Split (1)

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▁Riv ière - des - Env ies " ▁( n orth - east ). ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁up stream ▁by ▁water ▁from ▁the ▁bridge ▁of ▁Road ▁ 1 5 9 . ▁Marcel ▁Ve illet te ▁( Saint - S é ver in ▁( M ék in ac )) ▁said ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 : ▁" The ▁wooden ▁brid ges ▁that ▁sp anned ▁the ▁Riv ière ▁des ▁En v ies ▁on ▁this ▁road ▁were ▁built ▁by ▁the ▁Ve illet te ▁own ers ▁of ▁the ▁surrounding ▁land . ▁Three ▁times ▁the ▁tor r ential ▁waters ▁carried ▁them ▁( including ▁ 1 9 3 6 ). ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁bridge ▁in ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁area ▁was ▁built ▁a ▁little ▁further ▁up stream ▁on ▁the ▁adjacent ▁lot ▁owned ▁( at ▁the ▁time ) ▁by ▁Major ic ▁B rière . ▁ ▁Today , ▁this ▁lot ▁belongs ▁to ▁my ▁brothers ▁Den is ▁and ▁Mar ius ▁Ve illet te ." ▁ ▁The ▁concrete ▁bridge ▁was ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 3 . ▁The ▁three ▁previous ▁brid ges ▁were ▁made ▁of ▁wood . ▁▁ 7 . ▁Mill ▁Bridge , ▁in ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁Saint - S é ver in , ▁in ▁the ▁fall , ▁down stream ▁of ▁the ▁existing ▁bridge ▁Bl vd . ▁St . ▁Louis . ▁▁ 8 . ▁Bridge ▁in ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁Saint - S é ver in ▁( M ék in ac ) ▁( route ▁ 1 5 9 ), ▁b oul . ▁St . ▁Louis . ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁about
▁ ▁by ▁water ▁up stream ▁from ▁the ▁bridge ▁Ve illet te . ▁▁ 9 . ▁Bridge ▁connecting ▁the ▁road ▁to ▁the ▁mill ▁( n orth ▁shore ) ▁to ▁the ▁road ▁of ▁Riv ière ▁des ▁En v ies ▁( S outh - West ). ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁by ▁water , ▁up stream ▁from ▁the ▁bridge ▁in ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁Saint - S é ver in ▁( M ék in ac ). ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁ 1 8 6 1 ▁census , ▁the ▁saw mill ▁of ▁Nicolas ▁V andal ▁( origin ally ▁from ▁l ' An ci enne - L or ette ) ▁was ▁already ▁in ▁operation ▁there . ▁Loc ated ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁the ▁falls , ▁the ▁mill ▁was ▁demol ished ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 0 ▁and ▁its ▁last ▁owner ▁was ▁Alban i ▁V andal . ▁A ▁fl our ▁mill ▁La f rance ▁was ▁built ▁next . ▁ ▁Saint - T ite ▁▁ 1 0 . ▁Bor de le au ▁Bridge ▁( cover ed ▁bridge , ▁built ▁in ▁wood ) ▁on ▁the ▁road ▁D ess ure ault ▁in ▁Saint - T ite . ▁This ▁road ▁connect s ▁Rang ▁Sud ▁( Row ▁South ) ▁and ▁Grand ▁Rang ▁( Gr and ▁Row ) ▁in ▁Saint - T ite ▁at ▁Cos set te ville . ▁This ▁covered ▁bridge ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁by ▁water ▁up stream ▁from ▁Mill ▁Road ▁Bridge ▁in ▁Saint - S é ver in ▁( M ék in ac ). ▁▁ 1 1 . ▁Railway ▁Bridge ▁" Can ad ian ▁National
", ▁at ▁the ▁southern ▁edge ▁of ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁Saint - T ite . ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁by ▁water ▁up stream ▁of ▁the ▁bridge ▁Bor de le au , ▁or ▁about ▁ ▁in ▁a ▁direct ▁line . ▁The ▁railway ▁arrived ▁in ▁Saint - T ite ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 4 . ▁▁ 1 2 . ▁Du ▁Mou lin ▁Street ▁Bridge ▁( Mill ▁Street ▁Bridge ) ▁in ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁Saint - T ite . ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁by ▁water ▁from ▁the ▁railway ▁bridge , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁sin u os ity ▁of ▁the ▁river ▁( or ▁ 1 . 5 kil omet res ▁in ▁a ▁direct ▁line ). ▁An ▁iron ▁bridge ▁was ▁built ▁on ▁Du ▁Mou lin ▁Street ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 3 ▁and ▁replaced ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁by ▁the ▁current ▁bridge . ▁▁ 1 3 . ▁Bridge ▁of ▁Le ▁Bour da is ▁Street ▁( Ro ad ▁ 1 5 3 ) ▁in ▁Saint - T ite . ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁up stream ▁by ▁water ▁from ▁Du ▁Mou lin ▁Street ▁Bridge , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁sin u os ity ▁of ▁the ▁river ▁( or ▁ 1 ▁kilomet re ▁in ▁a ▁direct ▁line ). ▁▁ 1 4 . ▁Road ▁of ▁North ▁Upper ▁Lake ▁bridge ▁( H aut ▁du ▁Lac ▁Nord ), ▁at ▁the ▁North - West ▁of ▁Saint - T ite ▁village . ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁ ▁in ▁a ▁direct ▁line ▁from ▁Le ▁Bour da is ▁Street ▁Bridge . ▁The ▁trib ut
ary ▁Little ▁M ék in ac ▁North ▁River ▁( P et ite ▁Riv ière ▁M ék in ac ▁Nord ) ▁taking ▁its ▁source ▁at ▁Lake ▁Ro ber ge ▁in ▁Saint - T ite , ▁em pt ies ▁into ▁the ▁" R iv ière ▁des ▁En v ies " ▁ ▁down stream ▁of ▁the ▁Road ▁of ▁North ▁Upper ▁Lake ▁Bridge ▁( H aut ▁du ▁lac ▁Nord ). ▁Pierre ▁Leb run ▁published ▁in ▁the ▁book ▁" H istoire ▁de ▁Saint - T ite ▁( History ▁of ▁Saint - T ite ) ▁- ▁ 1 8 3 3 ▁to ▁ 1 9 8 4 " ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁parish ▁core ▁was ▁formed ▁right ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁mouth ▁of ▁the ▁Little ▁M ék in ac ▁North ▁River . ▁He ▁noted : ▁" And ▁the ▁first ▁bridge ▁over ▁the ▁Riv ière ▁des ▁En v ies ▁at ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁third ▁port age , ▁was ▁more ▁than ▁two ▁miles ▁above ▁the ▁city ▁center ▁of ▁Saint - T ite . ▁And ▁they ▁built ▁a ▁bridge ▁over ▁the ▁Little ▁M ék in ac ▁North ▁River ▁before ▁ere ct ing ▁one ▁near ▁at ▁the ▁first ▁chap el ▁of ▁Saint - T ite ." ▁▁ 1 5 . ▁Germ ain ▁Road ▁Bridge , ▁in ▁Saint - T ite . ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁in ▁a ▁direct ▁line ▁up stream ▁from ▁the ▁Upper ▁North ▁Lake ▁road ▁bridge ▁in ▁Saint - T ite . ▁ ▁Sainte - Th è cle ▁▁ 1 6 . ▁S aw mill ▁Alfred ▁Na ud ' s
▁bridge , ▁located ▁in ▁row ▁Saint - Jose ph - S outh , ▁in ▁Sainte - Th è cle , ▁on ▁the ▁fifth ▁lot ▁of ▁land ▁( former ly ▁known ▁" land ▁of ▁the ▁fall ") ▁from ▁the ▁boundary ▁of ▁Saint - T ite ▁and ▁Sainte - Th è cle . ▁Ar ound ▁ 1 8 7 8 , ▁Alfred ▁Na ud ▁had ▁built ▁the ▁mill ▁" to ▁the ▁st ilt " ▁power ed ▁by ▁water ▁falls ▁that ▁turned ▁a ▁tur bine . ▁This ▁private ▁road ▁allowed ▁people ▁of ▁row ▁Saint - Jose ph - S outh ▁to ▁cross ▁the ▁bridge ▁( f itted ▁for ▁the ▁saw ▁mill ▁activities ) ▁to ▁join ▁the ▁row ▁St - Mich el - S outh , ▁by ▁taking ▁the ▁path ▁at ▁the ▁boundary ▁of ▁two ▁lands ▁( one ▁of ▁which ▁belonged ▁later ▁to ▁Arm and ▁St - Am and ▁and ▁Mar guer ite ▁Tel lier ). ▁This ▁private ▁road ▁was ▁used ▁until ▁about ▁ 1 8 8 3 ▁after ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁the ▁road ▁March and ▁( link ing ▁the ▁St - Mich el - S outh ▁and ▁St - Jose ph - S outh ▁Road ). ▁This ▁saw mill ▁was ▁demol ished ▁between ▁ 1 8 9 0 ▁and ▁ 1 8 9 8 . ▁▁ 1 7 . ▁St - Jose ph ▁Road ▁Bridge ▁( inter section ▁of ▁Route ▁March and ) ▁in ▁Sainte - Th è cle . ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁located ▁ 6 . 6 ▁kilom eters ▁in ▁direct ▁line ▁up stream ▁from
▁Germ ain ▁bridge ▁road , ▁in ▁Saint - T ite . ▁▁ 1 8 . ▁Bridge ▁of ▁the ▁R én ovat ▁Ch ou in ard ▁saw mill ▁power ed ▁by ▁steam , ▁built ▁circa ▁ 1 9 0 3 ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁residence ▁of ▁Oct ave ▁Tel lier , ▁on ▁the ▁" riv ière ▁des ▁En v ies " ▁on ▁the ▁rivers ide ▁of ▁the ▁village . ▁A ▁bridge ▁was ▁built ▁mainly ▁for ▁mill ' s ▁activities . ▁Pre viously , ▁R én ovat ▁Ch ou in ard ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 9 ▁the ▁first ▁saw mill ▁at ▁the ▁out let ▁of ▁Lake ▁of ▁Tra verse ▁( L ac ▁de ▁la ▁Tra verse ). ▁He ▁sold ▁it ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 2 ▁to ▁Alfred ▁St - Am and . ▁▁ 1 9 . ▁Vari ous ▁brid ges ▁on ▁private ▁lots ▁between ▁saw mill ▁of ▁R én ovat ▁Ch ou in ard ▁the ▁saw mill ▁of ▁Alfred ▁St - Am and , ▁including : ▁Louis ▁T oup in , ▁Eu cl id ▁Tel lier , ▁Georges ▁Per ron ▁and ▁Alfred ▁Hu ot . ▁▁ 2 0 . ▁Bridge ▁saw ▁mill ▁of ▁St - Am and ▁which ▁belonged ▁success ively ▁from ▁father ▁to ▁son , ▁Alfred , ▁Adel ard ▁and ▁Roland ▁St - Am and . ▁This ▁private ▁bridge ▁down stream ▁of ▁the ▁mill ▁( on ▁the ▁old ▁road ▁of ▁St - Am and ) ▁was ▁mainly ▁used ▁for ▁the ▁mill ▁activities . ▁It ▁was ▁re built ▁in ▁ 1 9
5 8 ▁to ▁allow ▁the ▁passage ▁of ▁heavy ▁tr uck s . ▁▁ 2 1 . ▁Bridge ▁of ▁Lac ▁of ▁the ▁Jes uit ▁road , ▁at ▁the ▁out let ▁of ▁Lake - of - the - Tra verse , ▁at ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁" riv ière ▁des ▁En v ies ". ▁This ▁bridge ▁is ▁ ▁by ▁water ▁( and ▁direct ) ▁of ▁the ▁Bridge ▁of ▁St ▁Joseph ▁road ▁( inter section ▁of ▁Route ▁March and ). ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 2 0 th ▁century , ▁the ▁first ▁bridge ▁was ▁built ▁over ▁the ▁old ▁government ▁road ▁( which ▁sk irt ed ▁the ▁saw mill ). ▁ ▁Then ▁the ▁parish ▁built ▁a ▁new ▁wooden ▁bridge ▁in ▁around ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁of ▁only ▁one ▁l ane . ▁This ▁bridge ▁was ▁re built ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁for ▁two ▁l ane ▁traffic . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁the ▁government ▁re built ▁the ▁c ement ▁bridge , ▁the ▁bridge ▁deck ▁is ▁now ▁higher ▁than ▁the ▁former . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁Sainte - Th è cle ▁ ▁Saint - T ite ▁ ▁H ér oux ville ▁ ▁Saint - S év ér in ▁ ▁Saint - St an is las ▁( Les ▁Chen aux ) ▁ ▁Lac - à - la - T ort ue ▁ ▁Bat is can ▁River ▁ ▁Bat is can ie ▁ ▁Jean - Jose ph ▁Cas ot ▁ ▁M ek in ac ▁Regional ▁County ▁Municip ality ▁ ▁Lake ▁Jes uit ▁ ▁Lake ▁Tra verse ▁(
M ék in ac ) ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Maur ic ie ▁Category : M ék in ac ▁Regional ▁County ▁Municip ality <0x0A> </s> ▁Mah ar as ht ra ▁College ▁of ▁Arts ▁Science ▁and ▁Com merce , ▁M umb ai , ▁( in form ally ▁Mah ar as ht ra ▁College ) ▁is ▁a ▁college ▁affili ated ▁with ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁M umb ai ▁offering ▁under grad uate ▁and ▁post grad uate ▁degrees ▁in ▁Arts , ▁Science ▁and ▁Com merce . ▁ ▁Mah ar as ht ra ▁College ▁of ▁Arts ▁Science ▁and ▁Com merce ▁is ▁managed ▁by ▁Kh air ul ▁Islam ▁High er ▁Education ▁Society , ▁M umb ai . ▁Society ▁was ▁founded ▁by ▁the ▁able ▁presiden cy ▁of ▁Dr . R af i q ▁Zak aria , ▁Education ist . ▁Mah ar as ht ra ▁college ▁located ▁near ▁Nag p ada . ▁Mah ar as ht ra ▁college ▁has ▁become ▁the ▁first ▁educational ▁inst itute ▁in ▁south ▁M umb ai ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁in ▁the ▁state ▁to ▁power ▁its ▁electric ity ▁requirements ▁completely ▁from ▁solar ▁energy . ▁ ▁Mah ar as ht ra ▁college ▁offer ▁a ▁junior ▁college ▁and ▁degree ▁college ▁courses . M ah ar as ht ra ▁college ▁also ▁provides ▁also ▁some ▁additional ▁courses ▁for ▁degree ▁college ▁like ▁Computer ▁Science ▁and ▁Information ▁technology . ▁And ▁there ▁one ▁legend ▁student ▁study , ▁named ▁as ▁" Mr . Z ulf ek ar ▁Nas r ud din ▁Sh a ikh " ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Aff
ili ates ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁M umb ai <0x0A> </s> ▁A ▁phot ores istor ▁( ac ron ym ed ▁L DR ▁for ▁Light ▁Dec re asing ▁Res istance , ▁or ▁light - dependent ▁res istor , ▁or ▁photo - con duct ive ▁cell ) ▁is ▁an ▁active ▁component ▁that ▁decre ases ▁resistance ▁with ▁respect ▁to ▁receiving ▁lum inos ity ▁( light ) ▁on ▁the ▁component ' s ▁sensitive ▁surface . ▁The ▁resistance ▁of ▁a ▁phot ores istor ▁decre ases ▁with ▁increase ▁in ▁incident ▁light ▁intensity ; ▁in ▁other ▁words , ▁it ▁exhib its ▁photo con duct ivity . ▁A ▁phot ores istor ▁can ▁be ▁applied ▁in ▁light - sens itive ▁det ector ▁circ uits ▁and ▁light - activ ated ▁and ▁dark - activ ated ▁switching ▁circ uits ▁acting ▁as ▁a ▁resistance ▁sem icon duct or . ▁In ▁the ▁dark , ▁a ▁phot ores istor ▁can ▁have ▁a ▁resistance ▁as ▁high ▁as ▁several ▁m ega oh ms ▁( M Ω ), ▁while ▁in ▁the ▁light , ▁a ▁phot ores istor ▁can ▁have ▁a ▁resistance ▁as ▁low ▁as ▁a ▁few ▁hundred ▁oh ms . ▁If ▁incident ▁light ▁on ▁a ▁phot ores istor ▁exceed s ▁a ▁certain ▁frequency , ▁phot ons ▁absor bed ▁by ▁the ▁sem icon duct or ▁give ▁bound ▁electrons ▁enough ▁energy ▁to ▁jump ▁into ▁the ▁condu ction ▁band . ▁The ▁resulting ▁free ▁electrons ▁( and ▁their ▁hole ▁partners ) ▁conduct ▁electric ity , ▁thereby ▁lower ing ▁resistance . ▁The ▁resistance ▁range ▁and ▁sens itivity ▁of ▁a ▁phot ores istor ▁can ▁substantial ly
▁differ ▁among ▁dis similar ▁devices . ▁Moreover , ▁unique ▁phot ores ist ors ▁may ▁react ▁substantial ly ▁differently ▁to ▁phot ons ▁within ▁certain ▁w avel ength ▁bands . ▁ ▁A ▁photo elect ric ▁device ▁can ▁be ▁either ▁intr insic ▁or ▁extr insic . ▁An ▁intr insic ▁sem icon duct or ▁has ▁its ▁own ▁charge ▁carri ers ▁and ▁is ▁not ▁an ▁efficient ▁sem icon duct or , ▁for ▁example , ▁sil icon . ▁In ▁intr insic ▁devices , ▁the ▁only ▁available ▁electrons ▁are ▁in ▁the ▁val ence ▁band , ▁and ▁hence ▁the ▁phot on ▁must ▁have ▁enough ▁energy ▁to ▁ex cite ▁the ▁electron ▁across ▁the ▁entire ▁band g ap . ▁Ext r insic ▁devices ▁have ▁imp ur ities , ▁also ▁called ▁dop ants , ▁added ▁whose ▁ground ▁state ▁energy ▁is ▁closer ▁to ▁the ▁condu ction ▁band ; ▁since ▁the ▁electrons ▁do ▁not ▁have ▁as ▁far ▁to ▁jump , ▁lower ▁energy ▁phot ons ▁( that ▁is , ▁longer ▁w avel ength s ▁and ▁lower ▁frequencies ) ▁are ▁sufficient ▁to ▁trigger ▁the ▁device . ▁If ▁a ▁sample ▁of ▁sil icon ▁has ▁some ▁of ▁its ▁atoms ▁replaced ▁by ▁ph osph orus ▁atoms ▁( imp ur ities ), ▁there ▁will ▁be ▁extra ▁electrons ▁available ▁for ▁condu ction . ▁This ▁is ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁an ▁extr insic ▁sem icon duct or . ▁ ▁Design ▁consider ations ▁ ▁Phot ores ist ors ▁are ▁less ▁light - sens itive ▁devices ▁than ▁phot odi odes ▁or ▁phot otr ans ist ors : ▁the ▁two ▁latter ▁components ▁are ▁true ▁sem icon duct or
▁devices , ▁while ▁a ▁phot ores istor ▁is ▁an ▁active ▁component ▁that ▁does ▁not ▁have ▁a ▁P N - j unction . ▁ ▁The ▁phot ores ist ivity ▁of ▁any ▁phot ores istor ▁may ▁vary ▁widely ▁depending ▁on ▁ambient ▁temperature , ▁making ▁them ▁un su itable ▁for ▁applications ▁requiring ▁precise ▁measurement ▁of ▁or ▁sens itivity ▁to ▁light ▁phot ons . ▁ ▁Phot ores ist ors ▁also ▁exhib it ▁a ▁certain ▁degree ▁of ▁laten cy ▁between ▁expos ure ▁to ▁light ▁and ▁the ▁subsequent ▁decrease ▁in ▁resistance , ▁usually ▁around ▁ 1 0 ▁mill iseconds . ▁The ▁lag ▁time ▁when ▁going ▁from ▁lit ▁to ▁dark ▁environments ▁is ▁even ▁greater , ▁often ▁as ▁long ▁as ▁one ▁second . ▁This ▁property ▁makes ▁them ▁un su itable ▁for ▁sens ing ▁rapidly ▁flash ing ▁lights , ▁but ▁is ▁sometimes ▁used ▁to ▁smooth ▁the ▁response ▁of ▁audio ▁signal ▁compression . ▁ ▁App lications ▁ ▁Phot ores ist ors ▁come ▁in ▁many ▁types . ▁I nex p ensive ▁cad m ium ▁sul f ide ▁cells ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁many ▁consumer ▁items ▁such ▁as ▁camera ▁light ▁meters , ▁clock ▁rad ios , ▁alarm ▁devices ▁( as ▁the ▁det ector ▁for ▁a ▁light ▁beam ), ▁night light s , ▁out door ▁clock s , ▁solar ▁street ▁l amps , ▁and ▁solar ▁road ▁stud s , ▁etc . ▁ ▁Phot ores ist ors ▁can ▁be ▁placed ▁in ▁street light s ▁to ▁control ▁when ▁the ▁light ▁is ▁on . ▁Amb ient ▁light ▁falling ▁on ▁the ▁phot ores istor ▁causes ▁the ▁street light ▁to ▁turn
▁off . ▁Thus ▁energy ▁is ▁saved ▁by ▁ens uring ▁the ▁light ▁is ▁only ▁on ▁during ▁hours ▁of ▁darkness . ▁ ▁Phot ores ist ors ▁or ▁L DR s ▁are ▁also ▁used ▁in ▁las er - based ▁security ▁systems ▁to ▁detect ▁the ▁change ▁in ▁the ▁light ▁intensity ▁when ▁a ▁person / object ▁passes ▁through ▁the ▁las er ▁beam . ▁▁ ▁They ▁are ▁also ▁used ▁in ▁some ▁dynamic ▁compress ors ▁together ▁with ▁a ▁small ▁inc and es cent ▁or ▁ne on ▁lamp , ▁or ▁light - em itting ▁di ode ▁to ▁control ▁gain ▁reduction . ▁A ▁common ▁usage ▁of ▁this ▁application ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁many ▁guitar ▁ampl ifiers ▁that ▁incorpor ate ▁an ▁on board ▁trem olo ▁effect , ▁as ▁the ▁oscill ating ▁light ▁patterns ▁control ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁signal ▁running ▁through ▁the ▁amp ▁circuit . ▁ ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁C d S ▁and ▁C d Se ▁phot ores ist ors ▁is ▁sever ely ▁restricted ▁in ▁Europe ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁Ro HS ▁ban ▁on ▁cad m ium . ▁ ▁Le ad ▁sul f ide ▁( P b S ) ▁and ▁ind ium ▁ant imon ide ▁( In S b ) ▁L DR s ▁( light - dependent ▁resist ors ) ▁are ▁used ▁for ▁the ▁mid - inf ra red ▁spectral ▁region . ▁Ge : C u ▁photo con duct ors ▁are ▁among ▁the ▁best ▁far - inf ra red ▁detect ors ▁available , ▁and ▁are ▁used ▁for ▁inf ra red ▁astronom y ▁and ▁inf ra red ▁spect ro sc opy . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Opt
oe lect ron ics ▁Phot od et ector ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Using ▁a ▁phot ores istor ▁to ▁track ▁light ▁ ▁Connect ing ▁a ▁phot ores istor ▁to ▁a ▁circuit ▁ ▁Phot ores istor ▁over view ▁- ▁detail ing ▁operation , ▁structure ▁and ▁circuit ▁information ▁ ▁Category : Res ist ive ▁components ▁Category : Opt ical ▁devices ▁Category : S ens ors <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Broad kill ▁River ▁is ▁a ▁river ▁flow ing ▁to ▁Del aware ▁Bay ▁in ▁southern ▁Del aware ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁It ▁is ▁ ▁long ▁and ▁dra ins ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁ ▁on ▁the ▁Atlantic ▁Coast al ▁P lain . ▁ ▁The ▁Broad kill ▁flows ▁for ▁its ▁entire ▁length ▁in ▁eastern ▁Sus sex ▁County . ▁It ▁issues ▁from ▁W ag am ons ▁P ond ▁in ▁the ▁town ▁of ▁Mil ton ; ▁the ▁p ond ▁is ▁fed ▁by ▁two ▁trib ut aries ▁known ▁as ▁In gram ▁Branch ▁and ▁P ember ton ▁Branch . ▁ ▁From ▁Mil ton , ▁the ▁Broad kill ▁River ▁flows ▁generally ▁east ward ly , ▁passing ▁through ▁wet lands ▁and ▁salt ▁mar sh es ▁in ▁the ▁Prime ▁Hook ▁National ▁Wild life ▁Ref uge . ▁ ▁After ▁approaching ▁to ▁within ▁ ▁of ▁Del aware ▁Bay , ▁the ▁river ▁par alle ls ▁the ▁sh or eline ▁a ▁short ▁distance ▁in land ▁for ▁approximately ▁ ▁before ▁flow ing ▁into ▁the ▁bay , ▁approximately ▁ ▁north west ▁of ▁Lew es . ▁The ▁United ▁States ▁Coast ▁Guard ▁maintain s ▁a ▁station ▁near ▁the ▁mouth ▁of ▁the ▁Broad kill .
▁The ▁mouth ▁is ▁connected ▁to ▁Re h ob oth ▁Bay ▁by ▁the ▁Lew es ▁and ▁Re h ob oth ▁Canal , ▁which ▁forms ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Atlantic ▁Int rac o ast al ▁Water way . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁the ▁river ▁was ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁a ▁regional ▁ship building ▁industry , ▁ar ising ▁from ▁the ▁access ▁it ▁furn ished ▁to ▁in land ▁for ests ; ▁the ▁industry ▁fell ▁into ▁decl ine ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 9 0 s . ▁ ▁A ▁foot path ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Govern ors ▁Walk ▁follows ▁the ▁Broad kill ▁in ▁central ▁Mil ton . ▁ ▁The ▁Nature ▁Conserv ancy ▁established ▁a ▁preserve ▁along ▁the ▁river ▁down stream ▁of ▁Mil ton ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 . ▁ ▁, ▁an ▁annual ▁can oe ▁and ▁k ay ak ▁race ▁was ▁being ▁held ▁on ▁the ▁river ▁in ▁Mil ton . ▁ ▁Vari ant ▁names ▁and ▁spell ings ▁The ▁United ▁States ▁Board ▁on ▁Geographic ▁Names ▁issued ▁an ▁opinion ▁clar ifying ▁" B road kill ▁River " ▁as ▁the ▁stream ' s ▁name ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 1 . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Geographic ▁Names ▁Information ▁System , ▁it ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁known ▁histor ically ▁as : ▁Broad ▁Creek ▁ ▁Broad ▁Kill ▁Broad ▁Kill ▁Creek ▁ ▁Broad kill ▁Creek ▁ ▁Broad kil n ▁Creek ▁Lewis ▁Creek ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁Del aware ▁rivers ▁Thomas ▁W ins more ▁( sch oon er ) ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Del aware ▁Category : R ivers ▁of
▁Sus sex ▁County , ▁Del aware ▁Category : T rib ut aries ▁of ▁Del aware ▁Bay <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Men ' s ▁- 7 3 kg ▁competition ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁World ▁J udo ▁Championships ▁was ▁held ▁at ▁ 1 1 ▁September ▁at ▁the ▁Y oy og i ▁National ▁G ymnasium ▁in ▁Tokyo , ▁Japan . ▁ 8 2 ▁compet itors ▁cont ested ▁for ▁the ▁med als , ▁being ▁split ▁in ▁ 4 ▁P ools ▁where ▁the ▁winner ▁advanced ▁to ▁the ▁medal ▁round . ▁ ▁Pool ▁A ▁Last ▁ 3 2 ▁f ights : ▁ ▁Wang ▁Ki - Ch un ▁ 1 0 1 ▁vs . ▁ ▁K ün ter ▁Roth berg ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Kr z ysz to f ▁Wi ł kom ir ski ▁ 1 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Ed son ▁Made ira ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Ki y oshi ▁U em ats u ▁ 0 0 1 ▁vs . ▁ ▁David ▁Pap aux ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Nicholas ▁T rit ton ▁ 0 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Nicholas ▁Del pop olo ▁ 1 1 0 ▁ ▁Krist jan ▁J ons son ▁ 1 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Sam uela ▁Mate i yal ona ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Pool ▁B ▁Last ▁ 3 2 ▁f ights : ▁ ▁Ali ▁Mal ou mat ▁ 0 2 1 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Mir ali ▁Sh ar ip ov ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Jean ▁B ott ie au ▁ 0 2 0
▁vs . ▁ ▁Ab ner ▁Water house ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Y as u hi ro ▁Aw ano ▁ 1 0 1 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Bat rad z ▁Kay t maz ov ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁D my t ro ▁Sher et ov ▁ 0 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Sand or ▁Tar aba ▁ 1 0 0 ▁ ▁Em manuel ▁N arte y ▁ 1 1 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁K hal ifa ▁Al ▁Q ub ais i ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Pool ▁C ▁Last ▁ 3 2 ▁f ights : ▁ ▁Bang ▁G ui - Man ▁ 1 0 2 ▁vs . ▁ ▁R in at ▁Ib rag im ov ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Vol od ym yr ▁Sor oka ▁ 1 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Daniel ▁Williams ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁J ia ▁Y ita o ▁ 0 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Hus sein ▁H af iz ▁ 1 0 0 ▁ ▁Ny am ▁Sain j arg al ▁ 1 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Nik ola ▁Pe j ic ▁ 0 0 0 ▁ ▁Pool ▁D ▁Last ▁ 3 2 ▁f ights : ▁ ▁D irk ▁Van ▁T ich elt ▁ 0 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Tom asz ▁Adam iec ▁ 1 0 0 ▁ ▁Say ed ▁H uss ain i ▁ 0 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Ren at ▁Mir z ali ye v ▁ 1 0 0 ▁ ▁Ar sl an ▁Nur mu ham med ov ▁ 0 0
0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Michael ▁E ld red ▁ 1 0 0 ▁F atos ▁Tab aku ▁ 0 0 0 ▁vs . ▁ ▁Nav ru z ▁Jur ak obil ov ▁ 1 0 1 ▁ ▁Re pe ch age ▁ ▁Final s ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Results ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Official ▁Site ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 1 0 ▁World ▁J udo ▁Championships <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Mas ch see ▁is ▁an ▁artificial ▁lake ▁situated ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁centre ▁of ▁Han over ▁in ▁Germany . ▁Sp anning ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁ 7 8 ▁hect ares , ▁it ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁body ▁of ▁water ▁within ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁Lower ▁Sax ony . ▁The ▁lake ▁is ▁a ▁popular ▁recre ation ▁area ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁a ▁ven ue ▁for ▁numerous ▁water ▁sports . ▁ ▁Name ▁The ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁lake ▁st ems ▁from ▁the ▁so - called ▁“ Le in em ar sch “, ▁or ▁simply ▁” Mar sch “, ▁meaning ▁sw amp . ▁This ▁is ▁the ▁historical ▁description ▁for ▁the ▁area ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁lake ▁was ▁built , ▁that ▁was ▁in ▁a ▁deep - lying ▁flo od plain ▁of ▁the ▁River ▁Le ine . ▁ ▁Const ruction ▁ ▁Design ▁It ▁was ▁first ▁considered ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁lake ▁in ▁the ▁wide ▁river ▁valley ▁of ▁the ▁River ▁Le ine ▁near ▁Han over ▁during ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 th ▁century . ▁This ▁tied ▁in ▁with ▁the ▁by - then ▁necessary ▁dy king ▁of ▁the ▁River ▁Le ine ▁and ▁the ▁River ▁I h me , ▁which ▁would ▁regularly
▁flo od ▁the ▁city ▁after ▁snow ▁m elt ed ▁in ▁the ▁Har z ▁Mountains ▁in ▁spring . ▁The ▁creation ▁of ▁a ▁lake ▁could ▁reduce ▁the ▁threat ▁of ▁high ▁water ▁levels ▁and ▁put ▁the ▁Le ine ' s ▁river ▁valley ▁area ▁to ▁better ▁use . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁the ▁dec ades ▁there ▁were ▁further , ▁very ▁different ▁designs : ▁Small ▁solutions ▁and ▁larger ▁ones , ▁which ▁en vis aged ▁the ▁Sch üt zen platz ▁( sh oot ing ▁range ) ▁as ▁an ▁island ▁in ▁the ▁lake . ▁In ▁September ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁the ▁newly ▁elected ▁city ▁mayor ▁Arthur ▁Men ge ▁commission ed ▁Otto ▁Franz ius , ▁a ▁water ▁engineer ▁and ▁professor ▁at ▁the ▁Han over ▁Techn ical ▁College ▁( now ▁Le ib n iz ▁University ▁Hannover ), ▁to ▁work ▁out ▁the ▁details ▁of ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁a ▁lake ▁together ▁with ▁the ▁city ' s ▁building ▁authorities . ▁Franz ius ▁was ▁to ▁be ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁design ing ▁of ▁the ▁hydro - engine ering ▁and ▁hydro log ical ▁elements ▁of ▁the ▁project , ▁while ▁the ▁city ▁authorities , ▁led ▁by ▁Karl ▁El k art , ▁would ▁handle ▁the ▁urban ▁development ▁aspects . ▁ ▁In ▁contrast ▁to ▁the ▁original ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁lake ▁be ▁d ug ▁down ▁into ▁sw amp ▁land ▁and ▁then ▁be ▁supplied ▁with ▁water ▁by ▁the ▁Le ine , ▁a ▁new ▁proposal ▁emer ged ▁to ▁build ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁at op ▁the ▁sw amp ▁in ▁a ▁bow l - like ▁structure ▁– ▁raising ▁it ▁higher ▁than ▁the ▁water
▁level ▁of ▁the ▁Le ine ▁– ▁and ▁having ▁it ▁be ▁filled ▁using ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁water ▁p umps . ▁This ▁would ▁er ad icate ▁the ▁problem ▁of ▁a ▁potential ▁accum ulation ▁of ▁mud ▁through ▁flo od ▁waters . ▁ ▁Franz ius ▁created ▁a ▁final ▁design ▁that ▁proved ▁both ▁effective ▁and ▁finan cially ▁acceptable , ▁where up on ▁the ▁city ▁authorities ▁provided ▁a ▁grant ▁of ▁ 1 4 , 0 0 0 ▁Reichs marks ▁in ▁January ▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁toward ▁attempts ▁to ▁se al ▁the ▁bas in ▁of ▁the ▁proposed ▁lake . ▁ ▁Despite ▁the ▁plans ▁being ▁completed ▁it ▁never theless ▁took ▁roughly ▁eight ▁years ▁until ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁for ▁work ▁to ▁commence . ▁The ▁three ▁main ▁factors ▁behind ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁an ▁artificial ▁lake ▁in ▁the ▁River ▁Le ine ’ s ▁river ▁valley ▁were : ▁ ▁The ▁emb ank ment ▁of ▁the ▁River ▁I h me ’ s ▁flo od ▁channel ▁ ▁The ▁creation ▁of ▁a ▁local ▁recre ation ▁area ▁close ▁to ▁the ▁city ▁that ▁provided ▁the ▁opportunity ▁for ▁water ▁sports ▁ ▁The ▁elim ination ▁of ▁high ▁un emp loyment ▁levels ▁( 1 9 3 2 : ▁ 5 8 , 0 0 0 ▁Han over ians ) ▁through ▁program mes ▁of ▁public ▁works . ▁ ▁One ▁factor ▁against ▁construction ▁of ▁the ▁lake ▁was ▁the ▁nearly ▁ ▁B ism ar ck ▁Tower ▁which ▁stood ▁in ▁the ▁centre ▁of ▁the ▁proposed ▁water ▁feature . ▁Here , ▁par amil it ary ▁march es ▁took ▁place ▁and
▁it ▁was ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁a ▁book ▁burning ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 . ▁The ▁land mark ▁was ▁eventually ▁demol ished ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 5 ▁during ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁the ▁lake ' s ▁construction . ▁ ▁Job ▁creation ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁the ▁era ▁of ▁the ▁Great ▁De pression , ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Han over ▁lack ed ▁the ▁necessary ▁fin ance ▁for ▁the ▁comm enc ement ▁of ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁project , ▁even ▁though ▁the ▁project ▁had ▁already ▁been ▁planned ▁some ▁ten ▁years ▁earlier . ▁The ▁project ▁was ▁fav ou rable ▁for ▁the ▁Naz i ▁Party ▁that ▁came ▁to ▁power ▁in ▁January ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁as ▁it ▁would ▁help ▁reduce ▁un emp loyment ▁levels , ▁which ▁was ▁a ▁central ▁theme ▁of ▁their ▁propag anda . ▁On ▁ 2 8 ▁November ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁the ▁project ▁was ▁approved ▁at ▁a ▁meeting ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁council . ▁▁▁ ▁On ▁ 2 1 ▁March ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁the ▁first ▁ground ▁was ▁broken ▁in ▁the ▁Le ine ▁sw amp . ▁Despite ▁the ▁un sett led ▁finan cing ▁of ▁the ▁project , ▁it ▁provided ▁many ▁people ▁with ▁work . ▁D ri ven ▁by ▁the ▁har sh ness ▁of ▁the ▁economic ▁situation ▁of ▁the ▁time , ▁they ▁took ▁on ▁t ough ▁working ▁conditions ▁and ▁low ▁pay ▁which ▁was ▁bare ly ▁much ▁higher ▁than ▁un emp loyment ▁support . ▁▁ ▁During ▁construction ▁four teen ▁locomot ive ▁trains ▁with ▁ 3 6 5 ▁t ipping ▁w
ag ons ▁were ▁used ▁along ▁a ▁ 1 5 km ▁track ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁dig gers ▁and ▁five ▁craw ler ▁tra ctors . ▁Many ▁workers ▁though ▁had ▁to ▁supply ▁their ▁own ▁tools . ▁Initial ly ▁there ▁were ▁ 1 0 0 ▁people ▁working ▁on ▁the ▁project , ▁but ▁by ▁its ▁completion ▁ 1 , 6 5 0 ▁people ▁had ▁been ▁involved ▁to ▁exc av ate ▁roughly ▁ 7 8 0 , 0 0 0 ▁square ▁metres ▁of ▁earth ▁to ▁create ▁the ▁lake ▁bas in . ▁▁ ▁With ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁project ▁fully ▁completed ▁by ▁early ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁the ▁official ▁opening ▁took ▁place ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁May ▁ 1 9 3 6 . ▁H undred s ▁of ▁thousands ▁of ▁Han over ians ▁and ▁guests ▁looked ▁on ▁from ▁the ▁edge ▁of ▁the ▁lake ▁as ▁the ▁event ▁began ▁with ▁the ▁then - typ ical ▁tro op ing ▁of ▁the ▁Naz i ▁Party . ▁In ▁addition ▁some ▁ 6 , 0 0 0 ▁sport ing ▁persons ▁took ▁part ▁in ▁a ▁r ally ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁armed ▁forces ▁and ▁public ▁officials . ▁▁ ▁During ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁the ▁lake ▁was ▁covered ▁up ▁with ▁can v ass es ▁and ▁fake ▁land sc apes ▁created ▁on ▁floating ▁islands ▁created , ▁in ▁an ▁attempt ▁to ▁conf use ▁Al lied ▁bom ber ▁pil ots ▁of ▁their ▁where about s ▁during ▁air ▁ra ids ▁on ▁Han over . ▁ ▁Water ▁supply ▁The ▁water ▁level ▁los es ▁a ▁maximum ▁of ▁ 1 . 3 ▁cent imet res
▁per ▁day ▁through ▁ev ap oration ▁and ▁water ▁se ep age , ▁which ▁equ ates ▁to ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁cub ic ▁metres ▁of ▁water . ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁maintain ▁a ▁constant ▁level , ▁a ▁p ump ▁station ▁at ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁p onds ▁in ▁Rick lingen ▁provides ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁with ▁a ▁water ▁supply . ▁Its ▁three ▁p umps ▁send ▁water ▁along ▁an ▁ ▁pipe ▁to ▁the ▁" source " ▁of ▁the ▁Mas ch see . ▁Depending ▁on ▁weather ▁conditions , ▁between ▁ 1 - 2 ▁million ▁m 3 ▁of ▁water ▁are ▁required . ▁From ▁November ▁until ▁February ▁no ▁p ump ing ▁is ▁carried ▁out , ▁so ▁the ▁water ▁level ▁s inks ▁on ▁average ▁ 4 5 cm ▁during ▁this ▁time . ▁ ▁Until ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁the ▁Mas ch see ' s ▁water ▁level ▁was ▁supplied ▁by ▁the ▁" M as ch see ▁Source " ▁p ump ▁station . ▁Its ▁p ump ing ▁and ▁filtering ▁houses ▁were ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁building ▁projects ▁at ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁the ▁lake ▁to ▁be ▁put ▁into ▁operation ▁in ▁November ▁ 1 9 3 5 . ▁The ▁plant ▁is ▁equ ipped ▁with ▁two ▁p umps ▁which ▁are ▁capable ▁of ▁raising ▁ 5 0 0 ▁lit res ▁of ▁water ▁every ▁second ▁from ▁the ▁River ▁Le ine . ▁▁ ▁As ▁the ▁Le ine ▁is ▁strongly ▁cont amin ated ▁with ▁susp ended ▁sed iment , ▁the ▁usage ▁of ▁this ▁water ▁supply ▁meant ▁that ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁quickly ▁began ▁to ▁s
ilt ▁up . ▁The ▁Han over ▁city ▁administration ▁therefore ▁decided ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁to ▁build ▁the ▁new ▁p ump ▁station ▁at ▁the ▁Rick lingen ▁P onds , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁supply ▁the ▁lake ▁with ▁ground water . ▁ ▁The ▁old ▁p ump ing ▁house ▁is ▁only ▁active ▁today ▁if ▁the ▁o xygen ▁content ▁of ▁the ▁water ▁is ▁too ▁low , ▁as ▁this ▁water ▁is ▁supplied ▁to ▁the ▁lake ▁through ▁an ▁open - air ▁three - stage ▁cas c ading ▁system ▁that ▁ra ises ▁o xygen ▁levels . ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁put ▁into ▁use ▁during ▁the ▁Mas ch se ef est . ▁ ▁Today ▁the ▁old ▁p ump ing ▁house ▁is ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁club ▁house ▁by ▁the ▁Han over ▁Sport ▁Club . ▁ ▁Le is ure ▁activities ▁ ▁Mas ch se ef est ▁Every ▁summer ▁the ▁Mas ch se ef est ▁is ▁held ▁over ▁several ▁weeks ▁beside ▁the ▁lake , ▁which ▁draw s ▁around ▁two ▁million ▁visitors ▁ann ually . ▁The ▁event ▁was ▁first ▁st aged ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁to ▁comm emor ate ▁the ▁ 5 0 th ▁anni versary ▁of ▁the ▁Mas che e ' s ▁opening . ▁It ▁features ▁musical ▁performances , ▁cab aret , ▁cu is ine ▁and ▁fire work ▁displays . ▁ ▁Bo ats ▁and ▁ships ▁During ▁the ▁summer ▁months ▁the ▁Han over ian ▁transport ▁company ▁ü stra ▁oper ates ▁boat ▁tri ps ▁on ▁the ▁lake ▁using ▁elect r ically ▁power ed ▁vessels . ▁S urr ounding ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁are ▁numerous
▁clubs ▁for ▁water ▁sports ▁( most ▁popular ly , ▁row ing ▁and ▁sail ing ). ▁During ▁the ▁year ▁many ▁diverse ▁compet itions ▁are ▁held ▁on ▁the ▁lake , ▁including ▁the ▁annual ▁European ▁Dragon ▁Bo at ▁Race . ▁ ▁Between ▁ 1 9 5 2 ▁and ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁motor ▁boat ▁compet itions ▁were ▁regularly ▁st aged ▁on ▁the ▁lake , ▁which ▁saw ▁four ▁world ▁champion ships ▁cont ested ▁and ▁ten ▁European ▁champions ▁crown ed . ▁ ▁Bath ing ▁The ▁Mas ch see ▁Beach ▁lies ▁at ▁the ▁southern ▁point ▁of ▁the ▁lake . ▁The ▁former ▁city ▁open ▁air ▁pool ▁was ▁handed ▁over ▁by ▁the ▁city ▁to ▁a ▁private ▁invest or ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁They ▁began ▁construction ▁on ▁an ▁expensive ▁commercial ▁“ well ness ▁park “, ▁where up on ▁the ▁project ▁st alled . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁the ▁invest or ▁group ▁Asp ria ▁took ▁over ▁and ▁continued ▁the ▁work . ▁▁ ▁In ▁spring ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁Asp ria ▁Hannover ▁opened ▁a ▁private ▁sp a ▁and ▁sport ▁club ▁in ▁the ▁buildings ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁public ▁facilities ▁and ▁some ▁newly ▁built ▁prem ises . ▁Asp ria ▁also ▁took ▁over ▁the ▁running ▁of ▁the ▁public ▁bath ing ▁area ▁though ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁over ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁bath ing ▁area ▁is ▁only ▁accessible ▁to ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁private ▁Asp ria ▁club . ▁ ▁Ex er cis ing ▁With ▁its ▁proxim ity ▁to ▁the ▁centre ▁of ▁Han over , ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁is ▁a ▁popular
▁recre ation ▁area ▁for ▁the ▁city ' s ▁walk ers ▁and ▁jog gers . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁a ▁ 6 km ▁long ▁route ▁around ▁the ▁lake ▁was ▁mapped ▁out ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁Athletics ▁Association . ▁This ▁track ▁runs ▁along ▁the ▁foot path , ▁closer ▁to ▁the ▁water ▁than ▁the ▁as ph alt - co ated ▁cycle ▁path . ▁Since ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁the ▁cycle ▁path ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁open ▁for ▁roll er ▁sk ating ▁usage . ▁ ▁Ice ▁activities ▁ ▁If ▁the ▁lake ▁free zes ▁in ▁Winter ▁with ▁the ▁thick ness ▁of ▁the ▁ice ▁exceed ing ▁ 1 3 cm , ▁then ▁the ▁city ▁authorities ▁ho ist ▁a ▁flag ▁at ▁the ▁northern ▁shore ▁of ▁the ▁lake ▁to ▁indicate ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁permitted ▁to ▁go ▁onto ▁the ▁ice . ▁In ▁periods ▁of ▁constant ▁cold ▁weather ▁the ▁lake ▁can ▁draw ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁visitors ▁a ▁day ▁for ▁activities ▁such ▁as ▁ice ▁sk ating ▁and ▁ice ▁hockey . ▁If ▁the ▁ice ▁thick ness ▁reaches ▁ 2 0 cm ▁then ▁st alls ▁can ▁even ▁be ▁ere cted ▁upon ▁the ▁ice ▁too ; ▁this ▁last ▁occurred ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁ ▁Art ▁works ▁Notable ▁works ▁of ▁art ▁on ▁the ▁northern ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁lake ▁are ▁the ▁ ▁red ▁steel ▁" H elle b ard ier " ▁sculpt ure ▁by ▁Alexander ▁Cal der ▁( 1 9 7 2 ) ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁bronze ▁Olympic ▁tor ch b ear er ▁that ▁stands
▁at op ▁an ▁ ▁stone ▁column ▁and ▁" P utto ▁on ▁the ▁Fish " ▁that ▁were ▁both ▁created ▁by ▁Hermann ▁Sch eu ern st u hl ▁( 1 9 3 6 ). ▁ ▁Other ▁sculpt ures ▁on ▁the ▁eastern ▁side ▁are ▁the ▁" M ens chen pa ar " ▁by ▁Georg ▁Kol be ▁( 1 9 3 6 – 3 7 ) ▁and ▁two ▁l ion ▁sculpt ures ▁created ▁by ▁Ar no ▁Bre ker ▁( 1 9 3 8 ). ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁Er ich ▁Hab er land ▁un ve iled ▁his ▁piece ▁" The ▁Sw immer ", ▁which ▁stands ▁in ▁the ▁public ▁bath ing ▁area . ▁ ▁Spanish ▁artist ▁Santiago ▁Sierra ▁caused ▁a ▁sens ation ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁when ▁he ▁remembered ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁was ▁built ▁through ▁a ▁Naz i ▁work ▁programme ▁by ▁installing ▁a ▁walk - in ▁room ▁filled ▁with ▁mud ▁at ▁the ▁K est ner ▁Society ▁Art ▁Gallery . ▁ ▁A ▁light ▁art ▁project ▁was ▁held ▁around ▁the ▁lake ▁at ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁under ▁the ▁title ▁" New ▁Moon ▁on ▁the ▁Lake ". ▁The ▁display ▁consisted ▁of ▁ 2 2 ▁ill umin ated ▁pieces ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁created ▁by ▁international ▁artists , ▁which ▁formed ▁the ▁opening ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁Garden ▁Project ▁in ▁Han over . ▁ ▁Access ibility ▁ ▁The ▁Mas ch see ▁lies ▁close ▁to ▁such ▁other ▁notable ▁places ▁as ▁the ▁New ▁City ▁Hall , ▁the ▁Lower ▁Sax ony ▁State
▁Museum , ▁the ▁Spr eng el ▁Museum , ▁the ▁A WD - A ren a ▁( home ▁of ▁the ▁football ▁club ▁Hannover ▁ 9 6 ), ▁the ▁main ▁city ▁ind oor ▁sw imming ▁pool ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁Lower ▁Sax ony ▁broadcast ing ▁houses ▁of ▁television ▁channels ▁N DR ▁and ▁Z DF . ▁ ▁The ▁lake ▁is ▁directly ▁accessible ▁by ▁using ▁the ▁bus ▁stops ▁at ▁the ▁A WD ▁Arena ▁and ▁the ▁Spr eng el ▁Museum . ▁Add itional ▁bus ▁and ▁tram ▁stops ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁A eg id ient or platz , ▁Sch lä ger straße , ▁Ge ib el straße , ▁Al ten bek ener ▁D amm ▁and ▁D ö hren ▁Tower ▁also ▁lie ▁in ▁relatively ▁close ▁proxim ity ▁to ▁the ▁lake . ▁ ▁N umer ous ▁foot ▁and ▁cycle ▁paths ▁lead ▁to ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁and ▁follow ▁along ▁its ▁sh or eline . ▁The ▁western ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁lake , ▁where ▁the ▁club ▁houses ▁of ▁numerous ▁water ▁sport ▁clubs ▁are ▁situated , ▁is ▁only ▁accessible ▁by ▁foot ▁or ▁cycle ▁as ▁vehicles ▁are ▁not ▁permitted ▁without ▁official ▁permission . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁The ▁Mas ch see ▁at ▁Han over ▁Tour ist ▁Information ▁Description ▁in ▁g erman , ▁maps ▁and ▁images ▁concerning ▁the ▁Mas ch see - L ake ▁Story ▁of ▁the ▁Mas ch see ▁public ▁bath ing ▁beach ▁ ▁Category : Ge ography ▁of ▁Han over ▁Category : L akes ▁of ▁Lower ▁Sax ony ▁Category : Res er voir s ▁in ▁Lower ▁Sax ony ▁Category : Art ific
ial ▁la kes ▁Category : Row ing ▁ven ues ▁Category : 1 9 3 6 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Germany ▁Category : T our ist ▁attra ctions ▁in ▁Han over <0x0A> </s> ▁V ič ▁( ; ▁) ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁western ▁part ▁of ▁L jub lj ana , ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁Sloven ia . ▁It ▁was ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁region ▁of ▁Upper ▁Car ni ola ▁and ▁is ▁now ▁included ▁with ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁municipality ▁in ▁the ▁Central ▁Sloven ia ▁Statist ical ▁Region . ▁ ▁Name ▁V ič ▁was ▁att ested ▁in ▁written ▁sources ▁in ▁ 1 3 3 9 ▁as ▁ze ▁W ey ze ▁( and ▁as ▁Ve itsch ▁in ▁ 1 3 9 7 ▁and ▁We itsch ▁in ▁ 1 4 0 6 ). ▁The ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁name ▁is ▁uncertain . ▁Poss ib ilities ▁include ▁deriv ation ▁from ▁the ▁n oun ▁* vi č ▁' will ow ▁switch es ' ▁or ▁' you ng ▁woods ', ▁or ▁from ▁the ▁personal ▁name ▁* V it ъ , ▁referring ▁to ▁an ▁early ▁inhab it ant . ▁Less ▁likely ▁possibilities ▁include ▁deriv ation ▁from ▁bi č ▁' r ush es ' ▁and ▁Latin ▁vic us ▁' v ill age '. ▁In ▁the ▁past ▁the ▁German ▁name ▁was ▁Wait sch . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁V ič ▁was ▁an nex ed ▁by ▁the ▁City ▁of ▁L jub lj ana ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 5 , ▁ending ▁its ▁existence ▁as ▁an ▁independent ▁settlement . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁V
ič ▁was ▁heavily ▁affected ▁by ▁flo ods . ▁ ▁Cultural ▁her itage ▁ ▁The ▁Two ▁Em per ors ▁Street ▁Pav il ion ▁() ▁stands ▁at ▁the ▁west ▁end ▁of ▁Two ▁Em per ors ▁Street ▁() ▁in ▁the ▁south west ▁part ▁of ▁V ič . ▁It ▁was ▁built ▁at ▁the ▁initi ative ▁of ▁the ▁L jub lj ana ▁town ▁hall ▁as ▁a ▁gift ▁by ▁the ▁town ' s ▁residents ▁to ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁I , ▁who ▁celebrated ▁his ▁birth day ▁in ▁L jub lj ana ▁in ▁ 1 8 2 1 ▁while ▁att ending ▁the ▁Congress ▁of ▁La ib ach ▁together ▁with ▁Alexander ▁I ▁of ▁Russia . ▁The ▁pav il ion ▁is ▁built ▁in ▁the ▁Empire ▁style ▁and ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁few ▁surv iving ▁imperial ▁structures ▁in ▁L jub lj ana . ▁The ▁Rob e ž nik ▁Inn , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Ž ab ar ▁Inn , ▁is ▁a ▁U - sh aped ▁set ▁of ▁buildings ▁at ▁V ič ▁Street ▁( V iš ka ▁c esta ) ▁nos . ▁ 4 8 ▁and ▁ 5 0 ▁in ▁the ▁historical ▁village ▁center . ▁It ▁consists ▁of ▁living ▁qu arters , ▁an ▁inn , ▁and ▁farm ▁buildings . ▁The ▁structures ▁have ▁been ▁adapted ▁to ▁modern ▁use , ▁but ▁architect ural ▁elements ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁are ▁preserved . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁V ič ▁on ▁Ge op edia ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Form er ▁settlement s ▁in ▁Sloven ia <0x0A> </s> ▁Les ▁Williams ▁( 1 4 ▁September ▁ 1 9 2
3 ▁– ▁ 1 4 ▁April ▁ 1 9 9 8 ) ▁was ▁an ▁ ▁Australian ▁rules ▁footballer ▁who ▁played ▁with ▁South ▁Melbourne ▁in ▁the ▁Victor ian ▁Football ▁League ▁( V FL ). ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 9 8 ▁death s ▁Category : Austral ian ▁rules ▁football ers ▁from ▁Victoria ▁( Austral ia ) ▁Category : S yd ney ▁Sw ans ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁Pat ric ia ▁F ara ▁is ▁a ▁historian ▁of ▁science ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge . ▁ ▁She ▁is ▁a ▁gradu ate ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Oxford ▁and ▁did ▁her ▁Ph D ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁London . ▁She ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁Fellow ▁of ▁Dar win ▁College ▁and ▁is ▁an ▁Emer it us ▁Fellow ▁of ▁Cla re ▁College ▁where ▁she ▁was ▁previously ▁Director ▁of ▁Studies ▁in ▁the ▁History ▁and ▁Philosoph y ▁and ▁Science . ▁F ara ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁College ▁Te aching ▁Officer ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁History ▁and ▁Philosoph y ▁of ▁Science . ▁From ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁to ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁F ara ▁was ▁President ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Society ▁for ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁Science . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁she ▁became ▁President ▁of ▁the ▁Anti qu arian ▁Hor ological ▁Society . ▁F ara ▁is ▁author ▁of ▁numerous ▁popular ▁books ▁on ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁science ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁guest ▁on ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ' s ▁science ▁and ▁history ▁discussion ▁series , ▁In ▁Our ▁Time . ▁ ▁Early
▁life ▁and ▁education ▁F ara ▁began ▁her ▁academic ▁career ▁as ▁a ▁phys ic ist ▁but ▁returned ▁to ▁gradu ate ▁studies ▁as ▁a ▁m ature ▁student ▁to ▁special ise ▁in ▁History ▁and ▁Philosoph y ▁of ▁Science , ▁comple ting ▁her ▁Ph D ▁th esis ▁at ▁Imperial ▁College , ▁London ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 . ▁ ▁Research ▁and ▁writing ▁Her ▁areas ▁of ▁particular ▁academic ▁interest ▁include ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁portrait ure ▁and ▁art ▁in ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁science , ▁science ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁England ▁during ▁the ▁En light en ment ▁and ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁women ▁in ▁science . ▁ ▁She ▁has ▁written ▁about ▁numerous ▁women ▁in ▁science , ▁mathematics , ▁engineering , ▁and ▁medicine ▁including : ▁Her tha ▁A yr ton , ▁Lady ▁Helen ▁G leich en , ▁Mon a ▁Chal mers ▁Watson , ▁Helen ▁G w yn ne - V aug han , ▁Isabel ▁E ms lie ▁H utton , ▁Flora ▁Murray , ▁I da ▁Mac lean , ▁Marie ▁Stop es , ▁and ▁Mar tha ▁An nie ▁White ley . ▁She ▁has ▁argued ▁for ▁expanded ▁access ▁to ▁child care ▁as ▁a ▁means ▁of ▁increasing ▁the ▁ret ention ▁of ▁women ▁in ▁science . ▁She ▁has ▁written ▁and ▁co - author ed ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁books ▁for ▁children ▁on ▁science . ▁ ▁F ara ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁rev iewer ▁of ▁books ▁on ▁history ▁of ▁science . ▁ ▁She ▁has ▁written ▁the ▁award - win ning ▁Science : ▁A ▁Four ▁Th ous and ▁Year ▁History ▁( 2 0 0 9 )
▁ ▁and ▁Er as mus ▁Dar win : ▁Sex , ▁Science , ▁and ▁Ser end ip ity ▁( 2 0 1 2 ). ▁Her ▁most ▁recent ▁book ▁is ▁A ▁Lab ▁of ▁One ' s ▁O wn : ▁Science ▁and ▁Su ff rage ▁in ▁the ▁First ▁World ▁War " ▁( 2 0 1 7 ). Br ut on , ▁Elizabeth ▁( 2 0 1 8 ) ▁' When ▁Su ff ra get tes ▁k icked ▁open ▁the ▁lab ▁door ' ▁Nature ▁ 1 0 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁F ara ▁published ▁an ▁article ▁in ▁Nature ▁( j ournal ), ▁stress ing ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁bi ograph ies ▁of ▁female ▁scient ists ▁perpet uate ▁s tere ot ypes . ▁ ▁Awards ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁D ing le ▁Prize , ▁British ▁Society ▁for ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁Science ▁for ▁Science : ▁A ▁Four ▁Th ous and ▁Year ▁History ▁( 2 0 0 9 ) ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁F ara , ▁Pat ric ia ▁( 2 0 0 2 ) ▁An ▁Entertainment ▁for ▁Ang els : ▁Electric ity ▁in ▁the ▁En light en ment ▁Icon ▁Books ▁ ▁F ara , ▁Pat ric ia ▁( 2 0 0 2 ) ▁Newton : ▁The ▁M aking ▁of ▁Gen ius ▁Pan - Mac Mill an ▁ ▁F ara , ▁Pat ric ia ▁( 2 0 0 2 ) ▁Scient ists ▁An onymous : ▁Great ▁St ories ▁of ▁Women ▁in ▁Science . ▁Tot em ▁Books . ▁▁▁ ▁F ara ,
▁Pat ric ia ▁( 2 0 0 4 ) ▁P and ora ' s ▁B ree ches : ▁Women , ▁Science ▁and ▁Power ▁in ▁the ▁En light en ment ▁P im lic o ▁Books ▁ ▁F ara , ▁Pat ric ia ▁( 2 0 0 5 ) ▁F atal ▁Att raction : ▁Mag net ic ▁Myst eries ▁of ▁the ▁En light en ment ▁Icon ▁Books ▁ ▁F ara , ▁Pat ric ia ▁( 2 0 0 9 ) ▁Science : ▁A ▁Four ▁Th ous and ▁Year ▁History ▁Oxford ▁University ▁Press ▁ ▁Broadcast s ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁In ▁Our ▁Time ▁' A da ▁Lov el ace ' ▁ 6 ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁In ▁Our ▁Time ▁' V ital ism ' ▁ 2 8 ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁In ▁Our ▁Time ▁' B acon ian ▁Science ' ▁ 2 ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁In ▁Our ▁Time ▁' Calcul us ' ▁ 2 4 ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁In ▁Our ▁Time ▁' W omen ▁and ▁En light en ment ▁Science ' ▁ 4 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁In ▁Our ▁Time ▁' Ro bert ▁H oo ke ' ▁ 1 8 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁The ▁Forum ▁' Marie ▁Cur ie ▁- ▁A ▁P ione ering ▁Life ' ▁ 1 9 ▁August ▁ 2 0
1 7 ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁In ▁Our ▁Time ▁' R os al ind ▁Franklin ' ▁ 2 2 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 4 ▁Science ▁St ories ▁' Mad ame ▁Lav ois ier ' s ▁Trans lation ▁of ▁O xygen ' ▁ 2 1 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 9 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : A cadem ics ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Al umn i ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Oxford ▁Category : Al umn i ▁of ▁Imperial ▁College ▁London ▁Category : H istor ians ▁of ▁science ▁Category : B rit ish ▁histor ians ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) <0x0A> </s> ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁A part ments ▁Historic ▁District , ▁Little ▁Rock , ▁Ark ansas , ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Com mer cial ▁Historic ▁District ▁( L ittle ▁Rock , ▁Ark ansas ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Res ident ial ▁Historic ▁District ▁( L ittle ▁Rock , ▁Ark ansas ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁and ▁Washington ▁Stre ets ▁Historic ▁District , ▁Nor walk , ▁Connecticut ▁South ▁Main - S outh ▁Lee ▁Stre ets ▁Historic ▁District , ▁Fitz ger ald , ▁Georgia ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( St ates bor o , ▁Georgia ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Res ident ial ▁Historic ▁District ▁( St
ates bor o , ▁Georgia ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( W at kins ville , ▁Georgia ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁and ▁South ▁El m ▁Stre ets ▁Historic ▁District , ▁Hend erson , ▁Kentucky , ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( V ers a illes , ▁Kentucky ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( W al ton , ▁Kentucky ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Historic ▁District ▁( G ren ada , ▁Mississippi ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( F ay ette , ▁Missouri ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( J op lin , ▁Missouri ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( K ern ers ville , ▁North ▁Carolina ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( G ene va , ▁New ▁York ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( Mount ▁Morris , ▁New ▁York ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁District ▁( M idd let own , ▁Ohio ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁District ▁( Pol and , ▁Ohio ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Com mer cial ▁Historic ▁District ▁( P end leton , ▁Oregon ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main
▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( C ov entry , ▁Rh ode ▁Island ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( W oon socket , ▁Rh ode ▁Island ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Historic ▁District ▁( B ishop ville , ▁South ▁Carolina ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( C ov ington , ▁Tennessee ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( P ike ville , ▁Tennessee ) ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( F ort ▁W orth , ▁Texas ) ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( F ond ▁du ▁Lac , ▁Wisconsin ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( J anes ville , ▁Wisconsin ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( O regon , ▁Wisconsin ), ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁District ▁( disambiguation ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Com mer cial ▁Historic ▁District ▁( disambiguation ) ▁South ▁Main ▁Street ▁Res ident ial ▁Historic ▁District ▁( disambiguation ) ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( disambiguation ) ▁North ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( disambiguation ) ▁East ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( disambiguation ) ▁West ▁Main ▁Street ▁Historic ▁District ▁( disambiguation ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Serge i ▁Mak ar ov ▁( born ▁June ▁ 1 9 , ▁ 1 9 6 4 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Russian ▁former ▁professional ▁ice ▁hockey ▁def enc eman .
▁ ▁Mak ar ov ▁played ▁eight ▁seasons ▁playing ▁with ▁K ry ly a ▁Sov et ov ▁Moscow ▁in ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Championship ▁League . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 6 4 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Russ ian ▁ice ▁hockey ▁def enc emen ▁Category : Det roit ▁Fal cons ▁( Co HL ) ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁No ▁A verage ▁Angel ▁is ▁the ▁second ▁studio ▁album ▁by ▁American ▁singer ▁T iff any ▁Gi ard ina . ▁The ▁album ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁January ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁through ▁ 7 8 5 ▁Records ▁and ▁sold ▁ 2 , 4 0 0 ▁copies ▁in ▁its ▁first ▁week . ▁The ▁singles , ▁" H ur ry ▁Up ▁and ▁Save ▁Me " ▁and ▁" No ▁A verage ▁Angel " ▁were ▁also ▁included ▁on ▁the ▁Another ▁C inder ella ▁Story ▁sound track . ▁ ▁Com position ▁ ▁Rec ording ▁sessions ▁began ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁When ▁asked ▁about ▁her ▁album , ▁Gi ard ina ▁respond ed ▁" It ’ s ▁basically ▁just ▁about ▁being ▁yourself ▁and ▁not ▁being ▁afraid ▁to ▁be ▁who ▁you ▁are ." ▁In ▁an ▁interview ▁with ▁" Art ist ▁Direct ", ▁she ▁talked ▁about ▁the ▁songs ▁on ▁the ▁album , ▁saying ▁" Every ▁song ▁has ▁a ▁different ▁story , ▁experience ▁and ▁v ibe ▁to ▁it . ▁I ' m ▁so ▁excited ▁for ▁this ▁album ▁to ▁come ▁out . ▁I ▁really ▁got ▁involved ▁in ▁every ▁aspect , ▁from ▁the ▁writing ▁to ▁the ▁art work
. ▁It ' s ▁very ▁personal ▁for ▁me , ▁and ▁I ▁couldn ' t ▁be ▁happ ier ▁with ▁it ." ▁She ▁stated ▁that ▁her ▁role - model ▁is ▁Aud rey ▁He p burn . ▁The ▁closest ▁song ▁from ▁the ▁album ▁for ▁Gi ard ina ▁is ▁" F alling ▁Down ", ▁stating ▁" The ▁song ' s ▁about ▁per se ver ing . ▁If ▁you ' re ▁having ▁a ▁bad ▁day , ▁keep ▁moving ▁forward . ▁If ▁you ' re ▁falling ▁down , ▁pick ▁yourself ▁back ▁up ▁and ▁move ▁on ." ▁When ▁asked ▁why ▁she ▁chose ▁to ▁cover ▁" E ternal ▁Fl ame " ▁she ▁said ▁" It ' s ▁one ▁of ▁my ▁favorite ▁songs ! ▁I ▁had ▁to ▁do ▁a ▁cover ▁of ▁it . ▁I ▁totally ▁wanted ▁to ▁sing ▁it ▁on ▁the ▁record . ▁The ▁president ▁of ▁my ▁label ▁is ▁really ▁into ▁rock ▁music , ▁and ▁that ' s ▁one ▁of ▁his ▁favorite ▁songs ▁too . ▁That ▁was ▁everyone ' s ▁choice ▁for ▁a ▁cover ." ▁She ▁also ▁stated ▁that ▁she ▁gets ▁excited ▁when ▁she ▁he ars ▁her ▁songs ▁on ▁the ▁radio ▁by ▁saying ▁" The ▁first ▁time ▁I ▁heard ▁' No ▁A verage ▁Angel ' ▁on ▁the ▁radio ▁I ▁fre aked ▁out . ▁I ▁was ▁driving ▁around ▁bl ast ing ▁it , ▁It ' s ▁about ▁being ▁yourself , ▁not ▁being ▁afraid ▁to ▁be ▁different . ▁ ▁Crit ical ▁reception ▁▁ ▁" No ▁A verage ▁Angel " ▁gained ▁mixed ▁reviews . ▁Amy ▁Sci ar retto , ▁from ▁Art ist ▁Direct , ▁gave
▁the ▁album ▁ 3 ▁out ▁of ▁ 5 ▁stars ▁and ▁wrote ▁" On ▁her ▁debut ▁album , ▁the ▁ 1 5 - year - old , ▁New ▁York ▁City - re ared ▁song str ess ▁ex udes ▁bucket ful s ▁of ▁s ass , ▁toss ing ▁her ▁long , ▁cur ly ▁tend r ils ▁and ▁singing ▁in ▁a ▁high ▁pitch ▁that ▁will ▁magnet ically ▁attract ▁reb elli ous ▁t ween ers ▁to ▁her ▁music ." ▁and ▁" Gi ard ina ▁will ▁certainly ▁appeal ▁to ▁the ▁pre - teen ▁set ▁in ▁a ▁way ▁that ▁Brit ney ▁Spe ars ▁no ▁longer ▁can . ▁No ▁A verage ▁Angel ▁is ▁a ▁fl uff y , ▁fro thy ▁collection ▁of ▁b ubble g um ▁pop ▁in ▁a ▁day ▁and ▁age ▁where ▁blow ing ▁b ub bles ▁is ▁still ▁fun !" ▁ ▁F arn az ▁Y ous he i ▁from ▁Camp us ▁Circle ▁gave ▁the ▁album ▁a ▁D - ▁writing ▁" The ▁ 1 6 - year - old , ▁whose ▁music ▁has ▁been ▁featured ▁in ▁ ▁Another ▁C inder ella ▁Story ▁and ▁Disney ' s ▁T ink er ▁Bell , ▁sounds ▁like ▁any ▁other ▁Disney - produ ced ▁te en ▁pop ▁star . ▁It ▁is ▁true ▁that ▁Gi ard ina ▁is ▁not ▁signed ▁to ▁the ▁Disney ▁label , ▁however , ▁it ▁is ▁hard ▁not ▁to ▁notice ▁the ▁similar ities ▁between ▁her ▁reson ance ▁and ▁those ▁of ▁Disney ▁produ ctions ▁like ▁M iley ▁C yrus . ▁No ▁A verage ▁Angel ▁is ▁just ▁a ▁regular ▁one ." ▁ ▁Prom otion
▁Gi ard ina ▁performed ▁" No ▁A verage ▁Angel " ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁U BS ▁Par ade ▁Spect ac ula ▁in ▁St am ford , ▁Connecticut . ▁On ▁January ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁Gi ard ina ▁had ▁a ▁release ▁party ▁for ▁her ▁album ▁at ▁F Y E ▁in ▁Port ▁Ch ester , ▁New ▁York ▁where ▁she ▁performed ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁songs ▁off ▁the ▁album . ▁A ▁TV ▁commercial ▁a ired ▁on ▁Nick el ode on ▁and ▁Disney ▁Channel ▁to ▁promote ▁the ▁album ▁which ▁features ▁a ▁male ▁announ cer . ▁She ▁also ▁performed ▁songs ▁from ▁the ▁album ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁B am bo oz le ▁in ▁New ▁Jersey . ▁ ▁Singles ▁The ▁first ▁single ▁off ▁the ▁album ▁was ▁" H ur ry ▁Up ▁and ▁Save ▁Me " ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁was ▁" No ▁A verage ▁Angel ". ▁Both ▁music ▁videos ▁was ▁shot ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁The ▁videos ▁have ▁T iff any ▁running ▁around ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁She ' s ▁cl ums y ▁and ▁she ▁runs ▁into ▁people . ▁She ▁finds ▁herself ▁in ▁these ▁weird ▁scenarios . ▁She ▁ends ▁up ▁in ▁Times ▁Square ▁singing ▁to ▁her ▁friends . ▁Both ▁videos ▁were ▁directed ▁by ▁Andrew ▁Ben nett . ▁Both ▁singles ▁were ▁also ▁on ▁a ▁mini ature ▁EP , ▁also ▁called ▁" No ▁A verage ▁Angel ". ▁It ▁was ▁only ▁available ▁for ▁a ▁limited ▁edition . ▁It ▁was ▁released ▁November ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁only
▁at ▁F Y E . ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁Notes ▁Song ▁lengths , ▁writing ▁cred its ▁and ▁producing ▁cred its ▁taken ▁from ▁the ▁No ▁A verage ▁Angel ▁l iner ▁notes . ▁The ▁first ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁copies ▁of ▁the ▁album ▁includes ▁a ▁DVD ▁with ▁the ▁music ▁videos ▁for ▁" No ▁A verage ▁Angel " ▁and ▁" H ur ry ▁Up ▁and ▁Save ▁Me ". ▁ ▁Person nel ▁Cred its ▁for ▁No ▁A verage ▁Angel ▁adapted ▁from ▁Art ist ▁Direct . ▁ ▁T iff any ▁Gi ard ina ▁- ▁Le ad ▁V oc als ▁Brian ▁Mal ou f ▁- ▁Mix ing ▁Se an ▁Hur ley ▁- ▁Bass ▁Dennis ▁Le ef lang ▁- ▁Dr ums ▁on ▁tracks ▁ 3 , ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 1 3 ▁Mark ▁E ich ner ▁- ▁Executive ▁Produ cer , ▁A & R ▁Jeff ▁Fran zel ▁- ▁Compos er ▁Jason ▁Le h ning ▁- ▁P iano , ▁F ender ▁Rh odes , ▁Engine er , ▁Compos er ▁Mike ▁Beck ▁- ▁Organ , ▁Engine er , ▁Produ cer ▁B ever ly ▁" R uby " ▁Ross ▁- ▁Compos er ▁C yn th ia ▁C och rane ▁- ▁Production ▁Co ord ination ▁Ralph ▁Church well ▁- ▁Compos er , ▁Produ cer ▁Anton ina ▁Arm ato ▁- ▁Compos er ▁Den ise ▁Rich ▁- ▁Compos er ▁Julius ▁Edward ▁D ixon ▁- ▁Compos er ▁John ▁De ader ick ▁- ▁P iano , ▁Organ ▁( H amm ond ), ▁W url itzer ▁David ▁M ead ▁- ▁Compos er ▁Tal
▁Herz berg ▁- ▁Mix ing ▁Kath ry n ▁Ra io ▁- ▁V oc als ▁( Background ) ▁Tim ▁Mark s ▁- ▁Bass ▁Jimmy ▁F ark as ▁- ▁Gu itar ▁J ill ▁Wal sh ▁- ▁Compos er , ▁V oc als ▁( Background ), ▁Produ cer ▁K yle ▁Ford ▁- ▁Engine er ▁T iff any ▁Gi ard ina ▁- ▁Compos er ▁Chris ▁Dec oc co ▁- ▁Engine er ▁James ▁Fra ze e ▁- ▁Ass istant ▁Engine er ▁Anthony ▁Batt aglia ▁- ▁Compos er ▁David ▁K atz ▁- ▁Compos er ▁Ted ▁J ensen ▁- ▁Master ing ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Mis so and fri ends . com ▁ ▁B log . sch ol astic . com ▁ ▁Te en music . com ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 9 ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁Ro op am ▁Sh arma , ▁▁ ▁( born ▁ 2 4 ▁May ▁ 1 9 9 5 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Indian ▁scient ist . ▁He ▁is ▁best ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁work ▁on ▁Man ov ue , ▁a ▁technology ▁which ▁enables ▁the ▁vis ually ▁imp a ired ▁to ▁read ▁printed ▁text . ▁His ▁research ▁interests ▁include ▁W ear able ▁Comput ing , ▁Mobile ▁Application ▁Development , ▁Human ▁Center ed ▁Design , ▁Computer ▁V ision , ▁A I ▁and ▁C ogn itive ▁Science . ▁Ro op am ▁was ▁recently ▁awarded ▁the ▁G ift ed ▁Cit izen ▁Prize ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁ ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁listed ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁top ▁ 8 ▁In nov ators ▁Under ▁
3 5 ▁by ▁the ▁M IT ▁Technology ▁Review ▁for ▁the ▁year ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁in ▁India . ▁Ro op am ▁bel ieves ▁that ▁people ▁with ▁passion ▁can ▁change ▁the ▁world ▁for ▁the ▁better . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁he ▁was ▁hon oured ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁Asia ' s ▁ 2 1 ▁Young ▁Le aders ▁In iti ative ▁in ▁Man ila . ▁ ▁Early ▁life , ▁education ▁and ▁research ▁Ro op am ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁May ▁ 2 4 , ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁in ▁Far id abad , ▁H ary ana , ▁India ▁to ▁N irm al ▁and ▁Kr ish na ▁D utt ▁Sh arma . ▁He ▁has ▁a ▁brother ▁Rah ul ▁and ▁a ▁sister ▁Pri y anka . ▁Ro op am ▁comes ▁from ▁a ▁very ▁hum ble , ▁middle - class ▁family . ▁He ▁is ▁an ▁al umn us ▁of ▁Ryan ▁International ▁School , ▁Far id abad ▁and ▁Modern ▁Vid ya ▁Nik et an , ▁Far id abad ▁and ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁study ▁Bach el ors ▁of ▁Technology ▁in ▁Computer ▁Science ▁and ▁Engineering ▁at ▁Man av ▁Rach na ▁University ▁in ▁Far id abad , ▁H ary ana . ▁It ▁wasn ’ t ▁out ▁of ▁any ▁of ▁his ▁cre ative ▁des ires ▁that ▁he ▁chose ▁Engineering . ▁He ▁and ▁his ▁parents ▁thought ▁that ▁engineering ▁was ▁one ▁career ▁where ▁he ▁would ▁not ▁star ve . ▁Ro op am ▁began ▁his ▁research ▁and ▁innov ation ▁journey ▁during ▁his ▁s oph om ore ▁year ▁of ▁under grad uate ▁school ▁at
▁Man av ▁Rach na ▁University ▁with ▁a ▁belief ▁that ▁students ▁who ▁worked ▁in ▁research ▁and ▁development ▁in ▁college ▁got ▁better ▁job ▁opportun ities ▁but ▁dest iny ▁had ▁other ▁plans ▁for ▁him . ▁Ro op am ' s ▁contributions ▁to ▁the ▁society ▁proves ▁that ▁he ▁innov ates ▁for ▁the ▁better ment ▁of ▁the ▁society . ▁ ▁In vent ions ▁Ro op am ' s ▁project ▁Man ov ue , ▁developed ▁by ▁E y el umin ati , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁world ' s ▁first ▁intellig ent ▁personal ▁assist ing ▁system ▁for ▁the ▁vis ually ▁imp a ired . ▁It ' s ▁an ▁in exp ensive ▁technology ▁that ▁does ▁ 3 ▁main ▁things : ▁ ▁It ▁enables ▁the ▁user ▁to ▁read ▁printed ▁text ▁by ▁simply ▁pointing ▁over ▁the ▁text . ▁▁ ▁It ▁helps ▁them ▁to ▁navigate ▁freely ▁outside ▁well ▁known ▁environment ▁through ▁ha ptic ▁feedback . ▁ ▁It ▁comes ▁with ▁a ▁completely ▁voice ▁controlled ▁mobile ▁phone ▁application ▁and ▁enables ▁the ▁user ▁to ▁use ▁his ▁phone ▁only ▁through ▁his ▁voice . ▁ ▁Man ov ue ▁brings ▁employ ▁ability , ▁Independ ence ▁and ▁Emp ower ment ▁to ▁the ▁vis ually ▁imp a ired ▁and ▁is ▁meant ▁to ▁replace ▁the ▁bra ille ▁language , ▁the ▁can e ▁and ▁will ▁open ▁up ▁the ▁smart phone ▁market ▁to ▁the ▁vis ually ▁imp a ired . ▁Man ov ue ▁was ▁awarded ▁as ▁the ▁winner ▁of ▁ ▁the ▁Microsoft ▁Im agine ▁Cup ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁and ▁Y ahoo ▁Acc ent ure ▁In nov ation ▁J ock e ys ▁season ▁
4 . ▁He ▁was ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁M IT ▁Te ch ▁Review ▁ 3 5 ▁under ▁ 3 5 ▁list ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁ ▁Awards ▁and ▁achiev ements ▁ ▁Ro op am ▁was ▁recently ▁awarded ▁the ▁G ift ed ▁Cit izen ▁Prize ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁Each ▁year ▁the ▁G ift ed ▁Cit izen ▁Prize ▁is ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁best ▁social ▁entrepr ene ur ship ▁project ▁that ▁has ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁benefit ▁ 1 0 ▁million ▁people ▁over ▁the ▁next ▁six ▁years . ▁This ▁international ▁prize ▁hon ors ▁the ▁pass ions ▁of ▁those ▁that ▁seek ▁to ▁develop ▁real ▁solutions ▁to ▁human ity ' s ▁most ▁pressing ▁issues . ▁He ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁listed ▁as ▁an ▁innov ator ▁under ▁ 3 5 ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁by ▁the ▁Technology ▁Review . ▁Each ▁year ▁Technology ▁Review ▁disco vers ▁and ▁presents ▁new ▁gener ations ▁of ▁In nov ators ▁Under ▁ 3 5 , ▁the ▁young ▁leaders ▁developing ▁hard ▁techn ologies ▁to ▁solve ▁the ▁major ▁global ▁challeng es ▁of ▁today ▁in ▁remark ably ▁different ▁ways ▁and ▁impact ing ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁millions ▁of ▁people ▁around ▁the ▁glo be . ▁Ro op am ▁was ▁also ▁named ▁as ▁a ▁judge ▁for ▁the ▁Living ▁Tal ent ▁Master pie ce ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁and ▁ ▁Acc ent ure ▁In nov ation ▁J ock e ys ▁Season ▁ 6 . ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁is ▁the ▁list ▁of ▁notable ▁awards ▁and ▁achiev ements ▁received : ▁ ▁References ▁and ▁notes ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁
▁Category : 1 9 9 5 ▁birth s ▁Category : Ind ian ▁phil anth rop ists ▁Category : In vent ors ▁Category : Ind ian ▁human it ari ans ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Ind ian ▁computer ▁scient ists <0x0A> </s> ▁Robert ▁Patrick ▁Arm strong ▁ ▁( born ▁March ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 9 3 8 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Canadian ▁lawyer ▁and ▁retired ▁judge . ▁He ▁served ▁on ▁the ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁for ▁Ontario ▁from ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁until ▁his ▁ret irement ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁Before ▁serving ▁on ▁the ▁ben ch , ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁a ▁partner ▁at ▁T ory s ▁and ▁was ▁lead ▁coun sel ▁in ▁the ▁Dub in ▁In qu iry ▁on ▁ster oid ▁use ▁in ▁Canadian ▁sports . ▁After ▁leaving ▁the ▁ben ch , ▁Arm strong ▁joined ▁Ar bitr ation ▁Place , ▁a ▁Canadian ▁group ▁special izing ▁in ▁alternative ▁dispute ▁resolution . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁career ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁March ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 9 3 8 . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁student ▁at ▁Car leton ▁University , ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Toronto , ▁and ▁the ▁London ▁School ▁of ▁Econom ics . ▁He ▁earned ▁his ▁LL B ▁from ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Toronto ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 5 ▁and ▁was ▁called ▁to ▁the ▁bar ▁two ▁years ▁later ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁Arm strong ▁began ▁pract icing ▁law ▁with ▁Kim ber , ▁Dub in ▁in ▁Toronto . ▁▁ ▁Arm strong
▁joined ▁T ory s ▁in ▁Toronto ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 2 , ▁where ▁he ▁would ▁stay ▁until ▁his ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁appointment ▁to ▁the ▁Ontario ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al . ▁Arm strong ▁became ▁a ▁partner ▁at ▁T ory s ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 3 , ▁and ▁was ▁appointed ▁a ▁Queen ' s ▁Coun sel ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 8 . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁commission ▁coun sel ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁G range ▁Commission ▁on ▁Railway ▁Saf ety , ▁which ▁was ▁formed ▁to ▁study ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁Mississ aug a ▁train ▁der ail ment . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁Times , ▁Arm strong ' s ▁" ten a cious ▁gr illing " ▁of ▁witness es ▁in ▁the ▁G range ▁Commission ▁bol ster ed ▁his ▁reputation . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁served ▁as ▁lead ▁coun sel ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁Dub in ▁In qu iry , ▁a ▁federal ▁inqu iry ▁launched ▁after ▁Ben ▁Johnson ' s ▁do ping ▁sc andal ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁in ▁Se oul . ▁Arm strong ▁worked ▁with ▁his ▁ment or ▁Justice ▁Charles ▁Dub in , ▁the ▁chair ▁of ▁the ▁inqu iry , ▁to ▁guide ▁the ▁testim ony ▁of ▁witness es ▁such ▁as ▁Ben ▁Johnson , ▁Ang ella ▁Taylor - I ss aj en ko , ▁Charlie ▁Francis ▁about ▁the ▁extent ▁of ▁their ▁an abol ic ▁ster oid ▁use ▁and ▁how ▁they ▁avoided ▁discovery . ▁The ▁inqu iry ▁recommended ▁random
, ▁un ann ounced ▁drug - testing ▁of ▁athlet es ▁to ▁d eter ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁an abol ic ▁ster oid s . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁has ▁appeared ▁in ▁important ▁cases ▁including ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁case ▁of ▁Hill ▁v . ▁Church ▁of ▁Scient ology ▁of ▁Toronto ▁in ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁of ▁Canada . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁a ▁ben cher ▁of ▁the ▁Law ▁Society ▁of ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁from ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁and ▁the ▁ 5 6 th ▁Tre as urer ▁of ▁the ▁Law ▁Society ▁of ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁from ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁He ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁former ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Board ▁of ▁Reg ents ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁College ▁of ▁Tri al ▁Law y ers , ▁and ▁the ▁former ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁Canadian ▁Institute ▁for ▁Advanced ▁Leg al ▁Studies . ▁ ▁Ontario ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁appointed ▁to ▁the ▁Ontario ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁on ▁January ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁He ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁last ▁jud ges ▁on ▁the ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁to ▁not ▁have ▁previously ▁held ▁a ▁jud icial ▁position , ▁which ▁was ▁previously ▁a ▁w ides p read ▁practice ▁for ▁federal ▁appoint ments . ▁In ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁awarded ▁a ▁Doctor ▁of ▁Law ▁( LL D ) ▁honor ary ▁degree ▁by ▁the ▁Law ▁Society ▁of ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁for ▁his ▁contributions ▁to
▁Canadian ▁law . ▁ ▁In ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Arm strong ▁wrote ▁the ▁majority ▁decision ▁u ph old ing ▁a ▁lower ▁court ' s ▁decision ▁that ▁un ions ▁cannot ▁force ▁courts ▁to ▁en force ▁fin es ▁it ▁impos es ▁on ▁its ▁members ▁who ▁cross ▁pick et ▁lines . ▁Arm strong , ▁with ▁Justice ▁Paul ▁Rou le au ▁conc urr ing , ▁found ▁that ▁the ▁union ' s ▁constitution ▁created ▁a ▁power ▁im bal ance ▁with ▁its ▁members , ▁making ▁it ▁un con sc ion able ▁for ▁the ▁court ▁to ▁en force ▁the ▁fin es . ▁Arm strong ' s ▁colle ague , ▁Justice ▁Russell ▁G . ▁J uri ans z , ▁diss ented ▁saying ▁that ▁the ▁im bal ance ▁of ▁power ▁had ▁not ▁been ▁ab used ▁and ▁the ▁workers ▁were ▁always ▁free ▁to ▁leave ▁the ▁union . ▁The ▁union ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁applied ▁for ▁leave ▁to ▁appeal ▁the ▁case ▁to ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁of ▁Canada , ▁but ▁the ▁application ▁was ▁dismiss ed ▁with ▁costs . ▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁Arm strong ▁wrote ▁a ▁decision ▁holding ▁that ▁a ▁def endant ▁had ▁correctly ▁been ▁found ▁guilty ▁of ▁criminal ▁har ass ment ▁even ▁though ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁previous ▁contact ▁and ▁there ▁was ▁only ▁a ▁single ▁incident , ▁unlike ▁the ▁repet itive ▁nature ▁of ▁traditional ▁st alk ing ▁cases . ▁Arm strong ▁wrote ▁that ▁this ▁was ▁because ▁the ▁def endant ' s ▁actions ▁– ▁jump ing ▁out ▁of ▁a ▁bush ▁at ▁the ▁comp lain ant ▁and ▁ch asing ▁her
▁down ▁a ▁street ▁– ▁were ▁" high ly ▁threaten ing ▁and ▁persistent " ▁and ▁had ▁caused ▁the ▁comp lain ant ▁to ▁reason ably ▁fear ▁for ▁her ▁safety . ▁The ▁def endant ' s ▁application ▁for ▁leave ▁to ▁appeal ▁to ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁was ▁dismiss ed . ▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁Arm strong , ▁supported ▁by ▁the ▁other ▁two ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁jud ges ▁hearing ▁the ▁case , ▁dismiss ed ▁the ▁appeal ▁in ▁R ▁v ▁F ear on . ▁Arm strong ▁wrote ▁that ▁F ear on ' s ▁right ▁to ▁priv acy ▁was ▁not ▁viol ated ▁because ▁a ▁cell phone ▁without ▁password ▁protection ▁can ▁be ▁searched ▁by ▁police ▁during ▁an ▁arrest ▁without ▁a ▁war rant . ▁Arm strong ' s ▁decision ▁was ▁appe aled ▁to ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court , ▁which ▁dismiss ed ▁the ▁appeal ▁in ▁a ▁ 4 – 3 ▁decision ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁became ▁a ▁super numer ary ▁judge ▁for ▁the ▁court ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁and ▁was ▁replaced ▁as ▁a ▁full - time ▁judge ▁by ▁Peter ▁Lau wers ▁from ▁the ▁Ontario ▁Super ior ▁Court ▁of ▁Justice . ▁Arm strong ▁retired ▁in ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁upon ▁reaching ▁the ▁mand atory ▁ret irement ▁age ▁of ▁ 7 5 . ▁ ▁Post - jud icial ▁career ▁ ▁A ▁year ▁after ▁ret iring ▁from ▁the ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁Arm strong ▁joined ▁Ar bitr ation ▁Place ,
▁a ▁Canadian ▁arbitr ation ▁firm , ▁as ▁a ▁resident ▁arbitr ator ▁and ▁medi ator . ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁Dist ingu ished ▁Vis iting ▁Jur ist ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁– ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁school ▁year ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Toronto ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁for ▁Ontario ▁bi ography ▁ ▁Ar bitr ation ▁Place ▁profile ▁ ▁Category : T reas ur ers ▁of ▁the ▁Law ▁Society ▁of ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁Category : Just ices ▁of ▁the ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁for ▁Ontario ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 1 9 3 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁Queen ' s ▁Coun sel ▁Category : Car leton ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Toronto ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law ▁al umn i ▁Category : Al umn i ▁of ▁the ▁London ▁School ▁of ▁Econom ics <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁occurred ▁de ▁fact o ▁on ▁ 6 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁when ▁the ▁final ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁Francis ▁II ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁H abs burg - L or raine , ▁ab dic ated ▁his ▁title ▁and ▁released ▁all ▁imperial ▁states ▁and ▁officials ▁from ▁their ▁o ath s ▁and ▁oblig ations ▁to ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁Since ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁had ▁been ▁recognized ▁by ▁Western ▁Europe ans ▁as ▁the ▁legit imate ▁continu ation ▁of ▁the ▁ancient
▁Roman ▁Empire ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁em per ors ▁having ▁been ▁proc laimed ▁as ▁Roman ▁em per ors ▁by ▁the ▁Pap acy . ▁Through ▁this ▁Roman ▁legacy , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Em per ors ▁claimed ▁to ▁be ▁universal ▁monarch s ▁whose ▁juris diction ▁extended ▁beyond ▁their ▁emp ire ' s ▁formal ▁borders ▁to ▁all ▁of ▁Christian ▁Europe ▁and ▁beyond . ▁The ▁formation ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁modern ▁so ver eign ▁territorial ▁states ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁and ▁ 1 7 th ▁centuries , ▁which ▁brought ▁with ▁it ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁juris diction ▁correspond ed ▁to ▁actual ▁territory ▁govern ed , ▁threatened ▁the ▁universal ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁▁ ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁by ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁was ▁widely ▁regarded ▁by ▁contempor aries , ▁both ▁inside ▁and ▁outside ▁the ▁emp ire , ▁as ▁a ▁highly ▁" ir regular " ▁mon archy ▁and ▁" s ick ", ▁having ▁a ▁" un us ual " ▁form ▁of ▁government . ▁The ▁emp ire ▁lack ed ▁both ▁a ▁central ▁standing ▁army ▁and ▁a ▁central ▁tre as ury ▁and ▁its ▁monarch s , ▁formally ▁elect ive ▁rather ▁than ▁her edit ary , ▁could ▁not ▁exercise ▁effective ▁central ▁control . ▁Even ▁then , ▁most ▁contempor aries ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁emp ire ▁could ▁be ▁rev ived ▁and ▁restored ▁to ▁glory . ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁did ▁not ▁experience ▁its ▁true ▁terminal ▁decl ine ▁before ▁its ▁invol vement ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution ary ▁Wars ▁and ▁the ▁Napole onic ▁Wars . ▁▁ ▁Although ▁the
▁emp ire ▁def ended ▁itself ▁quite ▁well ▁initially , ▁war ▁with ▁France ▁and ▁Napoleon ▁proved ▁cat ast roph ic . ▁In ▁ 1 8 0 4 , ▁Napoleon ▁proc laimed ▁himself ▁as ▁the ▁Emperor ▁of ▁the ▁French , ▁which ▁Francis ▁II ▁respond ed ▁to ▁by ▁proc laim ing ▁himself ▁the ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Austria , ▁in ▁addition ▁to ▁already ▁being ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁an ▁attempt ▁at ▁maintain ing ▁par ity ▁between ▁France ▁and ▁Austria ▁while ▁also ▁illustr ating ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁title ▁out rank ed ▁them ▁both . ▁Austria ' s ▁defeat ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Aust er l itz ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 8 0 5 ▁and ▁the ▁se cess ion ▁of ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁German ▁v ass als ▁in ▁July ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine , ▁a ▁French ▁satellite ▁state , ▁effectively ▁meant ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁The ▁ab dic ation ▁in ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁combined ▁with ▁a ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁entire ▁imperial ▁hierarchy ▁and ▁its ▁institutions , ▁was ▁seen ▁as ▁necessary ▁to ▁prevent ▁the ▁possibility ▁of ▁Napoleon ▁proc laim ing ▁himself ▁as ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁something ▁which ▁would ▁have ▁reduced ▁Francis ▁II ▁to ▁Napoleon ' s ▁v ass al . ▁▁ ▁Re actions ▁to ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁dissol ution ▁r anged ▁from ▁ind ifference ▁to ▁desp air . ▁The ▁popul ace ▁of ▁Vienna , ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁Mon archy
, ▁were ▁hor r ified ▁at ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁Many ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁former ▁subjects ▁question ed ▁the ▁leg ality ▁of ▁his ▁actions ; ▁though ▁his ▁ab dic ation ▁was ▁agreed ▁to ▁be ▁perfectly ▁legal , ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁and ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁all ▁its ▁v ass als ▁were ▁seen ▁as ▁beyond ▁the ▁em peror ' s ▁authority . ▁As ▁such , ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁princes ▁and ▁subjects ▁refused ▁to ▁accept ▁that ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁gone , ▁with ▁some ▁common ers ▁going ▁so ▁far ▁as ▁to ▁believe ▁that ▁news ▁of ▁its ▁dissol ution ▁was ▁a ▁plot ▁by ▁their ▁local ▁authorities . ▁In ▁Germany , ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁was ▁widely ▁compared ▁to ▁the ▁ancient ▁and ▁semi - legend ary ▁Fall ▁of ▁T roy ▁and ▁some ▁associated ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁what ▁they ▁perce ived ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁with ▁the ▁end ▁times ▁and ▁the ▁ap ocal yp se . ▁ ▁Background ▁ ▁Ide ology ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁▁ ▁The ▁defining ▁characteristic ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁represented ▁the ▁leading ▁monarch ▁in ▁Europe ▁and ▁that ▁their ▁emp ire ▁was ▁the ▁one ▁true ▁continu ation ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁of ▁Anti qu ity , ▁through ▁pro clam ation ▁by ▁the ▁Pop es ▁in ▁Rome . ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁firm ▁belief ▁of ▁its ▁em per ors ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁the ▁sole ▁genu ine ▁em per ors ▁in ▁Europe ▁and ▁although ▁they ▁had
▁formally ▁recognized ▁the ▁r ul ers ▁of ▁Russia ▁as ▁em per ors ▁in ▁ 1 6 0 6 ▁and ▁the ▁s ult ans ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁as ▁em per ors ▁in ▁ 1 7 2 1 , ▁these ▁recogn itions ▁were ▁conditional ▁on ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁was ▁always ▁pre - em inent . ▁The ▁pre - em in ence ▁of ▁the ▁em peror ▁was ▁an ▁expression ▁of ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁theoret ically , ▁extended ▁over ▁all ▁Christians ▁in ▁a ▁universal ▁manner . ▁Because ▁the ▁emp ire ▁at ▁no ▁point ▁ruled ▁over ▁all ▁of ▁Christian ▁Europe , ▁this ▁idea ▁was ▁always ▁an ▁ideal ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁reality . ▁Imperial ▁authority ▁rest ed ▁not ▁on ▁the ▁em peror ' s ▁own ▁crown ▁lands ▁( though ▁there ▁were ▁large ▁crown ▁lands ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁and ▁ 1 9 th ▁centuries ) ▁but ▁on ▁the ▁em peror ' s ▁role ▁as ▁the ▁highest ▁sec ular ▁r uler ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁and ▁a ▁champion ▁and ▁advoc ate ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church . ▁The ▁lack ▁of ▁a ▁defined ▁capital ▁and ▁consistent ▁crown ▁lands ▁rein for ced ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁imperial ▁title ▁was ▁universal ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁not ▁necessarily ▁associated ▁with ▁any ▁one ▁area . ▁▁ ▁Through out ▁its ▁long ▁existence , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁a ▁central ▁element ▁in ▁international ▁relations ▁in ▁Europe , ▁not ▁only ▁because ▁the ▁emp ire ▁itself ▁was ▁often ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁powerful ▁on ▁the ▁continent ▁but ▁also
▁because ▁of ▁the ▁em peror ▁himself . ▁Because ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Em per ors ▁were ▁the ▁intern ation ally ▁recognized ▁he irs ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁Roman ▁em per ors ▁and ▁the ▁for em ost ▁Christian ▁r ul ers , ▁they ▁claimed ▁( and ▁were ▁often ▁granted ) ▁preced ence ▁over ▁other ▁r ul ers . ▁ ▁Although ▁the ▁em per ors ▁had ▁been ▁formally ▁titled ▁as ▁" E lect ed ▁Roman ▁Emperor " ▁since ▁ 1 5 0 8 , ▁when ▁Emperor ▁Maxim ilian ▁I ▁took ▁the ▁title ▁without ▁the ▁need ▁for ▁a ▁Pap al ▁coron ation , ▁the ▁universal ist ▁character ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁sust ained ▁through ▁the ▁em peror ' s ▁fe ud al ▁authority ▁extending ▁beyond ▁just ▁the ▁institutions ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁developed ▁within ▁the ▁formal ▁imperial ▁borders . ▁Imperial ▁territ ories ▁held ▁by ▁r ul ers ▁of ▁other ▁real ms ▁remained ▁imperial ▁v ass als . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁k ings ▁of ▁both ▁Sweden ▁and ▁Den mark ▁accepted ▁v ass al age ▁in ▁regards ▁to ▁their ▁German ▁lands ▁until ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁when ▁these ▁lands ▁were ▁formally ▁incorpor ated ▁into ▁their ▁kingdom s . ▁The ▁Re formation ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century ▁had ▁made ▁man aging ▁the ▁emp ire ▁more ▁difficult ▁and ▁made ▁its ▁role ▁as ▁" hol y " ▁question able . ▁Despite ▁Luther an ism ▁and ▁Cal vin ism ▁being ▁toler ated ▁from ▁ 1 5 5 5 ▁and ▁ 1 6 4 8 ▁on wards ▁respectively , ▁Catholic
ism ▁remained ▁the ▁only ▁recognized ▁faith . ▁Even ▁then , ▁the ▁Imperial ▁Church ▁dimin ished ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century ▁on wards , ▁only ▁Main z ▁surv iving ▁as ▁a ▁ecc les iast ical ▁territory ▁by ▁ 1 8 0 3 . ▁The ▁" hol y " ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁became ▁even ▁more ▁question able ▁when ▁the ▁possibility ▁of ▁permanent ▁peace ▁with ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire , ▁widely ▁seen ▁as ▁the ▁mort al ▁enemies ▁of ▁Christian ▁Europe , ▁was ▁accepted ▁through ▁the ▁ 1 6 9 9 ▁Peace ▁of ▁Kar low itz . ▁ ▁Both ▁the ▁Pap acy ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁continued ▁to ▁claim ▁their ▁traditional ▁rights ▁of ▁universal ▁juris diction ▁into ▁the ▁early ▁modern ▁period , ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁their ▁re ight ▁to ▁exercise ▁juris diction ▁throughout ▁the ▁entire ▁world , ▁even ▁if ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁de ▁fact o ▁control ▁over ▁particular ▁territ ories . ▁Con joint ly ▁with ▁the ▁Pap acy , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁represented ▁the ▁recognized ▁centre ▁of ▁the ▁Christian ▁world , ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁pill ars ▁upon ▁which ▁it ▁rest ed . ▁It ▁was ▁always ▁its ▁influence ▁and ▁its ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁recognized ▁world ▁order ▁that ▁gave ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁its ▁true ▁power , ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁actual ▁extent ▁of ▁its ▁territorial ▁domains . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁greatest ▁thre ats ▁to ▁the ▁traditional ▁( and ▁theoretical ) ▁universal ▁juris diction ▁accord ed ▁to ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁and ▁the ▁Pope ▁throughout ▁the ▁Christian ▁world ▁was ▁the ▁emer
gence ▁of ▁modern ▁so ver eign ▁territorial ▁states ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁and ▁ 1 7 th ▁centuries , ▁which ▁meant ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁juris diction ▁was ▁the ▁same ▁thing ▁as ▁direct ▁control ▁of ▁territory . ▁To ▁the ▁r ul ers ▁of ▁territorial ▁states , ▁both ▁the ▁Pap acy ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁represented ▁" univers al ▁ant agon ists ", ▁claim ing ▁that ▁juris diction ▁over ▁all ▁the ▁world ▁was ▁their s ▁by ▁right ▁through ▁their ▁connection ▁to ▁An cient ▁Rome ▁and ▁their ▁role ▁as ▁earth ly ▁represent atives ▁of ▁Jesus ▁Christ . ▁Am bit ious ▁em per ors , ▁such ▁as ▁Charles ▁V ▁( 1 5 1 9 – 1 5 5 6 ) ▁and ▁Ferdinand ▁II ▁( 1 6 1 9 – 1 6 3 7 ), ▁who ▁sought ▁to ▁combine ▁universal ▁juris diction ▁with ▁actual ▁universal ▁temporal ▁rule ▁and ▁universal ▁imperial ▁authority , ▁represented ▁thre ats ▁to ▁the ▁continued ▁existence ▁of ▁the ▁countries ▁of ▁Europe . ▁ ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁▁ ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century , ▁the ▁contemporary ▁views ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁were ▁far ▁from ▁univers ally ▁positive . ▁There ▁was ▁a ▁w ides p read ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁" s ick " ▁in ▁some ▁capacity , ▁for ▁instance ▁the ▁books eller ▁and ▁publish er ▁Johann ▁Heinrich ▁Z ed ler ▁mentions ▁the ▁" state ▁ill ness es ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire " ▁in ▁his ▁ 1
7 4 5 ▁G ross es ▁Universal - L ex icon . ▁This ▁view ▁dates ▁back ▁to ▁at ▁least ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁West phal ia ▁at ▁the ▁conclusion ▁of ▁the ▁Th irty ▁Years ' ▁War ▁in ▁ 1 6 4 8 , ▁where ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁explicitly ▁defined ▁as ▁not ▁being ▁a ▁nation ▁state . ▁The ▁ 1 7 th ▁century ▁historian ▁Samuel ▁von ▁P uf endorf ▁fam ously ▁described ▁the ▁emp ire ▁as ▁having ▁a ▁" un us ual ▁form ▁of ▁government " ▁and ▁der ided ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁" mon st ros ity ", ▁lack ing ▁what ▁was ▁required ▁for ▁an ▁effective ▁and ▁functional ▁state . ▁The ▁lack ▁of ▁a ▁standing ▁army , ▁a ▁central ▁tre as ury , ▁weak ▁central ▁control ▁exerc ised ▁by ▁a ▁monarch ▁who ▁was ▁elect ive ▁and ▁not ▁her edit ary ▁all ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁un ified ▁German ▁state . ▁In ▁the ▁view ▁of ▁its ▁contempor aries , ▁the ▁emp ire ▁had ▁re gress ed ▁from ▁a ▁" regular " ▁mon archy ▁into ▁a ▁highly ▁irregular ▁one . ▁ ▁Although ▁some ▁German ▁rom antics ▁and ▁national ists ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁emp ire ▁had ▁to ▁die ▁for ▁Germany ▁to ▁be ▁re born , ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁imperial ▁subjects ▁had ▁not ▁given ▁up ▁hope ▁that ▁the ▁" s ick " ▁emp ire ▁might ▁be ▁c ured ▁and ▁rev ived . ▁The ▁first ▁few ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁saw ▁extensive ▁re organ izations ▁and ▁changes ▁in ▁power ▁within
▁the ▁emp ire , ▁with ▁the ▁ 1 8 0 1 ▁Peace ▁of ▁L un é ville ▁with ▁France ▁meaning ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁imperial ▁juris diction ▁in ▁the ▁Netherlands ▁and ▁Italy , ▁and ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁powerful ▁German ▁r ul ers ▁in ▁the ▁north , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Kings ▁of ▁Pr uss ia , ▁causing ▁the ▁cons olid ation ▁of ▁many ▁previously ▁separate ▁imperial ▁v ass als ▁and ▁f ief s ▁into ▁the ▁hands ▁of ▁a ▁few ▁r ul ers . ▁The ▁traditional ▁political ▁hierarchy ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁dis rupted , ▁but ▁it ▁was ▁not ▁obvious ▁to ▁contempor aries ▁that ▁this ▁was ▁to ▁lead ▁to ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁down fall , ▁the ▁general ▁view ▁was ▁that ▁it ▁represented ▁a ▁new ▁beginning ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁last ▁few ▁steps ▁towards ▁an ▁ending . ▁Furthermore , ▁many ▁public ists ▁within ▁the ▁emp ire ▁did ▁not ▁see ▁its ▁nature ▁as ▁a ▁" ir regular " ▁mon archy ▁as ▁something ▁negative ▁and ▁were ▁un con c ern ed ▁with ▁forming ▁a ▁new ▁political ▁or ▁social ▁order , ▁but ▁rather ▁sought ▁to ▁augment ▁the ▁already ▁present ▁structures ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁better ▁future . ▁The ▁Peace ▁of ▁West phal ia ▁had ▁explicitly ▁designated ▁that ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁to ▁remain ▁non - aligned ▁and ▁pass ive ▁and ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁to ▁work ▁to ▁maintain ▁peace ▁in ▁Europe , ▁an ▁arrangement ▁approved ▁of ▁by ▁most ▁of ▁its ▁inhabitants . ▁ ▁Despite ▁the ▁w ides p read ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁" s ick ",
▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁not ▁in ▁terminal ▁decl ine ▁before ▁its ▁invol vement ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution ary ▁Wars ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 7 9 0 s ▁on wards . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century , ▁imperial ▁institutions ▁were ▁experien cing ▁something ▁a kin ▁to ▁a ▁r ena issance . ▁The ▁emp ire ▁represented ▁to ▁saf est ▁and ▁best ▁guarantee ▁for ▁the ▁rights ▁of ▁smaller ▁states ▁and ▁territ ories ▁in ▁a ▁time ▁when ▁Europe ▁was ▁beginning ▁to ▁be ▁domin ated ▁by ▁powerful ▁imperial ▁nation ▁states . ▁Because ▁of ▁the ▁weak ▁central ▁government , ▁the ▁constitu ent ▁territ ories ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁could ▁influence ▁their ▁own ▁f ates , ▁the ▁central ▁Reich stag ▁decided ▁policy ▁and ▁legisl ation ▁and ▁allowed ▁the ▁emp ire ▁to ▁coordinate ▁its ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁threat ▁represented ▁by ▁France ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁separate ▁imperial ▁supre me ▁courts ▁and ▁the ▁imperial ▁circles ▁represented ▁successful ▁ven ues ▁for ▁resol ving ▁inter - imper ial ▁conflicts . ▁The ▁Reich stag ▁also ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁place ▁where ▁we aker ▁imperial ▁princes ▁could ▁work ▁to ▁conv ince ▁their ▁more ▁powerful ▁counter parts ▁to ▁remain ▁at ▁peace ▁and ▁resolve ▁their ▁differences . ▁ ▁Wars ▁with ▁France ▁and ▁Napoleon ▁ ▁Aust rian ▁war ▁effort ▁and ▁responses ▁▁ ▁Although ▁the ▁forces ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁First ▁Republic ▁over ran ▁and ▁occupied ▁the ▁Netherlands ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 2 , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁def ending ▁itself ▁quite ▁well ▁until ▁Pr uss ia ▁abandoned ▁the ▁war ▁effort ▁to ▁focus ▁its ▁attention ▁on ▁its ▁Polish ▁territ
ories ▁( over see ing ▁the ▁Second ▁and ▁Third ▁Part itions ▁of ▁Poland ), ▁taking ▁the ▁resources ▁and ▁military ▁strength ▁of ▁northern ▁Germany ▁with ▁it . ▁Despite ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁mount ing ▁difficulties ▁in ▁the ▁face ▁of ▁the ▁wars ▁with ▁France , ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁large - scale ▁popular ▁un rest ▁within ▁its ▁borders . ▁Instead , ▁the ▁explanation ▁for ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁lies ▁in ▁the ▁real m ▁of ▁high ▁politics . ▁The ▁emp ire ' s ▁defeat ▁in ▁the ▁Revolution ary ▁Wars ▁was ▁the ▁most ▁decis ive ▁step ▁in ▁the ▁grad ual ▁und erm ining ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁The ▁conflict ▁between ▁France ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁had ▁begun ▁with ▁the ▁French ▁declaring ▁war ▁on ▁the ▁newly ▁crown ed ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁II ▁of ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁dynast y ▁only ▁in ▁his ▁capacity ▁as ▁the ▁King ▁of ▁Hung ary , ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁wider ▁emp ire ▁( including ▁influ ential ▁figures ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁King ▁of ▁Pr uss ia ▁and ▁the ▁Arch bishop - E lect or ▁of ▁Main z ), ▁however ▁unw illing , ▁joined ▁the ▁conflict ▁on ▁the ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁H abs burg s ▁proves ▁that ▁imperial ▁ide als ▁were ▁still ▁alive ▁by ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 8 th ▁century . ▁ ▁The ▁key ▁point ▁in ▁which ▁fort unes ▁shift ed ▁was ▁Pr uss ia ' s ▁abandon ment ▁of ▁the ▁war ▁effort . ▁Pr uss ia ▁had ▁been ▁the ▁only ▁true ▁counter weight ▁to ▁Austria ' s
▁influence ▁in ▁the ▁institutions ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁Though ▁the ▁western ▁parts ▁of ▁Pr uss ia , ▁such ▁as ▁Brandenburg , ▁remained ▁formal ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁Pr us si ans ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁represented ▁in ▁the ▁Reich stag , ▁Pr uss ia ▁ceased ▁to ▁comp ete ▁for ▁influence ▁in ▁imperial ▁affairs . ▁Austria ▁stood ▁alone ▁as ▁the ▁prote ctor ▁of ▁the ▁states ▁in ▁southern ▁Germany , ▁many ▁of ▁which ▁began ▁considering ▁making ▁their ▁own ▁separate ▁pe aces ▁with ▁France . ▁When ▁the ▁Aust ri ans ▁lear nt ▁that ▁Wür ttemberg ▁and ▁Baden ▁had ▁opened ▁formal ▁negoti ations ▁with ▁France , ▁the ▁arm ies ▁sent ▁by ▁these ▁two ▁states ▁were ▁dis band ed ▁and ▁dis ar med ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 6 , ▁causing ▁res ent ment ▁against ▁the ▁em peror ▁and , ▁combined ▁with ▁losses ▁to ▁France , ▁suggesting ▁that ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁em peror ▁was ▁no ▁longer ▁capable ▁of ▁protect ing ▁his ▁traditional ▁v ass als ▁in ▁Germany . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁w ake ▁of ▁the ▁wars ▁with ▁France , ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁substantial ▁re organ ization ▁of ▁Imperial ▁territory ▁( the ▁so - called ▁Reichs de put ations haupt schluss , ▁supported ▁by ▁Pr uss ia ), ▁with ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁Mon archy ▁meaning ▁to ▁compens ate ▁those ▁princes ▁who ▁had ▁lost ▁territory ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁wars ▁and ▁effect iv ize ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁current ▁semi - fe ud al ▁structure . ▁Although ▁there ▁were ▁huge ▁territorial ▁changes , ▁not
ably ▁the ▁almost ▁complete ▁abol ition ▁of ▁any ▁church ▁territory ▁and ▁significant ▁territorial ▁g ains ▁for ▁Bav aria , ▁Baden , ▁Wür ttemberg , ▁H esse - D arm stadt ▁and ▁N ass au , ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁changes ▁were ▁in ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁elect oral ▁college . ▁Sal zburg ▁was ▁added ▁as ▁a ▁fourth ▁Catholic ▁elect or , ▁while ▁Wür ttemberg , ▁Baden ▁and ▁H esse - K ass el ▁became ▁the ▁fourth , ▁fifth ▁and ▁sixth ▁Protest ant ▁elect ors , ▁given ▁the ▁Protest ants ▁a ▁majority ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁in ▁history ▁and ▁raising ▁doub ts ▁whether ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁II ▁would ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁work ▁together ▁with ▁his ▁Reich stag . ▁Although ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁regime ▁spent ▁much ▁time ▁and ▁resources ▁attempting ▁to ▁make ▁the ▁new ▁arrangement ▁work , ▁the ▁general ▁ver dict ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁was ▁that ▁the ▁re organ ization ▁had ▁essentially ▁killed ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁ ▁Re action ▁to ▁Napoleon ' s ▁imperial ▁coron ation ▁▁ ▁The ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁republic , ▁Napoleon , ▁assumed ▁the ▁title ▁" Emp ire ▁of ▁the ▁French " ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 4 . ▁This ▁act ▁received ▁a ▁mixed ▁reaction ▁in ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁Although ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁mon archy ▁in ▁France ▁was ▁wel com ed ▁( though ▁un fortun ate ▁in ▁so ▁far ▁that ▁the ▁monarch ▁was ▁Napoleon ), ▁the ▁imperial ▁title ▁( inst ead ▁of ▁a ▁royal ▁one ) ▁was ▁not . ▁In ▁the ▁emp ire , ▁Napoleon ' s ▁title ▁raised
▁fear s ▁that ▁it ▁might ▁insp ire ▁the ▁Russian ▁Emperor ▁to ▁ins ist ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁equal ▁to ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁and ▁might ▁encou rage ▁other ▁monarch s , ▁such ▁as ▁George ▁III ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom , ▁to ▁also ▁proc laim ▁themselves ▁em per ors . ▁The ▁H abs burg ▁diplom at ▁Ludwig ▁von ▁Cob enz l , ▁fear ing ▁the ▁consequences ▁of ▁Napoleon ' s ▁coron ation , ▁is ▁quoted ▁as ▁having ▁ad vised ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁II ▁that ▁" ‘ as ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁Your ▁Majesty ▁has ▁enjoyed ▁till ▁now ▁preced ence ▁ahead ▁of ▁all ▁European ▁pot ent ates , ▁including ▁the ▁Russian ▁em peror ". ▁ ▁Though ▁Napoleon ' s ▁imperial ▁title ▁was ▁viewed ▁with ▁dist aste , ▁Aust rian ▁officials ▁immediately ▁realized ▁that ▁if ▁they ▁were ▁to ▁refuse ▁to ▁accept ▁him ▁as ▁an ▁em peror , ▁war ▁with ▁France ▁would ▁be ▁renew ed . ▁Instead , ▁the ▁focus ▁became ▁on ▁how ▁to ▁accept ▁Napoleon ▁as ▁an ▁em peror ▁while ▁still ▁maintain ing ▁the ▁pre - em in ence ▁of ▁their ▁own ▁em peror ▁and ▁emp ire . ▁France ▁had ▁officially ▁accepted ▁par ity ▁with ▁Austria ▁as ▁a ▁distinct ▁state ▁in ▁ 1 7 5 7 , ▁ 1 7 9 7 ▁and ▁ 1 8 0 1 ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁settlement s ▁accepted ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁out rank ed ▁both ▁Austria ▁and ▁France . ▁Thus , ▁it ▁was ▁decided ▁that ▁Austria ▁would ▁be ▁raised ▁to ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁an ▁emp ire ▁in ▁order
▁to ▁maintain ▁the ▁par ity ▁between ▁Austria ▁and ▁France ▁while ▁still ▁pres erving ▁the ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁title ▁as ▁pre - em inent , ▁out ran king ▁both . ▁ ▁Empire ▁of ▁Austria ▁▁ ▁Francis ▁II ▁proc laimed ▁himself ▁as ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Austria ▁( without ▁the ▁need ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁coron ation , ▁as ▁he ▁had ▁already ▁had ▁an ▁imperial ▁coron ation ) ▁on ▁ 1 1 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 4 , ▁in ▁addition ▁to ▁already ▁being ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor . ▁Cob enz l ▁ad vised ▁that ▁a ▁separate ▁her edit ary ▁Aust rian ▁title ▁would ▁also ▁allow ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁to ▁maintain ▁par ity ▁with ▁other ▁r ul ers ▁( since ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁title ▁was ▁viewed ▁by ▁Cob enz l ▁as ▁merely ▁honor ific ) ▁and ▁ensure ▁elections ▁to ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁in ▁the ▁future . ▁A ▁my ri ad ▁of ▁reasons ▁were ▁used ▁to ▁justify ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁Empire ' s ▁creation , ▁including ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁subjects ▁under ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁Mon archy , ▁the ▁vast ▁extent ▁of ▁his ▁crown ▁lands ▁and ▁the ▁long ▁association ▁between ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁family ▁and ▁the ▁elect ive ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁title . ▁Another ▁important ▁point ▁used ▁to ▁justify ▁its ▁creation ▁was ▁that ▁Francis ▁was , ▁in ▁the ▁traditional ▁sense , ▁the ▁supre me ▁Christian ▁monarch ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁thus ▁entitled ▁to ▁award ▁himself ▁with ▁any ▁dign ities ▁he ▁wished . ▁The ▁title ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁Austria " ▁was ▁meant ▁to ▁associate ▁with ▁all
▁of ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁personal ▁domains ▁( not ▁just ▁Austria , ▁but ▁also ▁lands ▁such ▁as ▁Boh emia ▁and ▁Hung ary ), ▁regardless ▁of ▁their ▁current ▁position ▁within ▁or ▁outside ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁" A ust ria " ▁in ▁this ▁sense ▁referred ▁to ▁the ▁dynast y ▁( o ften ▁officially ▁called ▁the ▁" H ouse ▁of ▁Austria " ▁instead ▁of ▁the ▁" H ouse ▁of ▁H abs burg "), ▁not ▁the ▁ge ographical ▁location . ▁▁ ▁The ▁title ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁remained ▁pre - em inent ▁to ▁both ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁the ▁French " ▁and ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁Austria " ▁as ▁it ▁emb od ied ▁the ▁traditional ▁ideal ▁of ▁the ▁universal ▁Christian ▁emp ire . ▁Ne ither ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁nor ▁the ▁French ▁title ▁made ▁claims ▁to ▁govern ▁this ▁universal ▁emp ire ▁and ▁thus ▁did ▁not ▁disturb ▁the ▁traditional ▁and ▁established ▁world ▁order . ▁The ▁imperial ▁titles ▁of ▁Austria ▁and ▁France ▁were ▁seen ▁as ▁more ▁or ▁less ▁royal ▁titles ▁( as ▁they ▁were ▁her edit ary ) ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁minds ▁of ▁the ▁Aust ri ans , ▁there ▁still ▁remained ▁only ▁one ▁true ▁emp ire ▁and ▁one ▁true ▁em peror ▁in ▁Europe . ▁To ▁illustrate ▁this , ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁official ▁imperial ▁title ▁read ▁" elect ed ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁ever ▁August us , ▁her edit ary ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Austria ", ▁placing ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁title ▁behind ▁the ▁Roman ▁title . ▁ ▁Though ▁Napoleon ▁was ▁rel uct ant ▁to ▁tie ▁his ▁own ▁imperial ▁title ▁to ▁any
▁con cess ions , ▁he ▁needed ▁recognition ▁from ▁Austria ▁to ▁secure ▁wider ▁recognition ▁and ▁thus ▁agreed ▁to ▁recognize ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁new ▁title . ▁Prior ▁to ▁his ▁own ▁coron ation , ▁he ▁sent ▁a ▁personal ▁letter ▁of ▁con gr at ulations ▁to ▁Francis . ▁George ▁III ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁recognized ▁the ▁new ▁title ▁in ▁October ▁and ▁although ▁Russian ▁Emperor ▁Alexander ▁I ▁object ed ▁to ▁Francis ▁" low ering ▁himself ▁to ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁the ▁us ur per ▁Napoleon ", ▁he ▁recognized ▁the ▁title ▁in ▁November . ▁The ▁only ▁significant ▁ob jections ▁to ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁title ▁were ▁raised ▁by ▁Sweden , ▁who ▁through ▁holding ▁Swedish ▁P omer ania , ▁an ▁Imperial ▁Est ate , ▁had ▁a ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁Reich stag . ▁The ▁Sw edes ▁saw ▁the ▁title ▁as ▁a ▁" clear ▁bre ach " ▁of ▁the ▁imperial ▁constitution ▁and , ▁inv oking ▁their ▁pr er og ative ▁as ▁a ▁gu ar ant or ▁of ▁the ▁imperial ▁constitution , ▁demanded ▁a ▁formal ▁debate ▁in ▁the ▁Reich stag , ▁a ▁threat ▁that ▁was ▁neutral ized ▁by ▁the ▁other ▁parties ▁of ▁the ▁Reich stag ▁agree ing ▁to ▁an ▁extended ▁summer ▁re cess es ▁until ▁November . ▁To ▁defend ▁the ▁title , ▁imperial ▁represent atives ▁argued ▁that ▁it ▁did ▁not ▁in fr inge ▁on ▁the ▁imperial ▁constitution ▁as ▁there ▁were ▁already ▁other ▁examples ▁of ▁dual ▁monarch ies ▁within ▁the ▁emp ire , ▁states ▁such ▁as ▁Pr uss ia ▁and ▁Sweden ▁were ▁not ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire , ▁but ▁their ▁poss essions ▁within
▁the ▁emp ire ▁were . ▁ ▁Peace ▁of ▁Press burg ▁▁ ▁The ▁War ▁of ▁the ▁Third ▁Co al ition ▁came ▁too ▁soon ▁for ▁Austria , ▁which ▁moved ▁against ▁France ▁in ▁September ▁ 1 8 0 5 . ▁De fe ated ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Aust er l itz ▁on ▁ 2 ▁December ▁ 1 8 0 5 , ▁Austria ▁had ▁to ▁accept ▁terms ▁dict ated ▁by ▁Napoleon ▁in ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁Press burg ▁( 2 6 ▁December ). ▁These ▁created ▁deliber ate ▁ambigu ities ▁in ▁the ▁imperial ▁constitution . ▁Bav aria , ▁Baden ▁and ▁Wür ttemberg ▁were ▁granted ▁pl én itude ▁de ▁la ▁sou ver ain et é ▁( full ▁so vere ig nt y ) ▁while ▁remaining ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Conf é der ation ▁German ique ▁( G erman ic ▁Confeder ation ), ▁a ▁novel ▁name ▁for ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁Like wise , ▁it ▁was ▁left ▁deliber ately ▁unclear ▁whether ▁the ▁Duch y ▁of ▁Cle ves , ▁the ▁Duch y ▁of ▁Berg ▁and ▁the ▁County ▁of ▁Mark — imper ial ▁territ ories ▁transferred ▁to ▁Jo achim ▁Mur at — w ere ▁to ▁remain ▁imperial ▁f ief s ▁or ▁become ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁Empire . ▁As ▁late ▁as ▁March ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁Napoleon ▁was ▁uncertain ▁whether ▁they ▁should ▁remain ▁nomin ally ▁within ▁the ▁Empire . ▁ ▁The ▁Free ▁Imperial ▁Kn ights , ▁who ▁had ▁surv ived ▁the ▁attack ▁on ▁their ▁rights ▁in ▁Ritter st urm ▁of ▁ 1 8 0 3 – 0 4 , ▁were
▁subject ▁to ▁a ▁second ▁attack ▁and ▁a ▁sp ate ▁of ▁an nex ations ▁by ▁those ▁states ▁al lied ▁to ▁Napoleon ▁in ▁November – Dec ember ▁ 1 8 0 5 . ▁In ▁response , ▁the ▁kn ights ' ▁corpor ation ▁( cor pus ▁e quest re ) ▁dissol ved ▁itself ▁on ▁ 2 0 ▁January ▁ 1 8 0 6 . ▁With ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Empire , ▁the ▁kn ights ▁ceased ▁to ▁be ▁either ▁free ▁or ▁imperial ▁and ▁were ▁at ▁the ▁mer cy ▁of ▁the ▁newly ▁so ver eign ▁states . ▁ ▁Contempor aries ▁saw ▁the ▁defeat ▁at ▁Aust er l itz ▁as ▁a ▁turning ▁point ▁of ▁world - histor ical ▁significance . ▁The ▁Peace ▁of ▁Press burg , ▁too , ▁was ▁perce ived ▁as ▁radical ▁shift . ▁It ▁did ▁not ▁aff irm ▁previous ▁treat ies ▁in ▁the ▁usual ▁way ▁and ▁its ▁word ing ▁seemed ▁to ▁raise ▁Bav aria , ▁Baden ▁and ▁Wür ttemberg ▁into ▁equals ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁while ▁down grad ing ▁the ▁latter ▁to ▁a ▁merely ▁German ▁conf eder ation . ▁Nevertheless , ▁Bav aria ▁and ▁Wür ttemberg ▁re aff ir med ▁to ▁the ▁Reich stag ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁subject ▁to ▁imperial ▁law . ▁Some ▁comment ators ▁argued ▁that ▁pl én itude ▁de ▁la ▁sou ver ain et é ▁was ▁just ▁a ▁French ▁translation ▁of ▁Landes ho heit ▁( the ▁quasi - so vere ig nt y ▁possessed ▁by ▁imperial ▁est ates ) ▁and ▁the ▁treat y ▁had ▁not ▁alter ed ▁the ▁relationship ▁between ▁the ▁members ▁and ▁the
▁emp ire . ▁ ▁Form ation ▁of ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁ ▁Through out ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁Bav aria , ▁Baden ▁and ▁Wür ttemberg ▁attempted ▁to ▁ste er ▁an ▁independent ▁course ▁between ▁the ▁dem ands ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁and ▁Napoleon . ▁In ▁April ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁Napoleon ▁sought ▁a ▁treat y ▁where by ▁the ▁three ▁states ▁would ▁al ly ▁themselves ▁to ▁France ▁in ▁perpet u ity ▁while ▁for s we aring ▁participation ▁in ▁future ▁Reich sk rie ge ▁( imper ial ▁war ▁efforts ) ▁and ▁subm itting ▁to ▁a ▁commission ▁de ▁méd itation ▁under ▁his ▁presiden cy ▁to ▁resolve ▁their ▁disput es . ▁Despite ▁all ▁of ▁this , ▁they ▁were ▁to ▁remain ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁Wür ttemberg ▁ultimately ▁refused ▁to ▁sign . ▁ ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁Napoleon ▁began ▁press uring ▁Bav aria , ▁Baden ▁and ▁Wür ttemberg ▁for ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁conf édération ▁de ▁la ▁ha ute ▁Al lemagne ▁( Upper ▁German ▁conf eder ation ) ▁outside ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁On ▁ 1 2 ▁July ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁these ▁three ▁states ▁and ▁th ir teen ▁other ▁minor ▁German ▁princes ▁formed ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine , ▁effectively ▁a ▁French ▁satellite ▁state . ▁On ▁ 1 ▁August , ▁the ▁Reich stag ▁was ▁informed ▁by ▁a ▁French ▁en voy ▁that ▁Napoleon ▁no ▁longer ▁recognized ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁day ,
▁nine ▁of ▁the ▁princes ▁who ▁had ▁formed ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁issued ▁a ▁pro clam ation ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁just ified ▁their ▁actions ▁by ▁claim ing ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁had ▁already ▁col lapsed ▁and ▁ceased ▁to ▁function ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁defeat ▁in ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Aust er l itz . ▁ ▁Abd ic ation ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ▁▁ ▁In ▁the ▁face ▁of ▁Napoleon ' s ▁assumption ▁of ▁the ▁title ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁the ▁French " ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 4 ▁and ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁defeat ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Aust er l itz ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 5 , ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁Mon archy ▁began ▁cont empl ating ▁whether ▁the ▁imperial ▁title ▁and ▁the ▁emp ire ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁were ▁worth ▁def ending . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁states ▁nomin ally ▁serving ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁such ▁as ▁Baden , ▁Wür ttemberg ▁and ▁Bav aria , ▁had ▁open ly ▁def ied ▁imperial ▁authority ▁and ▁s ided ▁with ▁Napoleon . ▁Even ▁then , ▁the ▁significance ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁not ▁based ▁on ▁actual ▁control ▁of ▁resources , ▁but ▁on ▁prest ige . ▁ ▁The ▁main ▁idea ▁behind ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁actions ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁was ▁to ▁lay ▁the ▁ground work ▁needed ▁to ▁avoid ▁additional ▁future ▁wars ▁with ▁Napoleon ▁and ▁France . ▁One ▁concern ▁held ▁by ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁Mon archy ▁was ▁that ▁Napoleon ▁might ▁asp ire ▁to ▁claim ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor . ▁Napoleon ▁was ▁attract ed
▁to ▁Char lemagne ' s ▁legacy ; ▁rep lic as ▁of ▁Char lemagne ' s ▁crown ▁and ▁sword ▁had ▁been ▁made ▁for ▁( but ▁not ▁used ▁during ) ▁Napoleon ' s ▁coron ation ▁as ▁Emperor ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁and ▁he ▁con ci ously ▁rev ived ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁symbols ▁and ▁asp ired ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁new ▁order ▁in ▁Europe , ▁something ▁a kin ▁to ▁the ▁universal ▁domin ion ▁implicit ▁in ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁Emperor ▁of ▁the ▁Rom ans . ▁Napoleon ' s ▁vision ▁of ▁Char lemagne ▁was ▁completely ▁different ▁from ▁the ▁German ▁vision ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁em peror , ▁however . ▁Instead ▁of ▁seeing ▁Char lemagne ▁as ▁a ▁German ▁king , ▁Napoleon ▁viewed ▁him ▁as ▁a ▁Frank ish ▁conquer or ▁who ▁had ▁extended ▁French ▁rule ▁across ▁Central ▁Europe ▁and ▁Italy , ▁something ▁Napoleon ▁asp ired ▁to ▁accomplish ▁as ▁well . ▁Despite ▁his ▁fix ation ▁on ▁Char lemagne , ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁evidence ▁that ▁Napoleon ▁asp ired ▁to ▁become ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor . ▁ ▁Austria ▁was ▁slow ▁to ▁respond ▁to ▁the ▁fast ▁pace ▁of ▁events . ▁Al ready ▁on ▁the ▁ 1 7 ▁June , ▁Francis ▁had ▁taken ▁the ▁decision ▁to ▁ab d icate ▁at ▁the ▁moment ▁that ▁seemed ▁best ▁for ▁Austria . ▁K lem ens ▁von ▁Met tern ich ▁was ▁sent ▁on ▁a ▁mission ▁to ▁Paris ▁to ▁disc ern ▁Napoleon ' s ▁intent ions . ▁On ▁ 2 2 ▁July , ▁Napoleon ▁made ▁them ▁clear ▁in ▁an ▁ult imat um ▁demand ing ▁that ▁Francis ▁ab dic ated ▁by ▁ 1 0 ▁August . ▁Still
, ▁as ▁late ▁as ▁ 2 ▁August , ▁Joseph ▁Ha as , ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁principal ▁commission ' s ▁secret ariat , ▁hoped ▁that ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁might ▁yet ▁be ▁a vert ed . ▁The ▁general ▁opinion ▁among ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁high ▁command ▁was ▁however ▁that ▁ab dic ation ▁was ▁in ev itable ▁and ▁that ▁it ▁should ▁be ▁combined ▁with ▁a ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁through ▁rel ieving ▁the ▁v ass als ▁of ▁the ▁em peror ▁of ▁their ▁duties ▁and ▁oblig ations . ▁A ▁formal ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁perce ived ▁as ▁necessary , ▁as ▁it ▁would ▁prevent ▁Napoleon ▁from ▁acqu iring ▁the ▁imperial ▁title . ▁During ▁an ▁inter reg num , ▁the ▁two ▁imperial ▁vic ars ▁Sax ony ▁and ▁Bav aria ▁would ▁be ▁entitled ▁to ▁exercise ▁imperial ▁authority ▁and ▁since ▁both ▁were ▁aligned ▁with ▁Napoleon , ▁such ▁an ▁arrangement ▁could ▁cause ▁an ▁ab dic ated ▁Francis ▁( as ▁only ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Austria ) ▁to ▁become ▁a ▁v ass al ▁of ▁Napoleon ▁( as ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ). ▁More ▁cru cially , ▁the ▁ab dic ation ▁was ▁also ▁intended ▁to ▁buy ▁time ▁for ▁Austria ▁to ▁recover ▁from ▁its ▁losses ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁assumed ▁that ▁France ▁would ▁meet ▁it ▁with ▁some ▁con cess ions . ▁Although ▁the ▁Roman ▁title ▁and ▁the ▁tradition ▁of ▁a ▁universal ▁Christian ▁mon archy ▁were ▁still ▁considered ▁pr estig ious ▁and ▁a ▁worthy ▁her itage , ▁they ▁were ▁now ▁also ▁considered ▁things ▁of ▁the ▁past . ▁With ▁the ▁Holy
▁Roman ▁Empire ▁dissol ved , ▁Francis ▁II ▁could ▁focus ▁his ▁attention ▁on ▁the ▁continued ▁rise ▁and ▁prosper ity ▁of ▁his ▁new ▁her edit ary ▁emp ire , ▁as ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁I ▁of ▁Austria . ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁morning ▁of ▁ 6 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁the ▁imperial ▁her ald ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁rode ▁from ▁the ▁Hof burg ▁to ▁the ▁Jes uit ▁Church ▁of ▁the ▁N ine ▁Ch oir s ▁of ▁Ang els ▁( both ▁being ▁located ▁in ▁Vienna , ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁Mon archy ), ▁where ▁he ▁delivered ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁official ▁pro clam ation ▁from ▁a ▁bal con y ▁over looking ▁a ▁large ▁square . ▁Writ ten ▁copies ▁of ▁the ▁pro clam ation ▁were ▁dispatch ed ▁to ▁the ▁diplom ats ▁of ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁mon archy ▁on ▁ 1 1 ▁August ▁alongside ▁a ▁note ▁which ▁informed ▁former ▁princes ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁that ▁Austria ▁would ▁compens ate ▁those ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁paid ▁from ▁the ▁imperial ▁tre as ury . ▁The ▁ab dic ation ▁did ▁not ▁acknow ledge ▁the ▁French ▁ult imat um , ▁but ▁str essed ▁the ▁interpretation ▁of ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁Press burg ▁by ▁the ▁imperial ▁est ates ▁made ▁it ▁impossible ▁for ▁Francis ▁to ▁ful fill ▁the ▁oblig ations ▁he ▁had ▁undert aken ▁in ▁his ▁elect oral ▁capit ulation . ▁ ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Em per ors ▁had ▁ab dic ated ▁before — the ▁most ▁notable ▁example ▁being ▁the ▁ab dic ation ▁of ▁Charles ▁V ▁in ▁ 1 5 5 8
— but ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁ab dic ation ▁was ▁unique . ▁While ▁previous ▁ab dic ations ▁had ▁returned ▁the ▁imperial ▁crown ▁to ▁the ▁elect ors ▁so ▁that ▁they ▁may ▁proc laim ▁a ▁new ▁em peror , ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁ab dic ation ▁simultaneously ▁dissol ved ▁the ▁emp ire ▁itself ▁so ▁that ▁there ▁were ▁no ▁more ▁elect ors . ▁ ▁After math ▁ ▁Re actions ▁ ▁The ▁passing ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁an ▁institution ▁which ▁had ▁last ed ▁for ▁just ▁over ▁a ▁thousand ▁years , ▁did ▁not ▁pass ▁un not iced ▁or ▁un lament ed . ▁The ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁sent ▁shock w aves ▁through ▁Germany , ▁with ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁re actions ▁within ▁the ▁former ▁imperial ▁boundaries ▁were ▁re actions ▁of ▁ra ge , ▁gr ief ▁or ▁shame . ▁Even ▁the ▁sign ator ies ▁of ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁were ▁out rag ed ; ▁the ▁Bav arian ▁em iss ary ▁to ▁the ▁imperial ▁di et , ▁Re ch berg , ▁stated ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁" fur ious " ▁due ▁to ▁having ▁" put ▁his ▁signature ▁to ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁name ", ▁referring ▁to ▁his ▁state ' s ▁invol vement ▁in ▁the ▁conf eder ation , ▁which ▁had ▁effectively ▁do omed ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁From ▁a ▁legal ▁stand point , ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁ab dic ation ▁was ▁controvers ial . ▁Contempor ary ▁legal ▁comment ators ▁agreed ▁that ▁the ▁ab dic ation ▁itself ▁was ▁perfectly ▁legal ▁but ▁that ▁the ▁em peror
▁did ▁not ▁have ▁the ▁authority ▁to ▁dissol ve ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁As ▁such , ▁several ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁v ass als ▁refused ▁to ▁recognize ▁that ▁the ▁emp ire ▁had ▁ended . ▁As ▁late ▁as ▁October ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁far mers ▁in ▁Th uring ia ▁refused ▁to ▁accept ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire , ▁bel ieving ▁its ▁dissol ution ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁plot ▁by ▁the ▁local ▁authorities . ▁For ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁people ▁within ▁the ▁former ▁emp ire , ▁its ▁collapse ▁made ▁them ▁uncertain ▁and ▁fear ful ▁of ▁their ▁future , ▁and ▁the ▁future ▁of ▁Germany ▁itself . ▁Contempor ary ▁reports ▁from ▁Vienna ▁describe ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁as ▁" in com pre hens ible " ▁and ▁the ▁general ▁public ' s ▁reaction ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁horror . ▁ ▁In ▁contrast ▁to ▁the ▁fear s ▁of ▁the ▁general ▁public , ▁many ▁contemporary ▁intellect uals ▁and ▁artists ▁saw ▁Napoleon ▁as ▁a ▁her ald ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁age , ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁destroy er ▁of ▁an ▁old ▁order . ▁The ▁popular ▁idea ▁forward ed ▁by ▁German ▁national ists ▁was ▁that ▁the ▁final ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁fre ed ▁Germany ▁from ▁the ▁somewhat ▁an ach ron istic ▁ideas ▁root ed ▁in ▁a ▁f ading ▁ideal ▁of ▁universal ▁Christian ity ▁and ▁p aved ▁the ▁way ▁for ▁the ▁country ' s ▁un ification ▁as ▁the ▁German ▁Empire , ▁a ▁nation ▁state , ▁ 6 5 ▁years ▁later . ▁German ▁historian ▁Hel mut ▁Rö ss ler ▁has
▁argued ▁that ▁Francis ▁II ▁and ▁the ▁Aust ri ans ▁fought ▁to ▁save ▁the ▁largely ▁un gr ateful ▁Germany ▁from ▁the ▁forces ▁of ▁Napoleon , ▁only ▁withdraw ing ▁and ▁abandon ing ▁the ▁emp ire ▁when ▁most ▁of ▁Germany ▁bet rayed ▁them ▁and ▁joined ▁Napoleon . ▁Indeed , ▁the ▁assumption ▁of ▁a ▁separate ▁Aust rian ▁imperial ▁title ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 4 ▁did ▁not ▁mean ▁that ▁Francis ▁II ▁had ▁any ▁intent ions ▁to ▁ab d icate ▁his ▁pr estig ious ▁position ▁as ▁the ▁Roman ▁em peror , ▁the ▁idea ▁only ▁began ▁to ▁be ▁considered ▁as ▁circumstances ▁beyond ▁H abs burg ▁control ▁forced ▁decis ive ▁actions ▁to ▁be ▁taken . ▁ ▁Comp ounded ▁with ▁fear s ▁of ▁what ▁now ▁guaranteed ▁the ▁safety ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁smaller ▁German ▁states , ▁the ▁poet ▁Christoph ▁Martin ▁Wiel and ▁l ament ed ▁that ▁Germany ▁had ▁now ▁fallen ▁into ▁an ▁" ap oc aly ptic ▁time " ▁and ▁stating ▁" Who ▁can ▁bear ▁this ▁dis gra ce , ▁which ▁we igh s ▁down ▁upon ▁a ▁nation ▁which ▁was ▁once ▁so ▁gl orious ? — may ▁God ▁improve ▁things , ▁if ▁it ▁is ▁still ▁possible ▁to ▁improve ▁them ! ". ▁To ▁some , ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁seen ▁as ▁the ▁final ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁In ▁the ▁words ▁of ▁Christian ▁Gott lob ▁von ▁Vo igt , ▁a ▁minister ▁in ▁We imar , ▁" if ▁poetry ▁can ▁go ▁hand ▁in ▁hand ▁with ▁politics , ▁then ▁the ▁ab dic ation ▁of ▁the ▁imperial ▁dign
ity ▁offers ▁a ▁wealth ▁of ▁material . ▁The ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁now ▁takes ▁its ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁sequence ▁of ▁van qu ished ▁emp ires ". ▁In ▁the ▁words ▁of ▁the ▁English ▁historian ▁James ▁Bry ce , ▁ 1 st ▁Vis count ▁Bry ce ▁in ▁his ▁ 1 8 6 4 ▁work ▁on ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁the ▁" old est ▁political ▁institution ▁in ▁the ▁world " ▁and ▁the ▁same ▁institution ▁as ▁the ▁one ▁founded ▁by ▁August us ▁in ▁ 2 7 ▁BC . ▁Writing ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire , ▁Bry ce ▁stated ▁that ▁" nothing ▁else ▁so ▁directly ▁linked ▁the ▁old ▁world ▁to ▁the ▁new — nothing ▁else ▁displayed ▁so ▁many ▁strange ▁contrast s ▁of ▁the ▁present ▁and ▁the ▁past , ▁and ▁sum med ▁up ▁in ▁those ▁contrast s ▁so ▁much ▁of ▁European ▁history ". ▁When ▁confront ed ▁by ▁the ▁fall ▁and ▁collapse ▁of ▁their ▁emp ire , ▁many ▁contempor aries ▁employed ▁the ▁cat ast roph ic ▁fall ▁of ▁ancient ▁T roy ▁as ▁a ▁met ap hor , ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁association ▁with ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁total ▁destruction ▁and ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁a ▁culture . ▁The ▁image ▁of ▁the ▁ap ocal yp se ▁was ▁also ▁frequently ▁used , ▁associ ating ▁the ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁with ▁an ▁imp ending ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁( echo ing ▁medieval ▁leg ends ▁of ▁a ▁Last ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁a ▁figure ▁proph es ized ▁to ▁be ▁active ▁during ▁the ▁end ▁times ). ▁ ▁Pro tests ▁and ▁criticism ▁against ▁the ▁emp ire
' s ▁dissol ution ▁was ▁typically ▁cens ored , ▁especially ▁in ▁the ▁French - admin istr ated ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine . ▁Among ▁the ▁aspects ▁most ▁critic ized ▁by ▁the ▁general ▁popul ace ▁was ▁the ▁removal ▁or ▁replacement ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁inter cess ions ▁for ▁the ▁emp ire ▁and ▁em peror ▁in ▁the ▁daily ▁church ▁pray ers ▁throughout ▁former ▁imperial ▁territory . ▁Supp ression ▁from ▁France , ▁combined ▁with ▁individual ▁examples ▁of ▁sens ational ▁ret ribution ▁against ▁pro - emp ire ▁advoc ates ▁ens ured ▁that ▁these ▁protest s ▁soon ▁died ▁down . ▁ ▁In ▁an ▁official ▁capacity , ▁Pr uss ia ' s ▁response ▁was ▁only ▁formula ic ▁expressions ▁of ▁regret ▁ow ing ▁to ▁the ▁" termin ation ▁of ▁an ▁hon ou rable ▁bond ▁h allowed ▁by ▁time ". ▁Pr uss ia ' s ▁representative ▁to ▁the ▁Reich stag , ▁Baron ▁G ör tz , ▁react ed ▁with ▁sad ness , ▁mixed ▁with ▁grat itude ▁and ▁affection ▁for ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁H abs burg ▁and ▁their ▁former ▁role ▁as ▁em per ors . ▁G ör tz ▁had ▁taken ▁part ▁as ▁an ▁elect oral ▁em iss ary ▁of ▁the ▁Elect or ate ▁of ▁Brandenburg ▁( Pr uss ia ' s ▁territory ▁within ▁the ▁formal ▁imperial ▁borders ) ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 2 , ▁at ▁the ▁election ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ▁as ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁and ▁exclaimed ▁that ▁" So ▁the ▁em peror ▁whom ▁I ▁helped ▁elect ▁was ▁the ▁last ▁em peror ! — This ▁step ▁was ▁no ▁doubt ▁to ▁be
▁expected , ▁but ▁that ▁does ▁not ▁make ▁its ▁reality ▁any ▁less ▁moving ▁and ▁cr ushing . ▁It ▁cut s ▁off ▁the ▁last ▁thread ▁of ▁hope ▁to ▁which ▁one ▁tried ▁to ▁cl ing ". ▁Baron ▁von ▁Wi essen berg , ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁en voy ▁to ▁the ▁Elect or ate ▁of ▁H esse - K ass el , ▁reported ▁that ▁the ▁local ▁elect or , ▁William ▁I , ▁had ▁te ared ▁up ▁and ▁expressed ▁l ament ▁at ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁" a ▁constitution ▁to ▁which ▁Germany ▁had ▁for ▁so ▁long ▁ow ed ▁its ▁happiness ▁and ▁freedom ". ▁ ▁Intern ation ally , ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁dem ise ▁was ▁met ▁with ▁mixed ▁or ▁ind ifferent ▁re actions . ▁Alexander ▁I ▁of ▁Russia ▁offered ▁no ▁response ▁and ▁Christian ▁VII ▁of ▁Den mark ▁formally ▁incorpor ated ▁his ▁German ▁lands ▁into ▁his ▁kingdom s ▁a ▁few ▁months ▁after ▁the ▁emp ire ' s ▁dissol ution . ▁Gustav ▁IV ▁of ▁Sweden ▁( who ▁not ably ▁hadn ' t ▁recognized ▁the ▁separate ▁imperial ▁title ▁of ▁Austria ▁yet ) ▁issued ▁a ▁somewhat ▁provoc ative ▁pro clam ation ▁to ▁the ▁den iz ens ▁of ▁his ▁German ▁lands ▁( S wed ish ▁P omer ania ▁and ▁Bre men - Ver den ) ▁on ▁ 2 2 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁stating ▁that ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁" w ould ▁not ▁destroy ▁the ▁German ▁nation " ▁and ▁expressed ▁hopes ▁that ▁the ▁emp ire ▁might ▁be ▁rev ived . ▁ ▁The ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy
▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁constit uted ▁by ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁own ▁personal ▁ab dic ation ▁of ▁the ▁title ▁and ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁all ▁v ass als ▁and ▁imperial ▁states ▁from ▁their ▁oblig ations ▁and ▁duties ▁to ▁the ▁em peror . ▁The ▁title ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁( the oret ically ▁the ▁same ▁title ▁as ▁Roman ▁em peror ) ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁itself ▁as ▁an ▁idea ▁and ▁institution ▁( the ▁theoret ically ▁univers ally ▁so ver eign ▁imper ium ) ▁were ▁never ▁techn ically ▁abol ished . ▁The ▁continued ▁existence ▁of ▁an ▁universal ▁emp ire , ▁though ▁without ▁defined ▁territory ▁and ▁lack ing ▁an ▁em peror , ▁was ▁sometimes ▁referenced ▁in ▁the ▁titles ▁of ▁other ▁later ▁monarch s . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁Sav oy ard ▁Kings ▁of ▁Italy ▁continued ▁to ▁claim ▁the ▁title ▁" Pr ince ▁and ▁Per pet ual ▁Vic ar ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( in ▁Italy )" ▁( a ▁title ▁origin ating ▁from ▁an ▁ 1 4 th - century ▁imperial ▁grant ▁from ▁Emperor ▁Charles ▁IV ▁to ▁their ▁ancest or ▁Ama de us ▁VI , ▁Count ▁of ▁Sav oy ) ▁until ▁the ▁abol ition ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁mon archy ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 . ▁ ▁Success or ▁emp ires ▁▁ ▁In ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁Empire , ▁the ▁H abs burg ▁dynast y ▁continued ▁to ▁act ▁as ▁a ▁substitute ▁for ▁national ity , ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁imperial ▁title ▁was ▁not ▁( un like ▁for ▁instance ▁the ▁French ▁or ▁Russian ▁imperial ▁titles ) ▁associated ▁with ▁any ▁national
ity ▁in ▁particular . ▁Though ▁the ▁German ▁v ass als ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁had ▁been ▁released ▁from ▁their ▁oblig ations , ▁Francis ▁II ▁and ▁his ▁success ors ▁continued ▁to ▁rule ▁a ▁large ▁German - spe aking ▁population ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁reg alia ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁kept ▁within ▁their ▁domains ▁( and ▁are ▁to ▁this ▁day ▁stored ▁and ▁displayed ▁at ▁the ▁Imperial ▁Tre as ury ▁at ▁the ▁Hof burg ▁in ▁Vienna ). ▁The ▁dynast y ▁retained ▁its ▁prominent ▁status ▁among ▁the ▁royal ▁families ▁of ▁Europe ▁and ▁were ▁in ▁the ▁eyes ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁their ▁subjects ▁still ▁the ▁only ▁true ▁imperial ▁family . ▁Although ▁the ▁new ▁Aust rian ▁Empire ▁lack ed ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁key ▁elements ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁it ▁remained ▁close ▁in ▁practice ▁and ▁ide als ▁to ▁the ▁pre - 1 8 0 6 ▁emp ire . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁after math ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁ab dic ation , ▁the ▁new ▁Aust rian ▁Empire ▁took ▁steps ▁to ▁distance ▁itself ▁from ▁the ▁older ▁emp ire . ▁The ▁symbols ▁and ▁formal ▁titles ▁of ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁mon archy ▁were ▁alter ed ▁to ▁stress ▁Austria ▁as ▁a ▁distinct ▁entity . ▁Because ▁the ▁term ▁Kaiser th um ▁O sterreich ▁( A ust rian ▁Empire ) ▁had ▁entered ▁every day ▁speech , ▁the ▁mon archy ▁soon ▁dropped ▁the ▁original ▁prefix ▁" her edit ary ", ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁used ▁from ▁ 1 8 0 4 ▁to ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁to ▁stress ▁the ▁difference ▁between ▁Austria ▁and ▁the ▁Holy
▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁Empire ▁( and ▁France ▁under ▁Napoleon ), ▁the ▁most ▁prominent ▁potential ▁claim ant ▁to ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ' s ▁legacy ▁( in ▁the ▁sense ▁of ▁r uling ▁Germany ) ▁in ▁the ▁w ake ▁of ▁its ▁collapse ▁and ▁dissol ution ▁was ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Pr uss ia , ▁ruled ▁by ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁H oh enz oll ern . ▁Al ong side , ▁the ▁growing ▁crown ▁lands ▁of ▁the ▁H abs burg s , ▁Pr uss ia ▁represented ▁the ▁sole ▁major ▁power ▁in ▁Central ▁Europe ▁during ▁the ▁last ▁century ▁or ▁so ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁rule . ▁It ▁was ▁frequently ▁rum ored ▁that ▁the ▁Pr us si ans ▁had ▁imperial ▁amb itions ▁and ▁Frederick ▁II ▁of ▁Pr uss ia ▁was ▁a ▁rum ored ▁candidate ▁to ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁in ▁ 1 7 4 0 . ▁Frederick ▁II , ▁and ▁other ▁Pr uss ian ▁k ings , ▁dismiss ed ▁these ▁ideas ▁while ▁they ▁remained ▁under ▁imperial ▁rule , ▁arg uing ▁that ▁additional ▁territory ▁and ▁power ▁would ▁be ▁more ▁benef icial ▁than ▁the ▁imperial ▁title . ▁In ▁ 1 7 9 5 ▁and ▁again ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 3 ▁and ▁ 1 8 0 4 , ▁French ▁represent atives ▁suggested ▁that ▁Pr uss ia ▁might ▁convert ▁its ▁northern ▁German ▁territ ories ▁into ▁an ▁emp ire , ▁but ▁the ▁H oh enz oll ern s ▁were ▁not ▁interested ▁in ▁going ▁through ▁with ▁such ▁a ▁plan . ▁Though ▁the ▁Pr uss ian ▁r
ul ers ▁and ▁their ▁officials ▁expressed ▁sorrow ▁at ▁the ▁col laps ing ▁state ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁from ▁ 1 7 9 2 ▁on wards , ▁they ▁were ▁also ▁critical ▁to ▁nost alg ia ▁for ▁Germany ' s ▁history ▁under ▁imperial ▁rule . ▁The ▁Pr us si ans ▁viewed ▁the ▁surv ival ▁ch ances ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁as ▁very ▁low ▁and ▁saw ▁the ▁French ▁as ▁the ▁true ▁success ors ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Carol ing ians , ▁an ▁enemy ▁which ▁they ▁believed ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁defeated ▁by ▁the ▁normal ▁military ▁means . ▁▁ ▁The ▁rel uct ance ▁of ▁the ▁H oh enz oll ern s ▁to ▁assume ▁an ▁imperial ▁title ▁shift ed ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁as ▁they ▁fe ared ▁that ▁with ▁the ▁formation ▁of ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁and ▁the ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁Napoleon ▁might ▁asp ire ▁to ▁claim ▁the ▁hypoth et ical ▁position ▁of ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁Germany ". ▁Though ▁prepar ations ▁were ▁made ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁" imper ial ▁union " ▁in ▁northern ▁Germany , ▁with ▁an ▁em peror ▁of ▁the ▁H oh enz oll ern ▁dynast y , ▁these ▁plans ▁were ▁dropped ▁in ▁September ▁of ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁after ▁they ▁found ▁little ▁support ▁and ▁Emperor ▁Alexander ▁I ▁of ▁Russia ▁object ed ▁to ▁the ▁plans . ▁Because ▁the ▁H oh enz oll ern s ▁lack ed ▁imperial ▁ancest ry ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁see ▁themselves ▁as ▁an ▁imperial ▁dynast y ▁and ▁even ▁after ▁Napoleon ' s
▁ult imate ▁defe ats ▁in ▁ 1 8 1 3 ▁and ▁ 1 8 1 5 , ▁their ▁position ▁changed ▁little . ▁Although ▁Germany ▁was ▁un ited ▁into ▁the ▁German ▁Empire ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 1 , ▁under ▁the ▁H oh enz oll ern ▁em peror ▁Wilhelm ▁I , ▁the ▁pro clam ation ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁emp ire ▁was ▁ide olog ically ▁problem atic ▁and ▁the ▁H oh enz oll ern s ▁found ▁themselves ▁mostly ▁ill - at - e ase ▁with ▁its ▁imp lications . ▁Att empt s ▁were ▁made ▁to ▁associate ▁the ▁German ▁Empire ▁with ▁the ▁institutions ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁but ▁its ▁em per ors ▁continued ▁to ▁enumerate ▁themselves ▁after ▁the ▁Kings ▁of ▁Pr uss ia ; ▁Emperor ▁Frederick ▁III ▁( 1 8 8 8 ) ▁was ▁enumer ated ▁after ▁his ▁prede cess or ▁as ▁king , ▁Frederick ▁II , ▁not ▁after ▁the ▁previous ▁imperial ▁Frederick ▁( Em peror ▁Frederick ▁III ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁century , ▁the ▁new ▁Frederick ▁would ▁then ▁have ▁been ▁Frederick ▁IV ). ▁ ▁Despite ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁ultimately ▁failing ▁in ▁prevent ing ▁war ▁with ▁France , ▁the ▁late ▁emp ire ' s ▁nom inal ▁role ▁as ▁working ▁for ▁peace ▁and ▁forming ▁a ▁loose ▁sort ▁of ▁h eg em ony ▁and ▁partners hip ▁offered ▁an ▁alternative ▁to ▁both ▁the ▁universal ▁mon archy ▁of ▁Napoleon ' s ▁French ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁universal ▁republic ▁advoc ated ▁for ▁by ▁Revolution ary ▁France ▁and ▁it ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁model ▁for ▁future ▁constitution s ▁for
▁international ▁bodies ▁and ▁organizations . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Cit ations ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Abd ic ation ▁of ▁Francis ▁II , ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁on ▁Wik is ource ▁▁▁ ▁Category : D iss ol utions ▁of ▁emp ires ▁Category : N ap ole onic ▁Wars ▁Category : August ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁events <0x0A> </s> ▁Kno ck aine y ▁is ▁a ▁G ael ic ▁Athlet ic ▁Association ▁club ▁located ▁in ▁Kno ck aine y , ▁County ▁L imer ick , ▁Ireland . ▁The ▁club , ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁fields ▁teams ▁in ▁both ▁hur ling ▁and ▁G ael ic ▁football . ▁ ▁Over view ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁▁ ▁L imer ick ▁Inter mediate ▁Hur ling ▁Championship ▁( 1 ): ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁ ▁Notable ▁players ▁▁ ▁Tommy ▁Co oke ▁ ▁External ▁sources ▁ ▁L imer ick ▁Club ▁Information ▁ ▁Category : G ael ic ▁Athlet ic ▁Association ▁clubs ▁in ▁County ▁L imer ick ▁Category : H ur ling ▁clubs ▁in ▁County ▁L imer ick ▁Category : G ael ic ▁football ▁clubs ▁in ▁County ▁L imer ick <0x0A> </s> ▁Cor te ▁de ' ▁Cort esi ▁con ▁C ign one ▁( C rem un és : ▁) ▁is ▁a ▁comune ▁in ▁the ▁province ▁of ▁C rem ona , ▁in ▁Lomb ard y , ▁northern ▁Italy . ▁ ▁The ▁town ▁has ▁a ▁parish ▁church ▁dedicated ▁to ▁San ▁Gia como ▁e ▁Fil ipp o . ▁ ▁References <0x0A> </s> ▁T eles phere ▁is ▁a ▁nation wide ▁Un
ified ▁Communic ations ▁as ▁a ▁Service ▁provider ▁for ▁business es . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁T eles phere ▁began ▁providing ▁highly ▁secure ▁cloud ▁based ▁voice ▁and ▁data ▁services ▁over ▁a ▁private ▁IP ▁M PL S ▁network ▁to ▁mid ▁and ▁large ▁enter pr ises ▁throughout ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁now ▁also ▁in ▁Europe . ▁ ▁T eles phere ▁provides ▁Host ed ▁Vo IP , ▁ ▁Man aged ▁Video ▁Br id ging , ▁M PL S ▁Network ▁Services , ▁ ▁Private ▁S IP ▁Tr unk ing , ▁Mobile ▁Integr ation ▁and ▁many ▁other ▁Cloud ▁Communic ations ▁services . ▁ ▁Services ▁are ▁available ▁regardless ▁of ▁the ▁ge ographic ▁location ▁throughout ▁out ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁History ▁T eles phere ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁and ▁is ▁back ed ▁and ▁operated ▁by ▁invest ors ▁who ▁were ▁affili ated ▁with ▁Cell ular ▁One / AT & T ▁W ire less , ▁Next el , ▁Next link , ▁X O ▁Communic ations , ▁and ▁Clear wire , ▁drawing ▁talent ▁from ▁tele com ▁industry ▁veter ans ▁with ▁successful ▁track ▁records . ▁ ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁T eles phere ▁acquired ▁the ▁Vo IP ▁services ▁business ▁of ▁Den ver - based ▁IP ▁services ▁provider ▁Unity ▁Business ▁Network s . ▁ ▁From ▁mid - 2 0 0 8 ▁through ▁mid - 2 0 1 0 , ▁T eles phere ▁raised ▁more ▁capital ▁than ▁any ▁other ▁vent ure ▁back ed ▁priv ately ▁held ▁company ▁in ▁Arizona . ▁Fund ing ▁has ▁featured ▁several ▁premier
▁tele communic ations ▁invest ors ▁including : ▁R ally ▁Capital , ▁Haw key e ▁In vest ments ▁and ▁the ▁Gre ens p un ▁Corporation . ▁T eles phere ▁agreed ▁to ▁be ▁acquired ▁by ▁Von age ▁for ▁$ 1 1 4 ▁million ▁in ▁November ▁▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁ ▁Current ▁customers ▁and ▁spons ors ▁T eles phere ▁currently ▁supports ▁customers ▁across ▁the ▁US , ▁Canada , ▁and ▁Europe . ▁ ▁T eles phere ▁is ▁active ▁with ▁national ▁char ities , ▁including ▁the ▁American ▁Red ▁Cross , ▁Make - a - W ish ▁Foundation , ▁South west ▁Human ▁Development ’ s ▁Ada pt ▁Sh op , ▁and ▁the ▁American ▁L ung ▁Association . ▁Community ▁invol vement ▁is ▁multi - fac et ed , ▁taking ▁place ▁at ▁all ▁levels ▁of ▁the ▁organization . ▁ ▁T eles phere ▁act ively ▁particip ates ▁in ▁a ▁L unch ▁Bud dy ▁M ent oring ▁Program ▁with ▁Big ▁Brothers ▁Big ▁Sister s ; ▁M aking ▁Str ides ; ▁American ▁Society ▁Run / W alk ; ▁Make - a - W ish ▁ 5 k ▁Run ; ▁and , ▁numerous ▁other ▁phil anth rop ic ▁events ▁across ▁the ▁nation . ▁ ▁Awards ▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Rank ed ▁No . ▁ 1 ▁U C aa S ▁Pro vider ▁by ▁W ain house ▁Research ’ s ▁‘ B road So ft ▁Pro vider ▁Power ▁Rank ings – 2 0 1 4 ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Hon ored ▁as ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁State ’ s ▁Top ▁ 5 0 ▁L arg est
▁Private ▁Comp an ies ▁at ▁Arizona ▁Corpor ate ▁Ex cell ence ▁Awards ▁Night ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Rec ogn ized ▁as ▁a ▁Ch allen ger ▁in ▁Un ified ▁Communic ations ▁as ▁a ▁Service ▁( UC aa S ) ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁G art ner ▁Magic ▁Qu adr ant ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Rec ogn ized ▁as ▁Inc . ▁ 5 0 0 / 5 0 0 0 ▁Fast - G row ing ▁Company ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁selected ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Top ▁Comp an ies ▁to ▁Work ▁for ▁in ▁Arizona ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Rece ives ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Un ified ▁Communic ations ▁Product ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁Award ▁▁ ▁T MC ' s ▁Internet ▁Tele phony ▁Magazine ▁- ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁Un ified ▁Communic ations ▁Award ▁▁ ▁Del o itte ▁- ▁Technology ▁Fast ▁ 5 0 0 ▁Award ▁▁ ▁Inc ▁ 5 0 0 / 5 0 0 0 ▁- ▁Inc ▁ 5 0 0 0 ▁Fast est ▁G row ing ▁companies ▁in ▁the ▁US ▁( 3 rd ▁year ▁in ▁a ▁row ) ▁▁ ▁Scot ts dale ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Com merce ▁- ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁Ster ling ▁Award ▁W inner ▁▁ ▁Best Comp an ies A Z . com ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Arizona ' s ▁Most ▁Ad m ired ▁Comp an ies ▁W inner ▁ ▁Cloud ▁Communic ations ▁Alliance ▁T eles phere ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁ 2 3 ▁technology ▁companies ▁that ▁make ▁up ▁the ▁Cloud ▁Communic ations ▁Alliance . ▁ ▁Clark
▁Pet erson , ▁CE O ▁of ▁T eles phere , ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁and ▁current ▁chairman ▁of ▁the ▁Cloud ▁Communic ations ▁Alliance . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Internet ▁service ▁prov iders ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : V o IP ▁companies ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : V on age <0x0A> </s> ▁A ▁Unix - like ▁( s ometimes ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁UN * X ▁or ▁* n ix ) ▁operating ▁system ▁is ▁one ▁that ▁behav es ▁in ▁a ▁manner ▁similar ▁to ▁a ▁Unix ▁system , ▁while ▁not ▁necessarily ▁conform ing ▁to ▁or ▁being ▁cert ified ▁to ▁any ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification . ▁ ▁A ▁Unix - like ▁application ▁is ▁one ▁that ▁behav es ▁like ▁the ▁corresponding ▁Unix ▁command ▁or ▁shell . ▁There ▁is ▁no ▁standard ▁for ▁defining ▁the ▁term , ▁and ▁some ▁difference ▁of ▁opinion ▁is ▁possible ▁as ▁to ▁the ▁degree ▁to ▁which ▁a ▁given ▁operating ▁system ▁or ▁application ▁is ▁" Un ix - like ". ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁can ▁include ▁free ▁and ▁open - source ▁operating ▁systems ▁inspired ▁by ▁Bell ▁L abs ' ▁Unix ▁or ▁designed ▁to ▁em ulate ▁its ▁features , ▁commercial ▁and ▁propriet ary ▁work - al ikes , ▁and ▁even ▁versions ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁lic ensed ▁UN IX ▁source ▁code ▁( which ▁may ▁be ▁sufficiently ▁" Un ix - like " ▁to ▁pass ▁cert ification ▁and ▁bear ▁the ▁" UN IX " ▁tra dem ark ). ▁ ▁Definition ▁ ▁The ▁Open ▁Group ▁own s ▁the ▁UN IX ▁tra dem ark ▁and ▁admin ister
s ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification , ▁with ▁the ▁" UN IX " ▁name ▁being ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁cert ification ▁mark . ▁ ▁They ▁do ▁not ▁appro ve ▁of ▁the ▁construction ▁" Un ix - like ", ▁and ▁consider ▁it ▁a ▁mis use ▁of ▁their ▁tra dem ark . ▁ ▁Their ▁gu idel ines ▁require ▁" UN IX " ▁to ▁be ▁presented ▁in ▁upper case ▁or ▁otherwise ▁distinguished ▁from ▁the ▁surrounding ▁text , ▁strongly ▁encou rage ▁using ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁brand ing ▁ad jective ▁for ▁a ▁generic ▁word ▁such ▁as ▁" system ", ▁and ▁disc ou rage ▁its ▁use ▁in ▁hy phen ated ▁phr ases . ▁ ▁Other ▁parties ▁frequently ▁treat ▁" Un ix " ▁as ▁a ▁generic ized ▁tra dem ark . ▁Some ▁add ▁a ▁wild card ▁character ▁to ▁the ▁name ▁to ▁make ▁an ▁abbre viation ▁like ▁ ▁" Un * x " ▁or ▁"* n ix ", ▁since ▁Unix - like ▁systems ▁often ▁have ▁Unix - like ▁names ▁such ▁as ▁A IX , ▁A / U X , ▁H P - U X , ▁I RI X , ▁Linux , ▁Min ix , ▁Ult rix , ▁X enix , ▁X inu , ▁and ▁X NU . ▁These ▁patterns ▁do ▁not ▁literally ▁match ▁many ▁system ▁names , ▁but ▁are ▁still ▁generally ▁recognized ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁any ▁UN IX ▁system , ▁desc endant , ▁or ▁work - ali ke , ▁even ▁those ▁with ▁completely ▁dis similar ▁names ▁such ▁as ▁Dar win / mac OS , ▁ill um os / S olar is
▁or ▁Free B SD . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Wayne ▁R . ▁Gray ▁su ed ▁to ▁dispute ▁the ▁status ▁of ▁UN IX ▁as ▁a ▁tra dem ark , ▁but ▁lost ▁his ▁case , ▁and ▁lost ▁again ▁on ▁appeal , ▁with ▁the ▁court ▁u ph old ing ▁the ▁tra dem ark ▁and ▁its ▁ownership . ▁ ▁History ▁▁ ▁" Un ix - like " ▁systems ▁started ▁to ▁appear ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Many ▁propriet ary ▁versions , ▁such ▁as ▁Id ris ▁( 1 9 7 8 ), ▁UN OS ▁( 1 9 8 2 ), ▁C oh er ent ▁( 1 9 8 3 ), ▁and ▁Un i F lex ▁( 1 9 8 5 ), ▁aim ed ▁to ▁provide ▁business es ▁with ▁the ▁functionality ▁available ▁to ▁academic ▁users ▁of ▁UN IX . ▁ ▁When ▁AT & T ▁allowed ▁relatively ▁in exp ensive ▁commercial ▁binary ▁sub - lic ens ing ▁of ▁UN IX ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁propriet ary ▁systems ▁were ▁developed ▁based ▁on ▁it , ▁including ▁A IX , ▁H P - U X , ▁I RI X , ▁Sun OS , ▁Tru 6 4 , ▁Ult rix , ▁and ▁X enix . ▁These ▁largely ▁disp la ced ▁the ▁propriet ary ▁cl ones . ▁ ▁G row ing ▁in compat ibility ▁among ▁these ▁systems ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁inter oper ability ▁standards , ▁including ▁P OS IX ▁and
▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification . ▁ ▁Vari ous ▁free , ▁low - cost , ▁and ▁un rest rict ed ▁subst it utes ▁for ▁UN IX ▁emer ged ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁including ▁ 4 . 4 B SD , ▁Linux , ▁and ▁Min ix . ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁have ▁in ▁turn ▁been ▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁commercial ▁" Un ix - like " ▁systems , ▁such ▁as ▁B SD / OS ▁and ▁mac OS . ▁Several ▁versions ▁of ▁( Mac ) ▁OS ▁X / mac OS ▁running ▁on ▁Intel - based ▁Mac ▁computers ▁have ▁been ▁cert ified ▁under ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification . ▁The ▁B SD ▁variants ▁are ▁descend ants ▁of ▁UN IX ▁developed ▁by ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California ▁at ▁Ber keley ▁with ▁UN IX ▁source ▁code ▁from ▁Bell ▁L abs . ▁However , ▁the ▁B SD ▁code ▁base ▁has ▁evol ved ▁since ▁then , ▁replacing ▁all ▁of ▁the ▁AT & T ▁code . ▁Since ▁the ▁B SD ▁variants ▁are ▁not ▁cert ified ▁as ▁comp li ant ▁with ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification , ▁they ▁are ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁" UN IX - like " ▁rather ▁than ▁" UN IX ". ▁ ▁C ategories ▁ ▁Dennis ▁R itch ie , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁original ▁cre ators ▁of ▁Unix , ▁expressed ▁his ▁opinion ▁that ▁Unix - like ▁systems ▁such ▁as ▁Linux ▁are ▁de ▁fact o ▁Unix ▁systems . ▁Eric ▁S . ▁Raymond ▁and ▁Rob ▁Land ley ▁have ▁suggested
▁that ▁there ▁are ▁three ▁kinds ▁of ▁Unix - like ▁systems : ▁ ▁Gen etic ▁UN IX ▁ ▁Those ▁systems ▁with ▁a ▁historical ▁connection ▁to ▁the ▁AT & T ▁code base . ▁Most ▁commercial ▁UN IX ▁systems ▁fall ▁into ▁this ▁category . ▁So ▁do ▁the ▁B SD ▁systems , ▁which ▁are ▁descend ants ▁of ▁work ▁done ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Ber keley ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁systems ▁have ▁no ▁original ▁AT & T ▁code ▁but ▁can ▁still ▁trace ▁their ▁ancest ry ▁to ▁AT & T ▁designs . ▁ ▁Tra dem ark ▁or ▁brand ed ▁UN IX ▁ ▁These ▁system sl arg ely ▁commercial ▁in ▁nature have ▁been ▁determined ▁by ▁the ▁Open ▁Group ▁to ▁meet ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification ▁and ▁are ▁allowed ▁to ▁carry ▁the ▁UN IX ▁name . ▁Most ▁such ▁systems ▁are ▁commercial ▁derivatives ▁of ▁the ▁System ▁V ▁code ▁base ▁in ▁one ▁form ▁or ▁another , ▁although ▁Apple ▁mac OS ▁ 1 0 . 5 ▁and ▁later ▁is ▁a ▁B SD ▁variant ▁that ▁has ▁been ▁cert ified , ▁E uler OS ▁and ▁In sp ur ▁K - U X ▁are ▁Linux ▁distributions ▁that ▁have ▁been ▁cert ified , ▁and ▁a ▁few ▁other ▁systems ▁( such ▁as ▁IBM ▁z / OS ) ▁earned ▁the ▁tra dem ark ▁through ▁a ▁P OS IX ▁compatibility ▁layer ▁and ▁are ▁not ▁otherwise ▁inher ently ▁Unix ▁systems . ▁ ▁Many ▁ancient ▁UN IX ▁systems ▁no ▁longer ▁meet ▁this ▁definition
. ▁ ▁Function al ▁UN IX ▁ ▁Broad ly , ▁any ▁Unix - like ▁system ▁that ▁behav es ▁in ▁a ▁manner ▁roughly ▁consistent ▁with ▁the ▁UN IX ▁specification , ▁including ▁having ▁a ▁" program ▁which ▁man ages ▁your ▁login ▁and ▁command ▁line ▁sessions "; ▁more ▁specifically , ▁this ▁can ▁refer ▁to ▁systems ▁such ▁as ▁Linux ▁or ▁Min ix ▁that ▁behave ▁similarly ▁to ▁a ▁UN IX ▁system ▁but ▁have ▁no ▁gen etic ▁or ▁tra dem ark ▁connection ▁to ▁the ▁AT & T ▁code ▁base . ▁Most ▁free / open - source ▁implementations ▁of ▁the ▁UN IX ▁design , ▁whether ▁gen etic ▁UN IX ▁or ▁not , ▁fall ▁into ▁the ▁restricted ▁definition ▁of ▁this ▁third ▁category ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁exp ense ▁of ▁obtain ing ▁Open ▁Group ▁cert ification , ▁which ▁costs ▁thousands ▁of ▁dollars ▁for ▁commercial ▁closed ▁source ▁systems . ▁ ▁Ar ound ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁Linux ▁was ▁given ▁the ▁opportunity ▁to ▁get ▁a ▁cert ification ▁including ▁free ▁help ▁from ▁the ▁P OS IX ▁chair ▁Andrew ▁Jose y ▁for ▁the ▁symbol ic ▁price ▁of ▁one ▁doll ar . ▁There ▁have ▁been ▁some ▁activities ▁to ▁make ▁Linux ▁P OS IX - comp li ant , ▁with ▁Jose y ▁having ▁prepared ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁differences ▁between ▁the ▁P OS IX ▁standard ▁and ▁the ▁Linux ▁Standard ▁Base ▁specification , ▁but ▁in ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁this ▁project ▁was ▁shut ▁down ▁because ▁of ▁missing ▁interest ▁at ▁the ▁L SB ▁work ▁group . ▁ ▁Comp at ibility ▁layers ▁Some ▁non - Un ix -
like ▁operating ▁systems ▁provide ▁a ▁Unix - like ▁compatibility ▁layer , ▁with ▁varying ▁degrees ▁of ▁Unix - like ▁functionality . ▁ ▁IBM ▁z / OS ' s ▁UN IX ▁System ▁Services ▁is ▁sufficiently ▁complete ▁as ▁to ▁be ▁cert ified ▁as ▁tra dem ark ▁UN IX . ▁ ▁C yg win ▁and ▁MS YS ▁both ▁provide ▁a ▁GNU ▁environment ▁on ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁Microsoft ▁Windows ▁user ▁API , ▁sufficient ▁for ▁most ▁common ▁open ▁source ▁software ▁to ▁be ▁compiled ▁and ▁run . ▁ ▁The ▁M KS ▁Tool kit ▁and ▁U WIN ▁are ▁compreh ensive ▁inter oper ability ▁tools ▁which ▁allow ▁the ▁port ing ▁of ▁Unix ▁programs ▁to ▁Windows . ▁ ▁Windows ▁N T - type ▁systems ▁have ▁a ▁P OS IX ▁environmental ▁sub system . ▁ ▁Sub system ▁for ▁Unix - based ▁App lications ▁( pre viously ▁Inter ix ) ▁provides ▁Unix - like ▁functionality ▁as ▁a ▁Windows ▁N T ▁sub system ▁( dis cont in ued ). ▁ ▁Windows ▁Sub system ▁for ▁Linux ▁provides ▁a ▁Linux - compatible ▁kernel ▁interface ▁developed ▁by ▁Microsoft ▁and ▁containing ▁no ▁Linux ▁code , ▁with ▁Ubuntu ▁user - mode ▁bin aries ▁running ▁on ▁top ▁of ▁it . ▁ ▁Other ▁means ▁of ▁Windows - Un ix ▁inter oper ability ▁include : ▁ ▁The ▁above ▁Windows ▁packages ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁with ▁various ▁X ▁servers ▁for ▁Windows ▁ ▁Hum ming bird ▁Connect ivity ▁provides ▁several ▁ways ▁for ▁Windows ▁machines ▁to ▁connect ▁to ▁Unix ▁and ▁Linux ▁machines , ▁from ▁terminal ▁em ul ators ▁to ▁X ▁clients ▁and ▁servers , ▁and ▁others ▁ ▁The
▁Windows ▁Resource ▁K its ▁for ▁versions ▁of ▁Windows ▁N T ▁include ▁a ▁Bour ne ▁Sh ell , ▁some ▁command - line ▁tools , ▁and ▁a ▁version ▁of ▁Perl ▁ ▁Hamilton ▁C ▁shell ▁is ▁a ▁version ▁of ▁c sh ▁written ▁specifically ▁for ▁Windows . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁Ber keley ▁Software ▁Distribution ▁ ▁Linux ▁distribution ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Linux ▁distributions ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Unix ▁commands ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁operating ▁systems ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Unix - like ▁Definition , ▁by ▁The ▁Linux ▁Information ▁Project ▁( L INFO ) ▁ ▁UN IX ▁history ▁a ▁history ▁time ▁line ▁graph ▁of ▁most ▁UN IX ▁and ▁Unix - like ▁systems ▁by ▁É ric ▁L év é nez ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Un ix ▁▁ ▁Category : Oper ating ▁system ▁families <0x0A> </s> ▁van ▁der ▁V le uten ▁is ▁a ▁surname . ▁Notable ▁people ▁with ▁the ▁surname ▁include : ▁ ▁Jos ▁van ▁der ▁V le uten ▁( 1 9 4 3 – 2 0 1 1 ), ▁Dutch ▁cycl ist ▁Ma arten ▁van ▁der ▁V le uten ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 7 ), ▁Dutch ▁record ▁producer ▁ ▁Category : S urn ames ▁of ▁Dutch ▁origin <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 1 9 1 2 ▁Minnesota ▁Golden ▁G oph ers ▁football ▁team ▁represented ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Minnesota ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 1 2 ▁college ▁football ▁season . ▁In ▁their ▁ 1 3 th ▁year ▁under ▁head ▁coach ▁Henry ▁L . ▁Williams , ▁the ▁Golden ▁G oph ers ▁compiled ▁a ▁ 4 – 3 ▁record ▁( 2 –
2 ▁against ▁Western ▁Conference ▁oppon ents ) ▁and ▁out sc ored ▁their ▁oppon ents ▁by ▁a ▁combined ▁total ▁of ▁ 8 7 ▁to ▁ 3 8 . ▁ ▁Sch edule ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Minnesota ▁Category : M inn esota ▁Golden ▁G oph ers ▁football ▁seasons ▁Minnesota ▁Golden ▁G oph ers ▁football <0x0A> </s> ▁Hann ah ▁M ons on ▁( born ▁ 2 1 ▁April ▁ 1 9 9 2 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Australian ▁actress ▁best ▁known ▁for ▁her ▁role ▁as ▁K irst ie ▁D arrow ▁in ▁the ▁ABC ▁drama , ▁Gl itch . ▁ ▁Film ography ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 1 9 9 2 ▁birth s ▁Category : Austral ian ▁film ▁actress es ▁Category : Austral ian ▁television ▁actress es ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Australian ▁actress es <0x0A> </s> ▁This ▁is ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁words , ▁terms , ▁concepts , ▁and ▁s log ans ▁that ▁have ▁been ▁or ▁are ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁military . ▁R anks ▁and ▁transl ations ▁of ▁nick names ▁for ▁vehicles ▁are ▁included . ▁Also ▁included ▁are ▁some ▁general ▁terms ▁from ▁the ▁German ▁language ▁found ▁frequently ▁in ▁military ▁j arg on . ▁Some ▁terms ▁are ▁from ▁the ▁general ▁German ▁cultural ▁background , ▁others ▁are ▁given ▁to ▁show ▁a ▁change ▁that ▁was ▁made ▁before ▁or ▁after ▁the ▁Naz i ▁era . ▁Some ▁fact ories ▁that ▁were ▁the ▁primary ▁produ cers ▁of ▁military ▁equipment , ▁especially ▁t anks , ▁are ▁also ▁given . ▁ ▁G loss ary ▁ ▁A
▁ ▁A - Stand ▁– ▁forward ▁def ensive ▁gun ner ' s ▁position ▁on ▁aircraft . ▁ ▁ab gesch ossen ▁– ▁shot ▁down ; ▁destroyed ▁by ▁means ▁of ▁firing . ▁ ▁Ab schnitt ▁– ▁sector , ▁district . ▁ ▁Ab l ös ungs div ision ▁– ▁relief ▁division ▁( 1 9 1 7 ), ▁later ▁renamed ▁Eing re if ▁division ▁( inter vention ▁division ). ▁ ▁Ab teilung ▁( A bt .) ▁– ▁a ▁batt alion - s ized ▁unit ▁of ▁arm or , ▁art illery ▁or ▁caval ry ; ▁in ▁other ▁context s ▁a ▁det achment ▁or ▁section . ▁ ▁Ab teil ungs ar zt ▁– ▁batt alion ▁phys ician ▁ ▁Ab teilung sch ef ▁– ▁batt alion ▁commander ▁in ▁art illery ▁and ▁caval ry ▁form ations ▁ ▁Ab teil ungs führ er ▁– ▁substitute ▁batt alion ▁commander ▁in ▁art illery ▁and ▁caval ry ▁form ations ▁ ▁Ab teil ungs v eter in är ▁– ▁batt alion ▁veter in arian ▁ ▁Ab wehr ▁– ▁" def ense "; ▁as ▁a ▁short ening ▁of ▁Sp ion age ▁Ab wehr ▁( sp y ▁defense ) ▁the ▁term ▁referred ▁to ▁the ▁counter - esp ion age ▁service ▁( G erman ▁Secret ▁Service ) ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁High ▁Command , ▁head ed ▁by ▁Admir al ▁Can aris . ▁Also ▁an ▁element ▁in ▁such ▁comp ounds ▁as ▁Fl ie ger ab wehr - K an one ▁" anti - air craft ▁gun ." ▁ ▁Ab zeich en ▁– ▁ins ign ia ; ▁bad ge ▁of ▁rank ,