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245_25 | Articles and external links
Article by Xabi Agirre in Peace News (April 1996)
Article in Green Peace News (May 1996)
Article by Xabi Agirre in Peace News (Aug./Sept. 1996)
Article from The Wise Elephant ()
Article in German
Movimiento de Objección de Conciencía (2002) 'En Legítima Desobedencia: Tres Decadas de Objección, Insumisión y Antimilitarismo'
El Mundo, article in Spanish mentioning Brocca's work, by the prominent British historian and Hispanic specialist Professor Henry Kamen
Article in German, quoting Jose Brocca
Bart de Ligt: El Gran Olvidado (Bart de Ligt: The Great Forgotten One); article (in Spanish) by Cthuchi Zamarra, mentioning, in passing, Jose Brocca's work in Spain.
Un Brigadista de Paz (A Brigader of Peace); Article by Andres Bedia.
WRI archives at the International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam
Papers of John Nevin Sayre, held in the Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Pennsylvania; Series B, Box 42, Spain |
245_26 | Academic paper by Scott H. Bennett, presented to the International Conference on the Spanish Civil War, Madrid 2006 (in Spanish)
Fernanda Romeu Alfaro, Memoria en sombra: los pacifistas en la guerra civil Espanola, El Viejo Topo n 287, Dec. 2011
Housman's Bookshop, Caledonian Road, London
War Resisters' International |
245_27 | Spanish language article on Wikipedia.Es
Notes
1891 births
1950 deaths
People from Almería
Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War
Spanish pacifists
Spanish people of Italian descent |
246_0 | "Every Time" is a song by American singer Janet Jackson from her sixth studio album, The Velvet Rope (1997). It was released as the album's sixth and final single in November 1998. The song has been described as a ballad that lyrically delves into the protagonist's fear of love. Jackson only performed it on the last Japanese date of The Velvet Rope Tour in Tokyo. |
246_1 | Critical response
Billboard magazine's review was positive, stating, "'Every Time' ranks with [Jackson's] most memorable ballads, such as "Let's Wait Awhile" and "Again", calling on the things that make Janet so effective with this type of delicate material: Her voice quivers with emotion as she practically whispers about the promise and fear of an imminent romance, while steadfast writer/producer team Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis wrap her vocal around a beautiful and sensuous chorus. This song sounds so perfect with the more civil pace of fall, it's an easy decision across the board, at top 40, AC, and R&B. Absolutely destined to be one of her greats." |
246_2 | A reviewer from Birmingham Evening Mail wrote, "Gorgeous ballad featuring Miss Jackson's quivering vocals, a piano, strings and some understated percussion." J.D. Considine for Entertainment Weekly deemed it as one of the album’s most affecting moments, noting "when the chords in the chorus to ”Every Time” modulate into melancholy as Jackson observes that ”every time I fall in love/It seems to never last”." Andrew Le from Renowned for Sound website, called the song "tender, angelic", and also commented that it was "far superior than the overrated, soppy saccharine Again, as it has an even better piano hook and more intimate vocal performance".
Chart performance
The single peaked at number fifty-two in Australia, number sixty-seven in Germany, and number ninety-five in France. But in Iceland it peaked at number 5. In the US it failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number twenty-five on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. |
246_3 | Music video
The accompanying music video was filmed in the then-new Therme Vals spa in Vals, Graubünden, in the Swiss Alps, with direction by Matthew Rolston in association with Howard Schatz, an expert in underwater photography. It was premiered on October 5, 1998, on HBO, and was subsequently exhibited twice a day leading up to the broadcast of the concert special for The Velvet Rope Tour one week later. The music video shows Jackson partially nude in water. A strong theme of green is seen in the video through lighting, the fabric surrounding Jackson's body and her contact lenses. The video was featured on the limited bonus-DVD edition of 2001's All for You as well as the 2004 DVD From Janet to Damita Jo: The Videos. |
246_4 | Britney Spears' "Everytime" has been compared to Jackson's video for "Every Time", with a critic noting, "The original pop queen Janet bared all in a blue lagoon for her “Every Time” video. A little less glam, Britney’s tub scene in her “Everytime” video proved dark foreshadowing into her troubled world." Rihanna's "Stay" music video was also compared to both Spears and Jackson's "Everytime" videos, saying "Rihanna isn’t the first pop star to brood in a bathtub. Janet Jackson and Britney Spears also bared their emotion immersed in water".
Track listings
US promo CD single
"Every Time" (album version) – 4:17
"Every Time" (Call Out Hook) – 0:21
UK CD single
"Every Time" (album version) – 4:17
"Every Time" (Jam & Lewis Disco Remix) – 4:10
"Accept Me" – 4:07
European 12-inch single
"Every Time" (album version) – 4:17
"Every Time" (Jam & Lewis Disco Remix) – 4:10
"Every Time" (Jam & Lewis Disco Remix Instrumental) – 4:10 |
246_5 | Japanese CD single
"Every Time" (album version) – 4:17
"I Get Lonely" (Jason's Special Sauce Dub) – 6:44
"I Get Lonely" (The Jason Nevins Radio Remix) – 3:13
Charts
Release history
References
1990s ballads
1997 songs
1998 singles
Janet Jackson songs
Music videos directed by Matthew Rolston
Pop ballads
Song recordings produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis
Songs written by Janet Jackson
Songs written by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis
Virgin Records singles |
247_0 | Johann Dzierzon, or Jan Dzierżon or Dzierżoń , also John Dzierzon (16 January 1811 – 26 October 1906), was a Polish apiarist who discovered the phenomenon of parthenogenesis in bees.
Dzierzon came from a Polish family in Silesia. Trained in theology, he combined his theoretical and practical work in apiculture with his duties as a Roman Catholic priest, before being compulsorily retired by the Church and eventually excommunicated over the question of papal infallibility. In 1905, he was reconciled with the Catholic Church.
His discoveries and innovations made him world-famous in scientific and bee-keeping circles, and he has been described as the "father of modern apiculture".
Nationality/ethnicity |
247_1 | Dzierzon came from Upper Silesia. Born into a family of ethnic Polish background which did not speak German but a Silesian dialect of the Polish language, he has been variously described as having been of Polish, German, or Silesian nationality. Dzierzon himself wrote: "As for my nationality, I am, as my name indicates, a Pole by birth, as Polish is spoken in Upper Silesia. But as I came to Breslau as a 10-year-old and pursued my studies there, I became German by education. But science knows no borders or nationality."
It was at gymnasium and at the theological faculty that he became acquainted with German scientific and literary language, which he subsequently used in his scientific writings, rather than his native Polish-Silesian dialect. He used Silesian-Polish in some press publications, in his private life, and in pastoral work, alongside literary Polish.
Dr. Jan Dzierzon considered himself a member of the Polish nation. |
247_2 | Dzierzon's manuscripts, letters, diplomas and original copies of his works were given to a Polish museum by his nephew, Franciszek Dzierżoń. Following the 1939 German invasion of Poland, many objects connected with Dzierzon were destroyed by German gendarmes on 1 December 1939 in an effort to conceal his Polish roots. The Nazis made strenuous efforts to enforce a view of Dzierżoń as a German.
Life |
247_3 | Dzierzon was born on 16 January 1811 in the village of Lowkowitz (Polish: Łowkowice), near Kreuzburg (Kluczbork), where his parents owned a farm. He completed Polish elementary school before he was sent to a Protestant school located a mile from his village. In 1822 he moved to Breslau (Wrocław), where he attended middle school (gymnasium). In 1833 he graduated from the Breslau University Faculty of Catholic Theology. In 1834 he became chaplain in Schalkowitz (Siołkowice). In 1835, as an ordained Roman Catholic priest, he took over a parish in Karlsmarkt (Karłowice), where he lived for 49 years.
Scientific career |
247_4 | In his apiary, Dzierzon studied the social life of honeybees and constructed several experimental beehives. In 1838 he devised a movable-comb beehive, which allowed manipulation of individual honeycombs without destroying the structure of the hive – a derivative duplicate of the successful movable frame hive, first invented in 1814 by Ukrainian inventor and apiarist Petro Prokopovych. The correct distance between combs had been described as 1½ inches from the center of one top bar to the center of the next one. In 1848 Dzierzon introduced grooves into the hive's side walls, replacing the strips of wood for moving top bars. The grooves were 8 × 8 mm – the exact average between ¼ and ⅜ inch, which is the range called the "bee space." His design quickly gained popularity in Europe and North America. On the basis of the aforementioned measurements, (May 1852) in Thuringia and L.L. Langstroth (October 1852) in the United States designed their frame-movable hives. |
247_5 | In 1835 Dzierzon discovered that drones are produced from unfertilized eggs. Dzierzon's paper, published in 1845, proposed that while queen bees and female worker bees were products of fertilization, drones were not, and that the diets of immature bees contributed to their subsequent roles. His results caused a revolution in bee crossbreeding and may have influenced Gregor Mendel's pioneering genetic research. The theory remained controversial until 1906, the year of Dzierzon's death, when it was finally accepted by scientists at a conference in Marburg. In 1853 he acquired a colony of Italian bees to use as genetic markers in his research, and sent their progeny "to all the countries of Europe, and even to America." In 1854 he discovered the mechanism of secretion of royal jelly and its role in the development of queen bees. |
247_6 | With his discoveries and innovations, Dzierzon became world-famous in his lifetime. He received some hundred honorary memberships and awards from societies and organizations. In 1872 he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Munich. Other honors included the Austrian Order of Franz Joseph, the Bavarian Merit Order of St. Michael, the Hessian Ludwigsorden, the Russian Order of St. Anna, the Swedish Order of Vasa, the Prussian Order of the Crown, 4th Class, on his 90th birthday, and many more. He was an honorary member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. He also received an honorary diploma at Graz, presented by Archduke Johann of Austria. In 1903 Dzierzon was presented to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. In 1904 he became an honorary member of the Schlesische Gesellschaft für vaterländische Kultur ("Silesian Society for Fatherland Culture"). |
247_7 | Dzierzon's questioning of papal infallibility caused him to be retired him from the priesthood in 1869.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition |volume= 5 |location=Leipzig |year=1885–89 |page= 268 |url=http://susi.e-technik.uni-ulm.de:8080/Meyers2/seite/werk/meyers/band/5/seite/0268/meyers_b5_s0268.html |access-date=February 6, 2007|language=de}}</ref> This disagreement, along with his public engagement in local politics, led to his 1873 excommunication. In 1884 he moved back to Lowkowitz, settling in the hamlet An der Grenze, (Granice Łowkowskie). Of his new home, he wrote:In every direction, one has a broad and pleasant view, and I am pretty happy here, despite the isolation, as I am always close to my beloved bees – which, if one's soul be receptive to the works of the Almighty and the wonders of nature, can transform even a desert into a paradise. From 1873 to 1902 Dzierzon was in contact with the Old Catholic Church, but in April 1905 he was |
247_8 | reconciled with the Roman Catholic Church. |
247_9 | He died in Lowkowitz on 26 October 1906 and is buried in the local graveyard.
Legacy
Johann Dzierzon is considered the father of modern apiology and apiculture. Most modern beehives derive from his design. Due to language barriers, Dzierzon was unaware of the achievements of his contemporary, L.L. Langstroth, the American "father of modern beekeeping", though Langstroth had access to translations of Dzierzon's works. Dzierzon's manuscripts, letters, diplomas and original copies of his works were given to a Polish museum by his nephew, Franciszek Dzierżoń.
In 1936 the Germans renamed Dzierzon's birthplace, Lowkowitz, Bienendorf ("Bee Village") in recognition of his work with apiculture. At the time, the Nazi government was changing many Slavic-derived place names such as Lowkowitz. After the region came under Polish control following World War II, the village would be renamed Łowkowice. |
247_10 | Following the 1939 German invasion of Poland, many objects connected with Dzierzon were destroyed by German gendarmes on 1 December 1939 in an effort to conceal his Polish roots. The Nazis made strenuous efforts to enforce a view of Dzierżoń as a German.
After World War II, when the Polish government assigned Polish names to most places in former German territories which had become part of Poland, the Silesian town of Reichenbach im Eulengebirge (traditionally known in Polish as Rychbach) was renamed Dzierżoniów in the man's honor. |
247_11 | In 1962 a Jan Dzierżon Museum of Apiculture was established at Kluczbork. Dzierzon's house in Granice Łowkowskie (now part of Maciejów village) was also turned into a museum chamber, and since 1974 his estates have been used for breeding Krain bees. The museum at Kluczbork houses 5 thousand volumes of works and publications regarding bee keeping, focusing on work by Dzierzon, and presents a permanent exhibition regarding his life presenting pieces from collections from National Ethnographic Museum in Wrocław, and Museum of Silesian Piasts in Brzeg
In 1966 a Polish-language plate was added to his German-language tombstone.
Selected works
Dzierzon's works include over 800 articles, most published in Bienenzeitung but also in several other scientific periodicals, and 26 books. They appeared between 1844 and 1904, in German and Polish. The most important include: |
247_12 | 15 November 1845: Chodowanie pszczół – Sztuka zrobienica złota, nawet z zielska, in: , Issue 20, Pszczyna (Pless).
1848–1852: Theorie und Praxis des neuen Bienenfreundes. ("Theory and Practice of the Modern Bee-friend")
1851 and 1859: Nowe udoskonalone pszczelnictwo księdza plebana Dzierżona w Katowicach na Śląsku – 2006 reprint
1852: Nachtrag zur Theorie und Praxis des neuen Bienenfreundes (Appendix to "Theory and Practice"), C. H. Beck'sche Buchhandlung, Nördlingen,
1853: Najnowsze pszczelnictwo. Lwów
Magazines published by Dzierzon:
1854–1856: Der Bienenfreund aus Schlesien ("The Bee-friend from Silesia")
1861–1878: Rationelle Bienenzucht ("Rational apiculture") |
247_13 | Articles published by Dzierzon since 1844 in Frauendörfer Blätter, herausgegeben von der prakt. Gartenbau-Gesellschaft in Bayern, redigirt von Eugen Fürst ("Frauendorf News" of the Bavarian Gardeners Society) were collected by Rentmeister Bruckisch from Grottkau (Grodków) and re-published under the titles:Neue verbesserte Bienen-Zucht des Johann Dzierzon ("New improved bee-breeding, of John Dzierzon"), Brieg 1855Neue verbesserte Bienen-Zucht des Pfarrers Dzierzon zu Carlsmarkt in Schlesien ("New improved bee-breeding, of priest Dzierzon at Carlsmarkt in Silesia"), Ernst'sche Buchhandlung, 1861Lebensbeschreibung von ihm selbst, vom 4. August 1885 (abgedruckt im Heimatkalender des Kreises Kreuzburg/OS 1931, S. 32–28), 1885 (Dziergon's own biography, reprinted in 1931)Der Zwillingsstock ("Semi-detached beehive"), E. Thielmann, 1890 |
247_14 | English translations:
Dzierzon's rational bee-keeping; or The theory and practice of dr. Dzierzon of Carlsmarkt'', Translated by H. Dieck and S. Stutterd, ed. and revised by C. N. Abbott, Published by Houlston & sons, 1882
See also
List of Poles
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
Notes
References
Further reading
L. Brożek "Jan Dzierżon. Studium monograficzne" Opole 1978
W. Kocowicz i A. Kuźba "Tracing Jan Dzierżon Passion" Poznań 1987
A. Gładysz "Jan Dzierżon, pszczelarz o światowej sławie" Katowice 1957
H. Borek i S. Mazak "Polskie pamiątki rodu Dzierżoniów" Opole 1983
W. Chmielewski "World-Famous Polish Beekeeper – Dr. Jan Dzierżon (1811–1906) and his work in the centenary year of his death" in Journal of Apicultural Research, Volume 45(3), 2006
S. Orgelbrand "Encyklopedia ..." 1861
“ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture” 1990, article Dzierzon p. 147
External links |
247_15 | Rational Bee-keeping online English translation of Jan Dzierzon's book (London: Houlston & sons, 1882)
Jan Dzierżon at History of Kluczbork
Jan Dzierżon Museum in Kluczbork
Jan Dzierżon Museum in Kluczbork
Church Records of Lowkowitz, Silesia from 1765–1948, where Johann Dzierzon was born in 1811 and died in 1906
Beekeeping pioneers
1811 births
1906 deaths
People from Kluczbork
People from the Province of Silesia
German beekeepers
German entomologists
19th-century German zoologists
University of Breslau alumni
Polish entomologists
19th-century Polish Roman Catholic priests
19th-century Polish zoologists
Catholic clergy scientists
Recipients of the Order of Franz Joseph
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna
Recipients of the Order of Vasa |
248_0 | The historic town of Rocky Point was on the south side of the Missouri River in Fergus County, Montana, in the Missouri Breaks. Rocky Point was located at a natural ford on the Missouri River.
In prehistoric times, American bison trailed down through the breaks to Rocky Point to cross the river. During the Missouri River steamboat era (1860s to 1880s), the buffalo trail system leading to and from the ford caused Rocky Point to become a steamboat landing, which received freight for mining camps in the Judith Mountains (to the south) and in the Little Rocky Mountains (to the north) and also for Fort Maginnis built in 1880. In the 1870s and 1880s, Rocky Point had a store, hotel, two saloons, a feed stable, a blacksmith shop and a ferry. Due to its remote location in the Missouri Breaks, in the 1870s and 1880s Rocky Point became a refuge for outlaws who turned to rustling cattle and horses until rancher-vigilantes took punitive action in 1884. |
248_1 | From 1886 to 1936 it had a post office nearby which was known as Wilder, and so the community of Rocky Point was sometimes also called Wilder. The community at the Rocky Point ford continued through the homesteading years from 1900 to 1918, but faded away when the ferry ceased to function in the 1920s, and it finally disappeared in 1936 when the Army Corps of Engineers condemned and bought up land adjacent to the Missouri River that might possibly be affected by Fort Peck Dam, then being built.
Today some historic but deteriorating structures still remain on the site, which is now on the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Being on public lands, the Rocky Point ford area may be approached by "dirt" roads and visited, but the roads become impassable when wet.
Before 1900 – steamboat landing, wood hawk yard, Missouri River crossing point and ferry
Prehistoric crossing point on the Missouri |
248_2 | At Rocky Point the Missouri River flows over a Bearpaw shale reef. This provided a rocky bottom and a low-water ford. This geologic feature made Rocky Point a crossing point on the Missouri for migrating bison since prehistoric times. The migrating herds established trails from the broad grassy plains on the north and south of the river, down through the breaks to the site of Rocky Point.
Steamboat landing – 1860s to the 1880s |
248_3 | With the discovery of gold in the Montana Territory in the early 1860s, the Missouri River became the main thoroughfare by which passengers and freight, particularly bulky freight, was moved by steamboats between the gold fields in the territory and the "states". In Montana the river ran through the Missouri Breaks for hundreds of miles. The breaks are steeply eroded badlands that severely limit access to the Missouri River. Rocky Point naturally became a steamboat landing because of its system of prehistoric buffalo trail system that led from the ford up through the breaks to the plains that lay north and south of the river. |
248_4 | The steamboat era lasted from the mid-1860s until the coming of the railroad in the mid to late 1880s. After 1874, when the Northern Pacific Railroad reached Bismarck, the riverboats usually brought freight from that river port to the terminus port at Fort Benton. Rocky Point's steamboat landing received and sent only the freight and passengers generated by local demand in the surrounding sparsely settled area. Steamboats had to get up to Ft. Benton on the spring rise in the Missouri River flow, caused by the outflow of snowmelt from the mountains. High water was in June, after which the level in the river fell. During low-water periods many larger boats bound for Fort Benton were forced to unload at points lower down on the river. These unloaded cargoes were either freighted overland, picked up by smaller boats or stored until the next high-water season. Some of this interrupted freight traffic during low water seasons on the Missouri brought business to the Rocky Point landing, but |
248_5 | in low water the steamboats attempted to reach Cow Island landing, further up the river, because from Cow Island there was a better freight route up Cow Creek to Fort Benton. |
248_6 | Gold discoveries in the Judith Mountains, at Maiden, and in the Little Rocky Mountains increased interest in Rocky Point as a landing point for the mill machinery coming by boat. The mines in the Judith Mountains, to the southwest of Rocky Point, were discovered in 1880. The gold strikes in the Little Rockies (a small outlier mountain range on the eastern Montana plains) was first made as a placer gold strike in 1884, but this placer strike only lasted a few years.
By 1881 Rocky Point was the designated Missouri River steamboat landing point for people and goods coming and going from Fort Maginnis, away.
The Northern Pacific Railroad completed its line through the southern portion of Montana in 1883, which severely reduced steamboat traffic to Fort Benton. In 1887 the Great Northern Railroad built through the area just north of the Missouri River breaks, and this finally terminated steamboat traffic on the Missouri.
Wood hawk yards – 1860s to the 1880s |
248_7 | Wood hawk yards developed along the Missouri River to supply fuel to passing steamboats. At these remote locations men known as wood hawks would harvest trees from cottonwood groves along the river and stack the wood in cords along the river banks. Steamboats traveling on the Missouri would stop and buy the cords of wood to burn for fuel.
The flat on the south side of the river near Rocky Point became one of the many wood hawk camps along the river. In 1868 Lohmire and Lee were located there. In 1871 fugitives from an Indian encounter sought refuge at a woodchopper's cabin there.
Buffalo hide hunters – late 1870s to 1883 |
248_8 | After 1876, military campaigns against Indian tribes reduced the danger from roving and hostile bands of Indians on the Eastern Montana plains. Buffalo hides had a market because they were used for belting for industrial machines. As the threat from Indian bands decreased, commercial market hunters for buffalo, sometimes called "hide hunters", began to roam over the Eastern Montana prairie and kill buffalo in large numbers, taking only the hide. Commercial hunters in the vicinity of Rocky Point brought their hides down to the steamboat landing, where a middleman—usually a local merchant—bought the hides and then shipped them east by steamboat. By 1883 there were so few buffalo left that the day of the commercial market hunter came to an end.
Missouri River crossing point for cattle herds |
248_9 | As cattle replaced buffalo on the plains of eastern Montana, the ford at Rocky Point became a crossing point for large cattle herds. A large rancher trailing a herd to the ford at Rocky Point during a drought had this experience:"At last we were nearing the Missouri River, intending to cross at Rocky Point. The wind was from the north and cattle smelled the water and broke for it. No power on earth could stop the poor thirsty beasts; bellowing and lowing they ran pell-mell for the water, with the cowboys in hot pursuit. There was a point of quicksand in the river just above the ford and before the men could prevent it the cattle had plunged into it and were miring down. A small steamboat tied at the landing used their donkey engine to help drag out some of them, but we lost seventy head in spite of our best efforts. After this mishap we crossed the herd without further trouble and from here on there was more water and better grass."
Ferry |
248_10 | The trail system down to the ford at Rocky Point made it a natural point to have a ferry. As long as Rocky Point was used as a Missouri River crossing point in the breaks, the ferry continued, from the 1880s to the late 1920s.
By 1885 John Tyler was the ferryman. Stock detective Charles Siringo journeyed from Lewistown, Montana, to the Little Rocky Mountains, and described his crossing of the Missouri River at Rocky Point:"I arrived in Rocky Point on the south bank of the Big Muddy river three hours after dark. Here I found old man Tyler and his son running the ferry and keeping a small Indian trading store."
In 1907 Elmer Turner bought the ferry at Rocky Point from Tyler, and he ran the Ferry until 1927 when he dismantled it and used the lumber in buildings at Rocky Point.
Gumbo mud in the Missouri Breaks |
248_11 | When the clay dirt of the Missouri Breaks becomes wet, it first becomes slick then it becomes sticky and clumps up around any surface that comes in contact with it. The sticky nature of the mud is because the clay has a high bentonite content. The Missouri Breaks are notorious for this sticky "gumbo mud". |
248_12 | Travelers to Rocky Point in wet weather encountered this mud. It was exhausting to travel through. Charley Siringo, the famous stock detective, rode horseback to Rocky Point on his favorite mare, intending to cross the Missouri River, on his way from Lewistown to Landusky in the Little Rocky Mountains. After Siringo had started into the Missouri Breaks (which he refers to as the "Bad Lands"), he encountered the "sticky mud" of the Missouri Breaks: ... the sticky mud of the 'Bad Lands' was something fearful. It would stick to the mare's feet till the poor animal could hardly gallop. I had seen many kinds of sticky mud in my life, but nothing to equal this." When Siringo dismounted,"I found I couldn't get my foot in the stirrup, owing to the mud that was stuck fast to it. Here my early cowboy training in the art of fancy swearing came in play, as it seemed to relieve my mind, while the mud was being scraped off my foot with a knife." When he finally got to Rocky Point, Siringo's mare |
248_13 | was exhausted."My mare had only traveled 30 miles, but she had carried about 75 pounds of mud across the 'Bad Lands', hence she was almost played out on arriving at Rocky Point. I had often heard of the 'Bad lands' and wanted to visit them, but now that desire had vanished." |
248_14 | Settlement in Montana Territory
In the Missouri Breaks a ferry and a place to cross stock over the Missouri River were rare, and a community grew up at Rocky Point. Rocky Point became a meeting place and center of trade for miners, woodhawks, trappers, buffalo hunters, whiskey traders, ranchers and cowboys. Rocky Point served legitimate local businessmen and ranchers, but also became a place where thieves and outlaws lived.
In 1880, C.A. Broadwater, Helena merchant and entrepreneur, moved his warehouse upriver from Carroll landing to the vicinity of Rocky Point. He erected buildings and named the settlement "Wilder" after Amherst H. Wilder, his business associate from St. Paul, Minnesota. Broadwater received shipments being forwarded to Fort Maginnis. He requested military aid, and a detachment of 19 men was sent to Wilder in order to guard government freight until it was shipped to Fort Maginnis. |
248_15 | In 1885, Rocky Point had grown to one store, one hotel, one feed stable, two saloons, a blacksmith shop and the ferry run by Jimmy Taylor. The store was run by R.A. Richie, and a warehouse was run by M.F. Marsh, who also ran his bar and hotel.
Teddy Blue Abbott, a cowboy who later became a ranch owner and who wrote a book about his life, had these observations about Rocky Point in the 1880s:"There were a few stores at Rocky Point, and a saloon run by a man named Marsh, and three white women. One was Mrs. Marsh, a very nice lady who kept the eating house. She had a daughter. And there was also a woman they called Big Ox, who was one of those haybags that used to follow the buffalo camps. They had the damnedest names, those big old fat buffalo women. ... We was in a wilderness and we had to make the best of it. As for Big Ox, I have heard men say that when a man is starving he would eat crumbs and worse than crumbs." |
248_16 | Refuge and gathering place for outlaws and rustlers in the early 1880s
In the 1870s Rocky Point lay in the heart of the Missouri Breaks, where extensive badlands run along the Missouri River for hundreds of miles. This area lay on the margins of several territorial counties and was thus remote from any county seat. The appearance of a county sheriff or his deputy in the Breaks was a rare event, and the presence of law enforcement was nonexistent. Persons in trouble with the law gathered at Rocky Point because it provided a refuge that was remote from interference by law officers. If the sheriff of one county showed up, the outlaws could saddle up and swim their mounts across the Missouri, and be in another county beyond the sheriff's jurisdiction and thus beyond the risk of arrest.
The outlaws resided in the river bottoms and masqueraded as buffalo hunters, Indian traders or wood hawks. Rocky Point in the 1870s and 1880s was well known to be a tough town. |
248_17 | Extending out from the Missouri Breaks, both to the north and south, were the vast grasslands of the eastern Montana prairies. In the early 1880s the buffalo on these ranges were hunted to near extinction, and were replaced by large herds of cattle, most trailed up from Texas. Large ranches developed, based on a deeded "homeplace" located along water courses, but with the grazing cattle on adjacent broad stretches of public lands, referred to as "open range". These ranches kept large herds of horses. This environment provided an opportunity for thieves residing in the breaks—they rustled stock from herds on the plains on one side of the Missouri River, drove them into remote reaches of the breaks, changed their brands, and then drove the stock to the other side of the river, to reach communities where the stock could be sold. Rustling horses was most common because horses could be driven much faster than cattle. |
248_18 | Rocky Point was associated with this system of rustling because stolen stock could be crossed from one side of the river to the other at the Rocky Point Ford. The thieves would range south as far as Wyoming, and north as far as Canada.
As the incidents of horse stealing became more and more common in the area, the consensus of the surrounding ranching community was that "there were rustlers' rendezvous at the mouth of the Musselshell, at Rocky Point and at Wolf Point [in Montana Territory]".
Vigilantes visit in 1884
In 1884 Granville Stuart, an early pioneer and rancher (operator-owner of the large DHS ranch located south of the Breaks near Fort Maginnis), organized a strike force that went into the Breaks, seeking out and summarily hanging (or shooting it out with) suspected rustlers. Estimates of rustler casualties ran from a low of 13 to a high of 35, but probably were closer to 18 or 20. |
248_19 | Rocky Point was visited by the vigilantes in 1884."At the time the vigilante committee started for the mouth of the Musselshell, another party left for the vicinity of Rocky Point where two notorious horse thieves, known as Red Mike and Brocky Gallagher, were making their headquarters. They had stolen about thirty head of horses from Smith river, changed the brands and were holding them in the bad lands ... When the vigilantes arrived at Rocky Point the men were not there but had crossed over to the north side of the river. The party followed after, and captured them and recovered some of the horses. Both men pled guilty to horse stealing and told their captors that there were six head of the stolen horses at Dutch Louie's ranch on Crooked Creek. Both Red Mike and Brocky Gallagher were hanged by the vigilantes. As a result of the vigilantes' attentions, rustling declined in the breaks. |
248_20 | Acquisition of the alternative name of Wilder, Montana, and continuation into the 20th century
The end of the Missouri River steamboat era came with the completion across Montana of the Northern Pacific Railroad line in 1883, followed by the construction into Montana of the Great Northern Railroad line in 1887. Rocky Point was still a crossing point on the Missouri, but it was not located between any major towns and only attracted limited traffic.
In 1886 a post office was created in the Rocky Point area and given the name of Wilder, which name originated with C. A. Broadwater (see above). The Wilder post office operated from 1886 to 1939. Robert A. Richie became the first postmaster. In 1888 Welter S. Collins was postmaster. In 1889 Philander D. Freese was postmaster at Wilder. Fredrick J. Bourdon then became postmaster, and in 1895 A. L. Monroe took the job. Three months later James Tyler became the postmaster. |
248_21 | After the creation of the post office, the general community at the crossing point on the Missouri was still known as Rocky Point, but the post office was known as Wilder, and sometimes the community was also referred to as Wilder.
As long as the ferry functioned, Rocky Point remained a local gathering place. It became a polling place for elections. During the election of 1878 there was a polling place at Rocky Point. In 1886 there were 53 votes in the election and the judges were Richie, the postmaster, Tyler, a store owner and ferry operator, and Pike Landusky, a miner and bar owner and generally colorful character.
In 1888, Marsh's saloon at the Rocky Point ford burned down and he rented a building from E. C. Bartlett. R.A. Richie moved away to Glasgow, where he died of typhoid fever. |
248_22 | In 1889 Montana became a state. At that time Rocky Point was in Chouteau County, but all of Chouteau County south of the Missouri River was traded off to Fergus County for $2,500, and Wilder became part of Fergus County.
In 1900, Rocky Point still remained a river crossing with a ferry, an operating store and bar to serve the area. Tex Alford ran a saloon across the river. After 1900 homesteaders began to arrive in greater numbers on the eastern Montana prairie. In 1905 Margaret Frost was the postmaster at Wilder. In 1907 Elmer Turner took over the store at Rocky Point and the Wilder post office. He also bought the ferry at the Rocky Point crossing from Tyler. Turner homesteaded and lived at the ford until 1935, when the government purchased all the land in the Missouri valley for the Fort Peck Dam. |
248_23 | In 1918 the Wilder Post Office was moved from the area close to the ford, to Luella M. Belyea's homestead on top of the river hill. Mr. Elmer Turner maintained the ferry at Rocky Point/Wilder until the winter of 1929, when he used the lumber to roof a new log shop and in another building which still stands. Elma M. Webb took over the Wilder post office on November 4, 1920. The original handmade boxes, counter and shelves from the river were installed in her home, where she also ran a store. During Elma Webb's tenure from 1920 to 1935, the mail came from Roy on Monday and Friday of each week. |
248_24 | After the ferry was dismantled in 1929, Rocky Point ford ceased to function either as a ferry or a community, but the concept of community continued at the Wilder Post Office, though no longer at the site of the original ford. Local people continued to congregate at the Wilder Post Office and store in the home of Elma Webb. Wilder was in voting precinct #30 and was a polling place from its origin until 1942, when the last election was held at the Little Crooked School house with John Mauland, Edith McNulty and Ray McNulty as judges. |
248_25 | Upon the death of her husband, Elma Webb leased her place to Elna Brumfield Wright and turned the Wilder Post Office over to her on December 15, 1935. Elna put the store/post office charge of her brother-in-law, Stanley Wright, on June 4, 1936. Bertine Mathison leased the Webb place and became postmaster in 1937. Fire destroyed the building, and the Wilder Post Office was discontinued November 30, 1939, which also spelled the end of Wilder as a successor to Rocky Point.
Consideration as a site for a highway bridge in 1931 |
248_26 | In 1931 Rocky Point was considered as the site for a bridge over the Missouri River to connect a north–south highway which was projected to be built through the Missouri Breaks to connect Lewistown (south of the breaks) and Malta (north of the breaks). The positive features of Rocky Point bridge site were (1) a good foundation in the Bearpaw Shale at the site, and (2) the river channel was not prone to wander at this place. In addition, in comparison to other sites, Rocky Point had a lower estimated price for both the bridge and for the approach roads through the breaks. However, before the Montana legislature could take action, the 1930s depression caused all road building plans to be placed on hold. By the time interest in the highway project revived in the 1950s, Rocky Point was passed over in favor of another location upstream where the bridge was eventually built.
Absorption into the Ft. Peck Dam project in 1935 |
248_27 | In 1936 the land at the site of Rocky Point became the property of the U.S. government, when the Army Corps of Engineers condemned and bought up all the river bottom land that might possibly be affected by Fort Peck Dam, then being built. This ended all community activity at the site of the river ford at Rocky Point. All the families who had lived on the ranches and homesteads along the Missouri River moved away. The lands at the Rocky Point ford have remained in federal control since that time. They are now part of the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Several historic structures still exist down along the Missouri near the site of the Missouri River ford. They are in deteriorating condition. |
248_28 | Field trip
Approach roads and site are on public lands in the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The refuge is easily accessible on public roads. The coordinates and a "Google Earth" review, or utilization of a DeLorme atlas of maps will provide directions from U.S. Highway 191 to Rocky Point.
Off the highway, roads are mostly all "dirt". They are inaccessible when wet. Although the description by Charles Siringo quoted above of the difficulties with sticky mud in the breaks is over a hundred years old, it is still applicable.
The website for the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge has downloadable maps, and provides information on "Current Refuge Road Conditions" on the home page, specifically noting impassable places, but warns that their list may not be complete or up to date.
References
External links
Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge
Homestead Tracks Over Buffalo Tracks, p. 428, 429 |
248_29 | Ghost towns in Montana
History of Montana
Montana Territory
Geography of Fergus County, Montana
National Register of Historic Places in Fergus County, Montana |
249_0 | Pentobarbital (previously known as pentobarbitone in Britain and Australia) is a short-acting barbiturate typically used as a sedative, a preanesthetic, and to control convulsions in emergencies. It can also be used for short-term treatment of insomnia but has been largely replaced by the benzodiazepine family of drugs.
In high doses, pentobarbital causes death by respiratory arrest. It is used for veterinary euthanasia and is used by some U.S. states and the U.S. federal government for executions of convicted criminals. In some countries and states, it is also used for physician-assisted suicide.
Pentobarbital was widely abused and sometimes known as "yellow jackets" due to the yellow capsule of the Nembutal brand. Pentobarbital in oral (pill) form is no longer commercially available.
Uses |
249_1 | Medical
Typical applications for pentobarbital are sedative, short term hypnotic, preanesthetic, insomnia treatment, and control of convulsions in emergencies. Abbott Pharmaceutical discontinued manufacture of their Nembutal brand of Pentobarbital capsules in 1999, largely replaced by the benzodiazepine family of drugs. Pentobarbital was also widely abused, known on the street as "yellow jackets". They were available as 30, 50, and 100-milligram capsules of yellow, white-orange, and yellow colors, respectively.
It is also used as a veterinary anesthetic agent.
Pentobarbital can reduce intracranial pressure in Reye's syndrome, treat traumatic brain injury and induce coma in cerebral ischemia patients. Pentobarbital-induced coma has been advocated in patients with acute liver failure refractory to mannitol. |
249_2 | Euthanasia
Pentobarbital can cause death when used in high doses. It is used for euthanasia for humans as well as animals. It is taken alone, or in combination with complementary agents such as phenytoin, in commercial animal euthanasia injectable solutions.
In the Netherlands, it is part of the standard protocol for physician-assisted suicide for self-administration by the patient.
It is taken by mouth for physician-assisted death in the United States states of Oregon, Washington, Vermont, and California (as of January, 2016).
The oral dosage of pentobarbital indicated for physician-assisted suicide in Oregon is typically 10 g of liquid.
In Switzerland, sodium pentobarbital is administered intravenously by patient. When administered intravenously, patient falls into sleep within 30 seconds, and heart stops beating within 3 minutes. |
249_3 | Execution
Pentobarbital has been used or considered as a substitute for other drugs previously used for capital punishment in the United States when those drugs are unavailable. Such use however is illegal under Danish law, and when this was discovered, after public outcry in Danish media, Lundbeck, the owner of the drug, stopped selling it to US states that impose the death penalty. US distributors of the drug are forbidden by the owner to sell it to any customers, such as state authorities, that practice or participate in executions of humans.
Texas began using pentobarbital for executing death-row inmates by lethal injection on July 18, 2012. The use of pentobarbital has been considered by several states, including Ohio, Arizona, Idaho, and Washington; those states made the decision to switch following shortages of pancuronium bromide, a muscle paralytic previously used as one component in a three-drug cocktail. |
249_4 | In October 2013, Missouri changed its protocol to allow for compounded pentobarbital to be used in a lethal dose for executions. It was first used in November 2013.
According to a December 2019 ProPublica article, by 2017 the Bureau of Prisons (BOP), in discussion with then Attorney General Jeff Sessions, had begun to search for suppliers of pentobarbital to be used in lethal injections. The BOP was aware that the use of pentobarbital as their "new drug choice" would be challenged in the courts because some lawyers had said that "pentobarbital would flood prisoners’ lungs with froth and foam, inflicting pain and terror akin to a death by drowning." BOP claimed that these concerns were unjustified and that their two expert witnesses asserted that the use of pentobarbital was "humane". On July 25, 2019, US Attorney General William Barr directed the federal government to resume capital punishment after 16 years. The drug of choice for these executions was pentobarbital. |
249_5 | Metabolism
Pentobarbital undergoes first-pass metabolism in the liver and possibly the intestines.
Drug interactions
Administration of ethanol, benzodiazepines, opioids, antihistamines, other sedative-hypnotics, and other central nervous system depressants will cause possible additive effects.
Chemistry
Pentobarbital is synthesized by methods analogous to that of amobarbital, the only difference being that the alkylation of α-ethylmalonic ester is carried out with 2-bromopentane in place of 1-bromo-3-methylbutane to give pentobarbital.
Society and culture
Names
Pentobarbital is the INN, AAN, BAN, and USAN while pentobarbitone is a former AAN and BAN. |
249_6 | One brand name for this drug is Nembutal, coined by John S. Lundy, who started using it in 1930, from the structural formula of the sodium salt—Na (sodium) + ethyl + methyl + butyl + al (common suffix for barbiturates). Nembutal is trademarked and manufactured by the Danish pharmaceutical company Lundbeck (now produced by Akorn Pharmaceuticals) and is the only injectable form of pentobarbital approved for sale in the United States. Abbott discontinued their Nembutal brand of Pentobarbital capsules in 1999, largely replaced by the Benzodiazepine family of drugs. Abbott's Nembutal, known on the streets as "yellow jackets", was widely abused. It was available in 50 and 100 Mg strength yellow capsules.
Pentobarbital can occur as a free acid, but is usually formulated as the sodium salt, pentobarbital sodium. The free acid is only slightly soluble in water and in ethanol.
See also
Animal euthanasia
List of veterinary drugs
References
External links |
249_7 | AMPA receptor antagonists
Barbiturates
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Glycine receptor agonists
Hypnotics
Kainate receptor antagonists
Lethal injection components
Nicotinic antagonists
Sedatives |
250_0 | Stable nuclides are nuclides that are not radioactive and so (unlike radionuclides) do not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay. When such nuclides are referred to in relation to specific elements, they are usually termed stable isotopes.
The 80 elements with one or more stable isotopes comprise a total of 252 nuclides that have not been known to decay using current equipment (see list at the end of this article). Of these elements, 26 have only one stable isotope; they are thus termed monoisotopic. The rest have more than one stable isotope. Tin has ten stable isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes known for an element.
Definition of stability, and naturally occurring nuclides |
250_1 | Most naturally occurring nuclides are stable (about 252; see list at the end of this article), and about 34 more (total of 286) are known to be radioactive with sufficiently long half-lives (also known) to occur primordially. If the half-life of a nuclide is comparable to, or greater than, the Earth's age (4.5 billion years), a significant amount will have survived since the formation of the Solar System, and then is said to be primordial. It will then contribute in that way to the natural isotopic composition of a chemical element. Primordially present radioisotopes are easily detected with half-lives as short as 700 million years (e.g., 235U). This is the present limit of detection, as shorter-lived nuclides have not yet been detected undisputedly in nature except when recently produced, such as decay products or cosmic ray spallation. |
250_2 | Many naturally occurring radioisotopes (another 53 or so, for a total of about 339) exhibit still shorter half-lives than 700 million years, but they are made freshly, as daughter products of decay processes of primordial nuclides (for example, radium from uranium) or from ongoing energetic reactions, such as cosmogenic nuclides produced by present bombardment of Earth by cosmic rays (for example, 14C made from nitrogen). |
250_3 | Some isotopes that are classed as stable (i.e. no radioactivity has been observed for them) are predicted to have extremely long half-lives (sometimes as high as 1018 years or more). If the predicted half-life falls into an experimentally accessible range, such isotopes have a chance to move from the list of stable nuclides to the radioactive category, once their activity is observed. For example, 209Bi and 180W were formerly classed as stable, but were found to be alpha-active in 2003. However, such nuclides do not change their status as primordial when they are found to be radioactive. |
250_4 | Most stable isotopes on Earth are believed to have been formed in processes of nucleosynthesis, either in the Big Bang, or in generations of stars that preceded the formation of the solar system. However, some stable isotopes also show abundance variations in the earth as a result of decay from long-lived radioactive nuclides. These decay-products are termed radiogenic isotopes, in order to distinguish them from the much larger group of 'non-radiogenic' isotopes.
Isotopes per element |
250_5 | Of the known chemical elements, 80 elements have at least one stable nuclide. These comprise the first 82 elements from hydrogen to lead, with the two exceptions, technetium (element 43) and promethium (element 61), that do not have any stable nuclides. As of December 2016, there were a total of 252 known "stable" nuclides. In this definition, "stable" means a nuclide that has never been observed to decay against the natural background. Thus, these elements have half lives too long to be measured by any means, direct or indirect.
Stable isotopes:
1 element (tin) has 10 stable isotopes
5 elements have 7 stable isotopes apiece
7 elements have 6 stable isotopes apiece
11 elements have 5 stable isotopes apiece
9 elements have 4 stable isotopes apiece
5 elements have 3 stable isotopes apiece
16 elements have 2 stable isotopes apiece
26 elements have 1 single stable isotope. |
250_6 | These last 26 are thus called monoisotopic elements. The mean number of stable isotopes for elements which have at least one stable isotope is 252/80 = 3.15.
Physical magic numbers and odd and even proton and neutron count
Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by presence of certain magic numbers of neutrons or protons which represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. As in the case of tin, a magic number for Z, the atomic number, tends to increase the number of stable isotopes for the element. |
250_7 | Just as in the case of electrons, which have the lowest energy state when they occur in pairs in a given orbital, nucleons (both protons and neutrons) exhibit a lower energy state when their number is even, rather than odd. This stability tends to prevent beta decay (in two steps) of many even–even nuclides into another even–even nuclide of the same mass number but lower energy (and of course with two more protons and two fewer neutrons), because decay proceeding one step at a time would have to pass through an odd–odd nuclide of higher energy. Such nuclei thus instead undergo double beta decay (or are theorized to do so) with half-lives several orders of magnitude larger than the age of the universe. This makes for a larger number of stable even-even nuclides, which account for 151 of the 252 total. Stable even–even nuclides number as many as three isobars for some mass numbers, and up to seven isotopes for some atomic numbers. |
250_8 | Conversely, of the 252 known stable nuclides, only five have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons: hydrogen-2 (deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10, nitrogen-14, and tantalum-180m. Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd–odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: potassium-40, vanadium-50, lanthanum-138, and lutetium-176. Odd–odd primordial nuclides are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.
Yet another effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements tend to have fewer stable isotopes. Of the 26 monoisotopic elements (those with only a single stable isotope), all but one have an odd atomic number, and all but one has an even number of neutrons—the single exception to both rules being beryllium. |
250_9 | The end of the stable elements in the periodic table occurs after lead, largely due to the fact that nuclei with 128 neutrons are extraordinarily unstable and almost immediately shed alpha particles. This also contributes to the very short half-lives of astatine, radon, and francium relative to heavier elements. This may also be seen to a much lesser extent with 84 neutrons, which exhibits as a certain number of isotopes in the lanthanide series which exhibit alpha decay. |
250_10 | Nuclear isomers, including a "stable" one
The count of 252 known stable nuclides includes tantalum-180m, since even though its decay and instability is automatically implied by its notation of "metastable", this has still not yet been observed. All "stable" isotopes (stable by observation, not theory) are the ground states of nuclei, with the exception of tantalum-180m, which is a nuclear isomer or excited state. The ground state of this particular nucleus, tantalum-180, is radioactive with a comparatively short half-life of 8 hours; in contrast, the decay of the excited nuclear isomer is extremely strongly forbidden by spin-parity selection rules. It has been reported experimentally by direct observation that the half-life of 180mTa to gamma decay must be more than 1015 years. Other possible modes of 180mTa decay (beta decay, electron capture and alpha decay) have also never been observed.
Still-unobserved decay |
250_11 | It is expected that some continual improvement of experimental sensitivity will allow discovery of very mild radioactivity (instability) of some isotopes that are considered to be stable today. For an example of a recent discovery, it was not until 2003 that bismuth-209 (the only primordial isotope of bismuth) was shown to be very mildly radioactive, confirming theoretical predictions from nuclear physics that bismuth-209 would decay very slowly by alpha emission.
Isotopes that are theoretically believed to be unstable but have not been observed to decay are termed as observationally stable. Currently there are 162 theoretically unstable isotopes, 45 of which have been observed in detail with no sign of decay, the lightest in any case being 36Ar.
Summary table for numbers of each class of nuclides |
250_12 | This is a summary table from List of nuclides. Note that numbers are not exact and may change slightly in the future, as nuclides are observed to be radioactive, or new half-lives are determined to some precision.
List of stable nuclides
Abbreviations for predicted unobserved decay:
A for alpha decay, B for beta decay, 2B for double beta decay, E for electron capture, 2E for double electron capture, IT for isomeric transition, SF for spontaneous fission, * for the nuclides whose half-lives have lower bound. |
250_13 | ^ Tantalum-180m is a "metastable isotope" meaning that it is an excited nuclear isomer of tantalum-180. See isotopes of tantalum. However, the half-life of this nuclear isomer is so long that it has never been observed to decay, and it thus occurs as an "observationally nonradioactive" primordial nuclide, as a minor isotope of tantalum. This is the only case of a nuclear isomer which has a half-life so long that it has never been observed to decay. It is thus included in this list.
^^ Bismuth-209 had long been believed to be stable, due to its unusually long half-life of 2.01 · 1019 years, which is more than a billion (1000 million) times the age of the universe.
See also
Isotope geochemistry
List of elements by stability of isotopes
List of nuclides (989 nuclides in order of stability, all with half-lives > one hour)
Mononuclidic element
Periodic table
Primordial nuclide
Radionuclide
Stable isotope ratio
Table of nuclides
References
Book references |
250_14 | External links
The LIVEChart of Nuclides - IAEA
AlphaDelta: Stable Isotope fractionation calculator
National Isotope Development Center Reference information on isotopes, and coordination and management of isotope production, availability, and distribution
Isotope Development & Production for Research and Applications (IDPRA) U.S. Department of Energy program for isotope production and production research and development
Isosciences Use and development of stable isotope labels in synthetic and biological molecules
Stable
de:Isotop#Stabile Isotope
sv:Stabil isotop |
251_0 | Lorine Livingston Pruette (November 3, 1896 – December 20, 1976) was an American feminist, psychologist, and writer.
Early life
Lorine Pruette was born in Millersburg, Tennessee, to college-educated parents. Her mother and her maternal grandmother were among the first generation of college-educated women in the United States. Pruette's mother's dreams of a career in writing were never fulfilled; she placed enormous pressure on Pruette to fulfill the life she always wanted.
Pruette was exceedingly bright, but regarded herself as a social outcast throughout her childhood and adolescence and did not date in high school. In college, she joined a sorority, acted in plays, edited the college newspaper, and played the violin in the orchestra. Pruette graduated in 1918 from the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga with a Bachelor of Science in chemistry and went on to Worcester College in Massachusetts (now, Worcester State University), where she began her master's degree. |
251_1 | Political views and career
Mary Trigg, in her dissertation entitled Four American Feminists, 1910–1940: Inez Haynes Irwin, Mary Ritter Beard, Doris Stevens, and Lorine Pruette, explains that unlike many other twentieth century feminists, Pruette did not limit her vision to women's suffrage but worked toward a broad agenda of "reshaping marriage, the family, and society." Throughout her career, Pruette addressed issues such as "the need for married women to achieve fulfilling lives in both public and private spheres, the weakness of men and the strength of women, [and] the importance of the parent-child relationship". Pruette held strong anti-men views, which were products of a childhood overshadowed by her mother's oppression and unhappiness; Pruette wrote that by the age of nine she firmly believed that "all the evils of the world came from these intolerable males". |
251_2 | Pruette was initially determined not to wed or bear children. However, her strong anti-men viewpoint changed during her graduate work under psychologist G. Stanley Hall, whom she greatly admired, and also coursework that exposed her to the work of Havelock Ellis, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Jung. She married a fellow graduate student, Douglas Henry Fryer, and moved with him to New York, where "he became an instructor in the Columbia University psychology department and she enrolled in the PhD program, receiving her degree in 1924". Pruette and Fryer's union did not last, and shortly after their divorce she had a two-year marriage to John Woodbridge Herring. Pruette cites both of her marriages in her book, Why Women Fail, and states that men do not like to see women outperforming them in academia or in the career field, and hints that this may be a key reason both of her marriages did not succeed. |
251_3 | Pruette lived through both world wars and associated feminism with pacifism; she believed women could make the world a more peaceful place. When Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed his New Deal cabinet, Pruette suggested he "instead inaugurate 'a real New Deal,' a cabinet made up of women, whose 'broader social viewpoint' and concept of social justice could help steer the world away from militarism". Pruette was firm in her feminist beliefs and spent much of her time traveling, lecturing, and writing about her views on feminism, yet the bulk of her work remains unpublished. She found work in various vocations such as editing, writing for newspapers or professional journals, she also taught sociology and psychology at several universities, and was a research and consulting psychologist for several institutions. |
251_4 | Later years
Despite the setbacks and difficulties of old age, Pruette continued to work as long as she could, and to address the social problem of aging. But despite being mentally sound, Pruette's agnostic beliefs caused her some spiritual grief as she contemplated what was to become of her soul after her death, and within her last few years of life she is recorded as waking up in a feverish sweat numerous times yelling out, "Immortality is what I want!". She died on December 20, 1976, less than seven weeks after her 80th birthday. |
251_5 | Feminist legacy
Lorine Pruette was childless by choice but in her later years she regretted that she had no one to "carry on her 'bit of protoplasm'". Because Pruette lived through the transition from a homosocial to heterosocial society, aided in and witnessed many of the triumphs of feminism, she regarded the modern day woman as taking her rights for granted and being ignorant to the struggles of the women who came before her. Pruette dismisses the idea of a modern feminist, saying "there is no reason why she should think of herself as a feminist; she inherited feminism". Nearing the end of her life, Lorine Pruette urged women not to unquestioningly accept the social stigmas of the current society and to remember to use each other's help and support to press for change.
References |
251_6 | Sources
"Pruette, Lorine, B. 1896. Papers, 1915–1974: A Finding Aid." OASIS Online Archival Search Information System; Office for Information Systems; Harvard University Library. Web. February 6, 2012. <https://web.archive.org/web/20100718115805/http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00863>.
Showalter, Elaine. "These Modern Women: Autobiographical Essays from the Twenties." Google Books. Web. February 2, 2012. <https://books.google.com/books?id=ckHwIV8edTYC>.
Trigg, Mary Kathleen. Four American Feminists, 1910–1940: Inez Haynes Irwin, Mary Ritter Beard, Doris Stevens, and Lorine Pruette. Ann Arbor: UMI Dissertation Information Service, 1989. Print.
External links
American psychologists
American women psychologists
American feminists
1896 births
1977 deaths
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga alumni
People from Rutherford County, Tennessee
20th-century psychologists
20th-century American women
20th-century American people
Worcester State University alumni |
252_0 | C2orf74, also known as LOC339804, is a protein encoding gene located on the short arm of chromosome 2 near position 15 (2p15). Isoform 1 of the gene is 19,713 base pairs long. C2orf74 has orthologs in 135 different species, including primarily placental mammals and some marsupials.
The protein encoded by the C2orf74 gene has two isoforms, the longest of which (isoform 1) is 187 amino acids in length. This protein is linked to the development of autoimmune disorders such as ankylosing spondylitis and diseases affecting the colon
Gene
C2orf74 is a gene located on the plus strand at 2p15 in humans. It is 19,713 base pairs in length beginning at 61,145,116 and ending at 61,164,828 and includes 8 exons. Other genes within its neighborhood include KIAA841, LOC105374759, LOC105374758, LOC339803, AHSA2P, USP34, and SNORA70B.
Transcripts |
252_1 | Transcript variants
C2orf74 has 6 validated mRNA products created via alternative splicing that give rise to two different isoforms. An extended version of Isoform 1 has also been sequenced utilizing a 5' in frame start codon, though this protein product is not formally acknowledged as a separate isoform by NCBI.
The above table is a compilation of the transcript variants of C2orf74 acknowledged on the C2orf74 gene page of NCBI. |
252_2 | Proteins
There are two known isoforms of the C2orf74 encoded protein. Isoform 1 is derived from transcript variant 1, and is 187 amino acids in length. There is a putative N-terminal extension of this isoform that utilizes a 5' start codon and adds 7 amino acids to the start of isoform 1, bringing the length of the protein up to 194 amino acids. Isoform 2 is derived from any one of transcript variants 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. It is created using an alternative promoter, features a different 5'UTR, and a shorter N-terminal end that excludes the first 3 exons that comprise the N-terminal end of exon 1. The result is a shorter protein 115 amino acids in length that lacks a highly conserved transmembrane domain featured at the N-terminal end of isoform 1. |
252_3 | The above figure depicts a conceptual translation of isoform 1 of C2orf74 made using SixFrame. Exon boundaries are depicted in blue font. The 5'UTR of this protein is shown to have an upstream in frame stop codon (red), and an upstream in frame start codon (green). The putative N-terminal extension is depicted in light gray. The N-terminal transmembrane domain is highlighted in lavender. Regions conserved among orthologs are highlighted in cyan, while regions prone to deletion are highlighted in gray. Phosphorylation sites are highlighted in red with the phosphorylated amino acid underlined. Significant SNPs are highlighted in pink with a key pictured to the right detailing the type of change and reason for inclusion. Polyadenylation signals in the 3'UTR are highlighted in orange. |
252_4 | Isoform 1
Isoform 1 of the C2orf74 protein has a calculated molecular weight of approximately 21 kDa, and a pI of 5.74. It does not display any unique amino acid composition, cysteine spacing, number of multiplets, or periodicity. This protein isoform has a putative 7 aa N-terminal extension It contains a 21 aa transmembrane region at position 7.
Domains
The transmembrane region begins 7 amino acids from the N-terminal end of the protein, and ends at the 29th amino acid in humans. This region has been identified by NCBI, as well as being supported by biochemical analysis. The biochemical qualities characterizing this region as a transmembrane region include a neutral charge cluster and a high-scoring hydrophobic segment, as well as alpha-helical secondary structure. This region is also highly conserved among all orthologs, indicating it as a region of functional significance. |
252_5 | The region downstream of the transmembrane region is considered a domain of unknown function (DUF) within pfam 15484. Approximately 52% of this portion of the protein is considered to be disordered, making confidence in prediction of domain function difficult. However, the C-terminal end is highly conserved among all orthologs.
Structure
C2orf74 isoform 1 is shown to be dominated primarily by helical secondary structure, with only short regions being predicted to include beta sheet conformations. Predictions of tertiary structure tend to showcase a globular DUF, at the end of a helical transmembrane domain. Structural predictions of isoform 2 which includes only the DUF also appear to be strictly globular in conformation. |
252_6 | subcellular localization
The presence of a transmembrane domain indicates that Isoform 1 of the C2orf74 product is found within a membranous cellular structure. Analysis of likely subcellular localization among orthologs indicates the C2orf74 product is most likely found in the nuclear membrane, mitochondria, or endoplasmic reticulum. Immunocytochemical imaging shows C2orf74 to be localized to the centromere, while immunohistochemical imaging shows it to be centralized in the cytosol.
Gene level regulation
Promoter
C2orf74 has 3 possible promoters that produce complete protein isoforms. Isoform 1 could be made by either GXP_6040264 or GXP_2056207, though GXP_6040264 shows the most promise, as it has a higher number of CAGE tags (249) than GXP_2056207 (133), and is conserved among several orhologs. Isoform 2 is made by the promoter GXP_649849. |
252_7 | GXP_6040264 contains over 300 transcription factor binding sites, with a fork head domain factor (V$FKHD), a bromodomain and phd domain transcription factor (V$BPTF), and a sex/testes determining and related HMG box factor (V$SORY) being the most conserved regions among mammals.
Expression
C2orf74 is expressed at minimal levels in several cell types. Due to the low levels of expression, meaningful trends in localization are difficult to discern. In situ hybridization of C2orf74 and some RNA sequencing assays indicate potential for localization in the cerebellum. Microarray data from NCBI GEO indicates lower levels of C2orf74 expression in individuals with colorectal tumors such as adenomas or cancerous colorectal tumors when compared to normal mucosa or tumors of non-colorectal origin such as carcinomas.
Transcript level regulation |
252_8 | The 5' region of transcript variant 1 is 232 bp in length and features an upstream in frame stop codon as well as an upstream in frame start codon. When expressed, this start codon would add a 7 aa N-terminal extension to transcript variant 1. Analysis of potential 3D structure of the 5'UTR of isoform 1 shows the presence of 2 hairpin structuresThe 5' UTR of transcript variants 2 through 6 differs from that of transcript variant 1. However, the 5' UTR differs a great degree between orthologs, indicating that it may not be a region of great importance in terms of transcriptional regulation. |
252_9 | The 3' UTR is conserved among all human transcript variants, though it does not show significant conservation among mammalian species. It is 301 bp in length, and contains two polyadenylation signals at 981 bp and 1071 bp respectively. It also contains two partially conserved mi-RNA binding sites at 73 bp (has-mir-241) and 270 bp (has-miR-23), though neither of the mi-RNAs predicted to bind appear to be present in the human transcriptome. The human 3'UTR is found to be rich in stem-loop structures
Protein level regulation
C2orf74 is predicted to have 4 CK2 phosphorylation sites, as well as 3 PKC phosphorylation sites. The presence of CK2 and PKC phosphorylation sites are common among many orthologs. Myristoylation sites are also common among c2orf74 orthologs, though they are less conserved.
Significance of Phosphorylation sites |
252_10 | CK2
Caesin Kinase 2 is a protein kinase that is serine/threonine specific and plays a significant role in cell signaling pathways related to cell cycling, regulation, and development. Association with C2orf74 may implicate it as a member of an intracellular phosphorylation chain governing cell development, and explain its association with conditions such as cancer and autoimmunity.
PKC
Protein kinase C is a family of protein kinases that are serine and threonine specific and play a role in regulating a broad range of cellular functions, particularly those involving phosphorylation cascades. As with CK2, C2orf74's association with PKC may implicate it as a signaling molecule involved in a phosphorylation cascade. This may provide context as to the nature of C2orf74's relationship to autoimmune disease and cancer.
Homology |
252_11 | Orthologs
C2orf74 first appeared in mammals and is found in animals as distantly related to humans as marsupials. The table below highlights 20 selected orthologs from various mammalian clades arranged by date of divergence from the human lineage. Red tiles indicate high similarity to the human sequence and blue tiles indicate low similarity. In general, the samples follow the pattern in which more recent evolutionary diversion results in more similar genotypes. Notable exceptions, however, include the galago, mouse, and manatee.
Rate of Evolution
The figures below show in more detail the evolutionary history of C2orf74. To the right is a comparison of the divergence rate of C2orf74 compared to that of cytochrome C and fibrinogen alpha. Given that fibrinogen alpha in this figure serves as a standard example of a rapidly changing protein, one can see that C2orf74 is evolving quite quickly.
Protein interactions |
252_12 | Transcription factors
There are three types of transcription factor that have been predicted to bind to C2orf74. These transcription factors are POT1, SMAGP, and SRPK1.
POT1
POT1 is a telomere end binding protein. It is as of yet unclear how this relates to predicted function of C2orf74 given previous research and predictions of subcellular localization.
SMAGP
SMAGP is a small transmembrane and glycocylated protein. Association with SMAGP makes sense given the subcellular localization of both structures to the nuclear membrane. Its possible that association with SMAGP may aid C2orf74 as a protein complex associated with intracellular signaling pathways.
SRPK1
SRPK1 is a protein kinase localized to the nucleus and cytoplasm. Association with SRPK1 also makes sense for C2orf74 given the subcellular localization of both proteins and implication in phosphorylative processes.
Clinical significance
Disease association |
252_13 | Bowel disease
Several studies have been able to link differential C2orf74 functionality to bowel disease. Two separate studies have identified C2orf74 as a potential susceptibility locus for Crohn's disease. Furthermore, various studies reported in NCBI GEO show differential expression of C2orf74 in benign and cancerous colorectal tumor tissues.
Autoimmune disease
Aside from Crohn's disease, C2orf74 has also been found to be a susceptibility locus for ankylosing spondylitis, and generally for other nondescript autoimmune conditions. The SNP believed to play a role in C2orf74's relationship to ankylosing spondylitis is found within the coding region of the gene, and is denoted in the conceptual translation found in the Protein section above.
Mutations (SNPs of interest)
At 36aa there is a missense SNP that may be either a Tyrosine (Tyr, Y) or an Aspartate (Asp, D). This is caused by a SNP is associated with ankylosing spondylitis can be found at 319 bp on transcript variant 1 |
252_14 | References
Genealogy
Proteins |
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