id
stringlengths 33
45
| content
stringlengths 95
98.7k
| url
stringlengths 18
263
|
|---|---|---|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1032521580#10_1878948505 | Title: T-Tubule Function in Mammalian Cardiac Myocytes | Circulation Research
Headings: T-Tubule Function in Mammalian Cardiac Myocytes
T-Tubule Function in Mammalian Cardiac Myocytes
Abstract
Occurrence and Morphology of the T-Tubules
T-Tubule Development Is Labile
Proteins Present in the T-Tubule Membrane
Ca2+-Handling Proteins
Na+-Handling Proteins
K+-Handling Proteins
Anion-Handling Proteins
Second-Messenger Pathways
Interpretation of Immunohistochemical Data
Protein Colocalization Within, and With Proteins Adjacent to, the T-Tubules
Localization of Function
Cells Lacking T-Tubules
Diffusion Studies
Scanning Pipette
Detubulation
Functional Role
Electrical Properties of T-Tubules
Coupling of Ca 2+ Entry and Ca 2+ Release
Ca 2+ Efflux
Signal Transduction
Changes During Development and Disease
T-Tubule Development and Morphology in Hypertrophy and Failure
Changes in Protein Expression in Development, Hypertrophy, and Failure
Relevance of Changes in T-Tubule Structure and Protein Expression to Function
Conclusions and Unanswered Questions
Footnotes
References
Content: Ca2+-Handling Proteins
The location of sarcolemmal Ca 2+ -handling proteins is important because of their role in excitation-contraction coupling and because the Ca 2+ -release channels (ryanodine receptors [RyRs]) of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) are concentrated close to the t-tubule (see Protein Colocalization Within, and With Proteins Adjacent to, the T-Tubules). In the rabbit heart, an early study showed that a membrane fraction from the t-tubules had a higher density of L-type Ca 2+ channels than did membrane from the surface sarcolemma. 21 A more recent immunologic study also found this channel to be concentrated in the t-tubules of adult rabbit ventricular myocytes, with less staining of the surface sarcolemma, although the surface staining that did occur was punctate and associated with junctional SR. 22 In rat heart, the L-type Ca 2+ channel, and hence current ( ICa ), is also concentrated in the t-tubules, with estimates ranging from 3 to 9 times more concentrated in the t-tubule membrane than on the surface sarcolemma. 23–26 Comparative studies suggest that the t-tubular concentration of the L-type Ca 2+ channel is greater in rat ventricular myocytes than in those from the rabbit. 22
Although a high density of L-type Ca 2+ channel at the Z line has been reported in all studies of which we are aware, it has also been reported tha | http://circres.ahajournals.org/content/92/11/1182.full |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1034941391#9_1881307285 | Title: The Medicaid Costs of Legalizing Illegal Aliens
Headings: The Medicaid Costs of Legalizing Illegal Aliens
The Medicaid Costs of Legalizing Illegal Aliens
Health Reform’s Expansion of Medicaid
Amnesty: The Second Fiscal Shoe to Drop
Illegal Immigrants and Medicaid
Conclusion
End Notes
Content: Were they to gain legal status through amnesty legislation, legalized aliens may be eligible for public programs, including Medicaid. It seems that it will be difficult to apply the same five-year exclusion from most welfare that applies to legal immigrants for legalized illegal aliens and Medicaid. Most of the newly legalized illegal immigrants would not have the normal visa sponsors who are to support them, as required of most lawful immigrants. Moreover, since one of the primary goals of health reform is universal coverage, it may be politically difficult to leave millions of newly legalized illegal aliens outside of the system. It may also be assumed that supporters of amnesty would strongly fight efforts to keep legalized immigrants ineligible for Medicaid. As shown below, if there were an amnesty and if uninsured illegal immigrants with qualifying incomes were allowed access to Medicaid, it will create significant obligations for U.S. taxpayers. These fiscal obligations are above what taxpayers already spend on uninsured illegal immigrants. Illegal Immigrants and Medicaid
In prior research, the Center for Immigration Studies has estimated, based on Census Bureau data, that 7.3 million (or 62 percent of) illegal immigrants lacked health insurance in 2007. Of those, 3.4 million earned less than 133 percent of the official poverty level, making them eligible for Medicaid. 3 Based on prior research, we also estimate that if illegal immigrants were legalized, wages would rise somewhat for those with jobs, thereby reducing the number of uninsured former illegal aliens with incomes below 133 percent of poverty to 3.1 million. | http://cis.org/medicaid-costs |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1034955705#15_1881342715 | Title: Immigration and the U.S. Economy
Headings: Immigration and the U.S. Economy
Immigration and the U.S. Economy
Prepared for House Judiciary Committee Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security and International Law
Introduction
Immigration and the Size of the U.S. Economy
Benefits to Natives
Immigrant and Native Job Competition
Deterioration at the Bottom of the Labor Market
Fiscal Impact of Immigration
Conclusion
End Notes
Content: 5 In fact, immigration may increase your wages as demand for your occupation rises. In contrast, if you are a nanny, maid, bus boy, cook, meat packer, or construction laborer, the negative wage impact is likely to be large because immigration has increased the supply of workers in these sectors quite a bit. But overall the gain to some workers, businesses, and consumers is still slightly larger than the loss suffered by the losers; hence the tiny net benefit reported above. Immigrant and Native Job Competition
Some may feel that there is no job competition between immigrants and native-born workers. The argument is often made, mostly by non-economists, that immigrants only do jobs Americans don’t want. But analysis of all 465 occupations defined by the Department of Commerce shows that even before the cu | http://cis.org/node/2294 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1041260612#0_1893529512 | Title: Abortion Issues - How They Affect American Politics
Headings: Abortion Issues in the United States
Abortion Issues in the United States
Why Abortion Issues Surface in Every American Election
When Abortion Is Legal In the United States
Current Status
History
Pros
Cons
Where It Stands
Content: Abortion Issues - How They Affect American Politics
Humanities › Issues
Abortion Issues in the United States
Why Abortion Issues Surface in Every American Election
Brendan Hoffman/Stringer/Getty Images News/Getty Images
Issues
Women's Issues
Reproductive Rights
Women & Violence
The U. S. Government
U.S. Foreign Policy
U.S. Liberal Politics
U.S. Conservative Politics
Civil Liberties
The Middle East
Race Relations
Immigration
Crime & Punishment
Canadian Government
View More
By
Kathy Gill
Politics Expert
M.S., Agricultural Economics, Virginia Tech
B.A., Journalism, University of Georgia
Kathy Gill is a former instructor at the University of Washington, a former lobbyist, and spent 20 years working public affairs executive in the natural resources industry
our editorial process
Kathy Gill
Updated May 04, 2019
Abortion issues surface in almost every American election, whether it's a local race for school board, a statewide race for governor or a federal contest for Congress or the White House. Abortion issues have polarized American society since the U.S. Supreme Court legalized the procedure. On one side are those who believe women are not entitled to end the life of an unborn child. On the other are those who believe women have the right to decide what happens to their body. Often there is no room for debate between the side. Related Story: Is Abortion the Right Thing to Do? In general, most Democrats support a woman's right to have an abortion and most Republicans oppose it. There are notable exceptions, though, including some politicians who have waffled on the issue. Some Democrats who are conservative when it comes to social issues such oppose abortion rights, and some moderate Republicans are open to allowing women to have the procedure. | http://civilliberty.about.com/od/abortion/f/Average-Cost-of-an-Abortion.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1041260612#1_1893531819 | Title: Abortion Issues - How They Affect American Politics
Headings: Abortion Issues in the United States
Abortion Issues in the United States
Why Abortion Issues Surface in Every American Election
When Abortion Is Legal In the United States
Current Status
History
Pros
Cons
Where It Stands
Content: Related Story: Is Abortion the Right Thing to Do? In general, most Democrats support a woman's right to have an abortion and most Republicans oppose it. There are notable exceptions, though, including some politicians who have waffled on the issue. Some Democrats who are conservative when it comes to social issues such oppose abortion rights, and some moderate Republicans are open to allowing women to have the procedure. A 2016 Pew Research Survey found that 59 percent of Republicans believe abortion should be illegal, and 70 percent of Democrats believe the procure should be allowed. Overall, though, a narrow majority of Americans — 56 percent in the Pew poll — support legalized abortion and 41 percent oppose it. " In both cases, these figures have remained relatively stable for at least two decades," the Pew Researchers found. When Abortion Is Legal In the United States
Abortion refers to the voluntary termination of a pregnancy, resulting in the death of the fetus or embryo. Abortions performed prior to the third trimester are legal in the United States. | http://civilliberty.about.com/od/abortion/f/Average-Cost-of-an-Abortion.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1041260612#2_1893533412 | Title: Abortion Issues - How They Affect American Politics
Headings: Abortion Issues in the United States
Abortion Issues in the United States
Why Abortion Issues Surface in Every American Election
When Abortion Is Legal In the United States
Current Status
History
Pros
Cons
Where It Stands
Content: A 2016 Pew Research Survey found that 59 percent of Republicans believe abortion should be illegal, and 70 percent of Democrats believe the procure should be allowed. Overall, though, a narrow majority of Americans — 56 percent in the Pew poll — support legalized abortion and 41 percent oppose it. " In both cases, these figures have remained relatively stable for at least two decades," the Pew Researchers found. When Abortion Is Legal In the United States
Abortion refers to the voluntary termination of a pregnancy, resulting in the death of the fetus or embryo. Abortions performed prior to the third trimester are legal in the United States. Abortion-rights advocates believe a woman should have access to whatever health care she needs and that she should have control over her own body. Opponents of abortion rights believe an embryo or fetus is alive and thus abortion is tantamount to murder. Current Status
The most controversial of abortion issues is the so-called "partial birth" abortion, a rare procedure. Beginning in the mid-90s, Republicans in the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate introduced legislation to ban "partial birth" abortions. In late 2003, Congress passed and President George W. Bush signed the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act. | http://civilliberty.about.com/od/abortion/f/Average-Cost-of-an-Abortion.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1041772503#0_1894738398 | Title: Roe v. Wade - 4.04 Civil rights
Headings:
Content: Roe v. Wade - 4.04 Civil rights
Roe v. Wade was a case that occurred in 1971 and was not decided on until 1973. This case began when Roe, a single pregnant woman, decided to challenge the Texas law of where it was illegal to have an abortion unless it was medically necessary. A married couple, who did not have children, who were the Does, argued for many factors. Overall, the Court determined that their points were not valid and the abortion status was vague. This was the choice because they determined that the law was not allowing them to have their 9th and 14th Amendment rights. In all, Roe won the Roe v. Wade case in 1973. Citation: "North Dakota Targets 'Roe v. Wade'" Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, n.d. Web. | http://civilrightsgovernment.weebly.com/roe-v-wade.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1051817518#3_1907843125 | Title: The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
Headings: The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
The Edsel Is Coming
The Edsel Succeeded in Disappointing
Failure Despite Some Unique Features
More Edsel Miscalculations
Content: As the campaign progressed, they allowed an obscure view of the car's shadow and a glimpse of the hood ornament. Anyone involved with the Edsel was sworn to secrecy not to leak a word about what was being claimed to be a radically new and innovative motor car. Dealers were required to store the Edsel undercover and would be fined or lose their franchise if they showed the cars before the release date. All the hype brought a curious public in record numbers to see its unveiling on “E-day” Sept. 4, 1957. And then they left without buying. The Edsel Succeeded in Disappointing
Car buyers didn’t purchase the Edsel, because it was a bad or ugly car. They didn't buy it because it didn’t live up to the expectations the company created in the prior months with the epic advertising campaign. So actually the first failure occurred for the Ford Edsel before anyone even saw the automobile. And for those who did buy an Edsel found that the car was plagued with shoddy workmanship. Many of the vehicles that showed up at the dealer showroom had notes attached to the steering wheel listing the parts not installed. | http://classiccars.about.com/od/classiccarsaz/a/Edsel.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1051817518#4_1907844709 | Title: The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
Headings: The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
The Edsel Is Coming
The Edsel Succeeded in Disappointing
Failure Despite Some Unique Features
More Edsel Miscalculations
Content: The Edsel Succeeded in Disappointing
Car buyers didn’t purchase the Edsel, because it was a bad or ugly car. They didn't buy it because it didn’t live up to the expectations the company created in the prior months with the epic advertising campaign. So actually the first failure occurred for the Ford Edsel before anyone even saw the automobile. And for those who did buy an Edsel found that the car was plagued with shoddy workmanship. Many of the vehicles that showed up at the dealer showroom had notes attached to the steering wheel listing the parts not installed. In addition to the car not living up to the marketing hype, the United States was in a recession, and Edsel offered its most expensive models first while other carmakers were discounting last year’s models. This was their second failure. Failure Despite Some Unique Features
The Edsel had some great innovations for its time such as a rolling dome speedometer. And its Teletouch transmission shifting system in the center of the steering wheel worked well at first. Other design innovations kept pace with the cutting-edge accessories and trim features growing in popularity in the mid-50s. | http://classiccars.about.com/od/classiccarsaz/a/Edsel.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1051817518#5_1907846337 | Title: The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
Headings: The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
The Edsel Is Coming
The Edsel Succeeded in Disappointing
Failure Despite Some Unique Features
More Edsel Miscalculations
Content: In addition to the car not living up to the marketing hype, the United States was in a recession, and Edsel offered its most expensive models first while other carmakers were discounting last year’s models. This was their second failure. Failure Despite Some Unique Features
The Edsel had some great innovations for its time such as a rolling dome speedometer. And its Teletouch transmission shifting system in the center of the steering wheel worked well at first. Other design innovations kept pace with the cutting-edge accessories and trim features growing in popularity in the mid-50s. These Included ergonomically designed controls for the driver and self-adjusting brakes. More Edsel Miscalculations
Ford launched the Edsel as a brand-new division, but they didn’t give the car line its own manufacturing facility. Edsel relied on Ford employees to produce their cars. Unfortunately, Ford workers resented assembling someone else's vehicle. Therefore, they took little pride in their work. | http://classiccars.about.com/od/classiccarsaz/a/Edsel.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1051817518#7_1907849142 | Title: The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
Headings: The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
The Edsel Automobile Legacy of Failure
The Edsel Is Coming
The Edsel Succeeded in Disappointing
Failure Despite Some Unique Features
More Edsel Miscalculations
Content: Not having a separate and dedicated workforce to build Edsel cars would prove to be the third and biggest failure. The Edsel’s quality control issues became compounded by the Ford dealership mechanics. No additional training would lead to their unfamiliarity with the car’s state-of-the-art technology. The automobiles biggest problem was its automatic “Tele-touch” transmission. The driver selected the gears by pushing buttons on the center of the steering wheel. Introducing a complicated system without training the dealership level mechanics how to fix it became failure number four. With Ford wanting Edsel as a separate division, they made sure nothing tied the car line back to the Ford products. The word Ford couldn’t be found anywhere on the car. This was failure number five. Without an established customer base, it’s no surprise Edsel sold only 64,000 units in its first year. | http://classiccars.about.com/od/classiccarsaz/a/Edsel.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1052618325#1_1908876227 | Title: Why We Don't Read: Reasons and Solutions
Headings: Why We Don't Read
Why We Don't Read
Seven Excuses That Can Be Easily Overcome
Excuse #1: I Don't Have Time
Excuse #2: Books Are Expensive
Excuse #3: I Don't Know What to Read
Excuse #4: Reading Keeps Me Awake at Night
Excuse #5: Can't I Just Watch the Movie?
Excuse #6: Reading is Too Hard
Excuse #7: I Just Never Got Into the Habit
Content: Fortunately, for every one of them, there's often a solution. Excuse #1: I Don't Have Time
Think you just don't have the time to pick up a classic? Take a book with you everywhere and instead of picking up your cell phone, open the book—or e-reader. You can read while standing line, in waiting rooms, or during a train commute. If longer works seem overwhelming, start with short stories or poetry. It's all about feeding your mind—even if it's only one bit at a time. Excuse #2: Books Are Expensive
While it may be true that owning books was once considered a luxury, these days there are numerous sources for inexpensive literature. The Internet has opened a whole new arena for readers. | http://classiclit.about.com/od/allaboutbooks/a/aa_whywedont.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1052618325#2_1908877524 | Title: Why We Don't Read: Reasons and Solutions
Headings: Why We Don't Read
Why We Don't Read
Seven Excuses That Can Be Easily Overcome
Excuse #1: I Don't Have Time
Excuse #2: Books Are Expensive
Excuse #3: I Don't Know What to Read
Excuse #4: Reading Keeps Me Awake at Night
Excuse #5: Can't I Just Watch the Movie?
Excuse #6: Reading is Too Hard
Excuse #7: I Just Never Got Into the Habit
Content: If longer works seem overwhelming, start with short stories or poetry. It's all about feeding your mind—even if it's only one bit at a time. Excuse #2: Books Are Expensive
While it may be true that owning books was once considered a luxury, these days there are numerous sources for inexpensive literature. The Internet has opened a whole new arena for readers. Literature, both old and new, is available on your handheld device for free or deeply discounted prices. Of course, the most time-honored method for getting access to books of pretty much every description at little or no cost is your local public library. You can pick and choose without having to purchase. You can borrow the books and read them at home or read them on the premises, and with the exception of late fees or damages, it's usually free. The bargain section of your local brick and mortar bookstore is another place to find reasonably priced books. | http://classiclit.about.com/od/allaboutbooks/a/aa_whywedont.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1052618325#4_1908880675 | Title: Why We Don't Read: Reasons and Solutions
Headings: Why We Don't Read
Why We Don't Read
Seven Excuses That Can Be Easily Overcome
Excuse #1: I Don't Have Time
Excuse #2: Books Are Expensive
Excuse #3: I Don't Know What to Read
Excuse #4: Reading Keeps Me Awake at Night
Excuse #5: Can't I Just Watch the Movie?
Excuse #6: Reading is Too Hard
Excuse #7: I Just Never Got Into the Habit
Content: Some places don't mind if you read while you're sitting in the store in one of their comfortable chairs. Another great resource for inexpensive books is your local used bookstore. You buy books cheaper used than new, and you can also trade in books you've already read—or books you know you'll never get around to reading. Some of the major discount retail chains have book sections that sell remaindered books on the cheap. ( Remaindered books are new books. They're just the excess copies left over when a publisher orders too many for a print run.) Excuse #3: I Don't Know What to Read
The best way to learn what to read is by reading everything you can get your hands on. You'll gradually learn which genres you enjoy reading, and you'll begin to make connections between books, as well as to understand how books can connect to your own life. If you don't know where to start, or you find yourself stuck for ideas along the way, find someone who enjoys reading books and ask for recommendations. | http://classiclit.about.com/od/allaboutbooks/a/aa_whywedont.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1052618325#10_1908890112 | Title: Why We Don't Read: Reasons and Solutions
Headings: Why We Don't Read
Why We Don't Read
Seven Excuses That Can Be Easily Overcome
Excuse #1: I Don't Have Time
Excuse #2: Books Are Expensive
Excuse #3: I Don't Know What to Read
Excuse #4: Reading Keeps Me Awake at Night
Excuse #5: Can't I Just Watch the Movie?
Excuse #6: Reading is Too Hard
Excuse #7: I Just Never Got Into the Habit
Content: Reading is Too Hard
Reading isn't always easy, but it doesn't have to be hard. Try not to be intimidated. People read books for many reasons, but you don't have to feel that it's an academic experience if you don't want it to be. Entertainment is one of the best reasons for reading. You can pick up a book and have an unforgettable experience: laugh, cry, or sit on the edge of your seat. A book—even a classic—doesn't have to be difficult to be a great read. While you may find that the language in books such as " Robinson Crusoe " and " Gulliver's Travels " is a bit hard to wrap your head around because they were written so long ago, most readers have no problems with " Treasure Island ." It's true that many famous authors wrote books that are tough to get through for people who haven't studied literature, however, lots of them also wrote things that are much more accessible. For instance, if you want to read something by John Steinbeck but think " The Grapes of Wrath " is a little out of your league, start out with something like "Cannery Row" or "Travels With Charley: | http://classiclit.about.com/od/allaboutbooks/a/aa_whywedont.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1052618325#11_1908891815 | Title: Why We Don't Read: Reasons and Solutions
Headings: Why We Don't Read
Why We Don't Read
Seven Excuses That Can Be Easily Overcome
Excuse #1: I Don't Have Time
Excuse #2: Books Are Expensive
Excuse #3: I Don't Know What to Read
Excuse #4: Reading Keeps Me Awake at Night
Excuse #5: Can't I Just Watch the Movie?
Excuse #6: Reading is Too Hard
Excuse #7: I Just Never Got Into the Habit
Content: laugh, cry, or sit on the edge of your seat. A book—even a classic—doesn't have to be difficult to be a great read. While you may find that the language in books such as " Robinson Crusoe " and " Gulliver's Travels " is a bit hard to wrap your head around because they were written so long ago, most readers have no problems with " Treasure Island ." It's true that many famous authors wrote books that are tough to get through for people who haven't studied literature, however, lots of them also wrote things that are much more accessible. For instance, if you want to read something by John Steinbeck but think " The Grapes of Wrath " is a little out of your league, start out with something like "Cannery Row" or "Travels With Charley: In Search of America" instead. Ian Fleming's James Bond isn't a tough read, but did you know Fleming also authored the classic children's book "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang"? ( Which is nothing like the movie!) In fact, many books written for young audiences are great places to start your reading experience. C.S. Lewis' " Chronicles of Narnia ," A.A. Milne's " Winnie the Pooh ," "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory" and "James and the Giant Peach," both by Roald Dahl are books beloved by kids and adults alike. | http://classiclit.about.com/od/allaboutbooks/a/aa_whywedont.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055019909#0_1911591658 | Title: Age of Marriage in the U.S. in the 1800s | The Classroom
Headings: Age of Marriage in the U.S. in the 1800s
Age of Marriage in the U.S. in the 1800s
Marriage in the Colonies
The Civil War
After the War
Age of Consent
Content: Age of Marriage in the U.S. in the 1800s | The Classroom
Age of Marriage in the U.S. in the 1800s
Between 1800 and 1900, women generally married for the first time between the ages of 20 and 22. Less is known about the average age of first marriages for men during the 19th century. In 1890, when the U.S. Census Bureau started collecting marriage data, it was recorded that the average age of a first marriage for men was 26 years, and the average age of marriage for women was 22 years. Marriage in the Colonies
The average age of a women who married for the first time rose steadily, although not sharply, from 1800 to 1900. North American colonists tended to get married early due to several factors. The first, and perhaps most important, was simply that they could. Many took the advice of the Bible -- to leave home and create your own family -- to heart, and they had the resources to do it. Land was inexpensive, and there was plenty of it to choose from -- it was simple to set up shop. According to a 2010 article in the "Journal of Southern History" titled "The Effect of the Civil War on Southern Marriage Patterns," early colonists married at an average age of around 20 if they were women, and around 26 if they were men. The Civil War
With the end of the Civil War in 1865 came a "marriage squeeze" for women, especially in the South. | http://classroom.synonym.com/age-marriage-us-1800s-23174.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055019909#1_1911593438 | Title: Age of Marriage in the U.S. in the 1800s | The Classroom
Headings: Age of Marriage in the U.S. in the 1800s
Age of Marriage in the U.S. in the 1800s
Marriage in the Colonies
The Civil War
After the War
Age of Consent
Content: The first, and perhaps most important, was simply that they could. Many took the advice of the Bible -- to leave home and create your own family -- to heart, and they had the resources to do it. Land was inexpensive, and there was plenty of it to choose from -- it was simple to set up shop. According to a 2010 article in the "Journal of Southern History" titled "The Effect of the Civil War on Southern Marriage Patterns," early colonists married at an average age of around 20 if they were women, and around 26 if they were men. The Civil War
With the end of the Civil War in 1865 came a "marriage squeeze" for women, especially in the South. About 620,000 men died in the war, which meant that pickings were slim. Many women married older widowers, or married someone not entirely appropriate -- perhaps above or below their socioeconomic status. This pattern did not last very long, however -- about 10 years -- and it did not significantly affect their average age of marriage, which hovered right around 21. For men, it did not significantly change either as many young men rushed to marriage at the start of the war. After the War
A second rush to marry occurred after the war, but again, the women marrying for the first time were young -- around 21 years of age -- and the men remained right around the age of 26. | http://classroom.synonym.com/age-marriage-us-1800s-23174.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055095865#0_1911760321 | Title: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War? | Synonym
Headings: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
Explore this article
1 Texas' Boundary
2 Upper California
3 Land Between California and Texas
4 Impact on U.S. and Mexico
Content: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War? | Synonym
What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War? The Mexican War, instigated over a border dispute between the U.S. and Mexico, culminated with huge territorial gains for the United States. Known as the Mexican Cession, the area included more than 500,000 square miles and all or parts of modern-day California, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. The U.S. purchased this land for $15 million, and settlers populated the area within a few decades. Explore this article
Texas' Boundary
Upper California
Land Between California and Texas
Impact on U.S. and Mexico
1 Texas' Boundary
The Mexican War began as a dispute over the boundaries of the United States' newly-acquired territory, Texas. For Mexico, Texas' boundary ended at the Nueces River, but Texans and Americans thought it ended farther south at the Rio Grande. After two years of war, and Mexico's defeat, this was the first piece of territory the country conceded to the United States. During the negotiations for the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Mexico agreed to allow the United States to take territory extending up the Rio Grande. Still today, this river creates a significant part of the border between the United States and Mexico. | http://classroom.synonym.com/area-did-acquire-during-mexican-war-19822.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055095865#1_1911762132 | Title: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War? | Synonym
Headings: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
Explore this article
1 Texas' Boundary
2 Upper California
3 Land Between California and Texas
4 Impact on U.S. and Mexico
Content: Explore this article
Texas' Boundary
Upper California
Land Between California and Texas
Impact on U.S. and Mexico
1 Texas' Boundary
The Mexican War began as a dispute over the boundaries of the United States' newly-acquired territory, Texas. For Mexico, Texas' boundary ended at the Nueces River, but Texans and Americans thought it ended farther south at the Rio Grande. After two years of war, and Mexico's defeat, this was the first piece of territory the country conceded to the United States. During the negotiations for the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Mexico agreed to allow the United States to take territory extending up the Rio Grande. Still today, this river creates a significant part of the border between the United States and Mexico. 2 Upper California
Though the Mexican War was ostensibly fought over a tiny piece of Texan territory, the idea of "Manifest Destiny" motivated the country to want more territory. The grand prize was the west coast of North America, a part of Mexico known as California. Securing the region would fulfill the goal of a country that spanned from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Initially, the United States wanted both Baja and Alta California. The Mexicans, however, only consented to the transfer of Alta California, which included everything from the Port of San Diego northward towards and beyond San Francisco. | http://classroom.synonym.com/area-did-acquire-during-mexican-war-19822.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055095865#2_1911764022 | Title: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War? | Synonym
Headings: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
Explore this article
1 Texas' Boundary
2 Upper California
3 Land Between California and Texas
4 Impact on U.S. and Mexico
Content: 2 Upper California
Though the Mexican War was ostensibly fought over a tiny piece of Texan territory, the idea of "Manifest Destiny" motivated the country to want more territory. The grand prize was the west coast of North America, a part of Mexico known as California. Securing the region would fulfill the goal of a country that spanned from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Initially, the United States wanted both Baja and Alta California. The Mexicans, however, only consented to the transfer of Alta California, which included everything from the Port of San Diego northward towards and beyond San Francisco. Though sparsely populated at the war's end, in 1848 the discovery of gold in California brought the territory's population from 14,000 to more than 250,000 in just four years. 3 Land Between California and Texas
Americans were not satisfied with an isolated California discontinuous from the rest of the United States. As part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States also acquired all the Mexican territory between California and Texas. This included occupied regions such as New Mexico and Arizona. In addition, all or parts of Nevada, Utah, Wyoming and Colorado were transferred to the United States. | http://classroom.synonym.com/area-did-acquire-during-mexican-war-19822.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055095865#3_1911765775 | Title: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War? | Synonym
Headings: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
Explore this article
1 Texas' Boundary
2 Upper California
3 Land Between California and Texas
4 Impact on U.S. and Mexico
Content: Though sparsely populated at the war's end, in 1848 the discovery of gold in California brought the territory's population from 14,000 to more than 250,000 in just four years. 3 Land Between California and Texas
Americans were not satisfied with an isolated California discontinuous from the rest of the United States. As part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States also acquired all the Mexican territory between California and Texas. This included occupied regions such as New Mexico and Arizona. In addition, all or parts of Nevada, Utah, Wyoming and Colorado were transferred to the United States. The precise border between the U.S. and Mexico in this region was not immediately determined in the treaty. Instead, a group of future surveyors were to survey and negotiate until an agreement on the exact border was reached. 4 Impact on U.S. and Mexico
For the United States, the Mexican Cession represented 55 percent of its prewar territory. This, however, was a smaller gain than some, including President James Polk, desired. Many Northern abolitionists opposed the annexation of Mexican territory, and the president and his supporters compromised their hopes in the interests of political unity. | http://classroom.synonym.com/area-did-acquire-during-mexican-war-19822.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055095865#4_1911767517 | Title: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War? | Synonym
Headings: What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
What Area Did the US Acquire During the Mexican War?
Explore this article
1 Texas' Boundary
2 Upper California
3 Land Between California and Texas
4 Impact on U.S. and Mexico
Content: The precise border between the U.S. and Mexico in this region was not immediately determined in the treaty. Instead, a group of future surveyors were to survey and negotiate until an agreement on the exact border was reached. 4 Impact on U.S. and Mexico
For the United States, the Mexican Cession represented 55 percent of its prewar territory. This, however, was a smaller gain than some, including President James Polk, desired. Many Northern abolitionists opposed the annexation of Mexican territory, and the president and his supporters compromised their hopes in the interests of political unity. For Mexico, the loss of the Cession was devastating, as it represented a loss of nearly one-half of the nation's prewar territory. Valuable resources in the agricultural- and gold-rich California region helped propel the United States' economic development. | http://classroom.synonym.com/area-did-acquire-during-mexican-war-19822.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055103806#0_1911777850 | Title: What Areas Did Communism Spread To? | The Classroom
Headings: What Areas Did Communism Spread To?
What Areas Did Communism Spread To?
Paris Commune
Soviet Union
Eastern Europe
China and East Asia
Africa and Others
Content: What Areas Did Communism Spread To? | The Classroom
What Areas Did Communism Spread To? Communism was a philosophy developed by Karl Marx in 1845, and while it almost took hold in France in 1871, it wasn't officially put into practice until 1917, when Russia adopted it as a form of government and became the first communist state. Between 1917 and 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed, communism spread to countries across the world. Of these, China, Laos, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam still retain a communist form of government. Paris Commune
In 1871, communism was almost established in France during the Paris Commune, a communist rebellion that lasted from March until May. The city council of Paris declared Paris independent from the French government and tried to govern the city on the basis of communism. The Commune quickly fell to French forces, and the first attempt at creating a communist state failed. Soviet Union
After its communist revolution, Russia became known as the Soviet Union, which while technically a collective of nations adhering to a similar form of communism was really a way for the Russian communist party to extend its territorial control. The Soviet Union at its height consisted of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Eastern Europe
During the early stages of Cold War, communism quickly spread across Eastern Europe, usually through indirect Russian influence, and sometimes through a direct Russian invasion. | http://classroom.synonym.com/areas-did-communism-spread-to-11729.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055103806#1_1911779855 | Title: What Areas Did Communism Spread To? | The Classroom
Headings: What Areas Did Communism Spread To?
What Areas Did Communism Spread To?
Paris Commune
Soviet Union
Eastern Europe
China and East Asia
Africa and Others
Content: Paris Commune
In 1871, communism was almost established in France during the Paris Commune, a communist rebellion that lasted from March until May. The city council of Paris declared Paris independent from the French government and tried to govern the city on the basis of communism. The Commune quickly fell to French forces, and the first attempt at creating a communist state failed. Soviet Union
After its communist revolution, Russia became known as the Soviet Union, which while technically a collective of nations adhering to a similar form of communism was really a way for the Russian communist party to extend its territorial control. The Soviet Union at its height consisted of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Eastern Europe
During the early stages of Cold War, communism quickly spread across Eastern Europe, usually through indirect Russian influence, and sometimes through a direct Russian invasion. Soviet supported communist parties took over in Poland in 1945, Albania and Bulgaria in 1946, Romania in 1947, Czechoslovakia in 1948, East Germany and Hungary in 1949. Though nominally independent, these countries were really satellites of the Soviet Union, and when any tried to break away from the policies of Russian communism they were invaded by the USSR, as happened in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. Only Yugoslavia, another European communist country, remained independent in its policies, as its leader Josip Tito had the power and charisma to keep the country outside Soviet influence. China and East Asia
Communist also spread to East Asia, largely through the influence of China, which became a communist country in 1949 under Mao Zedong. Communism spread to North Korea in 1948, which led to the Korean War between them and the U.S. supported South from 1950 to 1953, as well as to North Vietnam in 1945. | http://classroom.synonym.com/areas-did-communism-spread-to-11729.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055103806#2_1911782259 | Title: What Areas Did Communism Spread To? | The Classroom
Headings: What Areas Did Communism Spread To?
What Areas Did Communism Spread To?
Paris Commune
Soviet Union
Eastern Europe
China and East Asia
Africa and Others
Content: Soviet supported communist parties took over in Poland in 1945, Albania and Bulgaria in 1946, Romania in 1947, Czechoslovakia in 1948, East Germany and Hungary in 1949. Though nominally independent, these countries were really satellites of the Soviet Union, and when any tried to break away from the policies of Russian communism they were invaded by the USSR, as happened in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968. Only Yugoslavia, another European communist country, remained independent in its policies, as its leader Josip Tito had the power and charisma to keep the country outside Soviet influence. China and East Asia
Communist also spread to East Asia, largely through the influence of China, which became a communist country in 1949 under Mao Zedong. Communism spread to North Korea in 1948, which led to the Korean War between them and the U.S. supported South from 1950 to 1953, as well as to North Vietnam in 1945. After the U.S. failed to defeat the North Vietnamese during the Vietnam War, communism spread to neighboring Cambodia and Laos in 1975, while North Vietnam conquered the South and established a unified communist Veitnam in 1976. In East Asia Mongolia became communist in 1924 and maintained close ties to the Soviet Union. Africa and Others
The Cold War also saw communism spread to Africa and other parts of the world. South Yemen became a communist state in 1967 after decolonization from the British, the only openly communist state in the Middle East. The Republic of Congo experienced similar turmoil after the French granted them independence in 1960, with a communist party emerging triumphant in 1970. | http://classroom.synonym.com/areas-did-communism-spread-to-11729.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1055103806#3_1911784331 | Title: What Areas Did Communism Spread To? | The Classroom
Headings: What Areas Did Communism Spread To?
What Areas Did Communism Spread To?
Paris Commune
Soviet Union
Eastern Europe
China and East Asia
Africa and Others
Content: After the U.S. failed to defeat the North Vietnamese during the Vietnam War, communism spread to neighboring Cambodia and Laos in 1975, while North Vietnam conquered the South and established a unified communist Veitnam in 1976. In East Asia Mongolia became communist in 1924 and maintained close ties to the Soviet Union. Africa and Others
The Cold War also saw communism spread to Africa and other parts of the world. South Yemen became a communist state in 1967 after decolonization from the British, the only openly communist state in the Middle East. The Republic of Congo experienced similar turmoil after the French granted them independence in 1960, with a communist party emerging triumphant in 1970. Ethiopia became communist after a military coup in 1974 and support from the USSR, as did its rival Somalia in 1976. The former Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique both experienced civil wars in 1975 when the Portuguese pulled out, and in both countries communists came to power. Finally, Cuba became communist in 1959 after a revolution led by Fidel Castro. Additionally, communist parties have had significant influence in the politics of numerous democratic states, often influencing policy in a socialist direction, as with France under President Francois Mitterrand. | http://classroom.synonym.com/areas-did-communism-spread-to-11729.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1056382164#2_1914650517 | Title: How Did the Crusades Affect Exploration and Trade? | Synonym
Headings: How Did the Crusades Affect Exploration and Trade?
How Did the Crusades Affect Exploration and Trade?
Explore this article
1 Transformations in Shipbuilding
2 Trade Turns to Exploration
3 A Cross-Cultural Exchange
4 Military Failure, Cultural Success
Content: 2 Trade Turns to Exploration
These riches, however, were scarce, and this led European explorers further afield in search of new trading opportunities -- the voyages of Marco Polo, begun as the last Crusades were drawing to a close, are a classic example of for-profit trading journeys turning into ones of exploration. Some historians claim that Christopher’s Columbus’ voyages to America were an indirect result of the Crusades, since one of Columbus' goals was to thwart "the sect of Mahomet," as he wrote in his journal. Going even further, Carol Delaney, author of “Columbus and the Quest for Jerusalem," argues that Columbus’ first voyage was the direct result of a desire to find gold with which to finance a new Crusade to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims. ( However, this point of view is disputed by historians and remains highly controversial.) 3 A Cross-Cultural Exchange
Another effect of the Crusades was to expose Europe to Islamic science, mathematics, art and military science. Europeans learned about chess, algebra, Arabic numbers and irrigation from the Islamic world. Ironically, the Muslims became better builders of fortified castles after the Crusader invasions, and these innovations found their way back to Europe. Muslim universities, established as early as the 7th century, became models for European universities. And Muslims themselves benefited from the trade in textiles from Byzantium and northern Europe. 4 Military Failure, Cultural Success
The Crusades were a military failure for Christianity, since Christians did not ultimately succeed in their stated goal of recovering the Holy Land from the Muslims. | http://classroom.synonym.com/did-crusades-affect-exploration-trade-8887.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1056382164#3_1914652730 | Title: How Did the Crusades Affect Exploration and Trade? | Synonym
Headings: How Did the Crusades Affect Exploration and Trade?
How Did the Crusades Affect Exploration and Trade?
Explore this article
1 Transformations in Shipbuilding
2 Trade Turns to Exploration
3 A Cross-Cultural Exchange
4 Military Failure, Cultural Success
Content: Europeans learned about chess, algebra, Arabic numbers and irrigation from the Islamic world. Ironically, the Muslims became better builders of fortified castles after the Crusader invasions, and these innovations found their way back to Europe. Muslim universities, established as early as the 7th century, became models for European universities. And Muslims themselves benefited from the trade in textiles from Byzantium and northern Europe. 4 Military Failure, Cultural Success
The Crusades were a military failure for Christianity, since Christians did not ultimately succeed in their stated goal of recovering the Holy Land from the Muslims. However, they were in fact a political and cultural victory for Europe on a grand scale. The Crusades opened up new trading markets, new ideas and new global vistas to Europeans. Thomas F. Madden, author of “The New Concise History of the Crusades,” writes, “It is one of the remarkable events in history that the Latin West … suddenly burst forth with amazing new energy, neutralizing its enemies and expanding across the globe.” | http://classroom.synonym.com/did-crusades-affect-exploration-trade-8887.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1057036659#3_1916108415 | Title: How Does the Executive Branch of Government Work? | Synonym
Headings: How Does the Executive Branch of Government Work?
How Does the Executive Branch of Government Work?
Explore this article
1 Taking the Lead
2 Faithful Execution
3 Consulting the Cabinet
4 Checks on Power
Content: 2 Faithful Execution
The president's oath of office includes the promise to faithfully execute the country's laws -- but this job can't be accomplished by one person alone. The Executive Office of the President includes a number of people, such as the press secretary, who help run the White House on a daily basis. Many of these officials are appointed directly by the president without any input from Congress. Outside the White House, the executive departments, federal commissions and regulatory agencies have the responsibility for administering laws passed by Congress. These agencies and departments have authority to publish detailed rules and regulations in their areas. For example, the Department of Agriculture regulates food production and safety. 3 Consulting the Cabinet
The president's cabinet includes the heads of the 15 executive departments, and constitutes one of the most important advisory groups in the federal government. Cabinet-level departments include: Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, Justice, Labor, State, Transportation, the Treasury and Veterans' Affairs. These leaders keep the president informed about anything related to their field of responsibility. | http://classroom.synonym.com/executive-branch-government-work-10310.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1057159646#0_1916382697 | Title: Five Things That Ancient Greece Has Contributed to Modern Culture | Synonym
Headings: Five Things That Ancient Greece Has Contributed to Modern Culture
Five Things That Ancient Greece Has Contributed to Modern Culture
Explore this article
1 Olympics and International Sports
2 Mythology
3 Dramatic Structure
4 Fashion
5 Democracy
Content: Five Things That Ancient Greece Has Contributed to Modern Culture | Synonym
Five Things That Ancient Greece Has Contributed to Modern Culture
Ancient Greece is not just ancient history. The legacy of this classical culture has had a significant influence on culture today, from athletic spectacles such as the Olympics to the storytelling structure of Hollywood films. Even if you have never read a single scroll by Plato or Aristotle, you have most likely encountered one of the many ways that ancient Greece remains a presence in contemporary life. Explore this article
Olympics and International Sports
Mythology
Dramatic Structure
Fashion
Democracy
1 Olympics and International Sports
Every four years in ancient Greece, rival city-states entered into a formal armistice, setting aside political intrigue, legal disputes and weapons of war to send their best athletes to the Olympic Games. Although the original tradition of the Olympics died out in the 5th century A.D., the ideal of a sports competition that would bring nations together inspired the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896. 2 Mythology
The pagan religion of the ancient Greeks may no longer be the established faith of the Aegean peninsula, but references to the legends of its gods and heroes continue to pervade our own culture. Common expressions such as "Pandora's box," "harpy" and "Herculean" are among the many modern-day references to ancient Greek mythology. Its influence can also be detected in a more oblique way; for instance, a number of commentators have observed that modern comic book superheroes bear the stamp of Greek myth. 3 Dramatic Structure
In his "Poetics," the 4th-century B.C. philosopher Aristotle observed that plays in the genre of tragedy tended to follow a recurring pattern: | http://classroom.synonym.com/five-things-ancient-greece-contributed-modern-culture-10933.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1057945678#1_1918169907 | Title: Main Reasons New England Colonies Were Formed | Synonym
Headings: Main Reasons New England Colonies Were Formed
Main Reasons New England Colonies Were Formed
Explore this article
1 Pilgrims and Puritans in Massachusetts
2 Thomas Hooker's Puritans
3 Rhode Island Dissenters
4 New Hampshire's Fisheries
Content: Later, a similar religious group -- the Puritans -- sought refuge from the harassment they also experienced in England. In 1630, more than 1,000 Puritans arrived just north of Plymouth and established the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Unlike the Pilgrims, the Puritans merely wanted to "purify" the Anglican church, not separate from it. 2 Thomas Hooker's Puritans
The Puritans were not a uniform group of religious, and within a decade a separate group of Puritans settled the Connecticut Colony south of Massachusetts Bay. Founded by the Rev. Thomas Hooker, the Connecticut colony allowed non-Puritans to vote in elections. This was different from Massachusetts, where Puritan Church membership was a requirement for the franchise. Connecticut enacted its constitution, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, in 1639. The orders allowed voters to elect both legislators and the colony's governor, which created a highly democratic society. 3 Rhode Island Dissenters
Unlike Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, Rhode Island was founded by people who did not come directly from England. In 1636, Roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for his unorthodox beliefs -- religious tolerance, separation of church and state, and opposition to stealing American Indian lands. | http://classroom.synonym.com/main-reasons-new-england-colonies-were-formed-21787.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058116501#0_1918540588 | Title: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College? | The Classroom
Headings: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
Pre-Veterinary Requirements
Pre-Calculus
Calculus
Statistics
Related Articles
What Math Do People Who Want to Become Doctors Need to Take in High ...
What Courses Must a Medical Examiner Take in College?
Importance of Chemistry in the Vet Tech Program
What High School Math Should an Actuary Take?
What College Math Classes Should I Take to Become an OB/GYN?
The Best High School Math for Accounting Majors
What Do I Need in College to Become an ER Doctor for Kids?
Math Classes Required for a Laboratory Technician
Content: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College? | The Classroom
What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College? Veterinarians are doctors who work with animals. Students who are interested in becoming veterinarians have to complete a bachelor's degree, take all the pre-veterinary courses and complete four years of veterinary school. Graduates of veterinary schools work as veterinarians in a variety of places including veterinary hospitals, clinics, farms and in private practice. Students interested in doing veterinary surgery complete additional residency requirements in this field. Pre-Veterinary Requirements
Veterinary schools require prospective applicants to complete a certain number of requirements prior to considering their applications. These requirements show the schools that the student has adequate undergraduate preparation in the natural sciences, social sciences and mathematics to succeed in veterinary school. Requirements vary, but most veterinary schools require students to take a year of general biology, a year of general chemistry, a year of general physics and a year of organic chemistry with associated laboratory sections. Furthermore, students are also required to take a course in microbiology and/or biochemistry and one or two courses in mathematics. | http://classroom.synonym.com/math-courses-veterinarians-during-college-3790.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058116501#1_1918542837 | Title: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College? | The Classroom
Headings: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
Pre-Veterinary Requirements
Pre-Calculus
Calculus
Statistics
Related Articles
What Math Do People Who Want to Become Doctors Need to Take in High ...
What Courses Must a Medical Examiner Take in College?
Importance of Chemistry in the Vet Tech Program
What High School Math Should an Actuary Take?
What College Math Classes Should I Take to Become an OB/GYN?
The Best High School Math for Accounting Majors
What Do I Need in College to Become an ER Doctor for Kids?
Math Classes Required for a Laboratory Technician
Content: Students interested in doing veterinary surgery complete additional residency requirements in this field. Pre-Veterinary Requirements
Veterinary schools require prospective applicants to complete a certain number of requirements prior to considering their applications. These requirements show the schools that the student has adequate undergraduate preparation in the natural sciences, social sciences and mathematics to succeed in veterinary school. Requirements vary, but most veterinary schools require students to take a year of general biology, a year of general chemistry, a year of general physics and a year of organic chemistry with associated laboratory sections. Furthermore, students are also required to take a course in microbiology and/or biochemistry and one or two courses in mathematics. Pre-Calculus
Most veterinary programs require students to take a course in calculus. However, some college students do not have adequate high school preparation to go straight into this advanced math class so they take a course in pre-calculus. Pre-calculus contains an overview of the material covered in earlier courses, algebra 1 and algebra 2, focusing on topics such as solving different kinds of linear equations and inequalities. Furthermore, pre-calculus also goes a step further and teaches students how to solve and graph linear equations and inequalities. Graphing is an important component of pre-calculus — students learn both how to graph on paper and using a graphing calculator. | http://classroom.synonym.com/math-courses-veterinarians-during-college-3790.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058116501#2_1918545288 | Title: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College? | The Classroom
Headings: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
Pre-Veterinary Requirements
Pre-Calculus
Calculus
Statistics
Related Articles
What Math Do People Who Want to Become Doctors Need to Take in High ...
What Courses Must a Medical Examiner Take in College?
Importance of Chemistry in the Vet Tech Program
What High School Math Should an Actuary Take?
What College Math Classes Should I Take to Become an OB/GYN?
The Best High School Math for Accounting Majors
What Do I Need in College to Become an ER Doctor for Kids?
Math Classes Required for a Laboratory Technician
Content: Pre-Calculus
Most veterinary programs require students to take a course in calculus. However, some college students do not have adequate high school preparation to go straight into this advanced math class so they take a course in pre-calculus. Pre-calculus contains an overview of the material covered in earlier courses, algebra 1 and algebra 2, focusing on topics such as solving different kinds of linear equations and inequalities. Furthermore, pre-calculus also goes a step further and teaches students how to solve and graph linear equations and inequalities. Graphing is an important component of pre-calculus — students learn both how to graph on paper and using a graphing calculator. Calculus
Pre-veterinary students who do not take pre-calculus in college go straight into calculus 1. Requirements vary, but most veterinary schools require prospective veterinary students to take one or two semesters of calculus. Calculus is the study of the rates of change of functions, and calculus 1 and 2 focus on functions in one dimension, also known as single-variable calculus. Calculus is an important advanced mathematics course that focuses on two main topics: derivatives and integrals. | http://classroom.synonym.com/math-courses-veterinarians-during-college-3790.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058116501#3_1918547434 | Title: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College? | The Classroom
Headings: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
Pre-Veterinary Requirements
Pre-Calculus
Calculus
Statistics
Related Articles
What Math Do People Who Want to Become Doctors Need to Take in High ...
What Courses Must a Medical Examiner Take in College?
Importance of Chemistry in the Vet Tech Program
What High School Math Should an Actuary Take?
What College Math Classes Should I Take to Become an OB/GYN?
The Best High School Math for Accounting Majors
What Do I Need in College to Become an ER Doctor for Kids?
Math Classes Required for a Laboratory Technician
Content: Calculus
Pre-veterinary students who do not take pre-calculus in college go straight into calculus 1. Requirements vary, but most veterinary schools require prospective veterinary students to take one or two semesters of calculus. Calculus is the study of the rates of change of functions, and calculus 1 and 2 focus on functions in one dimension, also known as single-variable calculus. Calculus is an important advanced mathematics course that focuses on two main topics: derivatives and integrals. In particular, students learn how to take derivatives and integrate a variety of different functions. Statistics
In addition to calculus, many veterinary schools also require students to take a semester of statistics while they are in college. This course covers introductory topics in statistics such as estimation, different types of graphs and plots, and an introduction to regression and probability. Furthermore, students also learn the difference between correlation and causation and how to work different computer programs, such as SPSS, which statisticians use to calculate statistical data. Related Articles
Related
What Math Do People Who Want to Become Doctors Need to Take in High ...
Related
What Courses Must a Medical Examiner Take in College? | http://classroom.synonym.com/math-courses-veterinarians-during-college-3790.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058116501#4_1918549644 | Title: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College? | The Classroom
Headings: What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
What Math Courses Do Veterinarians Take During College?
Pre-Veterinary Requirements
Pre-Calculus
Calculus
Statistics
Related Articles
What Math Do People Who Want to Become Doctors Need to Take in High ...
What Courses Must a Medical Examiner Take in College?
Importance of Chemistry in the Vet Tech Program
What High School Math Should an Actuary Take?
What College Math Classes Should I Take to Become an OB/GYN?
The Best High School Math for Accounting Majors
What Do I Need in College to Become an ER Doctor for Kids?
Math Classes Required for a Laboratory Technician
Content: In particular, students learn how to take derivatives and integrate a variety of different functions. Statistics
In addition to calculus, many veterinary schools also require students to take a semester of statistics while they are in college. This course covers introductory topics in statistics such as estimation, different types of graphs and plots, and an introduction to regression and probability. Furthermore, students also learn the difference between correlation and causation and how to work different computer programs, such as SPSS, which statisticians use to calculate statistical data. Related Articles
Related
What Math Do People Who Want to Become Doctors Need to Take in High ...
Related
What Courses Must a Medical Examiner Take in College? Related
Importance of Chemistry in the Vet Tech Program
Related
What High School Math Should an Actuary Take? Related
What College Math Classes Should I Take to Become an OB/GYN? Related
The Best High School Math for Accounting Majors
Related
What Do I Need in College to Become an ER Doctor for Kids? Related
Math Classes Required for a Laboratory Technician | http://classroom.synonym.com/math-courses-veterinarians-during-college-3790.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058161065#1_1918641460 | Title: What Is the Meaning of Cultural Imperialism? | The Classroom
Headings: What Is the Meaning of Cultural Imperialism?
What Is the Meaning of Cultural Imperialism?
Core Concept of Cultural Imperialism
Examples of Cultural Imperialism
Nonreciprocal Media Imperialism
Critiques of Cultural Imperialism
Content: As globalization, media proliferation and instant worldwide communication become the norm, cultural imperialism is perhaps more significant now than ever before. Core Concept of Cultural Imperialism
According to the theory of cultural imperialism, less economically prominent cultures essentially import examples of culture from wealthier countries -- chiefly Western countries, which have the economic means necessary to produce a majority of the world's cultural media -- mostly via the global transmission of media. As one society exerts cultural influence over another, the latter society adopts its customs, philosophies, worldviews and general ways of life. Under the imposition of another culture, the “lesser” culture is thought to lose some of its own cultural identity in the process. Examples of Cultural Imperialism
Since Herbert Schiller's book “Communication and Cultural Domination” first coined the phrase in 1976, the concept of cultural imperialism is often used to refer to the idea of America exerting cultural influence over the rest of the world, with a particularly powerful imposition on Third World countries. Examples of American cultural imperialism include brand name products, mass-produced food and, perhaps of primary importance, video media. While this may come with some positive effects -- showing women's rights or racial equality in a positive light, for example -- it also tends to paint America as a leader or hero, potentially exerting a negative effect on the viewer's perception of his own country or other non-American cultures. Nonreciprocal Media Imperialism
Although cultural imperialism extends to the development of governmental and economic systems, it also focuses on the assimilation of media, including literature, film, television, music and Internet content. This concept, known as media imperialism, refers to a situation in which a culture is chiefly exposed to the media interests of another society rather than their own. This occurs without reciprocation -- the affected country or culture's media is not exported in turn to the influencing country in any significant fashion, making media and cultural imperialism a strictly one-way street. | http://classroom.synonym.com/meaning-cultural-imperialism-7841.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058594294#0_1919643001 | Title: What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship? | Synonym
Headings: What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship?
What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship?
Explore this article
1 All Hearts and Roses
2 Reality Bites
3 Holding on Too Tight
4 Effects on the Relationship
Content: What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship? | Synonym
What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship? Possessiveness is when an individual holds onto something for herself only, unwilling to share with others. For example, she might be possessive about an object, not allowing anyone else to touch or use it. In a relationship context, possessiveness is when you do not want your partner to spend time with anyone else or even pursue interests outside the relationship. Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines the word as "wanting all of someone's attention and love." Explore this article
All Hearts and Roses
Reality Bites
Holding on Too Tight
Effects on the Relationship
1 All Hearts and Roses
It is natural in the early stages of a relationship to want to spend all of your time with your partner. This is the romantic love stage. It is during this six-month to two-year stage that couples tend to be infatuated with each other, thinking the other can do no wrong and wanting constant affection, according to an article provided by the Relationship Institute, a psychoeducational service organization located in Royal Oak, Michigan. 2 Reality Bites
After couples emerge from the romantic love stage, they become reacquainted with reality and begin to see their partner as a normal human being with flaws. | http://classroom.synonym.com/possessive-mean-relationship-6791.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058594294#1_1919644810 | Title: What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship? | Synonym
Headings: What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship?
What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship?
Explore this article
1 All Hearts and Roses
2 Reality Bites
3 Holding on Too Tight
4 Effects on the Relationship
Content: Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines the word as "wanting all of someone's attention and love." Explore this article
All Hearts and Roses
Reality Bites
Holding on Too Tight
Effects on the Relationship
1 All Hearts and Roses
It is natural in the early stages of a relationship to want to spend all of your time with your partner. This is the romantic love stage. It is during this six-month to two-year stage that couples tend to be infatuated with each other, thinking the other can do no wrong and wanting constant affection, according to an article provided by the Relationship Institute, a psychoeducational service organization located in Royal Oak, Michigan. 2 Reality Bites
After couples emerge from the romantic love stage, they become reacquainted with reality and begin to see their partner as a normal human being with flaws. This is a hard reality to face. To successfully navigate this stage, each person must be able to rediscover their own interests and learn how to be both independent again, while also dependent on their partner to help meet certain needs as the relationship develops. 3 Holding on Too Tight
Moving from the infatuation stage back to "real life" can be particularly challenging for some. It is during this time that an individual might become possessive, demanding a more than reasonable amount of attention from his partner. This may come in the form of calling too frequently or trying to monitor his partner's every move, according to a 2011 CollegeMagazine.com article, provided by Pace University. | http://classroom.synonym.com/possessive-mean-relationship-6791.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1058594294#2_1919646848 | Title: What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship? | Synonym
Headings: What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship?
What Does "Possessive" Mean in a Relationship?
Explore this article
1 All Hearts and Roses
2 Reality Bites
3 Holding on Too Tight
4 Effects on the Relationship
Content: This is a hard reality to face. To successfully navigate this stage, each person must be able to rediscover their own interests and learn how to be both independent again, while also dependent on their partner to help meet certain needs as the relationship develops. 3 Holding on Too Tight
Moving from the infatuation stage back to "real life" can be particularly challenging for some. It is during this time that an individual might become possessive, demanding a more than reasonable amount of attention from his partner. This may come in the form of calling too frequently or trying to monitor his partner's every move, according to a 2011 CollegeMagazine.com article, provided by Pace University. This behavior may be an attempt to keep any outside influences away from the relationship so that the more possessive partner doesn't feel threatened. 4 Effects on the Relationship
Possessiveness can be overwhelming and create division between partners. One of the most important aspects of being in a relationship is both maintaining your own interests and unique personality while still being willing to make compromises for your partner. If you feel like you are unable to do this, you might ultimately become resentful. Healthy relationships are about give and take with each partner feeling free to be themselves while also pursuing a shared life together. | http://classroom.synonym.com/possessive-mean-relationship-6791.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059015248#2_1920587729 | Title: The Spread of Communism During the Truman Era | Synonym
Headings: The Spread of Communism During the Truman Era
The Spread of Communism During the Truman Era
Explore this article
1 Communism when Truman Became President
2 Truman's First Term (1945-1948)
3 Truman's Second Term (1949 -1952)
4 Truman's Influence on Communist Policy
Content: These countries became known as the "Soviet Bloc." Germany and Korea were divided between Soviet spheres of influence -- East Germany and North Korea -- and American and British spheres of influence in West Germany, West Berlin -- which was inside of East Germany -- and South Korea. In 1946, Yugoslavia implemented a communist government modeled after the Soviet Union. The same year, communist forces began fighting the colonial government in French Indochina -- a region that includes Vietnam. In response to growing fear that communism would continue to spread, President Truman outlined a plan to contain the growth of communism in 1947. This became known as the Truman Doctrine. 3 Truman's Second Term (1949 -1952)
In accordance with the Truman Doctrine, the U.S. gave aid to several governments trying to resist communist movements, including the governments of Greece, Turkey, South Korea, Italy and China. Communist movements failed to gain power in Greece, Turkey and Italy in the late 1940s. However, communists under Mao Zedong gained control of China in 1950. Communist movements led to war in other parts of Asia as well, most notably Korea and French Indochina -- which included Vietnam. | http://classroom.synonym.com/spread-communism-during-truman-era-7331.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059166819#1_1920921379 | Title: Summary of the Ideas and Values of Jeffersonian Democracy | The Classroom
Headings: Summary of the Ideas and Values of Jeffersonian Democracy
Summary of the Ideas and Values of Jeffersonian Democracy
Republicanism
Political Parties
Virginian Aristocracy
Agrarian Democracy
Content: He, like many of the founding fathers, wanted a republican system in which power is shared by the states and federal government. Jefferson envisioned a federal government of limited powers, which put him at odds with city dwellers like John Adams, the second president, and Alexander Hamilton, who wanted a powerful central government. Political Parties
The rivalry between Jefferson and Hamilton led to the formation of two political parties in the 1790s. Jefferson’s Republican Party -- often referred to as the Democrat-Republican Party to distinguish it from the modern Republican Party founded in the 1850s -- favored his ideals of limited government, economic freedom and agrarian democracy. A faction of this party formed into the Democratic Party under Andrew Jackson in the late 1820s. Hamilton’s Federalist Party favored a mercantilist economy and greater federal control. Although both parties advocated federalism, the Federalists favored a strong centralized government at the expense of the states. Anti-Federalists, on the other hand, wanted governmental power to lie at the state level. However, Jefferson’s battles with the Supreme Court for executive control, his military spending during the Barbary War and the Louisiana Purchase often put him more in line with the federalist camp. Thus, his presidency is not always seen as a model of limited government. | http://classroom.synonym.com/summary-ideas-values-jeffersonian-democracy-14320.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059644402#0_1921991843 | Title: What Were the Causes of European Imperialism in Africa? | The Classroom
Headings: What Were the Causes of European Imperialism in Africa?
What Were the Causes of European Imperialism in Africa?
Rivalry between Nations
Trading Resources
Strategy and Convenience
Economic Benefits
Content: What Were the Causes of European Imperialism in Africa? | The Classroom
What Were the Causes of European Imperialism in Africa? In the late 1800s and early 1900s, seven European powers – France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Spain, Belgium and Portugal – were active in claiming African territory as their own. By 1914, the vast majority of the continent was under European control, with France dominating the northwest, while British possessions were concentrated in the east and south. European colonial activity in Africa was motivated by a variety of factors. Rivalry between Nations
European imperialism in Africa was partly due to rivalries between the different European countries involved, with Britain, Germany and France the dominant powers. As Professor Richard Evans of the University of Cambridge observes, by the 1880s “rivalries and interventions had been building up already over several decades.” Each country aimed to increase its own prestige by accumulating territories in other parts of the world. Such was the rivalry between European powers that, in 1884 and 1885, the Berlin conference was held to map out European possession of Africa, and by 1900, over 90 percent of African territory was nominally under European control. Trading Resources
Africa’s natural resources were an important component in motivating European colonialism. | http://classroom.synonym.com/were-causes-european-imperialism-africa-6607.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059644402#1_1921993722 | Title: What Were the Causes of European Imperialism in Africa? | The Classroom
Headings: What Were the Causes of European Imperialism in Africa?
What Were the Causes of European Imperialism in Africa?
Rivalry between Nations
Trading Resources
Strategy and Convenience
Economic Benefits
Content: Rivalry between Nations
European imperialism in Africa was partly due to rivalries between the different European countries involved, with Britain, Germany and France the dominant powers. As Professor Richard Evans of the University of Cambridge observes, by the 1880s “rivalries and interventions had been building up already over several decades.” Each country aimed to increase its own prestige by accumulating territories in other parts of the world. Such was the rivalry between European powers that, in 1884 and 1885, the Berlin conference was held to map out European possession of Africa, and by 1900, over 90 percent of African territory was nominally under European control. Trading Resources
Africa’s natural resources were an important component in motivating European colonialism. In the early 1800s, the triangular trade in slaves between Africa, the Americas and Europe exploited Africa’s population, but after the abolition of slavery other resources came to the fore. For example, mining millionaire Cecil Rhodes exploited goldfields and diamond mines in South Africa and played a vital role in securing British rule over parts of modern-day Zimbabwe in the belief that the land contained large deposits of gold. Strategy and Convenience
Sometimes European powers were keen to maintain control of specific territories for strategic reasons. For the British, South Africa provided a useful stop for ships on their way to India, another significant part of the British Empire, while from 1869 the Suez Canal in Egypt created a much shorter route between the United Kingdom and her colonies further east. As transport grew more reliant on oil, the canal also formed a route to the oilfields of the Middle East. | http://classroom.synonym.com/were-causes-european-imperialism-africa-6607.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059673378#0_1922059189 | Title: What's the Purpose of Figurative Language? | Pen and the Pad
Headings: What's the Purpose of Figurative Language?
What's the Purpose of Figurative Language?
Figurative Elements
Metaphors, Similes and Analogies
Expanding Meaning
Creative Additions
Content: What's the Purpose of Figurative Language? | Pen and the Pad
What's the Purpose of Figurative Language? Neil Kokemuller
Home » Rhyme & Rhythm
•••
Polka Dot Images/Polka Dot/Getty Images
Figurative language plays a major role in compelling literary works. Figurative language is a contrast to literal language. Its primary purpose is to force readers to imagine or intuit what an author means with an expression or statement. Multiple literary devices and elements are commonly used in the category of figurative language. Figurative Elements
The use of multiple types of elements adds to the strength, depth and quality of figurative language through a literary work. Metaphors, similes, analogies, hyperbole, symbolism, personification, allusion, imagery and rhyme are all common figurative language elements. Applying the right element in making specific points in writing is necessary to make figurative language work. Regardless of the tool, figurative language strengthens or makes a point more compelling and effective. | http://classroom.synonym.com/whats-purpose-figurative-language-21752.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059673378#1_1922060702 | Title: What's the Purpose of Figurative Language? | Pen and the Pad
Headings: What's the Purpose of Figurative Language?
What's the Purpose of Figurative Language?
Figurative Elements
Metaphors, Similes and Analogies
Expanding Meaning
Creative Additions
Content: Multiple literary devices and elements are commonly used in the category of figurative language. Figurative Elements
The use of multiple types of elements adds to the strength, depth and quality of figurative language through a literary work. Metaphors, similes, analogies, hyperbole, symbolism, personification, allusion, imagery and rhyme are all common figurative language elements. Applying the right element in making specific points in writing is necessary to make figurative language work. Regardless of the tool, figurative language strengthens or makes a point more compelling and effective. Metaphors, Similes and Analogies
Metaphors, similes and analogies are often used in similar ways. Rather than simply making a statement about a person, place or thing, these tools allow you to make the point by comparing one thing to another. In the metaphor "Jill is the rock of her family," the character Jill is compared to a rock to emphasize her strength and fortitude. The author takes this approach as opposed to simply stating "Jill is a stable and supportive influence in her family," which is more literal, but also less impactful. Expanding Meaning
Some figurative language is used to expand beyond the literal narrative in the story. | http://classroom.synonym.com/whats-purpose-figurative-language-21752.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059673378#3_1922064004 | Title: What's the Purpose of Figurative Language? | Pen and the Pad
Headings: What's the Purpose of Figurative Language?
What's the Purpose of Figurative Language?
Figurative Elements
Metaphors, Similes and Analogies
Expanding Meaning
Creative Additions
Content: Hyperbole is a grossly exaggerated or excessive claim. Symbolism is used to present a moral lesson or broader point by having a noun in the story represent something beyond the story. Personification is used to give human qualities to an object or animal. For example, "the clouds cried with empathy toward her loss" is a human-like way to describe rainfall. Allusion is simply referring to something outside the narrative, such as a reference to a historical event. Creative Additions
In creative works, some figurative language tools simply increase the creativity of the writing. Imagery is one of the simpler elements to understand. It is the use of descriptive, expressive language to give the reader a mental image. " The Sun beamed brightly down on the couple as they embraced" is an example. Rhyme is a figurative element commonly used in children's books. | http://classroom.synonym.com/whats-purpose-figurative-language-21752.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059695360#0_1922106834 | Title: The Working Class in the Early 1900s | The Classroom
Headings: The Working Class in the Early 1900s
The Working Class in the Early 1900s
Rural Farmers
Factory Workers
Survival in the Lower Class
Growing Middle Class
Women in the Workplace
Content: The Working Class in the Early 1900s | The Classroom
The Working Class in the Early 1900s
Even though the early 1900s were a time when urbanization was growing like wildfire and cities were popping up all over the map, rural farming was still an important occupation of the working class. As factories and industries grew, farmers provided the food and agricultural resources that helped sustain life. The working class was often divided according to socioeconomic status with the wealthiest making up only a small percentage of the total labor force. Most of the working class struggled to make a decent living in factories, shipyards and farming communities. Rural Farmers
Farmers didn’t enjoy the cosmopolitan aspects of the growing, populous, industrial cities but their workload was just as taxing. Rural workers performed hard labor to ensure their crops and livestock survived, despite droughts, famines and pestilence. Farming was often considered part of the lower socioeconomic class because farmers lived simple lives, without luxury, fame or prestige. However, rural workers didn’t face the poor working conditions, unsanitary housing environments, poor sunlight, smoggy air and disease-infested close quarters that many of the poorer city-dwellers encountered. The rural population remained a majority until 1920. Factory Workers
The working class in industrialized cities consisted primarily of immigrant and native workers who labored at clothing factories, industrial plants and meat packaging facilities. | http://classroom.synonym.com/working-class-early-1900s-16090.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059695360#1_1922108816 | Title: The Working Class in the Early 1900s | The Classroom
Headings: The Working Class in the Early 1900s
The Working Class in the Early 1900s
Rural Farmers
Factory Workers
Survival in the Lower Class
Growing Middle Class
Women in the Workplace
Content: Rural workers performed hard labor to ensure their crops and livestock survived, despite droughts, famines and pestilence. Farming was often considered part of the lower socioeconomic class because farmers lived simple lives, without luxury, fame or prestige. However, rural workers didn’t face the poor working conditions, unsanitary housing environments, poor sunlight, smoggy air and disease-infested close quarters that many of the poorer city-dwellers encountered. The rural population remained a majority until 1920. Factory Workers
The working class in industrialized cities consisted primarily of immigrant and native workers who labored at clothing factories, industrial plants and meat packaging facilities. Some also worked in lumberyards and shipyards that exported goods to other U.S. cities or across the Atlantic. Men, women and children worked in factories, often receiving pay that was incommensurate with their labor. In the early 1900s, labor unions petitioned for child labor laws, women’s workplace rights, better working conditions, fewer weekly work hours and higher pay, but it wasn’t until 1938 that the Fair Labor Standards Act was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. By 1900, 30 million people, comprising 30 percent of the U.S. population, lived in cities, according to the Library of Congress. Survival in the Lower Class
Even though the early 1900s are part of the Progressive Era, a majority of the working class didn’t experience the benefits of urban life. | http://classroom.synonym.com/working-class-early-1900s-16090.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059695360#2_1922110783 | Title: The Working Class in the Early 1900s | The Classroom
Headings: The Working Class in the Early 1900s
The Working Class in the Early 1900s
Rural Farmers
Factory Workers
Survival in the Lower Class
Growing Middle Class
Women in the Workplace
Content: Some also worked in lumberyards and shipyards that exported goods to other U.S. cities or across the Atlantic. Men, women and children worked in factories, often receiving pay that was incommensurate with their labor. In the early 1900s, labor unions petitioned for child labor laws, women’s workplace rights, better working conditions, fewer weekly work hours and higher pay, but it wasn’t until 1938 that the Fair Labor Standards Act was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. By 1900, 30 million people, comprising 30 percent of the U.S. population, lived in cities, according to the Library of Congress. Survival in the Lower Class
Even though the early 1900s are part of the Progressive Era, a majority of the working class didn’t experience the benefits of urban life. Many struggled to survive. The Library of Congress estimates that by 1904, one in three people living in the cities was close to starvation. Poor urban workers experienced overcrowded living conditions, dirty and poorly lit working conditions, insufficient clean water supplies, poor sewage methods and disease. The poor working class resided in slums and relied on low wages for basic survival. Many had a better standard of living as rural farmers in America or in their native homelands than in industrialized American cities. | http://classroom.synonym.com/working-class-early-1900s-16090.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059695360#3_1922112557 | Title: The Working Class in the Early 1900s | The Classroom
Headings: The Working Class in the Early 1900s
The Working Class in the Early 1900s
Rural Farmers
Factory Workers
Survival in the Lower Class
Growing Middle Class
Women in the Workplace
Content: Many struggled to survive. The Library of Congress estimates that by 1904, one in three people living in the cities was close to starvation. Poor urban workers experienced overcrowded living conditions, dirty and poorly lit working conditions, insufficient clean water supplies, poor sewage methods and disease. The poor working class resided in slums and relied on low wages for basic survival. Many had a better standard of living as rural farmers in America or in their native homelands than in industrialized American cities. Growing Middle Class
There was an increase in the middle class during the beginning of the 20th century. A surplus of jobs and increasing wages, especially for skilled workers and small business owners who specialized in particular trades, resulted in a growing middle class in urban areas. Experienced, skilled workers often held leadership roles in factories and industrial plants. The middle class enjoyed leisure, shopping, amusement parks, stadium sports, movies and recreation -- entertainment and resources that rural workers weren’t privy to. Department stores, restaurants and improved transportation systems made city life exciting and enjoyable for those in the working middle class who had disposable income to afford such luxuries. | http://classroom.synonym.com/working-class-early-1900s-16090.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1059695360#4_1922114287 | Title: The Working Class in the Early 1900s | The Classroom
Headings: The Working Class in the Early 1900s
The Working Class in the Early 1900s
Rural Farmers
Factory Workers
Survival in the Lower Class
Growing Middle Class
Women in the Workplace
Content: Growing Middle Class
There was an increase in the middle class during the beginning of the 20th century. A surplus of jobs and increasing wages, especially for skilled workers and small business owners who specialized in particular trades, resulted in a growing middle class in urban areas. Experienced, skilled workers often held leadership roles in factories and industrial plants. The middle class enjoyed leisure, shopping, amusement parks, stadium sports, movies and recreation -- entertainment and resources that rural workers weren’t privy to. Department stores, restaurants and improved transportation systems made city life exciting and enjoyable for those in the working middle class who had disposable income to afford such luxuries. Women in the Workplace
As women entered the workforce, dynamics of the working class changed. Women pursued college education, fair labor laws and increased political freedoms. Some women competed for jobs that had once been available only to male workers. New jobs in industrialized cities were especially appealing to single women who put off motherhood and marriage for independence and economic pursuits. As a result, the average family size dropped from seven children to four children from the 1800s to early 1900s. | http://classroom.synonym.com/working-class-early-1900s-16090.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1061424046#9_1923611792 | Title:
Headings:
Content: Washington
strongly believed that the military needed to be subordinate to civilian
authority. On a
90-degree June day in 1783, former Revolutionary War soldiers, carrying muskets,
marched on the Philadelphia statehouse where Congress was meeting. They
threatened to hold the members hostage until they were paid back wages. When
Congress asked Pennsylvania to send a detachment of militia to protect them, the
state refused, and the humiliated Congress temporarily relocated, first in
Princeton, N.J., and later in Annapolis, Md., and New York City, N.Y.
Economic and
Foreign Policy problems
Period:1780s
The
Revolution was followed by a severe economic depression in 1784 and 1785. To
raise revenue, many states imposed charges on goods from other states. By the
mid-1780s, Connecticut was levying heavier duties on goods from Massachusetts
than on those from Britain. The national
government was on the verge of bankruptcy. The Dutch and French would lend money
only at exorbitant interest rates. A shortage of hard currency made it difficult
to conduct commercial transactions. Inflated paper money issued by the
individual states was virtually worthless. | http://claver.gprep.org/fac/sjochs/articles%20of%20Confederation-regular-2011.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1061434932#9_1923633769 | Title:
Headings:
Content: Women and children therefore had to go to work. By 1900, 1.7 million children
were working. On average , children worked 60 hours per week and took home pay
that was a third the size of adult males. Only 5% of married women held jobs outside the home in 1900. Many women involved in the garment industry worked in their homes, cutting and
sewing garments. ( sweat shops) Married black women were four times more likely to work outside of the home (as
domestics, etc.). Industrialization pushed
women into industries considered an
extension of housework: food processing, textiles, clothing, cigar making, and
domestic service. White collar women: typists, bookkeepers, and
secretaries. | http://claver.gprep.org/fac/sjochs/labor.htm |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1062777196#0_1926129012 | Title: Removing Nicotine Stains (Tips.Net)
Headings: Removing Nicotine Stains
Removing Nicotine Stains
Author Bio
Amy Gordon
MORE FROM AMY
Hiding Scratches and Scrapes on Wood Floors
Remove Gum from Carpet with Peanut Butter
Gardening Gloves
More Cleaning Tips
Removing Tobacco Smell from Upholstery
Remove Cigarette Smell from Your Car
Dealing with Cigarette Smoke
Subscribe
Content: Removing Nicotine Stains (Tips. Net)
Removing Nicotine Stains
by Amy Gordon
(last updated March 25, 2019)
Even if you have quit smoking, you may have unpleasant stains still lingering on your teeth and fingers from nicotine and other chemicals in cigarettes. You may want to remove stains from years of somebody else's smoking from your walls, ceilings, or curtains. Here are a few tips to help you get started. You can wash nicotine stains off your walls with a mixture of hot water and a small amount of trisodium phosphate (TSP). Use the solutions to gently scrub the walls in a circular motion. If you have left smoke stains on your walls for many years, they may never come clean. You may have to repaint your walls, and before you can paint over the cigarette smoking stains, you need to use a primer. Ask at your local paint store for advice. If you wash your walls about once a year with the hot water and TSP, it will be easier to keep them stain free. | http://cleaning.tips.net/T004223_Removing_Nicotine_Stains.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1064114492#0_1928914924 | Title: Importance of news | ClearlyExplained.com
Headings: ClearlyExplained.com
ClearlyExplained.com
Importance of news
Importance of local news
Importance of national news
Importance of international news
Content: Importance of news | ClearlyExplained.com
ClearlyExplained.com
Importance of news
News is important for a number of reasons within a society. Mainly to inform the public about events that are around them and may affect them. Often news is for entertainment purposes too; to provide a distraction of information about other places people are unable to get to or have little influence over. News can make people feel connected too. News is important as a social gathering space too, hence newspapers either online or physical place an emphasis on news. Where there are a lot of people gathered there is opportunity to advertise. This advertising sometimes can cause a conflict of interest in the way news is reported. Importance of local news
News from a local area is often important to advise people in a locality about activities that may have an impact on a community. This can allow a community to engage in decision making processes in a community. | http://clearlyexplained.com/news/importance-of-news.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1064114492#1_1928916276 | Title: Importance of news | ClearlyExplained.com
Headings: ClearlyExplained.com
ClearlyExplained.com
Importance of news
Importance of local news
Importance of national news
Importance of international news
Content: News is important as a social gathering space too, hence newspapers either online or physical place an emphasis on news. Where there are a lot of people gathered there is opportunity to advertise. This advertising sometimes can cause a conflict of interest in the way news is reported. Importance of local news
News from a local area is often important to advise people in a locality about activities that may have an impact on a community. This can allow a community to engage in decision making processes in a community. For example if a local community reports on a dangerous road or accident hotspot reporting these can be later used as evidence to lobby for funding to fix a problem. Importance of national news
Often countries have a broad extent of distance and in some cases differing time zones. Having a national news focus can allow people to gain a sense of national perspective. This is particularly significant for countries that have a diverse range of population centres such as cities or towns. For example large cities many thousands of kilometres apart may still rely on each other for trade or resources of economic significance. | http://clearlyexplained.com/news/importance-of-news.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1064114492#2_1928917826 | Title: Importance of news | ClearlyExplained.com
Headings: ClearlyExplained.com
ClearlyExplained.com
Importance of news
Importance of local news
Importance of national news
Importance of international news
Content: For example if a local community reports on a dangerous road or accident hotspot reporting these can be later used as evidence to lobby for funding to fix a problem. Importance of national news
Often countries have a broad extent of distance and in some cases differing time zones. Having a national news focus can allow people to gain a sense of national perspective. This is particularly significant for countries that have a diverse range of population centres such as cities or towns. For example large cities many thousands of kilometres apart may still rely on each other for trade or resources of economic significance. So knowing the situations in other cities and towns becomes important. Importance of international news
News from one country to another is important in todays global economy. Knowing what is happening in other countries gives people a perspective of each others ways of life and cultural differences. Certain kinds of news from countries that rely on each other for energy or other resources can often have a profound influence in overall global economics. [Back To Top] | http://clearlyexplained.com/news/importance-of-news.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1068590363#3_1937079024 | Title: Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic” | Clinical Diabetes
Headings: Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic”
Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic”
Footnotes
In this Issue
Jump to section
Content: As found in the adult population, type 2 diabetes in children and young adults is due to the combination of insulin resistance and relative b-cell failure. While there appears to be a host of potential genetic and environmental risk factors for insulin resistance and limited b-cell reserve, perhaps the most significant risk factor is obesity. Most children who develop type 2 diabetes have a family member with type 2 diabetes; 45–80% have a parent with type 2 diabetes, and 74–90% report at least one affected first- or second-degree relative. Up to 60–90% of youth who develop diabetes have acanthosis nigricans, a thickening and hyperpigmentation of the skin at the neck and flexural areas that is due to insulin resistance. More children and young adults with diabetes have this skin problem than do adults with diabetes. It is so common that it can be used as a marker of youth at risk for type 2 diabetes. Other risk factors include puberty, intrauterine exposure to diabetes, sedentary lifestyle, and female sex. Despite this increasing incidence and prevalence, little is known about the most effective treatment regimens, the roles of physical activity and nutrition counseling in improving glycemic outcomes, and the most effective ways to reduce cardiovascular risk in these patients. Fewer than 10% of youth with type 2 diabetes are treated with diet and exercise alone. | http://clinical.diabetesjournals.org/content/20/4/217 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1068590363#6_1937084464 | Title: Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic” | Clinical Diabetes
Headings: Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic”
Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic”
Footnotes
In this Issue
Jump to section
Content: These need to be rigorously investigated. The National Institutes of Health has recently funded a multi-center consortium to determine the outcomes of different treatment regimens on glycemic control, b-cell preservation, and comorbidities. There is an opportunity to attempt to prevent type 2 diabetes in youth by addressing the epidemic of childhood obesity. Presently, up to 15–20% of America’s teens 12–18 years of age are overweight. This comes to more than 5 million children. In addition to weight, activity level is also important. Diabetes occurs in children and teens who are inactive. With the sharp rise in computer games and TV-watching and the trend toward abandoning physical education in schools, fewer children are participating in sports. This increase in sedentary lifestyle has contributed to the type 2 diabetes epidemic. There is no doubt that the emergence of this epidemic in children and young adults is a major public health problem. | http://clinical.diabetesjournals.org/content/20/4/217 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1068590363#7_1937085924 | Title: Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic” | Clinical Diabetes
Headings: Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic”
Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Young Adults: A “New Epidemic”
Footnotes
In this Issue
Jump to section
Content: In addition to weight, activity level is also important. Diabetes occurs in children and teens who are inactive. With the sharp rise in computer games and TV-watching and the trend toward abandoning physical education in schools, fewer children are participating in sports. This increase in sedentary lifestyle has contributed to the type 2 diabetes epidemic. There is no doubt that the emergence of this epidemic in children and young adults is a major public health problem. Diabetes costs our nation more than $100 billion per year. It devastates lives and robs people of their health and well-being. It is time for our schools and communities to start to play a role in the prevention of diabetes in children. Schools have to focus on increasing children’s physical activity and improving their nutrition. Schools no longer have physical education curriculums designed to help optimize the health of America’s children. | http://clinical.diabetesjournals.org/content/20/4/217 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1076693135#2_1950177475 | Title: Grief and Loss
Headings: Grief and Loss
Grief and Loss
Topics
Life after loss: Dealing with grief
Different kinds of loss
Sudden versus predictable loss
How long does grief last?
Normal grief reactions
Grief as a process of healing
Culture, rituals, and ceremonies
Coping with grief
Supporting others who are grieving
To One In Sorrow
Resources
Reading list
Where can I find help?
Content: Loss of a close friend
Death of a partner
Death of a classmate or colleague
Serious illness of a loved one
Relationship breakup
Death of a family member
Subtle or less obvious losses can also cause strong feelings of grief, even though those around you may not know the extent of your feelings. Some examples include: Leaving home
Illness/loss of health
Death of a pet
Change of job
Move to a new home
Graduation from school
Loss of a physical ability
Loss of financial security
Sudden versus predictable loss
Sudden or shocking losses due to events like crimes, accidents, or suicide can be traumatic. There is no way to prepare. They can challenge your sense of security and confidence in the predictability of life. You may experience symptoms such as sleep disturbance, nightmares, distressing thoughts, depressed mood, social isolation, or severe anxiety. Predictable losses, like those due to terminal illness, sometimes allow more time to prepare for the loss. However, they create two layers of grief: the grief related to the anticipation of the loss and the grief related to the loss itself. How long does grief last? | http://cmhc.utexas.edu/griefloss.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1076717892#21_1950273571 | Title: CMHC Self Esteem
Headings: Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem
What is Self-Esteem?
Poor vs. Healthy Self-Esteem
Where Does Self-Esteem Come From?
Childhood experiences that contribute to healthy self-esteem include:
Childhood experiences that may lead to low self-esteem include:
What Does Your "Inner Voice" Say?
Three Faces of Low Self-Esteem
Consequences of Low Self-Esteem
Three Steps to Improved Self-Esteem
Step 1: Rebut the Inner Critic
Step 2: Practice Self-Compassion
Step 3: Get Help from Others
Reading Materials
Websites
Where can I find help?
Content: Accepting our "humanness" helps us to feel more connected to others rather than feeling we are enduring these types of experiences all alone. Recognizing that mistakes are an inevitable part of being human helps us to be more compassionate with ourselves and others. Be mindful of your emotions. If you do feel upset about a situation, try to allow yourself to experience that emotion in a balanced way, without suppressing it or getting completely swept up in the feeling. When practicing mindfulness, try not to judge yourself for having negative emotions. If you can remember that emotions come and go and eventually pass, it will help you to not become overwhelmed by your feelings. Step 3: Get Help from Others
Getting help from others is often the most important step a person can take to improve his or her self-esteem, but it can also be the most difficult. People with low self-esteem often don't ask for help because they feel they don't deserve it, but other people can help to challenge the critical messages that come from negative past experiences. Here are some ways to reach out to others: | http://cmhc.utexas.edu/selfesteem.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1076717892#22_1950275421 | Title: CMHC Self Esteem
Headings: Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem
What is Self-Esteem?
Poor vs. Healthy Self-Esteem
Where Does Self-Esteem Come From?
Childhood experiences that contribute to healthy self-esteem include:
Childhood experiences that may lead to low self-esteem include:
What Does Your "Inner Voice" Say?
Three Faces of Low Self-Esteem
Consequences of Low Self-Esteem
Three Steps to Improved Self-Esteem
Step 1: Rebut the Inner Critic
Step 2: Practice Self-Compassion
Step 3: Get Help from Others
Reading Materials
Websites
Where can I find help?
Content: If you can remember that emotions come and go and eventually pass, it will help you to not become overwhelmed by your feelings. Step 3: Get Help from Others
Getting help from others is often the most important step a person can take to improve his or her self-esteem, but it can also be the most difficult. People with low self-esteem often don't ask for help because they feel they don't deserve it, but other people can help to challenge the critical messages that come from negative past experiences. Here are some ways to reach out to others: Ask for support from friends. Ask friends to tell you what they like about you or think you do well. Ask someone who cares about you to just listen to you vent for a little while without trying to fix things. Ask for a hug. Ask someone who loves you to remind you that they do. | http://cmhc.utexas.edu/selfesteem.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1082309439#1_1955731782 | Title: Nearly 50 Million Abortions Have Been Performed in U.S. Since Roe v. Wade Decision Legalized Abortion | CNSNews
Headings: Nearly 50 Million Abortions Have Been Performed in U.S. Since Roe v. Wade Decision Legalized Abortion
Nearly 50 Million Abortions Have Been Performed in U.S. Since Roe v. Wade Decision Legalized Abortion
CNSNews Reader,
Connect
MRC Store
Content: In 2008, Guttmacher says, there were 1.2 million "legally terminated pregnancies" in the United States, based on reports complied from state and local health agencies -- down from 1.3 million the year previous. According to Guttmacher, 35 percent of all U.S. women will have had an abortion by age 45. Guttmacher also reports that 93 percent of all abortions occur for “social reasons” such as a mother’s decision that the child is unwanted or “inconvenient.” Both Guttmacher and CDC say that black women are more than four times more likely than non-Hispanic white women to have an abortion, and Hispanic women are 2.7 times as likely. BlackGenocide.com, a pro-life campaign to stop abortion in the African American community, estimates that 13 million abortions have been performed on African American women since 1973. They also estimate that, on average, 1,876 black pregnancies are terminated in the U.S. each day. Surprisingly, Guttmacher estimates that Catholic women account for more than 31 percent of all abortions performed in the United States while 18 percent of all abortions are performed on women who identify themselves as born-again Christians or evangelicals. Both religious groups preach against terminating pregnancies. Guttmacher says that there are 1,793 abortion “providers” in the United States and that the average amount paid for an abortion is $413. -- Over 60 percent of abortions are among women who have had one or more children, and 90 percent of abortions occur within the first 12 weeks of a pregnancy. | http://cnsnews.com/news/article/nearly-50-million-abortions-have-been-performed-us-roe-v-wade-decision-legalized |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1085145321#2_1961044491 | Title: Spoliation Letters & Preserving Evidence
Headings: Spoliation Letter – Preserving Evidence
Spoliation Letter – Preserving Evidence
Gathering Evidence
Effect of Spoliation Letter
Destruction of Evidence
Example Spoliation Letter
SPOILATION LETTER IN CONTIPLATION OF FUTURE LITIGATION
Content: Destruction of Evidence
Many judicial consequences are available if evidence is destroyed after a person receives a spoliation letter. Each consequence depends on the facts of each case and the seriousness of what the person did and what was destroyed. In many circumstances the judge will instruct a jury that certain evidence was spoiled which if kept would have allowed the injured person to show that the Defendant was at fault. In these situations, the presumption is maintained and must now be rebutted by the Defendant, which in essence shifts the burden on the other side. Another consequence may be that the jury is charged with certain admissions/stipulations of fact, i.e. A cleaning was never done; an inspection wasn’t conducted; the Plaintiff fell on water that was not cleaned by an employee who was present. This consequence yet again shifts the burden on the Defendant to show otherwise by bringing in additional evidence. The most serious consequence from spoiling evidence is that a Defendant’s answer is struck, which means that the court has already found them at fault. In these cases the only issue for the jury to decide is the damages. | http://cobbaccidentlawyers.com/spoliation-letter-preserving-evidence/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1101686521#5_1978163298 | Title: How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell - Cogent Legal | Present your case with confidence.
Headings: How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell
Morgan Smith
How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell
Content: PowerPoint 2010 and 2013 for PC now do support MP4 videos (so long as you download the Apple Quicktime plugin), which is good, but the versions of 2007 and earlier do not at all. PowerPoint has its own video code, which means that any video must be supported by that version of PowerPoint. For 2007 and before it really only supports Windows Media and AVI files. WMV (Windows Media Video) files are simply awful quality and look bad, and AVI files are huge (and I mean really huge) video files that are not compressed at all, which are simply too big for anything but the smallest clip. Having spent numerous hours trying to get WMV to play correctly, I personally have given up on that format completely. Our office has had nothing but trouble with it being jumpy, bad quality and other problems. So you might say, “I should just buy PowerPoint 2013 and use MP4, right?” So here is the issue: You can make a PowerPoint using 2013 and use nice-playing MP4 videos, but when you get to the conference, the supplied laptop might be running 2007. None of your videos will play. | http://cogentlegal.com/blog/2013/06/powerpoint-hell/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1101686521#6_1978164758 | Title: How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell - Cogent Legal | Present your case with confidence.
Headings: How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell
Morgan Smith
How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell
Content: Our office has had nothing but trouble with it being jumpy, bad quality and other problems. So you might say, “I should just buy PowerPoint 2013 and use MP4, right?” So here is the issue: You can make a PowerPoint using 2013 and use nice-playing MP4 videos, but when you get to the conference, the supplied laptop might be running 2007. None of your videos will play. So be sure to bring your own laptop to use, or if you must use someone else’s, then test out your presentation on it beforehand. Placing a video in PowerPoint: Using PowerPoint 2013, you can simply drag a video file into the slide and it will now embed the file (so long as you save in ppxt). However, you will often (but for some odd reason not always) see a sound icon and no picture. If you go to the animations panel and choose “play automatically,” you will see the sound icon flash at the start of each slide, and then the movie starts. | http://cogentlegal.com/blog/2013/06/powerpoint-hell/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1101686521#8_1978167503 | Title: How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell - Cogent Legal | Present your case with confidence.
Headings: How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell
Morgan Smith
How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell
Content: It is really not good looking. If you see this, you must go to the movie settings (which you can get to by double clicking on the movie itself), and make a “poster” of the first frame. This will show in the slide instead of the icon. In animations panel under the “Start” menu you can choose “play with previous,” which means that it will start automatically when you go to the slide; or you can choose “on click” that starts when you click the button again. On click can be useful if you want to see the poster view first to introduce the video before playing. You can also choose “after previous” if you want the slide to do some other animated function before playing the video. You can use the delay field to indicate that you want any type of animation, including playing a video, to be delayed any period of time before starting. Practice, practice: Now after all this work setting your video up to play correctly, I strongly suggest the following: | http://cogentlegal.com/blog/2013/06/powerpoint-hell/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1101686521#9_1978168884 | Title: How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell - Cogent Legal | Present your case with confidence.
Headings: How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell
Morgan Smith
How to Escape PowerPoint Video Hell
Content: On click can be useful if you want to see the poster view first to introduce the video before playing. You can also choose “after previous” if you want the slide to do some other animated function before playing the video. You can use the delay field to indicate that you want any type of animation, including playing a video, to be delayed any period of time before starting. Practice, practice: Now after all this work setting your video up to play correctly, I strongly suggest the following: Put your file on a thumb drive and try it on another computer! It’s very important to know if you have correctly embedded the files since you never know what might go wrong with a presentation and you might need to put it on someone else’s computer. What computer should I use to present?: Just so this post does not come off like a screed against Microsoft, I have to mention something that I really like. I recently purchased the Lenovo Yoga 11.6 inch laptop with the I5 Processor, Windows 8 and PowerPoint 2013. | http://cogentlegal.com/blog/2013/06/powerpoint-hell/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1106998084#0_1987471963 | Title:
Headings:
Content: Ceftin Uses
As this page of the eMedTV Web site explains, Ceftin is prescribed to treat various bacterial infections in adults and children. This page takes a closer look at what Ceftin is used for, including how this drug works and possible off-label uses. Home
eMedTV Home
Cold Home
Switch To Mobile View
Health Topics
eMedTV Health Topics
Cold Health Topics
Disease & Conditions
Tests & Procedures
Drugs & Supplements
Symptoms
Articles
eMedTV Articles
Cold Articles
Videos
eMedTV Videos
Sign In| Site Map
Cold Channel
Topics
Acute Sinusitis
Chronic Sinusitis
Common Cold
Nasal Irrigation
Neti Pot
Pneumonia
Sinusitis
Sore Throat
Medications
Afrin
Alavert-D
Anesthesia
Astragalus
Augmentin XR
Benzonatate
Ceftin
Chlorpheniramine
Delsym
Dextromethorphan
Diphenhydramine
Echinacea
Gemifloxacin
Guaifenesin
Neo-Synephrine
Pneumonia Vaccine
Pseudoephedrine
Sinupret
Sudafed PE
Tavist
Tussionex
Zinc
Zyvox
Advertisement
Quicklinks
Common Cold
Cold Symptoms
Echinacea
Diphenhydramine
Pseudoephedrine
Neti Pot
Afrin
Sinupret
Chlorpheniramine
Astragalus
Sinusitis
Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) Symptoms
Nasal Irrigation
Pneumonia Symptoms and Signs
Pneumonia
Guaifenesin
Sore Throat
Benzonatate
Related Channels
Flu
Kids
Women
Ear
Advertisement
Tweet
Cold Home> Ceftin Uses
Ceftin Uses
Approved for use in adults and children as young as three months old, Ceftin (in tablet and liquid form) is prescribed to treat bacterial infections. In liquid form, this antibiotic can treat tonsil infections, strep throat, ear infections, and impetigo. Using Ceftin in tablet form can treat a wide variety of infections, such as urinary tract infections, bronchitis, and gonorrhea. Interested in a Discount on Ceftin? Our free DiscountRx savings card can help you and your family save money on your prescriptions. This card is accepted at all major chain pharmacies, nationwide. Enter your name and email address to receive your free savings card. Enter Your Name
Enter Your Email Address
Our free DiscountRx savings card can help you and your family save money on your prescriptions. | http://cold.emedtv.com/ceftin/ceftin-uses.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1106998084#3_1987476818 | Title:
Headings:
Content: Ceftin oral suspension is approved to treat the following infections in children 3 months through 12 years old: Tonsillitis (tonsil infection) or pharyngitis("strep throat") caused by Streptococcus pyogenesbacteria
Ear infections
Impetigo(a common skin infection). The tablet form of Ceftin is approved for a broader range of uses, including the treatment of the following infections: Tonsillitis (tonsil infection) or pharyngitis ("strep throat") caused by Streptococcus pyogenesbacteria
Ear infections
Sinus infections
Bronchitis
Skinand skin structure infections
Urinary tract infections(UTIs, such as bladder infections)
Gonorrhea, a sexually transmitted infection
Lyme diseasein its early stages. Ceftin is approved for treating the infections listed above only when they are caused by certain types of bacteria. Not all bacteria will respond to this medicine. Also, bacteria have different resistance patterns in different regions of the country. This means that some bacteria may be susceptible to Ceftin in certain parts of the country but not in others. Ceftin is completely ineffective for treating viral illnesses (such as the common coldor the flu). In some situations, your healthcare provider may perform certain tests to see if your particular infection is susceptible or resistant to Ceftin. | http://cold.emedtv.com/ceftin/ceftin-uses.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1107652816#0_1988525775 | Title: What Are Democratic Values?
Headings:
What Are Democratic Values?
Content: What Are Democratic Values? What Are Democratic Values? Democracy is all about being able to make informed choices. For example, if there are three political parties in an election, you make a choice from the individual candidates, and/or from the programmes and positions of the parties they represent. In order for you to make genuinely informed choices, you need to be able to: engage meaningfully in open dialogue and debate
access relevant and objective information so that your views are informed
perceive that your participation in the debate and subsequent decision-making has value
feel safe
make a free decision without suffering or fearing harm to yourself or your family. Amartya Sen, a Nobel Prize-winning economist from India, provides this view of how these elements combine: We must not identify democracy with majority rule. Democracy has complex demands, which certainly include voting and respect for election results, but it also requires the protection of liberties and freedoms, respect for legal entitlements and the guaranteeing of free and uncensored distribution of news and fair comment. Even elections can be deeply defective if they occur without the different sides getting an adequate opportunity to present their respective cases, or without the electorate enjoying the freedom to obtain news and to consider the views of competing protagonists. ( | http://colelearning.net/cyp/unit3/page3c.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1107652816#1_1988527406 | Title: What Are Democratic Values?
Headings:
What Are Democratic Values?
Content: engage meaningfully in open dialogue and debate
access relevant and objective information so that your views are informed
perceive that your participation in the debate and subsequent decision-making has value
feel safe
make a free decision without suffering or fearing harm to yourself or your family. Amartya Sen, a Nobel Prize-winning economist from India, provides this view of how these elements combine: We must not identify democracy with majority rule. Democracy has complex demands, which certainly include voting and respect for election results, but it also requires the protection of liberties and freedoms, respect for legal entitlements and the guaranteeing of free and uncensored distribution of news and fair comment. Even elections can be deeply defective if they occur without the different sides getting an adequate opportunity to present their respective cases, or without the electorate enjoying the freedom to obtain news and to consider the views of competing protagonists. ( Sen, 1999, pp.9–10)
Based on what we have read so far, in the next section we are going on to look in some detail at the principles that underpin our ideas of democracy. | http://colelearning.net/cyp/unit3/page3c.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1113062283#1_1999667459 | Title: Old Dominion University - Profile, Rankings and Data | US News Best Colleges
Headings: Old Dominion
University
Old Dominion University
2021 Quick Stats
Overview of Old Dominion University
A Message from the University
Are you interested in Old Dominion University?
Explore Old Dominion University
General Information
Message from the School
Old Dominion University's 2021 Rankings
Old Dominion University Alumni Starting Salaries
Find Your Ideal Major, College or Career
Old Dominion University Photos
Old Dominion Admissions
Will You Get Into Old Dominion University?
College Admissions Calculator
Students Also Applied To
Academic Life at Old Dominion
Student Life at Old Dominion
Old Dominion University Tuition & Financial Aid
Campus Safety
Old Dominion University Campus
Old Dominion User Reviews and Ratings
Old Dominion Questions and Answers
U.S. News College Compass
Content: Its in-state tuition and fees are $11,520; out-of-state tuition and fees are $31,680. Originally created as a division of William & Mary, Old Dominion University is now an independent institution in Norfolk, Virginia. Students have more than 100 academic programs to choose from and, outside of class, more than 300 clubs and organizations to consider. Freshmen aren’t required to live on campus. The ODU sports teams compete in the NCAA Division I Conference USA. The university is also committed to research, operating the Center for Accelerator Science and the Virginia Modeling, Analysis and Simulation Center. Old Dominion University also offers a wide variety of graduate degree programs, including those in the Strome College of Business and the Darden College of Education. Notable alumni of Old Dominion University include Ben Bailey, former host of the TV game show "Cash Cab," and Jay Harris, ESPN "SportsCenter" anchor. READ MORE
Are you interested in Old Dominion University? | http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/old-dominion-3728 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1113062283#2_1999669576 | Title: Old Dominion University - Profile, Rankings and Data | US News Best Colleges
Headings: Old Dominion
University
Old Dominion University
2021 Quick Stats
Overview of Old Dominion University
A Message from the University
Are you interested in Old Dominion University?
Explore Old Dominion University
General Information
Message from the School
Old Dominion University's 2021 Rankings
Old Dominion University Alumni Starting Salaries
Find Your Ideal Major, College or Career
Old Dominion University Photos
Old Dominion Admissions
Will You Get Into Old Dominion University?
College Admissions Calculator
Students Also Applied To
Academic Life at Old Dominion
Student Life at Old Dominion
Old Dominion University Tuition & Financial Aid
Campus Safety
Old Dominion University Campus
Old Dominion User Reviews and Ratings
Old Dominion Questions and Answers
U.S. News College Compass
Content: The ODU sports teams compete in the NCAA Division I Conference USA. The university is also committed to research, operating the Center for Accelerator Science and the Virginia Modeling, Analysis and Simulation Center. Old Dominion University also offers a wide variety of graduate degree programs, including those in the Strome College of Business and the Darden College of Education. Notable alumni of Old Dominion University include Ben Bailey, former host of the TV game show "Cash Cab," and Jay Harris, ESPN "SportsCenter" anchor. READ MORE
Are you interested in Old Dominion University? We can connect you with Old Dominion University's admissions counselors to share more specific admissions and financial aid package information. Connect Me
A Message from the University
Explore Old Dominion University
Rankings Photos Admissions Academics User Reviews Student Life Tuition & Financial Aid Questions & Answers Campus Student Connect
General Information
School Type
Public, Coed
Year Founded
1930
Religious Affiliation
None
Academic Calendar
Semester
Setting
Urban
2019 Endowment
$233.0 million +
School Website
Website
View All 25 Photos »
View All 25 Photos »
Message from the School
We have history together. Our region. Our city. Our university. | http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/old-dominion-3728 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1124490267#0_2020266905 | Title:
Headings:
Content: Hurricanes
Home
Email Us
The Store
Goldi Productions Ltd
BOATING
COLD WATER
PFDS
WATER
HYPOTHERMIA
SUMMER SURVIVAL
WINTER SURVIVAL
WILDLIFE
SMALL PLANES
WEATHER
Hurricanes And Their Damage
Each year an average of ten tropical storms develop over the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Many of these remain over the ocean, with approximately six of these storms becoming hurricanes each year. In an average 3-year period, roughly five hurricanes strike the United States coastline, anywhere from Texas to Maine, also affecting the lower eastern coastline of Canada. Whether you live on the coast, have a condo in the Florida panhandle or are vacationing in the warm tropics of the Caribbean, hurricanes pose an enormous threat to humans and their habitat. The magnitude of these storms can devastate towns, ripping buildings apart and causing disastrous flooding hundreds of miles inland. What Is A Hurricane? Tropical cyclones, which are simply low-pressure systems that have developed over tropical or sub-tropical waters, are the starting point for a hurricane. When winds of a tropical storm (39-73 mph) reach a constant speed of 74 mph or greater the storm can then be classified as a hurricane. Typically, the season for the Atlantic Basin (Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico) runs from June 1 to November 30, with hurricanes ranging up to 400 miles in diameter. The term hurricane is adapted to any such storm occurring in the North Atlantic, but be aware that in other parts of the world they are referred to as typhoons and severe tropical cyclones. | http://comingbackalive.com/hurricanes.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1125496798#0_2021991803 | Title:
Headings:
Content: Telephone History
1877-1900
The Wisconsin Mosaic: Information Infrastructure
Home
Telephone
The Telephone in Wisconsin
1877-1900
The telephone today is a ubiquitous or even obsolete tool of
communication and information exchange. When it appeared in the
nineteenth century, however, the new tool provided a radical way for
individuals to talk to each other, person to person, in real time. Neither
the postal system nor the telegraph could provide large-scale, everyday
information as people created it, and deliver it immediately to someone
else. The power of the telephone can be seen in its immediate spread
across the country. AlexanderGraham Bell invented the
telephone in 1876. He made his first call in March to Thomas A. Watson,
saying, "Mr. Watson, come here; I want you." Few people considered
Bell's invention more than a toy, but it did not take long for people to
install telephones in their homes, businesses, or towns. Bell owned the
patents to the equipment and leased them out. | http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/~dalbello/FLVA/infrastructure/infoinfra/telephone/index.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1125496798#1_2021993070 | Title:
Headings:
Content: AlexanderGraham Bell invented the
telephone in 1876. He made his first call in March to Thomas A. Watson,
saying, "Mr. Watson, come here; I want you." Few people considered
Bell's invention more than a toy, but it did not take long for people to
install telephones in their homes, businesses, or towns. Bell owned the
patents to the equipment and leased them out. Like other new
technology, fantastic rumorsabout its abilities
spread as telephones appeared first in New England, but quickly spread
west. The first telephone appeared in Wisconsin in 1877 when Appleton
banker Alfred Galpin ran a line from his residence to the bank. Several
months later, he built a homemade switchboard for twenty-five
telephones in Appleton. Rivaling Appleton for the earliest telephone was
Platteville, having one at least in 1878. Richard Valentine made a private line for himself and one for his
brother in Janesville in 1877. | http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/~dalbello/FLVA/infrastructure/infoinfra/telephone/index.html |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1125789945#1_2022641605 | Title: 5 Questions Answered to Understand Regulatory Law - LAWS.com
Headings: 5 Questions Answered to Understand Regulatory Law
5 Questions Answered to Understand Regulatory Law
What is Regulatory Law?
The Formation of Regulatory Law:
Administrative Agencies and Regulatory Law:
Where can I find a list of Regulatory Laws?
Administrative Law Courts:
Comments
Content: As a result of these specific and niche-based functions, an administrative agency will possess its own court system and judges. The Formation of Regulatory Law: In the late 18th century, the United States Congress began using regulatory agencies and its coordinating laws to administer trade, the issuance of veteran benefits and customs. As the Federal Government of the United States expanded, the task of regulating the various industries, along with addressing the general concerns of society, became too arduous for Congress to regulate alone. As a result of the expanding regulatory needs, Congress delegated its authority to administrative agencies throughout the nation. The work was transferred, in theory, to apply experts within a given industry to better devise and implement laws to regulate the underlying industries. Regulatory law, through this expedited organizational method, now encompasses a plethora of administrative agencies, with each governing a particular industry or area of public concern. Administrative Agencies and Regulatory Law: Administrative agencies possess regulatory commissions that are responsible for creating regulatory law to subsequently enforce compliance. An administrative agency will also set and enforce industry standards; | http://common.laws.com/regulatory-law |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126889161#8_2024895636 | Title: Stereotyping and the Media - iResearchNet
Headings: Stereotyping and the Media
Stereotyping and the Media
Function Of Social Stereotypes
Examples Of Negative Stereotyping
Effects And Challenges
References:
Content: and Australian films that frequently describe ethnic minorities using negative racial epithets like “wog” and “chocko” that distinguish people with darker skin from lighter-skinned members of the ethnic majority (Speed 2005). In American media, many of the most blatant examples of racial-ethnic stereotypes are associated with black people. In the early years of American television blacks were routinely characterized as lazy, untrustworthy, and unintelligent, relegated to largely demeaning roles designed to entertain white audiences. and shown living primarily in ghettos and slums (Mastro & Greenberg 2001). Even today, Crowdus and Georgakas (2002, 9) argue that sitcoms like those appearing on the WB and UPN networks are often “borderline minstrel shows” that conjure up negative stereotypes of blacks “still acting as buffoons and coons”. Television news portrayals of blacks are far more negative, over-representing black perpetrators, under-representing black victims, and over-representing white victims (Dixon & Linz 2000). News stories make associations between blacks and negative issues such as violent crime, drugs, poverty, and welfare by situating these stories alongside noticeable images of blacks (Martindale 1996; Entman & Rojecki 2000). These news stories send powerful messages to audiences that most blacks are violent, criminal, drug-addicted, and on welfare, “and because these images come from the news media, which claim to represent reality and to provide unbiased information about society, Anglos tend to believe the images are true” (Martindale 1996, 21–22). Effects And Challenges
Stereotypes in the media can impact audience opinion. | http://communication.iresearchnet.com/media/stereotyping-and-the-media/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126889161#9_2024897783 | Title: Stereotyping and the Media - iResearchNet
Headings: Stereotyping and the Media
Stereotyping and the Media
Function Of Social Stereotypes
Examples Of Negative Stereotyping
Effects And Challenges
References:
Content: Television news portrayals of blacks are far more negative, over-representing black perpetrators, under-representing black victims, and over-representing white victims (Dixon & Linz 2000). News stories make associations between blacks and negative issues such as violent crime, drugs, poverty, and welfare by situating these stories alongside noticeable images of blacks (Martindale 1996; Entman & Rojecki 2000). These news stories send powerful messages to audiences that most blacks are violent, criminal, drug-addicted, and on welfare, “and because these images come from the news media, which claim to represent reality and to provide unbiased information about society, Anglos tend to believe the images are true” (Martindale 1996, 21–22). Effects And Challenges
Stereotypes in the media can impact audience opinion. For example, research on the effects of ethnic and racial stereotypes demonstrates that exposure to negative ethnic imagery in the media adversely influences later evaluations of ethnic minorities (Mastro & Tropp 2004). The simple exposure to stereotypical images of poor blacks in the media has led audiences to perceive greater disparity in socio-economic status between blacks and whites (Gandy & Baron 1998), and perceive that blacks are more economically disadvantaged than whites (Armstrong et al. 1992). Although whites’ stereotypes of blacks as poor do not match actual poverty statistics, they do closely resemble racial representations in the news media that feature blacks as poverty-stricken (Peffley et al. 1996). | http://communication.iresearchnet.com/media/stereotyping-and-the-media/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126889161#10_2024899774 | Title: Stereotyping and the Media - iResearchNet
Headings: Stereotyping and the Media
Stereotyping and the Media
Function Of Social Stereotypes
Examples Of Negative Stereotyping
Effects And Challenges
References:
Content: For example, research on the effects of ethnic and racial stereotypes demonstrates that exposure to negative ethnic imagery in the media adversely influences later evaluations of ethnic minorities (Mastro & Tropp 2004). The simple exposure to stereotypical images of poor blacks in the media has led audiences to perceive greater disparity in socio-economic status between blacks and whites (Gandy & Baron 1998), and perceive that blacks are more economically disadvantaged than whites (Armstrong et al. 1992). Although whites’ stereotypes of blacks as poor do not match actual poverty statistics, they do closely resemble racial representations in the news media that feature blacks as poverty-stricken (Peffley et al. 1996). It is important to realize that stereotypes are permanent fixtures in our mediated society and in our minds. Given that stereotypes are associated with a variety of groups and once formed are not easily dismissed, greater efforts should be made to disseminate accurate and diversified depictions of groups that appear in the media. Although media stereotypes can be negative, they are useful and necessary in providing information about unfamiliar people and places we might not otherwise encounter without the assistance of the media. Our challenge is to use stereotypes as convenient tools for navigating through millions of media messages, without succumbing to their most powerful shortcoming –the tendency to ignore the diverse thoughts, behaviors, and contributions of the unique individuals behind the stereotypical images. References: | http://communication.iresearchnet.com/media/stereotyping-and-the-media/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#0_2024961329 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver). Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal. In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#1_2024991492 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal. In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements: An information source, which produces a message. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal. A destination, where the message arrives. | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#2_2025020635 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements: An information source, which produces a message. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal. A destination, where the message arrives. Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory. The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'? | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#3_2025049257 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory. The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating: It assumes communicators are isolated individuals. No allowance for differing purposes. | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#4_2025077655 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating: It assumes communicators are isolated individuals. No allowance for differing purposes. No allowance for differing interpretations. No allowance for unequal power relations. No allowance for situational contexts. [ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars. | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#5_2025106243 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: No allowance for differing interpretations. No allowance for unequal power relations. No allowance for situational contexts. [ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars. [ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#6_2025135256 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: [ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings). Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules: Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent). | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#7_2025164443 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings). Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules: Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent). Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions. [ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#8_2025193713 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions. [ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#9_2025222977 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties. Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#10_2025252324 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties. Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#11_2025281919 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). [ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts. Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features: | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#12_2025311677 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: [ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts. Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features: • Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication. [ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman. | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1126931802#13_2025341801 | Title: Different Models of Communication
Headings: Different Models of Communication
Different Models of Communication
Thursday, May 2, 2013
Models of Communication
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
Contents
[ hide ]
1 Shannon and Weaver
2 David Berlo
3 Schramm
4 Barnlund
5 Psychology of communication
6 Constructionist Model
7 Linear Model
8 Interactive Model
9 Transactional Model
10 Communication Theory Framework
11 Ontology
12 Epistemology
13 Axiology
14 Mapping the theoretical landscape
14.1 Contexts
14.2 The Constitutive Metamodel
15 Some realms of communication and their theories
16 References
[ edit]Shannon and Weaver
The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender , channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication , information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
[ edit]David Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
[ edit]Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium ), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
[ edit]Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of " communication noise " on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
[ edit]Psychology of communication
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication. The Social Psychology of Communication is the first comprehensive introduction to social psychological perspectives on communication. This accessible guide provides an overview of key theoretical approaches from a variety of different disciplines (including cognitive, developmental and evolutionary psychology) as well as practical guidance on how to implement communication interventions in differing contexts.
Divided into three parts covering theoretical perspectives, special topics in communication and applied areas and practice, the book features:
• Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication.
[ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):
Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.
For example;
physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message.
Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal).
Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
[ edit]Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.
For example; think Mass communication - television, radio, newspapers. It is any method in which there is no possible way for feedback (even nonverbally). Letters, text messages, and e-mail can be responded to. A lecture would not fit in this model because listeners can still give feedback nonverbally. Think of when you are listening in a class or even a meeting. You nod or shake your head in response to the speaker, therefore you are responding.
The Linear Model.
[ edit]Interactive Model
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.
For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer..
[ edit]Transactional Model
It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.
For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking. Think more of a conversation. Here you have reciprocal communication. There is a constant back and forth.
The Transactional Model.
[ edit]Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view} considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.” (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another” (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication [opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication” (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
[ edit]Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
[ edit]Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world. [citation needed]
[ edit]Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches Empty citation ( help). The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
[ edit]Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[ edit]Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called " contexts " or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism Empty citation ( help). While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
[ edit]The Constitutive Metamodel
Main article: Communication Theory as a Field
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are:
Rhetorical: views communication as the practical art of discourse.
Semiotic: views communication as the mediation by signs.
Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others.
Cybernetic: communication is the flow of information.
Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of individuals.
Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged.
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis , McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
[ edit]Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory , Dynamic-transactional Ansatz
message production: Constructivist Theory , Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model , Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory , Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory , Social Penetration Theory , Predicted Outcome Value Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory , Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory , Uses and Gratifications Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting , Information deficit model , Spiral of silence , Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory , Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning , Symbolic Interactionism
Blog Archive
About Me
Content: • Navigational tools providing a 'how to' guide to using the book most effectively • A list of key words at the beginning of each chapter which are highlighted throughout the chapter for easy reference • A thorough glossary of keywords and definitions • A section on Special Topics in Communication including identity and resistance, rumour and gossip, evolution and communication
This book will be an invaluable resource for students, academics and practitioners in Psychology and Communication. [ edit]Constructionist Model
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman. Lanham | http://communicationmodels.blogspot.com/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1133531105#0_2038419548 | Title: Levothyroxine and weight GAIN? — MyFitnessPal.com
Headings: Levothyroxine and weight GAIN?
Levothyroxine and weight GAIN?
Replies
Content: Levothyroxine and weight GAIN? — MyFitnessPal.com
Log In · Sign Up
Message Boards› General Health, Fitness and Diet
You are currently viewing the message boards in: English Dansk Deutsch Español Français Italiano 日本語 한국어 Nederlands Norsk Português русский Svensk 中文 中文 (台灣)
Home
Recent Discussions
Search
Levothyroxine and weight GAIN? frayedpages0320
Member Posts: 8 Member Member
Posts: 8 Member
in General Health, Fitness and Diet
Hi, all. I was wondering if anyone else has taken levoythyroxine and experienced weight gain as opposed to loss? Several months ago, my endocrinologist had my thyroid levels tested. She said they were *just* under what is considered "normal" and that if it weren't for my prolactinoma, she wouldn't be treating for hypothyroidism at all. ( She thinks the size of the tumor is impacting my thyroid function.) | http://community.myfitnesspal.com/en/discussion/1043189/levothyroxine-and-weight-gain |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_00_1133531105#1_2038420885 | Title: Levothyroxine and weight GAIN? — MyFitnessPal.com
Headings: Levothyroxine and weight GAIN?
Levothyroxine and weight GAIN?
Replies
Content: 8 Member
in General Health, Fitness and Diet
Hi, all. I was wondering if anyone else has taken levoythyroxine and experienced weight gain as opposed to loss? Several months ago, my endocrinologist had my thyroid levels tested. She said they were *just* under what is considered "normal" and that if it weren't for my prolactinoma, she wouldn't be treating for hypothyroidism at all. ( She thinks the size of the tumor is impacting my thyroid function.) I started Levothyroxine in February. When I went to my endocrinologist in February, I had actually lost 7lbs. When I saw her last week (5 months later), I had somehow gained weight -- about 10lbs worth. I asked her if it could be related to the levo, and she said no -- and then said that it was something that I had caused, even though I really haven't changed anything - if anything, I have actually become more active because I'm working more (retail) instead of sitting in school all day. Now, she wants to test for Type 2 Diabetes and a slew of other things and is contemplating putting me on another medication to "control my weight." | http://community.myfitnesspal.com/en/discussion/1043189/levothyroxine-and-weight-gain |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.