegazing components than Chaos Moon. Esoterica's first EPs, Idololatriae and Knell, were both released independently. This was followed up by their full-length album, Aseity, in 2013. On Aseity, Poole (vocals & guitars) was joined by Steven Blackburn (bass) and Jack Blackburn (drums) who would go on to become long-time collaborators with Poole. |
244_5 | It was about the same time Poole met Neil Jameson (vocalist of Krieg) in Pennsylvania in 2012. They collaborated on Lithotome together and had one release, Lithotome (2013), on Fall of Nature Records. Poole moved to Philadelphia shortly thereafter to join Krieg as a guitarist. In 2014, they released Transient on Candlelight Records and garnered notoriety among the Black Metal community. Regarding Transient, Grayson Haver Currin of Pitchfork noted, “It’s a full-band feat, motivated by the drums but pulled along by Alex Poole’s spectacularly assorted riffs. In the span of six minutes, he lands a perfectly slow, steely melody at the start and, near the middle, a grim, low-lying theme.” Over the years, Krieg has collaborated with a number of other metal bands – most notably producing The Body & Krieg (2015) from At a Loss Recordings and the Integrity/Krieg Split (2018) on Relapse Records. |
244_6 | Poole also created psychedelic black metal band, Skáphe, in 2014 and released the self-titled first album on Fallen Empire Records. The album review by James Parry-Smith of CVLT Nation states, “Within walls of atmosphere and bleaker-than-thou black metal do Skáphe craft their cavernous hell, using reverberation to invoke and catalyze sensations of claustrophobia and crushing despondency.” |
244_7 | During interviews about his inspiration, Poole discussed his use of hallucinogens to inspire his creativity. Regarding musical inspiration, Poole notes that Soundgarden’s album, Superunknown, was a major inspiration for his guitar work. He says, “On "Limo Wreck" the riff that begins at ~0:11, is probably my favorite single riff of all time. Its essence is easily the biggest influence for Skáphe.” Furthermore, during an interview with Eric Gallippo of Vice, Poole further describes the origin of Skáphe’s sound, “For me, it was writing something that was kind of abandoning guitar chords. Like, unlearning how to play and trying to create music based on not knowing how to create music. I wanted to explore horrible sounds but make them musical. Like, trying to get as close to absolute chaos without it losing its sensibility.” |
244_8 | From across the Atlantic Ocean, in one of Poole’s first major transatlantic collaborations, D.G. (Dagur Gíslason), frontman for Icelandic black metal band, Misþyrming, began contributing vocals to Skáphe. In 2016, they released Skaphe2 on Fallen Empire Records which received a positive review from Al Necro of CVLT Nation, “Deeply experimental, complex, and dissonant, Skáphe’s full-length foray into noise avant-garde black metal is the best modern black metal to have incarnated since the beginnings of black metal itself.” Scott Murphy of Heavy Blog Is Heavy describes Poole’s style, “Poole achieves this by weaving multiple BM stylings together without fancying any particular one. Thick, pummeling riffs verging on bestial black metal suddenly give way to eerie ambience that echoes in a cavernous manner.” |
244_9 | In 2019, H.V. Lyngdal, Icelandic vocalist from Wormlust, joined Skáphe to release Kosmískur Hryllingur (2019), which is Icelandic for “Cosmic Horror.” This album received some positive comments from Lars Gotrich of NPR who wrote, “Your mileage may vary (or be completely non-existent) when it comes to black metal made to sound like a collapsing black hole. But this collaboration understands that the darker depths of psychedelia can wield some brilliantly colored nightmares.”
Expanding international collaborations (2016 – Present)
2016 saw the creation of one of the most diverse international black metal groups: Martrod. Alex Poole (guitars) joined H.V. Lyngdal (additional guitars) from Iceland, Thorns (drums) from Italy, and MKM (vocals) from France. They released Transmutation of Wounds on Terratur Possessions Records in 2016. |
244_10 | The following year, Poole returned to recording with long-time collaborators, the Blackburn brothers, to form Entheogen. Entheogen was different from their previous projects in that Steven Blackburn performed all the guitar work while Poole focused only on vocals. Their album, Without Veil, nor Self, was released on Fallen Empire Records in 2017. A review from Angry Metal Guy describes the sound of Entheogen’s record the following way: “The album alternates between chaotic spasms of sound akin to Krallice and atmospheric wisps laced with half-melodies and eerie warmth.”
After hearing Icelandic band, Wormlust, Poole reached out to H.V. Lyngdal (vocalist) to form Gudveiki, which is an Icelandic word that translates to “God Disease.” Poole returned to guitar. The Blackburn brothers also contributed. They released one album, Vaengfor, on Fallen Empire Records in 2018. Vaengfor has more death metal influences than Poole’s previous releases. |
244_11 | In 2019, Poole (guitar and keyboards) again joined forces with the Blackburn brothers. This time, they were joined by Swedish musicians, Glomd (vocals) and Swartadauþuz (additional guitars and backing vocals) to create the experimental/symphonic black metal band, Gardsghastr. They released Slit Throat Requiem on Profound Lore Records in 2019. Regarding the album, Maxen of GRIMM comments, “On Slit Throat Requiem the dark elements are cast into the magical cauldron to form a haunting sensation. The quintet equally balance the aggression and the cold ambient surroundings. The song stretches to further soundscapes where the moonlight crescendo and the enchanting tremolo pickings dominantly allures the listener. While the nightmarish rasps conjures up the images of haunted medieval castles, the music transports you to the ghostly landscapes.” Moreover, Heaviest of Art concludes, “Slit Throat Requiem is a fantastic return to the glorious era of late nineties Symphonic Black Metal that many |
244_12 | listeners have been clutching to for nearly two decades.” |
244_13 | In 2020, Poole recorded all instruments for his new occult black metal band, Haxanu. The mysterious L.C. added vocals to the record, and they released the album, Snare of All Salvation, on Amor Fati Productions. Some of the reviews have been positive such as Dutch Pierce of Decibel who says,” These days stateside black metal multi-instrumentalist Alex Poole stands as one of the world’s elite black metal magi. His uncompromising approach to creating exclusively final form black metal albums combined with his prolific output and philosophical creativity represent the pillars of his genius.” The review from Invisible Oranges notes, “Snare of All Salvation balances itself on a razor's edge, bringing duality into a monist reality: atmosphere is aggression, hostility is ambiance. Poole's mastery of black metal precedes him, with his work in Chaos Moon, Ringarë, Gardsghastr, and more acting as part of a greater thesis on the genre, and Häxanu's more vitriolic approach is yet another strong |
244_14 | point made within Poole's oeuvre. Compared to his other works, Häxanu presents itself as a more bellicose cousin to its creator's other works -- a faster, sharper manifestation of Poole's creativity -- and yet Snare of All Salvation still nestles itself comfortably within his greater discography.” |
244_15 | However, the album received criticism from Dave “That Metal Guy” Campbell from Metal-Temple for being too repetitive and traditional. He noted, “Some staunch purists want to make the same music of their forefathers, while others are interested in branching out into new, uncharted territories. I am sorry to say that HAXANU falls into the former of this group, and because they have nothing to offer that hasn’t been offered before, I have to rate it the way that I did.”
Discography
Troglodytic
Personnel:
Alex Poole – All Instruments
Demos
As Sadness Remains (2003, Independently Released)
Anathematized (2004, Independently Released)
EP
War and Death (2004, Independently Released)
Coffin
Personnel:
Alex Poole – All Instruments
Demos
Shadows of (2004, Independently Released)
EP
Final Conflict of Nothing (2004, Independently Released)
Ringare
Personnel:
Alex Poole – Guitars and Keyboards
Likpredikaren – Vocals |
244_16 | Demo
Di’nguruthos Promo (2004, Independently Released)
Where Cold Dwells and Autumn Once Lay (2019, Forgotten Centuries)
Sorrow Befell (2020, Iron Bonehead Productions)
EP
Promo 2006 (2006, Independently Released)
Studio Album
Under Pale Moon (2019, Iron Bonehead Productions)
Chaos Moon
Personnel:
Alex Poole – All Instruments except on Eschaton Mémoire.
Studio album
Origin Of Apparition (2007, Wraith Productions)
Languor Into Echoes, Beyond (2007, Ars Magna Recordings)
Resurrection Extract (2014, I, Voidhanger Records)
Eschaton Mémoire (2017, Blood Music)
EP
The Ouroboros Worm (2011, Plastik Musik)
Plaguebearer's Gift (2013, Independently Released)
Amissum (2015, Hellthrasher Productions)
Manetheren
Personnel:
Azlum – All Instruments until Thorns began playing drums in 2011
Alex Poole – Vocals (2008 – 2011)
Eric Baker - Vocals (2015 – present)
Thorns (Gionata Potenti) – Drums (2011 – present) |
244_17 | Studio album
Solitary Remnants (2008, Funeral Moonlight Productions)
Time (2012, Debemur Morti Productions)
The End (2017, Avantgarde Music)
Esoterica
Personnel:
Alex Poole – All Instruments and Vocals except on Aseity.
EP
Idololatriae (2012)
Knell (2012)
Studio album
Aseity (2013, Forever Plagued Records)
Splits
New World Black Metal (2012, Plastik Musik) - split with Krieg / Bitter Peace / Esoterica / The Many
To the Dream Plateau of Hideous Revelation (2013, Aurora Australis Records) - split with Ævangelist / Esoterica
Ars Hmu
Personnel:
Alex Poole – bass
Likpredikaren – Vocals
Swartadauþuz – Guitars
Demo
The Dawn of Black Pansophy (2012, Purity Through Fire)
Krieg
(See Krieg for full discography)
Personnel:
Alex Poole – Guitars
Shawn Riley – Guitars
Bill Durrant – Bass
Jason Dost – Drums
Neil Jameson – Vocals
Studio album
Transient (2014, Candlelight Records)
A Small Death: Sessions 2003 (2017, Children of the Night Records) |
244_18 | Collaboration/Split
The Body & Krieg (2015, At A Loss Recordings)
Integrity/Krieg (2018, Relapse Records)
Lithotome
Personnel:
Alex Poole - Guitars
N. Imperial – Vocals
Nathan Kite (The Many) – Keyboards/Ambience/Sampling
Steven Blackburn – Bass
Jack Blackburn – Drums
Studio album
Lithotome (2013, Fall of Nature Records)
Skaphe
Personnel:
Alex Poole – Guitars
Jack Blackburn – Drums
D.G. (Dagur Gíslason) – Vocals
Studio album
Skaphe (2014, Fallen Empire Records)
Skaphe2 (2016, Fallen Empire Records)
Skaphe3 (2020, Mystiskaos Records)
Collaboration
Kosmískur hryllingur (2019, Mystiskaos Records) - Collaboration between Skaphe (Alex Poole & Dagur Gíslason) and Wormlust (H.V Lyngdal)
Martrod
Personnel:
Alex Poole – Guitars
EP
Transmutation of Wounds (2016, Terratur Possessions Records)
Entheogen
Personnel:
Alex Poole - Vocals
Studio album
Without Veil, nor Self (2017, Fallen Empire Records) |
244_19 | Gudveiki
Personnel:
Alex Poole - Guitars and Keyboards
Studio album
Vaengfor (2018, Fallen Empire Records)
Gardsghastr
Personnel:
Alex Poole – Guitars and Keyboards
Studio album
Slit Throat Requiem (2019, Profound Lore Records)
Haxanu
Personnel:
Alex Poole – All Instruments
Studio album
Snare of All Salvation (2020, Amor Fati Productions)
References |
244_20 | External links
Amor Fati Productions at Amor Fati Productions
At A Loss Recordings at AT A LOSS RECORDINGS
Avantgarde Music at Home
Blood Music at Blood Music
Candlelight Records at Home
Fallen Empire Records at Fallen Empire Records
Fall of Nature Records at Fall Of Nature Records
Forever Plagued Records at New Black Metal Music & Bands-News & Sales Announcements
I, Voidhanger Records at I, Voidhanger Records
Iron Bonehead Productions at Iron Bonehead Productions – Black and Death Metal underground label
Mystiskaos Records at Artists | Mystískaos
Plastik Musik at THE MANY / Plastik Musik
Profound Lore Records at
Relapse Records at Relapse Records Official Store
Terratur Possessions Records at Terratur Possessions | Webstore, Mailorder and Distro |
244_21 | 1986 births
American black metal musicians
American heavy metal guitarists
American heavy metal musicians
American heavy metal singers
American multi-instrumentalists
American male guitarists
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American guitarists
Living people |
245_0 | José Brocca (Professor José Brocca Ramón, 1891 – 1950) was a pacifist and humanitarian of the Spanish Civil War, who allied himself with the Republicans but sought nonviolent ways of resisting the Nationalist rebels.
His parents were Spanish and Italian. He was born in Almería, Andalucia in 1891. His father, originally from Milan, was stationed there as the Italian Consul. |
245_1 | A forgotten history
Many people's perception of the Spanish Civil War is one of two monolithic 'sides': a war of the Republicans against the Nationalists. In fact it was by no means as simple as that, and although it was the Republican cause that was more seriously undermined by internal power struggles, there were many factions and sub-groups within both the main groupings. Almost completely overlooked by mainstream historians, there was also a vigorous element of pacifism, and the work of the Spanish arm of the organisation War Resisters' International (WRI) is almost totally forgotten in popular history and neglected by academics. Similarly, and perhaps inevitably, the history of military assistance, particularly through the International Brigades, is far better documented than the role of people dedicated to non-violence, civilian initiatives and what today we would call non-governmental organisations.
Viator |
245_2 | As with many families, civil war meant uncertainty, movement and separation; but José Brocca's children regarded their formative years as having been spent in the small town of Viator, near Almería, and it is to Viator that family members have returned in order to visit the area with which they feel Brocca is most closely associated. Brocca was a school director at Viator in the early 1930s, and he earned a reputation as a respected community leader. For example, he was instrumental in defying local commercial interests who wanted to prevent a project to bring water to a public fountain in the village. There was once a plaque at the water fountain in Viator commemorating this event, but it has since disappeared. A lifelong internationalist and political activist, Brocca was involved in setting up Escuelas Laicas (secular schools), an initiative which became part of the Republican policy programme. |
245_3 | Andalucia was quickly caught up in the violence and confusion of the Civil War, and one infamous incident was the shelling of the port of Almería by the Kriegsmarine. As is both metaphorically and literally the way with civil war, brother fought against brother. Brocca's five children were: Arnulfo, Helio, Irma Leticia, Olga Teresa and Humberto. Arnulfo, the eldest, found himself on the rebel side, rose quickly through the ranks, and eventually had a distinguished post-war career as a senior officer in the regular Spanish army, mainly in La Coruňa, before retiring to Huelva then Seville to live with his daughter and family. Humberto was drawn in on the Republican side and died of wounds and sickness contracted on the battlefields.
In spite of the horrors of war and the divisive nature of this war in particular, the four surviving brothers and sisters held warm memories of their childhood in Viator, and kept in touch in the post-war years. |
245_4 | Throughout his life Arnulfo, the decorated war hero, veteran of some of the fiercest battles, and highly respected officer in the post-war army of Francoist Spain, spoke of his pacifist father as the 'greatest man who ever lived'. This is no paradox: it is testament to the courage and strength of character of both men, indicative of the complexities of civil war, and a victory for humanity over mere politics. It tells us that even in the most challenging circumstances the lasting strengths of the family can conquer the transient demands of the state. Helio died in 1968, Olga in 2004, Arnulfo in 2005 and Irma in 2009. |
245_5 | Brocca aligned himself with the socialist segment of the complex political spectrum in Spain, and represented Spanish pacifists at international meetings of the peace movement (the Orden del Olivo and War Resisters' International). He was a colleague of anarcha-feminist doctor Amparo Poch y Gascón. He believed that pacifists had to support the Republican cause, but he was first and foremost a humanitarian. There is a local story in Viator which suggests that he helped a Catholic priest escape assassination by giving him his car. From 1933 to 1937 Professor Brocca was in Madrid, where his work included being a school inspector and teaching at the university, while the family home continued to be in Viator. It is believed that at one stage Brocca also spent some time in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where his brother was living.
A challenge to pacifism |
245_6 | Many active pacifists in Europe and the USA found it difficult or impossible to take a neutral view of the Spanish Civil War (Prasad, 2005). Some prominent members of pacifist organisations, like Dr. Albert Einstein, had already renounced pacifism altogether, as a reaction to Hitler's rise to power in Germany. Fenner Brockway resigned from WRI in the early days of the Spanish Civil War (although after World War II with the onset of the Cold War and the nuclear threat he re-affirmed a commitment to pacifism). José Brocca's opinion of the position in Spain was that:
'...the people have had no alternative but to meet violence with violence. It is regrettable, but the entire responsibility for the tragic and bloody days we are enduring lies with those who...have let loose destruction and slaughter to defend, not ideals, but out-of-date and hateful privileges, tending to a set-back to medieval barbarism' (quoted in Brown, 1937). |
245_7 | Brocca's activism in response to the armed insurrection in Spain was widely quoted by pacifists in the UK and elsewhere as representing a role model. Herbert Runham Brown, Hon. Secretary of the WRI, asked 'What should I do if I were in Spain?' and in answer reproduced parts of a letter from Brocca in which he stated: |
245_8 | 'In Barcelona, in Valencia, in the province of Cáceres and in Madrid I have acted, and continue to act, in such interesting tasks as stimulating, directing and organising the peasants so that instead of abandoning their agricultural work, even in those areas abandoned by the fascists in their flight, they work to avoid interruption in production and provision of supplies for the towns; in establishing and organising schools and homes for the children of those citizens who have fallen or who are fighting on the various fronts, and in general taking advantage of all opportunities to spread among the combatants our humanitarian ideals and our repugnance to oppression and cruelty' (Brown, 1937). |
245_9 | Brocca relinquished his government post in Madrid in order to dedicate himself to organising activities such as the purchase and distribution of food and clothing, which was imported through a dock at Valencia financed by the WRI for this purpose; and in Madrid he organised a women's committee to distribute food and collect information on people who were not able to reach relief centres (Bennett, 2003).
War children
During the war the French Catalan town of Prats-de-Mollo-la-Preste (near Perpignan) in the Pyrenees was the location of a refuge financed by the War Resisters' International and run by Professor Brocca and his wife. Helio, Irma and Olga were also there for a time, but were then sent, in the care of Brocca's sister-in-law, to stay with sympathisers in Rouen, until the defeat and occupation of France during the Second World War necessitated their escape from Normandy back to the south. |
245_10 | The Prats-de-Mollo refuge housed children separated from their families, orphans and widows who had escaped from Spain; according to Hunter (1939), at any one time approximately forty people were in residence, and the care of an extra person would always take priority over the purchase of any little 'luxuries'. During his time there Professor Brocca became expert in finding pathways through the Pyrenees and crossed the border many times on various missions which took him in both directions. In effect, the refuge became part of an 'underground railroad' (Agirre, April 1996). |
245_11 | According to Bennett (2003) Brocca disliked traditional orphanages and children's institutions, which to him resembled prisons. Before the war he and Amparo Poch presented the Republican government's Ministry of Health with a plan for 'homes' that would be designed to shelter twenty-five children in the care of a surrogate mother and father. Under wartime conditions, the number of twenty-five was often exceeded, but Bennett records that as well as establishing several children's colonies in southern France, with WRI support Brocca settled five hundred children in Mexico. While the majority of the children came from Republican families, there is evidence in the Sayre Papers (Swarthmore College Peace Collection) that Brocca did not turn away orphans or lost children whose parents were Nationalists.
Escape and exile |
245_12 | After the Civil War had officially ended Professor Brocca refused to leave Prats-de-Mollo until all the children in his care had been returned to safety with their families in Spain. By this time his own life was seriously threatened by the occupying Nazis and their collaborators in Vichy France.
The Prats-de-Mollo refuge was near the route of one of the four main frontier crossings now being used by hundreds of thousands of Spanish refugees as the Republican collapse became inevitable. It was not an easy journey, involving mountain tracks impassable to motor transport. Amparo Poch y Gascón was one who used this route (Rodrigo 2002). She stayed at Prats-de-Mollo for some time before finally reaching Toulouse, where she was to live the rest of her life in exile, and it is reasonable to assume that she was given shelter at the WRI's refuge. |
245_13 | Since Prats-de-Mollo was also the location of one of the large concentration camps set up by the Nazis in this part of occupied France, and since Brocca had been crossing the frontier repeatedly to contact and make possible the flight of anti-militarists and other threatened people out of Spain (Agirre, April 1996), it was clear that his life was now in even greater danger than ever before, and an offer of asylum in the UK was made at the instigation of prominent British pacifists such as Runham Brown, George Lansbury, Grace Beaton, Ruth Fry, and Lord Ponsonby. Brown and Lansbury had initiated a unique arrangement with the British Home Secretary whereby the WRI as a body could act as sponsor for refugees it wished to bring over from Spain and other continental countries where there was a risk of persecution, the WRI itself being underwritten by a panel of guarantors whose names and standing were accepted by the Home Office (Prasad, 2005). However, before Brocca could respond to this |
245_14 | offer he was arrested and imprisoned. |
245_15 | Eventually, thanks to the influence of WRI, and with the active help of the French Resistance, Brocca escaped from the concentration camp and left France, finally arriving in Mexico on 17 October 1942 aboard the Portuguese vessel SS Nyassa, a ship well known to many refugees of both the Spanish Civil War and World War II. Evidence in the written archives is sketchy about the period between Brocca's escape from arrest and his arrival in Mexico, but family testimony suggests that for some considerable time neither he nor his wife knew whether the other had survived. The Nazi occupation meant that making enquiries was extremely difficult, despite the best efforts of WRI to establish contact via agencies such as the Red Cross. After many further severe difficulties his wife and one of his sons (Helio) later joined him, having been separated from him for some years. They settled in San Luis Potosí and Mexico City where members of Helio's family still live. Funds towards their airline and |
245_16 | boat fares were raised by supporters in the UK, and there was also considerable support from the USA coordinated by John Nevin Sayre of the Fellowship of Reconciliation in New York State. Brocca's other children settled in Wales (Olga), Sweden (Irma) and Spain (Arnulfo). |
245_17 | Professor Brocca never saw Spain again, but died suddenly in June 1950 at the age of 59. He is buried in Mexico City.
Democracy and optimism
In the early 1970s, with the gradual liberalisation that preceded the death of Franco in 1975, and Spain's subsequent transition to democracy, Brocca's widow Rosa García López was able to return to Spain, living for part of that time with relatives in Madrid and with her sister Maria García López who ran a small newspaper and magazine shop in Calle Ecuador, in the 'Casablanca' district of the port city of Vigo, Galicia. Rosa was also able to spend some time reunited with her daughter Olga Brocca Smith and her family in the village of Pyle, near Bridgend, Wales. Olga and her husband were peace activists to the end of their lives. |
245_18 | In his book White Corpuscles in Europe (1939) the American writer Allan A. Hunter views the close of the Spanish Civil War and the opening of World War II from across the Atlantic, and despite the desolate outlook in Europe sees some grounds for optimism in the work of humanitarians including Philippe Vernier (France), Friedrich Siegmund-Schultze (Germany), Pierre Ceresole (Switzerland), Muriel Lester (England), George Lansbury MP (former leader of the UK Labour Party) - and José Brocca, Spain. On page 76, Hunter states:
'Professor Brocca seems to recognise that to fight fascism with the weapons fascists use is self-defeating. If we do as the fascists do then we only endorse fascism. To prevent fascism we have to prevent the desperation, the poverty, the chaos and the ignorance out of which fascism is produced'.
Scott H. Bennett writes of him:
'Brocca's story demonstrates that pacifist courage is no less heroic than the military kind'.
See also
List of peace activists |
245_19 | Sources and references |
245_20 | Books and pamphlets
Bennett, Scott H. (2003) Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915-1963, Syracuse NY, Syracuse University Press, , pp. 67–68.
Brown, Herbert Runham (1937) Spain: A Challenge to Pacifism, pamphlet, London, War Resisters' International/ The Finsbury Press, pp. 5–6.
Hunter, Allan A. (1939) White Corpuscles in Europe (foreword by Aldous Huxley), Chicago and New York, Willett, Clarke and Company, pp. 71–82.
Poch, Amparo, et al., (1938) Notre Travail en France, pamphlet (in French), London, War Resisters' International.
Prasad, Devi (2005) War is a Crime Against Humanity (foreword by George Willoughby), London, War Resisters' International, , pp. 167, 179, 198, 205, 207, 212, 217, 230, 260, 462, 463, 482, 504. Prof. Brocca is pictured seated, far left, in photographs 7 and 8 on pp. 522 and 523, and standing, far left, in photograph 27 on page 531. |
245_21 | Sanchez, Antonio Molina (1990) Cuevas del Almanzora y Garrucha, 1880–1890, Apuntes Para Su Historia, Almeria, Grafika Ediciones. The bibliography cites a report by Professor J. Brocca dated 1921.
Romeu Alfaro, Fernanda, and Rahona Saure, Alexia (2017) Memoria en Sombra: La Internacional de Resistentes a la Guerra (IRG/WRI) y La Guerra Civil Espanola, (Prologo de Stasa Zajovic), , Barcelona, Ediciones de Intervencion Cultural / El Viejo Topo. |
245_22 | Also of interest is the Spanish language biography of Amparo Poch y Gascón, an anarchist and feminist doctor who worked with Professor Brocca. She was co-founder of the famous Mujeres Libres organisation and sometime member of the Republican government:
Rodrigo, Antonina (2002) Una Mujer Libre: Amparo Poch y Gascón: Médica Anarquista (A Free Woman - Amparo Poch y Gascón : Anarchist Doctor), Barcelona, Flor del Viento Ediciones (see, in particular, pages 78, 79, and 105). |
245_23 | This book contains a reproduction of an advertisement from the journal Solidaridad Obrera (17 July 1936) for a 'grand international meeting against war' on 18 July at the Plaza Monumental (bull ring), Barcelona, organised by Las Juventudes Libertarias (The Libertarian Youth). The speakers were to be: Fidel Miro, for Libertarian Youth; Max Muller, for the Swedish Young Anarcho-Syndicalists; Professor Brocca, for the War Resisters' International; Dra. Amparo Poch, for the War Resisters' Feminine Section; Hem Day, for the International Committee for Anarchist Defence; Dr. Félix Martí Ibáñez, for the Practical Idealists; Manuel Perez, for the Anarchists of Barcelona; Augustin Souchy, for the International Anti-Militarist Bureau, and Federica Montseny for the CNT. Cuartillas (notes) were to be read from: Diego Abad de Santillán, Georges Pioch and Bart de Ligt, with Delso de Miguel presiding, for the Libertarian Youth. |
245_24 | In the 1937 pamphlet by Runham Brown (see reference above), it is mentioned that this peace rally was cancelled because Franco flew to the mainland from Canarias on the very day of the proposed rally, and the Spanish Civil War began. |
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