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▁used ▁in ▁engineering ▁to ▁produce ▁items ▁that ▁will ▁serve ▁their ▁designed ▁purposes ▁and ▁remain ▁functional ▁for ▁a ▁desired ▁service ▁life . ▁ ▁To ▁construct ▁an ▁item ▁with ▁struct ural ▁integrity , ▁an ▁engineer ▁must ▁first ▁consider ▁a ▁material ’ s ▁mechanical ▁properties , ▁such ▁as ▁t ough ness , ▁strength , ▁weight , ▁hard ness , ▁and ▁el astic ity , ▁and ▁then ▁determine ▁the ▁size ▁and ▁shape ▁necessary ▁for ▁the ▁material ▁to ▁with stand ▁the ▁desired ▁load ▁for ▁a ▁long ▁life . ▁Since ▁members ▁can ▁neither ▁break ▁nor ▁b end ▁excess ively , ▁they ▁must ▁be ▁both ▁st iff ▁and ▁t ough . ▁A ▁very ▁st iff ▁material ▁may ▁resist ▁b ending , ▁but ▁unless ▁it ▁is ▁sufficiently ▁t ough , ▁it ▁may ▁have ▁to ▁be ▁very ▁large ▁to ▁support ▁a ▁load ▁without ▁breaking . ▁On ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁a ▁highly ▁el astic ▁material ▁will ▁b end ▁under ▁a ▁load ▁even ▁if ▁its ▁high ▁t ough ness ▁prevents ▁f ract ure . ▁ ▁Furthermore , ▁each ▁component ’ s ▁integrity ▁must ▁correspond ▁to ▁its ▁individual ▁application ▁in ▁any ▁load - b ear ing ▁structure . ▁Bridge ▁supports ▁need ▁a ▁high ▁yield ▁strength , ▁whereas ▁the ▁bol ts ▁that ▁hold ▁them ▁need ▁good ▁she ar ▁and ▁tens ile ▁strength . ▁Spr ings ▁need ▁good ▁el astic ity , ▁but ▁lat he ▁tool ing ▁needs ▁high ▁rig id ity . ▁In ▁addition , ▁the ▁entire ▁structure ▁must ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁support ▁its ▁load ▁without ▁its ▁weak est ▁links ▁failing , ▁as ▁this ▁can
▁put ▁more ▁stress ▁on ▁other ▁struct ural ▁elements ▁and ▁lead ▁to ▁cas c ading ▁fail ures . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁need ▁to ▁build ▁structures ▁with ▁integrity ▁goes ▁back ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁recorded ▁history . ▁H ouses ▁needed ▁to ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁support ▁their ▁own ▁weight , ▁plus ▁the ▁weight ▁of ▁the ▁inhabitants . ▁Cast les ▁needed ▁to ▁be ▁fort ified ▁to ▁with stand ▁assault s ▁from ▁inv aders . ▁Tools ▁needed ▁to ▁be ▁strong ▁and ▁t ough ▁enough ▁to ▁do ▁their ▁jobs . ▁However , ▁the ▁science ▁of ▁f ract ure ▁mechan ics ▁as ▁it ▁exists ▁today ▁was ▁not ▁developed ▁until ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s , ▁when ▁Alan ▁Arnold ▁Griff ith ▁studied ▁the ▁brit t le ▁f ract ure ▁of ▁glass . ▁ ▁Starting ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 0 s , ▁the ▁inf am ous ▁fail ures ▁of ▁several ▁new ▁techn ologies ▁made ▁a ▁more ▁scientific ▁method ▁for ▁analyz ing ▁struct ural ▁fail ures ▁necessary . ▁ ▁During ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁over ▁ 2 0 0 ▁w eld ed - ste el ▁ships ▁broke ▁in ▁half ▁due ▁to ▁brit t le ▁f ract ure , ▁caused ▁by ▁str esses ▁created ▁from ▁the ▁w eld ing ▁process , ▁temperature ▁changes , ▁and ▁by ▁the ▁stress ▁concentr ations ▁at ▁the ▁square ▁corners ▁of ▁the ▁bulk head s . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 s , ▁several ▁De ▁Hav ill and ▁Com ets ▁expl oded ▁in ▁mid - fl ight ▁due ▁to ▁stress ▁concentr ations ▁at ▁the
▁corners ▁of ▁their ▁squ ared ▁windows , ▁which ▁caused ▁cra cks ▁to ▁form ▁and ▁the ▁press ur ized ▁cab ins ▁to ▁expl ode . ▁ ▁Bo iler ▁explos ions , ▁caused ▁by ▁fail ures ▁in ▁press ur ized ▁bo iler ▁t anks , ▁were ▁another ▁common ▁problem ▁during ▁this ▁era , ▁and ▁caused ▁severe ▁damage . ▁The ▁growing ▁sizes ▁of ▁brid ges ▁and ▁buildings ▁led ▁to ▁even ▁greater ▁cat ast roph es ▁and ▁loss ▁of ▁life . ▁This ▁need ▁to ▁build ▁constru ctions ▁with ▁struct ural ▁integrity ▁led ▁to ▁great ▁adv ances ▁in ▁the ▁fields ▁of ▁material ▁sciences ▁and ▁f ract ure ▁mechan ics . ▁ ▁Types ▁of ▁failure ▁ ▁Struct ural ▁failure ▁can ▁occur ▁from ▁many ▁types ▁of ▁problems , ▁most ▁of ▁which ▁are ▁unique ▁to ▁different ▁indust ries ▁and ▁struct ural ▁types . ▁However , ▁most ▁can ▁be ▁trac ed ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁five ▁main ▁causes . ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁structure ▁is ▁not ▁strong ▁and ▁t ough ▁enough ▁to ▁support ▁the ▁load , ▁due ▁to ▁either ▁its ▁size , ▁shape , ▁or ▁choice ▁of ▁material . ▁If ▁the ▁structure ▁or ▁component ▁is ▁not ▁strong ▁enough , ▁cat ast roph ic ▁failure ▁can ▁occur ▁when ▁the ▁structure ▁is ▁str essed ▁beyond ▁its ▁critical ▁stress ▁level . ▁ ▁The ▁second ▁type ▁of ▁failure ▁is ▁from ▁fat igue ▁or ▁cor ros ion , ▁caused ▁by ▁inst ability ▁in ▁the ▁structure ’ s ▁geometry , ▁design ▁or ▁material ▁properties . ▁These ▁fail ures ▁usually ▁begin ▁when ▁cra cks ▁form ▁at ▁stress ▁points
, ▁such ▁as ▁squ ared ▁corners ▁or ▁b olt ▁holes ▁too ▁close ▁to ▁the ▁material ' s ▁edge . ▁ ▁These ▁cra cks ▁grow ▁as ▁the ▁material ▁is ▁repeatedly ▁str essed ▁and ▁un loaded ▁( cyc lic ▁loading ), ▁eventually ▁reaching ▁a ▁critical ▁length ▁and ▁causing ▁the ▁structure ▁to ▁suddenly ▁fail ▁under ▁normal ▁loading ▁conditions . ▁ ▁The ▁third ▁type ▁of ▁failure ▁is ▁caused ▁by ▁manufact uring ▁errors , ▁including ▁impro per ▁selection ▁of ▁materials , ▁incorrect ▁s izing , ▁impro per ▁heat ▁tre ating , ▁failing ▁to ▁ad here ▁to ▁the ▁design , ▁or ▁sh od dy ▁work mans hip . ▁ ▁This ▁type ▁of ▁failure ▁can ▁occur ▁at ▁any ▁time ▁and ▁is ▁usually ▁un predict able . ▁ ▁The ▁fourth ▁type ▁of ▁failure ▁is ▁from ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁defect ive ▁materials . ▁ ▁This ▁type ▁of ▁failure ▁is ▁also ▁un predict able , ▁since ▁the ▁material ▁may ▁have ▁been ▁impro per ly ▁manufact ured ▁or ▁dam aged ▁from ▁prior ▁use . ▁ ▁The ▁fifth ▁cause ▁of ▁failure ▁is ▁from ▁lack ▁of ▁consideration ▁of ▁unexpected ▁problems . ▁ ▁This ▁type ▁of ▁failure ▁can ▁be ▁caused ▁by ▁events ▁such ▁as ▁v andal ism , ▁sab ot age , ▁or ▁natural ▁dis aster s . ▁It ▁can ▁also ▁occur ▁if ▁those ▁who ▁use ▁and ▁maintain ▁the ▁construction ▁are ▁not ▁properly ▁trained ▁and ▁over str ess ▁the ▁structure . ▁ ▁Notable ▁fail ures ▁ ▁Br id ges ▁ ▁De e ▁bridge ▁ ▁The ▁De e ▁bridge ▁was ▁designed ▁by ▁Robert ▁Steph enson , ▁using ▁cast
▁iron ▁g ird ers ▁rein for ced ▁with ▁wr ought ▁iron ▁str uts . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 4 ▁May ▁ 1 8 4 7 , ▁it ▁col lapsed ▁as ▁a ▁train ▁passed ▁over ▁it , ▁killing ▁five ▁people . ▁ ▁Its ▁collapse ▁was ▁the ▁subject ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁formal ▁in qui ries ▁into ▁a ▁struct ural ▁failure . ▁ ▁This ▁inqu iry ▁concluded ▁that ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁the ▁structure ▁was ▁fund ament ally ▁fla wed , ▁as ▁the ▁wr ought ▁iron ▁did ▁not ▁rein force ▁the ▁cast ▁iron , ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁casting ▁had ▁failed ▁due ▁to ▁repeated ▁flex ing . ▁ ▁First ▁T ay ▁Rail ▁Bridge ▁ ▁The ▁De e ▁bridge ▁dis aster ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁cast ▁iron ▁bridge ▁col laps es , ▁including ▁the ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁T ay ▁Rail ▁Bridge ▁on ▁ 2 8 ▁December ▁ 1 8 7 9 . ▁Like ▁the ▁De e ▁bridge , ▁the ▁T ay ▁col lapsed ▁when ▁a ▁train ▁passed ▁over ▁it , ▁killing ▁ 7 5 ▁people . ▁ ▁The ▁bridge ▁failed ▁because ▁it ▁was ▁constructed ▁from ▁poor ly ▁made ▁cast ▁iron , ▁and ▁because ▁designer ▁Thomas ▁B ouch ▁failed ▁to ▁consider ▁wind ▁loading ▁on ▁it . ▁ ▁Its ▁collapse ▁resulted ▁in ▁cast ▁iron ▁being ▁replaced ▁by ▁steel ▁construction , ▁and ▁a ▁complete ▁red es ign ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 0 ▁of ▁the ▁For th ▁Railway ▁Bridge , ▁making ▁it ▁the ▁first ▁entirely ▁steel ▁bridge ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁ ▁First ▁Ta com a ▁N
arrow s ▁Bridge ▁ ▁The ▁ 1 9 4 0 ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁original ▁Ta com a ▁N arrow s ▁Bridge ▁is ▁sometimes ▁character ized ▁in ▁physics ▁text books ▁as ▁a ▁classic ▁example ▁of ▁reson ance , ▁although ▁this ▁description ▁is ▁mis leading . ▁The ▁cat ast roph ic ▁v ibr ations ▁that ▁destroyed ▁the ▁bridge ▁were ▁not ▁due ▁to ▁simple ▁mechanical ▁reson ance , ▁but ▁to ▁a ▁more ▁complicated ▁oscill ation ▁between ▁the ▁bridge ▁and ▁wind s ▁passing ▁through ▁it , ▁known ▁as ▁a ero el astic ▁flutter . ▁Robert ▁H . ▁Sc an lan , ▁father ▁of ▁the ▁field ▁of ▁bridge ▁aer od ynam ics , ▁wrote ▁an ▁article ▁about ▁this ▁misunder standing . ▁This ▁collapse , ▁and ▁the ▁research ▁that ▁followed , ▁led ▁to ▁an ▁increased ▁understanding ▁of ▁wind / structure ▁interactions . ▁Several ▁brid ges ▁were ▁alter ed ▁following ▁the ▁collapse ▁to ▁prevent ▁a ▁similar ▁event ▁occurr ing ▁again . ▁The ▁only ▁fatal ity ▁was ▁a ▁dog ▁named ▁T ub by . ▁ ▁I - 3 5 W ▁Bridge ▁ ▁The ▁I - 3 5 W ▁Mississippi ▁River ▁bridge ▁( o fficial ly ▁known ▁simply ▁as ▁Bridge ▁ 9 3 4 0 ) ▁was ▁an ▁eight - lane ▁steel ▁tr uss ▁arch ▁bridge ▁that ▁carried ▁Inter state ▁ 3 5 W ▁across ▁the ▁Mississippi ▁River ▁in ▁Min ne apolis , ▁Minnesota , ▁United ▁States . ▁The ▁bridge ▁was ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 7 , ▁and ▁its ▁maintenance ▁was ▁performed ▁by ▁the ▁Minnesota ▁Department ▁of ▁Transport ation .
▁The ▁bridge ▁was ▁Minnesota ' s ▁fifth – bus iest , ▁carrying ▁ 1 4 0 , 0 0 0 ▁vehicles ▁daily . ▁The ▁bridge ▁cat ast roph ically ▁failed ▁during ▁the ▁evening ▁r ush ▁hour ▁on ▁ 1 ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁col laps ing ▁to ▁the ▁river ▁and ▁river b anks ▁beneath . ▁Th ir teen ▁people ▁were ▁killed ▁and ▁ 1 4 5 ▁were ▁injured . ▁Following ▁the ▁collapse , ▁the ▁Federal ▁Highway ▁Administration ▁ad vised ▁states ▁to ▁inspect ▁the ▁ 7 0 0 ▁U . S . ▁brid ges ▁of ▁similar ▁construction ▁after ▁a ▁possible ▁design ▁f law ▁in ▁the ▁bridge ▁was ▁discovered , ▁related ▁to ▁large ▁steel ▁sheets ▁called ▁g us set ▁pl ates ▁which ▁were ▁used ▁to ▁connect ▁g ird ers ▁together ▁in ▁the ▁tr uss ▁structure . ▁Official s ▁expressed ▁concern ▁about ▁many ▁other ▁brid ges ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁sharing ▁the ▁same ▁design ▁and ▁raised ▁questions ▁as ▁to ▁why ▁such ▁a ▁f law ▁would ▁not ▁have ▁been ▁discovered ▁in ▁over ▁ 4 0 ▁years ▁of ▁ins pe ctions . ▁ ▁Build ings ▁ ▁Th ane ▁building ▁collapse ▁ ▁On ▁ 4 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁a ▁building ▁col lapsed ▁on ▁trib al ▁land ▁in ▁M um bra , ▁a ▁sub urb ▁of ▁Th ane ▁in ▁Mah ar as ht ra , ▁India . ▁It ▁has ▁been ▁called ▁the ▁worst ▁building ▁collapse ▁in ▁the ▁area : ▁ 7 4 ▁people ▁died , ▁including ▁ 1 8 ▁children , ▁ 2
3 ▁women , ▁and ▁ 3 3 ▁men , ▁while ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 ▁people ▁surv ived . ▁ ▁The ▁building ▁was ▁under ▁construction ▁and ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁an ▁occup ancy ▁certificate ▁for ▁its ▁ 1 0 0 ▁to ▁ 1 5 0 ▁low - ▁to ▁middle - in come ▁residents ▁; ▁its ▁only ▁occup ants ▁were ▁the ▁site ▁construction ▁workers ▁and ▁their ▁families . ▁ ▁The ▁building ▁was ▁reported ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁il leg ally ▁constructed ▁because ▁standard ▁practices ▁were ▁not ▁followed ▁for ▁safe , ▁law ful ▁construction , ▁land ▁ac quisition ▁and ▁resident ▁ ▁occup ancy . ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 1 ▁April , ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁ 1 5 ▁suspect s ▁were ▁arrested ▁including ▁build ers , ▁engine ers , ▁municipal ▁officials , ▁and ▁other ▁responsible ▁parties . ▁Government al ▁records ▁indicate ▁that ▁there ▁were ▁two ▁orders ▁to ▁manage ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁illegal ▁buildings ▁in ▁the ▁area : ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁Mah ar as ht ra ▁state ▁order ▁to ▁use ▁remote ▁sens ing ▁and ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Bomb ay ▁High ▁Court ▁order . ▁Comp la ints ▁were ▁also ▁made ▁to ▁state ▁and ▁municipal ▁officials . ▁ ▁On ▁ 9 ▁April , ▁the ▁Th ane ▁Municipal ▁Corporation ▁began ▁a ▁campaign ▁to ▁demol ish ▁illegal ▁buildings ▁in ▁the ▁area , ▁foc using ▁on ▁“ d anger ous ” ▁buildings , ▁and ▁set ▁up ▁a ▁call ▁center ▁to ▁accept ▁and ▁track ▁the ▁resolution s ▁of ▁compla ints ▁about ▁illegal ▁buildings . ▁ ▁The ▁forest ▁department
, ▁mean while , ▁promised ▁to ▁address ▁enc ro achment ▁of ▁forest ▁land ▁in ▁the ▁Th ane ▁District . ▁ ▁Sav ar ▁building ▁collapse ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 4 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁R ana ▁Pla za , ▁an ▁eight - store y ▁commercial ▁building , ▁col lapsed ▁in ▁Sav ar , ▁a ▁sub - d istrict ▁in ▁the ▁Gre ater ▁D h aka ▁Area , ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁Bang l adesh . ▁The ▁search ▁for ▁the ▁dead ▁ended ▁on ▁ 1 3 ▁May ▁with ▁the ▁death ▁to ll ▁of ▁ 1 , 1 2 9 . ▁Appro xim ately ▁ 2 , 5 1 5 ▁injured ▁people ▁were ▁res cu ed ▁from ▁the ▁building ▁alive . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁dead liest ▁gar ment - factory ▁accident ▁in ▁history , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁dead liest ▁accident al ▁struct ural ▁failure ▁in ▁modern ▁human ▁history . ▁ ▁The ▁building ▁contained ▁cl othing ▁fact ories , ▁a ▁bank , ▁apart ments , ▁and ▁several ▁other ▁sh ops . ▁The ▁sh ops ▁and ▁the ▁bank ▁on ▁the ▁lower ▁flo ors ▁immediately ▁closed ▁after ▁cra cks ▁were ▁discovered ▁in ▁the ▁building . ▁W arn ings ▁to ▁avoid ▁using ▁the ▁building ▁after ▁cra cks ▁appeared ▁the ▁day ▁before ▁had ▁been ▁ignored . ▁Gar ment ▁workers ▁were ▁ordered ▁to ▁return ▁the ▁following ▁day ▁and ▁the ▁building ▁col lapsed ▁during ▁the ▁morning ▁r ush - hour . ▁ ▁Sam po ong ▁Department ▁Store ▁collapse ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 9 ▁June ▁ 1
9 9 5 , ▁the ▁five - story ▁Sam po ong ▁Department ▁Store ▁in ▁the ▁Se o cho ▁District ▁of ▁Se oul , ▁South ▁Korea ▁col lapsed ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁death s ▁of ▁ 5 0 2 ▁people , ▁with ▁another ▁ 1 , 4 4 5 ▁being ▁tra pped . ▁ ▁In ▁April ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁cra cks ▁began ▁to ▁appear ▁in ▁the ▁ce iling ▁of ▁the ▁fifth ▁floor ▁of ▁the ▁store ' s ▁south ▁wing ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁an ▁air - condition ing ▁unit ▁on ▁the ▁weak ened ▁roof ▁of ▁the ▁poor ly ▁built ▁structure . ▁On ▁the ▁morning ▁of ▁ 2 9 ▁June , ▁as ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁cra cks ▁in ▁the ▁ce iling ▁increased ▁dram atically , ▁store ▁man agers ▁closed ▁the ▁top ▁floor ▁and ▁shut ▁off ▁the ▁air ▁condition ing , ▁but ▁failed ▁to ▁shut ▁the ▁building ▁down ▁or ▁issue ▁formal ▁ev acu ation ▁orders ▁as ▁the ▁execut ives ▁themselves ▁left ▁the ▁prem ises ▁as ▁a ▁pre ca ution . ▁▁ ▁Five ▁hours ▁before ▁the ▁collapse , ▁the ▁first ▁of ▁several ▁loud ▁b angs ▁was ▁heard ▁em an ating ▁from ▁the ▁top ▁flo ors , ▁as ▁the ▁v ibration ▁of ▁the ▁air ▁condition ing ▁caused ▁the ▁cra cks ▁in ▁the ▁sl abs ▁to ▁w iden ▁further . ▁Am id ▁customer ▁reports ▁of ▁v ibration ▁in ▁the ▁building , ▁the ▁air ▁condition ing ▁was ▁turned ▁off ▁but , ▁the ▁cra cks ▁in ▁the ▁flo ors ▁had ▁already ▁grown ▁to ▁ 1 0 cm
▁wide . ▁At ▁about ▁ 5 : 0 0 p . m . ▁local ▁time , ▁the ▁fifth - floor ▁ce iling ▁began ▁to ▁sink , ▁and ▁at ▁ 5 : 5 7 p . m ., ▁the ▁roof ▁gave ▁way , ▁sending ▁the ▁air ▁condition ing ▁unit ▁crash ing ▁through ▁into ▁the ▁already - over loaded ▁fifth ▁floor . ▁ ▁Ron an ▁Point ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 6 ▁May ▁ 1 9 6 8 , ▁the ▁ 2 2 - story ▁resident ial ▁tower ▁Ron an ▁Point ▁in ▁the ▁London ▁Bor ough ▁of ▁New ham ▁col lapsed ▁when ▁a ▁relatively ▁small ▁gas ▁explos ion ▁on ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁floor ▁caused ▁a ▁struct ural ▁wall ▁panel ▁to ▁be ▁blow n ▁away ▁from ▁the ▁building . ▁The ▁tower ▁was ▁constructed ▁of ▁pre cast ▁concrete , ▁and ▁the ▁failure ▁of ▁the ▁single ▁panel ▁caused ▁one ▁entire ▁corner ▁of ▁the ▁building ▁to ▁collapse . ▁The ▁panel ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁be ▁blow n ▁out ▁because ▁there ▁was ▁ins u fficient ▁rein for cement ▁steel ▁passing ▁between ▁the ▁pan els . ▁This ▁also ▁meant ▁that ▁the ▁loads ▁carried ▁by ▁the ▁panel ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁red ist ributed ▁to ▁other ▁adjacent ▁pan els , ▁because ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁route ▁for ▁the ▁forces ▁to ▁follow . ▁As ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁collapse , ▁building ▁reg ulations ▁were ▁over h au led ▁to ▁prevent ▁dis pro port ion ate ▁collapse ▁and ▁the ▁understanding ▁of ▁pre cast ▁concrete ▁detail ing ▁was ▁greatly ▁advanced . ▁Many ▁similar ▁buildings ▁were
▁alter ed ▁or ▁demol ished ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁collapse . ▁ ▁Oklahoma ▁City ▁bomb ing ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 9 ▁April ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁the ▁nine - story ▁concrete ▁fr amed ▁Alfred ▁P . ▁Mur rah ▁Federal ▁Building ▁in ▁Oklahoma ▁was ▁struck ▁by ▁a ▁huge ▁car ▁bomb ▁causing ▁partial ▁collapse , ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁death s ▁of ▁ 1 6 8 ▁people . ▁The ▁bomb , ▁though ▁large , ▁caused ▁a ▁significantly ▁dis pro port ion ate ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁structure . ▁The ▁bomb ▁ble w ▁all ▁the ▁glass ▁off ▁the ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁building ▁and ▁completely ▁sh atter ed ▁a ▁ground ▁floor ▁rein for ced ▁concrete ▁column ▁( see ▁br is ance ). ▁At ▁second ▁story ▁level ▁a ▁wider ▁column ▁spacing ▁existed , ▁and ▁loads ▁from ▁upper ▁story ▁columns ▁were ▁transferred ▁into ▁fewer ▁columns ▁below ▁by ▁g ird ers ▁at ▁second ▁floor ▁level . ▁The ▁removal ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁lower ▁story ▁columns ▁caused ▁neighbour ing ▁columns ▁to ▁fail ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁extra ▁load , ▁eventually ▁leading ▁to ▁the ▁complete ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁central ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁building . ▁The ▁bomb ing ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁to ▁highlight ▁the ▁extreme ▁forces ▁that ▁bl ast ▁loading ▁from ▁terror ism ▁can ▁ex ert ▁on ▁buildings , ▁and ▁led ▁to ▁increased ▁consideration ▁of ▁terror ism ▁in ▁struct ural ▁design ▁of ▁buildings . ▁ ▁Vers a illes ▁wed ding ▁hall ▁ ▁The ▁Vers a illes ▁wed ding ▁hall ▁( ), ▁located ▁in ▁Tal pi ot , ▁Jerusalem , ▁is ▁the
▁site ▁of ▁the ▁worst ▁civil ▁dis aster ▁in ▁Israel ' s ▁history . ▁At ▁ 2 2 : 4 3 ▁on ▁Th urs day ▁night , ▁ 2 4 ▁May ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁during ▁the ▁wed ding ▁of ▁K eren ▁and ▁As af ▁D ror , ▁a ▁large ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁third ▁floor ▁of ▁the ▁four - story ▁building ▁col lapsed , ▁killing ▁ 2 3 ▁people . ▁ ▁World ▁Trade ▁Center ▁Tow ers ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 , ▁and ▁ 7 ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁September ▁ 1 1 ▁attacks , ▁two ▁commercial ▁air lin ers ▁were ▁deliber ately ▁crash ed ▁into ▁the ▁T win ▁Tow ers ▁of ▁the ▁World ▁Trade ▁Center ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁The ▁impact ▁and ▁resulting ▁fires ▁caused ▁both ▁to wers ▁to ▁collapse ▁within ▁less ▁than ▁two ▁hours . ▁The ▁impact s ▁sever ed ▁exterior ▁columns ▁and ▁dam aged ▁core ▁columns , ▁red ist rib uting ▁the ▁loads ▁that ▁these ▁columns ▁had ▁carried . ▁ ▁This ▁red ist ribution ▁of ▁loads ▁was ▁greatly ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁hat ▁tr uss es ▁at ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁each ▁building . ▁The ▁impact s ▁dis l od ged ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁fire proof ing ▁from ▁the ▁steel , ▁increasing ▁its ▁expos ure ▁to ▁the ▁heat ▁of ▁the ▁fires . ▁Tem per atures ▁became ▁high ▁enough ▁to ▁weak en ▁the ▁core ▁columns ▁to ▁the ▁point ▁of ▁cre ep ▁and ▁pl astic ▁de formation ▁under ▁the ▁weight ▁of ▁higher ▁flo ors . ▁ ▁The ▁heat ▁of ▁the ▁fires ▁also ▁weak ened
▁the ▁per imeter ▁columns ▁and ▁flo ors , ▁causing ▁the ▁flo ors ▁to ▁sag ▁and ▁ex ert ing ▁an ▁in ward ▁force ▁on ▁exterior ▁walls ▁of ▁the ▁building . ▁W TC ▁Building ▁ 7 ▁also ▁col lapsed ▁later ▁that ▁day ; ▁the ▁ 4 7 ▁story ▁sk ys cra per ▁col lapsed ▁within ▁seconds ▁due ▁to ▁a ▁combination ▁of ▁a ▁large ▁fire ▁inside ▁the ▁building ▁and ▁heavy ▁struct ural ▁damage ▁from ▁the ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁North ▁Tower . ▁ ▁A ircraft ▁ ▁Re pe ated ▁struct ural ▁fail ures ▁of ▁aircraft ▁types ▁occurred ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 4 , ▁when ▁two ▁de ▁Hav ill and ▁Com et ▁C 1 ▁jet ▁air lin ers ▁crash ed ▁due ▁to ▁decom pression ▁caused ▁by ▁metal ▁fat igue , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 3 – 6 4 , ▁when ▁the ▁vertical ▁stabil izer ▁on ▁four ▁Bo eing ▁B - 5 2 ▁bom bers ▁broke ▁off ▁in ▁mid - air . ▁ ▁Other ▁ ▁Wars aw ▁Radio ▁M ast ▁ ▁On ▁ 8 ▁August ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁at ▁ 1 6 : 0 0 ▁UTC ▁Wars aw ▁radio ▁m ast , ▁the ▁tall est ▁man - made ▁object ▁ever ▁built ▁before ▁the ▁ere ction ▁of ▁Bur j ▁K hal ifa ▁col lapsed ▁as ▁consequence ▁of ▁an ▁error ▁in ▁ex ch anging ▁the ▁gu y - w ires ▁on ▁the ▁highest ▁stock . ▁The ▁m ast ▁first ▁bent ▁and ▁then ▁sn apped ▁at ▁roughly ▁half ▁its ▁height . ▁It ▁destroyed ▁at ▁its ▁collapse ▁a
▁small ▁mobile ▁c rane ▁of ▁Most ost al ▁Z ab rze . ▁As ▁all ▁workers ▁left ▁the ▁m ast ▁before ▁the ▁exchange ▁procedures , ▁there ▁were ▁no ▁fatal ities , ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁the ▁similar ▁collapse ▁of ▁W L B T ▁Tower ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 7 . ▁ ▁Hy att ▁Reg ency ▁walk way ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 7 ▁July ▁ 1 9 8 1 , ▁two ▁susp ended ▁walk ways ▁through ▁the ▁lo bb y ▁of ▁the ▁Hy att ▁Reg ency ▁in ▁Kansas ▁City , ▁Missouri , ▁col lapsed , ▁killing ▁ 1 1 4 ▁and ▁inj uring ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 0 0 ▁people ▁at ▁a ▁tea ▁dance . ▁The ▁collapse ▁was ▁due ▁to ▁a ▁late ▁change ▁in ▁design , ▁alter ing ▁the ▁method ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁ro ds ▁supporting ▁the ▁walk ways ▁were ▁connected ▁to ▁them , ▁and ▁in ad vert ently ▁dou bling ▁the ▁forces ▁on ▁the ▁connection . ▁The ▁failure ▁highlight ed ▁the ▁need ▁for ▁good ▁communication ▁between ▁design ▁engine ers ▁and ▁contract ors , ▁and ▁rig orous ▁checks ▁on ▁designs ▁and ▁especially ▁on ▁contract or - pro posed ▁design ▁changes . ▁The ▁failure ▁is ▁a ▁standard ▁case ▁study ▁on ▁engineering ▁courses ▁around ▁the ▁world , ▁and ▁is ▁used ▁to ▁teach ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁eth ics ▁in ▁engineering . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Struct ural ▁analysis ▁ ▁Struct ural ▁robust ness ▁ ▁Cat ast roph ic ▁failure ▁ ▁Earth qu ake ▁engineering ▁ ▁Por ch ▁collapse ▁ ▁For ens ic ▁engineering ▁ ▁Progress ive ▁collapse ▁
▁Se ism ic ▁performance ▁ ▁Service ability ▁failure ▁ ▁Struct ural ▁f ract ure ▁mechan ics ▁ ▁Col lapse ▁zone ▁ ▁Engineering ▁dis aster s ▁ ▁T of u - d reg ▁project ▁ ▁References ▁Notes ▁ ▁Cit ations ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁Feld , ▁Jacob ; ▁Car per , ▁Kenneth ▁L . ▁( 1 9 9 7 ). ▁Const ruction ▁Fail ure . ▁John ▁W iley ▁& ▁S ons . ▁. ▁ ▁Lewis , ▁Peter ▁R . ▁( 2 0 0 7 ). ▁Dis aster ▁on ▁the ▁De e . ▁Temp us . ▁ ▁Pet ro ski , ▁Henry ▁( 1 9 9 4 ). ▁Design ▁Parad ig ms : ▁Case ▁Histor ies ▁of ▁Error ▁and ▁Jud gment ▁in ▁Engineering . ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press . ▁. ▁ ▁Scott , ▁Richard ▁( 2 0 0 1 ). ▁In ▁the ▁W ake ▁of ▁Ta com a : ▁Sus p ension ▁Br id ges ▁and ▁the ▁Qu est ▁for ▁Aer od ynamic ▁St ability . ▁AS CE ▁Publications . ▁. ▁ ▁Category : Sol id ▁mechan ics ▁Category : Material s ▁science ▁Category : Build ing ▁engineering ▁Category : Me chan ical ▁engineering ▁Category : Build ing ▁defect s ▁Category : Me chan ical ▁failure ▁modes ▁Category : Struct ural ▁engineering ▁Category : Engine ering ▁fail ures <0x0A> </s> ▁Const itut ing ▁America ▁is ▁a ▁non - pro fit , ▁non - part isan ▁organization ▁that ▁educ ates ▁and ▁inform s ▁the ▁public ▁about ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Constitution . ▁The ▁organization ▁util izes
▁popular ▁culture ▁( music , ▁film , ▁television , ▁internet , ▁and ▁social ▁media ) ▁to ▁reach , ▁educ ate ▁and ▁inform ▁America ’ s ▁adult s ▁and ▁students ▁about ▁the ▁non - part isan ▁relev ancy ▁of ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Constitution . ▁Const itut ing ▁America ▁was ▁founded ▁on ▁February ▁ 1 7 th , ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁by ▁actress / author ▁Jan ine ▁Turner ▁and ▁C ath y ▁G illes pie , ▁a ▁former ▁senior ▁con gression al ▁a ide . ▁ ▁Const itut ing ▁America ▁is ▁dedicated ▁to ▁increasing ▁the ▁general ▁knowledge ▁and ▁understanding ▁of ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Constitution ▁and ▁is ▁committed ▁to ▁revers ing ▁the ▁tr end ▁of ▁civ ic ▁a path y ▁and ▁ignor ance ▁that ▁exists ▁among ▁the ▁American ▁society . ▁ ▁School ▁In vol vement ▁ ▁F ounded ▁to ▁preserve ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Constitution , ▁Const itut ing ▁America ▁places ▁special ▁emphas is ▁on ▁bringing ▁the ▁Constitution ▁to ▁life ▁in ▁schools ▁across ▁the ▁country . ▁The ▁found ers ▁of ▁the ▁organization ▁visit ▁schools ▁in ▁a ▁school ▁speaking ▁program ▁and ▁provide ▁patri otic ▁clubs ▁for ▁students ▁to ▁become ▁involved ▁in . ▁Additionally , ▁Const itut ing ▁America ▁hosts ▁an ▁annual ▁We ▁The ▁Future ▁scholar ship ▁contest ▁for ▁students ▁across ▁the ▁country . ▁Through ▁this ▁contest , ▁the ▁organization ▁has ▁awarded ▁tens ▁of ▁thousands ▁of ▁dollars ▁in ▁scholar ships ▁to ▁students ▁across ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁▁ 9 0 ▁Day ▁Study ▁ ▁Every ▁year , ▁Const itut ing ▁America ▁hosts
▁a ▁ 9 0 ▁Day ▁Study ▁of ▁ 9 0 ▁ess ays ▁written ▁to ▁educ ate ▁and ▁inform ▁Americans ▁of ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁the ▁found ing ▁documents . ▁The ▁ 9 0 ▁Day ▁Study ▁is ▁a ▁compilation ▁of ▁ess ays ▁written ▁about ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Constitution , ▁The ▁Federal ist ▁Pap ers , ▁and ▁the ▁Found ing ▁Era . ▁The ▁ 2 0 2 0 ▁ 9 0 ▁Day ▁Study ▁is ▁a ▁study ▁of ▁important ▁dates ▁in ▁American ▁history ▁that ▁sh aped ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁changed ▁the ▁world . ▁The ▁sch ol astic ▁study ▁is ▁written ▁by ▁constitution al ▁sch ol ars ▁from ▁the ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁notable ▁univers ities ▁and ▁law ▁schools ▁in ▁the ▁country . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Non - pro fit ▁organizations ▁Category : Un ited ▁States ▁Constitution ▁Category : Non part isan ▁organizations ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : Non - pro fit ▁organizations ▁based ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : 5 0 1 ( c )( 3 ) ▁non pro fit ▁organizations ▁Category : Non - pro fit ▁organizations ▁based ▁in ▁Texas ▁Category : Organ izations ▁established ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Category : C ivil ▁libert ies ▁advoc acy ▁groups ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : H uman ▁rights ▁organizations ▁based ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : C ivil ▁libert ies ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : C ivil ▁libert ies ▁advoc acy ▁groups ▁Category : E du c ational ▁organizations ▁based ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States <0x0A> </s> ▁Bol sh
oy ▁Ch erem sh an ▁( , ▁literally ▁Gre ater ▁Ch erem sh an , ▁) ▁is ▁a ▁river ▁in ▁Russia , ▁a ▁left ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Vol ga ▁between ▁the ▁K ama ▁River ▁and ▁Sam ara ▁River . ▁It ▁is ▁ ▁long , ▁and ▁has ▁a ▁d rain age ▁bas in ▁of ▁. ▁It ▁flows ▁south west ▁to ▁the ▁Vol ga ▁near ▁Dim it rov grad . ▁The ▁main ▁in flow s ▁are ▁the ▁Bol sh aya ▁Sul cha ▁and ▁Mal y ▁Ch erem sh an . ▁The ▁maximal ▁dis charge ▁is ▁ ▁( 1 9 7 9 ), ▁and ▁the ▁minimal ▁min eral ization ▁is ▁ 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 ▁m g / l . ▁The ▁river bed ▁is ▁me and ering ▁and ▁the ▁me adows ▁are ▁wide . ▁From ▁around ▁ 1 6 5 0 ▁the ▁Trans - K ama ▁Line ▁of ▁for ts ▁ran ▁along ▁or ▁near ▁the ▁Ch erem sh an . ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁T atar stan ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Sam ara ▁O blast ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁U ly an ov sk ▁O blast <0x0A> </s> ▁And rás ▁Sz al ai ▁( born ▁ 3 ▁February ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁in ▁Budapest ) ▁is ▁a ▁Hung arian ▁football ▁player ▁who ▁currently ▁plays ▁for ▁K FC ▁Kom ár no ▁on ▁loan ▁from ▁Pak si ▁FC . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁P aks ▁On ▁ 1 3 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁Sz
al ai ▁played ▁his ▁first ▁match ▁for ▁P aks ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 - 3 ▁loss ▁against ▁Budapest ▁Hon v éd ▁FC ▁in ▁the ▁Hung arian ▁League . ▁ ▁Club ▁statistics ▁ ▁Updated ▁to ▁games ▁played ▁as ▁of ▁ 1 6 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 8 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Profile ▁at ▁M LS Z ▁ ▁Soccer way ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 9 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁Budapest ▁Category : H ung arian ▁football ers ▁Category : H ung arian ▁exp atri ate ▁football ers ▁Category : H ung ary ▁youth ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁def enders ▁Category : P ak si ▁FC ▁players ▁Category : D or og i ▁FC ▁football ers ▁Category : K FC ▁Kom ár no ▁players ▁Category : Bal maz ú j vá ro si ▁FC ▁players ▁Category : N em zeti ▁B ajn oks ág ▁I ▁players ▁Category : N em zeti ▁B ajn oks ág ▁II ▁players ▁Category : 2 . ▁Liga ▁( S lov ak ia ) ▁players ▁Category : H ung arian ▁exp atri ate ▁sports people ▁in ▁Slov ak ia ▁Category : Ex pat ri ate ▁football ers ▁in ▁Slov ak ia <0x0A> </s> ▁Keith ▁A . ▁Taylor ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁retired ▁United ▁States ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁R ear ▁Admir al . ▁He ▁is ▁the ▁current ▁Senior ▁Vice ▁President ▁of ▁Fle et ▁Oper ations ▁at ▁Holland ▁America ▁Line ▁Inc . ▁and ▁Se ab ourn ▁Cru ise
▁Line ▁Limited . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁Taylor ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁May ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 1 9 6 1 , ▁in ▁Spring field , ▁Massachusetts , ▁and ▁attended ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁Academy ▁from ▁ 1 9 7 9 - 1 9 8 3 . ▁He ▁holds ▁a ▁Bach elor ▁of ▁Science ▁with ▁hon ors , ▁a ▁Master ▁of ▁Science ▁in ▁Indust rial ▁Administration ▁from ▁Pur due ▁University , ▁and ▁a ▁Master ▁of ▁Business ▁Administration ▁from ▁the ▁Massachusetts ▁Institute ▁of ▁Technology . ▁While ▁at ▁M IT ▁Taylor ▁was ▁a ▁Slo an ▁Fellow . ▁ ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁Career ▁Taylor ▁served ▁over ▁ 3 0 ▁years ▁in ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Coast ▁Guard , ▁in ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁command , ▁oper ational , ▁engineering , ▁and ▁staff ▁assign ments . ▁Taylor ▁worked ▁at ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁headquarters ▁in ▁Washington , ▁D . C ., ▁between ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁where ▁he ▁conducted ▁program ▁review ▁and ▁budget ▁development ▁for ▁all ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁law ▁enfor cement . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁Taylor ▁was ▁an ▁av i ator ▁and ▁aircraft ▁maintenance ▁officer , ▁and ▁became ▁command ing ▁officer ▁of ▁Air ▁Station ▁Miami . ▁From ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Taylor ▁served ▁as ▁deput y ▁chief ▁of ▁staff ▁of ▁the ▁Coast ▁Guard , ▁until ▁he ▁was ▁promoted ▁to ▁flag ▁officer ▁rank ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁He ▁then ▁he ▁served ▁as ▁assistant ▁command ant ▁for
▁resources ▁and ▁chief ▁financial ▁officer ▁of ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Coast ▁Guard . ▁Taylor ▁continued ▁his ▁career ▁as ▁commander ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 3 th ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁District . ▁ ▁Taylor ▁eventually ▁rose ▁to ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁R ear ▁Admir al . ▁He ▁retired ▁on ▁August ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁His ▁final ▁post ▁was ▁as ▁the ▁Commander ▁of ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁District ▁ 1 3 , ▁based ▁in ▁Seattle , ▁Washington , ▁a ▁position ▁he ▁held ▁since ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁During ▁his ▁time ▁as ▁commander , ▁the ▁district ▁was ▁responsible ▁for ▁saving ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁ 4 0 1 ▁people ▁during ▁ 3 , 2 8 4 ▁search ▁and ▁rescue ▁cases ; ▁the ▁district ▁also ▁respond ed ▁to ▁calls ▁for ▁help ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁assistance ▁to ▁ 6 , 3 5 0 ▁people , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁respond ing ▁to ▁ 6 , 0 0 0 ▁oil ▁sp ills ▁or ▁chemical ▁releases . ▁Finally , ▁under ▁his ▁command ▁the ▁district ▁saved ▁$ 2 1 . 7 5 ▁million ▁in ▁property ▁values . ▁ ▁Post - mil it ary ▁career ▁Upon ▁his ▁retired ▁from ▁the ▁military , ▁Taylor ▁was ▁named ▁senior ▁vice ▁president , ▁fleet ▁operations , ▁for ▁both ▁Holland ▁America ▁Line ▁and ▁Se ab ourn . ▁Begin ning ▁January ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Taylor ▁took ▁over ▁the ▁fleet ▁management ▁respons ib ilities ▁of ▁Dan ▁Gra usz , ▁executive ▁vice ▁president ▁of ▁fleet ▁operations . ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁On
▁November ▁ 1 2 , ▁ 1 9 8 8 , ▁Taylor ▁married ▁his ▁wife , ▁Sh ar l ene , ▁in ▁O ster ville , ▁Massachusetts . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Un ited ▁States ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁Category : 1 9 6 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people <0x0A> </s> ▁School craft ▁State ▁Park ▁is ▁a ▁state ▁park ▁of ▁Minnesota , ▁USA , ▁on ▁the ▁banks ▁of ▁the ▁Mississippi ▁River ▁near ▁Grand ▁Rap ids ▁and ▁De er ▁River . ▁It ▁was ▁named ▁for ▁the ▁expl orer ▁Henry ▁School craft . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁School craft ▁State ▁Park ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 5 9 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Minnesota ▁Category : Pro te cted ▁areas ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 9 ▁Category : Pro te cted ▁areas ▁of ▁Cass ▁County , ▁Minnesota ▁Category : Pro te cted ▁areas ▁of ▁It as ca ▁County , ▁Minnesota ▁Category : Pro te cted ▁areas ▁on ▁the ▁Mississippi ▁River ▁Category : State ▁par ks ▁of ▁Minnesota <0x0A> </s> ▁A i yar u ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁river ▁flow ing ▁in ▁the ▁Nam ak kal ▁district ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁state ▁of ▁T amil ▁N adu . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁rivers ▁of ▁T amil ▁N adu ▁ ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁T amil ▁N adu ▁Category : N am ak kal ▁district ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁India ▁ ▁ta : <0xE0> <0xAE> <0x90> ய ா ற ு ▁( <0xE0> <0xAE> <0x86> ற ு ) <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁James ▁He ber
▁Dean ▁House , ▁at ▁ 3 9 0 ▁W . ▁ 5 0 0 ▁North ▁in ▁Be aver , ▁Ut ah , ▁was ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 1 . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁described ▁posit ively , ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁by ▁L . L . ▁Bon ar ▁in ▁its ▁Ut ah ▁State ▁Historical ▁Society ▁review : This ▁home ▁was ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 1 ▁and ▁its ▁style ▁was ▁definitely ▁influenced ▁by ▁high ▁style ▁architecture ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁local ▁vern ac ular . ▁It ▁has ▁a ▁cru c iform ▁plan ▁with ▁the ▁front ▁fac ade ▁in ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁long ▁ends ▁of ▁the ▁cross . ▁All ▁four ▁ends ▁have ▁a ▁g able ▁and ▁each ▁is ▁decor ated ▁with ▁a ▁full ▁return ▁cor nice ▁and ▁fancy ▁sh ing le work . ▁On ▁the ▁front ▁fac ade , ▁the ▁corners ▁of ▁the ▁building ▁have ▁been ▁be vel led , ▁a ▁trait ▁common ▁in ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁Victor ian ▁styles ▁of ▁architecture ▁but ▁quite ▁rare ▁in ▁Be aver . ▁At ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁each ▁of ▁these ▁be vel led ▁corners ▁are ▁decor ative ▁wooden ▁elements ▁that ▁complete ▁the ▁cut - off ▁corner . ▁This ▁wood work ▁is ▁the ▁most ▁decor ative ▁of ▁any ▁found ▁on ▁the ▁house ▁and ▁it ▁is ▁quite ▁well ▁done . ▁Also ▁for ▁decor ative ▁effect ▁are ▁the ▁vous so ir / p endant ▁mot ifs ▁above ▁the ▁windows
▁and ▁doors ▁done ▁in ▁brick . ▁The ▁home ▁is ▁well ▁maintained ▁and ▁the ▁grounds ▁are ▁lov ely . ▁ ▁The ▁house ' s ▁brick work ▁was ▁done ▁by ▁m ason ▁Bill ▁Pi erson ; ▁ ▁stone ▁foundation ▁was ▁laid ▁by ▁Jack ▁Fra zer . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : V ict or ian ▁architecture ▁in ▁Ut ah ▁Category : National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁Be aver ▁County , ▁Ut ah ▁Category : Build ings ▁and ▁structures ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 1 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁T rom bon c ino ▁M 2 8 ▁(' L ittle ▁T rom bone ') ▁was ▁an ▁inter war ▁period ▁inf antry ▁weapon ▁developed ▁by ▁the ▁It ali ans . ▁It ▁combined ▁a ▁gr en ade ▁launch er ▁with ▁a ▁car bine . ▁ ▁Pur pose ▁ ▁The ▁gr en ade ▁launch er ▁was ▁perman ently ▁mounted ▁on ▁the ▁right - hand ▁side ▁of ▁a ▁modified ▁Car cano ▁M 9 1 TS ▁car bine . ▁This ▁was ▁the ▁Car cano ▁M 9 1 / 2 8 ▁Mos ch etto ▁per ▁Tru ppe ▁Special i , ▁' car bine ▁for ▁special ▁troops ', ▁i . e . ▁intended ▁for ▁those ▁other ▁than ▁front - line ▁inf antry ▁such ▁as ▁machine ▁gun ▁cre ws , ▁a ▁short ened ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁M 9 1 ▁inf antry ▁rif le . ▁The ▁intention ▁was ▁to ▁give ▁inf antry ▁rif le men ▁their ▁own ▁gr en ade ▁launch er ▁cap ability , ▁instead ▁of ▁re lying ▁on ▁crew - ser ved
▁mort ars . ▁ ▁Operation ▁ ▁The ▁launch er ▁was ▁perman ently ▁attached ▁to ▁the ▁car bine , ▁but ▁only ▁one ▁could ▁be ▁used ▁at ▁a ▁time . ▁It ▁used ▁a ▁unique ▁' shared ▁b olt ' ▁system : ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁gr en ade ▁launch er , ▁the ▁car bine ' s ▁b olt ▁was ▁removed ▁from ▁the ▁receiver ▁of ▁the ▁car bine ▁and ▁installed ▁in ▁the ▁launch er . ▁ ▁The ▁gr en ade ▁was ▁of ▁ 3 8 . 5 mm ▁cal ib re . ▁The ▁standard ▁S . R . 2 ▁gr en ade ▁we ighed ▁around ▁ 1 6 0 gram mes , ▁with ▁a ▁cast - ir on ▁head , ▁a ▁fin ned ▁al umin ium ▁tail ▁and ▁an ▁explos ive ▁filling . ▁It ▁had ▁an ▁effective ▁range ▁of ▁up ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 ▁ m , ▁with ▁a ▁small ▁bl ast ▁radius . ▁Gren ades ▁were ▁impact - f uz ed , ▁with ▁a ▁safety ▁ring ▁pin ▁removed ▁before ▁loading ▁them ▁through ▁the ▁m uzz le , ▁where ▁they ▁were ▁then ▁retained ▁by ▁a ▁spring ▁det ent . ▁▁ ▁Gren ades ▁were ▁prop elled ▁by ▁a ▁standard - issue ▁rif le ▁round , ▁in ▁ 6 . 5 × 5 2 mm ▁Car cano , ▁with ▁a ▁standard ▁bullet . ▁This ▁was ▁loaded ▁individually ▁into ▁the ▁b ree ch . ▁Inside ▁the ▁launch er ▁was ▁a ▁bullet ▁trap , ▁a ▁steel ▁plug ▁between ▁the ▁chamber ▁and ▁the ▁gr en ade , ▁with ▁four
▁gas ▁ports ▁around ▁it . ▁The ▁bullet ▁trap ▁was ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁' sp ig ot ' ▁within ▁the ▁gr en ade ▁chamber , ▁although ▁this ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁sp ig ot ▁mort ar , ▁but ▁merely ▁a ▁distance ▁piece ▁keeping ▁the ▁gr en ade ▁from ▁se ating ▁at ▁the ▁bottom ▁of ▁the ▁chamber . ▁This ▁made ▁the ▁lower ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁chamber ▁into ▁an ▁expansion ▁space , ▁giving ▁a ▁high - low ▁chamber ▁pressure ▁effect , ▁as ▁used ▁by ▁modern ▁ 4 0 mm ▁gr en ades . ▁The ▁bullet ▁trap ▁was ▁head sp ac ed ▁to ▁have ▁the ▁bullet ▁rest ing ▁on ▁it ▁before ▁firing . ▁The ▁cart ridge ▁chamber ▁was ▁rel ieved ▁at ▁the ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁case , ▁so ▁that ▁the ▁bullet ▁did ▁not ▁move ▁when ▁fired ▁and ▁instead ▁the ▁cart ridge ▁bott l ene ck ▁cr imp ▁ble w ▁out ▁side ways . ▁This ▁allowed ▁the ▁bullet ▁trap ▁to ▁be ▁of ▁l ighter ▁construction , ▁as ▁the ▁bullet ▁did ▁not ▁hit ▁it ▁with ▁any ▁significant ▁energy , ▁also ▁the ▁bullet ▁was ▁not ▁' tra pped ' ▁in ▁the ▁trap ▁but ▁could ▁fall ▁out ▁easily ▁after ▁firing , ▁once ▁the ▁b olt ▁was ▁removed . ▁If ▁the ▁bullet ▁did ▁jam ▁in ▁the ▁trap , ▁the ▁fore ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁sp ig ot ▁was ▁squ ared ▁and ▁could ▁be ▁uns cre wed ▁by ▁a ▁w rench ▁in ▁the ▁rif le ▁tool kit . ▁ ▁A ▁single ▁trigger ▁worked ▁both ▁weapons , ▁depending ▁on ▁where ▁the ▁b olt ▁was ▁installed
. ▁As ▁both ▁rece ivers ▁were ▁fitted ▁to ▁the ▁same ▁b olt , ▁both ▁were ▁ident ically ▁number ed . ▁The ▁same ▁rear ▁sight ▁was ▁also ▁used ▁for ▁both , ▁although ▁with ▁separate ▁mark ings ▁and ▁separate ▁fore ▁s ights . ▁W WI - era ▁rif le ▁gr en ades ▁were ▁fired ▁by ▁placing ▁the ▁but t ▁of ▁the ▁rif le ▁on ▁the ▁ground , ▁as ▁the ▁re co il ▁of ▁firing ▁a ▁much ▁heav ier ▁hand ▁gr en ade ▁could ▁inj ure ▁the ▁fir er . ▁Also ▁these ▁heav ier ▁gr en ades , ▁still ▁prop elled ▁by ▁a ▁single ▁rif le ▁cart ridge , ▁had ▁slow , ▁high - arch ing ▁traject ories ▁need ing ▁greater ▁elev ation . ▁ ▁A ▁separate ▁sight ▁was ▁provided ▁for ▁the ▁gr en ade ▁launch er , ▁similar ▁to ▁a ▁long - range ▁vol ley ▁sight . ▁The ▁existing ▁adjust able ▁sight ▁had ▁an ▁additional ▁V ▁not ch ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁left - hand ▁side . ▁T ogether ▁with ▁a ▁post ▁for es ight ▁mounted ▁on ▁the ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁stock , ▁this ▁gave ▁a ▁high - angle ▁sight . ▁The ▁rear ▁sight ▁was ▁adjust able ▁by ▁the ▁usual ▁Car cano ▁mechanism , ▁but ▁had ▁new ▁gradu ations ▁on ▁the ▁side ▁for ▁gr en ade ▁ranges ▁of ▁ 1 0 0 , ▁ 1 5 0 ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 m . ▁ ▁Draw back s ▁ ▁The ▁obvious ▁draw back ▁was ▁the ▁slow ▁process ▁of ▁moving ▁the ▁b olt ▁from ▁one ▁b
ree ch ▁to ▁the ▁other , ▁with ▁the ▁weapon ▁unf irable ▁in ▁the ▁meant ime . ▁Despite ▁the ▁economy ▁of ▁sharing ▁the ▁b olt , ▁the ▁overall ▁weapon ▁was ▁still ▁heavy ▁and ▁expensive . ▁▁ ▁They ▁were ▁with dra wn ▁from ▁service ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁with ▁the ▁weapons ▁being ▁converted ▁to ▁the ▁regular ▁M 9 1 / TS ▁configuration . ▁The ▁inf antry ' s ▁need ▁for ▁an ▁organ ic ▁mort ar ▁capacity ▁was ▁then ▁met ▁by ▁the ▁conventional ▁ 4 5 mm ▁B rix ia ▁Model ▁ 3 5 , ▁introduced ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 5 . ▁A ▁few ▁have ▁been ▁reported ▁to ▁have ▁surv ived ▁into ▁W W II ▁service , ▁but ▁this ▁appears ▁most ▁unlikely , ▁given ▁the ▁unique ▁am mun ition ▁required . ▁ ▁Modern ▁examples ▁ ▁Modern ▁examples ▁are ▁rare . ▁Although ▁not ▁seen ▁as ▁particularly ▁collect ible , ▁their ▁scarc ity ▁makes ▁them ▁valuable . ▁One ▁for ▁sale ▁in ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁US ▁au ction ▁sold ▁for ▁$ 4 , 8 8 8 . ▁Like ▁other ▁contemporary ▁rif le ▁gr en ade ▁launch ers , ▁US ▁reg ulations ▁allow ▁them ▁to ▁be ▁collected ▁and ▁the ▁car bine ▁part ▁fired ▁as ▁a ▁Cur io ▁and ▁Rel ic , ▁although ▁any ▁live ▁gr en ades ▁would ▁be ▁class ed ▁as ▁destruct ive ▁devices . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : R if les ▁of ▁Italy ▁Category : G ren ades ▁of ▁Italy ▁Category : G ren
ade ▁launch ers <0x0A> </s> ▁C urs ed ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁Cur se , ▁advers ity ▁thought ▁to ▁be ▁inf lic ted ▁by ▁super natural ▁spirits , ▁ ▁Television ▁▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( 2 0 0 0 ▁TV ▁series ), ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 0 – 2 0 0 1 ▁sit com ▁ ▁" C urs ed " ▁( H ouse ), ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁episode ▁of ▁the ▁TV ▁series ▁House ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( 2 0 2 0 ▁TV ▁series ), ▁an ▁up coming ▁web ▁television ▁series ▁ ▁Films ▁▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( 2 0 0 4 ▁film ), ▁by ▁Y oshi hi ro ▁H osh ino ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( 2 0 0 5 ▁film ), ▁by ▁Wes ▁Cra ven , ▁st arring ▁Christ ina ▁Ric ci ▁ ▁Music ▁▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( band ), ▁a ▁hard core ▁punk ▁band ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( M org oth ▁album ), ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( I on ▁D isson ance ▁album ), ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( S car am anga ▁Six ▁album ), ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( Rot ten ▁Sound ▁album ), ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( 9 x D ead ▁album ), ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( R igh te ous ▁V end etta ▁album ), ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁
▁Other ▁ ▁C urs ed ▁( B uff y / Ang el ▁novel ), ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁original ▁novel ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁television ▁series ▁Buff y ▁the ▁V amp ire ▁S layer ▁and ▁its ▁spin - off ▁Angel ▁ ▁C urs ed , ▁the ▁second ▁novel ▁in ▁Bened ict ▁Jack a ' s ▁Alex ▁Ver us ▁series ▁ ▁Con om or ▁the ▁C urs ed , ▁sixth ▁century ▁r uler ▁of ▁Brit t any ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁people ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Acc urs ed <0x0A> </s> ▁Ne of yt os ▁Sak ell ar id is - M ang our as ▁( G reek : ▁ Ν ε ό φ υ τ ος ▁ Σ α κ ε λ λ α ρ ί δ η ς - Μ ά γ κ ο υ ρ α ς ; ▁born ▁January ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 9 8 9 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Greek ▁cycl ist . ▁ ▁Major ▁results ▁▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁▁ 1 st ▁ ▁National ▁Under - 2 3 ▁Time ▁Tri al ▁Championships ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁▁ 1 st ▁ ▁National ▁Under - 2 3 ▁Time ▁Tri al ▁Championships ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁▁ 3 rd ▁National ▁Under - 2 3 ▁Time ▁Tri al ▁Championships ▁▁ 3 rd ▁National ▁Road ▁Race ▁Championships ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁National ▁Under - 2 3 ▁Time ▁Tri al ▁Championships ▁▁ 2 nd ▁National ▁Road ▁Race ▁Championships ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁▁
3 rd ▁National ▁Time ▁Tri al ▁Championships ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁National ▁Time ▁Tri al ▁Championships ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁▁ 3 rd ▁National ▁Time ▁Tri al ▁Championships ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁National ▁Time ▁Tri al ▁Championships ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : G reek ▁male ▁cycl ists <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party ▁was ▁a ▁ 1 7 7 3 ▁colonial ▁protest ▁action ▁which ▁pres aged ▁the ▁American ▁Revolution . ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party ▁may ▁also ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party ▁( polit ical ▁party ), ▁a ▁libert arian ▁U . S . ▁political ▁party ▁founded ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁ ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party ▁( ca f é ▁chain ), ▁a ▁chain ▁of ▁c af és ▁in ▁England ▁ ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party ▁( con cert ▁ven ue ), ▁a ▁concert ▁ven ue ▁in ▁Boston , ▁Massachusetts , ▁during ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁ ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party ▁( TV ▁series ), ▁a ▁Swedish ▁TV ▁show ▁The ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party ▁( 1 9 0 8 ▁film ), ▁a ▁film ▁by ▁Ed win ▁S . ▁Por ter ▁The ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party ▁( 1 9 1 5 ▁film ), ▁a ▁film ▁by ▁Eug ene ▁Now land ▁The ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party , ▁a ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁film ▁narr ated ▁by ▁John ▁B . ▁Kennedy ▁ ▁Boston ▁Te
a ▁Party , ▁an ▁educational ▁Disney ▁film ▁ex cer pt ed ▁from ▁Johnny ▁T rem ain ▁ ▁The ▁Boston ▁Te a ▁Party , ▁a ▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁play ▁by ▁All an ▁Albert ▁ ▁" B oston ▁Te a ▁Party ", ▁a ▁song ▁by ▁the ▁S ens ational ▁Alex ▁Har vey ▁Band ▁from ▁SA H B ▁St ories ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Boston ▁T . ▁Party ▁or ▁Kenneth ▁W . ▁Roy ce , ▁American ▁libert arian ▁author ▁ ▁Te a ▁party ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁Te a ▁Party ▁protest s , ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁hundreds ▁of ▁protest s ▁first ▁organized ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 <0x0A> </s> ▁M esa ▁Red onda ▁Internacional ▁( Span ish ▁for ▁International ▁Round ▁Table ) ▁is ▁a ▁Latin ▁American ▁news ▁analysis ▁talk show ▁broadcast ▁by ▁tele S UR ▁live ▁from ▁Hav ana , ▁Cuba , ▁on ▁Th urs day ▁night s . ▁The ▁program ▁is , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁description ▁given ▁of ▁it ▁in ▁the ▁network ' s ▁website , ▁" a ▁television ▁program ▁for ▁the ▁integration ▁of ▁various ▁forms ▁of ▁( polit ical ▁and ▁social ) ▁thought ▁throughout ▁our ▁continent " ▁( Lat in ▁America ). ▁The ▁program ▁is ▁sometimes ▁hosted ▁by ▁R andy ▁Al onso ▁Fal c ón ▁or ▁Ar le en ▁Rodríguez ▁Der iv et , ▁both ▁Cub an ▁journal ists ▁and ▁contrib utors ▁in ▁various ▁media ▁on ▁the ▁Internet , ▁including ▁Cub ade b ate . ▁ ▁The ▁program ▁is ▁also ▁broadcast ▁in ▁Cuba ▁via ▁public - owned ▁media ▁in ▁a ▁sp
or adic ▁way . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Cub an ▁Institute ▁of ▁Radio ▁and ▁Television ▁Official ▁Site ▁ ▁Cub ade b ate : ▁Cub an ▁news , ▁opinion ▁and ▁debate ▁site ▁▁ ▁Category : T ele vision ▁in ▁Cuba ▁Category : M ass ▁media ▁in ▁Hav ana ▁Category : C ub an ▁television ▁shows <0x0A> </s> ▁Eb uro d ac rys ▁hes per id is ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁be et le ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Cer amb yc idae . ▁It ▁was ▁described ▁by ▁Ch ems ak ▁and ▁L ins ley ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 0 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : E b uro d ac rys ▁Category : Be et les ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 0 <0x0A> </s> ▁Thomas ▁Butler ▁( d ied ▁ 1 1 ▁November ▁ 1 9 2 3 ) ▁was ▁an ▁English ▁footballer ▁who ▁played ▁as ▁an ▁inside - left . ▁He ▁played ▁ 6 0 ▁league ▁games ▁in ▁the ▁English ▁Football ▁League , ▁scoring ▁ 2 3 ▁goals . ▁He ▁played ▁for ▁non - le ague ▁Will en hall , ▁before ▁sp ending ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 1 – 2 2 ▁season ▁at ▁W als all . ▁He ▁joined ▁Port ▁V ale ▁via ▁Dar last on ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 9 2 2 . ▁He ▁broke ▁his ▁arm ▁in ▁a ▁game ▁on ▁ 3 ▁November ▁ 1 9 2 3 , ▁and ▁died ▁eight ▁days ▁later ▁from ▁a ▁subsequent ▁t et anus ▁in fection . ▁ ▁Play ing ▁career ▁Butler ▁started
▁his ▁career ▁at ▁B irmingham ▁& ▁District ▁League ▁side ▁Will en hall , ▁before ▁joining ▁W als all ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 1 . ▁He ▁played ▁ 2 8 ▁Third ▁Division ▁North ▁games ▁for ▁the ▁" S add lers " ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 1 – 2 2 , ▁scoring ▁ 1 2 ▁goals . ▁He ▁then ▁returned ▁to ▁semi - prof essional ▁football ▁with ▁Dar last on . ▁ ▁He ▁had ▁a ▁one - month ▁trial ▁at ▁Second ▁Division ▁Port ▁V ale ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 9 2 2 , ▁and ▁manager ▁Joe ▁Sch of ield ▁signed ▁him ▁perman ently ▁for ▁£ 1 0 0 ▁the ▁following ▁month . ▁Butler ▁was ▁a ▁huge ▁success ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 2 – 2 3 ▁season , ▁becoming ▁top ▁sc orer ▁with ▁nine ▁goals ▁in ▁ 2 6 ▁games . ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁season ▁he ▁played ▁in ▁a ▁defeat ▁to ▁local ▁riv als ▁Sto ke ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Staff ord shire ▁Inf irm ary ▁Cup . ▁ ▁He ▁started ▁ 1 9 2 3 – 2 4 ▁by ▁scoring ▁in ▁a ▁defeat ▁to ▁Sto ke ▁at ▁The ▁Old ▁Rec re ation ▁Gr ound . ▁However , ▁after ▁scoring ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 – 1 ▁draw ▁with ▁Cla pton ▁Orient ▁on ▁ 3 ▁November ▁he ▁suffered ▁a ▁comp ound ▁f ract ure ▁of ▁the ▁left ▁arm ; ▁he ▁died ▁from ▁t et anus ▁( also ▁called ▁lock j aw ) ▁eight ▁days ▁later ▁in ▁H ack ney ▁Hospital ▁after ▁comp
lications ▁had ▁set ▁in . ▁ ▁Statistics ▁Source : ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁Port ▁V ale ▁North ▁Staff ord shire ▁Inf irm ary ▁Cup ▁winner : ▁ 1 9 2 3 ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁Category : 1 9 2 3 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Dar last on ▁Category : English ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁for wards ▁Category : Will en hall ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : W als all ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : D ar last on ▁Town ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : Port ▁V ale ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : English ▁Football ▁League ▁players ▁Category : De ath s ▁from ▁t et anus ▁Category : In fect ious ▁disease ▁death s ▁in ▁England ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁players ▁who ▁died ▁while ▁playing <0x0A> </s> ▁Tr inity ▁C athedral ▁is ▁located ▁at ▁ 1 1 3 ▁N . ▁ 1 8 th ▁Street ▁in ▁Dow nt own ▁O ma ha , ▁Neb r aska . ▁Neb r aska ' s ▁first ▁Epis cop al ▁parish , ▁Tr inity ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 6 , ▁and ▁became ▁the ▁state ' s ▁first ▁Epis cop al ▁c athedral ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 2 . ▁Design ed ▁by ▁noted ▁English ▁architect ▁Henry ▁G . ▁Harrison ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 0 , ▁the ▁C athedral ▁was ▁consec r ated ▁on ▁November ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 1 8 8 3 .
▁It ▁was ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 4 . ▁Today ▁Tr inity ▁C athedral ▁is ▁considered ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁beautiful ▁churches ▁in ▁O ma ha . ▁ ▁History ▁▁ ▁Tr inity ▁was ▁begun ▁organized ▁by ▁the ▁Right ▁Re ver end ▁David ▁Jackson ▁K em per ▁on ▁July ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 8 5 6 . ▁The ▁first ▁church ▁was ▁built ▁at ▁South ▁N inth ▁and ▁F arn am ▁Stre ets . ▁The ▁con greg ation ▁lost ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁church ▁building ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 4 ; ▁the ▁second ▁building ▁was ▁lost ▁to ▁fire ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 8 . ▁The ▁third ▁church ▁was ▁built ▁the ▁next ▁year , ▁and ▁was ▁used ▁until ▁the ▁C athedral ▁was ▁constructed . ▁The ▁Right ▁Re ver end ▁Robert ▁Har per ▁Clark son ▁broke ▁ground ▁for ▁the ▁new ▁c athedral , ▁later ▁lay ing ▁the ▁corner stone ▁on ▁May ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 1 8 8 0 . ▁The ▁cost ▁of ▁the ▁C athedral ▁was ▁about ▁$ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁by ▁the ▁time ▁it ▁was ▁completed ▁three ▁years ▁later . ▁ ▁The ▁church ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁base ▁of ▁many ▁Epis cop al ▁miss ions ▁to ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁western ▁United ▁States . ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁epis cop al ▁seat ▁of ▁the ▁Bishop ▁of ▁the ▁Epis cop al ▁Dioc ese ▁of ▁Neb r aska . ▁ ▁Design ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁built ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁Late ▁Goth ic ▁Rev ival
▁style , ▁with ▁rock - fac ed ▁m ason ry ▁walls ▁and ▁stone ▁trac ery ▁over ▁more ▁than ▁ 4 3 ▁st ained ▁glass ▁l anc et ▁windows . ▁The ▁church ▁is ▁almost ▁entirely ▁of ▁bl uest one ▁from ▁Illinois , ▁in ▁a ▁design ▁that ▁is ▁nearly ▁cru c iform ▁with ▁an ▁entry ▁tower ▁extending ▁out ward . ▁The ▁exterior ▁of ▁the ▁building ▁has ▁more ▁than ▁six ▁stone ▁cross es ▁at ▁varying ▁points ▁of ▁its ▁roof ▁line . ▁Its ▁design ▁was ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁Oxford ▁Mov ement ▁in ▁the ▁Epis cop al ▁church , ▁which ▁led ▁to ▁a ▁rev ival ▁of ▁medieval ▁styles , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁an ▁interest ▁in ▁historic ▁design ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁in ▁United ▁States ▁architecture . ▁ ▁The ▁interior ▁features ▁Goth ic ▁design ▁throughout , ▁including ▁a is les , ▁nave , ▁tr anse pt , ▁cho ir , ▁and ▁a ▁cler est ory . ▁The ▁church ▁includes ▁a ▁noted ▁car ved ▁o ak ▁bishop ' s ▁throne ▁and ▁de an ' s ▁st all . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁the ▁Epis cop al ▁c athed r als ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁List ▁of ▁c athed r als ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Tr inity ▁C athedral ▁official ▁website . ▁ ▁Records ▁of ▁Tr inity ▁C athedral ▁at ▁the ▁Neb r aska ▁State ▁Historical ▁Society . ▁Retrieved ▁on ▁May ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁Historic ▁post cards ▁Neb r aska ▁Mem ories ▁ ▁Category : National ▁Register
▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁O ma ha , ▁Neb r aska ▁Category : E pis cop al ▁c athed r als ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : History ▁of ▁Dow nt own ▁O ma ha , ▁Neb r aska ▁Category : E pis cop al ▁church ▁buildings ▁in ▁Neb r aska ▁Category : Ch urch es ▁in ▁O ma ha , ▁Neb r aska ▁Category : Ch urch es ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁Neb r aska ▁Category : Rel ig ious ▁organizations ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 6 ▁Category : Ch urch es ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 3 ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁Epis cop al ▁church ▁buildings ▁Category : 1 8 5 6 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Neb r aska ▁Territ ory <0x0A> </s> ▁D ell ▁Richard ▁Matt he ws ▁( F ebru ary ▁ 2 7 , ▁ 1 8 8 0 ▁– ▁December ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 1 9 3 8 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Neg ro ▁Le agues ▁pitch er ▁for ▁a ▁few ▁years ▁before ▁the ▁found ing ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁Neg ro ▁National ▁League . ▁ ▁He ▁played ▁for ▁at ▁least ▁two ▁years ▁for ▁Frank ▁L eland ▁and ▁was ▁playing ▁for ▁the ▁team ▁when ▁they ▁transition ed ▁from ▁the ▁Chicago ▁Union ▁Gi ants ▁into ▁the ▁L eland ▁Gi ants . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Adel bert ▁Richard ▁Matt he ws , ▁History ▁- ▁C ele br ating ▁Black ▁History , ▁University ▁of ▁Wisconsin ▁ ▁U W ▁Athletics ▁Black
▁History : ▁baseball ▁players ▁Adel bert ▁Matt he ws ▁and ▁Julian ▁W are , ▁University ▁of ▁Wisconsin ▁ ▁Category : L eland ▁Gi ants ▁players ▁Category : 1 8 8 0 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 3 8 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Chicago ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Fox ▁Lake , ▁Wisconsin <0x0A> </s> ▁" No ▁One ▁Kn ows " ▁is ▁a ▁song ▁written ▁by ▁Er nie ▁Mar es ca ▁and ▁Ken ▁He ch et ▁and ▁performed ▁by ▁D ion ▁and ▁the ▁Bel mont s . ▁ ▁The ▁song ▁reached ▁# 1 2 ▁on ▁the ▁R & B ▁chart ▁and ▁# 1 9 ▁on ▁the ▁Billboard ▁Hot ▁ 1 0 0 ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 8 . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁featured ▁on ▁their ▁ 1 9 5 8 ▁album , ▁Pres ent ing ▁D ion ▁and ▁the ▁Bel mont s . ▁ ▁Other ▁versions ▁Mart y ▁Wil de ▁released ▁a ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁song ▁as ▁a ▁single ▁in ▁November ▁ 1 9 5 8 . ▁Mike ▁Le Ro y ▁released ▁a ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁song ▁as ▁the ▁B - side ▁to ▁his ▁single ▁" I ▁F org ot ▁What ▁It ▁Was ▁Like " ▁in ▁October ▁ 1 9 6 4 . ▁ ▁In ▁media ▁D ion ▁and ▁the ▁Bel mont s ▁version ▁was ▁featured ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁movie ▁The ▁But cher ▁Boy ▁and ▁featured ▁on ▁the ▁sound track . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 5 8 ▁songs ▁Category : 1 9 5
8 ▁singles ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁Er nie ▁Mar es ca ▁Category : D ion ▁Di M ucci ▁songs ▁Category : Ph ili ps ▁Records ▁singles ▁Category : Col umb ia ▁Records ▁singles ▁Category : La ur ie ▁Records ▁singles <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁following ▁lists ▁events ▁that ▁happened ▁during ▁ 1 9 2 3 ▁in ▁the ▁Union ▁of ▁Soviet ▁Social ist ▁Republic s . ▁ ▁Inc umb ents ▁ ▁General ▁Secretary ▁of ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁– ▁Joseph ▁St alin ▁ ▁Chair man ▁of ▁the ▁Central ▁Executive ▁Committee ▁of ▁the ▁Congress ▁of ▁S ovi ets ▁– ▁Mik h ail ▁Kal in in ▁ ▁Chair man ▁of ▁the ▁Council ▁of ▁People ' s ▁Comm iss ars ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁– ▁Vladimir ▁Len in ▁ ▁Events ▁ ▁April ▁▁ 1 7 – 2 5 ▁April ▁– ▁ 1 2 th ▁Congress ▁of ▁the ▁Russian ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁( B ols he vik s ) ▁ ▁June ▁▁ 1 6 ▁June ▁– ▁The ▁Y ak ut ▁Revol t ▁ends ▁with ▁the ▁defeat ▁of ▁the ▁White ▁Army . ▁ ▁October ▁▁ 1 5 ▁October ▁– ▁The ▁Dec laration ▁of ▁ 4 6 ▁is ▁sent . ▁ ▁B irth s ▁▁ 9 ▁January ▁– ▁Edu ard ▁Kol man ov sky , ▁People ' s ▁Art ist ▁of ▁the ▁USS R ▁▁ 1 1 ▁August ▁– ▁Maxim ▁Grab oven ko , ▁Hero ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁▁ 1 3 ▁September ▁– ▁Zo ya ▁Kos mode my ansk aya , ▁Hero ▁of ▁the
▁Soviet ▁Union ▁▁ 2 6 ▁September ▁– ▁Aleks andr ▁A lov , ▁film ▁director ▁▁ 2 9 ▁September ▁– ▁Ale k se i ▁Fed or ov ich ▁Fil ipp ov , ▁math ematic ian ▁▁ 3 1 ▁October ▁– ▁Ivan ▁Ot m akh ov , ▁Hero ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁▁ 9 ▁November ▁– ▁Vik tor ▁Tur bin , ▁Hero ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁▁ 1 1 ▁November ▁– ▁Isaac ▁Tra chten berg , ▁H yg ien ist ▁▁ 2 2 ▁November ▁– ▁Y ury ▁Nik and rov , ▁Olympic ▁shoot er ▁▁ 2 9 ▁November ▁– ▁In na ▁Z ub kov sk aya , ▁ball er ina ▁▁ 1 4 ▁December ▁– ▁Ak hs ar bek ▁Ab ae v , ▁Hero ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ 1 9 2 3 ▁in ▁fine ▁arts ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Soviet ▁films ▁of ▁ 1 9 2 3 ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 0 s ▁in ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁Category : Year s ▁in ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁Soviet ▁Union <0x0A> </s> ▁Star ▁Haw ks ▁was ▁a ▁com ic ▁strip ▁created ▁by ▁Ron ▁G oul art ▁and ▁Gil ▁K ane , ▁first ▁published ▁on ▁October ▁ 3 , ▁ 1 9 7 7 , ▁that ▁ran ▁through ▁May ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 9 8 1 . ▁It ▁was ▁written ▁through ▁April ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁by ▁G oul art , ▁followed ▁by ▁Arch ie ▁Good win ▁( 1 9 7 9
- 1 9 8 0 ), ▁Roger ▁McK en zie ▁( 1 9 8 0 - 1 9 8 1 ) ▁and ▁Roger ▁Stern ▁( writing ▁assist , ▁ 1 9 7 9 ). ▁Comics ▁veter an ▁Gil ▁K ane ▁provided ▁the ▁art work , ▁with ▁un cred ited ▁help ▁( d uring ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁ill ness ▁on ▁K ane ' s ▁part ) ▁from ▁Er nie ▁Col ón ▁and ▁Howard ▁Ch ay kin . ▁▁ ▁K ane ▁received ▁the ▁National ▁Cart oon ist ▁Society ▁Story ▁Com ic ▁St rip ▁Award ▁for ▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁for ▁his ▁work ▁on ▁the ▁strip . ▁ ▁G oul art ▁also ▁wrote ▁two ▁Star ▁Haw ks ▁pro se ▁nov els : ▁Empire ▁ 9 9 ▁and ▁The ▁Cy borg ▁King . ▁ ▁Public ation ▁history ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 8 , ▁shortly ▁after ▁the ▁launch ▁of ▁the ▁strip , ▁K ane ▁re called ▁its ▁gen esis : ▁ ▁Format ▁The ▁daily ▁strip ▁was ▁unique ▁in ▁that ▁initially ▁it ▁was ▁two - t ier : ▁each ▁daily ▁was ▁twice ▁as ▁large ▁as ▁the ▁normal ▁daily ▁strip . ▁ ▁This ▁format ▁allowed ▁artist ▁K ane ▁great ▁flex ibility ▁in ▁layout . ▁Many ▁papers ▁were ▁rel uct ant ▁to ▁dev ote ▁so ▁much ▁space ▁to ▁a ▁single ▁strip . ▁It ▁changed ▁to ▁a ▁single ▁tier ▁as ▁of ▁July ▁ 3 0 , ▁ 1 9 7 9 . ▁ ▁The ▁strip ▁ran ▁daily ▁and ▁Sunday ▁for ▁three ▁and ▁a ▁half ▁years , ▁for ▁a ▁total ▁of
▁ 1 , 2 5 2 ▁stri ps . ▁ ▁Re print s ▁The ▁strip ▁from ▁the ▁start ▁was ▁run ▁in ▁The ▁Men om one e ▁F alls ▁Gazette . ▁A ce / Tem po ▁published ▁two ▁paper back ▁black ▁and ▁white ▁repr int ▁volumes . ▁Black th or ne ▁Publishing ▁produced ▁four ▁issues ▁in ▁com ic ▁book ▁format ▁of ▁black ▁and ▁white ▁repr ints . ▁Early ▁issues ▁of ▁Ama zing ▁Hero es ▁carried ▁repr ints ▁of ▁the ▁strip . ▁All ▁of ▁these ▁repr int ▁series ▁omitted ▁occas ional ▁brid ging ▁stri ps ▁( the ▁first ▁two ▁stri ps , ▁which ▁set ▁the ▁tone ▁for ▁the ▁series , ▁were ▁most ▁often ▁not ▁repr int ed ). ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁Herm es ▁Press ▁released ▁the ▁entire ▁run ▁of ▁the ▁strip ▁in ▁a ▁single ▁volume . ▁ID W ▁Publishing ▁repr int ed ▁the ▁complete ▁series — d ail ies ▁and ▁Sund ays — in ▁ 2 0 1 7 - 2 0 1 8 , ▁in ▁three ▁volumes . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Star ▁Haw ks ▁at ▁Don ▁Mark stein ' s ▁To on op edia . ▁Arch ived ▁from ▁the ▁original ▁on ▁October ▁ 2 3 , ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁ ▁Category : American ▁com ic ▁stri ps ▁Category : S cience ▁fiction ▁com ics ▁Category : 1 9 7 7 ▁com ics ▁deb uts ▁Category : 1 9 8 1 ▁com ics ▁end ings <0x0A> </s> ▁Fu ka , ▁F ū ka ▁or ▁Fu uka ▁may
▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁F ū ka ▁( g iven ▁name ), ▁a ▁femin ine ▁Japanese ▁given ▁name ▁Fu uka ▁( m anga ), ▁a ▁Japanese ▁m anga ▁series ▁F uk ah , ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁northern ▁Egypt , ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁Fu ka ▁in ▁a ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁context ▁S idi ▁H ane ish ▁Air field , ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁Fu ka ▁Aer od rome ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁ ▁People ▁with ▁the ▁surname ▁Eva ▁Fu ka , ▁American ▁photograph er ▁Fr anti š ek ▁Fu ka , ▁computer ▁programmer ▁and ▁music ian <0x0A> </s> ▁T error ism ▁in ▁Russia ▁has ▁a ▁long ▁history ▁starting ▁from ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁Russian ▁Empire . ▁T error ism , ▁in ▁the ▁modern ▁sense , ▁means ▁violence ▁against ▁civ ili ans ▁to ▁achieve ▁political ▁or ▁ide ological ▁object ives ▁by ▁creating ▁extreme ▁fear . ▁▁ ▁T error ism ▁was ▁an ▁important ▁tool ▁used ▁by ▁Marx ist ▁revolution aries ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁to ▁dis rupt ▁the ▁social , ▁political , ▁and ▁economic ▁system ▁and ▁enable ▁reb els ▁to ▁bring ▁down ▁the ▁T zar ist ▁government . ▁▁ ▁T error ist ▁tact ics , ▁such ▁as ▁host age - t aking , ▁were ▁widely ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Soviet ▁secret ▁ag encies , ▁most ▁not ably ▁during ▁the ▁Red ▁T error ▁and ▁Great ▁T error ▁campaign s , ▁against ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁their ▁own ▁country , ▁according ▁to ▁Karl ▁K aut sky ▁and ▁other ▁histor ians ▁of ▁B ols he v ism .
▁ ▁Starting ▁from ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century , ▁significant ▁terror ist ▁activity ▁has ▁taken ▁place ▁in ▁Russia , ▁most ▁not ably ▁Bud y onn ov sk ▁hospital ▁host age ▁crisis , ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁a partment ▁bomb ings , ▁Moscow ▁the ater ▁host age ▁crisis ▁and ▁Bes lan ▁school ▁sie ge . ▁Many ▁more ▁acts ▁of ▁terror ism ▁have ▁been ▁committed ▁in ▁major ▁Russian ▁cities , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁regions ▁of ▁Che ch ny a ▁and ▁D ag est an . ▁▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁ ▁German ▁Social ▁Dem ocrat ▁Karl ▁K aut sky ▁traces ▁the ▁orig ins ▁of ▁terror ism , ▁including ▁the ▁one ▁in ▁Russian ▁Empire , ▁to ▁the ▁" Re ign ▁of ▁T error " ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution . ▁O thers ▁emphas ize ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁Russian ▁revolution ary ▁movements ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁especially ▁Narod n aya ▁Vol ya ▁(" Pe ople ' s ▁Will ") ▁and ▁the ▁N ih il ist ▁movement , ▁which ▁included ▁several ▁thousand ▁follow ers . ▁ ▁" Pe ople ' s ▁Will " ▁organized ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁political ▁terror ism ▁campaign s ▁in ▁history . ▁In ▁March ▁ 1 8 8 1 , ▁it ▁assass in ated ▁the ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Russia ▁Alexander ▁II , ▁who ▁twenty ▁years ▁earlier ▁had ▁em an cip ated ▁the ▁Russian ▁ser fs . ▁ ▁Import ant ▁ide olog ists ▁of ▁these ▁groups ▁were ▁Mik h ail ▁Bak un in ▁and ▁Serge y ▁Ne
ch ay ev , ▁who ▁was ▁described ▁in ▁F y odor ▁D osto ev sky ' s ▁novel ▁The ▁Poss essed . ▁Ne ch ay ev ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁purpose ▁of ▁revolution ary ▁terror ▁is ▁not ▁to ▁gain ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁masses , ▁but ▁on ▁the ▁contrary , ▁to ▁inf lict ▁mis ery ▁and ▁fear ▁on ▁the ▁common ▁population . ▁According ▁to ▁Ne ch ay ev , ▁a ▁revolution ary ▁must ▁terror ize ▁civ ili ans ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁in cite ▁re bell ions . ▁He ▁wrote : ▁ ▁" A ▁revolution ary ▁must ▁in fil tr ate ▁all ▁social ▁form ations ▁including ▁the ▁police . ▁He ▁must ▁explo it ▁rich ▁and ▁influ ential ▁people , ▁sub ordin ating ▁them ▁to ▁himself . ▁He ▁must ▁ag gra v ate ▁the ▁mis eries ▁of ▁the ▁common ▁people , ▁so ▁as ▁to ▁exhaust ▁their ▁p atience ▁and ▁in cite ▁them ▁to ▁re bel . ▁And , ▁finally , ▁he ▁must ▁al ly ▁himself ▁with ▁the ▁sav age ▁word ▁of ▁the ▁violent ▁criminal , ▁the ▁only ▁true ▁revolution ary ▁in ▁Russia ". ▁ ▁" The ▁Revolution ist ▁is ▁a ▁do omed ▁man . ▁He ▁has ▁no ▁private ▁interests , ▁no ▁affairs , ▁sent iments , ▁t ies , ▁property ▁nor ▁even ▁a ▁name ▁of ▁his ▁own . ▁His ▁entire ▁being ▁is ▁dev oured ▁by ▁one ▁purpose , ▁one ▁thought , ▁one ▁passion ▁- ▁the ▁revolution . ▁Heart ▁and ▁soul , ▁not ▁merely ▁by ▁word ▁but ▁by ▁de ed , ▁he ▁has ▁sever ed ▁every ▁link
▁with ▁the ▁social ▁order ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁entire ▁civil ized ▁world ; ▁with ▁the ▁laws , ▁good ▁man ners , ▁convent ions , ▁and ▁mor ality ▁of ▁that ▁world . ▁He ▁is ▁its ▁mer cil ess ▁enemy ▁and ▁continues ▁to ▁inhab it ▁it ▁with ▁only ▁one ▁purpose ▁- ▁to ▁destroy ▁it ." ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁historian ▁and ▁writer ▁Ed vard ▁Rad zin sky , ▁Ne ch ay ev ' s ▁ideas ▁and ▁tact ics ▁were ▁widely ▁used ▁by ▁Joseph ▁St alin ▁and ▁other ▁Russian ▁revolution aries . ▁ ▁Early ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁The ▁SR ▁Com bat ▁Organ ization ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 2 ▁and ▁operated ▁as ▁an ▁autonom ous ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁Social ist ▁Revolution ary ▁Party ▁responsible ▁for ▁assass in ating ▁government ▁officials , ▁was ▁led ▁by ▁Gr ig ory ▁G ers h uni ▁and ▁operated ▁separately ▁from ▁the ▁party ▁so ▁as ▁not ▁to ▁je op ard ize ▁its ▁political ▁actions . ▁SR CO ▁agents ▁assass in ated ▁two ▁Minister s ▁of ▁the ▁Inter ior , ▁D mit ry ▁S ip y agin ▁and ▁V . ▁K . ▁von ▁Ple h ve , ▁Grand ▁Duke ▁Serge i ▁Aleks and rov ich , ▁the ▁Governor ▁of ▁U fa ▁ ▁N . ▁M . ▁Bog dan ov ich , ▁and ▁many ▁other ▁high - ran king ▁officials . ▁It ▁has ▁been ▁estimated ▁that ▁all ▁together ▁in ▁the ▁last ▁twenty ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁Ts ar ist ▁regime ▁( 1 8 9 7 - 1 9 1 7 ) ▁more ▁than
▁ 1 7 , 0 0 0 ▁people ▁were ▁killed ▁or ▁wounded ▁in ▁terror ▁attacks . ▁ ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁ ▁Red ▁terror ▁ ▁The ▁policy ▁of ▁Red ▁terror ▁in ▁Soviet ▁Russia ▁served ▁to ▁fright en ▁the ▁civil ian ▁population ▁and ▁ex termin ate ▁certain ▁social ▁groups ▁considered ▁as ▁" r uling ▁classes " ▁or ▁enemies ▁of ▁the ▁people . ▁Karl ▁K aut sky ▁said ▁about ▁Red ▁T error : ▁" Am ong ▁the ▁phen omena ▁for ▁which ▁B ols he v ism ▁has ▁been ▁responsible , ▁T error ism , ▁which ▁begins ▁with ▁the ▁abol ition ▁of ▁every ▁form ▁of ▁freedom ▁of ▁the ▁Press , ▁and ▁ends ▁in ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁wh oles ale ▁execution , ▁is ▁certainly ▁the ▁most ▁striking ▁and ▁the ▁most ▁rep ell ent ▁of ▁all .. ▁K aut sky ▁recognized ▁that ▁Red ▁T error ▁represented ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁terror ism ▁because ▁it ▁was ▁ind isc rim inate , ▁intended ▁to ▁fright en ▁the ▁civil ian ▁population , ▁and ▁included ▁taking ▁and ▁executing ▁host ages ▁". ▁Martin ▁L ats is , ▁chief ▁of ▁the ▁Ukrain ian ▁Che ka , ▁emphas ized ▁that ▁Red ▁terror ▁was ▁an ▁extra jud icial ▁pun ishment ▁not ▁for ▁specific ▁acts , ▁but ▁membership ▁in ▁condem ned ▁social ▁classes : ▁" Do ▁not ▁look ▁in ▁the ▁file ▁of ▁inc rimin ating ▁evidence ▁to ▁see ▁whether ▁or ▁not ▁the ▁accused ▁rose ▁up ▁against ▁the ▁S ovi ets ▁with ▁arms ▁or ▁words . ▁Ask ▁him ▁instead ▁to ▁which ▁class ▁he ▁belongs , ▁what ▁is ▁his ▁background , ▁his
▁education , ▁his ▁profession . ▁These ▁are ▁the ▁questions ▁that ▁will ▁determine ▁the ▁fate ▁of ▁the ▁accused . ▁That ▁is ▁the ▁meaning ▁and ▁ess ence ▁of ▁the ▁Red ▁T error ." ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁common ▁terror ist ▁practices ▁was ▁host age - t aking . ▁ ▁A ▁typical ▁report ▁from ▁a ▁Che ka ▁department ▁stated : ▁" Y ar oslav l ▁Province , ▁ 2 3 ▁June ▁ 1 9 1 9 . ▁The ▁u pr ising ▁of ▁deser ters ▁in ▁the ▁Pet rop av lov sk aya ▁vol ost ▁has ▁been ▁put ▁down . ▁The ▁families ▁of ▁the ▁deser ters ▁have ▁been ▁taken ▁as ▁host ages . ▁When ▁we ▁started ▁to ▁shoot ▁one ▁person ▁from ▁each ▁family , ▁the ▁Gre ens ▁began ▁to ▁come ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁woods ▁and ▁surrender . ▁Th irty - four ▁deser ters ▁were ▁shot ▁as ▁an ▁example ". ▁▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁Moscow ▁bomb ings ▁ ▁The ▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁Moscow ▁bomb ings ▁were ▁alleg edly ▁organized ▁by ▁the ▁Soviet ▁K GB ▁in ▁Moscow ▁to ▁frame - up ▁Armen ian ▁national ists ▁who ▁were ▁executed ▁despite ▁having ▁an ▁al ib i ▁ ▁Contempor ary ▁Russia ▁ ▁Acc us ations ▁of ▁terror ism ▁▁ ▁Contempor ary ▁Russian ▁government ▁has ▁been ▁frequently ▁accused ▁of ▁spons oring ▁or ▁insp iring ▁terror ist ▁activities ▁inside ▁the ▁country ▁and ▁in ▁other ▁countries ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁achieve ▁its ▁political ▁goals . ▁ ▁Form er ▁F SB ▁officer ▁Alexander ▁Lit vin en ko , ▁Joh ns ▁Hop kins ▁University
▁and ▁Ho over ▁Institute ▁scholar ▁David ▁S atter , ▁Russian ▁law maker ▁Serge i ▁Y ush enk ov , ▁historian ▁Y uri ▁F els ht in sky , ▁polit ologist ▁Vladimir ▁P rib y lov sky ▁and ▁former ▁K GB ▁general ▁O leg ▁Kal ugin ▁assert ed ▁that ▁Russian ▁a partment ▁bomb ings ▁were ▁in ▁fact ▁a ▁" false ▁flag " ▁attack ▁perpet r ated ▁by ▁the ▁F SB ▁( success or ▁to ▁the ▁K GB ) ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁legit im ize ▁the ▁res umption ▁of ▁military ▁activities ▁in ▁Che ch ny a ▁and ▁bring ▁Vladimir ▁Put in ▁and ▁the ▁F SB ▁to ▁power . ▁F SB ▁oper atives ▁were ▁actually ▁briefly ▁arrested ▁in ▁the ▁case , ▁but ▁their ▁presence ▁at ▁the ▁crime ▁scene ▁was ▁explained ▁as ▁" training ". ▁This ▁view ▁was ▁disput ed ▁by ▁phil os opher ▁Robert ▁Bruce ▁W are ▁and ▁Richard ▁Sak wa ,, ▁but ▁supported ▁by ▁histor ians ▁Amy ▁Knight ▁and ▁Kar en ▁Daw ish a ▁ ▁Form er ▁F SB ▁officer ▁Aleks ander ▁Lit vin en ko ▁and ▁investig ator ▁Mik h ail ▁T rep ash kin ▁alleg ed ▁that ▁a ▁Che chen ▁F SB ▁agent ▁directed ▁the ▁Moscow ▁the ater ▁host age ▁crisis ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁▁ ▁Y ul ia ▁Lat yn ina ▁has ▁accused ▁the ▁Russian ▁security ▁services ▁of ▁st aging ▁fake ▁terror ist ▁attacks ▁( with ▁minimal ▁cas ual ties ) ▁to ▁report ▁false ▁success es ▁in ▁solving ▁those ▁cases , ▁instead ▁of ▁investig ating ▁the ▁actual ▁terror ist
▁attacks . ▁ ▁V y aches lav ▁Iz mail ov ▁from ▁Nov aya ▁Gaz eta ▁has ▁accused ▁the ▁Russian ▁authorities ▁of ▁ext ort ing ▁conf essions ▁from ▁suspect ▁terror ists ▁with ▁tort ure , ▁instead ▁of ▁eng aging ▁in ▁genu ine ▁investig ative ▁efforts .. ▁According ▁to ▁him , ▁the ▁kid n app ings ▁of ▁journal ists ▁and ▁members ▁of ▁international ▁N GO s ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁in ▁Che ch ny a , ▁along ▁with ▁And rei ▁Bab it sky ▁from ▁Radio ▁Free ▁Europe , ▁Ar jan ▁Er kel ▁and ▁Kenneth ▁G lack ▁from ▁Do ctors ▁Without ▁B orders ▁were ▁organized ▁by ▁F SB ▁agents . ▁ ▁Alexander ▁J . ▁Mot yl , ▁professor ▁of ▁political ▁science ▁at ▁R ut gers ▁University ▁arg ues ▁that ▁Russia ' s ▁direct ▁and ▁indirect ▁invol vement ▁in ▁the ▁violence ▁in ▁eastern ▁Ukraine ▁qual ifies ▁as ▁a ▁state - sp ons ored ▁terror ism , ▁and ▁that ▁those ▁involved ▁qual ify ▁as ▁" ter ror ist ▁groups ." ▁ ▁In ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁Re ut ers ▁published ▁a ▁Special ▁Report ▁titled ▁" How ▁Russia ▁allowed ▁hom eg rown ▁radical s ▁to ▁go ▁and ▁fight ▁in ▁Sy ria " ▁that , ▁based ▁on ▁first - hand ▁evidence , ▁said ▁that ▁at ▁least ▁in ▁the ▁period ▁between ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁and ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁the ▁Russian ▁government ▁ag encies ▁ran ▁a ▁programme ▁to ▁facil itate ▁and ▁encou rage ▁Russian ▁radical s ▁and ▁milit ants ▁to ▁leave ▁Russia ▁and
▁go ▁to ▁Turkey ▁and ▁then ▁on ▁to ▁Sy ria ; ▁the ▁persons ▁in ▁question ▁had ▁joined ▁j ih ad ist ▁groups , ▁some ▁fighting ▁with ▁the ▁I SI L . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁report , ▁the ▁goal ▁has ▁been ▁to ▁er ad icate ▁the ▁risk ▁of ▁Islam ic ▁terror ism ▁at ▁home ; ▁however ▁Russian ▁security ▁officials ▁den y ▁that ▁terror ists ▁were ▁encourag ed ▁to ▁leave ▁Russia . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁after ▁the ▁poison ing ▁of ▁Sk rip als , ▁the ▁ ▁State ▁Department ▁was ▁reported ly ▁prepared ▁to ▁officially ▁design ate ▁Russia ▁as ▁" state ▁spons or ▁of ▁terror ism " ▁by ▁US ▁law ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁cases ▁described ▁above , ▁but ▁ ▁the ▁work ▁has ▁been ▁stopped ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁decided ▁that ▁it ▁would ▁inter ef ere ▁with ▁US ▁options ▁in ▁areas ▁where ▁it ▁has ▁to ▁co oper ate ▁with ▁Russia . ▁ ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁Security ▁Service ▁of ▁Ukraine ▁arrested ▁ 7 ▁Rus si ans ▁travel ing ▁on ▁counter fe it ▁pass ports ▁accused ▁of ▁prepar ing ▁a ▁car ▁bomb ing ▁against ▁a ▁Ukrain ian ▁military ▁intelligence ▁officer . ▁One ▁of ▁them , ▁travel ing ▁with ▁fake ▁K yr gy z stan ▁pass port , ▁was ▁identified ▁as ▁Tim ur ▁D z ort ov , ▁previously ▁deput y ▁chief ▁of ▁staff ▁to ▁the ▁leader ▁Ing ush et ia . ▁Another ▁man , ▁responsible ▁for ▁actually ▁plant ing ▁the ▁bomb ▁in ▁the ▁car , ▁accident ally ▁triggered ▁it ▁and ▁was ▁wounded
▁by ▁the ▁bl ast . ▁S BU ▁accused ▁officer ▁D mit ry ▁Min ay ev ▁from ▁Russian ▁Federal ▁Security ▁Service ▁( F SB ) ▁of ▁coordin ating ▁the ▁group . ▁▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁Russian ▁a partment ▁bomb ings ▁ ▁The ▁Russian ▁a partment ▁bomb ings ▁were ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁bomb ings ▁in ▁Russia ▁that ▁killed ▁nearly ▁ 3 0 0 ▁people ▁and , ▁together ▁with ▁the ▁D ag est an ▁War , ▁led ▁the ▁country ▁into ▁the ▁Second ▁Che chen ▁War . ▁The ▁five ▁bomb ings ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁Moscow ▁and ▁two ▁other ▁Russian ▁towns ▁during ▁ten ▁days ▁of ▁September ▁ 1 9 9 9 . ▁ ▁The ▁bomb ings ▁were ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁controvers ial ▁episode ▁when ▁a ▁sus pected ▁bomb ▁was ▁found ▁and ▁def used ▁in ▁an ▁a partment ▁block ▁in ▁the ▁Russian ▁city ▁of ▁Ry az an ▁on ▁ 2 2 ▁September , ▁which ▁was ▁then ▁explained ▁to ▁be ▁an ▁exercise ▁by ▁the ▁Russian ▁security ▁services , ▁the ▁F SB . ▁ ▁An ▁official ▁investigation ▁of ▁the ▁bomb ings ▁was ▁completed ▁only ▁three ▁years ▁later , ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁Seven ▁suspect s ▁were ▁killed , ▁six ▁have ▁been ▁conv icted ▁on ▁terror ism - related ▁charges , ▁and ▁one ▁remains ▁a ▁fug itive . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁investigation , ▁all ▁bomb ings ▁were ▁organized ▁and ▁led ▁by ▁Ach eme z ▁G och iy ae v ▁- ▁who ▁as ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁remained ▁at ▁large . ▁ ▁The ▁Russian ▁D uma ▁rejected
▁two ▁mot ions ▁for ▁parliament ary ▁investigation ▁of ▁the ▁Ry az an ▁incident . ▁An ▁independent ▁public ▁commission ▁to ▁investigate ▁the ▁bomb ings ▁cha ired ▁by ▁D uma ▁deput y ▁Serge i ▁K ov ale v ▁was ▁rendered ▁in effect ive ▁because ▁of ▁government ▁ref us al ▁to ▁respond ▁to ▁its ▁in qui ries . ▁Two ▁key ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁K ov ale v ▁Commission , ▁Serge i ▁Y ush enk ov ▁and ▁Y uri ▁Sh che k och ik hin , ▁both ▁D uma ▁members , ▁have ▁since ▁died ▁in ▁ ▁assass in ations ▁in ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁and ▁July ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁respectively . ▁The ▁Commission ' s ▁lawyer ▁Mik h ail ▁T rep ash kin ▁was ▁arrested ▁in ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁to ▁become ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁better - known ▁political ▁prisoners ▁in ▁Russia . ▁ ▁More ▁recent ▁attacks ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁ ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁following ▁bomb ing ▁attacks ▁on ▁two ▁aircraft ▁and ▁the ▁dow nt own ▁Moscow ▁Metro , ▁Che chen ▁terror ists ▁seized ▁over ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁host ages ▁at ▁a ▁school ▁in ▁Bes lan , ▁North ▁Os set ia . ▁▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁ ▁The ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁Moscow ▁market ▁bomb ing ▁occurred ▁on ▁August ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁when ▁a ▁self - made ▁bomb ▁of ▁the ▁power ▁of ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 kg ▁of ▁T NT ▁expl
oded ▁at ▁Moscow ' s ▁Ch erk iz ov sky ▁Market ▁frequ ented ▁by ▁foreign ▁mer ch ants . ▁The ▁bomb ing ▁killed ▁ 1 3 ▁people ▁and ▁injured ▁ 4 7 . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁eight ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁ne o - N azi ▁organization ▁The ▁Sav iour ▁ ▁were ▁sent enced ▁for ▁their ▁roles ▁in ▁the ▁attack . ▁▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁ ▁In ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁suic ide ▁bomb ings ▁were ▁carried ▁out ▁by ▁two ▁women ▁who ▁were ▁aligned ▁with ▁C au cas us ▁Em ir ate ▁and ▁Al - Q a eda . ▁The ▁terror ist ▁attack ▁happened ▁during ▁the ▁morning ▁r ush ▁hour ▁of ▁March ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁at ▁two ▁stations ▁of ▁the ▁Moscow ▁Metro ▁( L uby anka ▁and ▁Park ▁Kult ury ), ▁with ▁roughly ▁ 4 0 ▁minutes ▁interval ▁between . ▁At ▁least ▁ 4 0 ▁people ▁were ▁killed , ▁and ▁over ▁ 1 0 0 ▁injured . ▁▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁ ▁The ▁Dom oded ovo ▁International ▁Airport ▁bomb ing ▁was ▁a ▁suic ide ▁bomb ing ▁in ▁the ▁international ▁arrival ▁hall ▁of ▁Moscow ' s ▁Dom oded ovo ▁International , ▁in ▁Dom oded ov sky ▁District , ▁Moscow ▁O blast , ▁on ▁ 2 4 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁ ▁The ▁bomb ing ▁killed ▁ 3 7 ▁people ▁and ▁injured ▁ 1 7 3 ▁others , ▁including ▁ 8 6 ▁who ▁had ▁to ▁be ▁hospital ised
. ▁Of ▁the ▁cas ual ties , ▁ 3 1 ▁died ▁at ▁the ▁scene , ▁three ▁later ▁in ▁hosp it als , ▁one ▁en ▁route ▁to ▁a ▁hospital , ▁one ▁on ▁ 2 ▁February ▁after ▁having ▁been ▁put ▁in ▁a ▁com a , ▁and ▁another ▁on ▁ 2 4 ▁February ▁after ▁being ▁hospital ised ▁in ▁grave ▁condition . ▁ ▁Russia ' s ▁Federal ▁Investig ative ▁Committee ▁later ▁identified ▁the ▁suic ide ▁bom ber ▁as ▁a ▁ 2 0 - year - old ▁from ▁the ▁North ▁C au cas us , ▁and ▁said ▁that ▁the ▁attack ▁was ▁aim ed ▁" first ▁and ▁for em ost " ▁at ▁foreign ▁citizens . ▁▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁ ▁In ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁two ▁separate ▁suic ide ▁bomb ings ▁a ▁day ▁apart ▁target ed ▁mass ▁transport ation ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Vol g og rad , ▁in ▁the ▁Vol g og rad ▁O blast ▁of ▁Southern ▁Russia , ▁killing ▁ 3 4 ▁people ▁overall , ▁including ▁both ▁perpet rat ors ▁who ▁were ▁aligned ▁to ▁C au cas us ▁Em ir ate ▁and ▁Vil ay at ▁D ag est an . ▁The ▁attacks ▁followed ▁a ▁bus ▁bomb ing ▁carried ▁out ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁city ▁two ▁months ▁earlier . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 1 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁a ▁suic ide ▁bomb ing ▁took ▁place ▁on ▁a ▁bus ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Vol g og rad , ▁in ▁the ▁Vol g og rad ▁O blast ▁of ▁Southern ▁Russia . ▁The ▁attack ▁was
▁carried ▁out ▁by ▁a ▁female ▁perpet r ator ▁named ▁Na ida ▁S ira zh ud in ov na ▁A si yal ova ▁( Russ ian : ▁На и да ▁Си ра жу ди нов на ▁А сия лова ) ▁who ▁was ▁converted ▁to ▁Islam ▁by ▁her ▁husband , ▁she ▁det on ated ▁an ▁explos ive ▁bel t ▁containing ▁ 5 0 0 – 6 0 0 ▁gr ams ▁of ▁T NT ▁inside ▁a ▁bus ▁carrying ▁approximately ▁ 5 0 ▁people , ▁killing ▁seven ▁civ ili ans ▁and ▁inj uring ▁at ▁least ▁ 3 6 ▁others . ▁ ▁The ▁Investig ative ▁Committee ▁of ▁Russia ▁recorded ▁ 6 6 1 ▁terror ist ▁off ences ▁for ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁including ▁ 3 1 ▁terror ist ▁attacks , ▁which ▁claimed ▁about ▁ 4 0 ▁lives ▁and ▁do z ens ▁more ▁inj uries . ▁▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁ ▁On ▁October ▁ 5 , ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁a ▁ 1 9 - year - old ▁man ▁named ▁Opt i ▁M ud ar ov ▁went ▁to ▁the ▁town ▁hall ▁where ▁an ▁event ▁was ▁taking ▁place ▁to ▁mark ▁Gro z ny ▁City ▁Day ▁celebr ations ▁in ▁Gro z ny ▁coinc iding ▁with ▁the ▁birth day ▁of ▁Che chen ▁President ▁Ram zan ▁K ady rov . ▁Police ▁officers ▁noticed ▁him ▁acting ▁str ang ely ▁and ▁stopped ▁him . ▁The ▁officers ▁began ▁to ▁search ▁him ▁and ▁the ▁bomb ▁which ▁M ud ar ov ▁had ▁been ▁carrying ▁expl oded . ▁Five ▁officers , ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁suic
ide ▁bom ber , ▁were ▁killed , ▁while ▁ 1 2 ▁others ▁were ▁wounded . ▁ ▁On ▁ 4 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁Islam ist ▁milit ants , ▁in ▁three ▁vehicles , ▁killed ▁three ▁traffic ▁polic emen , ▁after ▁the ▁latter ▁had ▁attempted ▁to ▁stop ▁them ▁at ▁a ▁check point ▁in ▁the ▁out sk ir ts ▁of ▁Gro z ny . ▁The ▁milit ants ▁then ▁occupied ▁a ▁press ▁building ▁and ▁an ▁abandoned ▁school , ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁the ▁city . ▁La unch ing ▁a ▁counter - ter ror ism ▁operation , ▁security ▁forces , ▁with ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁arm ored ▁vehicles , ▁attempted ▁to ▁storm ▁the ▁buildings ▁and ▁a ▁fire f ight ▁en su ed . ▁▁ 1 4 ▁polic emen , ▁ 1 1 ▁milit ants ▁and ▁ 1 ▁civil ian ▁were ▁killed . ▁Additionally ▁ 3 6 ▁polic emen ▁were ▁wounded ▁in ▁the ▁incident . ▁The ▁Press ▁House ▁was ▁also ▁burn ed ▁and ▁sever ely ▁dam aged ▁in ▁the ▁incident . ▁▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁ ▁Metro jet ▁Fl ight ▁ 9 2 6 8 ▁was ▁an ▁international ▁char tered ▁passenger ▁flight ▁operated ▁by ▁Russian ▁air line ▁K og al ym avia ▁( brand ed ▁as ▁Metro jet ). ▁On ▁ 3 1 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁at ▁ 0 6 : 1 3 ▁local ▁time ▁E ST ▁( 0 4 : 1 3 ▁UTC ), ▁an ▁Air bus ▁A 3 2 1 - 2 3 1 ▁operating ▁the ▁flight
▁dis integr ated ▁above ▁the ▁northern ▁S ina i ▁following ▁its ▁departure ▁from ▁Sh arm ▁El ▁She ikh ▁International ▁Airport , ▁Egypt , ▁in ▁route ▁to ▁P ulk ovo ▁Airport , ▁Saint ▁Petersburg , ▁Russia . ▁All ▁ 2 1 7 ▁passengers ▁and ▁seven ▁crew ▁members ▁who ▁were ▁on ▁board ▁were ▁killed . ▁ ▁Short ly ▁after ▁the ▁crash , ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁State ▁of ▁Ira q ▁and ▁the ▁Lev ant ▁( IS IL )' s ▁S ina i ▁Branch , ▁previously ▁known ▁as ▁Ans ar ▁B ait ▁al - Ma q dis , ▁claimed ▁responsibility ▁for ▁the ▁incident , ▁which ▁occurred ▁in ▁the ▁vic inity ▁of ▁the ▁S ina i ▁ins ur gency . ▁I SI L ▁claimed ▁responsibility ▁on ▁Twitter , ▁on ▁video , ▁and ▁in ▁a ▁statement ▁by ▁Ab u ▁Os ama ▁al - M as ri , ▁the ▁leader ▁of ▁the ▁group ' s ▁S ina i ▁branch . ▁I SI L ▁posted ▁pictures ▁of ▁what ▁it ▁said ▁was ▁the ▁bomb ▁in ▁D abi q , ▁its ▁online ▁magazine . ▁ ▁By ▁ 4 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁British ▁and ▁American ▁authorities ▁sus pected ▁that ▁a ▁bomb ▁was ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁crash . ▁On ▁ 8 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁an ▁anonymous ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Egypt ian ▁investigation ▁team ▁said ▁the ▁investig ators ▁were ▁" 9 0 ▁percent ▁sure " ▁that ▁the ▁jet ▁was ▁brought ▁down ▁by ▁a ▁bomb . ▁Le ad ▁investig ator ▁A yman ▁al - M u q add am
▁said ▁that ▁other ▁possible ▁causes ▁of ▁the ▁crash ▁included ▁a ▁fuel ▁explos ion , ▁metal ▁fat igue , ▁and ▁l ith ium ▁batter ies ▁over he ating . ▁The ▁Russian ▁Federal ▁Security ▁Service ▁announced ▁on ▁ 1 7 ▁November ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁sure ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁terror ist ▁attack , ▁caused ▁by ▁an ▁impro vised ▁bomb ▁containing ▁the ▁equivalent ▁of ▁up ▁to ▁ ▁of ▁T NT ▁that ▁det on ated ▁during ▁the ▁flight . ▁The ▁Rus si ans ▁said ▁they ▁had ▁found ▁explos ive ▁resid ue ▁as ▁evidence . ▁On ▁ 2 4 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁Egypt ian ▁President ▁Ab del ▁F att ah ▁el - S isi ▁acknowled ged ▁that ▁terror ism ▁caused ▁the ▁crash . ▁▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁ ▁On ▁ 3 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁a ▁terror ist ▁attack ▁using ▁an ▁explos ive ▁device ▁took ▁place ▁on ▁the ▁Saint ▁Petersburg ▁Metro ▁between ▁S enn aya ▁Pl osh ch ad ▁and ▁T ek hn olog ich es ky ▁Institut ▁stations . ▁Seven ▁people ▁( including ▁the ▁perpet r ator ) ▁were ▁initially ▁reported ▁to ▁have ▁died , ▁and ▁eight ▁more ▁died ▁later ▁from ▁their ▁inj uries , ▁bringing ▁the ▁total ▁to ▁ 1 5 . ▁At ▁least ▁ 4 5 ▁others ▁were ▁injured ▁in ▁the ▁incident . ▁The ▁explos ive ▁device ▁was ▁contained ▁in ▁a ▁brief case . ▁A ▁second ▁explos ive ▁device ▁was ▁found ▁and ▁def used ▁at ▁Pl osh ch ad ▁V os st ani ya ▁met ro ▁station
. ▁The ▁sus pected ▁perpet r ator ▁was ▁named ▁as ▁Ak bar zh on ▁J al il ov , ▁a ▁Russian ▁citiz en ▁who ▁was ▁an ▁eth nic ▁U z bek ▁born ▁in ▁K yr gy z stan . ▁Prior ▁to ▁the ▁attack , ▁Che chen ▁separ at ists ▁had ▁been ▁responsible ▁for ▁several ▁terror ist ▁attacks ▁in ▁Russia . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁IS IS ▁had ▁pl otted ▁to ▁target ▁St . ▁Petersburg ▁due ▁to ▁Russia ' s ▁military ▁invol vement ▁in ▁Sy ria , ▁resulting ▁in ▁arr ests . ▁No ▁public ▁transport ▁system ▁in ▁Russia ▁had ▁been ▁bom bed ▁since ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Moscow ▁Metro ▁bomb ings . IS IS ▁propag anda ▁was ▁being ▁circul ated ▁prior ▁to ▁this ▁incident . ▁It ▁encourag ed ▁supp or ters ▁to ▁launch ▁strik es ▁on ▁Moscow . ▁IS IS ▁propag anda ▁showed ▁bullet ▁holes ▁through ▁Put in ' s ▁head ▁and ▁a ▁poster ▁circul ated ▁before ▁the ▁attack ▁of ▁a ▁falling ▁Kre ml in ▁and ▁included ▁the ▁message ▁" We ▁Will ▁Burn ▁Russia ." ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 2 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁two ▁people ▁were ▁shot ▁and ▁killed ▁in ▁an ▁attack ▁in ▁a ▁Federal ▁Security ▁Service ▁office ▁in ▁the ▁Russian ▁city ▁of ▁K hab ar ov sk . ▁The ▁gun man ▁was ▁also ▁killed . ▁The ▁Russian ▁Federal ▁Security ▁Service ▁said ▁that ▁the ▁native ▁ 1 8 - year - old ▁perpet r ator ▁was ▁a ▁known ▁member ▁of ▁a ▁ne o - n
azi ▁group .; ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 7 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁a ▁bomb ▁expl oded ▁in ▁a ▁super market ▁in ▁St ▁Petersburg , ▁inj uring ▁th ir teen ▁people . ▁Vladimir ▁Put in ▁described ▁this ▁as ▁a ▁terror ist ▁attack . ▁ ▁International ▁co operation ▁In ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁President ▁of ▁Russia ▁Vladimir ▁Put in ▁thank ed ▁his ▁American ▁counter part ▁Donald ▁Trump ▁for ▁a ▁tip ▁which ▁allowed ▁to ▁prevent ▁a ▁terror ist ▁attack ▁in ▁St . ▁Petersburg . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁SR ▁Com bat ▁Organ ization ▁ ▁K iz ly ar ▁ra id ▁ ▁State - sp ons ored ▁terror ism # Russ ia ▁ ▁Russian ▁Federation ▁list ▁of ▁terror ist ▁and ▁extrem ist ▁organizations ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁T error ism : ▁A ▁Marx ist ▁Pers pective , ▁By ▁Dave ▁Hol mes ▁ ▁Over ▁ 2 0 0 ▁cases ▁against ▁H iz b ▁ut - T ah rir ▁activ ists ▁opened ▁in ▁Russia ▁ ▁Kh ant y - M ans iy sk ▁Court ▁confir ms ▁H iz b ▁ut - T ah rir ▁activ ist ' s ▁sentence ▁ ▁' Big ▁three ' ▁to ▁hold ▁Del hi ▁tal ks ▁ ▁T error ism ▁in ▁Russia ▁- ▁sl ides how ▁by ▁Life ▁magazine ▁▁▁ ▁Russia <0x0A> </s> ▁S 3 1 ▁may ▁refer ▁to ▁: ▁ ▁S 3 1 ▁( Long ▁Island ▁bus ) ▁ ▁County ▁Route ▁S 3 1 ▁( Cal iforn ia ) ▁ ▁County ▁Route ▁S 3 1 ▁( New ▁Jersey
), ▁a ▁county ▁route ▁in ▁Ber gen ▁County ▁ ▁HMS ▁Ven ge ance ▁( S 3 1 ), ▁a ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁V angu ard ▁class ▁sub marine ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Royal ▁Navy ▁ ▁Let ov ▁Š - 3 1 , ▁a ▁Czech oslov ak ian ▁Let ov ▁aircraft ▁ ▁USS ▁S - 3 1 ▁( SS - 1 3 6 ), ▁a ▁ 1 9 1 8 ▁S - class ▁sub marine ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Navy ▁ ▁S - 3 1 , ▁a ▁W W 2 ▁German ▁Sch nell boot ▁ ▁a ▁Hamburg ▁S - B ahn ▁line ▁▁ ▁a ▁Stadt bahn ▁Kar ls ru he ▁line <0x0A> </s> ▁Fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁cancer ▁accounts ▁for ▁ 1 5 % ▁of ▁thy roid ▁cancer ▁and ▁occurs ▁more ▁commonly ▁in ▁women ▁over ▁ 5 0 ▁years ▁of ▁age . ▁Th y rog lob ul in ▁( T g ) ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁tum or ▁marker ▁for ▁well - d iffer enti ated ▁fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁cancer . ▁Th y roid ▁fol lic ular ▁cells ▁are ▁the ▁thy roid ▁cells ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁production ▁and ▁secret ion ▁of ▁thy roid ▁h orm ones . ▁ ▁C ause ▁ ▁Associ ated ▁mut ations ▁Appro xim ately ▁one - half ▁of ▁fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁car cin omas ▁have ▁mut ations ▁in ▁the ▁Ras ▁sub family ▁of ▁on c ogen es , ▁most ▁not ably ▁H R AS , ▁NR AS , ▁and ▁K R AS .
▁Mut ations ▁in ▁M IN PP 1 ▁have ▁like wise ▁been ▁observed , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁ger ml ine ▁P T EN ▁gene ▁mut ations ▁responsible ▁for ▁Cow den ▁synd rome ▁of ▁which ▁fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁cancer ▁is ▁a ▁feature . ▁Also , ▁a ▁chrom os om al ▁trans location ▁specific ▁for ▁fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁car cin omas ▁is ▁one ▁between ▁pa ired ▁box ▁gene ▁ 8 ▁( P AX - 8 ), ▁a ▁gene ▁important ▁in ▁thy roid ▁development , ▁and ▁the ▁gene ▁encoding ▁per ox is ome ▁pro l ifer ator - activ ated ▁re ceptor ▁ γ ▁ 1 ▁( P PAR γ 1 ), ▁a ▁nuclear ▁h orm one ▁re ceptor ▁contrib uting ▁to ▁terminal ▁different iation ▁of ▁cells . ▁The ▁P AX 8 - P PAR γ 1 ▁fusion ▁is ▁present ▁in ▁approximately ▁one - third ▁of ▁fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁car cin omas , ▁specifically ▁those ▁can cers ▁with ▁a ▁t ( 2 ; 3 )( q 1 3 ; p 2 5 ) ▁trans location , ▁perm itting ▁ju xt ap osition ▁of ▁port ions ▁of ▁both ▁gen es . ▁T um ors ▁tend ▁carry ▁either ▁a ▁R AS ▁mut ation ▁or ▁a ▁P AX 8 - P PAR γ 1 ▁fusion , ▁and ▁only ▁rarely ▁are ▁both ▁gen etic ▁ab normal ities ▁present ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁case . ▁Thus , ▁fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁car cin omas ▁seem ▁to ▁arise ▁by ▁two ▁distinct ▁and ▁virt ually ▁non over la
pping ▁mole cular ▁path ways . ▁ ▁Hur th le ▁cell ▁variant ▁ ▁Hur th le ▁cell ▁thy roid ▁cancer ▁is ▁often ▁considered ▁a ▁variant ▁of ▁fol lic ular ▁cell ▁car cin oma . ▁Hur th le ▁cell ▁forms ▁are ▁more ▁likely ▁than ▁fol lic ular ▁car cin omas ▁to ▁be ▁bil ater al ▁and ▁mult if ocal ▁and ▁to ▁ ▁met ast as ize ▁to ▁l ym ph ▁nodes . ▁Like ▁fol lic ular ▁car cin oma , ▁un il ater al ▁hem ith y ro ide ct omy ▁is ▁performed ▁for ▁non - in vas ive ▁disease , ▁and ▁total ▁thy ro ide ct omy ▁for ▁invas ive ▁disease . ▁ ▁Di agn osis ▁ ▁Classification ▁It ▁is ▁impossible ▁to ▁distinguish ▁between ▁fol lic ular ▁ad en oma ▁and ▁ ▁car cin oma ▁on ▁c yt ological ▁grounds . ▁If ▁fine ▁need le ▁asp iration ▁c yt ology ▁( F N AC ) ▁suggests ▁fol lic ular ▁ne op las m , ▁thy roid ▁lo b ect omy ▁should ▁be ▁performed ▁to ▁establish ▁the ▁hist op ath ological ▁diagn osis . ▁ ▁Fe atures ▁s ine ▁qu a ▁non ▁for ▁the ▁diagn osis ▁of ▁fol lic ular ▁car cin oma ▁are ▁caps ular ▁invasion ▁and ▁v asc ular ▁invasion ▁by ▁tum or ▁cells . ▁Still , ▁focus es ▁of ▁the ▁caps ular ▁invasion ▁should ▁be ▁carefully ▁evaluated ▁and ▁disc rimin ated ▁from ▁the ▁caps ular ▁ru pt ure ▁due ▁to ▁F NA ▁pen etr ation ▁resulting ▁in ▁WH A FF T
▁( wor ris ome ▁hist olog ic ▁alter ations ▁following ▁F NA ▁of ▁thy roid ). ▁▁ ▁Fol lic ular ▁car cin oma ▁tends ▁to ▁met ast as ize ▁to ▁lung ▁and ▁b one ▁via ▁the ▁blood stream . ▁ ▁Pap ill ary ▁thy roid ▁car cin oma ▁commonly ▁met ast as izes ▁to ▁cer v ical ▁l ym ph ▁nodes . ▁ ▁H M GA 2 ▁has ▁been ▁proposed ▁as ▁a ▁marker ▁to ▁identify ▁m align ant ▁tum ors . ▁ ▁Tre at ment ▁Tre at ment ▁is ▁usually ▁surg ical , ▁followed ▁by ▁radio iod ine . ▁ ▁Initial ▁treatment ▁If ▁fol lic ular ▁cells ▁are ▁found ▁on ▁c yt ological ▁testing , ▁it ▁is ▁common ▁to ▁carry ▁out ▁hem ith y ro ide ct omy ▁to ▁distinguish ▁between ▁fol lic ular ▁ad en oma ▁and ▁fol lic ular ▁car cin oma ▁on ▁hist op ath ological ▁exam ination , ▁proceed ing ▁to ▁completion ▁thy ro ide ct omy ▁and ▁post oper ative ▁radio iod ine ▁ab lation ▁where ▁car cin oma ▁is ▁confirmed . ▁ ▁This ▁way ▁total ▁thy ro ide ct omy ▁is ▁not ▁carried ▁out ▁unnecess arily . ▁Th y ro ide ct omy ▁is ▁invari ably ▁followed ▁by ▁radio iod ine ▁treatment ▁at ▁levels ▁from ▁ 5 0 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 ▁mill ic uries ▁following ▁two ▁weeks ▁of ▁a ▁low ▁i od ine ▁di et ▁( L ID ). ▁Occ asion ally ▁treatment ▁must ▁be ▁repeated ▁if ▁annual ▁sc ans ▁indicate ▁remaining ▁cancer ous ▁t
issue . ▁Some ▁phys icians ▁favor ▁admin ister ing ▁the ▁maximum ▁safe ▁do se ▁( calcul ated ▁based ▁on ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁factors ), ▁while ▁others ▁favor ▁admin ister ing ▁smaller ▁dos es , ▁which ▁may ▁still ▁be ▁effective ▁in ▁ab l ating ▁all ▁thy roid ▁t issue . ▁I - 1 3 1 ▁is ▁used ▁for ▁ab lation ▁of ▁the ▁thy roid ▁t issue . ▁Min im ally ▁invas ive ▁thy ro ide ct omy ▁has ▁been ▁used ▁in ▁recent ▁years ▁in ▁cases ▁where ▁the ▁nod ules ▁are ▁small . ▁ ▁F inding ▁disease ▁rec urrence ▁Some ▁studies ▁have ▁shown ▁that ▁thy rog lob ul in ▁( T g ) ▁testing ▁combined ▁with ▁neck ▁ul tras ound ▁is ▁more ▁product ive ▁in ▁finding ▁disease ▁rec urrence ▁than ▁full - ▁or ▁whole - body ▁sc ans ▁( W BS ) ▁using ▁radio active ▁i od ine . ▁However , ▁current ▁protocol ▁( in ▁the ▁USA ) ▁suggests ▁a ▁small ▁number ▁of ▁clean ▁annual ▁W BS ▁are ▁required ▁before ▁re lying ▁on ▁T g ▁testing ▁plus ▁neck ▁ul tras ound . ▁When ▁needed , ▁whole ▁body ▁sc ans ▁consist ▁of ▁withdraw al ▁from ▁thy ro x ine ▁medic ation ▁and / or ▁injection ▁of ▁recom bin ant ▁human ▁Th y roid ▁stim ulating ▁h orm one ▁( T SH ). ▁In ▁both ▁cases , ▁a ▁low ▁i od ine ▁di et ▁reg imen ▁must ▁also ▁be ▁followed ▁to ▁optimize ▁the ▁take up ▁of ▁the ▁radio active ▁i od ine ▁do se . ▁Low ▁do
se ▁radio iod ine ▁of ▁a ▁few ▁mill ic uries ▁is ▁admin ister ed . ▁Full ▁body ▁nuclear ▁medicine ▁scan ▁follows ▁using ▁a ▁g amma ▁camera . ▁Sc an ▁dos es ▁of ▁radio active ▁i od ine ▁may ▁be ▁I 1 3 1 ▁or ▁I 1 2 3 . ▁ ▁Re com bin ant ▁human ▁T SH , ▁commercial ▁name ▁Th y ro gen , ▁is ▁produced ▁in ▁cell ▁culture ▁from ▁gen et ically ▁engine ered ▁ham ster ▁cells . ▁ ▁Pro gn osis ▁The ▁overall ▁ 5 - year ▁surv ival ▁rate ▁for ▁fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁cancer ▁is ▁ 9 1 %, ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 0 - year ▁surv ival ▁rate ▁is ▁ 8 5 %. ▁ ▁By ▁overall ▁cancer ▁st aging ▁into ▁stages ▁I ▁to ▁IV , ▁fol lic ular ▁thy roid ▁cancer ▁has ▁a ▁ 5 - year ▁surv ival ▁rate ▁of ▁ 1 0 0 % ▁for ▁stages ▁I ▁and ▁II , ▁ 7 1 % ▁for ▁stage ▁III , ▁and ▁ 5 0 % ▁for ▁stage ▁IV . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Th y roid ▁cancer ▁at ▁D MO Z ▁ ▁Can cer ▁Management ▁Hand book : ▁Th y roid ▁and ▁Par ath y roid ▁Can cers ▁ ▁Management ▁Gu idel ines ▁for ▁Pat ients ▁with ▁Th y roid ▁N od ules ▁and ▁D iffer enti ated ▁Th y roid ▁Can cer ▁The ▁American ▁Th y roid ▁Association ▁Gu idel ines ▁Task force ▁( 2 0 1 5 ). ▁ ▁Category : Th
y roid ▁cancer <0x0A> </s> ▁Su ł kow o ▁ ▁( G erman : ▁Friedrich s ru h ) ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁administrative ▁district ▁of ▁G mina ▁Rad owo ▁M ał e , ▁within ▁Ł ob ez ▁County , ▁West ▁P omer an ian ▁Vo iv odes hip , ▁in ▁north - western ▁Poland . ▁▁ ▁It ▁lies ▁approximately ▁ ▁south ▁of ▁Rad owo ▁M ał e , ▁ ▁west ▁of ▁Ł ob ez , ▁and ▁ ▁east ▁of ▁the ▁regional ▁capital ▁Sz cz ec in . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁in ▁Ł ob ez ▁County <0x0A> </s> ▁Try p eta ▁ad sp ers a ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁te ph rit id ▁or ▁fruit ▁f lies ▁in ▁the ▁genus ▁Try p eta ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁Te ph rit idae . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Try p eta <0x0A> </s> ▁J ing de z hen ▁por cel ain ▁() ▁is ▁Chinese ▁por cel ain ▁produced ▁in ▁or ▁near ▁J ing de z hen ▁in ▁southern ▁China . ▁ ▁J ing de z hen ▁may ▁have ▁produced ▁pot tery ▁as ▁early ▁as ▁the ▁sixth ▁century ▁CE , ▁though ▁it ▁is ▁named ▁after ▁the ▁reign ▁name ▁of ▁Emperor ▁Z hen z ong , ▁in ▁whose ▁reign ▁it ▁became ▁a ▁major ▁kil n ▁site , ▁around ▁ 1 0 0 4 . ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁century ▁it ▁had ▁become ▁the ▁largest ▁centre ▁of ▁production ▁of ▁Chinese ▁por cel ain , ▁which ▁it ▁has ▁remained , ▁increasing
▁its ▁domin ance ▁in ▁subsequent ▁centuries . ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁M ing ▁period ▁on wards , ▁official ▁kil ns ▁in ▁J ing de z hen ▁were ▁controlled ▁by ▁the ▁em peror , ▁making ▁imperial ▁por cel ain ▁in ▁large ▁quantity ▁for ▁the ▁court ▁and ▁the ▁em peror ▁to ▁give ▁as ▁g ifts . ▁ ▁Although ▁apparently ▁an ▁un prom ising ▁location ▁for ▁pot ter ies , ▁being ▁a ▁remote ▁town ▁in ▁a ▁h illy ▁region , ▁J ing de z hen ▁is ▁close ▁to ▁the ▁best ▁quality ▁depos its ▁of ▁pet unt se , ▁or ▁por cel ain ▁stone , ▁in ▁China , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁being ▁surrounded ▁by ▁for ests , ▁mostly ▁of ▁p ine , ▁providing ▁wood ▁for ▁the ▁kil ns . ▁It ▁also ▁has ▁a ▁river ▁leading ▁to ▁river ▁systems ▁flow ing ▁north ▁and ▁south , ▁facil it ating ▁transport ▁of ▁frag ile ▁war es . ▁ ▁The ▁imperial ▁kil ns ▁were ▁in ▁the ▁centre ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁at ▁Zh ush an ▁( P ear l ▁Hill ), ▁with ▁many ▁other ▁kil ns ▁four ▁kilometres ▁away ▁at ▁H ut ian . ▁ ▁It ▁has ▁produced ▁a ▁great ▁variety ▁of ▁pot tery ▁and ▁por cel ain , ▁for ▁the ▁Chinese ▁market ▁and ▁as ▁Chinese ▁export ▁por cel ain , ▁but ▁its ▁best - known ▁high ▁quality ▁por cel ain ▁war es ▁have ▁been ▁success ively ▁Q ing b ai ▁w are ▁in ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁Y uan ▁dynast ies , ▁blue ▁and ▁white ▁por cel ain ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 3
3 0 s , ▁and ▁the ▁" famil le ▁rose " ▁and ▁other ▁" famil le " ▁colours ▁under ▁the ▁Q ing ▁dynast y . ▁ ▁Official ▁kil ns ▁The ▁Mong ol ▁Y uan ▁dynast y ▁established ▁a ▁body , ▁the ▁" F uli ang ▁Por cel ain ▁Bureau " ▁to ▁reg ulate ▁production , ▁and ▁the ▁next ▁M ing ▁dynast y ▁established ▁official ▁kil ns ▁to ▁produce ▁por cel ain ▁for ▁the ▁em peror ; ▁J ing de z hen ▁continued ▁to ▁produce ▁Imperial ▁por cel ain ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁Imperial ▁rule . ▁ ▁The ▁imperial ▁kil ns ▁were ▁situated ▁at ▁Pear l ▁Hill ▁( Z h ush an ) ▁in ▁J ing de z hen ; ▁some ▁sch ol ars ▁give ▁a ▁date ▁of ▁ 1 3 6 9 ▁for ▁the ▁comm enc ement ▁of ▁production . ▁But ▁there ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁many ▁other ▁kil ns , ▁producing ▁war es ▁for ▁many ▁distinct ▁mark ets . ▁ ▁The ▁imperial ▁court , ▁except ▁during ▁periods ▁of ▁crisis , ▁generated ▁a ▁huge ▁demand ▁for ▁por cel ain . ▁A part ▁from ▁the ▁vast ▁main ▁pal aces ▁and ▁other ▁resid ences , ▁for ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁period ▁the ▁many ▁princes ▁had ▁subs idi ary ▁regional ▁courts . ▁There ▁were ▁imperial ▁tem ples ▁to ▁be ▁supplied , ▁each ▁of ▁which ▁was ▁given ▁mon och rome ▁war es ▁in ▁different ▁colours , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁several ▁monaster ies ▁and ▁shr ines . ▁ ▁The ▁por cel ain ▁to ▁which ▁different ▁ranks ▁of ▁the ▁imperial ▁household
▁were ▁entitled ▁were ▁set ▁out ▁in ▁minute ▁detail ▁in ▁reg ulations . ▁The ▁final ▁version ▁of ▁these , ▁from ▁ 1 8 9 9 , ▁specified ▁that ▁the ▁Em press ▁Dow ager ▁C ix i ▁was ▁allowed ▁ 8 2 1 ▁pieces ▁of ▁yellow ▁por cel ain , ▁while ▁the ▁Em press ▁had ▁ 1 , 0 1 4 . ▁A ▁conc ub ine ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁rank ▁had ▁ 1 2 1 ▁pieces ▁of ▁yellow ▁with ▁a ▁white ▁interior , ▁but ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁second ▁rank ▁had ▁yellow ▁decor ated ▁with ▁green ▁drag ons . ▁ ▁M ing ▁ ▁The ▁M ing ▁dynast y ▁is ▁normally ▁dated ▁as ▁beginning ▁in ▁ 1 3 6 8 , ▁but ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁long ▁revol t ▁against ▁the ▁Y uan ▁dynast y , ▁and ▁J ing de z hen ▁was ▁lost ▁by ▁them ▁in ▁ 1 3 5 2 . ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 4 0 2 ▁there ▁were ▁twelve ▁imperial ▁kil ns ▁at ▁J ing de z hen , ▁then ▁one ▁of ▁three ▁areas ▁with ▁imperial ▁kil ns . ▁Production ▁was ▁controlled ▁by ▁a ▁min istry ▁in ▁the ▁capital , ▁by ▁then ▁in ▁Be ij ing , ▁far ▁to ▁the ▁north . ▁ ▁Production ▁was ▁on ▁a ▁huge ▁scale , ▁employ ing ▁hundreds ▁if ▁not ▁thousands ▁of ▁workers , ▁whose ▁tasks ▁were ▁divided ▁into ▁several ▁special ities ▁to ▁increase ▁efficiency ▁and ▁consist ency . ▁In ▁ 1 4 3 3 ▁a ▁single ▁order ▁from ▁the ▁palace ▁was ▁for ▁ 4 4 3 , 5
0 0 ▁pieces ▁of ▁por cel ain , ▁all ▁with ▁drag on ▁and ▁p ho enix ▁designs . ▁ ▁Court ▁artists ▁were ▁by ▁now ▁supp lying ▁drawn ▁or ▁wood block ▁printed ▁designs ▁from ▁the ▁capital . ▁ ▁These ▁enorm ous ▁quantities ▁were ▁distributed ▁by ▁the ▁palace ▁to ▁the ▁subs idi ary ▁courts ▁of ▁the ▁many ▁M ing ▁princes ▁sent ▁to ▁govern ▁provinces , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁being ▁presented ▁as ▁g ifts ▁to ▁other ▁not ables , ▁and ▁sent ▁abroad ▁as ▁diplom atic ▁g ifts . ▁ ▁Some ▁may ▁also ▁have ▁been ▁sold , ▁especially ▁for ▁export . ▁ ▁Sometimes ▁ant ique ▁pieces ▁in ▁the ▁Imperial ▁collection ▁were ▁sent ▁to ▁J ing de z hen ▁to ▁be ▁copied . ▁ ▁A ▁recently ▁exc av ated ▁M ing ▁pr inc ely ▁bur ial ▁has ▁yield ed ▁the ▁first ▁example ▁to ▁surv ive ▁until ▁modern ▁times ▁of ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁g ai wan ▁set ▁known ▁from ▁ 1 5 th - century ▁paint ings . ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁blue ▁and ▁white ▁J ing de z hen ▁stem ▁cup , ▁that ▁has ▁a ▁silver ▁stand ▁and ▁a ▁gold ▁cover ▁( this ▁dated ▁ 1 4 3 7 ), ▁all ▁decor ated ▁with ▁drag ons . ▁ ▁Pres umably ▁many ▁such ▁sets ▁existed , ▁but ▁rec y cling ▁the ▁pre cious ▁metal ▁elements ▁was ▁too ▁tempt ing ▁at ▁some ▁point , ▁leaving ▁only ▁the ▁por cel ain ▁cu ps . ▁ ▁Other ▁imperial ▁por cel ains ▁may ▁have ▁carried ▁g ild ing , ▁which ▁has ▁now ▁worn
▁away . ▁▁ ▁Under ▁the ▁Y ong le ▁Emperor ▁( r . ▁ 1 4 0 2 – 2 4 ), ▁reign ▁marks ▁were ▁introduced ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time , ▁applied ▁to ▁por cel ain ▁and ▁other ▁types ▁of ▁lux ury ▁products ▁made ▁for ▁the ▁imperial ▁court . ▁ ▁The ▁supre m acy ▁of ▁J ing de z hen ▁was ▁rein for ced ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 1 5 th ▁century ▁when ▁the ▁imperial ▁kil ns ▁producing ▁Long qu an ▁cel ad on , ▁for ▁centuries ▁one ▁of ▁China ' s ▁fin est ▁war es , ▁were ▁closed ▁after ▁cel ad ons ▁fell ▁from ▁fashion . ▁ ▁A part ▁from ▁the ▁much ▁smaller ▁production ▁of ▁mon och rome ▁stone ware ▁" o fficial ▁Jun " ▁war es ▁from ▁Hen an , ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁palace ▁for ▁flower p ots ▁and ▁the ▁like , ▁J ing de z hen ▁was ▁now ▁the ▁only ▁area ▁making ▁imperial ▁cer am ics . ▁ ▁A ▁wide ▁variety ▁of ▁war es ▁were ▁produced ▁for ▁the ▁court , ▁with ▁blue ▁and ▁white ▁( initial ly ▁ignored ▁by ▁the ▁court ▁but ▁acceptable ▁by ▁ 1 4 0 2 ) ▁accompanied ▁by ▁red ▁and ▁white ▁war es ▁using ▁a ▁co pper - based ▁under g la ze ▁red . ▁This ▁was ▁sometimes ▁combined ▁with ▁the ▁c ob alt ▁blue ▁in ▁blue ▁and ▁red ▁pieces . ▁ ▁Under ▁the ▁X u ande ▁Emperor ▁( r . ▁ 1 4 2 6 – 1 4 3 5 ) ▁a ▁co pper - red
▁mon och rome ▁gla ze ▁was ▁used ▁for ▁cer emon ial ▁war es , ▁of ▁which ▁very ▁few ▁surv ive . ▁These ▁ceased ▁to ▁be ▁produced ▁after ▁his ▁death , ▁and ▁have ▁never ▁been ▁perfectly ▁im itated , ▁despite ▁later ▁attempts . ▁This ▁suggests ▁the ▁close ▁personal ▁interest ▁some ▁em per ors ▁took ▁in ▁the ▁imperial ▁pot ter ies , ▁and ▁also ▁that ▁some ▁secre ts ▁must ▁have ▁been ▁restricted ▁to ▁a ▁small ▁group ▁of ▁pot ters . ▁The ▁Ru ▁w are ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁dynast y ▁had ▁a ▁similar ▁pattern . ▁ ▁In ▁this ▁reign ▁en am el ▁or ▁over g la ze ▁decor ation ▁was ▁developed , ▁which ▁was ▁to ▁domin ate ▁the ▁fin er ▁war es ▁in ▁future ▁centuries . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁M ing ▁period , ▁the ▁reign s ▁of ▁the ▁five ▁em per ors ▁from ▁ 1 4 8 8 ▁to ▁ 1 6 2 0 , ▁there ▁was ▁little ▁innov ation ▁in ▁styles ▁of ▁decor ation , ▁though ▁some ▁alter ations ▁in ▁the ▁colours ▁used . ▁ ▁In ▁this ▁period ▁the ▁enorm ous ▁quantities ▁of ▁por cel ain ▁made ▁in ▁China ▁seem ▁to ▁have ▁led ▁to ▁low ▁prices ▁and ▁a ▁loss ▁of ▁prest ige , ▁at ▁court ▁and ▁in ▁Chinese ▁society ▁in ▁general . ▁Those ▁who ▁could ▁afford ▁to ▁do ▁so ▁still ▁a te ▁from ▁gold , ▁silver ▁or ▁j ade ; ▁it ▁was ▁in ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁world , ▁where ▁the ▁Q ur an ▁for bad ▁table ware ▁in ▁pre cious ▁metal , ▁that ▁r
ul ers ▁a te ▁from ▁Chinese ▁por cel ain . ▁ ▁One ▁dis g rac ed ▁official , ▁whose ▁goods ▁were ▁seized ▁in ▁ 1 5 6 2 , ▁had ▁his ▁valuable ▁items ▁conf isc ated , ▁but ▁not ▁his ▁collection ▁of ▁ 4 5 , 0 0 0 ▁pieces ▁of ▁por cel ain , ▁which ▁were ▁sold ▁with ▁his ▁other ▁effects . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁the ▁W an li ▁Emperor ▁( r . ▁ 1 5 7 3 – 1 6 2 0 ) ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁serious ▁decl ine ▁in ▁quality . ▁ ▁However ▁the ▁same ▁period ▁saw ▁the ▁spread ▁of ▁por cel ain ▁collect ing ▁among ▁the ▁scholar - gent ry , ▁who ▁were ▁mostly ▁interested ▁in ▁older ▁pieces , ▁though ▁generally ▁not ▁going ▁further ▁back ▁than ▁the ▁Song . ▁This ▁is ▁not ▁the ▁first ▁period ▁of ▁anti qu arian ism ▁and ▁arch a ism ▁in ▁Chinese ▁taste , ▁but ▁it ▁has ▁proved ▁long - last ing , ▁and ▁had ▁a ▁considerable ▁effect ▁on ▁subsequent ▁production , ▁producing ▁waves ▁of ▁rev ival ism , ▁im itation ▁and ▁much ▁down right ▁f ak ery — the ▁three ▁often ▁being ▁hard ▁to ▁distinguish . ▁ ▁Trans itional ▁war es ▁ ▁As ▁the ▁M ing ▁dynast y ▁decl ined , ▁with ▁serious ▁military ▁and ▁financial ▁cr ises , ▁the ▁imperial ▁court ▁ceased ▁to ▁support ▁the ▁official ▁J ing de z hen ▁kil ns , ▁which ▁were ▁largely ▁left ▁to ▁find ▁their ▁own ▁funds ▁from ▁other ▁mark ets . ▁This ▁situation ▁last
ed ▁from ▁ 1 6 2 0 – 1 6 8 3 , ▁when ▁the ▁new ▁Q ing ▁dynast y , ▁after ▁some ▁dec ades ▁struggling ▁with ▁M ing ▁forces , ▁finally ▁res umed ▁large - scale ▁use ▁of ▁J ing de z hen ▁for ▁official ▁war es ▁under ▁the ▁K ang xi ▁em peror ▁( r . ▁ 1 6 6 2 – 1 7 2 2 ). ▁The ▁larger ▁kil ns ▁and ▁a ▁major ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁town ▁were ▁destroyed ▁in ▁ 1 6 7 4 ▁by ▁M ing ▁forces ▁after ▁the ▁Revol t ▁of ▁the ▁Three ▁Fe ud ator ies ▁had ▁become ▁a ▁civil ▁war . ▁From ▁ 1 6 8 0 ▁to ▁ 1 6 8 8 ▁the ▁reconst ruction ▁of ▁the ▁industry ▁was ▁under ▁the ▁control ▁of ▁Z ang ▁Y ing x uan ▁from ▁the ▁Q ing ▁Board ▁of ▁Works . ▁Organ ised ▁production ▁of ▁court ▁por cel ain ▁had ▁res umed ▁by ▁ 1 6 8 3 , ▁and ▁the ▁institution ▁of ▁forced ▁labour ▁replaced ▁by ▁w aged ▁employ ment . ▁S uc ceed ing ▁controllers ▁were ▁appointed ▁by ▁the ▁provincial ▁administration ▁up ▁until ▁ 1 7 2 6 , ▁when ▁Be ij ing ▁appointed ▁N ian ▁X i ya o . ▁ ▁War es ▁of ▁this ▁inter im ▁period ▁are ▁often ▁called ▁" Trans itional ", ▁and ▁include ▁the ▁T ian qi ▁por cel ain ▁mostly ▁made ▁for ▁the ▁Japanese ▁market . ▁ ▁The ▁effect ▁on ▁the ▁J ing de z hen ▁pot ters ▁was ▁"
li ber ating ", ▁as ▁the ▁range ▁of ▁subject ▁matter ▁in ▁decor ation ▁greatly ▁expanded . ▁ ▁Print ed ▁books ▁had ▁become ▁much ▁more ▁widely ▁available , ▁and ▁were ▁used , ▁directly ▁or ▁indirect ly , ▁as ▁sources ▁for ▁scenes ▁on ▁por cel ain . ▁ ▁Con ven ient ly ▁for ▁the ▁historian , ▁many ▁pieces ▁began ▁to ▁be ▁dated . ▁Tow ards ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁period ▁the ▁first ▁famille ▁rose ▁por cel ains ▁appeared ; ▁the ▁various ▁colour ▁" famil ies " ▁were ▁to ▁domin ate ▁production ▁for ▁the ▁lux ury ▁market ▁under ▁the ▁Q ing . ▁ ▁Q ing ▁ ▁The ▁imperial ▁kil ns ▁were ▁rev ived ▁with ▁ 6 ▁kil ns ▁and ▁ 2 3 ▁work sh ops , ▁div iding ▁the ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁production ▁process ▁between ▁them . ▁Mass ive ▁orders ▁for ▁the ▁imperial ▁pal aces ▁and ▁tem ples ▁res umed . ▁ ▁While ▁imperial ▁taste ▁in ▁decor ation ▁remained ▁somewhat ▁conserv ative , ▁the ▁technical ▁quality ▁of ▁K ang xi ▁imperial ▁war es ▁reached ▁new ▁height s . ▁ ▁The ▁imperial ▁kil ns ▁led ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁pale tt es ▁of ▁over g la ze ▁en am els ; ▁famille ▁verte , ▁developed ▁in ▁two ▁phases , ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁famille ▁rose , ▁and ▁later ▁others . ▁ ▁There ▁was ▁also ▁development ▁of ▁subt le , ▁varied ▁and ▁m ott led ▁gla zes ▁for ▁mon och rome ▁pieces . ▁Sang ▁de ▁bo e uf ▁gla ze ▁was ▁a ▁co pper ▁ox ide ▁red
, ▁as ▁was ▁pe ach blo om ▁gla ze , ▁which ▁was ▁probably ▁blow n ▁onto ▁the ▁piece ▁as ▁pow der . ▁ ▁These ▁were ▁the ▁last ▁major ▁technical ▁innov ations ▁at ▁J ing de z hen , ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁technique ▁for ▁firing ▁gold ▁onto ▁por cel ain , ▁rather ▁than ▁mer cur y ▁g ild ing ▁completed ▁pieces . ▁ ▁The ▁long ▁reign ▁of ▁the ▁Q ian long ▁em peror ▁( 1 7 3 6 – 1 7 9 5 ) ▁saw ▁continu ation ▁of ▁the ▁technical ▁per fection , ▁but ▁a est h etic ▁st agn ation . ▁The ▁em peror ▁was ▁a ▁keen ▁art ▁collect or ▁and ▁probably ▁personally ▁directed ▁the ▁tr ends ▁in ▁this ▁period ▁for ▁im it ating ▁shapes ▁from ▁ancient ▁metal ware , ▁especially ▁rit ual ▁bron zes , ▁in ▁por cel ain , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁im itations ▁of ▁wood ▁and ▁other ▁materials . ▁ ▁The ▁copying ▁of ▁famous ▁war es ▁from ▁the ▁distant ▁past ▁continued , ▁alongside ▁new ▁styles . ▁In ▁the ▁next ▁two ▁reign s ▁the ▁quality ▁also ▁decl ined , ▁and ▁orders ▁from ▁the ▁palace ▁were ▁reduced , ▁until ▁the ▁official ▁kil ns ▁were ▁destroyed ▁in ▁the ▁Ta ip ing ▁Reb ell ion ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 5 0 s . ▁T ong z hi ▁por cel ain ▁from ▁ 1 8 6 2 – 1 8 7 4 ▁dates ▁from ▁after ▁the ▁reconst ruction ▁of ▁the ▁J ing de z hen ▁official ▁kil ns . ▁ ▁Major ▁types ▁ ▁J
ing de z hen ▁bl u ish - white ▁w are ▁ ▁J ing de z hen ▁w are ▁became ▁particularly ▁important ▁from ▁the ▁Song ▁period ▁with ▁the ▁production ▁of ▁Q ing b ai ▁( 青白 , ▁" Blue ish - white ") ▁w are . ▁The ▁J ing de z hen ▁Q ing b ai ▁was ▁a ▁transparent ▁and ▁j ade - like ▁type ▁of ▁por cel ain , ▁with ▁a ▁transparent ▁gla ze ▁giving ▁a ▁blue ish - white ▁t int . ▁Dec oration ▁was ▁made ▁by ▁del icate ▁car ving ▁or ▁in cis ing . ▁Northern ▁D ing ▁w are ▁was ▁the ▁most ▁famous ▁northern ▁Chinese ▁white ▁w are ▁under ▁the ▁Northern ▁Song , ▁but ▁by ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁period ▁Q ing b ai ▁had ▁e cli ps ed ▁D ing ▁w are , ▁ach ieving ▁a ▁pre domin ance ▁for ▁J ing de z hen ▁which ▁it ▁has ▁maintained ▁in ▁subsequent ▁centuries . ▁ ▁A ▁key ▁event ▁in ▁this ▁process ▁was ▁the ▁flight ▁of ▁the ▁remaining ▁Northern ▁Song ▁court ▁to ▁the ▁south , ▁after ▁they ▁lost ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁north ▁in ▁the ▁dis astr ous ▁Jin - S ong ▁wars ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 1 2 0 s . ▁A ▁new ▁Southern ▁Song ▁court ▁was ▁based ▁in ▁H ang z hou . ▁▁ ▁This ▁may ▁have ▁been ▁accompanied ▁by ▁the ▁movement ▁of ▁pot ters ▁to ▁J ing de z hen , ▁which ▁increased ▁its ▁output , ▁despite ▁being ▁some ▁two ▁hundred ▁miles ▁from ▁the ▁new ▁capital
. ▁▁ ▁A ▁Q ing b ai ▁por cel ain ▁bott le ▁from ▁J ing de z hen ▁is ▁the ▁earliest ▁piece ▁of ▁Chinese ▁por cel ain ▁documented ▁to ▁have ▁reached ▁Europe ; ▁this ▁is ▁the ▁Fon th ill ▁V ase , ▁which ▁was ▁brought ▁to ▁Europe ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁century . ▁ ▁Under ▁the ▁Y uan ▁dynast y , ▁J ing de z hen ' s ▁fin est ▁white war es ▁changed ▁to ▁Sh uf u ▁w are , ▁named ▁after ▁the ▁two ▁character ▁ins cription ▁on ▁some ▁pieces . ▁Sh uf u ▁may ▁mean ▁the ▁pieces ▁were ▁ordered ▁for ▁the ▁Sh umi y uan ▁(" P riv y ▁Council "); ▁despite ▁this , ▁most ▁examples ▁have ▁appeared ▁outside ▁China . ▁The ▁Sh uf u ▁pieces ▁are ▁thick , ▁with ▁an ▁op aque ▁white ▁gla ze , ▁with ▁a ▁faint ▁blue - green ▁t int . ▁ ▁The ▁stem ▁cup ▁shape ▁first ▁appears ▁in ▁these ; ▁it ▁last ed ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁M ing . ▁ ▁J ing de z hen ▁blue - and - white ▁por cel ain ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁mid - 1 4 th ▁century , ▁J ing de z hen ▁began ▁to ▁mass - produ ce ▁under g la ze ▁blue ▁por cel ain , ▁whose ▁development ▁it ▁pione ered , ▁making ▁it ▁" one ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁earliest ▁industrial ▁towns ". ▁ ▁Much ▁of ▁this ▁was ▁for ▁export , ▁and ▁other ▁styles ▁were ▁produced ▁for ▁the ▁Chinese
▁market . ▁El abor ately - p aint ed ▁war es ▁were ▁not ▁in ▁the ▁traditional ▁court ▁taste , ▁but ▁they ▁evidently ▁came ▁to ▁be ▁accepted . ▁ ▁The ▁large ▁round ▁serving - plates , ▁from ▁ 4 0 ▁cm ▁across , ▁which ▁are ▁now ▁among ▁the ▁most ▁val ued ▁pieces , ▁reflect ▁the ▁needs ▁of ▁Middle ▁Eastern ▁rather ▁than ▁Chinese ▁food ▁service , ▁which ▁generally ▁uses ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁smaller ▁and ▁deeper ▁bow ls , ▁then ▁as ▁now . ▁War es ▁for ▁export ▁also ▁often ▁had ▁th icker ▁bodies , ▁to ▁reduce ▁break ages ▁on ▁long ▁travel s ▁to ▁the ▁export ▁mark ets . ▁In ▁early ▁periods , ▁the ▁mark ets ▁receiving ▁por cel ain ▁direct ▁from ▁China ▁included ▁Japan , ▁all ▁of ▁South - E ast ▁Asia , ▁and ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁world , ▁but ▁did ▁not ▁include ▁Europe ▁on ▁a ▁regular ▁basis . ▁ ▁Until ▁the ▁ 1 7 th ▁century , ▁Europe ▁normally ▁only ▁received ▁por cel ain ▁via ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁world . ▁ ▁The ▁blue ▁p ig ment ▁was ▁derived ▁from ▁c ob alt ▁ox ide , ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁imported ▁sp or ad ically ▁from ▁Pers ia ▁in ▁earlier ▁periods . ▁From ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁century ▁regular ▁imports ▁of ▁the ▁p ig ment ▁were ▁obtained ▁from ▁Pers ia . ▁The ▁c ob alt ▁was ▁ground ▁and ▁mixed ▁with ▁a ▁medium , ▁then ▁painted ▁onto ▁the ▁d ried ▁bodies ▁of ▁the ▁p ots , ▁which ▁were ▁then ▁gla zed ▁and ▁fired . ▁At
▁a ▁later ▁date ▁a ▁source ▁of ▁c ob alt ▁was ▁found ▁within ▁China ; ▁this ▁differ ed ▁from ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁ore ▁in ▁the ▁proportion ▁of ▁associated ▁mang an ese . ▁The ▁colour ▁on ▁the ▁fired ▁p ots ▁was ▁a ▁grey - blue ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁pure ▁blue . ▁By ▁mixing ▁three ▁parts ▁Pers ian ▁ore ▁to ▁two ▁parts ▁Chinese ▁a ▁rich ▁and ▁soft ▁blue ▁was ▁produced , ▁which ▁became ▁label led ▁as ▁' Sum at ran ' ▁or ▁' M u ham mad an ' ▁blue . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁int act ▁early ▁collections ▁of ▁export ed ▁Chinese ▁por cel ain ▁was ▁at ▁the ▁Ar d abil ▁S hr ine , ▁and ▁is ▁now ▁in ▁the ▁National ▁Museum ▁of ▁Iran . ▁This ▁has ▁ 8 0 5 ▁pieces ▁of ▁por cel ain , ▁don ated ▁by ▁Shah ▁Abb as ▁I ▁in ▁ 1 6 0 7 – 1 6 0 8 , ▁from ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁royal ▁collection . ▁ ▁Most ▁were ▁made ▁in ▁J ing de z hen , ▁and ▁they ▁covered ▁the ▁full ▁period ▁of ▁blue ▁and ▁white ▁war es ▁to ▁that ▁point , ▁with ▁some ▁nearly ▁ 3 0 0 ▁years ▁old ▁when ▁don ated . ▁ ▁The ▁largely ▁int act ▁Ott oman ▁collection ▁is ▁mostly ▁in ▁Top k api ▁Palace . ▁ ▁The ▁restriction ▁of ▁painted ▁subjects ▁to ▁the ▁combination ▁of ▁abstract ▁geomet rical ▁patterns , ▁plant - forms , ▁and ▁animals ▁had ▁begun ▁to ▁end ▁during ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 5 th
▁century , ▁as ▁human ▁figures , ▁landscape ▁scenes ▁and ▁other ▁subjects ▁began ▁to ▁appear . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁best ▁war es , ▁these ▁designs ▁were ▁supplied ▁by ▁court ▁artists ▁and ▁reflected ▁contemporary ▁painting ▁and ▁other ▁media . ▁ ▁This ▁tr end ▁continued ▁in ▁Trans itional ▁por cel ain , ▁produced ▁for ▁a ▁period ▁up ▁to ▁ 1 6 8 3 ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁M ing ▁dynast y , ▁and ▁the ▁later ▁blue ▁and ▁white ▁war es ▁of ▁the ▁K ang xi ▁reign ▁are ▁the ▁final ▁phase ▁in ▁the ▁art istic ▁development ▁of ▁blue ▁and ▁white , ▁with ▁super b ▁technical ▁quality ▁in ▁the ▁best ▁objects , ▁and ▁larger ▁images , ▁flex ibly ▁treated , ▁on ▁a ▁wide ▁variety ▁of ▁subjects . ▁ ▁T ian qi ▁por cel ain ▁is ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁relatively ▁inform al ▁w are , ▁largely ▁dest ined ▁for ▁the ▁Japanese ▁market , ▁made ▁at ▁J ing de z hen ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 7 th ▁century . ▁Kra ak ▁w are ▁is ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁J ing de z hen ▁export ▁por cel ain ▁produced ▁mainly ▁during ▁the ▁W an li ▁reign ▁( 1 5 7 3 – 1 6 2 0 ), ▁but ▁also ▁in ▁the ▁remaining ▁two ▁M ing ▁reign s . ▁It ▁was ▁among ▁the ▁first ▁Chinese ▁w are ▁to ▁arrive ▁in ▁Europe ▁in ▁mass ▁quantities . ▁Str ict ly ▁defined , ▁it ▁" is ▁distinguished ▁by ▁the ▁arrangement ▁of ▁its ▁orn ament ▁into ▁pan els ; ▁these ▁usually ▁radi ate ▁to ▁a ▁bra
cket ed ▁rim ▁not orious ▁for ▁its ▁li ability ▁to ▁chip ". ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁mostly ▁made ▁as ▁" deep ▁bow ls ▁and ▁wide ▁d ishes ", ▁decor ated ▁with ▁mot ifs ▁from ▁nature , ▁in ▁a ▁style ▁not ▁used ▁on ▁war es ▁for ▁the ▁domestic ▁Chinese ▁market . ▁ ▁Organ ization ▁during ▁the ▁Q ing ▁period ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁Q ing ▁period ▁production ▁became ▁more ▁varied , ▁with ▁a ▁wide ▁spread ▁of ▁styles ▁and ▁qual ities , ▁from ▁imperial ▁war es , ▁through ▁those ▁for ▁export , ▁to ▁those ▁for ▁a ▁popular ▁domestic ▁market . ▁ ▁The ▁do z ens ▁of ▁non - imper ial ▁kil ns ▁are ▁known ▁as ▁" private ", ▁with ▁a ▁few ▁" o fficial ▁old ▁kil ns " ▁making ▁very ▁high - quality ▁war es ▁for ▁the ▁Chinese ▁nob ility , ▁which ▁were ▁" o ften ▁as ▁fine ▁in ▁quality ▁as ▁the ▁imperial ▁pieces ▁and ▁had ▁the ▁added ▁att raction ▁of ▁more ▁advent ur ous ▁decor ation ▁since ▁court ▁styles ▁were ▁pres cribed ▁and ▁rather ▁formal "; ▁at ▁times ▁these ▁may ▁have ▁helped ▁the ▁imperial ▁kil ns ▁with ▁large ▁orders . ▁ ▁The ▁rest ▁supplied ▁various ▁levels ▁of ▁the ▁Chinese ▁domestic ▁and ▁export ▁mark ets . ▁Early ▁in ▁the ▁period ▁the ▁original ▁local ▁source ▁of ▁cl ay ▁ran ▁out , ▁and ▁new ▁dig g ings ▁were ▁begun . ▁▁ ▁The ▁French ▁Jes uit ▁François ▁X avier ▁d ' Ent re col les ▁visited ▁J ing de z hen ▁and ▁wrote ▁to ▁Europe ▁about ▁its ▁processes ▁between ▁
1 7 1 2 ▁and ▁ 1 7 2 1 ; ▁he ▁also ▁gave ▁the ▁Chinese ▁useful ▁information ▁about ▁European ▁p ig ments . ▁ ▁From ▁this ▁period ▁Europe ▁began ▁its ▁own ▁por cel ain ▁industry , ▁which ▁grew ▁rapidly , ▁initially ▁by ▁im it ating ▁Chinese ▁styles , ▁and ▁later ▁by ▁developing ▁their ▁own ▁styles . ▁Pers ia , ▁Vietnam , ▁Japan ▁and ▁several ▁countries ▁in ▁South - E ast ▁Asia ▁had ▁long ▁been ▁im it ating ▁J ing de z hen ▁w are . ▁ ▁Tow ards ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁century , ▁exports ▁to ▁Europe ▁were ▁in ▁decl ine , ▁replaced ▁by ▁local ▁war es . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 7 2 6 ▁N ian ▁X i ya o ▁was ▁appointed ▁by ▁the ▁Be ij ing ▁court ▁as ▁controller ▁at ▁J ing de z hen , ▁the ▁first ▁cent r ally - app oint ed ▁official ▁since ▁ 1 6 8 0 . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁appointed ▁controller ▁for ▁a ▁custom s ▁bar rier ▁ 4 0 0 ▁miles ▁to ▁the ▁north ▁at ▁Hu ai ' an ▁on ▁the ▁Grand ▁Canal , ▁which ▁resulted ▁in ▁N ian ▁only ▁being ▁able ▁to ▁visit ▁J ing de z hen ▁once ▁a ▁year . ▁In ▁ 1 7 2 8 ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁imperial ▁household ▁staff , ▁Tang ▁Y ing , ▁was ▁appointed ▁resident ▁assistant ▁at ▁J ing de z hen . ▁Tang ▁replaced ▁N ian ▁in ▁ 1 7 3 5 ▁when ▁the ▁latter ▁was ▁accused ▁of ▁cor ruption , ▁and
▁he ▁became ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁influ ential ▁of ▁the ▁super int end ents . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 7 3 9 ▁the ▁custom s ▁office ▁was ▁moved ▁to ▁J iu ji ang ▁ 9 0 ▁miles ▁west ▁of ▁J ing de z hen ; ▁Tang ▁continued ▁in ▁the ▁dual ▁post ▁until ▁re called ▁to ▁Be ij ing ▁in ▁ 1 7 4 3 ▁by ▁the ▁Q ian long ▁em peror . ▁At ▁court ▁he ▁was ▁assigned ▁the ▁task ▁of ▁annot ating ▁twenty ▁illustr ations ▁of ▁the ▁por cel ain ▁industry ▁from ▁the ▁imperial ▁library . ▁Return ing ▁to ▁J ing de z hen ▁he ▁stayed ▁there , ▁except ▁for ▁a ▁brief ▁period ▁between ▁ 1 7 5 0 ▁and ▁ 1 7 5 2 , ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁at ▁ 7 5 ▁years ▁old ▁in ▁ 1 7 5 6 . ▁ ▁War es ▁bearing ▁Tang ▁Y ing ' s ▁name ▁surv ive ; ▁these ▁include ▁two ▁pairs ▁of ▁blue - and - white ▁cand l est icks ▁bearing ▁dates ▁of ▁ 1 7 4 0 ▁and ▁ 1 7 4 1 , ▁the ▁latter ▁of ▁which ▁be ars ▁an ▁ins cription ▁describing ▁him ▁as ▁" Controller ▁of ▁Pot tery ▁in ▁Ji ang xi " ▁amongst ▁other ▁official ▁titles . ▁Tang ▁also ▁wrote ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁books ▁including ▁A ▁Complete ▁Record ▁of ▁P ots ▁( 1 7 3 5 ), ▁M ental ▁Notes ▁of ▁a ▁Pot tery ▁Work er ▁( 1 7 3 8 ) ▁and ▁Illustr ated ▁Ex plan ation ▁of
▁the ▁Mira cles ▁of ▁the ▁God ▁of ▁the ▁F urn ace ▁( 1 7 4 7 ). ▁His ▁list ▁of ▁war es ▁manufact ured ▁for ▁the ▁court ▁runs ▁to ▁si xty ▁types , ▁some ▁of ▁which ▁were ▁recre ations ▁of ▁styles ▁of ▁earlier ▁periods . ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 8 th ▁century , ▁much ▁of ▁J ing de z hen ' s ▁production ▁was ▁C anton ▁por cel ain , ▁using ▁" bl anks " ▁made , ▁gla zed , ▁and ▁fired ▁at ▁J ing de z hen ▁but ▁then ▁taken ▁to ▁be ▁decor ated ▁with ▁en am els ▁in ▁Gu ang z hou ▁( then ▁usually ▁roman ized ▁as ▁C anton ) ▁for ▁export ▁to ▁the ▁west ▁via ▁the ▁Th ir teen ▁Fact ories ▁of ▁the ▁C anton ▁System . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 0 5 ▁a ▁European ▁visitor ▁reported ▁that ▁most ▁production ▁was ▁in ▁a ▁short ▁summer ▁season , ▁when ▁workers ▁from ▁surrounding ▁areas ▁came ▁to ▁live ▁in ▁" bar rack - like ▁sh eds " ▁in ▁the ▁city , ▁without ▁their ▁families . ▁This ▁infl ux ▁took ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁to ▁about ▁ 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 , ▁and ▁caused ▁some ▁social ▁problems . ▁ ▁Ex ports ▁to ▁Europe ▁▁▁▁ ▁European ▁visitors ▁to ▁Ist an bul ▁in ▁the ▁fif teenth ▁and ▁six teenth ▁centuries ▁are ▁recorded ▁as ▁having ▁purchased ▁Chinese ▁por cel ain ▁there . ▁Some ▁other ▁pieces ▁came ▁via ▁the ▁Portuguese ▁settlement ▁of ▁Mal ac ca ; ▁King ▁Manuel ▁I ▁had
▁several ▁acquired ▁from ▁Vas co ▁de ▁G ama . ▁The ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Art ▁and ▁Cur ios ities ▁at ▁Am bras ▁Castle ▁contains ▁the ▁collection ▁of ▁ ▁Arch du ke ▁Ferdinand ▁II ▁of ▁Austria , ▁assemble d ▁during ▁the ▁mid - 1 5 th ▁century . ▁These ▁early ▁collections , ▁typically ▁of ▁blue - and - white ▁w are , ▁were ▁regarded ▁as ▁rare ▁curios ▁and ▁art ▁objects , ▁and ▁were ▁often ▁mounted ▁in ▁pre cious ▁met als . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁sevent e enth ▁and ▁eigh teenth ▁centuries ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁European ▁companies ▁were ▁established ▁to ▁import ▁various ▁comm od ities ▁including ▁tea , ▁sil k , ▁sp ices , ▁lac quer work ▁and ▁por cel ain ▁from ▁East ▁Asia . ▁Research ▁by ▁Vol ker ▁has ▁given ▁figures ▁for ▁the ▁trade ▁in ▁Chinese ▁and ▁Japanese ▁por cel ain ▁carried ▁out ▁by ▁the ▁Dutch ▁East ▁India ▁Company ; ▁between ▁ 1 6 0 2 ▁and ▁ 1 6 8 2 ▁the ▁company ▁export ed ▁between ▁ 3 0 ▁and ▁ 3 5 ▁million ▁pieces . ▁The ▁English ▁East ▁India ▁Company ▁also ▁imported ▁around ▁ 3 0 ▁million ▁pieces , ▁the ▁French ▁East ▁India ▁Company ▁ 1 2 ▁million , ▁the ▁Portuguese ▁East ▁India ▁Company ▁ 1 0 ▁million ▁and ▁the ▁Swedish ▁East ▁India ▁Company ▁some ▁ 2 0 ▁million ▁pieces ▁between ▁ 1 7 6 6 ▁and ▁ 1 7 8 6 . ▁ ▁The ▁massive ▁increase ▁in ▁imports ▁allowed ▁purch as ers ▁to ▁am ass ▁large ▁collections , ▁which ▁were ▁often ▁displayed ▁in
▁dedicated ▁rooms ▁or ▁purpose - built ▁structures . ▁The ▁T rian on ▁de ▁Por cel la ine ▁built ▁between ▁ 1 6 7 0 ▁and ▁ 1 6 7 2 ▁was ▁a ▁Bar o que ▁pav il ion ▁constructed ▁to ▁display ▁Louis ▁XIV ' s ▁collection ▁of ▁blue - and - white ▁por cel ain , ▁set ▁against ▁French ▁blue - and - white ▁f ai ence ▁t iles ▁both ▁on ▁the ▁interior ▁and ▁exterior ▁of ▁the ▁building . ▁It ▁was ▁demol ished ▁in ▁ 1 6 8 7 . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁emp ire ▁ ▁Following ▁the ▁X in hai ▁Revolution ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 1 ▁manufact ure ▁of ▁por cel ain ▁for ▁the ▁imperial ▁household ▁ceased . ▁In ▁ 1 9 1 6 ▁Y uan ▁Sh ikai , ▁acting ▁as ▁the ▁Hong x ian ▁Emperor , ▁appointed ▁Gu o ▁Ba och ang ▁to ▁re - est ab lish ▁the ▁imperial ▁dep ot ▁at ▁J ing de z hen . ▁Gu o ' s ▁work force ▁were ▁initially ▁set ▁to ▁produce ▁copies ▁of ▁Ru ▁w are , ▁but ▁this ▁approach ▁was ▁abandoned ▁in ▁favour ▁of ▁copying ▁en am elled ▁w are ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century . ▁The ▁high - quality ▁por cel ain ▁of ▁the ▁Hong x ian ▁establishment ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁produced ▁after ▁the ▁abandon ment ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁and ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Y uan ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 6 ; ▁the ▁dep ot ▁was ▁taken ▁over ▁by ▁the ▁Ji ang xi ▁Por cel ain
▁Company ▁who ▁retained ▁one ▁hundred ▁of ▁the ▁workers . ▁Production ▁of ▁en am elled ▁and ▁thin - w alled ▁" eg g shell " ▁w are ▁continued ▁through ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁and ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁with ▁many ▁pieces ▁bearing ▁Hong x ian ▁reign ▁marks . ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁the ▁buildings ▁that ▁had ▁hous ed ▁the ▁imperial ▁super vis ors ▁were ▁being ▁used ▁as ▁army ▁bar ra cks . ▁ ▁Cer am ics ▁continue ▁to ▁be ▁produced ▁on ▁a ▁large ▁scale ▁in ▁J ing de z hen , ▁in ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁styles , ▁many ▁reprodu cing ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁past ▁in ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁qual ities , ▁with ▁J ing de z hen ▁por cel ain ▁being ▁sh ipped ▁around ▁the ▁world . ▁ ▁One ▁tr end ▁that ▁has ▁continued ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁is ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁super - th in ▁" eg g shell " ▁por cel ain ▁for ▁v ases . ▁ ▁About ▁ 3 0 0 ▁million ▁pieces ▁of ▁por cel ain ▁were ▁being ▁produced ▁ann ually ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 2 0 th ▁century . ▁ ▁Development ▁of ▁kil n ▁technology ▁The ▁drag on ▁kil n ▁was ▁the ▁traditional ▁form ▁of ▁kil n ▁used ▁in ▁southern ▁China . ▁Also ▁known ▁as ▁a ▁clim bing ▁kil n , ▁this ▁type ▁in ▁its ▁final ▁development ▁consisted ▁of ▁a ▁tunnel - like ▁fl ue ▁built ▁up ▁a ▁slope ▁from ▁a ▁main ▁fire box . ▁Al
ong ▁the ▁sides ▁of ▁the ▁kil n ▁subs idi ary ▁ent ran ces ▁for ▁side - st oking ▁enabled ▁the ▁whole ▁structure ▁to ▁be ▁he ated , ▁and ▁allowing ▁the ▁later ▁drag on ▁kil ns ▁to ▁exceed ▁ 5 0 ▁metres ▁in ▁length ▁without ▁any ▁substantial ▁drop ▁in ▁temperature . ▁The ▁dra ug ht ▁created ▁by ▁the ▁flow ▁of ▁hot ▁air ▁up ▁the ▁slope ▁meant ▁that ▁the ▁drag on ▁kil n ▁could ▁be ▁built ▁without ▁a ▁chim ney . ▁ ▁This ▁type ▁of ▁kil n ▁was ▁supp l anted ▁at ▁J ing de z hen ▁by ▁a ▁g ourd - sh aped ▁kil n , ▁with ▁a ▁large ▁firing ▁chamber ▁at ▁the ▁front , ▁connecting ▁to ▁a ▁smaller ▁chamber ▁with ▁a ▁lower ▁roof ▁and ▁a ▁chim ney . ▁The ▁g ourd - sh aped ▁kil n ▁could ▁produce ▁large ▁quantities ▁of ▁por cel ain , ▁fired ▁at ▁very ▁high ▁temper atures . ▁By ▁blocking ▁the ▁kil n ▁v ents ▁to ▁restrict ▁air ▁flow ▁to ▁the ▁fire ▁a ▁reducing ▁atmosphere ▁of ▁hydro gen ▁and ▁carbon ▁mon ox ide ▁could ▁be ▁maintained , ▁which ▁was ▁necessary ▁for ▁some ▁gla zes ▁such ▁as ▁co pper ▁red . ▁ ▁The ▁g ourd - sh aped ▁kil n ▁was ▁used ▁throughout ▁the ▁four teenth ▁century ; ▁towards ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁M ing ▁period ▁it ▁was ▁supp l anted ▁by ▁the ▁egg - sh aped ▁kil n ▁or ▁z hen ya o ▁kil n , ▁sh aped ▁like ▁half ▁an ▁egg ▁on ▁its ▁side , ▁with ▁a ▁fire
box ▁inside ▁the ▁kil n ▁at ▁the ▁broad ▁end ▁and ▁at ▁the ▁narrow ▁end ▁an ▁arch ▁communic ating ▁to ▁a ▁separate ▁chim ney . ▁The ▁chim ney ▁was ▁built ▁to ▁a ▁height ▁of ▁around ▁ 1 9 ▁metres ; ▁the ▁high ▁chim ney ▁increased ▁the ▁dra ug ht ▁through ▁the ▁kil n ▁and ▁thus ▁reduced ▁the ▁timing ▁of ▁the ▁firing ▁cycle ▁to ▁around ▁ 3 6 ▁hours . ▁ ▁War es ▁were ▁placed ▁inside ▁stack ed ▁s agg ars ▁on ▁a ▁floor ▁of ▁quart z ▁sand ; ▁as ▁the ▁s agg ars ▁protected ▁their ▁contents ▁from ▁direct ▁fl ame ▁both ▁fuel ▁and ▁air ▁could ▁be ▁introduced ▁directly ▁to ▁the ▁interior ▁through ▁v ents , ▁allowing ▁temperature ▁reg ulation ▁throughout ▁the ▁kil n . ▁P ee ph oles ▁were ▁used ▁to ▁observe ▁the ▁colour ▁of ▁fl ame , ▁which ▁changes ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁conditions ▁and ▁temperature . ▁The ▁h ott est ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁kil n ▁next ▁to ▁the ▁fire box ▁was ▁used ▁for ▁crack le ▁gla zes ; ▁following ▁in wards ▁high - f ired ▁green ▁and ▁red ▁gla zes ▁in ▁a ▁reducing ▁atmosphere , ▁then ▁un col oured , ▁blue - g laz ed , ▁and ▁decor ated ▁w are ▁at ▁a ▁moder ate ▁temperature , ▁followed ▁at ▁the ▁back ▁by ▁gla zes ▁to ▁be ▁fired ▁at ▁a ▁lower ▁temperature ▁and ▁tur qu o ise - g laz ed ▁w are ▁in ▁an ▁ox id ising ▁atmosphere . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁Can by , ▁She ila ▁R . ▁( ed ).
▁Shah ▁Abb as ; ▁The ▁Rem aking ▁of ▁Iran , ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁British ▁Museum ▁Press , ▁ ▁Cooper , ▁Em manuel . ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁Years ▁of ▁Pot tery , ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁( 5 th ▁ed .), ▁British ▁Museum ▁Press , ▁ ▁K err , ▁Rose . ▁Chinese ▁Cer am ics ; ▁Por cel ain ▁of ▁the ▁Q ing ▁D ynast y ▁ 1 6 4 4 – 1 9 1 1 , ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁repr int ed ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁V & A ▁Publications , ▁ ▁Kra hl , ▁Regin a , ▁" J ing de z hen " ▁Gro ve ▁Art ▁Online , ▁Oxford ▁Art ▁Online . ▁Oxford ▁University ▁Press . ▁Web . ▁ 2 ▁Nov . ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁subscription ▁required ▁Mac int osh , ▁Dun can . ▁Chinese ▁Blue ▁and ▁White ▁Por cel ain , ▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁( 3 rd ▁ed .), ▁Ant ique ▁Collect or ' s ▁Club , ▁ ▁Meister , ▁Peter ▁Wilhelm ▁and ▁Re ber , ▁Hor st . ▁European ▁Por cel ain ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁Century , ▁ 1 9 8 3 , ▁Ph a id on ▁Press , ▁ ▁" M ing ": ▁Cl unas , ▁Craig ▁and ▁Harrison - H all , ▁Jess ica , ▁M ing : ▁ 5 0 ▁years ▁that ▁changed ▁China , ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁British ▁Museum ▁Press ,
▁ ▁" Ne ed ham ": ▁K err , ▁Rose ▁and ▁Wood , ▁N ig el . ▁Science ▁and ▁Civil isation ▁in ▁China ; ▁Volume ▁ 5 . ▁Chem istry ▁and ▁Chem ical ▁Technology , ▁Part ▁ 1 2 . ▁Cer am ic ▁Technology , ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press , ▁ ▁Raw son , ▁Jess ica , ▁Chinese ▁Or n ament : ▁The ▁Lot us ▁and ▁the ▁Dragon , ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁British ▁Museum ▁Publications , ▁ ▁V ain ker , ▁S . J ., ▁Chinese ▁Pot tery ▁and ▁Por cel ain , ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁British ▁Museum ▁Press , ▁ ▁Val en stein , ▁S . ▁( 1 9 9 8 ). ▁A ▁hand book ▁of ▁Chinese ▁cer am ics ▁( fully ▁available ▁online ), ▁Metropolitan ▁Museum ▁of ▁Art , ▁New ▁York . ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁G illet te , ▁Mar is ▁Bo yd . ▁China ' s ▁Por cel ain ▁Capital : ▁The ▁R ise , ▁Fall ▁and ▁Rein vention ▁of ▁Cer am ics ▁in ▁J ing de z hen , ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁Blo oms bury ▁Publishing , ▁ ▁H ana oka ▁and ▁Bar ber ri ▁trans ., ▁Mas ah iko ▁S ato , ▁Chinese ▁Cer am ics : ▁A ▁Short ▁History , ▁We ather hill , ▁New ▁York ▁and ▁Tokyo , ▁ 1 9 8 1 , ▁ 1 9 5 – 2 0 5 ▁Jen yn s , ▁So ame . ▁M ing
▁Pot tery ▁and ▁Por cel ain , ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁( 2 nd ▁ed .), ▁Fab er ▁and ▁Fab er , ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Category : Ch inese ▁por cel ain ▁Category : Culture ▁in ▁Ji ang xi <0x0A> </s> ▁E ld on ▁Wor ob ie ff ▁( 1 7 ▁May ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁– ▁ 1 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 3 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Canadian ▁ro wer . ▁He ▁competed ▁in ▁the ▁men ' s ▁eight ▁event ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁Summer ▁Olympics . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 1 3 ▁death s ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁male ▁row ers ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁row ers ▁of ▁Canada ▁Category : Row ers ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : Place ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : Common wealth ▁Games ▁med all ists ▁in ▁row ing ▁Category : Common wealth ▁Games ▁bronze ▁med all ists ▁for ▁Canada ▁Category : Row ers ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 2 ▁British ▁Empire ▁and ▁Commonwealth ▁Games ▁Category : Pan ▁American ▁Games ▁medal ists ▁in ▁row ing ▁Category : Pan ▁American ▁Games ▁gold ▁medal ists ▁for ▁Canada ▁Category : Row ers ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁Pan ▁American ▁Games <0x0A> </s> ▁Alexander ▁Alexander ov ich ▁Mis ur kin ▁() ▁born ▁on ▁September ▁ 2 3 , ▁ 1 9 7 7 , ▁a ▁major ▁in ▁the
▁Russian ▁Air ▁Force , ▁is ▁a ▁Russian ▁cos mon aut , ▁selected ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 . ▁He ▁fle w ▁ab o ard ▁So y uz ▁T MA - 0 8 M ▁on ▁ 2 8 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁as ▁his ▁first ▁space ▁mission , ▁and ▁launched ▁on ▁So y uz ▁MS - 0 6 ▁as ▁his ▁second ▁flight , ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁He ▁was ▁Commander ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁Space ▁Station ▁for ▁Ex ped ition ▁ 5 4 . ▁ ▁Personal ▁Mis ur kin ▁is ▁married ▁to ▁Ol ga ▁An atol iev na ▁Mis urk ina . ▁The ▁couple ▁has ▁two ▁children . ▁His ▁parents , ▁Ly ud m ila ▁Georg iev na ▁and ▁Alexander ▁Mik h ail ov ich ▁Mis ur kin , ▁res ide ▁in ▁O ry ol , ▁Russia . ▁ ▁Education ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 4 , ▁Mis ur kin ▁graduated ▁from ▁voc ational ▁school ▁# 1 ▁in ▁O ry ol . ▁He ▁then ▁entered ▁the ▁K ach a ▁High ▁Air ▁Force ▁Pil ot ▁School , ▁where ▁he ▁studied ▁to ▁September ▁ 1 9 9 8 . ▁He ▁continued ▁pilot ▁training ▁at ▁the ▁Arm av ir ▁Military ▁A viation ▁Institute , ▁and ▁graduated ▁in ▁October ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁with ▁a ▁gold ▁medal ▁as ▁a ▁pilot - engine er . ▁ ▁Cos mon aut ▁career ▁In ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁Mis ur kin ▁was ▁approved ▁as ▁a ▁cos mon aut ▁candidate ▁and ▁en list ed ▁in
▁the ▁G ag arin ▁Cos mon aut ▁Training ▁Center ▁Cos mon aut ▁( G CT C ) ▁Corps . ▁He ▁took ▁the ▁basic ▁training ▁at ▁G CT C ▁from ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁to ▁June ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁which ▁he ▁completed ▁on ▁ 2 ▁June ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁Mis ur kin ▁was ▁qualified ▁as ▁a ▁test - cos mon aut ▁ 9 ▁June ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁ ▁From ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁to ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁he ▁took ▁advanced ▁training ▁special izing ▁in ▁the ▁International ▁Space ▁Station ▁( I SS ) ▁program . ▁From ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁he ▁trained ▁as ▁the ▁Ex ped ition ▁ 3 3 / 3 4 ▁and ▁So y uz ▁T MA - M ▁backup ▁crew ▁flight ▁engineer . ▁ ▁So y uz ▁T MA - 0 8 M ▁/ ▁Ex ped ition ▁ 3 5 / 3 6 ▁Mis ur kin ▁fle w ▁on ▁So y uz ▁T MA - 0 8 M ▁which ▁launched ▁at ▁ 2 0 : 4 3 : 2 0 ▁on ▁ 2 8 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁This ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁man ned ▁flight ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁fast ▁rende z vous ▁approach ▁to ▁the ▁International ▁Space ▁Station , ▁reaching ▁the ▁space ▁station ▁in ▁less ▁than ▁ 6 ▁hours . ▁Pre vious ▁fl ights ▁had ▁required ▁two ▁days ▁to ▁dock ▁with ▁the ▁station . ▁Mis ur kin ▁joined ▁the ▁crew ▁of
▁I SS ▁Ex ped ition ▁ 3 5 . ▁ ▁So y uz ▁MS - 0 6 ▁/ ▁Ex ped ition ▁ 5 3 / 5 4 ▁ ▁On ▁February ▁ 2 , ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁Mis ur kin ▁along ▁with ▁flight ▁engineer ▁Anton ▁Sh kap ler ov ▁participated ▁in ▁an ▁ 8 - hour ▁ 1 3 ▁minutes ▁space walk ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁I SS ▁to ▁replace ▁an ▁old ▁electron ics ▁box ▁for ▁a ▁high - g ain ▁communic ations ▁anten na . ▁At ▁completion , ▁the ▁two ▁cos mon aut s ▁set ▁a ▁new ▁record ▁for ▁the ▁longest ▁Russian ▁space walk ▁to ▁date . ▁ ▁Statistics ▁ ▁References ▁Official ▁website ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Russ ian ▁cos mon aut s ▁Category : Command ers ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁Space ▁Station <0x0A> </s> ▁ 1 6 2 ▁Regiment ▁R LC ▁is ▁an ▁Army ▁Reserve ▁Regiment ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Army ' s ▁Royal ▁Log istic ▁Corps . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁regiment ▁was ▁formed ▁in ▁the ▁Royal ▁Corps ▁of ▁Transport ▁as ▁ 1 6 2 nd ▁Mov ement ▁Control ▁Regiment , ▁R CT ▁( Vol unte ers ) ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁It ▁absor bed ▁ 8 8 ▁Post al ▁and ▁Cou rier ▁Regiment ▁R LC ▁and ▁was ▁re - named ▁ ▁as ▁ 1 6 2 ▁Regiment ▁R LC ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁ ▁Str ucture ▁The ▁current ▁structure ▁is ▁as ▁follows : ▁

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