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msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#0_1639073556 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Describe how hegemony applies to different aspects of global culture. Identify the attributes of McDonaldization. Analyze the ways that local cultures respond to outside forces. Cultural imperialism was around long before the United States became a world power. In its broadest strokes, imperialism describes the ways that one nation asserts its power over another. Just as imperial Britain economically ruled the American colonists, so did Britain strongly influence the culture of the colonies. The culture was still a mix of nationalities—many Dutch and Germans settled as well—but the ruling majority of ex-Britons led British culture to generally take over. Today, cultural imperialism tends to describe the United States’ role as a cultural superpower throughout the world. American movie studios are generally much more successful than their foreign counterparts not only because of their business models but also because the concept of Hollywood has become one of the modern worldwide movie business’s defining traits. Multinational, nongovernmental corporations can now drive global culture. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#1_1639075452 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: Just as imperial Britain economically ruled the American colonists, so did Britain strongly influence the culture of the colonies. The culture was still a mix of nationalities—many Dutch and Germans settled as well—but the ruling majority of ex-Britons led British culture to generally take over. Today, cultural imperialism tends to describe the United States’ role as a cultural superpower throughout the world. American movie studios are generally much more successful than their foreign counterparts not only because of their business models but also because the concept of Hollywood has become one of the modern worldwide movie business’s defining traits. Multinational, nongovernmental corporations can now drive global culture. This is neither entirely good nor entirely bad. On one hand, foreign cultural institutions can adopt successful American business models, and corporations are largely willing to do whatever makes them the most money in a particular market—whether that means giving local people a shot at making movies, or making multicultural films such as 2008’s Slumdog Millionaire. However, cultural imperialism has potential negative effects as well. From a spread of Western ideals of beauty to the possible decline of local cultures around the world, cultural imperialism can have a quick and devastating effect. Cultural Hegemony
To begin discussing the topic of cultural imperialism, it is important to look at the ideas of one of its founding theorists, Antonio Gramsci. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#2_1639077645 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: This is neither entirely good nor entirely bad. On one hand, foreign cultural institutions can adopt successful American business models, and corporations are largely willing to do whatever makes them the most money in a particular market—whether that means giving local people a shot at making movies, or making multicultural films such as 2008’s Slumdog Millionaire. However, cultural imperialism has potential negative effects as well. From a spread of Western ideals of beauty to the possible decline of local cultures around the world, cultural imperialism can have a quick and devastating effect. Cultural Hegemony
To begin discussing the topic of cultural imperialism, it is important to look at the ideas of one of its founding theorists, Antonio Gramsci. Strongly influenced by the theories and writings of Karl Marx, Italian philosopher and critic Gramsci originated the idea of cultural hegemony to describe the power of one group over another. Unlike Marx, who believed that the workers of the world would eventually unite and overthrow capitalism, Gramsci instead argued that culture and the media exert such a powerful influence on society that they can actually influence workers to buy into a system that is not economically advantageous to them. This argument that media can influence culture and politics is typified in the notion of the American Dream. In this rags-to-riches tale, hard work and talent can lead to a successful life no matter where one starts. Of course, there is some truth to this, but it is by far the exception rather than the rule. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#8_1639090281 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: McDonaldizing Media
Media works in an uncannily similar way to fast food. Just as the automation of fast food—from freeze-dried french fries to prewrapped salads—attempts to lower a product’s marginal costs, thus increasing profits, media outlets seek to achieve a certain degree of consistency that allows them to broadcast and sell the same product throughout the world with minimal changes. The idea that media actually spreads a culture, however, is controversial. In his book Cultural Imperialism, John Tomlinson argues that exported American culture is not necessarily imperialist because it does not push a cultural agenda; it seeks to make money from whatever cultural elements it can throughout the world. According to Tomlinson, “No one really disputes the dominant presence of Western multinational, and particularly American, media in the world: what is doubted is the cultural implications of this presence (Tomlinson, 2001).” There are, of course, by-products of American cultural exports throughout the world. American cultural mores, such as the Western standard of beauty, have increasingly made it into global media. As early as 1987, Nicholas Kristof wrote in The New York Times about a young Chinese woman who was planning to have an operation to make her eyes look rounder, more like the eyes of Caucasian women. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#9_1639092305 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: According to Tomlinson, “No one really disputes the dominant presence of Western multinational, and particularly American, media in the world: what is doubted is the cultural implications of this presence (Tomlinson, 2001).” There are, of course, by-products of American cultural exports throughout the world. American cultural mores, such as the Western standard of beauty, have increasingly made it into global media. As early as 1987, Nicholas Kristof wrote in The New York Times about a young Chinese woman who was planning to have an operation to make her eyes look rounder, more like the eyes of Caucasian women. Western styles—“newfangled delights like nylon stockings, pierced ears and eye shadow”—also began to replace the austere blue tunics of Mao-era China. The pervasiveness of cultural influence is difficult to track, however, as the young Chinese woman says that she wanted to have the surgery not because of Western looks but because “she thinks they are pretty (Kristof, 1987).” Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Figure 13.7
After September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush framed the issue of terrorism as a cultural conflict as much as a military one. Wikimedia Commons – public domain. Not everyone views the spread of American tastes as a negative occurrence. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#10_1639094314 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: Western styles—“newfangled delights like nylon stockings, pierced ears and eye shadow”—also began to replace the austere blue tunics of Mao-era China. The pervasiveness of cultural influence is difficult to track, however, as the young Chinese woman says that she wanted to have the surgery not because of Western looks but because “she thinks they are pretty (Kristof, 1987).” Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Figure 13.7
After September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush framed the issue of terrorism as a cultural conflict as much as a military one. Wikimedia Commons – public domain. Not everyone views the spread of American tastes as a negative occurrence. During the early 21st century, much of the United States’s foreign policy stemmed from the idea that spreading freedom, democracy, and free-market capitalism through cultural influence around the world could cause hostile countries such as Iraq to adopt American ways of living and join the United States in the fight against global terrorism and tyranny. Although this plan did not succeed as hoped, it raises the question of whether Americans should truly be concerned about spreading their cultural system if they believe that it is an ideal one. Speaking after the attacks of September 11, 2001, then-President George W. Bush presented two simple ideas to the U.S. populace: “ They [terrorists] hate our freedoms,” and “Go shopping (Bush, 2001).” These twin ideals of personal freedom and economic activity are often held up as the prime exports of American culture. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#11_1639096591 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: During the early 21st century, much of the United States’s foreign policy stemmed from the idea that spreading freedom, democracy, and free-market capitalism through cultural influence around the world could cause hostile countries such as Iraq to adopt American ways of living and join the United States in the fight against global terrorism and tyranny. Although this plan did not succeed as hoped, it raises the question of whether Americans should truly be concerned about spreading their cultural system if they believe that it is an ideal one. Speaking after the attacks of September 11, 2001, then-President George W. Bush presented two simple ideas to the U.S. populace: “ They [terrorists] hate our freedoms,” and “Go shopping (Bush, 2001).” These twin ideals of personal freedom and economic activity are often held up as the prime exports of American culture. However, the idea that other local beliefs need to change may threaten people of other cultures. Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
The spread of culture works in mysterious ways. Hollywood probably does not actually have a master plan to export the American way of life around the globe and displace local culture, just as American music may not necessarily be a progenitor of democratic government and economic cooperation. Rather, local cultures respond to the outside culture of U.S. media and democracy in many different ways. First of all, media are often much more flexible than believed; | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#12_1639098762 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: However, the idea that other local beliefs need to change may threaten people of other cultures. Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
The spread of culture works in mysterious ways. Hollywood probably does not actually have a master plan to export the American way of life around the globe and displace local culture, just as American music may not necessarily be a progenitor of democratic government and economic cooperation. Rather, local cultures respond to the outside culture of U.S. media and democracy in many different ways. First of all, media are often much more flexible than believed; the successful exportation of the film Titanic was not an accident in which everyone in the world suddenly wanted to experience movies like an American. Rather, the film’s producers had judged that it would succeed on a world stage just as on a domestic stage. Therefore, in some ways U.S. media have become more widespread, and also more worldwide in focus. It could even be argued that American cultural exports promote intercultural understanding; after all, to sell to a culture, a business must first understand that culture. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860274776#13_1639100573 | Title: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 13.7 Cultural Imperialism
13.7 Cultural Imperialism
Learning Objectives
Cultural Hegemony
Spreading American Tastes Through McDonaldization
McDonaldizing Media
Cultural Imperialism, Resentment, and Terrorism
Freedom, Democracy, and Rock ’n’ Roll
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: the successful exportation of the film Titanic was not an accident in which everyone in the world suddenly wanted to experience movies like an American. Rather, the film’s producers had judged that it would succeed on a world stage just as on a domestic stage. Therefore, in some ways U.S. media have become more widespread, and also more worldwide in focus. It could even be argued that American cultural exports promote intercultural understanding; after all, to sell to a culture, a business must first understand that culture. By contrast, some local cultures around the world have taken to Western-style business models so greatly that they have created their own hybrid cultures. One well-known example of this is India’s Bollywood film industry. Combining traditional Indian music and dance with American-style filmmaking, Bollywood studios release around 700 major films each year, three times the rate of the major Hollywood studios. India’s largest film industry mixes melodrama with musical interludes, lip-synced by actors but sung by pop stars. These pop songs are disseminated | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/13-7-cultural-imperialism/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860292200#9_1639122202 | Title: 14.3 News Media and Ethics – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 14.3 News Media and Ethics
14.3 News Media and Ethics
Learning Objectives
Immediate News Delivery
Social Responsibility of News Media
Present News Stories That Inform and Serve the Needs of Citizens
Present Issues Fairly
Present Stories in a Way That Addresses Their Complexity
Present Diverse Perspectives
Monitor Government and Corporations
Characteristics of Reliable Journalism
The Effects of Bias in News Presentations
Key Takeaways
Exercises
References
Content: The initial story is then followed quickly by commentary from both professional news organizations and nonprofessional sources on blogs, Twitter, and other social networks. As a result of this restructuring, certain stories may get distributed, replayed, and commented on almost excessively, while other stories go unnoticed and in-depth coverage that would unearth more facts and context gets neglected. This has led a number of industry professionals to become anxious over the future of the news industry. The Center for Excellence in Journalism has called the news industry today “more reactive than proactive (State of the Media, 2010).” Journalist Patricia Sullivan complains, “Right now, almost no online news sites invest in original, in-depth and scrupulously edited news reporting.” 2 While some may disagree with Sullivan, in-depth journalism remains an expensive and time-consuming venture that many online news sites, faced with uncertain revenue streams and a growing consumer demand for real-time news updates, are reluctant to bankroll extensively. Already strapped for funds, news organizations know they have to cater to public demands, and foremost among these demands is speed. When pop-music icon Michael Jackson died on June 26, 2009, at 2:26 p.m., news of his death hit cyberspace by 2:44 p.m. and soon spread nationwide via Twitter. Surprisingly, the initial report of Jackson’s death was released by celebrity gossip website TMZ. Legacy news sources were slower to publish accounts. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/14-3-news-media-and-ethics/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860344132#0_1639160901 | Title: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
Learning Objectives
Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Radio
Television
Nixon–Kennedy Debates of 1960
War and Television
Political News Programming
Online News and Politics
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government – Understanding Media and Culture
15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
Learning Objectives
Describe how radio transformed the political process. Discuss the impact of the televised debates on presidential campaigns. Figure 15.8
In 2007, The Washington Post published a critical exposé on the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In response to the public outcry, the U.S. Army launched an investigation and set about improving the facility. As demonstrated in this case, media coverage can directly influence people’s lives. Max Borge – The Washington Post – CC BY-NC 2.0. Media have long had a voice and a role in politics. As you have read in earlier chapters, even some of the earliest newspapers and magazines used their pages as a forum for political discourse. When broadcast media emerged during the 20th century, radio briefs and television reports entered the conversation, bringing political stories to the public’s living rooms. In addition to acting as a watchdog, media provide readers and viewers with news coverage of issues and events, and also offer public forums for debate. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/15-7-media-influence-on-laws-and-government/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860344132#1_1639162793 | Title: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
Learning Objectives
Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Radio
Television
Nixon–Kennedy Debates of 1960
War and Television
Political News Programming
Online News and Politics
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: Max Borge – The Washington Post – CC BY-NC 2.0. Media have long had a voice and a role in politics. As you have read in earlier chapters, even some of the earliest newspapers and magazines used their pages as a forum for political discourse. When broadcast media emerged during the 20th century, radio briefs and television reports entered the conversation, bringing political stories to the public’s living rooms. In addition to acting as a watchdog, media provide readers and viewers with news coverage of issues and events, and also offer public forums for debate. Thus, media support—or lack thereof—can have a significant influence on public opinion and governmental action. In 2007, for example, The Washington Post conducted a 4-month investigation of the substandard medical treatment of wounded soldiers at Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, DC. Because of the ensuing two-part feature, the Secretary of the Army and the two-star general in charge of the medical facility lost their jobs. However, an ongoing debate exists over media’s role in politics. Many individuals wonder who is really behind certain stories. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/15-7-media-influence-on-laws-and-government/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860344132#3_1639166531 | Title: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
Learning Objectives
Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Radio
Television
Nixon–Kennedy Debates of 1960
War and Television
Political News Programming
Online News and Politics
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: William James Willis, author of The Media Effect: How the News Influences Politics and Government discusses this debate: Sometimes the media appear willing or unwitting participants in chasing stories the government wants them to chase; other times politicians find themselves chasing issues that the media has enlarged by its coverage. Over the decades, political scientists, journalists, politicians, and political pundits have put forth many arguments about the media’s power in influencing the government and politicians (Willis, 2007). Regardless of who is encouraging whom, media coverage of politics certainly raises questions among the public. Despite laws put in place to prevent unbalanced political coverage, such as Section 315, a large majority of the public is still wary of the media’s role in swaying political opinion. In a January 2010 survey, two-thirds of respondents said that the media has too much influence on the government. Additionally, 72 percent of respondents agreed that “most reporters try to help the candidate they want to win (Rasmussen Reports, 2010).” This statistic demonstrates the media’s perceived political power along with the road the media must carefully navigate when dealing with political issues. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/15-7-media-influence-on-laws-and-government/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860344132#4_1639168522 | Title: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
Learning Objectives
Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Radio
Television
Nixon–Kennedy Debates of 1960
War and Television
Political News Programming
Online News and Politics
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: Regardless of who is encouraging whom, media coverage of politics certainly raises questions among the public. Despite laws put in place to prevent unbalanced political coverage, such as Section 315, a large majority of the public is still wary of the media’s role in swaying political opinion. In a January 2010 survey, two-thirds of respondents said that the media has too much influence on the government. Additionally, 72 percent of respondents agreed that “most reporters try to help the candidate they want to win (Rasmussen Reports, 2010).” This statistic demonstrates the media’s perceived political power along with the road the media must carefully navigate when dealing with political issues. Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Throughout their respective histories, radio, television, and the Internet have played important roles in politics. As technology developed, citizens began demanding greater levels of information and analysis of media outlets and, in turn, politicians. Here we explore the transformation of politics with the development of media. Radio
As discussed in Chapter 7 “Radio”, radio was the first medium through which up-to-the-minute breaking news could be broadcast, with its popularization during the 1920s. On November 2, 1920, KDKA in East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, became the first station to broadcast election results from the Harding-Cox presidential race, “becoming a pioneer in a brand new technology (American History).” | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/15-7-media-influence-on-laws-and-government/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860344132#5_1639170761 | Title: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
Learning Objectives
Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Radio
Television
Nixon–Kennedy Debates of 1960
War and Television
Political News Programming
Online News and Politics
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Throughout their respective histories, radio, television, and the Internet have played important roles in politics. As technology developed, citizens began demanding greater levels of information and analysis of media outlets and, in turn, politicians. Here we explore the transformation of politics with the development of media. Radio
As discussed in Chapter 7 “Radio”, radio was the first medium through which up-to-the-minute breaking news could be broadcast, with its popularization during the 1920s. On November 2, 1920, KDKA in East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, became the first station to broadcast election results from the Harding-Cox presidential race, “becoming a pioneer in a brand new technology (American History).” Suddenly, information that would previously have been available only later in the newspapers was transmitted directly into American living rooms. The public responded positively, wanting to be more involved in U.S. politics. As radio technology developed, “Americans demanded participation in the political and cultural debates shaping their democratic republic (Jenkins).” Radio provided a way to hold these debates in a public forum; it also provided a venue for politicians to speak directly to the public, a phenomenon that had not been possible on a large scale prior to the invention of the radio. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/15-7-media-influence-on-laws-and-government/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860344132#6_1639172890 | Title: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
Learning Objectives
Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Radio
Television
Nixon–Kennedy Debates of 1960
War and Television
Political News Programming
Online News and Politics
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: Suddenly, information that would previously have been available only later in the newspapers was transmitted directly into American living rooms. The public responded positively, wanting to be more involved in U.S. politics. As radio technology developed, “Americans demanded participation in the political and cultural debates shaping their democratic republic (Jenkins).” Radio provided a way to hold these debates in a public forum; it also provided a venue for politicians to speak directly to the public, a phenomenon that had not been possible on a large scale prior to the invention of the radio. This dynamic changed politics. Suddenly, candidates and elected officials had to be able to effectively communicate their messages to a large audience. “ Radio brought politicians into people’s homes, and many politicians went to learn effective public-speaking for radio broadcasts (ThinkQuest).” Television
Today, television remains Americans’ chief source of political news, a relationship that dates back almost to the very beginning of the medium. Political candidates began using TV commercials to speak directly to the public as early as 1952. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/15-7-media-influence-on-laws-and-government/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860344132#7_1639174797 | Title: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government – Understanding Media and Culture
Headings: 15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
15.7 Media Influence on Laws and Government
Learning Objectives
Politics, Broadcast Media, and the Internet
Radio
Television
Nixon–Kennedy Debates of 1960
War and Television
Political News Programming
Online News and Politics
Key Takeaways
Exercises
End-of-Chapter Assessment
Critical Thinking Questions
Career Connection
References
Content: This dynamic changed politics. Suddenly, candidates and elected officials had to be able to effectively communicate their messages to a large audience. “ Radio brought politicians into people’s homes, and many politicians went to learn effective public-speaking for radio broadcasts (ThinkQuest).” Television
Today, television remains Americans’ chief source of political news, a relationship that dates back almost to the very beginning of the medium. Political candidates began using TV commercials to speak directly to the public as early as 1952. These “living room candidates,” as they are often called, understood the power of the television screen and the importance of reaching viewers at home. In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower became the first candidate to harness television’s popularity. Eisenhower stepped onto the television screen “when Madison Avenue advertising executive Rosser Reeves convinced [him] that short ads played during such popular TV programs as I Love Lucy would reach more voters than any other form of advertising. This innovation had a permanent effect on the way presidential campaigns are run (Living Room Candidate).” Nixon–Kennedy Debates of 1960
The relationship between politics and television took a massive step forward in 1960 with a series of four televised “Great Debates” between presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/15-7-media-influence-on-laws-and-government/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_860752031#1_1639623113 | Title: 11.2 Understanding Decision Making – Organizational Behavior
Headings: 11.2 Understanding Decision Making
11.2 Understanding Decision Making
Learning Objectives
Types of Decisions
Making Rational Decisions
Making “Good Enough” Decisions
Making Intuitive Decisions
Making Creative Decisions
How Do You Know If Your Decision-Making Process Is Creative?
OB Toolbox: Ideas for Enhancing Organizational Creativity
Key Takeaway
Exercises
References
Content: Nutt, 1999). Therefore, increasing effectiveness in decision making is an important part of maximizing your effectiveness at work. This chapter will help you understand how to make decisions alone or in a group while avoiding common decision-making pitfalls. Individuals throughout organizations use the information they gather to make a wide range of decisions. These decisions may affect the lives of others and change the course of an organization. For example, the decisions made by executives and consulting firms for Enron ultimately resulted in a $60 billion loss for investors, thousands of employees without jobs, and the loss of all employee retirement funds. But Sherron Watkins, a former Enron employee and now-famous whistleblower, uncovered the accounting problems and tried to enact change. Similarly, the decision made by firms to trade in mortgage-backed securities is having negative consequences for the entire economy in the United States. All parties involved in such outcomes made a decision, and everyone is now living with the consequences of those decisions. Types of Decisions
Most discussions of decision making assume that only senior executives make decisions or that only senior executives’ decisions matter. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/chapter/11-2-understanding-decision-making/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_862182132#2_1641431046 | Title: 11.5 Decision Making in Groups – Principles of Management
Headings: 11.5 Decision Making in Groups
11.5 Decision Making in Groups
Learning Objectives
When It Comes to Decision Making, Are Two Heads Better Than One?
Groupthink
Recommendations for Avoiding Groupthink
Groups Should:
Individuals Should:
Group Leaders Should:
Tools and Techniques for Making Better Decisions
Key Takeaway
Exercises
References
Content: Finally, when the decision is made by a group rather than a single individual, implementation of the decision will be easier because group members will be invested in the decision. If the group is diverse, better decisions may be made because different group members may have different ideas based on their background and experiences. Research shows that for top management teams, groups that debate issues and that are diverse make decisions that are more comprehensive and better for the bottom line in terms of profitability and sales (Simons, et. al., 1999). Despite its popularity within organizations, group decision making suffers from a number of disadvantages. We know that groups rarely outperform their best member (Miner, 1984). While groups have the potential to arrive at an effective decision, they often suffer from process losses. For example, groups may suffer from coordination problems. Anyone who has worked with a team of individuals on a project can attest to the difficulty of coordinating members’ work or even coordinating everyone’s presence in a team meeting. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/11-5-decision-making-in-groups/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_862182132#3_1641432789 | Title: 11.5 Decision Making in Groups – Principles of Management
Headings: 11.5 Decision Making in Groups
11.5 Decision Making in Groups
Learning Objectives
When It Comes to Decision Making, Are Two Heads Better Than One?
Groupthink
Recommendations for Avoiding Groupthink
Groups Should:
Individuals Should:
Group Leaders Should:
Tools and Techniques for Making Better Decisions
Key Takeaway
Exercises
References
Content: Despite its popularity within organizations, group decision making suffers from a number of disadvantages. We know that groups rarely outperform their best member (Miner, 1984). While groups have the potential to arrive at an effective decision, they often suffer from process losses. For example, groups may suffer from coordination problems. Anyone who has worked with a team of individuals on a project can attest to the difficulty of coordinating members’ work or even coordinating everyone’s presence in a team meeting. Furthermore, groups can suffer from social loafing, or the tendency of some members to put forth less effort while working within a group. Groups may also suffer from groupthink, the tendency to avoid critical evaluation of ideas the group favors. Finally, group decision making takes a longer time compared with individual decision making, given that all members need to discuss their thoughts regarding different alternatives. Thus, whether an individual or a group decision is preferable will depend on the specifics of the situation. For example, if there is an emergency and a decision needs to be made quickly, individual decision making might be preferred. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/11-5-decision-making-in-groups/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_862182132#4_1641434634 | Title: 11.5 Decision Making in Groups – Principles of Management
Headings: 11.5 Decision Making in Groups
11.5 Decision Making in Groups
Learning Objectives
When It Comes to Decision Making, Are Two Heads Better Than One?
Groupthink
Recommendations for Avoiding Groupthink
Groups Should:
Individuals Should:
Group Leaders Should:
Tools and Techniques for Making Better Decisions
Key Takeaway
Exercises
References
Content: Furthermore, groups can suffer from social loafing, or the tendency of some members to put forth less effort while working within a group. Groups may also suffer from groupthink, the tendency to avoid critical evaluation of ideas the group favors. Finally, group decision making takes a longer time compared with individual decision making, given that all members need to discuss their thoughts regarding different alternatives. Thus, whether an individual or a group decision is preferable will depend on the specifics of the situation. For example, if there is an emergency and a decision needs to be made quickly, individual decision making might be preferred. Individual decision making may also be appropriate if the individual in question has all the information needed to make the decision and if implementation problems are not expected. However, if one person does not have all the information and skills needed to make the decision, if implementing the decision will be difficult without the involvement of those who will be affected by the decision, and if time urgency is more modest, then decision making by a group may be more effective. Figure 11.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Levels of Decision Making
Groupthink
Have you ever been in a decision-making group that you felt was heading in the wrong direction, but you didn’t speak up and say so? If so, you have already been a victim of groupthink. Groupthink is a group pressure phenomenon that increases the risk of the group making flawed decisions by leading to reduced mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/11-5-decision-making-in-groups/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_862469106#7_1641817625 | Title: 2.5 Work Attitudes – Principles of Management
Headings: 2.5 Work Attitudes
2.5 Work Attitudes
Learning Objectives
What Causes Positive Work Attitudes?
Job Characteristics
Organizational Justice and the Psychological Contract
Relationships at Work
Stress
Assessing Work Attitudes in the Workplace
Key Takeaway
Exercises
References
Content: Colquitt, et. al., 2001; Meyer, et. al., 2002). Organizational justice can be classified into three categories: ( 1) procedural (fairness in the way policies and processes are carried out), (2) distributive (the allocation of resources or compensation and benefits), and (3) interactional (the degree to which people are treated with dignity and respect). At the root of organizational justice is trust, something that is easier to break than to repair if broken. The psychological contract is the unspoken, informal understanding that an employee will contribute certain things to the organization (e.g., work ability and a willing attitude) and will receive certain things in return (e.g., reasonable pay and benefits). | https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/2-5-work-attitudes/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_862680870#1_1642213146 | Title: 8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture – Principles of Management
Headings: 8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture
8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture
Learning Objectives
How Are Cultures Created?
Founder Values
Industry Demands
How Are Cultures Maintained?
Attraction-Selection-Attrition
New Employee Onboarding
What Can Employees Do During Onboarding?
What Can Organizations Do During Onboarding?
What Can Organizational Insiders Do During Onboarding?
Leadership
Reward Systems
Signs of Organizational Culture
Mission Statement
Rituals
Rules and Policies
Impact of HR Practices on Organizational Culture
Physical Layout
Stories and Language
Key Takeaway
Exercises
References
Content: Understanding this question is important in understanding how they can be changed. An organization’s culture is shaped as the organization faces external and internal challenges and learns how to deal with them. When the organization’s way of doing business provides a successful adaptation to environmental challenges and ensures success, those values are retained. These values and ways of doing business are taught to new members as the way to do business (Schein, 1992). The factors that are most important in the creation of an organization’s culture include founders’ values, preferences, and industry demands. Figure 8.11 Model Describing How Cultures Are Created and Maintained
Founder Values
A company’s culture, particularly during its early years, is inevitably tied to the personality, background, and values of its founder or founders, as well as their vision for the future of the organization. When entrepreneurs establish their own businesses, the way they want to do business determines the organization’s rules, the structure set up in the company, and the people they hire to work with them. For example, some of the existing corporate values of the ice cream company Ben & Jerry’s Homemade Holdings Inc. can easily be traced to the personalities of its founders Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield. In 1978, the two high school friends opened up their first ice-cream shop in a renovated gas station in Burlington, Vermont. Their strong social convictions led them to buy only from the local farmers and devote a certain percentage of their profits to charities. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/8-5-creating-and-maintaining-organizational-culture-2/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_862680870#2_1642215753 | Title: 8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture – Principles of Management
Headings: 8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture
8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture
Learning Objectives
How Are Cultures Created?
Founder Values
Industry Demands
How Are Cultures Maintained?
Attraction-Selection-Attrition
New Employee Onboarding
What Can Employees Do During Onboarding?
What Can Organizations Do During Onboarding?
What Can Organizational Insiders Do During Onboarding?
Leadership
Reward Systems
Signs of Organizational Culture
Mission Statement
Rituals
Rules and Policies
Impact of HR Practices on Organizational Culture
Physical Layout
Stories and Language
Key Takeaway
Exercises
References
Content: Figure 8.11 Model Describing How Cultures Are Created and Maintained
Founder Values
A company’s culture, particularly during its early years, is inevitably tied to the personality, background, and values of its founder or founders, as well as their vision for the future of the organization. When entrepreneurs establish their own businesses, the way they want to do business determines the organization’s rules, the structure set up in the company, and the people they hire to work with them. For example, some of the existing corporate values of the ice cream company Ben & Jerry’s Homemade Holdings Inc. can easily be traced to the personalities of its founders Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield. In 1978, the two high school friends opened up their first ice-cream shop in a renovated gas station in Burlington, Vermont. Their strong social convictions led them to buy only from the local farmers and devote a certain percentage of their profits to charities. The core values they instilled in their business can still be observed in the current company’s devotion to social activism and sustainability, its continuous contributions to charities, use of environmentally friendly materials, and dedication to creating jobs in low-income areas. Even though Unilever acquired the company in 2000, the social activism component remains unchanged and Unilever has expressed its commitment to maintaining it (Kiger, 2005; Rubis, et. al., 2005; | https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/8-5-creating-and-maintaining-organizational-culture-2/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_862680870#4_1642220227 | Title: 8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture – Principles of Management
Headings: 8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture
8.5 Creating and Maintaining Organizational Culture
Learning Objectives
How Are Cultures Created?
Founder Values
Industry Demands
How Are Cultures Maintained?
Attraction-Selection-Attrition
New Employee Onboarding
What Can Employees Do During Onboarding?
What Can Organizations Do During Onboarding?
What Can Organizational Insiders Do During Onboarding?
Leadership
Reward Systems
Signs of Organizational Culture
Mission Statement
Rituals
Rules and Policies
Impact of HR Practices on Organizational Culture
Physical Layout
Stories and Language
Key Takeaway
Exercises
References
Content: Smalley, 2007). Founder values become part of the corporate culture to the degree to which they help the company be successful. For example, the social activism of Ben and Jerry’s was instilled in the company because the founders strongly believed in these issues. However, these values probably would not be surviving 3 decades later if they had not helped the company in its initial stages. In the case of Ben and Jerry’s, these values helped distinguish their brand from larger corporate brands and attracted a loyal customer base. Thus, by providing a competitive advantage, these values were retained as part of the corporate culture and were taught to new members as the right way to do business. Figure 8.12
Ben & Jerry’s has locations around the world, including this store in Singapore. Waycool27 – BenJerry-UnitedSquare – public domain. Industry Demands
While founders undoubtedly exert a powerful influence over corporate cultures, the industry characteristics also play a role. Companies within the same industry can sometimes have widely differing cultures. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesmanagement/chapter/8-5-creating-and-maintaining-organizational-culture-2/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864395512#14_1644868921 | Title: 4.1 Understanding Sex and Gender – Social Problems
Headings: 4.1 Understanding Sex and Gender
4.1 Understanding Sex and Gender
Learning Objectives
Gender as a Social Construction
The Development of Gender Differences
Biology and Gender
Culture and Gender
Socialization and Gender
The Family
Peers
Children and Our Future
Schools
Mass Media
Religion
A Final Word on the Sources of Gender
Key Takeaways
References
Content: If culture and social influences matter much more than biology, then gender differences can change and the status quo may give way. With this backdrop in mind, let’s turn to the biological evidence for behavioral and other differences between the sexes and then examine the evidence for their social and cultural roots. Biology and Gender
Several biological explanations for gender roles exist, and we discuss two of the most important ones here. One explanation is from the field of evolutionary psychology (Buss, 2012) and argues an evolutionary basis for traditional gender roles. Scholars advocating this view reason as follows (Thornhill & Gangestad, 2008). In prehistoric societies, two major social roles existed (1) hunting or gathering food to relieve hunger, and (2) bearing and nursing children. Because only women could perform the latter role, they were also the primary caretakers for children for several years after birth. And because women were frequently pregnant, their roles as mothers confined them to the home. Meanwhile, men were better suited than women for hunting because they were stronger and quicker than women. In prehistoric societies, then, biology was indeed destiny: | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/4-1-understanding-sex-and-gender/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864395512#15_1644870781 | Title: 4.1 Understanding Sex and Gender – Social Problems
Headings: 4.1 Understanding Sex and Gender
4.1 Understanding Sex and Gender
Learning Objectives
Gender as a Social Construction
The Development of Gender Differences
Biology and Gender
Culture and Gender
Socialization and Gender
The Family
Peers
Children and Our Future
Schools
Mass Media
Religion
A Final Word on the Sources of Gender
Key Takeaways
References
Content: In prehistoric societies, two major social roles existed (1) hunting or gathering food to relieve hunger, and (2) bearing and nursing children. Because only women could perform the latter role, they were also the primary caretakers for children for several years after birth. And because women were frequently pregnant, their roles as mothers confined them to the home. Meanwhile, men were better suited than women for hunting because they were stronger and quicker than women. In prehistoric societies, then, biology was indeed destiny: For biological reasons, men in effect worked outside the home (hunted), while women stayed at home with their children. Evolutionary reasons also explain why men are more violent than women. In prehistoric times, men who were more willing to commit violence against and even kill other men would “win out” in the competition for female mates. They thus were more likely than less violent men to produce offspring, who would then carry these males’ genetic violent tendencies. If the human race evolved along these lines, evolutionary psychologists continue, natural selection favored those societies where men were stronger, braver, and more aggressive and where women were more fertile and nurturing. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/4-1-understanding-sex-and-gender/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864435851#2_1644892990 | Title: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality – Social Problems
Headings: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
Learning Objectives
Reducing Rape and Sexual Assault
Key Takeaways
References
Content: These steps might include, but are not limited to, the following: Reduce socialization by parents and other adults of girls and boys into traditional gender roles. Confront gender stereotyping by the popular and news media. Increase public consciousness of the reasons for, extent of, and consequences of rape and sexual assault, sexual harassment, and pornography. Increase enforcement of existing laws against gender-based employment discrimination and against sexual harassment. Increase funding of rape-crisis centers and other services for girls and women who have been raped and/or sexually assaulted. Increase government funding of high-quality day-care options to enable parents, and especially mothers, to work outside the home if they so desire, and to do so without fear that their finances or their children’s well-being will be compromised. Increase mentorship and other efforts to boost the number of women in traditionally male occupations and in positions of political leadership. As we consider how best to reduce gender inequality, the impact of the contemporary women’s movement must be neither forgotten nor underestimated. Since it began in the late 1960s, the women’s movement has generated important advances for women in almost every sphere of life. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/4-6-reducing-gender-inequality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864435851#3_1644894705 | Title: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality – Social Problems
Headings: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
Learning Objectives
Reducing Rape and Sexual Assault
Key Takeaways
References
Content: Increase funding of rape-crisis centers and other services for girls and women who have been raped and/or sexually assaulted. Increase government funding of high-quality day-care options to enable parents, and especially mothers, to work outside the home if they so desire, and to do so without fear that their finances or their children’s well-being will be compromised. Increase mentorship and other efforts to boost the number of women in traditionally male occupations and in positions of political leadership. As we consider how best to reduce gender inequality, the impact of the contemporary women’s movement must be neither forgotten nor underestimated. Since it began in the late 1960s, the women’s movement has generated important advances for women in almost every sphere of life. Brave women (and some men) challenged the status quo by calling attention to gender inequality in the workplace, education, and elsewhere, and they brought rape and sexual assault, sexual harassment, and domestic violence into the national consciousness. For gender inequality to continue to be reduced, it is essential that a strong women’s movement continue to remind us of the sexism that still persists in American society and the rest of the world. Reducing Rape and Sexual Assault
As we have seen, gender inequality also manifests itself in the form of violence against women. A sociological perspective tells us that cultural myths and economic and gender inequality help lead to rape, and that the rape problem goes far beyond a few psychopathic men who rape women. A sociological perspective thus tells us that our society cannot just stop at doing something about these men. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/4-6-reducing-gender-inequality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864435851#4_1644896829 | Title: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality – Social Problems
Headings: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
Learning Objectives
Reducing Rape and Sexual Assault
Key Takeaways
References
Content: Brave women (and some men) challenged the status quo by calling attention to gender inequality in the workplace, education, and elsewhere, and they brought rape and sexual assault, sexual harassment, and domestic violence into the national consciousness. For gender inequality to continue to be reduced, it is essential that a strong women’s movement continue to remind us of the sexism that still persists in American society and the rest of the world. Reducing Rape and Sexual Assault
As we have seen, gender inequality also manifests itself in the form of violence against women. A sociological perspective tells us that cultural myths and economic and gender inequality help lead to rape, and that the rape problem goes far beyond a few psychopathic men who rape women. A sociological perspective thus tells us that our society cannot just stop at doing something about these men. Instead it must make more far-reaching changes by changing people’s beliefs about rape and by making every effort to reduce poverty and to empower women. This last task is especially important, for, as Randall and Haskell (1995, p. 22) observed, a sociological perspective on rape “means calling into question the organization of sexual inequality in our society.” Aside from this fundamental change, other remedies, such as additional and better funded rape-crisis centers, would help women who experience rape and sexual assault. Yet even here women of color face an additional barrier. Because the antirape movement was begun by white, middle-class feminists, the rape-crisis centers they founded tended to be near where they live, such as college campuses, and not in the areas where women of color live, such as inner cities and Native American reservations. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/4-6-reducing-gender-inequality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864435851#5_1644899025 | Title: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality – Social Problems
Headings: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
Learning Objectives
Reducing Rape and Sexual Assault
Key Takeaways
References
Content: Instead it must make more far-reaching changes by changing people’s beliefs about rape and by making every effort to reduce poverty and to empower women. This last task is especially important, for, as Randall and Haskell (1995, p. 22) observed, a sociological perspective on rape “means calling into question the organization of sexual inequality in our society.” Aside from this fundamental change, other remedies, such as additional and better funded rape-crisis centers, would help women who experience rape and sexual assault. Yet even here women of color face an additional barrier. Because the antirape movement was begun by white, middle-class feminists, the rape-crisis centers they founded tended to be near where they live, such as college campuses, and not in the areas where women of color live, such as inner cities and Native American reservations. This meant that women of color who experienced sexual violence lacked the kinds of help available to their white, middle-class counterparts (Matthews, 1989), and despite some progress, this is still true today. Key Takeaways
Certain government efforts, including increased financial support for child care, should help reduce gender inequality. If gender inequality lessens, rape and sexual assault should decrease as well. References
Matthews, N. A. (1989). Surmounting a legacy: | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/4-6-reducing-gender-inequality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864435851#6_1644900813 | Title: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality – Social Problems
Headings: 4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
4.6 Reducing Gender Inequality
Learning Objectives
Reducing Rape and Sexual Assault
Key Takeaways
References
Content: This meant that women of color who experienced sexual violence lacked the kinds of help available to their white, middle-class counterparts (Matthews, 1989), and despite some progress, this is still true today. Key Takeaways
Certain government efforts, including increased financial support for child care, should help reduce gender inequality. If gender inequality lessens, rape and sexual assault should decrease as well. References
Matthews, N. A. (1989). Surmounting a legacy: The expansion of racial diversity in a local anti-rape movement. Gender & Society, 3, 518–532. Randall, M., & Haskell, L. (1995). Sexual violence in women’s lives: Findings from the women’s safety project, a community-based survey. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/4-6-reducing-gender-inequality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864563955#8_1645057311 | Title: 8.2 Types of Crime – Social Problems
Headings: 8.2 Types of Crime
8.2 Types of Crime
Learning Objectives
Violent Crime
Property Crime
White-Collar Crime
Organized Crime
Consensual Crime
Key Takeaways
References
Content: Combining these first three aspects, then, the most typical homicide involves nonstrangers who have an argument that escalates and then results in the use of deadly force when one of the antagonists uses a handgun. Fourth, most homicides (as most violent crime in general) are intraracial, meaning that they occur within the same race; the offender and victim are of the same race. For single offender/single victim homicides where the race of both parties is known, about 90 percent of African American victims are killed by African American offenders, and about 83 percent of white victims are killed by white offenders (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2011). Although whites fear victimization by African Americans more than by whites, whites in fact are much more likely to be killed by other whites than by African Americans. While African Americans do commit about half of all homicides, most of their victims are also African American. Fifth, males commit about 90 percent of all homicides and females commit only 10 percent. As we discuss in Section 3.1 “Racial and Ethnic Inequality: A Historical Prelude”, males are much more likely than women to commit most forms of crime, and this is especially true for homicide and other violent crime. Sixth, the homicide rate is much higher in large cities than in small towns. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/8-2-types-of-crime/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864563955#9_1645059080 | Title: 8.2 Types of Crime – Social Problems
Headings: 8.2 Types of Crime
8.2 Types of Crime
Learning Objectives
Violent Crime
Property Crime
White-Collar Crime
Organized Crime
Consensual Crime
Key Takeaways
References
Content: While African Americans do commit about half of all homicides, most of their victims are also African American. Fifth, males commit about 90 percent of all homicides and females commit only 10 percent. As we discuss in Section 3.1 “Racial and Ethnic Inequality: A Historical Prelude”, males are much more likely than women to commit most forms of crime, and this is especially true for homicide and other violent crime. Sixth, the homicide rate is much higher in large cities than in small towns. In 2010, the homicide rate (number of homicides per 100,000 population) in cities with a population at or over 250,000 was 10.0 percent, compared to only 2.5 percent in towns with a population between 10,000 and 24,999 (see Figure 8.2 “Population Size and Homicide Rate, 2010” ). Thus the risk for homicide is four times greater in large cities than in small towns. While most people in large cities certainly do not die from homicide, where we live still makes a difference in our chances of being victimized by homicide and other crime. Figure 8.2 Population Size and Homicide Rate, 2010
Source: Data from Federal Bureau of Investigation. ( | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/8-2-types-of-crime/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864563955#10_1645060671 | Title: 8.2 Types of Crime – Social Problems
Headings: 8.2 Types of Crime
8.2 Types of Crime
Learning Objectives
Violent Crime
Property Crime
White-Collar Crime
Organized Crime
Consensual Crime
Key Takeaways
References
Content: In 2010, the homicide rate (number of homicides per 100,000 population) in cities with a population at or over 250,000 was 10.0 percent, compared to only 2.5 percent in towns with a population between 10,000 and 24,999 (see Figure 8.2 “Population Size and Homicide Rate, 2010” ). Thus the risk for homicide is four times greater in large cities than in small towns. While most people in large cities certainly do not die from homicide, where we live still makes a difference in our chances of being victimized by homicide and other crime. Figure 8.2 Population Size and Homicide Rate, 2010
Source: Data from Federal Bureau of Investigation. ( 2011). Crime in the United States, 2010. Washington, DC: Author. Finally, the homicide rate rose in the late 1980s and peaked during the early 1990s before declining sharply until the early 2000s and then leveling off and declining a bit further since then. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/8-2-types-of-crime/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864627826#0_1645125718 | Title: 9.4 Prostitution – Social Problems
Headings: 9.4 Prostitution
9.4 Prostitution
Learning Objectives
History of Prostitution
Prostitution in the United States Today
Types of Prostitutes
Explaining Prostitution
Customers
Sociological Perspectives
Dealing with Prostitution
Lessons from Other Societies
Key Takeaways
References
Content: 9.4 Prostitution – Social Problems
9.4 Prostitution
Learning Objectives
Summarize the history of prostitution in the United States. List the reasons that lead many people to dislike prostitution. Explain the problems that streetwalkers experience and why these problems occur. Prostitution, the selling of sexual services, is yet another controversial sexual behavior. Many people, and especially those with conservative, religious views, believe prostitution is immoral because it involves sex for money, and they consider prostitution a sign of society’s moral decay. Many feminists believe that prostitution is degrading to women and provides a context in which prostitutes are robbed, beaten, and/or raped. These two groups of people might agree on little else, but they both hold strong negative views about prostitution. Regardless of their other beliefs, many people also worry that prostitution spreads STDs. All these groups think prostitution should remain illegal, and they generally prefer stricter enforcement of laws against prostitution. Other people also do not like prostitution, but they believe that the laws against prostitution do more harm than good. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/9-4-prostitution/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864627826#1_1645127445 | Title: 9.4 Prostitution – Social Problems
Headings: 9.4 Prostitution
9.4 Prostitution
Learning Objectives
History of Prostitution
Prostitution in the United States Today
Types of Prostitutes
Explaining Prostitution
Customers
Sociological Perspectives
Dealing with Prostitution
Lessons from Other Societies
Key Takeaways
References
Content: Many feminists believe that prostitution is degrading to women and provides a context in which prostitutes are robbed, beaten, and/or raped. These two groups of people might agree on little else, but they both hold strong negative views about prostitution. Regardless of their other beliefs, many people also worry that prostitution spreads STDs. All these groups think prostitution should remain illegal, and they generally prefer stricter enforcement of laws against prostitution. Other people also do not like prostitution, but they believe that the laws against prostitution do more harm than good. They think that legalizing prostitution would reduce the various harms prostitution causes, and they believe that views about the immorality of prostitution should not prevent our society from dealing more wisely with it than it does now. This section presents a short history of prostitution before turning to the various types of prostitution, reasons for prostitution, and policy issues about how best to deal with this particular sexual behavior. Because most prostitution involves female prostitutes and male customers, our discussion will largely focus on this form. History of Prostitution
Often called the world’s oldest profession, prostitution has been common since ancient times (Ringdal, 2004). In ancient Mesopotamia, priests had sex with prostitutes. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/9-4-prostitution/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864627826#8_1645140518 | Title: 9.4 Prostitution – Social Problems
Headings: 9.4 Prostitution
9.4 Prostitution
Learning Objectives
History of Prostitution
Prostitution in the United States Today
Types of Prostitutes
Explaining Prostitution
Customers
Sociological Perspectives
Dealing with Prostitution
Lessons from Other Societies
Key Takeaways
References
Content: One well-analyzed estimate put the number of female prostitutes at 70,000 and further concluded that they engage in an average of 700 acts of prostitution with male customers annually, or almost 50 million acts of prostitution overall each year (Brewer et al., 2000). However, other estimates put the number of prostitutes as high as 500,000, with many of these prostitutes working part-time, whether or not they also work in a legal occupation (Clinard & Meier, 2011). Regardless of the actual number, prostitution is very common. The GSS asks, “Thinking about the time since your 18 th birthday, have you ever had sex with a person you paid or who paid you for sex?” In 2010, 11.9 percent of men and 1.7 percent of women answered “yes” to this question. These figures translate to about 13.5 million men 18 and older who have engaged in prostitution, usually as the customer, and 2.1 million women. In 2010, police and other law enforcement agents made almost 63,000 arrests for prostitution and commercialized vice (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2011). Most of these arrests were of prostitutes, but some were of customers. Women accounted for almost 69 percent of the arrests in this entire category. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/9-4-prostitution/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_864627826#9_1645142290 | Title: 9.4 Prostitution – Social Problems
Headings: 9.4 Prostitution
9.4 Prostitution
Learning Objectives
History of Prostitution
Prostitution in the United States Today
Types of Prostitutes
Explaining Prostitution
Customers
Sociological Perspectives
Dealing with Prostitution
Lessons from Other Societies
Key Takeaways
References
Content: In 2010, 11.9 percent of men and 1.7 percent of women answered “yes” to this question. These figures translate to about 13.5 million men 18 and older who have engaged in prostitution, usually as the customer, and 2.1 million women. In 2010, police and other law enforcement agents made almost 63,000 arrests for prostitution and commercialized vice (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2011). Most of these arrests were of prostitutes, but some were of customers. Women accounted for almost 69 percent of the arrests in this entire category. Types of Prostitutes
Several types of prostitutes exist. At the bottom of the prostitution “hierarchy” are streetwalkers (also called street prostitutes ), who typically find their customers, or are found by their customers, somewhere on a street. They then have a quick act of sex in the customer’s car, in an alleyway or other secluded spot, or in a cheap hotel. Although streetwalkers are the subjects in most studies of prostitutes, they in fact compose only about one-fifth of all prostitutes (Weitzer, 2012). The remaining 80 percent of prostitutes generally work indoors. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/9-4-prostitution/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_865207126#7_1645734280 | Title: 12.3 Sociological Perspectives on Aging – Sociology
Headings: 12.3 Sociological Perspectives on Aging
12.3 Sociological Perspectives on Aging
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
References
Content: According to this view, older workers are devalued because they are no longer economically productive and because their higher salaries (because of their job seniority), health benefits, and other costs drive down capitalist profits. Conflict theory also emphasizes inequality among the aged along gender, race/ethnicity, and social class lines. Reflecting these inequalities in the larger society, some elders are quite wealthy, but others are very poor. One criticism of conflict theory is that it blames ageism on modern, capitalist economies. As we have seen, negative views of the elderly also exist in preindustrial societies, even if the views there overall are often more positive than in their modern counterparts. Key Takeaways
Disengagement theory assumes that all societies must find ways for older people’s authority to give way to younger people. A society thus encourages its elderly to disengage from their previous roles and to take on roles more appropriate to their physical and mental decline. Activity theory assumes that older people will benefit both themselves and their society if they remain active and try to continue to perform the roles they had before they aged. References
Cumming, E., & Henry, W. E. (1961). Growing old: | https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/12-3-sociological-perspectives-on-aging/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_867186962#2_1648148548 | Title: Chapter 5: Middle America – World Regional Geography
Headings: Chapter 5: Middle America
Chapter 5: Middle America
Identifying the Boundaries
Content: The Caribbean region is surrounded by bodies of salt water: the Caribbean Sea in the center, the Gulf of Mexico to the west, and the North Atlantic to the east. Central America refers to the seven states south of Mexico: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Panama borders the South American country of Colombia. During the colonial era, Panama was included in the part of South America controlled by the Spanish. The Pacific Ocean borders Central America to the west, and the Caribbean Sea borders these countries to the east. While most of the republics have both a Caribbean and a Pacific coastline, Belize has only a Caribbean coast, and El Salvador has only a Pacific coast. Figure 5.1 Middle America: Caribbean, Mexico, and Central America
Central America includes the countries south of Mexico through Panama. | https://open.lib.umn.edu/worldgeography/part/chapter-5-middle-america/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_867270301#12_1648364882 | Title: 11.4 Strategies for Gathering Reliable Information – Writing for Success
Headings: 11.4 Strategies for Gathering Reliable Information
11.4 Strategies for Gathering Reliable Information
Learning Objectives
Locating Useful Resources
Using Primary and Secondary Sources
Finding Print Resources
Writing at Work
Tip
Exercise 1
Tip
Exercise 2
Using Periodicals, Indexes, and Databases
Reading Popular and Scholarly Periodicals
Writing at Work
Consulting a Reference Librarian
Exercise 3
Tip
Finding and Using Electronic Resources
Using Internet Search Engines Efficiently
Using Other Information Sources: Interviews
Tip
Evaluating Research Resources
Determining Whether a Source Is Relevant
Determining Whether a Source Is Reliable
Evaluating Types of Sources
Tip
Evaluating Credibility and Reputability
Checking for Biases and Hidden Agendas
Using Current Sources
Evaluating Overall Quality by Asking Questions
Checklist 11.1
Writing at Work
Exercise 4
Managing Source Information
Keeping Track of Your Sources
Exercise 5
Tip
Taking Notes Efficiently
Use Headings to Organize Ideas
Know When to Summarize, Paraphrase, or Directly Quote a Source
Maintain Complete, Accurate Notes
Use a System That Works for You
Key Takeaways
Content: Often, incorporating research in these documents can make them more effective in informing or persuading readers. Tip
As you gather information, strive for a balance of accessible, easy-to-read sources and more specialized, challenging sources. Relying solely on lightweight books and articles written for a general audience will drastically limit the range of useful, substantial information. On the other hand, restricting oneself to dense, scholarly works could make the process of researching extremely time-consuming and frustrating. Exercise 1
Make a list of five types of print resources you could use to find information about your research topic. Include at least one primary source. Be as specific as possible—if you have a particular resource or type of resource in mind, describe it. To find print resources efficiently, first identify the major concepts and terms you will use to conduct your search—that is, your keywords. These, along with the research questions you identified in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?”, | https://open.lib.umn.edu/writingforsuccess/chapter/11-4-strategies-for-gathering-reliable-information/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_867739034#1_1649104382 | Title: Stereotypes and Gender Roles – Culture and Psychology
Headings: Stereotypes and Gender Roles
Stereotypes and Gender Roles
Content: When children do not conform to the appropriate gender role for their culture, they may face negative sanctions such as being criticized, bullied, marginalized or rejected by their peers. A girl who wishes to take karate class instead of dance lessons may be called a “tomboy” and face difficulty gaining acceptance from both male and female peer groups (Ready, 2001). Boys, especially, are subject to intense ridicule for gender nonconformity (Coltrane and Adams, 2008; Kimmel, 2000)
By the time we are adults, our gender roles are a stable part of our personalities, and we usually hold many gender stereotypes. Men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics. Women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as child care, health care, and social work. These occupational roles are examples of typical Western male and female behavior, derived from our culture’s traditions. Adherence to these occupational gender roles demonstrates fulfillment of social expectations but may not necessarily reflect personal preference (Diamond, 2002). Gender stereotypes are not unique to American culture. Williams and Best (1982) conducted several cross-cultural explorations of gender stereotypes using data collected from 30 cultures. | https://open.maricopa.edu/culturepsychology/chapter/stereotypes-and-gender-roles/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_867739034#2_1649106029 | Title: Stereotypes and Gender Roles – Culture and Psychology
Headings: Stereotypes and Gender Roles
Stereotypes and Gender Roles
Content: Women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as child care, health care, and social work. These occupational roles are examples of typical Western male and female behavior, derived from our culture’s traditions. Adherence to these occupational gender roles demonstrates fulfillment of social expectations but may not necessarily reflect personal preference (Diamond, 2002). Gender stereotypes are not unique to American culture. Williams and Best (1982) conducted several cross-cultural explorations of gender stereotypes using data collected from 30 cultures. There was a high degree of agreement on stereotypes across all cultures which led the researchers to conclude that gender stereotypes may be universal. Additional research found that males tend to be associated with stronger and more active characteristics than females (Best, 2001); however recent research argues that culture shapes how some gender stereotypes are perceived. Researchers found that across cultures, individualistic traits were viewed as more masculine; however, collectivist cultures rated masculine traits as collectivist and not individualist (Cuddy et al., | https://open.maricopa.edu/culturepsychology/chapter/stereotypes-and-gender-roles/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_867739034#3_1649107535 | Title: Stereotypes and Gender Roles – Culture and Psychology
Headings: Stereotypes and Gender Roles
Stereotypes and Gender Roles
Content: There was a high degree of agreement on stereotypes across all cultures which led the researchers to conclude that gender stereotypes may be universal. Additional research found that males tend to be associated with stronger and more active characteristics than females (Best, 2001); however recent research argues that culture shapes how some gender stereotypes are perceived. Researchers found that across cultures, individualistic traits were viewed as more masculine; however, collectivist cultures rated masculine traits as collectivist and not individualist (Cuddy et al., 2015). These findings provide support that gender stereotypes may be moderated by cultural values. There are two major psychological theories that partially explain how children form their own gender roles after they learn to differentiate based on gender. Gender schema theory argues that children are active learners who essentially socialize themselves and actively organize others’ behavior, activities, and attributes into gender categories, which are known as schemas. These schemas then affect what children notice and remember later. | https://open.maricopa.edu/culturepsychology/chapter/stereotypes-and-gender-roles/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_868144816#11_1649706587 | Title: 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation – Anatomy & Physiology
Headings: 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation
10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation
Learning Objectives
The Neuromuscular Junction
External Website
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Contraction and Relaxation
External Website
Cross-Bridge Cycling
Sources of ATP
Relaxation of a Skeletal Muscle
Muscle Strength
Interactive Link Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
Solutions
Content: A cross-bridge forms between actin and the myosin heads triggering contraction. As long as Ca ++ ions remain in the sarcoplasm to bind to troponin, and as long as ATP is available, the muscle fiber will continue to shorten. Relaxation of a Muscle Fiber: Ca ++ ions are pumped back into the SR, which causes the tropomyosin to reshield the binding sites on the actin strands. A muscle may also stop contracting when it runs out of ATP and becomes fatigued. Muscle contraction usually stops when signaling from the motor neuron ends, which repolarizes the sarcolemma and T-tubules, and closes the calcium channels in the SR. Ca ++ ions are then pumped back into the SR, which causes the tropomyosin to re-cover the binding sites on actin ( Figure 10.3.2 ). External Website
The release of calcium ions initiates muscle contractions. Watch this video to learn more about the role of calcium. ( a) What are “T-tubules” and what is their role? ( | https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/10-3-muscle-fiber-excitation-contraction-and-relaxation/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_869352289#1_1651310635 | Title: 23.6 The Small and Large Intestines – Anatomy & Physiology
Headings: 23.6 The Small and Large Intestines
23.6 The Small and Large Intestines
Learning Objectives
The Small Intestine
Structure
Histology
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli
Intestinal Glands
Intestinal MALT
External Website
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Disorders of the…Small Intestine: Lactose Intolerance
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Homeostatic Imbalances – Colorectal Cancer
Rectum
Anal Canal
Histology
Anatomy
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
External Website
Interactive Link Questions
Content: The longest part of the alimentary canal, the small intestine is about 3.05 meters (10 feet) long in a living person (but about twice as long in a cadaver due to the loss of muscle tone). Since this makes it about five times longer than the large intestine, you might wonder why it is called “small.” In fact, its name derives from its relatively smaller diameter of only about 2.54 cm (1 in), compared with 7.62 cm (3 in) for the large intestine. As we’ll see shortly, in addition to its length, the folds and projections of the lining of the small intestine work to give it an enormous surface area, which is approximately 200 m 2, more than 100 times the surface area of your skin. This large surface area is necessary for complex processes of digestion and absorption that occur within it. Structure
The coiled tube of the small intestine is subdivided into three regions. From proximal (at the stomach) to distal, these are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum ( Figure 23.6.1 ). The shortest region is the 25.4-cm (10-in) duodenum, which begins at the pyloric sphincter. Just past the pyloric sphincter, it bends posteriorly behind the peritoneum, becoming retroperitoneal, and then makes a C-shaped curve around the head of the pancreas before ascending anteriorly again to return to the peritoneal cavity and join the jejunum. The duodenum can therefore be subdivided into four segments: | https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/23-6-the-small-and-large-intestines/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_869352289#2_1651313057 | Title: 23.6 The Small and Large Intestines – Anatomy & Physiology
Headings: 23.6 The Small and Large Intestines
23.6 The Small and Large Intestines
Learning Objectives
The Small Intestine
Structure
Histology
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli
Intestinal Glands
Intestinal MALT
External Website
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Disorders of the…Small Intestine: Lactose Intolerance
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Homeostatic Imbalances – Colorectal Cancer
Rectum
Anal Canal
Histology
Anatomy
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
External Website
Interactive Link Questions
Content: Structure
The coiled tube of the small intestine is subdivided into three regions. From proximal (at the stomach) to distal, these are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum ( Figure 23.6.1 ). The shortest region is the 25.4-cm (10-in) duodenum, which begins at the pyloric sphincter. Just past the pyloric sphincter, it bends posteriorly behind the peritoneum, becoming retroperitoneal, and then makes a C-shaped curve around the head of the pancreas before ascending anteriorly again to return to the peritoneal cavity and join the jejunum. The duodenum can therefore be subdivided into four segments: the superior, descending, horizontal, and ascending duodenum. Of particular interest is the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). Located in the duodenal wall, the ampulla marks the transition from the anterior portion of the alimentary canal to the mid-region, and is where the bile duct (through which bile passes from the liver) and the main pancreatic duct (through which pancreatic juice passes from the pancreas) join. This ampulla opens into the duodenum at a tiny volcano-shaped structure called the major duodenal papilla. The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) regulates the flow of both bile and pancreatic juice from the ampulla into the duodenum. | https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/23-6-the-small-and-large-intestines/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_869352289#3_1651315349 | Title: 23.6 The Small and Large Intestines – Anatomy & Physiology
Headings: 23.6 The Small and Large Intestines
23.6 The Small and Large Intestines
Learning Objectives
The Small Intestine
Structure
Histology
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli
Intestinal Glands
Intestinal MALT
External Website
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Disorders of the…Small Intestine: Lactose Intolerance
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Homeostatic Imbalances – Colorectal Cancer
Rectum
Anal Canal
Histology
Anatomy
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
External Website
Interactive Link Questions
Content: the superior, descending, horizontal, and ascending duodenum. Of particular interest is the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). Located in the duodenal wall, the ampulla marks the transition from the anterior portion of the alimentary canal to the mid-region, and is where the bile duct (through which bile passes from the liver) and the main pancreatic duct (through which pancreatic juice passes from the pancreas) join. This ampulla opens into the duodenum at a tiny volcano-shaped structure called the major duodenal papilla. The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) regulates the flow of both bile and pancreatic juice from the ampulla into the duodenum. Figure 23.6.1 – Small Intestine: The three regions of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The jejunum is about 0.9 meters (3 feet) long (in life) and runs from the duodenum to the ileum. Jejunum means “empty” in Latin and supposedly was so named by the ancient Greeks who noticed it was always empty at death. No clear demarcation exists between the jejunum and the final segment of the small intestine, the ileum. | https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/23-6-the-small-and-large-intestines/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_869352289#4_1651317494 | Title: 23.6 The Small and Large Intestines – Anatomy & Physiology
Headings: 23.6 The Small and Large Intestines
23.6 The Small and Large Intestines
Learning Objectives
The Small Intestine
Structure
Histology
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli
Intestinal Glands
Intestinal MALT
External Website
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Disorders of the…Small Intestine: Lactose Intolerance
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Homeostatic Imbalances – Colorectal Cancer
Rectum
Anal Canal
Histology
Anatomy
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
External Website
Interactive Link Questions
Content: Figure 23.6.1 – Small Intestine: The three regions of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The jejunum is about 0.9 meters (3 feet) long (in life) and runs from the duodenum to the ileum. Jejunum means “empty” in Latin and supposedly was so named by the ancient Greeks who noticed it was always empty at death. No clear demarcation exists between the jejunum and the final segment of the small intestine, the ileum. The ileum is the longest part of the small intestine, measuring about 1.8 meters (6 feet) in length. It is thicker, more vascular, and has more developed mucosal folds than the jejunum. The ileum joins the cecum, the first portion of the large intestine, at the ileocecal sphincter (or valve). The jejunum and ileum are tethered to the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery. The large intestine frames these three parts of the small intestine. | https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/23-6-the-small-and-large-intestines/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_877467672#0_1662229254 | Title: U.S. History, Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650, Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest | OpenEd CUNY
Headings: Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest
Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest
SPANISH EXPLORATION AND CONQUEST
Columbus’s Probanza de mérito of 1493
Content: U.S. History, Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650, Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest | OpenEd CUNY
Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest
SPANISH EXPLORATION AND CONQUEST
The Spanish established the first European settlements in the Americas, beginning in the Caribbean and, by 1600, extending throughout Central and South America. Thousands of Spaniards flocked to the Americas seeking wealth and status. The most famous of these Spanish adventurers are Christopher Columbus (who, though Italian himself, explored on behalf of the Spanish monarchs), Hernán Cortés, and Francisco Pizarro. The history of Spanish exploration begins with the history of Spain itself. During the fifteenth century, Spain hoped to gain advantage over its rival, Portugal. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 unified Catholic Spain and began the process of building a nation that could compete for worldwide power. Since the 700s, much of Spain had been under Islamic rule, and King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I, arch-defenders of the Catholic Church against Islam, were determined to defeat the Muslims in Granada, the last Islamic stronghold in Spain. In 1492, they completed the Reconquista: the centuries-long Christian conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. | https://opened.cuny.edu/courseware/module/314/student/?task=3 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_883282388#4_1669601758 | Title: Blockchain And The Law: Regulations Around the World | OpenLedger Insights
Headings: Blockchain And The Law: Regulations Around the World
Blockchain And The Law: Regulations Around the World
Indirect and Direct Regulations
Direct regulations: when laws governing the blockchain-related technology are officially introduced by the government.
Indirect regulations: when blockchain companies have to follow the general regulations imposed on tech companies as well as those specific to blockchain compliance.
The United States
You may also like:
➔ Latest ICO Laws and Regulations Worldwide in 2018
Belarus
Malta
Gibraltar
The Future of Blockchain Laws and Regulations
About The Author
Darya Yafimava
Content: The United States
The United States is rightfully considered the most advanced country in the world in terms of blockchain and cryptocurrency adoption, with many businesses accepting cryptocurrency for their day-to-day operations. This also defines why blockchain and cryptocurrency regulations are so deeply connected here. The complexity of U.S. laws lies in several governmental levels — federal and local (state) ones. While digital currency is recognized and legalized on a federal level, the laws may differ from state to state. There are several federal agencies that regulate blockchain-related businesses in the United States. While they sound different, the following three classifications are very similar to each other and, in short, allow several agencies to collaborate on regulatory and enforcement matters: The U.S. Internal Revenue Service defines cryptocurrency as assets for taxation purposes
The Commodities Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) defines cryptocurrency as a commodity
The Securities and Exchange Commission distinguishes digital currency as a security
Interestingly, while the U.S. government has spoken on the extensive regulations of the cryptocurrency industry, it’s been fairly quiet on other blockchain-related business models. There are no clear regulations that are currently present in that department. However, SEC did release several statements over the last 12 months regarding the activities of fundraising through an ICO or token sale, deeming them as securities. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) went further and created a Blockchain Working Group, which primary goal is to crack down illegal and fraudulent schemes arising in the marketplace from time to time. | https://openledger.info/insights/blockchain-law-regulations/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_883282388#5_1669604392 | Title: Blockchain And The Law: Regulations Around the World | OpenLedger Insights
Headings: Blockchain And The Law: Regulations Around the World
Blockchain And The Law: Regulations Around the World
Indirect and Direct Regulations
Direct regulations: when laws governing the blockchain-related technology are officially introduced by the government.
Indirect regulations: when blockchain companies have to follow the general regulations imposed on tech companies as well as those specific to blockchain compliance.
The United States
You may also like:
➔ Latest ICO Laws and Regulations Worldwide in 2018
Belarus
Malta
Gibraltar
The Future of Blockchain Laws and Regulations
About The Author
Darya Yafimava
Content: While they sound different, the following three classifications are very similar to each other and, in short, allow several agencies to collaborate on regulatory and enforcement matters: The U.S. Internal Revenue Service defines cryptocurrency as assets for taxation purposes
The Commodities Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) defines cryptocurrency as a commodity
The Securities and Exchange Commission distinguishes digital currency as a security
Interestingly, while the U.S. government has spoken on the extensive regulations of the cryptocurrency industry, it’s been fairly quiet on other blockchain-related business models. There are no clear regulations that are currently present in that department. However, SEC did release several statements over the last 12 months regarding the activities of fundraising through an ICO or token sale, deeming them as securities. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) went further and created a Blockchain Working Group, which primary goal is to crack down illegal and fraudulent schemes arising in the marketplace from time to time. Additionally, the Group also focuses on three more goals: building FTC staff expertise in cryptocurrency and blockchain technology
assisting internal and external communication on enforcement actions
providing a forum for discussing potential influences on FTC’s objectives and how to respond to them
The group has been staying pretty active, and has brought several notable lawsuits over the years. In 2018, FTC had U.S. Federal Court to shut down a group of individuals involved in deceptive practices. In 2016, they also brought up a case against Butterfly Labs, for deceiving customers about profitability and age of the mining machines. However, FTC does not only enforce but educates as well. | https://openledger.info/insights/blockchain-law-regulations/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_899680062#2_1699447012 | Title: 3.3 Intergovernmental Relationships - American Government 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 3.3
Intergovernmental Relationships
3.3 Intergovernmental Relationships
Learning Objectives
GRANTS
Link to Learning
UNFUNDED MANDATES
Milestone
The Clery Act
Content: 9.2 The Two-Party System
9.3 The Shape of Modern Political Parties
9.4 Divided Government and Partisan Polarization
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
10 Interest Groups and Lobbying
Introduction
10.1 Interest Groups Defined
10.2 Collective Action and Interest Group Formation
10.3 Interest Groups as Political Participation
10.4 Pathways of Interest Group Influence
10.5 Free Speech and the Regulation of Interest Groups
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
Delivering Collective Action: Formal Institutions
11 Congress
Introduction
11.1 The Institutional Design of Congress
11.2 Congressional Elections
11.3 Congressional Representation
11.4 House and Senate Organizations
11.5 The Legislative Process
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
12 The Presidency
Introduction
12.1 The Design and Evolution of the Presidency
12.2 The Presidential Election Process
12.3 Organizing to Govern
12.4 The Public Presidency
12.5 Presidential Governance: Direct Presidential Action
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
13 The Courts
Introduction
13.1 Guardians of the Constitution and Individual Rights
13.2 The Dual Court System
13.3 The Federal Court System
13.4 The Supreme Court
13.5 Judicial Decision-Making and Implementation by the Supreme Court
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
14 State and Local Government
Introduction
14.1 State Power and Delegation
14.2 State Political Culture
14.3 Governors and State Legislatures
14.4 State Legislative Term Limits
14.5 County and City Government
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
The Outputs of Government
15 The Bureaucracy
Introduction
15.1 Bureaucracy and the Evolution of Public Administration
15.2 Toward a Merit-Based Civil Service
15.3 Understanding Bureaucracies and their Types
15.4 Controlling the Bureaucracy
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
16 Domestic Policy
Introduction
16.1 What Is Public Policy? 16.2 Categorizing Public Policy
16.3 Policy Arenas
16.4 Policymakers
16.5 Budgeting and Tax Policy
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
17 Foreign Policy
Introduction
17.1 Defining Foreign Policy
17.2 Foreign Policy Instruments
17.3 Institutional Relations in Foreign Policy
17.4 Approaches to Foreign Policy
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Suggestions for Further Study
A | Declaration of Independence
B | The Constitution of the United States
C | Federalist Papers #10 and #51
D | Electoral College Votes by State, 2012–2020
E | Selected Supreme Court Cases
Answer Key
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
References
Index
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to: Explain how federal intergovernmental grants have evolved over time
Identify the types of federal intergovernmental grants
Describe the characteristics of federal unfunded mandates
The national government’s ability to achieve its objectives often requires the participation of state and local governments. Intergovernmental grants offer positive financial inducements to get states to work toward selected national goals. A grant is commonly likened to a “carrot” to the extent that it is designed to entice the recipient to do something. On the other hand, unfunded mandates impose federal requirements on state and local authorities. Mandates are typically backed by the threat of penalties for non-compliance and provide little to no compensation for the costs of implementation. Thus, given its coercive nature, a mandate is commonly likened to a “stick.” | https://openstax.org/books/american-government-2e/pages/3-3-intergovernmental-relationships |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_910311930#4_1707223331 | Title: 8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size - Introductory Business Statistics | OpenStax
Headings: 8.1
A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval
Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval: An Alternative Approach
The confidence interval estimate will have the form:
Calculating the Confidence Interval Using EBM
Finding the z -score for the Stated Confidence Level
Calculating the Error Bound ( EBM)
Constructing the Confidence Interval
Example 8.1
Solution 1
Interpretation
Example 8.2
Solution 1
Comparing the results
Summary: Effect of Changing the Confidence Level
Example 8.3
Solution 1
Solution 2
Summary: Effect of Changing the Sample Size
Example 8.4
Solution 1
Content: This is where a choice must be made by the statistician. The analyst must decide the level of confidence they wish to impose on the confidence interval. α is the probability that the interval will not contain the true population mean. The confidence level is defined as (1-α). Z α is the number of standard deviations
X -
X - lies from the mean with a certain probability. If we chose Z α = 1.96 we are asking for the 95% confidence interval because we are setting the probability that the true mean lies within the range at 0.95. If we set Z α at 1.64 we are asking for the 90% confidence interval because we have set the probability at 0.90. These numbers can be verified by consulting the Standard Normal table. Divide either 0.95 or 0.90 in half and find that probability inside the body of the table. Then read on the top and left margins the number of standard deviations it takes to get this level of probability. | https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics/pages/8-1-a-confidence-interval-for-a-population-standard-deviation-known-or-large-sample-size |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_910311930#5_1707225521 | Title: 8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size - Introductory Business Statistics | OpenStax
Headings: 8.1
A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval
Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval: An Alternative Approach
The confidence interval estimate will have the form:
Calculating the Confidence Interval Using EBM
Finding the z -score for the Stated Confidence Level
Calculating the Error Bound ( EBM)
Constructing the Confidence Interval
Example 8.1
Solution 1
Interpretation
Example 8.2
Solution 1
Comparing the results
Summary: Effect of Changing the Confidence Level
Example 8.3
Solution 1
Solution 2
Summary: Effect of Changing the Sample Size
Example 8.4
Solution 1
Content: If we chose Z α = 1.96 we are asking for the 95% confidence interval because we are setting the probability that the true mean lies within the range at 0.95. If we set Z α at 1.64 we are asking for the 90% confidence interval because we have set the probability at 0.90. These numbers can be verified by consulting the Standard Normal table. Divide either 0.95 or 0.90 in half and find that probability inside the body of the table. Then read on the top and left margins the number of standard deviations it takes to get this level of probability. In reality, we can set whatever level of confidence we desire simply by changing the Z α value in the formula. It is the analyst's choice. Common convention in Economics and most social sciences sets confidence intervals at either 90, 95, or 99 percent levels. Levels less than 90% are considered of little value. The level of confidence of a particular interval estimate is called by (1-α). | https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics/pages/8-1-a-confidence-interval-for-a-population-standard-deviation-known-or-large-sample-size |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_910311930#6_1707227723 | Title: 8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size - Introductory Business Statistics | OpenStax
Headings: 8.1
A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval
Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval: An Alternative Approach
The confidence interval estimate will have the form:
Calculating the Confidence Interval Using EBM
Finding the z -score for the Stated Confidence Level
Calculating the Error Bound ( EBM)
Constructing the Confidence Interval
Example 8.1
Solution 1
Interpretation
Example 8.2
Solution 1
Comparing the results
Summary: Effect of Changing the Confidence Level
Example 8.3
Solution 1
Solution 2
Summary: Effect of Changing the Sample Size
Example 8.4
Solution 1
Content: In reality, we can set whatever level of confidence we desire simply by changing the Z α value in the formula. It is the analyst's choice. Common convention in Economics and most social sciences sets confidence intervals at either 90, 95, or 99 percent levels. Levels less than 90% are considered of little value. The level of confidence of a particular interval estimate is called by (1-α). A good way to see the development of a confidence interval is to graphically depict the solution to a problem requesting a confidence interval. This is presented in Figure 8.2 for the example in the introduction concerning the number of downloads from iTunes. That case was for a 95% confidence interval, but other levels of confidence could have just as easily been chosen depending on the need of the analyst. However, the level of confidence MUST be pre-set and not subject to revision as a result of the calculations. Figure 8.2
For this example, let's say we know that the actual population mean number of iTunes downloads is 2.1. | https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics/pages/8-1-a-confidence-interval-for-a-population-standard-deviation-known-or-large-sample-size |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_910311930#7_1707230004 | Title: 8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size - Introductory Business Statistics | OpenStax
Headings: 8.1
A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval
Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval: An Alternative Approach
The confidence interval estimate will have the form:
Calculating the Confidence Interval Using EBM
Finding the z -score for the Stated Confidence Level
Calculating the Error Bound ( EBM)
Constructing the Confidence Interval
Example 8.1
Solution 1
Interpretation
Example 8.2
Solution 1
Comparing the results
Summary: Effect of Changing the Confidence Level
Example 8.3
Solution 1
Solution 2
Summary: Effect of Changing the Sample Size
Example 8.4
Solution 1
Content: A good way to see the development of a confidence interval is to graphically depict the solution to a problem requesting a confidence interval. This is presented in Figure 8.2 for the example in the introduction concerning the number of downloads from iTunes. That case was for a 95% confidence interval, but other levels of confidence could have just as easily been chosen depending on the need of the analyst. However, the level of confidence MUST be pre-set and not subject to revision as a result of the calculations. Figure 8.2
For this example, let's say we know that the actual population mean number of iTunes downloads is 2.1. The true population mean falls within the range of the 95% confidence interval. There is absolutely nothing to guarantee that this will happen. Further, if the true mean falls outside of the interval we will never know it. We must always remember that we will never ever know the true mean. Statistics simply allows us, with a given level of probability (confidence), to say that the true mean is within the range calculated. | https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics/pages/8-1-a-confidence-interval-for-a-population-standard-deviation-known-or-large-sample-size |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_910311930#8_1707232309 | Title: 8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size - Introductory Business Statistics | OpenStax
Headings: 8.1
A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval
Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval: An Alternative Approach
The confidence interval estimate will have the form:
Calculating the Confidence Interval Using EBM
Finding the z -score for the Stated Confidence Level
Calculating the Error Bound ( EBM)
Constructing the Confidence Interval
Example 8.1
Solution 1
Interpretation
Example 8.2
Solution 1
Comparing the results
Summary: Effect of Changing the Confidence Level
Example 8.3
Solution 1
Solution 2
Summary: Effect of Changing the Sample Size
Example 8.4
Solution 1
Content: The true population mean falls within the range of the 95% confidence interval. There is absolutely nothing to guarantee that this will happen. Further, if the true mean falls outside of the interval we will never know it. We must always remember that we will never ever know the true mean. Statistics simply allows us, with a given level of probability (confidence), to say that the true mean is within the range calculated. This is what was called in the introduction, the "level of ignorance admitted". Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Here again is the formula for a confidence interval for an unknown population mean assuming we know the population standard deviation: X - − Z α ( σ n) ≤ μ ≤ X - + Z α ( σ n)
X - − Z α ( σ n) ≤ μ ≤ X - + Z α ( σ n)
It is clear that the confidence interval is driven by two things, the chosen level of confidence,
Z α
Z α, and the standard deviation of the sampling distribution. The Standard deviation of the sampling distribution is further affected by two things, the standard deviation of the population and the sample size we chose for our data. Here we wish to examine the effects of each of the choices we have made on the calculated confidence interval, the confidence level and the sample size. | https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics/pages/8-1-a-confidence-interval-for-a-population-standard-deviation-known-or-large-sample-size |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_910311930#9_1707234902 | Title: 8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size - Introductory Business Statistics | OpenStax
Headings: 8.1
A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval
Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval: An Alternative Approach
The confidence interval estimate will have the form:
Calculating the Confidence Interval Using EBM
Finding the z -score for the Stated Confidence Level
Calculating the Error Bound ( EBM)
Constructing the Confidence Interval
Example 8.1
Solution 1
Interpretation
Example 8.2
Solution 1
Comparing the results
Summary: Effect of Changing the Confidence Level
Example 8.3
Solution 1
Solution 2
Summary: Effect of Changing the Sample Size
Example 8.4
Solution 1
Content: This is what was called in the introduction, the "level of ignorance admitted". Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Here again is the formula for a confidence interval for an unknown population mean assuming we know the population standard deviation: X - − Z α ( σ n) ≤ μ ≤ X - + Z α ( σ n)
X - − Z α ( σ n) ≤ μ ≤ X - + Z α ( σ n)
It is clear that the confidence interval is driven by two things, the chosen level of confidence,
Z α
Z α, and the standard deviation of the sampling distribution. The Standard deviation of the sampling distribution is further affected by two things, the standard deviation of the population and the sample size we chose for our data. Here we wish to examine the effects of each of the choices we have made on the calculated confidence interval, the confidence level and the sample size. For a moment we should ask just what we desire in a confidence interval. Our goal was to estimate the population mean from a sample. We have forsaken the hope that we will ever find the true population mean, and population standard deviation for that matter, for any case except where we have an extremely small population and the cost of gathering the data of interest is very small. In all other cases we must rely on samples. With the Central Limit Theorem we have the tools to provide a meaningful confidence interval with a given level of confidence, meaning a known probability of being wrong. | https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics/pages/8-1-a-confidence-interval-for-a-population-standard-deviation-known-or-large-sample-size |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_910311930#10_1707237669 | Title: 8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size - Introductory Business Statistics | OpenStax
Headings: 8.1
A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
8.1 A Confidence Interval for a Population Standard Deviation, Known or Large Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval
Changing the Confidence Level or Sample Size
Calculating the Confidence Interval: An Alternative Approach
The confidence interval estimate will have the form:
Calculating the Confidence Interval Using EBM
Finding the z -score for the Stated Confidence Level
Calculating the Error Bound ( EBM)
Constructing the Confidence Interval
Example 8.1
Solution 1
Interpretation
Example 8.2
Solution 1
Comparing the results
Summary: Effect of Changing the Confidence Level
Example 8.3
Solution 1
Solution 2
Summary: Effect of Changing the Sample Size
Example 8.4
Solution 1
Content: For a moment we should ask just what we desire in a confidence interval. Our goal was to estimate the population mean from a sample. We have forsaken the hope that we will ever find the true population mean, and population standard deviation for that matter, for any case except where we have an extremely small population and the cost of gathering the data of interest is very small. In all other cases we must rely on samples. With the Central Limit Theorem we have the tools to provide a meaningful confidence interval with a given level of confidence, meaning a known probability of being wrong. By meaningful confidence interval we mean one that is useful. Imagine that you are asked for a confidence | https://openstax.org/books/introductory-business-statistics/pages/8-1-a-confidence-interval-for-a-population-standard-deviation-known-or-large-sample-size |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_913924200#2_1709899007 | Title: 14.1 Motivation: Direction and Intensity - Principles of Management | OpenStax
Headings: 14.1
Motivation: Direction and Intensity
14.1 Motivation: Direction and Intensity
Concept Check
Content: An employee who has accurate role perceptions knows both their expected outcomes and how to go about making those outcomes a reality. Incomplete or inaccurate role perceptions limit employees’ capacity to meet expectations, regardless of their abilities and motivation. The performance environment refers to those factors that impact employees’ performance but are essentially out of their control. Many environmental factors influence performance. Some factors facilitate performance, while others constrain it. A word processor who has to work with a defective personal computer is certainly not going to perform at peak levels, regardless of ability or desire. Students who are working full time and carrying a full load of classes may not do as well on an exam as they would if they could cut back on their work hours, despite the fact that they have high ability and high motivation. Motivation is the fourth major factor that determines whether a person will perform a task well. Motivation is a force within or outside of the body that energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior. Within the body, examples might be needs, personal values, and goals, while an incentive might be seen as a force outside of the body. | https://openstax.org/books/principles-management/pages/14-1-motivation-direction-and-intensity |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#0_1710393433 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to: Discuss personality differences of people from collectivist and individualist cultures
Discuss the three approaches to studying personality in a cultural context
As you have learned in this chapter, personality is shaped by both genetic and environmental factors. The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality (Triandis & Suh, 2002). The term culture refers to all of the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society. Culture is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modeling of culturally acceptable and nonacceptable behaviors that are either rewarded or punished (Triandis & Suh, 2002). With these ideas in mind, personality psychologists have become interested in the role of culture in understanding personality. They ask whether personality traits are the same across cultures or if there are variations. It appears that there are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for variation in people’s personalities. Why might it be important to consider cultural influences on personality? Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures (Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#1_1710395379 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: With these ideas in mind, personality psychologists have become interested in the role of culture in understanding personality. They ask whether personality traits are the same across cultures or if there are variations. It appears that there are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for variation in people’s personalities. Why might it be important to consider cultural influences on personality? Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures (Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Let’s take a look at some of the Big Five factors (conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, and extroversion) across cultures. As you will learn when you study social psychology, Asian cultures are more collectivist, and people in these cultures tend to be less extroverted. People in Central and South American cultures tend to score higher on openness to experience, whereas Europeans score higher on neuroticism (Benet-Martinez & Karakitapoglu-Aygun, 2003). According to a study by Rentfrow and colleagues, there also seem to be regional personality differences within the United States ( Figure 11.15 ). | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#2_1710397147 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Let’s take a look at some of the Big Five factors (conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, and extroversion) across cultures. As you will learn when you study social psychology, Asian cultures are more collectivist, and people in these cultures tend to be less extroverted. People in Central and South American cultures tend to score higher on openness to experience, whereas Europeans score higher on neuroticism (Benet-Martinez & Karakitapoglu-Aygun, 2003). According to a study by Rentfrow and colleagues, there also seem to be regional personality differences within the United States ( Figure 11.15 ). Researchers analyzed responses from over 1.5 million individuals in the United States and found that there are three distinct regional personality clusters: Cluster 1, which is in the Upper Midwest and Deep South, is dominated by people who fall into the “friendly and conventional” personality; Cluster 2, which includes the West, is dominated by people who are more relaxed, emotionally stable, calm, and creative; and Cluster 3, which includes the Northeast, has more people who are stressed, irritable, and depressed. People who live in Clusters 2 and 3 are also generally more open (Rentfrow et al., | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#5_1710401703 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: 2013). One explanation for the regional differences is selective migration (Rentfrow et al., 2013). Selective migration is the concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs. For example, a person high on the agreeable scale would likely want to live near family and friends, and would choose to settle or remain in such an area. In contrast, someone high on openness would prefer to settle in a place that is recognized as diverse and innovative (such as California). Further, Rentfrow, Jost, Gosling, & Potter (2009) noted an overlap between geographical regions and personality characteristics that goes beyond the often-used explanations of religion, racial diversity, and education. Their research suggests that the psychological profile of a region is closely related to that of its residents. They found that levels of openness and conscientiousness in a state may predict voting patterns, indicating that there are correlations between geographic regions and personality differences between liberals and conservatives relating to political views, levels of economic vitality, and entrepreneurial rates. Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#6_1710403550 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: In contrast, someone high on openness would prefer to settle in a place that is recognized as diverse and innovative (such as California). Further, Rentfrow, Jost, Gosling, & Potter (2009) noted an overlap between geographical regions and personality characteristics that goes beyond the often-used explanations of religion, racial diversity, and education. Their research suggests that the psychological profile of a region is closely related to that of its residents. They found that levels of openness and conscientiousness in a state may predict voting patterns, indicating that there are correlations between geographic regions and personality differences between liberals and conservatives relating to political views, levels of economic vitality, and entrepreneurial rates. Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. Individuals in Western nations such as the United States, England, and Australia score high on individualism (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmier, 2002). People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. Individuals who live in countries in Asia, Africa, and South America score high on collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#7_1710405539 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. Individuals in Western nations such as the United States, England, and Australia score high on individualism (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmier, 2002). People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. Individuals who live in countries in Asia, Africa, and South America score high on collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). These values influence personality. For example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures displayed more personally oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more socially oriented personality traits. Frewer and Bleus (1991) conducted a study of the Eysenk Personality Inventory in a collectivist culture using Papua New Guinean university students. They found that the results of the personality inventory were only relevant when analyzed within the context of a collectivist society. Similarly, Dana (1986) suggested that personality assessment services for Native Americans are often provided without a proper recognition of culture-specific responses and a tribe-specific frame of reference. | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#8_1710407348 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: These values influence personality. For example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures displayed more personally oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more socially oriented personality traits. Frewer and Bleus (1991) conducted a study of the Eysenk Personality Inventory in a collectivist culture using Papua New Guinean university students. They found that the results of the personality inventory were only relevant when analyzed within the context of a collectivist society. Similarly, Dana (1986) suggested that personality assessment services for Native Americans are often provided without a proper recognition of culture-specific responses and a tribe-specific frame of reference. Assessors need to have more than a general knowledge of history, tribal differences, contemporary culture on reservations, and levels of acculturation in order to interpret psychological test responses with a minimal bias. Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context, the cultural-comparative approach; the indigenous approach; and the combined approach, which incorporates elements of both views. Since ideas about personality have a Western basis, the cultural-comparative approach seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity (Cheung van de Vijver, & Leong, 2011). | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#9_1710409400 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: Assessors need to have more than a general knowledge of history, tribal differences, contemporary culture on reservations, and levels of acculturation in order to interpret psychological test responses with a minimal bias. Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context, the cultural-comparative approach; the indigenous approach; and the combined approach, which incorporates elements of both views. Since ideas about personality have a Western basis, the cultural-comparative approach seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity (Cheung van de Vijver, & Leong, 2011). For example, recall from the previous section on the trait perspective that researchers used the cultural-comparative approach to test the universality of McCrae and Costa’s Five Factor Model. They found applicability in numerous cultures around the world, with the Big Five factors being stable in many cultures (McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae et al., 2005). The indigenous approach came about in reaction to the dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in non-Western settings (Cheung et al., | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914502469#10_1710411221 | Title: 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings: 11.8
Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: For example, recall from the previous section on the trait perspective that researchers used the cultural-comparative approach to test the universality of McCrae and Costa’s Five Factor Model. They found applicability in numerous cultures around the world, with the Big Five factors being stable in many cultures (McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae et al., 2005). The indigenous approach came about in reaction to the dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in non-Western settings (Cheung et al., 2011). Because Western-based personality assessments cannot fully capture the personality constructs of other cultures, the indigenous model has led to the development of personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant to the culture being studied (Cheung et al., 2011). The third approach to cross-cultural studies of personality is the combined approach, which serves as a bridge between Western and indigenous psychology as a way of understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality (Cheung et al., 2011). | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-8-cultural-understandings-of-personality |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914510427#8_1710425544 | Title: Ch. 11 Summary - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings:
11.1 What Is Personality?
11.2 Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective
11.3 Neo-Freudians: Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney
11.4 Learning Approaches
11.5 Humanistic Approaches
11.6 Biological Approaches
11.7 Trait Theorists
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.9 Personality Assessment
Content: The five factors are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These factors occur along a continuum. 11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality. Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures. In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous approach, and the combined approach, which incorporates both elements of both views. | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-summary |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_914510427#9_1710427114 | Title: Ch. 11 Summary - Psychology 2e | OpenStax
Headings:
11.1 What Is Personality?
11.2 Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective
11.3 Neo-Freudians: Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney
11.4 Learning Approaches
11.5 Humanistic Approaches
11.6 Biological Approaches
11.7 Trait Theorists
11.8 Cultural Understandings of Personality
11.9 Personality Assessment
Content: Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous approach, and the combined approach, which incorporates both elements of both views. 11.9 Personality Assessment
Personality tests are techniques designed to measure one’s personality. They are used to diagnose psychological problems as well as to screen candidates for college and employment. There are two types of personality tests: self-report inventories and projective tests. The MMPI is one of the most common self-report inventories. | https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/11-summary |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#0_1715289313 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to: Discuss personality differences of people from collectivist and individualist cultures
Discuss the three approaches to studying personality in a cultural context
As you have learned in this chapter, personality is shaped by both genetic and environmental factors. The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality (Triandis & Suh, 2002). The term culture refers to all of the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society. YouTube
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An error occurred while retrieving sharing information. Please try again later. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#1_1715291618 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: Crash Course Sociology #11
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Culture is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modeling of culturally acceptable and nonacceptable behaviors that are either rewarded or punished (Triandis & Suh, 2002). With these ideas in mind, personality psychologists have become interested in the role of culture in understanding personality. They ask whether personality traits are the same across cultures or if there are variations. It appears that there are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for variation in people’s personalities. Why might it be important to consider cultural influences on personality? | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#2_1715293807 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: Watch on
0:00
0:00
0:00 / 9:40
Live
•
Culture is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modeling of culturally acceptable and nonacceptable behaviors that are either rewarded or punished (Triandis & Suh, 2002). With these ideas in mind, personality psychologists have become interested in the role of culture in understanding personality. They ask whether personality traits are the same across cultures or if there are variations. It appears that there are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for variation in people’s personalities. Why might it be important to consider cultural influences on personality? Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures (Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Let’s take a look at some of the Big Five factors (conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, and extroversion) across cultures. As you will learn when you study social psychology, Asian cultures are more collectivist, and people in these cultures tend to be less extroverted. People in Central and South American cultures tend to score higher on openness to experience, whereas Europeans score higher on neuroticism (Benet-Martinez & Karakitapoglu-Aygun, 2003). | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#3_1715296178 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures (Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Let’s take a look at some of the Big Five factors (conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, and extroversion) across cultures. As you will learn when you study social psychology, Asian cultures are more collectivist, and people in these cultures tend to be less extroverted. People in Central and South American cultures tend to score higher on openness to experience, whereas Europeans score higher on neuroticism (Benet-Martinez & Karakitapoglu-Aygun, 2003). According to this study, there also seem to be regional personality differences within the United States (figure below). Researchers analyzed responses from over 1.5 million individuals in the United States and found that there are three distinct regional personality clusters: Cluster 1, which is in the Upper Midwest and Deep South, is dominated by people who fall into the “friendly and conventional” personality; Cluster 2, which includes the West, is dominated by people who are more relaxed, emotionally stable, calm, and creative; and Cluster 3, which includes the Northeast, has more people who are stressed, irritable, and depressed. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#4_1715298533 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: According to this study, there also seem to be regional personality differences within the United States (figure below). Researchers analyzed responses from over 1.5 million individuals in the United States and found that there are three distinct regional personality clusters: Cluster 1, which is in the Upper Midwest and Deep South, is dominated by people who fall into the “friendly and conventional” personality; Cluster 2, which includes the West, is dominated by people who are more relaxed, emotionally stable, calm, and creative; and Cluster 3, which includes the Northeast, has more people who are stressed, irritable, and depressed. People who live in Clusters 2 and 3 are also generally more open (Rentfrow et al., 2013). Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#8_1715306282 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: this trait has been found to be negatively correlated with neuroticism. Individuals within Central, North, and South American cultures are known to be collaborative. Canada also scores high in openness as Canadians have been shown to encourage productivity in group settings (Komarraju, Karau, Schmeck, & Avdic, 2011). Many individuals with high levels of openness adopt the prosocial resource control strategy. This includes being more empathetic to others and having the desire to help those in need with any expectation of reward in return. They are also more likely to be self-motivated. California is known for its diversity and networks to meet new people, which explains why someone high on openness would settle there (Zeigler-Hill, Southard, & Besser, 2014). PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. Individuals in Western nations such as the United States, England, and Australia score high on individualism (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmier, 2002). | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#9_1715308514 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: They are also more likely to be self-motivated. California is known for its diversity and networks to meet new people, which explains why someone high on openness would settle there (Zeigler-Hill, Southard, & Besser, 2014). PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. Individuals in Western nations such as the United States, England, and Australia score high on individualism (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmier, 2002). People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. Individuals who live in countries in Asia, Africa, and South America score high on collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). These values influence personality. For example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures displayed more personally oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more socially oriented personality traits. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#10_1715310703 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. Individuals who live in countries in Asia, Africa, and South America score high on collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). These values influence personality. For example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures displayed more personally oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more socially oriented personality traits. APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context, the cultural-comparative approach; the indigenous approach; and the combined approach, which incorporates elements of both views. Since ideas about personality have a Western basis, the cultural-comparative approach seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity (Cheung van de Vijver, & Leong, 2011). For example, recall from the previous section on the trait perspective that researchers used the cultural-comparative approach to test the universality of McCrae and Costa’s Five Factor Model. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#11_1715312988 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context, the cultural-comparative approach; the indigenous approach; and the combined approach, which incorporates elements of both views. Since ideas about personality have a Western basis, the cultural-comparative approach seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity (Cheung van de Vijver, & Leong, 2011). For example, recall from the previous section on the trait perspective that researchers used the cultural-comparative approach to test the universality of McCrae and Costa’s Five Factor Model. They found applicability in numerous cultures around the world, with the Big Five traits being stable in many cultures (McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae et al., 2005). The indigenous approach came about in reaction to the dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in non-Western settings (Cheung et al., 2011). | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#12_1715315097 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: They found applicability in numerous cultures around the world, with the Big Five traits being stable in many cultures (McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae et al., 2005). The indigenous approach came about in reaction to the dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in non-Western settings (Cheung et al., 2011). Because Western-based personality assessments cannot fully capture the personality constructs of other cultures, the indigenous model has led to the development of personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant to the culture being studied (Cheung et al., 2011). The third approach to cross-cultural studies of personality is the combined approach, which serves as a bridge between Western and indigenous psychology as a way of understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality (Cheung et al., 2011). SUMMARY
The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#13_1715317128 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: Because Western-based personality assessments cannot fully capture the personality constructs of other cultures, the indigenous model has led to the development of personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant to the culture being studied (Cheung et al., 2011). The third approach to cross-cultural studies of personality is the combined approach, which serves as a bridge between Western and indigenous psychology as a way of understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality (Cheung et al., 2011). SUMMARY
The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality. Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures. In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#14_1715319337 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures. In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous approach, and the combined approach, which incorporates both elements of both views. References: Openstax Psychology text by Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett and Marion Perlmutter licensed under CC BY v4.0. https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology
Exercises
Review Questions: | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#15_1715321333 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous approach, and the combined approach, which incorporates both elements of both views. References: Openstax Psychology text by Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett and Marion Perlmutter licensed under CC BY v4.0. https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology
Exercises
Review Questions: 1. The United States is considered a ________ culture. a. collectivistic
b. individualist
c. traditional
d. nontraditional
2. The concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs is known as ________. a. selective migration
b. personal oriented personality
c. socially oriented personality
d. individualism
3. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918640387#19_1715328060 | Title: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
10.8 Cultural Understanding of Personality
Learning Objectives
Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
PERSONALITY IN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: culture
selective migration
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions: 1. B
2. A
3. A
Critical Thinking Questions: 1. Because culture influences one’s personality, then Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to people of other cultures. In addit | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/10-9-cultural-understanding-of-personality/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918674974#0_1715384048 | Title: 11.2 Self-Presentation – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 11.2 Self-Presentation
11.2 Self-Presentation
Learning Objectives
SOCIAL ROLES
Being a student is just one of the many social roles you have. (credit: “University of Michigan MSIS”/Flickr)
SOCIAL NORMS
Tweens, Teens, and Social Norms
Young people struggle to become independent at the same time they are desperately trying to fit in with their peers. (credit: Monica Arellano-Ongpin)
SCRIPTS
ZIMBARDO’S STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
Iraqi prisoners of war were abused by their American captors in Abu Ghraib prison, during the second Iraq war. (credit: United States Department of Defense)
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Key Takeaways
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: 11.2 Self-Presentation – Introductory Psychology
11.2 Self-Presentation
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to: Describe social roles and how they influence behavior
Explain what social norms are and how they influence behavior
Define script
Describe the findings of Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment
As you’ve learned, social psychology is the study of how people, real or imagined, affect one another’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. We have discussed situational perspectives and social psychology’s emphasis on the ways in which a person’s environment, including culture and other social influences, affect behavior. In this section, we examine situational forces that have a strong influence on human behavior including social roles, social norms, and scripts. We discuss how humans use the social environment as a source of information, or cues, on how to behave. Situational influences on our behavior have important consequences, such as whether we will help a stranger in an emergency or how we would behave in an unfamiliar environment. SOCIAL ROLES
One major social determinant of human behavior is our social roles. A social role is a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group (Hare, 2003). Each one of us has several social roles. You may be, at the same time, a student, a parent, an aspiring teacher, a son or daughter, a spouse, and a lifeguard. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/11-3-self-presentation/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918674974#1_1715386597 | Title: 11.2 Self-Presentation – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 11.2 Self-Presentation
11.2 Self-Presentation
Learning Objectives
SOCIAL ROLES
Being a student is just one of the many social roles you have. (credit: “University of Michigan MSIS”/Flickr)
SOCIAL NORMS
Tweens, Teens, and Social Norms
Young people struggle to become independent at the same time they are desperately trying to fit in with their peers. (credit: Monica Arellano-Ongpin)
SCRIPTS
ZIMBARDO’S STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
Iraqi prisoners of war were abused by their American captors in Abu Ghraib prison, during the second Iraq war. (credit: United States Department of Defense)
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Key Takeaways
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: Situational influences on our behavior have important consequences, such as whether we will help a stranger in an emergency or how we would behave in an unfamiliar environment. SOCIAL ROLES
One major social determinant of human behavior is our social roles. A social role is a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group (Hare, 2003). Each one of us has several social roles. You may be, at the same time, a student, a parent, an aspiring teacher, a son or daughter, a spouse, and a lifeguard. How do these social roles influence your behavior? Social roles are defined by culturally shared knowledge. That is, nearly everyone in a given culture knows what behavior is expected of a person in a given role. Additionally, we as a society tend to punish social norms when we see them being violated, in some situations more than others. Rost, Stahel, and Frey (2016) found that people use social media as a platform to fight against those who do not follow certain social norms and rules. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/11-3-self-presentation/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918674974#2_1715388697 | Title: 11.2 Self-Presentation – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 11.2 Self-Presentation
11.2 Self-Presentation
Learning Objectives
SOCIAL ROLES
Being a student is just one of the many social roles you have. (credit: “University of Michigan MSIS”/Flickr)
SOCIAL NORMS
Tweens, Teens, and Social Norms
Young people struggle to become independent at the same time they are desperately trying to fit in with their peers. (credit: Monica Arellano-Ongpin)
SCRIPTS
ZIMBARDO’S STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
Iraqi prisoners of war were abused by their American captors in Abu Ghraib prison, during the second Iraq war. (credit: United States Department of Defense)
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Key Takeaways
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: How do these social roles influence your behavior? Social roles are defined by culturally shared knowledge. That is, nearly everyone in a given culture knows what behavior is expected of a person in a given role. Additionally, we as a society tend to punish social norms when we see them being violated, in some situations more than others. Rost, Stahel, and Frey (2016) found that people use social media as a platform to fight against those who do not follow certain social norms and rules. This is because there is less risk to criticizing someone online versus in person. For example, what is the social role for a student? If you look around a college classroom you will likely see students engaging in studious behavior, taking notes, listening to the professor, reading the textbook, and sitting quietly at their desks (figure below). Of course you may see students deviating from the expected studious behavior such as texting on their phones or using Facebook on their laptops, but in all cases, the students that you observe are attending class—a part of the social role of students. Being a student is just one of the many social roles you have. ( | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/11-3-self-presentation/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918674974#4_1715393077 | Title: 11.2 Self-Presentation – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 11.2 Self-Presentation
11.2 Self-Presentation
Learning Objectives
SOCIAL ROLES
Being a student is just one of the many social roles you have. (credit: “University of Michigan MSIS”/Flickr)
SOCIAL NORMS
Tweens, Teens, and Social Norms
Young people struggle to become independent at the same time they are desperately trying to fit in with their peers. (credit: Monica Arellano-Ongpin)
SCRIPTS
ZIMBARDO’S STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
Iraqi prisoners of war were abused by their American captors in Abu Ghraib prison, during the second Iraq war. (credit: United States Department of Defense)
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Key Takeaways
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: credit: “ University of Michigan MSIS”/Flickr)
Social roles, and our related behavior, can vary across different settings. How do you behave when you are engaging in the role of son or daughter and attending a family function? Now imagine how you behave when you are engaged in the role of employee at your workplace. It is very likely that your behavior will be different. Perhaps you are more relaxed and outgoing with your family, making jokes and doing silly things. But at your workplace you might speak more professionally, and although you may be friendly, you are also serious and focused on getting the work completed. These are examples of how our social roles influence and often dictate our behavior to the extent that identity and personality can vary with context (that is, in different social groups) (Malloy, Albright, Kenny, Agatstein & Winquist, 1997). SOCIAL NORMS
As discussed previously, social roles are defined by a culture’s shared knowledge of what behaviors are expected of an individual in a specific role. This shared knowledge comes from social norms. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/11-3-self-presentation/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918692534#3_1715433007 | Title: 11.3 Attitudes & Persuasion – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 11.3 Attitudes & Persuasion
11.3 Attitudes & Persuasion
Learning Objectives
WHAT IS COGNITIVE DISSONANCE?
Cognitive dissonance is aroused by inconsistent beliefs and behaviors. Believing cigarettes are bad for your health, but smoking cigarettes anyway, can cause cognitive dissonance. To reduce cognitive dissonance, individuals can change their behavior, as in quitting smoking, or change their belief, such as discounting the evidence that smoking is harmful. (credit “cigarettes”: modification of work by CDC/Debora Cartagena; “patch”: modification of “RegBarc”/Wikimedia Commons; “smoking”: modification of work by Tim Parkinson)
A person who has chosen a difficult path must deal with cognitive dissonance in addition to many other discomforts. (credit: Tyler J. Bolken)
The Effect of Initiation
Justification of effort has a distinct effect on a person liking a group. Students in the difficult initiation condition liked the group more than students in other conditions due to the justification of effort.
PERSUASION
We encounter attempts at persuasion attempts everywhere. Persuasion is not limited to formal advertising; we are confronted with it throughout our everyday world. (credit: Robert Couse-Baker)
Yale Attitude Change Approach
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Persuasion can take one of two paths, and the durability of the end result depends on the path.
Foot-in-the-door Technique
With the foot-in-the-door technique, a small request such as (a) wearing a campaign button can turn into a large request, such as (b) putting campaigns signs in your yard. (credit a: modification of work by Joe Crawford; credit b: modification of work by “shutterblog”/Flickr)
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answer to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: Recycling is hard work”). Our attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control. Like our behavior, our attitudes and thoughts are not always changed by situational pressures, but they can be consciously changed by our own free will. In this section we discuss the conditions under which we would want to change our own attitudes and beliefs. WHAT IS COGNITIVE DISSONANCE? Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behavior (Tavris & Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005). Often, our behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our self-esteem or positive self-image. Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957) defined cognitive dissonance as psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance states that when we experience a conflict in our behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to our positive self-perceptions, we experience psychological discomfort (i.e. dissonance). | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/11-4-attitudes-persuassion/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_918719582#8_1715505190 | Title: 11.5 Prejudice & Discrimination – Introductory Psychology
Headings: 11.5 Prejudice & Discrimination
11.5 Prejudice & Discrimination
Learning Objectives
Prejudice and discrimination occur across the globe. (a) A 1939 sign in German-occupied Poland warns “No Entrance for Poles!” (b) A Black man drinks from a designated “colored” water fountain in Oklahoma in 1939 during the era of racial segregation as a practice of discrimination. (c) A member of the Westboro Baptist Church, widely identified as a hate group, engages in discrimination based on religion and sexual orientation. (credit b: modification of work by United States Farm Security Administration; credit c: modification of work by “JCWilmore”/Wikimedia Commons)
UNDERSTANDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
TYPES OF PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Racism
Sexism
Women now have many jobs previously closed to them, though they still face challenges in male-dominated occupations. (credit: “Alex”/Flickr)
Ageism
Homophobia
Research on Homophobia
WHY DO PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION EXIST?
STEREOTYPES AND SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY
IN-GROUPS AND OUT-GROUPS
These children are very young, but they are already aware of their gender in-group and out-group. (credit: modification of work by Simone Ramella)
SUMMARY
References:
Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Personal Application Questions:
Glossary:
Answers to Exercises
Review Questions:
Critical Thinking Questions:
Glossary:
Content: Stereotypes become overgeneralized when applied to all members of a group. For example, someone holding prejudiced attitudes toward older adults, may believe that older adults are slow and incompetent (Cuddy, Norton, & Fiske, 2005; Nelson, 2004). We cannot possibly know each individual person of advanced age to know that all older adults are slow and incompetent. Therefore, this negative belief is overgeneralized to all members of the group, even though many of the individual group members may in fact be spry and intelligent. Another example of a well-known stereotype involves beliefs about racial differences among athletes. As Hodge, Burden, Robinson, and Bennett (2008) point out, Black male athletes are often believed to be more athletic, yet less intelligent, than their White male counterparts. These beliefs persist despite a number of high profile examples to the contrary. Sadly, such beliefs often influence how these athletes are treated by others and how they view themselves and their own capabilities. Whether or not you agree with a stereotype, stereotypes are generally well-known within in a given culture (Devine, 1989). | https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/11-6-prejudice-discrimination/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_919871711#5_1717476514 | Title: Module 2: Research Methods in Social Psychology – Principles of Social Psychology
Headings: Module 2: Research Methods in Social Psychology
Module 2: Research Methods in Social Psychology
Module Overview
Module Outline
Module Learning Outcomes
2.1. The Scientific Method
Table 2.1: The Steps of the Scientific Method
2.2. Research Designs Used by Social Psychologists
2.2.1. Observational Research
2.2.2. Case Studies
2.2.3. Surveys/Self-Report Data
2.2.4. Correlational Research
2.2.5. Example of a Study Using Survey and Correlational Designs
2.2.6. Experiments
2.2.7. Multi-Method Research
2.2.8. Archival Research
2.2.9. Meta-Analysis
2.2.10. Communicating Results
2.3. Reliability and Validity
2.3.1. Reliability
2.3.2. Validity
2.4. Research Ethics
2.4.1. Milgram’s Study on Learning…or Not
2.4.2. GO TO JAIL: Go Directly to Jail. Do Not Pass Go. Do Not Collect $200
2.4.3. Ethical Guidelines
2.5. Issues in Social Psychology
2.5.1. The Replication Crisis in Social Psychology
2.5.2. Generalizability
Module Recap
Content: In fact, it is safe to say that most people not within our discipline or a sister science, would be surprised to learn that psychology utilizes the scientific method at all. So what is the scientific method? Simply, the scientific method is a systematic method for gathering knowledge about the world around us. The key word here is that it is systematic meaning there is a set way to use it. What is that way? Well, depending on what source you look at it can include a varying number of steps. For our purposes, the following will be used: Table 2.1: The Steps of the Scientific Method
Step
Name
Description
0
Ask questions and be willing to wonder. To study the world around us you have to wonder about it. | https://opentext.wsu.edu/social-psychology/chapter/module-2-research-methods-in-social-psychology/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_920632903#10_1718567255 | Title: Fetal Development – Anatomy and Physiology
Headings: Fetal Development
Fetal Development
Learning Objectives
Sexual Differentiation
The Fetal Circulatory System
Other Organ Systems
Interactive Link Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
ductus arteriosus
Content: The eyes are well-developed by this stage, but the eyelids are fused shut. The fingers and toes begin to develop nails. By the end of week 12, the fetus measures approximately 9 cm (3.5 in) from crown to rump. Weeks 13–16 are marked by sensory organ development. The eyes move closer together; blinking motions begin, although the eyes remain sealed shut. The lips exhibit sucking motions. The ears move upward and lie flatter against the head. The scalp begins to grow hair. The excretory system is also developing: | https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiologyopenstax/chapter/fetal-development/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_923298873#0_1722591378 | Title: Evolution of Seed Plants – Biology 2e
Headings: 132
Evolution of Seed Plants
132 Evolution of Seed Plants
Learning Objectives
Evolution of Gymnosperms
Conifers. This boreal forest (taiga) has low-lying plants and conifer trees. (credit: L.B. Brubaker, NOAA)
Seeds and Pollen as an Evolutionary Adaptation to Dry Land
Evolution of Angiosperms
Flowers and Fruits as an Evolutionary Adaptation
Evolution Connection
Section Summary
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
Content: Evolution of Seed Plants – Biology 2e
Seed Plants
132 Evolution of Seed Plants
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following: Describe the two major innovations that allowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of water
Explain when seed plants first appeared and when gymnosperms became the dominant plant group
Discuss the purpose of pollen grains and seeds
Describe the significance of angiosperms bearing both flowers and fruit
The first plants to colonize land were most likely related to the ancestors of modern day mosses (bryophytes), which are thought to have appeared about 500 million years ago. They were followed by liverworts (also bryophytes) and primitive vascular plants—the pterophytes—from which modern ferns are descended. The life cycle of bryophytes and pterophytes is characterized by the alternation of generations, which is also exhibited in the gymnosperms and angiosperms. However, what sets bryophytes and pterophytes apart from gymnosperms and angiosperms is their reproductive requirement for water. The completion of the bryophyte and pterophyte life cycle requires water because the male gametophyte releases flagellated sperm, which must swim to reach and fertilize the female gamete or egg. After fertilization, the zygote undergoes cellular division and grows into a diploid sporophyte, which in turn will form sporangia or “spore vessels.” In the sporangia, mother cells undergo meiosis and produce the haploid spores. Release of spores in a suitable environment will lead to germination and a new generation of gametophytes. In seed plants, the evolutionary trend led to a dominant sporophyte generation accompanied by a corresponding reduction in the size of the gametophyte from a conspicuous structure to a microscopic cluster of cells enclosed in the tissues of the sporophyte. | https://opentextbc.ca/biology2eopenstax/chapter/evolution-of-seed-plants/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_924690868#8_1724944113 | Title: Why Nations Trade – Introduction to Business
Headings: 18
Why Nations Trade
18 Why Nations Trade
Absolute Advantage
Comparative Advantage
The Fear of Trade and Globalization
Benefits of Globalization
Summary of Learning Outcomes
Glossary
free trade
Content: Danielle Paquette, “Trump Said He Would Save Jobs at Carrier. The Layoffs Start July 20,” The Washington Post, https://www.washingtonpost.com, May 24, 2017. Anti-globalization groups oppose America’s free-trade stance, arguing that corporate interests are hurting the U.S. economy and usurping the power of the American people. The recent protests at the G20 meetings in Hamburg, Germany, expressed anti-free-trade sentiment, supporting the idea that multinational corporations wield too much power. Are fears expressed by anti-globalization activists and nationalists justified? ( Credit: fiction of reality/ Flickr/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0))
So is outsourcing good or bad? If you happen to lose your job, it’s obviously bad for you. However, some economists say it leads to cheaper goods and services for U.S. consumers because costs are lower. Also, it should stimulate exports to fast-growing countries. | https://opentextbc.ca/businessopenstax/chapter/why-nations-trade/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_924690868#9_1724945521 | Title: Why Nations Trade – Introduction to Business
Headings: 18
Why Nations Trade
18 Why Nations Trade
Absolute Advantage
Comparative Advantage
The Fear of Trade and Globalization
Benefits of Globalization
Summary of Learning Outcomes
Glossary
free trade
Content: Credit: fiction of reality/ Flickr/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0))
So is outsourcing good or bad? If you happen to lose your job, it’s obviously bad for you. However, some economists say it leads to cheaper goods and services for U.S. consumers because costs are lower. Also, it should stimulate exports to fast-growing countries. No one knows how many jobs will be lost to outsourcing in coming years. According to estimates, almost 2.4 million U.S. jobs were outsourced in 2015. “Jobs Overseas Statistics,” http://www.statisticbrain.com, accessed June 26, 2017. Benefits of Globalization
A closer look reveals that globalization has been the engine that creates jobs and wealth. Benefits of global trade include the following: | https://opentextbc.ca/businessopenstax/chapter/why-nations-trade/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_929239235#2_1731847209 | Title: 3.2 Values – Ethics in Law Enforcement
Headings: 3.2 Values
3.2 Values
Canadian Border Services Agency (CBSA)
BC Corrections [1]
Vancouver Police Department
Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) [2]
Content: Professionalism
We employ public resources wisely and properly. We provide efficient, competent and excellent service. We set high standards of achievement and accountability both individually and collectively. BC Corrections [1]
Integrity
Taking responsibility for our actions
Understanding how our actions can affect others
Courage
Doing what’s right and staying positive, not popular
Trying something new, risking failure
Leading by example
Teamwork
Coming together in times of crisis
Mentoring
Working with people in other departments for a common purpose
Passion
Sharing creative solutions with the leadership team
Demonstrating pride in what we do
Attempting to perform at a level we would expect of others
Service
Maintaining respectful relationships
Working effectively with our justice partners
Doing our job really well
Curiosity
Listening to new ideas
Challenging the way we do business and being willing to try new ideas
Seeking a better way to achieve our goals
Accountability
Being responsible for any action we take, and believing in ourselves
Taking ownership for our actions
Providing effective leadership and direction to our teams
Vancouver Police Department
The Vancouver Police Department has four core values, which they refer to as IPAR: Integrity
Professionalism
Accountability
Respect
Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) [2]
Recognizing the dedication of all employees, we will create and maintain an environment of individual safety, well-being and development. We are guided by: Integrity
Honesty
Professionalism
Compassion
Respect
Accountability
When applying for a job with any law enforcement agency, it is important that the applicant understands the core values of that agency. The Vancouver Police website succinctly addresses the importance of knowing the agency’s stated core values and demonstrating a life lived where these values have been incorporated in day-to-day living: These core values can’t be taught in any school, and they are non-negotiable for our applicants. Without these, it would be impossible to have a successful career with the VPD. | https://opentextbc.ca/ethicsinlawenforcement/chapter/3-2-values/ |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_25_929239235#3_1731849765 | Title: 3.2 Values – Ethics in Law Enforcement
Headings: 3.2 Values
3.2 Values
Canadian Border Services Agency (CBSA)
BC Corrections [1]
Vancouver Police Department
Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) [2]
Content: We are guided by: Integrity
Honesty
Professionalism
Compassion
Respect
Accountability
When applying for a job with any law enforcement agency, it is important that the applicant understands the core values of that agency. The Vancouver Police website succinctly addresses the importance of knowing the agency’s stated core values and demonstrating a life lived where these values have been incorporated in day-to-day living: These core values can’t be taught in any school, and they are non-negotiable for our applicants. Without these, it would be impossible to have a successful career with the VPD. Values are not solely limited to what the agency believes are core values, but also include one’s personal and outside values. ( Caldero and Crank, 2004). For example, applicants to the Vancouver Police Department should be aware of the agency’s values and demonstrate how they have incorporated these values into their everyday personal and professional life. We are inclined to have similar values that are shared among other members of the agency. Values are important for law enforcement officers and should be shared and agreed upon by all members. | https://opentextbc.ca/ethicsinlawenforcement/chapter/3-2-values/ |
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