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▁occurs ▁in ▁the ▁quadratic ▁equation , ▁it ▁does ▁not ▁const itute ▁a ▁stable ▁algorithm ▁to ▁calculate ▁the ▁two ▁roots . ▁ ▁A ▁better ▁algorithm ▁ ▁A ▁careful ▁floating - point ▁computer ▁implementation ▁comb ines ▁several ▁strateg ies ▁to ▁produce ▁a ▁robust ▁result . ▁Assuming ▁that ▁the ▁disc rimin ant ▁ ▁is ▁positive , ▁and ▁b ▁is ▁non zero , ▁the ▁computation ▁would ▁be ▁as ▁follows : ▁ ▁Here ▁s gn ▁denotes ▁the ▁sign ▁function , ▁where ▁ ▁is ▁ 1 ▁if ▁ ▁is ▁positive , ▁and ▁− 1 ▁if ▁ ▁is ▁negative . ▁This ▁avoid s ▁can cellation ▁problems ▁between ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁square ▁root ▁of ▁the ▁disc rimin ant ▁by ▁ens uring ▁that ▁only ▁numbers ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁sign ▁are ▁added . ▁ ▁To ▁illustrate ▁the ▁inst ability ▁of ▁the ▁standard ▁quadratic ▁formula ▁compared ▁to ▁this ▁formula , ▁consider ▁a ▁quadratic ▁equation ▁with ▁roots ▁ ▁and ▁. ▁To ▁ 1 6 ▁significant ▁digits , ▁roughly ▁corresponding ▁to ▁double - prec ision ▁accuracy ▁on ▁a ▁computer , ▁the ▁mon ic ▁quadratic ▁equation ▁with ▁these ▁roots ▁may ▁be ▁written ▁as ▁ ▁Using ▁the ▁standard ▁quadratic ▁formula ▁and ▁maintain ing ▁ 1 6 ▁significant ▁digits ▁at ▁each ▁step , ▁the ▁standard ▁quadratic ▁formula ▁yields ▁ ▁Note ▁how ▁can cellation ▁has ▁resulted ▁in ▁ ▁being ▁computed ▁to ▁only ▁ 8 ▁significant ▁digits ▁of ▁accuracy . ▁ ▁The ▁variant ▁formula ▁presented ▁here , ▁however , ▁yields ▁the ▁following : ▁ ▁Note ▁the ▁ret ention ▁of ▁all ▁significant ▁digits ▁for ▁. ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁while ▁the ▁above ▁form |
ulation ▁avoid s ▁cat ast roph ic ▁can cellation ▁between ▁ ▁and ▁, ▁there ▁remains ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁can cellation ▁between ▁the ▁terms ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁of ▁the ▁disc rimin ant , ▁which ▁can ▁still ▁lead ▁to ▁loss ▁of ▁up ▁to ▁half ▁of ▁correct ▁significant ▁digits . ▁ ▁The ▁disc rimin ant ▁ ▁needs ▁to ▁be ▁computed ▁in ▁arithmetic ▁of ▁twice ▁the ▁precision ▁of ▁the ▁result ▁to ▁avoid ▁this ▁( e . g . ▁quad ▁precision ▁if ▁the ▁final ▁result ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁accurate ▁to ▁full ▁double ▁precision ). ▁ ▁This ▁can ▁be ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁a ▁f used ▁multiply - add ▁operation . ▁ ▁To ▁illustrate ▁this , ▁consider ▁the ▁following ▁quadratic ▁equation , ▁adapted ▁from ▁K ah an ▁( 2 0 0 4 ): ▁ ▁This ▁equation ▁has ▁ ▁and ▁roots ▁▁ ▁However , ▁when ▁computed ▁using ▁IE EE ▁ 7 5 4 ▁double - prec ision ▁arithmetic ▁corresponding ▁to ▁ 1 5 ▁to ▁ 1 7 ▁significant ▁digits ▁of ▁accuracy , ▁ ▁is ▁rounded ▁to ▁ 0 . 0 , ▁and ▁the ▁computed ▁roots ▁are ▁▁▁ ▁which ▁are ▁both ▁false ▁after ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁significant ▁digit . ▁This ▁is ▁despite ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁super f icial ly , ▁the ▁problem ▁seems ▁to ▁require ▁only ▁ 1 1 ▁significant ▁digits ▁of ▁accuracy ▁for ▁its ▁solution . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Round - off ▁error ▁ ▁K ah an ▁summ ation ▁algorithm ▁ ▁Kar ls ru he ▁Acc ur ate ▁Ar ithmetic ▁ ▁Ex sec ant ▁ ▁Ex pon ential |
▁minus ▁ 1 ▁ ▁Natural ▁log arith m ▁plus ▁ 1 ▁ ▁Example ▁in ▁w ik ib ook s : ▁Can cellation ▁of ▁significant ▁digits ▁in ▁numerical ▁comput ations ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : N umer ical ▁analysis <0x0A> </s> ▁Sh ih ua ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁town ▁of ▁G uch eng ▁County ▁in ▁north western ▁H ube i ▁province , ▁China , ▁located ▁against ▁the ▁immediate ▁back drop ▁of ▁the ▁D aba ▁Mountains . ▁, ▁it ▁has ▁ 8 ▁resident ial ▁communities ▁( 社 区 ) ▁and ▁ 3 8 ▁villages ▁under ▁its ▁administration . ▁ ▁Administr ative ▁divisions ▁E ight ▁resident ial ▁communities : ▁ ▁D ong men j ie ▁( ), ▁X ihe j ie ▁( ), ▁Sh ix ij ie ▁( ), ▁C ang ta ij ie ▁( ), ▁Hou fan ▁( ), ▁Min ying j ing ji qu ▁( ), ▁Day u q ia oj ie ▁( ), ▁La oj unta i ▁() ▁ ▁Th irty - e ight ▁villages : ▁ ▁J ie p ai ya ▁( ), ▁Hong m am iao ▁( ), ▁T iem ia og ou ▁( ), ▁Hu ang ji ay ing ▁( ), ▁P ing ch uan ▁( ), ▁Pe ij ia q iao ▁( ), ▁G ong j ia wan ▁( ), ▁Yang xi wan ▁( ), ▁Sh u ix ing ta i ▁( ), ▁X ia x ind ian ▁( ), ▁Z hou j ia wan ▁( ), ▁Sh ij ia wan ▁( ), ▁P eng j ia wan ▁( ), |
▁Ca iji ay ing ▁( ), ▁Ga oj ia ch ong ▁( ), ▁Day u ▁( ), ▁Sh a oj ial ou ▁( ), ▁D oup od ian ▁( ), ▁B iao ji am iao ▁( ), ▁Tu q ia og ou ▁( ), ▁T ong be im iao ▁( ), ▁Y inf an ▁( ), ▁Li ang sh u ij ing ▁( ), ▁P eng j ial ing ▁( ), ▁X iji aya ▁( ), ▁W uj ia z hou ▁( ), ▁Yan wan ▁( ), ▁C ang y u ▁( ), ▁Ba iji ay an ▁( ), ▁T ong sh an ▁( ), ▁C ui hu ap u ▁( ), ▁Ji ang j un sh an ▁( ), ▁Yang j ia hu ▁( ), ▁X ia ot ans han ▁( ), ▁Chen j ial ou ▁( ), ▁Long ji ag ou ▁( ), ▁Long wan ▁() ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁town ship - level ▁divisions ▁of ▁H ube i ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Category : T own ship - level ▁divisions ▁of ▁H ube i <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Western ▁world , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁West , ▁refers ▁to ▁various ▁regions , ▁nations ▁and ▁states , ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁context , ▁most ▁often ▁consisting ▁of ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁Europe , ▁Austral asia , ▁and ▁the ▁Amer icas . ▁There ▁are ▁many ▁accepted ▁definitions , ▁all ▁closely ▁inter related . ▁The ▁Western ▁world ▁is ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Occ ident ▁( from ▁the ▁Latin ▁word ▁occ id ens |
, ▁" sun set , ▁West "), ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁the ▁Orient ▁( from ▁the ▁Latin ▁word ▁or iens , ▁" r ise , ▁East "), ▁or ▁Eastern ▁world . ▁It ▁might ▁mean ▁the ▁Northern ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁North – S outh ▁divide . ▁ ▁An cient ▁Greece ▁and ▁An cient ▁Rome ▁are ▁generally ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁birth p laces ▁of ▁Western ▁civil ization — G ree ce ▁having ▁heavily ▁influenced ▁Rome — the ▁former ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁impact ▁on ▁philosophy , ▁dem ocracy , ▁science , ▁a est het ics ▁and ▁art , ▁building ▁designs ▁and ▁proport ions , ▁architecture ; ▁the ▁latter ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁influence ▁on ▁law , ▁war fare , ▁govern ance , ▁republic an ism , ▁engineering ▁and ▁religion . ▁Western ▁civil ization ▁is ▁also ▁strongly ▁associated ▁with ▁Christian ity , ▁which ▁is ▁in ▁turn ▁sh aped ▁by ▁H ellen istic ▁philosophy , ▁J uda ism ▁and ▁Roman ▁culture . ▁In ▁the ▁modern ▁era , ▁Western ▁culture ▁has ▁been ▁heavily ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁Renaissance , ▁the ▁A ges ▁of ▁Disc overy ▁and ▁En light en ment ▁and ▁the ▁Indust rial ▁and ▁Scient ific ▁Revolution s . ▁Through ▁extensive ▁imperial ism , ▁colonial ism ▁and ▁Christian ization ▁by ▁Western ▁powers ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁to ▁ 2 0 th ▁centuries , ▁and ▁later ▁export ation ▁of ▁mass ▁culture , ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁has ▁been ▁extens ively ▁influenced ▁by ▁Western ▁culture , ▁in ▁a ▁phenomen on ▁often ▁called ▁Western ization . ▁ ▁The |
▁concept ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁earth ▁has ▁its ▁roots ▁in ▁the ▁the ological , ▁method ological ▁and ▁em ph at ical ▁division ▁between ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Orth odox ▁Church es . ▁West ▁was ▁originally ▁literal , ▁oppos ing ▁Catholic ▁Europe ▁with ▁the ▁cult ures ▁and ▁civil izations ▁of ▁Orth odox ▁Europe , ▁the ▁Middle ▁East ▁and ▁North ▁Africa , ▁Sub - S ah aran ▁Africa , ▁South ▁Asia , ▁S out heast ▁Asia ▁and ▁the ▁remote ▁Far ▁East , ▁which ▁early - mod ern ▁Europe ans ▁saw ▁as ▁the ▁East . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁mid - 2 0 th ▁century , ▁Western ▁culture ▁was ▁export ed ▁world wide ▁through ▁the ▁emer gent ▁mass ▁media : ▁film , ▁radio , ▁television ▁and ▁recorded ▁music ; ▁and ▁the ▁development ▁and ▁growth ▁of ▁international ▁transport ▁and ▁tele communic ation ▁( such ▁as ▁trans at l antic ▁cable ▁and ▁the ▁radi ote le phone ) ▁played ▁a ▁decis ive ▁role ▁in ▁modern ▁global ization . ▁In ▁modern ▁usage , ▁Western ▁world ▁sometimes ▁refers ▁to ▁Europe ▁and ▁to ▁areas ▁whose ▁populations ▁have ▁had ▁a ▁large ▁European ▁eth n ical ▁presence ▁since ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁century ▁Age ▁of ▁Disc overy . ▁ ▁Introduction ▁ ▁Western ▁culture ▁was ▁influenced ▁by ▁many ▁older ▁civil izations ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Near ▁East , ▁such ▁as ▁Pho en icia , ▁An cient ▁Israel , ▁M ino an ▁Cre te , ▁S umer , ▁Bab yl onia , ▁and ▁also ▁An cient ▁Egypt . ▁It ▁origin ated ▁in |
▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁bas in ▁and ▁its ▁vic inity ; ▁An cient ▁Greece ▁and ▁Rome ▁are ▁often ▁c ited ▁as ▁its ▁birth p laces . ▁ ▁Over ▁time , ▁their ▁associated ▁emp ires ▁grew ▁first ▁to ▁the ▁east ▁and ▁west ▁to ▁include ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁Mediter rane an ▁and ▁Black ▁Sea ▁coast al ▁areas , ▁conqu ering ▁and ▁absor bing . ▁Later , ▁they ▁expanded ▁to ▁the ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁Sea ▁to ▁include ▁Western , ▁Central , ▁and ▁S out he astern ▁Europe . ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Ireland ▁( 5 th ▁century ), ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Bulg aria ▁( 9 th ▁century ), ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁K ie van ▁Rus ' ▁( Russ ia , ▁Ukraine , ▁Bel arus ; ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ), ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Sc and in avia ▁( Den mark , ▁Norway , ▁Sweden ; ▁ 1 2 th ▁century ) ▁and ▁Christian ization ▁of ▁Lith u ania ▁( 1 4 th ▁century ) ▁brought ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁present - day ▁European ▁territory ▁into ▁Western ▁civil ization . ▁ ▁Histor ians , ▁such ▁as ▁Car roll ▁Qu ig ley ▁in ▁" The ▁E volution ▁of ▁Civil izations ", ▁cont end ▁that ▁Western ▁civil ization ▁was ▁born ▁around ▁AD ▁ 5 0 0 , ▁after ▁the ▁total ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁leaving ▁a ▁vac u um ▁for ▁new ▁ideas ▁to ▁fl our ish ▁that ▁were ▁impossible ▁in ▁Class ical ▁soci eties . ▁In ▁either ▁view , ▁between ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the |
▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁Renaissance , ▁the ▁West ▁( or ▁those ▁regions ▁that ▁would ▁later ▁become ▁the ▁heart land ▁of ▁the ▁cult ur ally ▁" western ▁sphere ") ▁experienced ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁first , ▁considerable ▁decl ine , ▁and ▁then ▁re ada pt ation , ▁re orientation ▁and ▁considerable ▁renew ed ▁material , ▁techn ological ▁and ▁political ▁development . ▁This ▁whole ▁period ▁of ▁roughly ▁a ▁mill en ni um ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges , ▁its ▁early ▁part ▁forming ▁the ▁" D ark ▁A ges ", ▁design ations ▁that ▁were ▁created ▁during ▁the ▁Renaissance ▁and ▁reflect ▁the ▁perspective ▁on ▁history , ▁and ▁the ▁self - image , ▁of ▁the ▁latter ▁period . ▁ ▁The ▁knowledge ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Western ▁world ▁was ▁partly ▁preserved ▁during ▁this ▁period ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁surv ival ▁of ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁introduction ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ; ▁it ▁was ▁also ▁greatly ▁expanded ▁by ▁the ▁Arab ▁import ation ▁of ▁both ▁the ▁An cient ▁Gre co - R oman ▁and ▁new ▁technology ▁through ▁the ▁Arab s ▁from ▁India ▁and ▁China ▁to ▁Europe . ▁ ▁Since ▁the ▁Renaissance , ▁the ▁West ▁evol ved ▁beyond ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Gree ks ▁and ▁Rom ans ▁and ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁world , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁successful ▁Second ▁Agricult ural , ▁Com mer cial , ▁Scient ific , ▁and ▁Indust rial ▁revolution s ▁( prop ellers ▁of ▁modern ▁bank ing ▁concepts ). ▁The ▁West ▁rose ▁further ▁with ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ' s ▁Age ▁of ▁En light |
en ment ▁and ▁through ▁the ▁Age ▁of ▁Ex pl oration ' s ▁expansion ▁of ▁pe op les ▁of ▁Western ▁and ▁Central ▁European ▁emp ires , ▁particularly ▁the ▁glo be - sp anning ▁colonial ▁emp ires ▁of ▁ 1 8 th ▁and ▁ 1 9 th ▁centuries . ▁ ▁N umer ous ▁times , ▁this ▁expansion ▁was ▁accompanied ▁by ▁Catholic ▁mission aries , ▁who ▁attempted ▁to ▁pros ely t ize ▁Christian ity . ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁debate ▁among ▁some ▁as ▁to ▁whether ▁Latin ▁America ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁is ▁in ▁a ▁category ▁of ▁its ▁own . ▁Whether ▁Russia ▁should ▁be ▁categor ized ▁as ▁" E ast " ▁or ▁" West " ▁has ▁been ▁" an ▁on going ▁discussion " ▁for ▁centuries . ▁ ▁Western / Europe an ▁culture ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁" West ern ▁culture " ▁is ▁used ▁very ▁broad ly ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁a ▁her itage ▁of ▁social ▁norm s , ▁eth ical ▁values , ▁traditional ▁custom s , ▁religious ▁belief s , ▁political ▁systems , ▁and ▁specific ▁artifact s ▁and ▁techn ologies . ▁ ▁Specifically , ▁Western ▁culture ▁may ▁imply : ▁a ▁Bib lic al ▁Christian ▁cultural ▁influence ▁in ▁spiritual ▁thinking , ▁custom s ▁and ▁either ▁eth ic ▁or ▁moral ▁trad itions , ▁around ▁the ▁Post - Class ical ▁Era ▁and ▁after . ▁European ▁cultural ▁influ ences ▁concerning ▁art istic , ▁musical , ▁folk lor ic , ▁eth ic ▁and ▁or al ▁trad itions , ▁whose ▁them es ▁have ▁been ▁further ▁developed ▁by ▁Rom antic ism . ▁a ▁Gra ec o - R |
oman ▁Class ical ▁and ▁Renaissance ▁cultural ▁influence , ▁concerning ▁art istic , ▁philosoph ic , ▁literary , ▁and ▁legal ▁them es ▁and ▁trad itions , ▁the ▁cultural ▁social ▁effects ▁of ▁migration ▁period ▁and ▁the ▁her it ages ▁of ▁C elt ic , ▁German ic , ▁S lav ic ▁and ▁other ▁eth nic ▁groups , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁a ▁tradition ▁of ▁rational ism ▁in ▁various ▁spher es ▁of ▁life , ▁developed ▁by ▁H ellen istic ▁philosophy , ▁Sch ol astic ism , ▁Renaissance ▁human ism , ▁the ▁Scient ific ▁Revolution ▁and ▁En light en ment . ▁ ▁The ▁concept ▁of ▁Western ▁culture ▁is ▁generally ▁linked ▁to ▁the ▁classical ▁definition ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁world . ▁In ▁this ▁definition , ▁Western ▁culture ▁is ▁the ▁set ▁of ▁literary , ▁scientific , ▁political , ▁art istic ▁and ▁philosoph ical ▁principles ▁that ▁set ▁it ▁apart ▁from ▁other ▁civil izations . ▁Much ▁of ▁this ▁set ▁of ▁trad itions ▁and ▁knowledge ▁is ▁collected ▁in ▁the ▁Western ▁canon . ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁has ▁come ▁to ▁apply ▁to ▁countries ▁whose ▁history ▁is ▁strongly ▁marked ▁by ▁European ▁imm igration ▁or ▁settlement , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Amer icas , ▁and ▁O ce ania , ▁and ▁is ▁not ▁restricted ▁to ▁Europe . ▁ ▁Some ▁t endencies ▁that ▁define ▁modern ▁Western ▁soci eties ▁are ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁political ▁pl ural ism , ▁sec ular ism , ▁general ization ▁of ▁middle ▁class , ▁prominent ▁sub c ult ures ▁or ▁counter c ult ures ▁( such ▁as ▁New ▁Age ▁movements ), ▁increasing ▁cultural ▁syn cret ism ▁resulting ▁from ▁global |
ization ▁and ▁human ▁migration . ▁The ▁modern ▁shape ▁of ▁these ▁soci eties ▁is ▁strongly ▁based ▁upon ▁the ▁Indust rial ▁Revolution ▁and ▁the ▁soci eties ' ▁associated ▁social ▁and ▁environmental ▁problems , ▁such ▁as ▁class ▁and ▁poll ution , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁re actions ▁to ▁them , ▁such ▁as ▁synd ical ism ▁and ▁environmental ism . ▁ ▁Historical ▁divisions ▁ ▁The ▁ge opol it ical ▁divisions ▁in ▁Europe ▁that ▁created ▁a ▁concept ▁of ▁East ▁and ▁West ▁origin ated ▁in ▁the ▁ancient ▁ty ran n ical ▁and ▁imperial istic ▁Gra ec o - R oman ▁times . ▁The ▁Eastern ▁Mediter rane an ▁was ▁home ▁to ▁the ▁highly ▁urban ized ▁cult ures ▁that ▁had ▁Greek ▁as ▁their ▁common ▁language ▁( ow ing ▁to ▁the ▁older ▁emp ire ▁of ▁Alexander ▁the ▁Great ▁and ▁of ▁the ▁H ellen istic ▁success ors .), ▁whereas ▁the ▁West ▁was ▁much ▁more ▁rural ▁in ▁its ▁character ▁and ▁more ▁readily ▁adopted ▁Latin ▁as ▁its ▁common ▁language . ▁After ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁Med ieval ▁times ▁( or ▁Middle ▁A ges ), ▁Western ▁and ▁Central ▁Europe ▁were ▁substantial ly ▁cut ▁off ▁from ▁the ▁East ▁where ▁By z antine ▁Greek ▁culture ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Christian ity ▁became ▁found ing ▁influ ences ▁in ▁the ▁Eastern ▁European ▁world ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Southern ▁S lav ic ▁pe op les . ▁ ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Western ▁and ▁Central ▁Europe , ▁as ▁such , ▁maintained ▁a ▁distinct ▁identity ▁particularly ▁as ▁it ▁began ▁to ▁re develop ▁during ▁the ▁Renaissance . ▁Even ▁following ▁the |
▁Protest ant ▁Re formation , ▁Protest ant ▁Europe ▁continued ▁to ▁see ▁itself ▁as ▁more ▁tied ▁to ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Europe ▁than ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁perce ived ▁civil ized ▁world . ▁Use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁West ▁as ▁a ▁specific ▁cultural ▁and ▁ge opol it ical ▁term ▁developed ▁over ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁the ▁Age ▁of ▁Ex pl oration ▁as ▁Europe ▁spread ▁its ▁culture ▁to ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁world . ▁Roman ▁C athol ics ▁were ▁the ▁first ▁major ▁religious ▁group ▁to ▁imm igr ate ▁to ▁the ▁New ▁World , ▁as ▁sett lers ▁in ▁the ▁colon ies ▁of ▁Portugal ▁and ▁Spain ▁( and ▁later , ▁France ) ▁belonged ▁to ▁that ▁faith . ▁English ▁and ▁Dutch ▁colon ies , ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁t ended ▁to ▁be ▁more ▁religious ly ▁diverse . ▁S ett lers ▁to ▁these ▁colon ies ▁included ▁Ang lic ans , ▁Dutch ▁Cal vin ists , ▁English ▁Pur it ans ▁and ▁other ▁non con form ists , ▁English ▁C athol ics , ▁Scottish ▁Pres by ter ians , ▁French ▁H ug uen ots , ▁German ▁and ▁Swedish ▁Luther ans , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁Qu akers , ▁M enn on ites , ▁Am ish , ▁and ▁Mor av ians . ▁ ▁An cient ▁Greek - H ellen istic ▁world s ▁( 1 3 th – 1 st ▁centuries ▁BC ) ▁ ▁An cient ▁Greek ▁civil ization ▁had ▁been ▁growing ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁mill en ni um ▁BC ▁into ▁wealth y ▁pole is , ▁so - called ▁city - states ▁( ge ograph ically ▁loose |
▁political ▁entities ▁which ▁in ▁time , ▁in ev it ably ▁end ▁giving ▁way ▁to ▁larger ▁organis ations ▁of ▁society , ▁including ▁the ▁emp ire ▁and ▁the ▁nation - state ) ▁such ▁as ▁Ath ens , ▁Spart a , ▁The bes , ▁and ▁Cor inth , ▁by ▁Middle ▁and ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁ones ▁( S umer ian ▁cities ▁such ▁as ▁U ru k ▁and ▁Ur ; ▁An cient ▁Egypt ian ▁city - states , ▁such ▁as ▁The bes ▁and ▁M emph is ; ▁the ▁Pho en ician ▁Ty re ▁and ▁Sid on ; ▁the ▁five ▁Phil ist ine ▁city - states ; ▁the ▁Ber ber ▁city - states ▁of ▁the ▁Gar am antes ). ▁ ▁The ▁then ▁H ellen ic ▁division ▁between ▁the ▁bar b ari ans ▁( term ▁used ▁by ▁An cient ▁Gree ks ▁for ▁all ▁non - G reek - spe aking ▁people ) ▁and ▁the ▁Gree ks ▁contrast ed ▁in ▁many ▁soci eties ▁the ▁Greek - spe aking ▁culture ▁of ▁the ▁Greek ▁settlement s ▁around ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁to ▁the ▁surrounding ▁non - G reek ▁cult ures . ▁Her odot us ▁considered ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁Wars ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁ 5 th ▁century ▁BC ▁a ▁conflict ▁of ▁Europa ▁versus ▁Asia ▁( which ▁he ▁considered ▁all ▁land ▁north ▁and ▁east ▁of ▁the ▁Sea ▁of ▁Mar m ara , ▁respectively ). ▁ ▁The ▁terms ▁" West " ▁and ▁" E ast " ▁were ▁not ▁used ▁by ▁any ▁Greek ▁author ▁to ▁describe ▁that ▁conflict . ▁The ▁an ach ron istic ▁application ▁of ▁those ▁terms |
▁to ▁that ▁division ▁ent ails ▁a ▁stark ▁logical ▁contradiction , ▁given ▁that ▁the ▁term ▁" West " ▁has ▁been ▁used ▁to ▁distinguish ▁Latin - spe aking ▁pe op les ▁from ▁their ▁Greek - spe aking ▁neighb ors . ▁ ▁Greek ▁culture ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁influenced ▁Roman ▁civil ization ▁in ▁all ▁aspects ▁of ▁society , ▁from ▁architecture ▁to ▁philosophy , ▁art ▁and ▁war . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁a ▁few ▁writers , ▁the ▁future ▁con quest ▁of ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁by ▁German ic ▁pe op les ▁and ▁the ▁subsequent ▁domin ance ▁by ▁the ▁Western ▁Christian ▁Pap acy ▁( which ▁held ▁combined ▁political ▁and ▁spiritual ▁authority , ▁a ▁state ▁of ▁affairs ▁absent ▁from ▁Greek ▁civil ization ▁in ▁all ▁its ▁stages ), ▁resulted ▁in ▁a ▁ru pt ure ▁of ▁the ▁previously ▁existing ▁t ies ▁between ▁the ▁Latin ▁West ▁and ▁Greek ▁thought , ▁including ▁Christian ▁Greek ▁thought . ▁ ▁An cient ▁Roman ▁world ▁( 5 0 9 ▁BC – AD ▁ 4 7 6 ) ▁ ▁An cient ▁Rome ▁( 7 5 3 ▁BC ▁– ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 ) ▁was ▁a ▁civil ization ▁that ▁grew ▁from ▁a ▁city - state ▁founded ▁on ▁the ▁Italian ▁Pen ins ula ▁about ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁century ▁BC ▁to ▁a ▁massive ▁emp ire ▁str add ling ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁Sea . ▁In ▁its ▁ 1 0 - cent uries ▁expansion , ▁Roman ▁civil ization ▁shift ed ▁from ▁a ▁small ▁mon archy ▁( 7 5 3 ▁– ▁ 5 0 9 ▁BC ), ▁to ▁a ▁republic ▁( |
5 0 9 ▁– ▁ 2 7 ▁BC ), ▁to ▁an ▁aut ocr atic ▁emp ire ▁( 2 7 ▁BC ▁– ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 ). ▁It ▁came ▁to ▁domin ate ▁Western , ▁Central ▁and ▁S out he astern ▁Europe ▁and ▁the ▁entire ▁area ▁surrounding ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁Sea ▁through ▁con quest ▁using ▁the ▁Roman ▁leg ions ▁and ▁then ▁through ▁cultural ▁assim ilation ▁by ▁eventually ▁giving ▁Roman ▁citizens hip ▁privileges ▁to ▁the ▁whole ▁population . ▁Non eth eless , ▁despite ▁its ▁great ▁legacy , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁factors ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁event ual ▁decl ine ▁and ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁The ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁succeeded ▁the ▁approximately ▁ 5 0 0 - year - old ▁Roman ▁Republic ▁( ▁ 5 1 0 ▁BC ▁– ▁ 3 0 ▁BC ), ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁weak ened ▁by ▁the ▁conflict ▁between ▁G ai us ▁Mar ius ▁and ▁Sul la ▁and ▁the ▁civil ▁war ▁of ▁Julius ▁Ca esar ▁against ▁Pom pe y ▁and ▁Marcus ▁Br ut us . ▁ ▁During ▁these ▁strugg les ▁hundreds ▁of ▁sen ators ▁were ▁killed , ▁and ▁the ▁Roman ▁Senate ▁had ▁been ▁re filled ▁with ▁loyal ists ▁of ▁the ▁First ▁Tri um vir ate ▁and ▁later ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁Second ▁Tri um vir ate . ▁In ▁ 3 5 0 ▁years , ▁from ▁the ▁successful ▁and ▁dead liest ▁war ▁with ▁the ▁Pho en icians ▁began ▁in ▁ 2 1 8 ▁BC ▁to ▁the ▁rule ▁of ▁Emperor ▁Had rian ▁by ▁AD ▁ 1 1 7 , ▁An cient ▁Rome ▁expanded |
▁up ▁to ▁twenty - five ▁times ▁its ▁area . ▁The ▁same ▁time ▁passed ▁before ▁its ▁fall ▁in ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 . ▁Rome ▁had ▁expanded ▁long ▁before ▁the ▁emp ire ▁reached ▁its ▁z en ith ▁with ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁D acia ▁in ▁AD ▁ 1 0 6 , ▁under ▁Emperor ▁Tra jan . ▁During ▁its ▁territorial ▁peak , ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁controlled ▁about ▁ ▁of ▁land ▁surface ▁and ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 1 0 0 ▁million . ▁From ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁Ca esar ▁( 1 0 0 ▁– ▁ 4 4 ▁BC ) ▁to ▁the ▁Fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁Rome ▁domin ated ▁Southern ▁Europe , ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁coast ▁of ▁Northern ▁Africa ▁and ▁the ▁Western ▁Middle ▁East , ▁including ▁the ▁ancient ▁trade ▁routes ▁with ▁population ▁living ▁outside . ▁An cient ▁Rome ▁has ▁contributed ▁greatly ▁to ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁law , ▁war , ▁art , ▁literature , ▁architecture , ▁technology ▁and ▁language ▁in ▁the ▁Western ▁world , ▁and ▁its ▁history ▁continues ▁to ▁have ▁a ▁major ▁influence ▁on ▁the ▁world ▁today . ▁Latin ▁language ▁has ▁been ▁the ▁base ▁from ▁which ▁Rom ance ▁languages ▁evol ved ▁and ▁it ▁has ▁been ▁the ▁official ▁language ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁and ▁all ▁Catholic ▁religious ▁cer emon ies ▁all ▁over ▁Europe ▁until ▁ 1 9 6 7 , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁an ▁or ▁the ▁official ▁language ▁of ▁countries ▁such ▁as ▁Poland ▁( 9 th – 1 8 th ▁centuries ). ▁ ▁In ▁AD ▁ 3 9 5 , ▁a ▁few ▁dec ades ▁before |
▁its ▁Western ▁collapse , ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁formally ▁split ▁into ▁a ▁Western ▁and ▁an ▁Eastern ▁one , ▁each ▁with ▁their ▁own ▁em per ors , ▁capit als , ▁and ▁govern ments , ▁although ▁ost ens ibly ▁they ▁still ▁belonged ▁to ▁one ▁formal ▁Empire . ▁The ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁provinces ▁eventually ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁Northern ▁European ▁German ic ▁ruled ▁kingdom s ▁in ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁century ▁due ▁to ▁civil ▁wars , ▁cor ruption , ▁and ▁dev ast ating ▁German ic ▁invas ions ▁from ▁such ▁tribes ▁as ▁the ▁Goth s , ▁the ▁Fran ks ▁and ▁the ▁V and als ▁by ▁their ▁late ▁expansion ▁throughout ▁Europe . ▁The ▁three - day ▁Vis ig oth s ' s ▁AD ▁ 4 1 0 ▁s ack ▁of ▁Rome ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁ra iding ▁Greece ▁not ▁long ▁before , ▁a ▁shock ing ▁time ▁for ▁Gra ec o - R om ans , ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁after ▁almost ▁ 8 0 0 ▁years ▁that ▁Rome ▁had ▁fallen ▁to ▁a ▁foreign ▁enemy , ▁and ▁St . ▁Jer ome , ▁living ▁in ▁Beth le hem ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁wrote ▁that ▁" The ▁City ▁which ▁had ▁taken ▁the ▁whole ▁world ▁was ▁itself ▁taken ." ▁There ▁followed ▁the ▁s ack ▁of ▁AD ▁ 4 5 5 ▁last ing ▁ 1 4 ▁days , ▁this ▁time ▁conducted ▁by ▁the ▁V and als , ▁retain ing ▁Rome ' s ▁et ernal ▁spirit ▁through ▁the ▁Holy ▁See ▁of ▁Rome ▁( the ▁Latin ▁Church ) ▁for ▁centuries ▁to ▁come . ▁The ▁ancient ▁Bar bar ian |
▁tribes , ▁often ▁composed ▁of ▁well - tra ined ▁Roman ▁soldiers ▁paid ▁by ▁Rome ▁to ▁guard ▁the ▁extensive ▁borders , ▁had ▁become ▁militar ily ▁s oph istic ated ▁' rom an ized ▁bar b ari ans ', ▁and ▁mer cil ess ly ▁sla ugh tered ▁the ▁Rom ans ▁conqu ering ▁their ▁Western ▁territ ories ▁while ▁lo oting ▁their ▁poss essions . ▁ ▁The ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁is ▁where ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁" the ▁West " ▁began ▁to ▁emer ge . ▁By ▁Rome ' s ▁central ▁location ▁at ▁the ▁heart ▁of ▁the ▁Empire , ▁" West " ▁and ▁" E ast " ▁were ▁terms ▁used ▁to ▁denote ▁provinces ▁west ▁and ▁east ▁of ▁the ▁capital ▁itself . ▁Therefore , ▁I ber ia ▁( Port ug al ▁and ▁Spain ), ▁Ga ul ▁( France ), ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁coast ▁of ▁North ▁Africa ▁( T un is ia , ▁Al ger ia , ▁and ▁Mor oc co ) ▁and ▁Britann ia ▁were ▁all ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁" West ", ▁while ▁Greece , ▁Cy pr us , ▁An atol ia , ▁Leb anon , ▁Sy ria , ▁Israel , ▁Palest ine , ▁Egypt , ▁and ▁Lib ya ▁were ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁" E ast ". ▁Italy ▁itself ▁was ▁considered ▁central , ▁until ▁the ▁re forms ▁of ▁Dioc let ian ▁div iding ▁the ▁Empire ▁into ▁true ▁two ▁hal ves : ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Western . ▁ ▁The ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁half ▁( n omin ally ▁in ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 , ▁but ▁in ▁truth ▁a ▁long ▁process |
▁that ▁ended ▁by ▁AD ▁ 8 0 0 ) ▁left ▁only ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁alive . ▁The ▁East ▁continued ▁to ▁call ▁themselves ▁Eastern ▁Rom ans ▁even ▁after ▁AD ▁ 6 1 0 ▁– ▁ 8 0 0 ▁when ▁the ▁official ▁language ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁Latin , ▁and ▁the ▁Pope ▁crown ed ▁Char lemagne ▁as ▁Emperor ▁of ▁the ▁Rom ans . ▁The ▁West ▁began ▁thinking ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁Western ▁Lat ins ▁( th ose ▁living ▁in ▁the ▁old ▁Western ▁Empire ) ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Gree ks ▁( th ose ▁inside ▁the ▁Roman ▁rem nant ▁to ▁the ▁east ). ▁ ▁The ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁govern ed ▁from ▁Constantin ople , ▁is ▁usually ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁after ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 , ▁the ▁traditional ▁date ▁for ▁the ▁" fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Empire " ▁and ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁Early ▁Middle ▁A ges . ▁The ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁surv iving ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁protected ▁Roman ▁legal ▁and ▁cultural ▁trad itions , ▁combining ▁them ▁with ▁Greek ▁and ▁Christian ▁elements , ▁for ▁another ▁thousand ▁years . ▁ ▁The ▁name ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁was ▁used ▁after ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁ended , ▁the ▁inhabitants ▁calling ▁themselves ▁Rom ans ▁since ▁the ▁term ▁“ R oman ” ▁was ▁meant ▁to ▁sign ify ▁all ▁Christians . ▁ ▁Middle ▁A ges : ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁( AD ▁ 3 9 5 – 1 4 5 0 ), ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( AD ▁ 8 0 0 / 9 6 |
2 – 1 8 0 6 ), ▁East - West ▁Sch ism ▁( AD ▁ 1 0 5 4 ), ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation ▁( 1 5 0 0 s ) ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 4 th ▁century ▁( AD ▁ 3 3 0 ), ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁Const antine ▁the ▁Great ▁had ▁established ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Constantin ople ▁( former ly ▁ancient ▁By z ant ium ) ▁as ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁later ▁called ▁" By z antine ▁Empire " ▁by ▁modern ▁histor ians . ▁The ▁Eastern ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁included ▁lands ▁south - west ▁of ▁the ▁Black ▁Sea ▁and ▁border ing ▁on ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Mediter rane an ▁and ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Adri atic ▁Sea . ▁This ▁division ▁into ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Western ▁Roman ▁Emp ires ▁was ▁reflected ▁in ▁the ▁administration ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Greek ▁Orth odox ▁churches , ▁with ▁Rome ▁and ▁Constantin ople ▁deb ating ▁over ▁whether ▁either ▁city ▁was ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁Western ▁religion . ▁ ▁As ▁the ▁Eastern ▁( Or th odox ) ▁and ▁Western ▁( C atholic ) ▁churches ▁spread ▁their ▁influence , ▁the ▁line ▁between ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Western ▁Christian ity ▁was ▁moving . ▁Its ▁movement ▁was ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁emp ire ▁and ▁the ▁fl uct u ating ▁power ▁and ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁church ▁in ▁Rome . ▁The ▁ge ographic ▁line ▁of ▁religious ▁division ▁approximately ▁followed ▁a ▁line ▁of ▁cultural ▁divide . ▁The ▁influ ential ▁American ▁conserv ative ▁political ▁scient ist , ▁advis er ▁and ▁academic ▁Samuel |
▁P . ▁Hun ting ton ▁argued ▁that ▁this ▁cultural ▁division ▁still ▁existed ▁during ▁the ▁Cold ▁War ▁as ▁the ▁approximate ▁Western ▁boundary ▁of ▁those ▁countries ▁that ▁were ▁al lied ▁with ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union . ▁ ▁In ▁AD ▁ 8 0 0 ▁under ▁Char lemagne , ▁the ▁Early ▁Med ieval ▁Fran ks ▁established ▁an ▁emp ire ▁that ▁was ▁recognized ▁by ▁the ▁Pope ▁in ▁Rome ▁as ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( Lat in ▁Christian ▁rev ival ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁under ▁perpet ual ▁German ic ▁rule ▁from ▁AD ▁ 9 6 2 ) ▁inher iting ▁ancient ▁Roman ▁Empire ' s ▁prest ige ▁but ▁off ending ▁the ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁in ▁Constantin ople . ▁The ▁crow ning ▁of ▁the ▁Emperor ▁by ▁the ▁Pope ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁assumption ▁that ▁the ▁highest ▁power ▁was ▁the ▁pap al ▁hierarchy , ▁qu int ess ential ▁Roman ▁Empire ' s ▁spiritual ▁her itage ▁authority , ▁establish ing ▁then , ▁until ▁the ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation , ▁the ▁civil ization ▁of ▁Western ▁Christ end om . ▁ ▁The ▁Latin ▁R ite ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁of ▁western ▁and ▁central ▁Europe ▁split ▁with ▁the ▁eastern ▁Greek - spe aking ▁Patri arch ates ▁in ▁the ▁Christian ▁East – West ▁Sch ism , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁" Gre at ▁Sch ism ", ▁during ▁the ▁Greg or ian ▁Re forms ▁( call ing ▁for ▁a ▁more ▁central ▁status ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁Institution ), ▁three ▁months ▁after ▁Pope ▁Leo ▁IX ' s ▁death ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 0 5 4 . ▁Following ▁the ▁ 1 0 |
5 4 ▁Great ▁Sch ism , ▁both ▁the ▁Western ▁Church ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Church ▁continued ▁to ▁consider ▁themselves ▁uniqu ely ▁orth odox ▁and ▁c atholic . ▁August ine ▁wrote ▁in ▁On ▁True ▁Religion : ▁“ Rel ig ion ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁sought ... ▁only ▁among ▁those ▁who ▁are ▁called ▁Catholic ▁or ▁orth odox ▁Christians , ▁that ▁is , ▁guard ians ▁of ▁truth ▁and ▁follow ers ▁of ▁right .” ▁Over ▁time , ▁the ▁Western ▁Church ▁gradually ▁identified ▁with ▁the ▁" C atholic " ▁label , ▁and ▁people ▁of ▁Western ▁Europe ▁gradually ▁associated ▁the ▁" Or th odox " ▁label ▁with ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Church ▁( although ▁in ▁some ▁languages ▁the ▁" C atholic " ▁label ▁is ▁not ▁necessarily ▁identified ▁with ▁the ▁Western ▁Church ). ▁This ▁was ▁in ▁note ▁of ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁both ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Orth odox ▁were ▁in ▁use ▁as ▁ecc les iast ical ▁ad ject ives ▁as ▁early ▁as ▁the ▁ 2 nd ▁and ▁ 4 th ▁centuries ▁respectively . ▁Meanwhile , ▁the ▁extent ▁of ▁both ▁Christ end oms ▁expanded , ▁as ▁German ic ▁pe op les , ▁Boh emia , ▁Poland , ▁Hung ary , ▁Sc and in avia , ▁Balt ic ▁pe op les , ▁British ▁Is les ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁non - Christ ian ▁lands ▁of ▁the ▁north west ▁were ▁converted ▁by ▁the ▁Western ▁Church , ▁while ▁Eastern ▁S lav ic ▁pe op les , ▁Bulg aria , ▁Ser bia , ▁Mont en eg ro , ▁Russian ▁territ ories , ▁V la chs ▁and ▁Georgia ▁were ▁converted ▁by ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Church |
. ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 0 7 1 , ▁the ▁By z antine ▁army ▁was ▁defeated ▁by ▁the ▁Muslim ▁Tur co - Pers ians ▁of ▁medieval ▁Asia , ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁most ▁of ▁Asia ▁Minor . ▁The ▁situation ▁was ▁a ▁serious ▁threat ▁to ▁the ▁future ▁of ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Orth odox ▁By z antine ▁Empire . ▁The ▁Emperor ▁sent ▁a ▁ple a ▁to ▁the ▁Pope ▁in ▁Rome ▁to ▁send ▁military ▁aid ▁to ▁restore ▁the ▁lost ▁territ ories ▁to ▁Christian ▁rule . ▁The ▁result ▁was ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁western ▁European ▁military ▁campaign s ▁into ▁the ▁eastern ▁Mediter rane an , ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Cr us ades . ▁Unfortunately ▁for ▁the ▁By z ant ines , ▁the ▁cr us aders ▁( bel ong ing ▁to ▁the ▁members ▁of ▁nob ility ▁from ▁France , ▁German ▁territ ories , ▁the ▁Low ▁countries , ▁England , ▁Italy ▁and ▁Hung ary ) ▁had ▁no ▁alleg iance ▁to ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Emperor ▁and ▁established ▁their ▁own ▁states ▁in ▁the ▁conquer ed ▁regions , ▁including ▁the ▁heart ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire . ▁ ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁would ▁dissol ve ▁on ▁ 6 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁after ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution ▁and ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁by ▁Napoleon . ▁ ▁Dec line ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁( 1 3 th – 1 5 th ▁centuries ) ▁began ▁with ▁the ▁Latin ▁Christian ▁Four th ▁Cr us ade ▁in ▁AD ▁ 1 2 0 2 – 0 4 |
, ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁events , ▁solid ifying ▁the ▁sch ism ▁between ▁the ▁Christian ▁churches ▁of ▁Greek ▁By z antine ▁R ite ▁and ▁Latin ▁Roman ▁R ite . ▁An ▁anti - West ern ▁ri ot ▁in ▁ 1 1 8 2 ▁broke ▁out ▁in ▁Constantin ople ▁target ing ▁Lat ins . ▁The ▁extremely ▁wealth y ▁( after ▁previous ▁Cr us ades ) ▁Ven et ians ▁in ▁particular ▁made ▁a ▁successful ▁attempt ▁to ▁maintain ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁Catholic ▁present - day ▁Cro atia ▁( specific ally ▁the ▁Dal mat ia , ▁a ▁region ▁of ▁interest ▁to ▁the ▁mar itime ▁medieval ▁Ven et ian ▁Republic ▁m one yl enders ▁and ▁its ▁riv als , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁Gen oa ) ▁reb elling ▁against ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁economic ▁dom ination . ▁What ▁followed ▁de alt ▁an ▁ir rev oc able ▁blow ▁to ▁the ▁already ▁weak ened ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁with ▁the ▁Cr us ader ▁army ' s ▁s ack ▁of ▁Constantin ople ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 2 0 4 , ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Greek ▁Christian - control led ▁By z antine ▁Empire , ▁described ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁prof itable ▁and ▁dis gra ce ful ▁s acks ▁of ▁a ▁city ▁in ▁history . ▁This ▁p aved ▁the ▁way ▁for ▁Muslim ▁con quest s ▁in ▁present - day ▁Turkey ▁and ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁in ▁the ▁coming ▁centuries ▁( only ▁a ▁hand ful ▁of ▁the ▁Cr us aders ▁followed ▁to ▁the ▁stated ▁destination ▁there after |
, ▁the ▁Holy ▁Land ). ▁The ▁ge ographical ▁identity ▁of ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁is ▁histor ically ▁known ▁as ▁a ▁cross ro ads ▁of ▁cult ures , ▁a ▁jun ct ure ▁between ▁the ▁Latin ▁and ▁Greek ▁bodies ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁the ▁destination ▁of ▁a ▁massive ▁infl ux ▁of ▁pag ans ▁( mean ing ▁" non - Christ ians ") ▁Bulg ars ▁and ▁S lav s , ▁an ▁area ▁where ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Orth odox ▁Christian ity ▁met , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁meeting ▁point ▁between ▁Islam ▁and ▁Christian ity . ▁The ▁Pap al ▁In quisition ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁AD ▁ 1 2 2 9 ▁on ▁a ▁permanent ▁basis , ▁run ▁largely ▁by ▁cl erg ymen ▁in ▁Rome , ▁and ▁abol ished ▁six ▁centuries ▁later . ▁Before ▁AD ▁ 1 1 0 0 , ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁suppress ed ▁what ▁they ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁her es y , ▁usually ▁through ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁ecc les iast ical ▁pros cription ▁or ▁imprison ment , ▁but ▁without ▁using ▁tort ure , ▁and ▁s eld om ▁resort ing ▁to ▁execution s . ▁ ▁This ▁very ▁prof itable ▁Central ▁European ▁Four th ▁Cr us ade ▁had ▁prompt ed ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁century ▁Renaissance ▁( trans l ated ▁as ▁' R eb irth ') ▁of ▁Italian ▁city - states ▁including ▁the ▁Pap al ▁States , ▁on ▁e ve ▁of ▁the ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation ▁and ▁C ounter - Re formation ▁( which ▁established ▁the ▁Roman ▁In quisition ▁to ▁succeed ▁the ▁Med ieval ▁In quisition ). ▁There |
▁followed ▁the ▁discovery ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁continent , ▁and ▁consequ ent ▁dissol ution ▁of ▁West ▁Christ end om ▁as ▁even ▁a ▁theoretical ▁unit ary ▁political ▁body , ▁later ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁religious ▁E ight y ▁Years ▁War ▁( 1 5 6 8 – 1 6 4 8 ) ▁and ▁Th irty ▁Years ▁War ▁( 1 6 1 8 – 1 6 4 8 ) ▁between ▁various ▁Protest ant ▁and ▁Catholic ▁states ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( and ▁emer gence ▁of ▁religious ly ▁diverse ▁conf essions ). ▁In ▁this ▁context , ▁the ▁Protest ant ▁Re formation ▁( 1 5 1 7 ) ▁may ▁be ▁viewed ▁as ▁a ▁sch ism ▁within ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church . ▁German ▁mon k ▁Martin ▁Luther , ▁in ▁the ▁w ake ▁of ▁prec urs ors , ▁broke ▁with ▁the ▁po pe ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁em peror ▁by ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ' s ▁ab us ive ▁commercial ization ▁of ▁indul gen ces ▁in ▁the ▁Late ▁Med ieval ▁Period , ▁back ed ▁by ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁princes ▁and ▁helped ▁by ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁the ▁printing ▁press , ▁in ▁an ▁attempt ▁to ▁reform ▁cor ruption ▁within ▁the ▁church . ▁ ▁Both ▁these ▁religious ▁wars ▁ended ▁with ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁West phal ia ▁( 1 6 4 8 ), ▁which ▁en sh r ined ▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁the ▁nation - state , ▁and ▁the ▁principle ▁of ▁absolute ▁national ▁so vere ig nt y ▁in ▁international ▁law . ▁As ▁European ▁influence ▁spread ▁across ▁the ▁glo be , ▁these ▁West phal ian ▁principles , ▁especially |
▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁so ver eign ▁states , ▁became ▁central ▁to ▁international ▁law ▁and ▁to ▁the ▁prev ail ing ▁world ▁order . ▁ ▁Col onial ▁West : ▁discovery ▁of ▁America , ▁merc ant il ism ▁and ▁imperial ism ▁( 1 5 th – 2 0 th ▁centuries ) ▁ ▁Later ▁concepts ▁of ▁a ▁world ▁of ▁nation - states ▁born ▁by ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁West phal ia ▁in ▁ 1 6 4 8 , ▁couple d ▁with ▁the ▁ide ologies ▁of ▁the ▁En light en ment , ▁the ▁coming ▁of ▁modern ity , ▁the ▁Scient ific ▁Revolution ▁and ▁the ▁Indust rial ▁Revolution , ▁would ▁produce ▁powerful ▁social ▁transformations , ▁political ▁and ▁economic ▁institutions ▁that ▁have ▁come ▁to ▁influence ▁( or ▁been ▁im posed ▁upon ) ▁most ▁nations ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁today . ▁Histor ians ▁agree ▁that ▁the ▁Indust rial ▁Revolution ▁has ▁been ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁events ▁in ▁history . ▁ ▁This ▁process ▁of ▁influence ▁( and ▁im position ) ▁began ▁with ▁the ▁voy ages ▁of ▁discovery , ▁colon ization , ▁con quest , ▁and ▁explo itation ▁of ▁Portugal ▁enfor ced ▁as ▁well ▁by ▁pap al ▁b ull s ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 0 s ▁( by ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ), ▁grant ing ▁Portugal ▁navigation , ▁war ▁and ▁trade ▁mon opol y ▁for ▁any ▁newly ▁discovered ▁lands , ▁and ▁compet ing ▁Spanish ▁navig ators . ▁It ▁continued ▁with ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁the ▁Dutch ▁East ▁India ▁Company ▁by ▁the ▁dest abil ising ▁Spanish ▁discovery ▁of ▁the ▁New ▁World |
, ▁and ▁the ▁creation ▁and ▁expansion ▁of ▁the ▁English ▁and ▁French ▁colonial ▁emp ires , ▁and ▁others . ▁ ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁reach ▁of ▁these ▁emp ires , ▁Western ▁institutions ▁expanded ▁throughout ▁the ▁world . ▁Even ▁after ▁dem ands ▁for ▁self - det erm ination ▁from ▁subject ▁pe op les ▁within ▁Western ▁emp ires ▁were ▁met ▁with ▁de colon ization , ▁these ▁institutions ▁pers isted . ▁One ▁specific ▁example ▁was ▁the ▁requirement ▁that ▁post - colon ial ▁soci eties ▁were ▁made ▁to ▁form ▁nation - states ▁( in ▁the ▁Western ▁tradition ), ▁which ▁often ▁created ▁arbitrary ▁boundaries ▁and ▁borders ▁that ▁did ▁not ▁necessarily ▁represent ▁a ▁whole ▁nation , ▁people , ▁or ▁culture ▁( as ▁in ▁much ▁of ▁Africa ), ▁and ▁are ▁often ▁the ▁cause ▁of ▁international ▁conflicts ▁and ▁fr iction ▁even ▁to ▁this ▁day . ▁Although ▁not ▁part ▁of ▁Western ▁colon ization ▁process ▁proper , ▁following ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges ▁Western ▁culture ▁in ▁fact ▁entered ▁other ▁global - sp anning ▁cult ures ▁during ▁the ▁colonial ▁ 1 5 th – 2 0 th ▁centuries . ▁ ▁With ▁the ▁discovery ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁continent ▁or ▁' New ▁World ' ▁in ▁ 1 4 9 2 – 1 4 9 3 , ▁the ▁European ▁colonial ▁Age ▁of ▁Disc overy ▁and ▁expl oration ▁was ▁born , ▁revis iting ▁an ▁imperial istic ▁view ▁accompanied ▁by ▁the ▁in vention ▁of ▁fire ar ms , ▁while ▁mark ing ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁the ▁Modern ▁Era . ▁During ▁this ▁long ▁period ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁launched ▁a ▁major ▁effort ▁to ▁spread ▁Christian |
ity ▁in ▁the ▁New ▁World ▁and ▁to ▁convert ▁the ▁Native ▁Americans ▁and ▁others . ▁A ▁' Mod ern ▁West ' ▁emer ged ▁from ▁the ▁Late ▁Middle ▁A ges ▁( after ▁the ▁Renaissance ▁and ▁fall ▁of ▁Constantin ople ) ▁as ▁a ▁new ▁civil ization ▁greatly ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁interpretation ▁of ▁Greek ▁thought ▁preserved ▁in ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire , ▁and ▁transm itted ▁from ▁there ▁by ▁Latin ▁transl ations ▁and ▁em igration ▁of ▁Greek ▁sch ol ars ▁through ▁Renaissance ▁human ism . ▁( Pop ular ▁type faces ▁such ▁as ▁ital ics ▁were ▁inspired ▁and ▁designed ▁from ▁trans cri ptions ▁during ▁this ▁period .) ▁Renaissance ▁architect ural ▁works , ▁rev iv als ▁of ▁Class ical ▁and ▁Goth ic ▁styles , ▁fl our ished ▁during ▁this ▁modern ▁period ▁throughout ▁Western ▁colonial ▁emp ires . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 3 th ▁and ▁ 1 4 th ▁centuries , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁European ▁travel ers , ▁many ▁of ▁them ▁Christian ▁mission aries , ▁had ▁sought ▁to ▁cultiv ate ▁trad ing ▁with ▁Asia ▁and ▁Africa . ▁With ▁the ▁Cr us ades ▁came ▁the ▁relative ▁contra ction ▁of ▁the ▁Orth odox ▁By z antine ' s ▁large ▁sil k ▁industry ▁in ▁favour ▁of ▁Catholic ▁Western ▁Europe ▁and ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁Western ▁Pap acy . ▁The ▁most ▁famous ▁of ▁these ▁merchant ▁travel ers ▁purs uing ▁East – west ▁trade ▁was ▁Ven et ian ▁Marco ▁Pol o . ▁But ▁these ▁jour ne ys ▁had ▁little ▁permanent ▁effect ▁on ▁east – west ▁trade ▁because ▁of ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁political ▁develop ments ▁in |
▁Asia ▁in ▁the ▁last ▁dec ades ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁century , ▁which ▁put ▁an ▁end ▁to ▁further ▁European ▁expl oration ▁of ▁Asia : ▁namely ▁the ▁new ▁M ing ▁r ul ers ▁were ▁found ▁to ▁be ▁un re cept ive ▁of ▁religious ▁pros ely t ism ▁by ▁European ▁mission aries ▁and ▁mer ch ants . ▁Meanwhile , ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Tur ks ▁cons olid ated ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁eastern ▁Mediter rane an , ▁closing ▁off ▁key ▁over land ▁trade ▁routes . ▁ ▁The ▁Portuguese ▁spe ar head ed ▁the ▁drive ▁to ▁find ▁ocean ic ▁routes ▁that ▁would ▁provide ▁che aper ▁and ▁easier ▁access ▁to ▁South ▁and ▁East ▁Asian ▁goods , ▁by ▁adv anc ements ▁in ▁mar itime ▁technology ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁car avel ▁ship ▁introduced ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 1 4 0 0 s . ▁The ▁chart ing ▁of ▁ocean ic ▁routes ▁between ▁East ▁and ▁West ▁began ▁with ▁the ▁un pre ced ented ▁voy ages ▁of ▁Portuguese ▁and ▁Spanish ▁sea ▁capt ains . ▁In ▁ 1 4 9 2 ▁European ▁colonial ism ▁expanded ▁across ▁the ▁glo be ▁with ▁the ▁expl oring ▁voyage ▁of ▁merchant , ▁navig ator , ▁and ▁His p ano - Ital ian ▁colon izer ▁Christopher ▁Columb us . ▁Such ▁voy ages ▁were ▁influenced ▁by ▁medieval ▁European ▁advent ur ers ▁after ▁the ▁European ▁sp ice ▁trade ▁with ▁Asia , ▁who ▁had ▁journey ed ▁over land ▁to ▁the ▁Far ▁East ▁contrib uting ▁to ▁ge ographical ▁knowledge ▁of ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Asian ▁continent . ▁They ▁are ▁of ▁enorm ous ▁significance ▁in |
▁Western ▁history ▁as ▁they ▁marked ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁European ▁expl oration , ▁colon ization ▁and ▁explo itation ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁contin ents ▁and ▁their ▁native ▁inhabitants . ▁The ▁European ▁colon ization ▁of ▁the ▁Amer icas ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁Atlantic ▁slave ▁trade ▁between ▁the ▁ 1 4 9 0 s ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 8 0 0 s , ▁which ▁also ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁African ▁inter t rib al ▁war fare ▁and ▁rac ist ▁ide ology . ▁Before ▁the ▁abol ition ▁of ▁its ▁slave ▁trade ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 7 , ▁the ▁British ▁Empire ▁alone ▁( which ▁had ▁started ▁colonial ▁efforts ▁in ▁ 1 5 7 8 , ▁almost ▁a ▁century ▁after ▁Portuguese ▁and ▁Spanish ▁emp ires ) ▁was ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁transport ation ▁of ▁ 3 . 5 ▁million ▁African ▁slaves ▁to ▁the ▁Amer icas , ▁a ▁third ▁of ▁all ▁slaves ▁transport ed ▁across ▁the ▁Atlantic . ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁dissol ved ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁by ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution ary ▁Wars ; ▁abol ition ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁In quisition ▁followed . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁early - 1 9 th ▁century , ▁the ▁system atic ▁urban isation ▁process ▁( m igration ▁from ▁villages ▁in ▁search ▁of ▁jobs ▁in ▁manufact uring ▁cent ers ) ▁had ▁begun , ▁and ▁the ▁concentration ▁of ▁labour ▁into ▁fact ories ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁rise ▁in ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁the ▁towns . ▁World ▁population ▁had ▁been ▁rising ▁as ▁well . ▁It ▁is ▁estimated ▁to ▁have ▁first ▁reached ▁one ▁billion ▁in ▁ |
1 8 0 4 . ▁Also , ▁the ▁new ▁philosoph ical ▁movement ▁later ▁known ▁as ▁Rom antic ism ▁origin ated , ▁in ▁the ▁w ake ▁of ▁the ▁previous ▁Age ▁of ▁Re ason ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 6 0 0 s ▁and ▁the ▁En light en ment ▁of ▁ 1 7 0 0 s . ▁These ▁are ▁seen ▁as ▁fost ering ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁Western ▁world ''' s ▁sust ained ▁economic ▁development . ▁▁▁ ▁Western ▁world ' s ▁major ▁national ▁buildings ▁and ▁churches ▁by ▁the ▁colonial ▁ 1 5 th – 2 0 th ▁centuries ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Legisl ative ▁buildings ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁legisl ative ▁buildings ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁ ▁Church ▁buildings ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁largest ▁church ▁buildings ▁ ▁List s ▁of ▁c athed r als ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Catholic ▁bas il icas ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Col onial ▁architecture ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Before ▁the ▁urban isation ▁and ▁industrial ization ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 0 0 s , ▁demand ▁for ▁orient al ▁goods ▁such ▁as ▁por cel ain , ▁sil k , ▁sp ices ▁and ▁tea ▁remained ▁the ▁driving ▁force ▁behind ▁European ▁imperial ism ▁in ▁Asia , ▁and ▁( with ▁the ▁important ▁exception ▁of ▁British ▁East ▁India ▁Company ▁rule ▁in ▁India ) ▁the ▁European ▁st ake ▁in ▁Asia ▁remained ▁conf ined ▁largely ▁to ▁trad ing ▁stations ▁and ▁strateg ic ▁out posts ▁necessary ▁to ▁protect ▁trade . ▁Indust rial isation , ▁however , ▁dram atically ▁increased ▁European ▁demand ▁for ▁Asian ▁raw ▁materials ; ▁and ▁the ▁severe ▁Long ▁De pression ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 7 0 s ▁prov oked |
▁a ▁sc ram ble ▁for ▁new ▁mark ets ▁for ▁European ▁industrial ▁products ▁and ▁financial ▁services ▁in ▁Africa , ▁the ▁Amer icas , ▁Eastern ▁Europe , ▁and ▁especially ▁in ▁Asia ▁( West ern ▁powers ▁explo ited ▁their ▁advantages ▁in ▁China ▁for ▁example ▁by ▁the ▁O pi um ▁Wars ). ▁This ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁so - called ▁" New ▁Imperial ism ", ▁which ▁saw ▁a ▁shift ▁in ▁focus ▁from ▁trade ▁and ▁indirect ▁rule ▁to ▁formal ▁colonial ▁control ▁of ▁vast ▁over se as ▁territ ories ▁ruled ▁as ▁political ▁extensions ▁of ▁their ▁mother ▁countries . ▁The ▁later ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁saw ▁the ▁transition ▁from ▁" in form al ▁imperial ism " ▁( he gem ony ) ▁by ▁military ▁influence ▁and ▁economic ▁domin ance , ▁to ▁direct ▁rule ▁( a ▁rev ival ▁of ▁colonial ▁imperial ism ) ▁in ▁the ▁African ▁continent ▁and ▁Middle ▁East . ▁ ▁Between ▁the ▁ 1 8 7 0 s ▁and ▁ 1 9 1 4 ▁( the ▁so - called ▁Beautiful ▁Era , ▁so cio e conom ically ▁optim istic ▁and ▁innov ative ▁dec ades ▁of ▁the ▁Second ▁Indust rial ▁Revolution ), ▁the ▁established ▁colonial ▁powers ▁in ▁Asia ▁( Un ited ▁Kingdom , ▁France , ▁Netherlands ) ▁added ▁to ▁their ▁emp ires ▁also ▁vast ▁exp ans es ▁of ▁territory ▁in ▁the ▁Indian ▁Sub cont inent ▁and ▁South ▁East ▁Asia . ▁Japan ▁was ▁involved ▁primarily ▁in ▁the ▁so - called ▁Me iji ▁period ▁( 1 8 6 8 – 1 9 1 2 ), ▁though ▁earlier ▁contact ▁with ▁the |
▁Portuguese , ▁the ▁Sp ani ards ▁and ▁the ▁Dutch ▁were ▁also ▁present ▁in ▁recognition ▁of ▁European ▁nations ▁as ▁strateg ically ▁important ▁to ▁the ▁Japanese ▁Empire . ▁The ▁traditional ▁Japanese ▁society ▁was ▁virt ually ▁over turn ed ▁into ▁an ▁industrial ▁and ▁militar ist ▁power ▁like ▁Western ▁countries ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁the ▁French ▁Third ▁Republic , ▁and ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁German ▁Empire ▁and ▁Russian ▁Empire . ▁The ▁United ▁States , ▁following ▁the ▁Spanish – American ▁War ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 8 , ▁quickly ▁emer ged ▁as ▁the ▁new ▁imperial ▁power ▁in ▁East ▁Asia ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁Pacific ▁Ocean ▁area . ▁By ▁ 1 9 1 3 , ▁the ▁British ▁Empire ▁held ▁s way ▁over ▁ 4 1 2 ▁million ▁people , ▁ ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁population ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁and ▁by ▁ 1 9 2 0 , ▁it ▁covered ▁, ▁ ▁of ▁the ▁Earth ' s ▁total ▁land ▁area . ▁At ▁its ▁a pe x , ▁the ▁phrase ▁" the ▁emp ire ▁on ▁which ▁the ▁sun ▁never ▁sets " ▁described ▁the ▁British ▁Empire , ▁because ▁its ▁exp anse ▁around ▁the ▁glo be ▁meant ▁that ▁the ▁sun ▁always ▁sh one ▁on ▁at ▁least ▁one ▁of ▁its ▁territ ories . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁its ▁political , ▁legal , ▁lingu istic ▁and ▁cultural ▁legacy ▁is ▁w ides p read ▁throughout ▁the ▁Western ▁World . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁after math ▁of ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁de colon izing ▁efforts ▁were ▁employed ▁by ▁all ▁Western ▁powers ▁under ▁United ▁Nations ▁( ex - Le |
ague ▁of ▁Nations ) ▁international ▁direct ives . ▁ ▁Most ▁of ▁colon ized ▁nations ▁received ▁independence ▁by ▁ 1 9 6 0 . ▁Great ▁Britain ▁showed ▁on going ▁responsibility ▁for ▁the ▁w elf are ▁of ▁its ▁former ▁colon ies ▁as ▁member ▁states ▁of ▁the ▁Commonwealth ▁of ▁Nations . ▁But ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁Western ▁colonial ▁imperial ism ▁saw ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁West r ern ▁ne oc ol onial ism ▁or ▁economic ▁imperial ism . ▁Mult in ational ▁corpor ations ▁came ▁to ▁offer ▁" a ▁dram atic ▁ref in ement ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁business ▁enter prise ", ▁through ▁" issues ▁as ▁far ▁r anging ▁as ▁national ▁so vere ig nt y , ▁ownership ▁of ▁the ▁means ▁of ▁production , ▁environmental ▁protection , ▁consumer ism , ▁and ▁policies ▁toward ▁organized ▁labor ." ▁Though ▁the ▁over t ▁colonial ▁era ▁had ▁passed , ▁Western ▁nations , ▁as ▁compar atively ▁rich , ▁well - ar med , ▁and ▁cult ur ally ▁powerful ▁states , ▁w ield ed ▁a ▁large ▁degree ▁of ▁influence ▁throughout ▁the ▁world , ▁and ▁with ▁little ▁or ▁no ▁sense ▁of ▁responsibility ▁toward ▁the ▁pe op les ▁impact ed ▁by ▁its ▁mult in ational ▁corpor ations ▁in ▁their ▁explo itation ▁of ▁min er als ▁and ▁mark ets . R . ▁Vern on , ▁S over e ig nt y ▁at ▁Bay : ▁the ▁Mult in ational ▁Sp read ▁of ▁U . S . ▁Enter pr ises ▁( 1 9 7 1 ). ▁The ▁dict um ▁of ▁Alfred ▁Th ayer ▁Mah an ▁is ▁shown ▁to ▁have ▁last ing |
▁relev ance , ▁that ▁who ever ▁controls ▁the ▁se as ▁controls ▁the ▁world . ▁▁ ▁Cold ▁War ▁context ▁( 1 9 4 7 – 1 9 9 1 ) ▁▁ ▁During ▁the ▁Cold ▁War , ▁a ▁new ▁definition ▁emer ged . ▁Earth ▁was ▁divided ▁into ▁three ▁" world s ". ▁The ▁First ▁World , ▁analog ous ▁in ▁this ▁context ▁to ▁what ▁was ▁called ▁the ▁West , ▁was ▁composed ▁of ▁NAT O ▁members ▁and ▁other ▁countries ▁aligned ▁with ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁The ▁Second ▁World ▁was ▁the ▁Eastern ▁b loc ▁in ▁the ▁Soviet ▁sphere ▁of ▁influence , ▁including ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁( 1 5 ▁republic s ▁including ▁presently ▁independent ▁Est onia , ▁Lat via , ▁Lith u ania ) ▁and ▁Wars aw ▁P act ▁countries ▁like ▁Poland , ▁Bulg aria , ▁Hung ary , ▁Roman ia , ▁East ▁Germany ▁( now ▁un ited ▁with ▁Germany ), ▁and ▁Czech oslov ak ia ▁( now ▁split ▁into ▁the ▁Czech ▁Republic ▁and ▁Slov ak ia ). ▁ ▁The ▁Third ▁World ▁consisted ▁of ▁countries , ▁many ▁of ▁which ▁were ▁un aligned ▁with ▁either , ▁and ▁important ▁members ▁included ▁India , ▁Y ug oslav ia , ▁Finland ▁( Fin land ization ) ▁and ▁Switzerland ▁( Sw iss ▁Ne ut ral ity ); ▁some ▁include ▁the ▁People ' s ▁Republic ▁of ▁China , ▁though ▁this ▁is ▁disput ed , ▁since ▁the ▁People ' s ▁Republic ▁of ▁China , ▁as ▁commun ist , ▁had ▁friendly ▁relations ▁— ▁at ▁certain ▁times ▁— ▁with ▁the ▁Soviet ▁b loc , ▁and ▁had ▁a ▁significant |
▁degree ▁of ▁importance ▁in ▁global ▁ge opol it ics . ▁Some ▁Third ▁World ▁countries ▁aligned ▁themselves ▁with ▁either ▁the ▁US - led ▁West ▁or ▁the ▁Soviet - led ▁Eastern ▁b loc . ▁▁ ▁Maps ▁on ▁the ▁Cold ▁War ▁East – west ▁division ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁countries ▁did ▁not ▁fit ▁comfort ably ▁into ▁this ▁neat ▁definition ▁of ▁partition , ▁including ▁Switzerland , ▁Sweden , ▁Austria , ▁and ▁Ireland , ▁which ▁chose ▁to ▁be ▁neutral . ▁Finland ▁was ▁under ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ' s ▁military ▁sphere ▁of ▁influence ▁( see ▁FC MA ▁treat y ) ▁but ▁remained ▁neutral ▁and ▁was ▁not ▁commun ist , ▁nor ▁was ▁it ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Wars aw ▁P act ▁or ▁Come con ▁but ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁EF TA ▁since ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁and ▁was ▁west ▁of ▁the ▁Iron ▁Cur tain . ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 5 , ▁when ▁Austria ▁again ▁became ▁a ▁fully ▁independent ▁republic , ▁it ▁did ▁so ▁under ▁the ▁condition ▁that ▁it ▁remain ▁neutral ; ▁but ▁as ▁a ▁country ▁to ▁the ▁west ▁of ▁the ▁Iron ▁Cur tain , ▁it ▁was ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ' ▁sphere ▁of ▁influence . ▁Spain ▁did ▁not ▁join ▁the ▁NAT O ▁until ▁ 1 9 8 2 , ▁seven ▁years ▁after ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁the ▁author itar ian ▁Franco . ▁ ▁Cold ▁War ▁II ▁context ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁Cold ▁War ▁II , ▁a ▁new ▁definition ▁emer ged . ▁More ▁specifically , ▁Cold ▁War ▁II , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Second ▁Cold ▁War , ▁New ▁Cold ▁War |
, ▁Cold ▁War ▁Red ux , ▁Cold ▁War ▁ 2 . 0 , ▁and ▁Col der ▁War , ▁refers ▁to ▁the ▁t ensions , ▁host ilities , ▁and ▁political ▁rival ry ▁that ▁intens ified ▁dram atically ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁between ▁the ▁Russian ▁Federation ▁on ▁the ▁one ▁hand , ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁European ▁Union , ▁NAT O ▁and ▁some ▁other ▁countries ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand . As ▁Cold ▁War ▁II ▁Lo oms , ▁Washington ▁Cour ts ▁National ist , ▁Right wing , ▁Catholic , ▁X en oph ob ic ▁Poland , ▁H uff ington ▁Post , ▁ 1 5 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁T ensions ▁es cal ated ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁after ▁Russia ' s ▁an nex ation ▁of ▁Crime a , ▁military ▁inter vention ▁in ▁Ukraine , ▁and ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁Russian ▁military ▁inter vention ▁in ▁the ▁Sy rian ▁Civil ▁War . ▁By ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁both ▁sides ▁had ▁implemented ▁economic , ▁financial , ▁and ▁diplom atic ▁san ctions ▁upon ▁each ▁other : ▁virt ually ▁all ▁Western ▁countries , ▁led ▁by ▁the ▁US ▁and ▁EU , ▁im posed ▁restrict ive ▁measures ▁on ▁Russia ; ▁the ▁latter ▁reci proc ally ▁introduced ▁ret ali atory ▁measures . J oh anna ▁Gran ville , ▁" The ▁Fol ly ▁of ▁Play ing ▁High - St akes ▁P oker ▁with ▁Put in : ▁More ▁to ▁L ose ▁than ▁G ain ▁over ▁Ukraine ." ▁ 8 ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 |
4 . ▁ ▁Modern ▁definitions ▁ ▁The ▁exact ▁scope ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁world ▁is ▁somewhat ▁subject ive ▁in ▁nature , ▁depending ▁on ▁whether ▁cultural , ▁economic , ▁spiritual ▁or ▁political ▁criteria ▁are ▁employed . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁generally ▁accepted ▁western ▁view ▁to ▁recognize ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁at ▁least ▁three ▁" major ▁world s " ▁( or ▁" c ult ures ", ▁or ▁" c ivil izations "), ▁broad ly ▁in ▁contrast ▁with ▁the ▁Western : ▁the ▁Eastern ▁world , ▁the ▁Arab ▁and ▁the ▁African ▁world s , ▁with ▁no ▁clearly ▁specified ▁boundaries . ▁Additionally , ▁Latin ▁American ▁and ▁Orth odox ▁world s ▁are ▁sometimes ▁separately ▁considered ▁" ak in " ▁to ▁the ▁West . ▁ ▁Many ▁anth rop olog ists , ▁soci olog ists ▁and ▁histor ians ▁opp ose ▁" the ▁West ▁and ▁the ▁Rest " ▁in ▁a ▁categor ical ▁manner . ▁The ▁same ▁has ▁been ▁done ▁by ▁Mal th us ian ▁dem ograph ers ▁with ▁a ▁sharp ▁distinction ▁between ▁European ▁and ▁non - Europe an ▁family ▁systems . ▁Among ▁anth rop olog ists , ▁this ▁includes ▁Dur k heim , ▁Dum ont ▁and ▁Lé vi - St ra uss . ▁ ▁As ▁the ▁term ▁" West ern ▁world " ▁does ▁not ▁have ▁a ▁strict ▁international ▁definition , ▁govern ments ▁do ▁not ▁use ▁the ▁term ▁in ▁legisl ation ▁of ▁international ▁treat ies ▁and ▁instead ▁rely ▁on ▁other ▁definitions . ▁ ▁Cultural ▁definition ▁ ▁In ▁modern ▁usage , ▁Western ▁world ▁refers ▁to ▁Europe ▁and ▁to ▁areas ▁whose ▁populations ▁largely ▁origin ate ▁from ▁Europe , |
▁through ▁the ▁Age ▁of ▁Disc overy ' s ▁imperial ism . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century , ▁Christian ity ▁decl ined ▁in ▁influence ▁in ▁many ▁Western ▁countries , ▁mostly ▁in ▁the ▁European ▁Union ▁where ▁some ▁member ▁states ▁have ▁experienced ▁falling ▁church ▁attend ance ▁and ▁membership ▁in ▁recent ▁years , ▁and ▁also ▁elsewhere . ▁Sec ular ism ▁( separ ating ▁religion ▁from ▁politics ▁and ▁science ) ▁increased . ▁However , ▁while ▁church ▁attend ance ▁is ▁in ▁decl ine , ▁in ▁some ▁western ▁countries ▁( i . e . ▁Italy , ▁Poland ▁and ▁Portugal ) ▁more ▁than ▁half ▁the ▁people ▁state ▁that ▁religion ▁is ▁important , ▁and ▁most ▁Western ers ▁nomin ally ▁identify ▁themselves ▁as ▁Christians ▁( e . g . ▁ 5 9 % ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ) ▁and ▁attend ▁church ▁on ▁major ▁occasions , ▁such ▁as ▁Christmas ▁and ▁E aster . ▁In ▁the ▁Amer icas , ▁Christian ity ▁continues ▁to ▁play ▁an ▁important ▁soci etal ▁role , ▁though ▁in ▁areas ▁such ▁as ▁Canada , ▁a ▁low ▁level ▁of ▁religios ity ▁is ▁common ▁due ▁to ▁a ▁European - type ▁sec ular ization . ▁The ▁official ▁relig ions ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁some ▁Nord ic ▁countries ▁are ▁forms ▁of ▁Christian ity , ▁while ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁European ▁countries ▁have ▁no ▁official ▁religion . ▁Despite ▁this , ▁Christian ity , ▁in ▁its ▁different ▁forms , ▁remains ▁the ▁largest ▁faith ▁in ▁most ▁Western ▁countries . ▁ ▁Christian ity ▁remains ▁the ▁dominant ▁religion ▁in ▁the ▁Western ▁world , ▁where ▁ 7 0 % |
▁are ▁Christians . ▁A ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁P ew ▁Research ▁Center ▁survey ▁found ▁that ▁ 7 6 . 2 % ▁of ▁Europe ans , ▁ 7 3 . 3 % ▁in ▁O ce ania , ▁and ▁about ▁ 8 6 . 0 % ▁in ▁the ▁Amer icas ▁( 9 0 % ▁in ▁Latin ▁America ▁and ▁ 7 7 . 4 % ▁in ▁North ▁America ) ▁described ▁themselves ▁as ▁Christians . West ern ▁world ▁countries ▁also ▁are ▁the ▁most ▁keen ▁on ▁digital ▁and ▁televis ual ▁media ▁techn ologies , ▁as ▁they ▁were ▁in ▁the ▁post war ▁period ▁on ▁television ▁and ▁radio : ▁from ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁to ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁internet ' s ▁market ▁pen etr ation ▁in ▁the ▁West ▁was ▁twice ▁that ▁in ▁non - West ern ▁regions . ▁Wikipedia ▁is ▁blocked ▁inter mitt ently ▁in ▁China ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 4 . ▁ ▁Econom ic ▁definition ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁" West ern ▁world " ▁is ▁sometimes ▁inter change ably ▁used ▁with ▁the ▁term ▁First ▁World ▁or ▁developed ▁countries , ▁stress ing ▁the ▁difference ▁between ▁First ▁World ▁and ▁the ▁Third ▁World ▁or ▁developing ▁countries . ▁This ▁usage ▁occurs ▁despite ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁many ▁countries ▁that ▁may ▁be ▁cult ur ally ▁" West ern " ▁are ▁developing ▁countries ▁– ▁in ▁fact , ▁a ▁significant ▁percentage ▁of ▁the ▁Amer icas ▁are ▁developing ▁countries . ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁used ▁despite ▁many ▁developed ▁countries ▁or ▁regions ▁not ▁being ▁Western ▁( e . g . ▁Japan , ▁Singapore , ▁South |
▁Korea , ▁Taiwan , ▁Hong ▁Kong , ▁Mac ao ), ▁and ▁therefore ▁left ▁out ▁when ▁" West ern ▁world " ▁is ▁used ▁to ▁denote ▁developed ▁countries . ▁Priv at ization ▁policies ▁( in vol ving ▁government ▁enter pr ises ▁and ▁public ▁services ) ▁and ▁mult in ational ▁corpor ations ▁are ▁often ▁considered ▁a ▁visible ▁sign ▁of ▁Western ▁nations ' s ▁economic ▁presence , ▁especially ▁in ▁Third ▁World ▁countries , ▁and ▁represent ▁common ▁institution al ▁environment ▁for ▁powerful ▁polit icians , ▁enter pr ises , ▁trade ▁un ions ▁and ▁fir ms , ▁bank ers ▁and ▁think ers ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁world . James ▁C . ▁W . ▁Ah iak por , ▁" Mult in ational ▁Corpor ations ▁in ▁the ▁Third ▁World : ▁Pred ators ▁or ▁Al lies ▁in ▁Econom ic ▁Development ?" ▁ 2 0 ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 0 . Jack son ▁J . ▁Spiel v og el , ▁" West ern ▁Civil ization : ▁A ▁Br ief ▁History , ▁Volume ▁II : ▁Since ▁ 1 5 0 0 " ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁ ▁The ▁existence ▁of ▁" The ▁North " ▁implies ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁" The ▁South ", ▁and ▁the ▁so cio - e conom ic ▁divide ▁between ▁North ▁and ▁South . ▁The ▁term ▁" the ▁North " ▁has ▁in ▁some ▁context s ▁replaced ▁earlier ▁usage ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁" the ▁West ", ▁particularly ▁in ▁the ▁critical ▁sense , ▁as ▁a ▁more ▁robust ▁dem arc ation ▁than ▁the ▁terms ▁" West " ▁and ▁" E ast ". ▁The |
▁North ▁design ates ▁the ▁ge ographical ▁location ▁of ▁most ▁wealth y ▁countries ▁( though ▁this ▁does ▁not ▁indicate ▁the ▁Northern ▁Hem is phere , ▁which ▁also ▁includes ▁many ▁countries ▁of ▁" The ▁South "), ▁Modern ▁financial ▁services ▁and ▁techn ologies ▁are ▁largely ▁developed ▁by ▁Western ▁nations : ▁Bit co in , ▁the ▁best ▁known ▁digital ▁currency ▁is ▁subject ▁to ▁ske ptic ism ▁in ▁the ▁Eastern ▁world ▁whereas ▁Western ▁nations ▁are ▁more ▁open ▁to ▁it . ▁ ▁Latin ▁America ▁ ▁American ▁political ▁scient ist , ▁advis er ▁and ▁academic ▁Samuel ▁P . ▁Hun ting ton ▁considered ▁Latin ▁America ▁as ▁separate ▁from ▁the ▁Western ▁world ▁for ▁the ▁purpose ▁of ▁his ▁ge opol it ical ▁analysis . ▁However , ▁he ▁also ▁states ▁that , ▁while ▁in ▁general ▁research ers ▁consider ▁that ▁the ▁West ▁has ▁three ▁main ▁components ▁( Europe an , ▁North ▁American ▁and ▁Latin ▁American ), ▁in ▁his ▁view , ▁Latin ▁America ▁has ▁followed ▁a ▁different ▁development ▁path ▁from ▁Europe ▁and ▁North ▁America . ▁Although ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁sc ion ▁of ▁European ▁civil ization , ▁it ▁also ▁incorpor ates , ▁to ▁an ▁extent , ▁elements ▁of ▁ind igen ous ▁American ▁civil izations , ▁absent ▁from ▁North ▁America ▁and ▁Europe . ▁It ▁has ▁had ▁a ▁corpor at ist ▁and ▁author itar ian ▁culture ▁that ▁Europe ▁had ▁to ▁a ▁much ▁less er ▁extent . ▁Both ▁Europe ▁and ▁North ▁America ▁felt ▁the ▁effects ▁of ▁the ▁Re formation ▁and ▁combined ▁Catholic ▁and ▁Protest ant ▁culture . ▁Histor ically , ▁Latin ▁America ▁has ▁been ▁only ▁Catholic , ▁although ▁this ▁is |
▁changing ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁infl ux ▁of ▁Protest ants ▁into ▁the ▁region . ▁Some ▁regions ▁in ▁Latin ▁America ▁incorpor ate ▁ind igen ous ▁cult ures , ▁which ▁did ▁not ▁exist ▁in ▁Europe ▁and ▁were ▁effectively ▁anni h il ated ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁and ▁whose ▁importance ▁oscill ates ▁between ▁two ▁extrem es : ▁Central ▁America , ▁Peru ▁and ▁Boliv ia , ▁on ▁the ▁one ▁hand , ▁and ▁Argentina , ▁Brazil , ▁Chile ▁and ▁Uruguay ▁on ▁the ▁other . ▁However , ▁he ▁does ▁mention ▁that ▁the ▁mod us ▁oper and i ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁was ▁to ▁incorpor ate ▁native ▁elements ▁of ▁pag an ▁European ▁cult ures ▁into ▁the ▁general ▁dog ma ▁of ▁Catholic ism , ▁and ▁the ▁Native ▁American ▁elements ▁could ▁be ▁perce ived ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁way . ▁Sub ject ively , ▁Latin ▁Americans ▁are ▁divided ▁when ▁it ▁comes ▁to ▁ident ifying ▁themselves . ▁Some ▁say : ▁" Yes , ▁we ▁are ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁West ." ▁O thers ▁say : ▁" No , ▁we ▁have ▁our ▁own ▁unique ▁culture "; ▁and ▁a ▁vast ▁bibli ographical ▁material ▁produced ▁by ▁Latin ▁Americans ▁and ▁North ▁Americans ▁ex poses ▁in ▁detail ▁their ▁cultural ▁differences . ▁Hun ting ton ▁goes ▁on ▁to ▁mention ▁that ▁Latin ▁America ▁could ▁be ▁considered ▁a ▁sub - c ivil ization ▁within ▁Western ▁civil ization , ▁or ▁a ▁separate ▁civil ization ▁int imately ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁West ▁and ▁divided ▁as ▁to ▁its ▁belonging ▁to ▁it . ▁While ▁the ▁second ▁option ▁is ▁the ▁most ▁appropriate ▁and ▁useful ▁for ▁an ▁analysis ▁focused ▁on |
▁the ▁international ▁political ▁consequences ▁of ▁civil izations , ▁including ▁relations ▁between ▁Latin ▁America , ▁on ▁the ▁one ▁hand , ▁and ▁North ▁America ▁and ▁Europe , ▁on ▁the ▁other , ▁he ▁also ▁mentions ▁that ▁the ▁underlying ▁conflict ▁of ▁Latin ▁America ▁belonging ▁to ▁the ▁West ▁must ▁eventually ▁be ▁addressed ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁develop ▁a ▁coh es ive ▁Latin ▁American ▁identity . ▁ ▁Hun ting ton ' s ▁view ▁has , ▁however , ▁been ▁cont ested ▁on ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁occasions ▁as ▁bi ased . ▁ ▁View s ▁on ▁torn ▁countries ▁According ▁to ▁Samuel ▁P . ▁Hun ting ton , ▁some ▁countries ▁are ▁torn ▁on ▁whether ▁they ▁are ▁Western ▁or ▁not , ▁with ▁typically ▁the ▁national ▁leadership ▁pushing ▁for ▁Western ization , ▁while ▁historical , ▁cultural ▁and ▁traditional ▁forces ▁remaining ▁largely ▁non - West ern . ▁These ▁include ▁Turkey , ▁whose ▁political ▁leadership ▁has ▁since ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁tried ▁to ▁Western ize ▁the ▁pre domin antly ▁Muslim ▁country ▁with ▁only ▁ 3 % ▁of ▁its ▁territory ▁within ▁Europe . ▁It ▁is ▁his ▁chief ▁example ▁of ▁a ▁" t orn ▁country " ▁that ▁is ▁attempting ▁to ▁join ▁Western ▁civil ization . ▁The ▁country ' s ▁el ite ▁started ▁the ▁Western ization ▁efforts , ▁beginning ▁with ▁Must af a ▁K em al ▁At at ür k , ▁who ▁took ▁power ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁modern ▁Turkish ▁nation - state ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 3 , ▁im posed ▁western ▁institutions ▁and ▁dress , ▁removed ▁the ▁Arab ic ▁alphabet ▁and ▁emb rac ed |
▁the ▁Latin ▁alphabet . ▁It ▁joined ▁NAT O ▁and ▁since ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁has ▁been ▁seeking ▁to ▁join ▁the ▁European ▁Union ▁ ▁with ▁very ▁slow ▁progress . ▁Mexico ▁and ▁Russia ▁are ▁also ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁torn ▁by ▁Hun ting ton . ▁He ▁also ▁gives ▁the ▁example ▁of ▁Australia ▁as ▁a ▁country ▁torn ▁between ▁its ▁Western ▁civil iz ational ▁her itage ▁and ▁its ▁growing ▁economic ▁eng agement ▁with ▁Asia . ▁Russia , ▁Japan , ▁and ▁India ▁also ▁are ▁what ▁Hun ting ton ▁terms ▁' swing ▁civil izations '. ▁ ▁Other ▁views ▁A ▁series ▁of ▁sch ol ars ▁of ▁civil ization , ▁including ▁Arnold ▁J . ▁To yn be e , ▁Alfred ▁K roe ber ▁and ▁Car roll ▁Qu ig ley ▁have ▁identified ▁and ▁analyz ed ▁" West ern ▁civil ization " ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁civil izations ▁that ▁have ▁histor ically ▁existed ▁and ▁still ▁exist ▁today . ▁To yn be e ▁entered ▁into ▁quite ▁an ▁exp ans ive ▁mode , ▁including ▁as ▁candidates ▁those ▁countries ▁or ▁cult ures ▁who ▁became ▁so ▁heavily ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁West ▁as ▁to ▁adopt ▁these ▁borrow ings ▁into ▁their ▁very ▁self - identity . ▁Car ried ▁to ▁its ▁limit , ▁this ▁would ▁in ▁practice ▁include ▁almost ▁everyone ▁within ▁the ▁West , ▁in ▁one ▁way ▁or ▁another . ▁In ▁particular , ▁To yn be e ▁refers ▁to ▁the ▁intellig ents ia '' ▁formed ▁among ▁the ▁educated ▁el ite ▁of ▁countries ▁impact ed ▁by ▁the ▁European ▁expansion ▁of ▁centuries ▁past . ▁While ▁often ▁pointed ly ▁national ist |
, ▁these ▁cultural ▁and ▁political ▁leaders ▁interact ed ▁within ▁the ▁West ▁to ▁such ▁an ▁extent ▁as ▁to ▁change ▁both ▁themselves ▁and ▁the ▁West . ▁ ▁The ▁the olog ian ▁and ▁pale ont ologist ▁Pierre ▁Teil hard ▁de ▁Ch ardin ▁conce ived ▁of ▁the ▁West ▁as ▁the ▁set ▁of ▁civil izations ▁desc ended ▁from ▁the ▁N ile ▁Valley ▁Civil ization ▁of ▁Egypt . ▁ ▁Palest in ian - American ▁literary ▁critic ▁Edward ▁Sa id ▁uses ▁the ▁term ▁occident ▁in ▁his ▁discussion ▁of ▁orient al ism . ▁According ▁to ▁his ▁binary , ▁the ▁West , ▁or ▁Occ ident , ▁created ▁a ▁rom antic ized ▁vision ▁of ▁the ▁East , ▁or ▁Orient , ▁to ▁justify ▁colonial ▁and ▁imperial ist ▁intent ions . ▁This ▁Occ ident - Ori ent ▁binary ▁focus es ▁on ▁the ▁Western ▁vision ▁of ▁the ▁East ▁instead ▁of ▁any ▁truth s ▁about ▁the ▁East . ▁His ▁theories ▁are ▁root ed ▁in ▁H eg el ' s ▁Master - s lave ▁dialect ic : ▁The ▁Occ ident ▁would ▁not ▁exist ▁without ▁the ▁Orient ▁and ▁vice ▁vers a . ▁Further , ▁Western ▁writers ▁created ▁this ▁ir r ational , ▁femin ine , ▁weak ▁" Other " ▁to ▁contrast ▁with ▁the ▁rational , ▁mascul ine , ▁strong ▁West ▁because ▁of ▁a ▁need ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁difference ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁that ▁would ▁justify ▁imperial ist ▁amb itions , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁Sa id - infl uen ced ▁Indian - American ▁the or ist ▁Hom i ▁K . ▁B hab ha . ▁▁▁ ▁Map ▁illustr ations ▁of ▁the ▁West |
▁according ▁to ▁different ▁but ▁closely ▁inter related ▁definitions ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁From ▁a ▁very ▁different ▁perspective , ▁it ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁the ▁West ▁is , ▁in ▁part , ▁a ▁non - West ern ▁in vention , ▁deployed ▁in ▁the ▁non - West ▁to ▁shape ▁and ▁define ▁non - West ern ▁path ways ▁through ▁or ▁against ▁modern ity . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁American ization ▁Ang lic isation ▁Ang lo phone ▁Atlantic ism ▁Christ end om ▁Eastern ▁world ▁East - West ▁dich ot omy ▁European isation ▁Far ▁West ▁Franc oph onie ▁Free ▁world ▁Global ▁North ▁Global ▁South ▁Golden ▁billion ▁His pan oph one ▁History ▁of ▁Western ▁civil ization ▁Mid - At l antic ▁English ▁Mon roe ▁Do ctrine ▁Orient ▁Three - world ▁model ▁Western ▁es oter ic ism ▁Western ▁philosophy ▁Western ization ▁Western ▁civil ization ▁Western ▁culture ▁ ▁Organ is ations ▁European ▁Council ▁European ▁Union ▁European ▁Econom ic ▁Area ▁Group ▁of ▁Seven ▁( G 7 ) ▁North ▁Atlantic ▁Tre aty ▁Organ ization ▁ ▁Represent ation ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁Nations ▁Eastern ▁European ▁Group ▁Western ▁European ▁and ▁O thers ▁Group ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁B ava j , ▁Ric c ardo : ▁" The ▁West ": ▁A ▁Con cept ual ▁Ex pl oration ▁, ▁European ▁History ▁Online , ▁Main z : ▁Institute ▁of ▁European ▁History , ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁retrieved : ▁ 2 8 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁Dal y , ▁Jonathan . ▁" The ▁R ise ▁of ▁Western ▁Power : ▁A ▁Compar |
ative ▁History ▁of ▁Western ▁Civil ization " ▁( Lond on ▁and ▁New ▁York : ▁Blo oms bury , ▁ 2 0 1 4 ). ▁. ▁Dal y , ▁Jonathan . ▁" H istor ians ▁Deb ate ▁the ▁R ise ▁of ▁the ▁West " ▁( Lond on ▁and ▁New ▁York : ▁Rout ledge , ▁ 2 0 1 5 ). ▁. ▁The ▁Western ▁Trad ition ▁home page ▁at ▁An nen berg / CP B ▁– ▁where ▁you ▁can ▁watch ▁each ▁episode ▁on ▁demand ▁for ▁free ▁( Pop - ups ▁required ) ▁J . ▁F . ▁C . ▁Full er . ▁A ▁Military ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁World . ▁Three ▁Vol umes . ▁New ▁York : ▁Da ▁Cap o ▁Press , ▁Inc ., ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁and ▁ 1 9 8 8 . ▁V . ▁ 1 . ▁From ▁the ▁earliest ▁times ▁to ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Le p anto ; ▁. ▁V . ▁ 2 . ▁From ▁the ▁defeat ▁of ▁the ▁Spanish ▁Arm ada ▁to ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Water lo o ; ▁. ▁V . ▁ 3 . ▁From ▁the ▁American ▁Civil ▁War ▁to ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁II ; ▁. ▁ ▁Category : Country ▁class ifications ▁Category : C ult ural ▁concepts ▁Category : C ult ural ▁regions ▁Category : H istor i ography ▁of ▁Europe ▁Category : West ern ▁culture <0x0A> </s> ▁D ais y ▁Ba con ▁( May ▁ 2 3 , ▁ 1 8 9 8 ▁– ▁March ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 8 6 ) ▁was |
▁an ▁American ▁pul p ▁fiction ▁magazine ▁editor ▁and ▁writer , ▁best ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁editor ▁of ▁Love ▁Story ▁Magazine ▁from ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁to ▁ 1 9 4 7 . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁D ais y ▁Ba con ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Union ▁City , ▁Pennsylvania . ▁One ▁of ▁her ▁great - un cles , ▁Dr . ▁Al mon ▁C . ▁Ba con , ▁was ▁the ▁founder ▁of ▁Ba con e ▁College ▁in ▁Oklahoma . ▁ ▁Career ▁D ais y ▁Ba con ▁started ▁working ▁in ▁publishing ▁at ▁Street ▁& ▁Smith ▁as ▁an ▁advice ▁column ist , ▁before ▁becoming ▁editor ▁of ▁several ▁of ▁their ▁pul p ▁mag az ines . ▁She ▁began ▁editing ▁Love ▁Story ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 8 , ▁and ▁stayed ▁in ▁that ▁position ▁until ▁the ▁magazine ' s ▁run ▁ended ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 7 . ▁" In ▁her ▁pages , ▁she ▁offers ▁to ▁the ▁average ▁woman ▁– ▁not ▁a ▁flight ▁from ▁actual ▁life ▁— ▁but ▁a ▁height ened ▁reality ," ▁explained ▁one ▁profile ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 2 , ▁not ing ▁that ▁the ▁magazine ' s ▁circul ation ▁was ▁between ▁two ▁and ▁three ▁million ▁readers ▁a ▁month . ▁She ▁also ▁edited ▁Sm art ▁Love ▁St ories , ▁Det ect ive ▁St ories , ▁The ▁Sh adow , ▁and ▁Doc ▁Sav age ▁( the ▁latter ▁two , ▁super h ero ▁advent ure ▁series ). ▁ ▁As ▁a ▁writer , ▁she ▁published ▁several ▁stories ▁and ▁ess ays , ▁and ▁a ▁how - to ▁manual , ▁Love ▁Story ▁W |
riter ▁( 1 9 5 3 ). ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁she ▁launched ▁her ▁own ▁im print , ▁Gem ini ▁Books . ▁ ▁On ▁rom ance ▁in ▁mid - tw enti eth ▁century ▁America , ▁she ▁noted ▁that ▁" It ▁is ▁better ▁for ▁girls ▁to ▁ac quire ▁care ers ▁first , ▁hus b ands ▁after ward ," ▁and ▁" fin an cial ▁independence ▁for ▁the ▁wife ▁is ▁an ▁ideal ▁basis ▁for ▁marriage . ▁To ▁be ▁sing led ▁out ▁by ▁a ▁girl ▁with ▁a ▁good ▁job ▁is ▁the ▁highest ▁form ▁of ▁fl atter y ▁for ▁a ▁man . ▁She ▁does ▁not ▁need ▁his ▁support . ▁Therefore ▁she ▁lov es ▁him ▁for ▁himself ." ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁D ais y ▁Ba con ' s ▁un mar ried ▁status ▁while ▁editing ▁a ▁magazine ▁about ▁rom ance ▁was ▁often ▁remarked ▁upon , ▁along ▁with ▁her ▁tall ▁sl im ▁figure ▁and ▁her ▁sty lish ▁w ard ro be . ▁She ▁died ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁aged ▁ 8 7 ▁years , ▁in ▁Port ▁Washington , ▁New ▁York . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁the ▁B ax ter ▁Est ates ▁Village ▁Hall ▁in ▁Port ▁Washington ▁held ▁an ▁exhib it ▁about ▁Ba con , ▁including ▁her ▁des k , ▁photograph s , ▁manuscript s , ▁and ▁type writer . ▁A ▁bi ography ▁of ▁Ba con ▁was ▁reported ▁as ▁under way ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 8 9 8 ▁birth s |
▁Category : 1 9 8 6 ▁death s ▁Category : American ▁edit ors ▁Category : American ▁women ▁writers ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Er ie ▁County , ▁Pennsylvania <0x0A> </s> ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁( fo aled ▁ 4 ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 8 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Irish ▁Thor ough bre d ▁race hor se . ▁He ▁won ▁the ▁C riter ium ▁International ▁as ▁a ▁two - year - old ▁and ▁the ▁Irish ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁Gu ine as ▁as ▁a ▁three - year - old . ▁He ▁is ▁owned ▁by ▁Mrs ▁John ▁Mag nier ▁and ▁was ▁trained ▁by ▁A idan ▁O ' B rien . ▁He ▁now ▁stands ▁as ▁a ▁st all ion ▁at ▁B ally h ane ▁Stud . ▁ ▁Bre eding ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁is ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁Gal ile o , ▁who ▁won ▁The ▁Derby , ▁Irish ▁Derby ▁and ▁King ▁George ▁VI ▁and ▁Queen ▁Elizabeth ▁St akes ▁and ▁multiple ▁Champion ▁s ire . ▁Gal ile o ' s ▁s ire ▁was ▁Sad ler ' s ▁Well s , ▁winner ▁of ▁the ▁Eclipse ▁St akes ▁and ▁Irish ▁Champion ▁St akes ▁and ▁multiple ▁Champion ▁s ire . ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ' s ▁dam , ▁Secret ▁Garden ▁won ▁twice , ▁including ▁a ▁listed ▁race . ▁Secret ▁Garden ' s ▁s ire ▁was ▁D ane hill , ▁winner ▁of ▁the ▁S print ▁Cup ▁and ▁Champion ▁s ire . ▁ ▁Racing ▁career ▁▁ 2 0 1 0 : ▁two - |
year - old ▁season ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁finished ▁third ▁on ▁his ▁race course ▁debut ▁when ▁starting ▁at ▁ 2 0 / 1 ▁for ▁a ▁seven ▁f url ong ▁ma iden ▁at ▁Leop ard st own . ▁He ▁then ▁won ▁a ▁ma iden ▁race ▁at ▁the ▁Cur rag h , ▁be ating ▁Master ▁of ▁H ounds ▁by ▁ 2 ½ ▁lengths . ▁In ▁the ▁D ew h urst ▁St akes ▁he ▁took ▁on ▁Frank el ▁and ▁Dream ▁A head . ▁Starting ▁as ▁the ▁ 2 5 / 1 ▁out s ider ▁he ▁finished ▁second , ▁ 2 ¼ ▁lengths ▁behind ▁Frank el . ▁In ▁his ▁final ▁start ▁as ▁a ▁two - year - old ▁he ▁travel led ▁to ▁France ▁for ▁the ▁C riter ium ▁International . ▁He ▁started ▁the ▁race ▁the ▁ 5 / 2 ▁second ▁favour ite ▁and ▁was ▁r idden ▁by ▁Johnny ▁Mur tag h . ▁He ▁was ▁r idden ▁prom in ently ▁during ▁the ▁early ▁stages ▁of ▁the ▁race ▁and ▁then ▁quick ened ▁clear ▁in ▁the ▁finishing ▁straight . ▁In ▁the ▁closing ▁stages ▁he ▁dr ift ed ▁first ▁left ▁and ▁then ▁right , ▁but ▁he ▁ran ▁on ▁again ▁to ▁win ▁by ▁ 1 ½ ▁lengths ▁from ▁Sal to . ▁▁ 2 0 1 1 : ▁three - year - old - season ▁He ▁started ▁his ▁three - year - old ▁season ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁Gu ine as ▁and ▁was ▁amongst ▁the ▁favour ites . ▁D ew h urst ▁winner ▁Frank el ▁was ▁the ▁hot ▁favour |
ite ▁at ▁ 1 / 2 , ▁then ▁came ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁and ▁National ▁St akes ▁winner ▁Path f ork ▁at ▁ 8 / 1 . ▁Racing ▁Post ▁Tro phy ▁winner ▁Cas amento ▁started ▁at ▁ 1 1 / 1 . ▁Frank el ▁pulled ▁away ▁in ▁the ▁opening ▁stages ▁of ▁the ▁race ▁and ▁was ▁never ▁caught . ▁R idden ▁by ▁Ryan ▁Moore , ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁was ▁near ▁the ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁ch asing ▁group , ▁but ▁f aded ▁with ▁three ▁f url ongs ▁still ▁to ▁run . ▁He ▁finished ▁ 3 8 ▁lengths ▁behind ▁the ▁winner ▁in ▁ele vent h . ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁then ▁took ▁on ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁Gu ine as ▁runner - up ▁Dub aw i ▁Gold ▁in ▁the ▁Irish ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁Gu ine as . ▁Under ▁Joseph ▁O ' B rien ▁( son ▁of ▁tra iner ▁A idan ▁O ' B rien ) ▁he ▁led ▁from ▁the ▁start . ▁Dub aw i ▁Gold ▁closed ▁in ▁the ▁final ▁stages ▁of ▁the ▁race , ▁but ▁could ▁not ▁catch ▁him ▁and ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁win ▁by ▁ ¾ ▁length . ▁This ▁was ▁Joseph ▁O ' B rien ' s ▁first ▁Group ▁ 1 ▁win . ▁He ▁then ▁finished ▁e ighth ▁in ▁the ▁Prix ▁du ▁J ockey ▁Club , ▁sixth ▁in ▁the ▁Irish ▁Derby ▁and ▁fifth ▁in ▁the ▁Irish ▁Champion ▁St akes . ▁ ▁Ass ess ment ▁He |
▁was ▁officially ▁r ated ▁as ▁the ▁ 1 3 6 th ▁best ▁horse ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁ ▁Stud ▁career ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁season ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁was ▁retired ▁to ▁stud . ▁He ▁stands ▁as ▁a ▁st all ion ▁at ▁B ally h ane ▁Stud ▁and ▁also ▁as ▁a ▁sh utt le ▁st all ion ▁in ▁Brazil ▁during ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁season . ▁His ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁stud ▁fee ▁is ▁€ 9 , 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁Ped ig ree ▁ ▁Note : ▁b . ▁= ▁Bay , ▁br . ▁= ▁Brown , ▁ch . ▁= ▁Ch est nut ▁ ▁* ▁R oder ic ▁O ' Con nor ▁is ▁in bre d ▁ 3 x 4 ▁to ▁Northern ▁Dan cer , ▁meaning ▁that ▁the ▁st all ion ▁appears ▁once ▁in ▁the ▁third ▁generation ▁and ▁once ▁in ▁the ▁fourth ▁generation ▁of ▁his ▁pedig ree . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 8 ▁race hor se ▁birth s ▁Category : R ace h ors es ▁b red ▁in ▁Ireland ▁Category : R ace h ors es ▁trained ▁in ▁Ireland ▁Category : I r ish ▁Classic ▁Race ▁w inners ▁Category : Th or ough bre d ▁family ▁ 1 6 - c <0x0A> </s> ▁Mc Cl urg ▁Branch ▁is ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Iron ▁County ▁in ▁the ▁U . S . ▁state ▁of ▁Missouri . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of |
▁C ed ar ▁Creek . ▁ ▁The ▁stream ▁head w aters ▁arise ▁around ▁ ▁at ▁an ▁elev ation ▁of ▁around ▁ 1 3 2 0 ▁feet . ▁The ▁stream ▁flows ▁north west ▁and ▁then ▁north ▁to ▁its ▁confl u ence ▁at ▁ ▁and ▁an ▁elev ation ▁of ▁ 9 6 8 ▁feet . ▁The ▁stream ▁valley ▁is ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁Co on ▁H ollow . ▁The ▁confl u ence ▁is ▁just ▁south ▁of ▁Missouri ▁Route ▁ 3 2 ▁about ▁one ▁mile ▁east ▁of ▁the ▁community ▁of ▁B anner . ▁Belle view ▁is ▁about ▁five ▁miles ▁to ▁the ▁east . ▁ ▁Mc Cl urg ▁Branch ▁has ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁J ake ▁Mc Cl urg , ▁an ▁early ▁sett ler . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁rivers ▁of ▁Missouri ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Iron ▁County , ▁Missouri ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Missouri <0x0A> </s> ▁Bo er hav ia ▁tri quet ra , ▁with ▁the ▁common ▁names ▁cre eping ▁stick y ▁stem , ▁sl ender ▁sp ider ling , ▁sp ider ling , ▁ ▁is ▁an ▁annual ▁desert ▁plant ▁in ▁the ▁four ▁o ' clock ▁family ▁( N y ct agin aceae ). ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁native ▁to ▁California ▁and ▁Arizona , ▁in ▁habit ats ▁of ▁the ▁M oj ave ▁Des ert ▁and ▁Son or an ▁Des ert . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Cal fl ora ▁Database : ▁Bo er hav ia ▁tri quet ra ▁( C ree ping ▁stick y ▁stem , ▁ ▁Sl ender ▁sp ider ling ) ▁ ▁tri |
quet ra ▁Category : Fl ora ▁of ▁the ▁California ▁desert ▁regions ▁Category : Fl ora ▁of ▁Arizona ▁Category : Fl ora ▁of ▁the ▁Son or an ▁Des ert s ▁Category : N atural ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁Colorado ▁Des ert ▁Category : N atural ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁M oj ave ▁Des ert ▁Category : T ax a ▁named ▁by ▁Ser eno ▁Watson <0x0A> </s> ▁Pro k opy ▁Pet rov ich ▁Ly ap un ov ▁() ▁( d ied ▁ 1 6 1 1 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Russian ▁states man ▁of ▁R ur ik id ▁stock , ▁who ▁helped ▁deliver ▁Moscow ▁from ▁Polish ▁inter vention ists . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Bor is ▁God un ov , ▁Pro k opy ▁and ▁his ▁brother ▁Z akh ary ▁Ly ap un ov ▁s ided ▁with ▁False ▁D mit ri y ▁I . ▁In ▁early ▁ 1 6 0 6 , ▁he ▁took ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁Bol ot nik ov ▁U pr ising ▁on ▁the ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁reb els . ▁In ▁November ▁ 1 6 0 6 , ▁Ly ap un ov ▁came ▁to ▁Moscow ▁and ▁gave ▁himself ▁up ▁to ▁Vas ili ▁IV . ▁After ▁his ▁rep ent ance , ▁Ly ap un ov ▁was ▁made ▁a ▁dv ory an in ▁of ▁the ▁Bo yar ▁D uma ▁( 1 6 0 7 ). ▁In ▁ 1 6 0 8 – 1 6 1 0 , ▁Ly ap un ov ▁led ▁the ▁army ▁of ▁service ▁class ▁people ▁against ▁a ▁pe asant ▁u pr ising ▁in ▁the ▁Ry |
az an ▁region ▁and ▁supp or ters ▁of ▁False ▁D mit ri y ▁II . ▁In ▁July ▁ 1 6 1 0 , ▁Ly ap un ov ▁was ▁the ▁one ▁to ▁organ ize ▁the ▁over throw ing ▁of ▁Vas ili ▁IV . ▁▁ ▁When ▁the ▁Polish ▁army ▁occupied ▁Moscow ▁in ▁ 1 6 1 1 , ▁Ly ap un ov , ▁inspired ▁by ▁Patri arch ▁Germ ogen ' s ▁pro clam ations , ▁lev ied ▁the ▁First ▁People ' s ▁Vol unte er ▁Army ▁and ▁became ▁its ▁leader . ▁In ▁March ▁ 1 6 1 1 , ▁the ▁people ' s ▁volunte er ▁army ▁approached ▁Moscow ▁and ▁blocked ▁the ▁inv aders . ▁In ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 6 1 1 , ▁Ly ap un ov ▁pract ically ▁became ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁inter im ▁government . ▁On ▁June ▁ 3 0 , ▁he ▁issued ▁a ▁dec ree , ▁which ▁re inst ated ▁certain ▁ser f ▁reg ulations ▁and ▁viol ated ▁his ▁own ▁promises ▁to ▁C oss acks ▁of ▁" fre edom ▁and ▁sal ary ". ▁There up on ▁he ▁was ▁killed ▁by ▁the ▁ind ign ant ▁C oss acks ▁on ▁August ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 6 1 1 ▁O . S . ▁The ▁idea ▁of ▁a ▁Vol unte er ▁Army ▁was ▁taken ▁up ▁by ▁D mit ry ▁Poz har sky , ▁who ▁finally ▁delivered ▁Moscow ▁from ▁the ▁Pol es ▁in ▁ 1 6 1 2 . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Mik h ail ▁Sk op in - Sh uy sky ▁ ▁Category |
: Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁Category : 1 6 1 1 ▁death s ▁Pro k opy ▁Category : Russ ian ▁military ▁leaders ▁Category : T s ard om ▁of ▁Russia ▁people ▁Category : Russ ian ▁kn ights <0x0A> </s> ▁José ▁Mol í ns ▁Mont es ▁( born ▁ 1 7 ▁February ▁ 1 9 3 3 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Spanish ▁long - distance ▁runner . ▁He ▁competed ▁in ▁the ▁men ' s ▁ 5 0 0 0 ▁metres ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : A th let es ▁( track ▁and ▁field ) ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : Span ish ▁male ▁long - distance ▁run ners ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁athlet es ▁of ▁Spain ▁Category : Place ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Peter ▁Fl ann ery ▁( born ▁ 1 2 ▁October ▁ 1 9 5 1 , ▁J arrow , ▁County ▁Dur ham ) ▁is ▁an ▁English ▁play w right ▁and ▁screen writer . ▁He ▁was ▁educated ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Manchester ▁and ▁is ▁best ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁work ▁while ▁a ▁resident ▁play w right ▁at ▁the ▁Royal ▁Shakespeare ▁Company ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Notable ▁plays ▁during ▁his ▁ten ure ▁include : ▁Sav age ▁Am usement ▁( 1 9 7 8 ), ▁Aw ful |
▁K na w ful ▁( 1 9 7 8 ), ▁and ▁Our ▁Fri ends ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁( 1 9 8 2 ). ▁Other ▁theatre ▁work ▁has ▁included ▁S inger ▁( 1 9 8 9 ). ▁ ▁He ▁is ▁perhaps ▁best ▁known ▁to ▁a ▁wider ▁audience ▁for ▁his ▁highly ▁acc laimed ▁television ▁adaptation ▁of ▁Our ▁Fri ends ▁in ▁the ▁North , ▁produced ▁by ▁the ▁BBC ▁and ▁screen ed ▁on ▁BBC 2 ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 6 . ▁The ▁ep ic ▁nine - part ▁serial , ▁chart ing ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁four ▁friends ▁from ▁New castle ▁from ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁to ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁was ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁voted ▁by ▁the ▁British ▁Film ▁Institute ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 0 0 ▁Great est ▁British ▁Television ▁Program mes ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century . ▁Fl ann ery ' s ▁other ▁television ▁work ▁has ▁included ▁Bl ind ▁Justice ▁( 1 9 8 8 ), ▁a ▁series ▁about ▁the ▁work ▁of ▁radical ▁law y ers . ▁At ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁British ▁Academy ▁Television ▁Awards , ▁Fl ann ery ▁was ▁given ▁the ▁honor ary ▁Dennis ▁Pot ter ▁Award ▁for ▁out standing ▁achiev ement ▁in ▁television ▁writing . ▁ ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁he ▁script ed ▁an ▁adaptation ▁of ▁Alan ▁Hunter ' s ▁Ins pect or ▁G ently ▁nov els , ▁entitled ▁George ▁G ently , ▁for ▁BBC ▁One ▁to ▁be ▁broadcast ▁later ▁in ▁the ▁year . |
▁Fl ann ery ▁changed ▁the ▁setting ▁of ▁the ▁stories ▁from ▁Su ff olk ▁to ▁the ▁North ▁East ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁and ▁created ▁new ▁characters ▁who ▁had ▁not ▁featured ▁in ▁the ▁nov els . ▁George ▁G ently ▁is ▁produced ▁by ▁Company ▁Pictures , ▁re unit ing ▁Fl ann ery ▁with ▁ ▁Our ▁Fri ends ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁producer ▁Charles ▁P att inson , ▁who ▁co - run s ▁Company ▁and ▁is ▁an ▁executive ▁producer ▁on ▁the ▁series ▁alongside ▁Fl ann ery . ▁The ▁drama ▁was ▁eventually ▁shown ▁on ▁ 8 ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁The ▁sevent h ▁series ▁- ▁now ▁screen ed ▁as ▁Ins pect or ▁George ▁G ently ▁- ▁screen ed ▁in ▁the ▁spring ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁ ▁Fl ann ery ▁has ▁also ▁worked ▁in ▁film , ▁although ▁with ▁less ▁success ▁than ▁in ▁other ▁media . ▁He ▁wrote ▁the ▁screen plays ▁for ▁films ▁such ▁as ▁Fun ny ▁B ones ▁( 1 9 9 5 ) ▁and ▁The ▁One ▁and ▁Only ▁( 2 0 0 2 ). ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁Channel ▁ 4 ▁transm itted ▁Fl ann ery ' s ▁mini - series ▁about ▁the ▁English ▁Civil ▁War , ▁The ▁Dev il ' s ▁Wh ore , ▁on ▁which ▁he ▁had ▁worked ▁for ▁more ▁than ▁a ▁de cade . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁the ▁channel ▁released ▁a ▁four - part ▁continu ation , ▁titled ▁New ▁World s . ▁This ▁series ▁was ▁set ▁in ▁England ▁and |
▁America ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 8 0 s ▁and ▁was ▁co - written ▁by ▁Mart ine ▁Brand t . ▁It ▁featured ▁various ▁characters ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁generation , ▁played ▁by ▁Jam ie ▁D orn an , ▁Fre ya ▁M avor , ▁Joe ▁Dem ps ie , ▁E ve ▁Best , ▁Jer emy ▁North am ▁and ▁Alice ▁Eng l ert . ▁ ▁Fl ann ery ' s ▁stage ▁adaptation ▁of ▁Nik ita ▁Mik h alk ov ' s ▁film ▁Bur nt ▁by ▁the ▁Sun ▁opened ▁at ▁the ▁National ▁Theatre , ▁London , ▁in ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁The ▁cast ▁included ▁Irish ▁actor ▁C iar án ▁H inds ▁as ▁General ▁Kot ov , ▁R ory ▁Kin near ▁as ▁M ity a , ▁and ▁Mich elle ▁D ock ery ▁as ▁Mar ouss ia . ▁ ▁Fl ann ery ▁lives ▁in ▁Wall ing ford , ▁Oxford shire . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁Reb ell ato , ▁Dan . ▁The ▁Cont inu um ▁Comp an ion ▁to ▁Tw enti eth ▁Century ▁Theatre ▁( ed . ▁Col in ▁Ch amb ers ). ▁London . ▁Cont inu um . ▁. ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Article ▁on ▁Bur nt ▁by ▁the ▁Sun ▁by ▁[ And rea ▁Gr un ert ] ▁in ▁ ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁Category : Al umn i ▁of ▁Bath ▁Sp a ▁University ▁Category : English ▁dram at ists ▁and ▁play w right s ▁Category : English ▁television ▁writers ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁J arrow ▁Category : 1 9 |
5 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : M ale ▁screen writ ers ▁Category : English ▁male ▁dram at ists ▁and ▁play w right s ▁Category : M ale ▁television ▁writers <0x0A> </s> ▁Amb ly se ius ▁impress us ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁m ite ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Ph y to se i idae . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : A ra chn ids ▁Category : Art icles ▁created ▁by ▁Q bug bot ▁Category : Anim als ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 3 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁period ont ium ▁is ▁the ▁special ized ▁t issues ▁that ▁both ▁surr ound ▁and ▁support ▁the ▁teeth , ▁maintain ing ▁them ▁in ▁the ▁max ill ary ▁and ▁mand ib ular ▁b ones . ▁ ▁The ▁word ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁Greek ▁terms ▁ π ε ρ ί ▁peri -, ▁meaning ▁" around " ▁and ▁- od ont , ▁meaning ▁" to oth ". ▁Liter ally ▁taken , ▁it ▁means ▁that ▁which ▁is ▁" around ▁the ▁to oth ". ▁Period ont ics ▁is ▁the ▁dent al ▁special ty ▁that ▁rel ates ▁specifically ▁to ▁the ▁care ▁and ▁maintenance ▁of ▁these ▁t issues . ▁It ▁provides ▁the ▁support ▁necessary ▁to ▁maintain ▁teeth ▁in ▁function . ▁It ▁consists ▁of ▁four ▁principal ▁components , ▁namely : ▁ ▁G ing iva ▁ ▁Period ont al ▁lig ament ▁( P DL ) ▁▁ ▁C ement um ▁ ▁Al ve olar ▁b one ▁proper ▁ ▁Each ▁of ▁these ▁components ▁is ▁distinct ▁in ▁location , ▁architecture , ▁and ▁bio chem ical ▁properties , |
▁which ▁adapt ▁during ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁the ▁structure . ▁For ▁example , ▁as ▁teeth ▁respond ▁to ▁forces ▁or ▁migr ate ▁med ial ly , ▁b one ▁res or bs ▁on ▁the ▁pressure ▁side ▁and ▁is ▁added ▁on ▁the ▁t ension ▁side . ▁C ement um ▁similarly ▁adapt s ▁to ▁wear ▁on ▁the ▁occ lus al ▁surfaces ▁of ▁the ▁teeth ▁by ▁ap ical ▁de position . ▁The ▁period ont al ▁lig ament ▁in ▁itself ▁is ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁high ▁turn over ▁that ▁allows ▁the ▁to oth ▁not ▁only ▁to ▁be ▁susp ended ▁in ▁the ▁al ve olar ▁b one ▁but ▁also ▁to ▁respond ▁to ▁the ▁forces . ▁Thus , ▁although ▁seem ingly ▁static ▁and ▁having ▁functions ▁of ▁their ▁own , ▁all ▁of ▁these ▁components ▁function ▁as ▁a ▁single ▁unit . ▁The ▁W nt ▁signal ing ▁ant agon ist ▁S fr p 3 / F rz b ▁has ▁been ▁recently ▁discovered ▁as ▁an ▁early ▁development al ▁marker ▁of ▁the ▁period ont ium . ▁ ▁External ▁forces ▁and ▁the ▁period ont ium ▁ ▁The ▁period ont ium ▁exists ▁for ▁the ▁purpose ▁of ▁supporting ▁teeth ▁during ▁their ▁function ▁and ▁it ▁depends ▁on ▁the ▁stim ulation ▁it ▁receives ▁from ▁the ▁function ▁for ▁pres ervation ▁of ▁its ▁structure . ▁Therefore , ▁a ▁constant ▁state ▁of ▁balance ▁always ▁exists ▁between ▁the ▁period ont al ▁structures ▁and ▁the ▁external ▁forces . ▁ ▁Al ve olar ▁b one ▁under go es ▁constant ▁phys i olog ic ▁rem od eling ▁in ▁response ▁to ▁external ▁forces , ▁particularly ▁occ lus al ▁forces . ▁B |
one ▁is ▁removed ▁from ▁areas ▁where ▁it ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁needed ▁and ▁added ▁to ▁areas ▁where ▁it ▁is ▁needed . ▁The ▁socket ▁wall ▁reflect s ▁the ▁respons iveness ▁to ▁the ▁external ▁forces . ▁O ste ob last s ▁and ▁newly ▁formed ▁o ste oid ▁line ▁the ▁areas ▁of ▁t ension , ▁whereas ▁lines ▁of ▁compression ▁are ▁l ined ▁by ▁o ste oc last s . ▁The ▁forces ▁also ▁influence ▁the ▁number , ▁density , ▁and ▁alignment ▁of ▁trab ec ula e ▁inside ▁the ▁b one . ▁The ▁b ony ▁trab ec ula e ▁are ▁aligned ▁in ▁the ▁path ▁of ▁tens ile ▁and ▁compress ive ▁str esses ▁to ▁provide ▁maximum ▁resistance ▁to ▁occ lus al ▁forces ▁with ▁a ▁minimum ▁of ▁b one ▁subst ance . ▁When ▁forces ▁are ▁increased , ▁the ▁b ony ▁trab ec ula e ▁also ▁increase ▁in ▁number ▁and ▁thick ness ▁and ▁b one ▁is ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁external ▁surfaces . ▁ ▁The ▁period ont al ▁lig ament ▁depends ▁on ▁stim ulation ▁provided ▁by ▁function ▁to ▁preserve ▁its ▁structure . ▁Within ▁phys i olog ic ▁limits ▁the ▁P DL ▁can ▁accommod ate ▁increased ▁function ▁by ▁increasing ▁its ▁width . ▁Forces ▁that ▁exceed ▁the ▁adapt ive ▁capacity ▁of ▁the ▁period ont ium ▁produce ▁injury ▁called ▁tra uma ▁from ▁occ l usion . ▁When ▁occ lus al ▁forces ▁are ▁reduced ▁the ▁P DL ▁at roph ies , ▁appearing ▁th inned . ▁This ▁phenomen on ▁is ▁called ▁dis use ▁at ro phy . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Period ont ology ▁Category : H |
uman ▁mouth ▁an atom y ▁Category : D ental ▁an atom y <0x0A> </s> ▁Jordan ▁Clark ▁( born ▁ 1 4 ▁October ▁ 1 9 9 0 ) ▁is ▁an ▁English ▁cr ick eter . ▁Clark ▁is ▁a ▁right - hand ed ▁b ats man ▁who ▁bow ls ▁right - arm ▁medium ▁pace ▁and ▁who ▁occasionally ▁fields ▁as ▁a ▁w icket - keeper . ▁He ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁White h aven , ▁C umb ria ▁and ▁was ▁educated ▁at ▁Sed berg h ▁School . ▁ ▁Clark ▁made ▁his ▁debut ▁for ▁C umber land ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁Minor ▁Count ies ▁Championship ▁against ▁Nor folk . ▁The ▁following ▁season ▁he ▁played ▁two ▁further ▁matches ▁in ▁that ▁competition , ▁against ▁Buck ingham shire ▁and ▁Nor folk ▁again . ▁Clark ▁joined ▁Lanc ash ire ' s ▁Academy ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 ; ▁after ▁two ▁years ▁in ▁the ▁Academy , ▁he ▁was ▁given ▁a ▁scholar ship ▁with ▁Lanc ash ire ▁in ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁Having ▁represented ▁the ▁Lanc ash ire ▁Second ▁XI ▁in ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Clark ▁made ▁his ▁debut ▁for ▁Lanc ash ire ▁in ▁Lanc ash ire ' s ▁last ▁List ▁A ▁match ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁C ly des dale ▁Bank ▁ 4 0 ▁against ▁Wor c esters hire . ▁He ▁scored ▁ 3 2 ▁runs ▁before ▁being ▁dismiss ed ▁by ▁Jack ▁Sh antry . ▁In ▁the ▁winter ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 0 / 1 1 ▁Clark ▁suffered |
▁a ▁stress ▁f ract ure ▁to ▁the ▁back . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁season , ▁Clark ' s ▁scholar ship ▁was ▁renew ed ▁and , ▁in ▁June , ▁he ▁made ▁his ▁Tw enty 2 0 ▁debut . ▁He ▁scored ▁ 1 9 run s ▁from ▁ 1 1 ball s ▁as ▁Lanc ash ire ▁tied ▁with ▁Derby shire . ▁In ▁October ▁Clark ▁signed ▁his ▁first ▁full - time ▁professional ▁contract ▁with ▁Lanc ash ire . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 4 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁in ▁a ▁second ▁XI ▁game ▁for ▁Lanc ash ire ▁against ▁York shire ▁at ▁North ▁Marine ▁Road ▁Gr ound , ▁Sc ar borough , ▁he ▁became ▁only ▁the ▁fifth ▁player ▁to ▁hit ▁six ▁six es ▁off ▁an ▁over ▁in ▁a ▁professional ▁game , ▁scoring ▁the ▁runs ▁against ▁left - arm ▁sp inner ▁G ur man ▁Rand h awa . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 2 ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁Clark ▁removed ▁England ▁captain ▁Joe ▁Root , ▁New ▁Zealand ▁captain ▁K ane ▁William son , ▁and ▁England ▁b ats man ▁Jon ny ▁Ba irst ow ▁in ▁consecutive ▁balls ▁to ▁secure ▁a ▁hat - tr ick ▁in ▁the ▁County ▁Championship ▁ros es ▁match ▁against ▁York shire . ▁Clark ▁took ▁ 5 - 5 8 ▁in ▁this ▁inn ings , ▁his ▁ma iden ▁first - class ▁ 5 ▁w icket ▁ha ul . ▁ ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁he ▁was ▁named ▁in ▁the ▁Hob art ▁H |
urr ican es ' ▁squad ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁Ab u ▁D hab i ▁T 2 0 ▁Tro phy . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 9 0 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁White h aven ▁Category : Pe ople ▁educated ▁at ▁Sed berg h ▁School ▁Category : English ▁cr ick eters ▁Category : C umber land ▁cr ick eters ▁Category : L anc ash ire ▁cr ick eters ▁Category : Sur rey ▁cr ick eters ▁Category : C rick eters ▁from ▁York shire ▁Category : H ob art ▁H urr ican es ▁cr ick eters <0x0A> </s> ▁Di adel ia ▁par ap unct if rons ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁be et le ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Cer amb yc idae . ▁It ▁was ▁described ▁by ▁Bre uning ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 7 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Di adel ia ▁Category : Be et les ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 7 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Santa ▁Cruz ▁Gu itar ▁Company ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁manufact urer ▁of ▁ac oust ic ▁gu it ars , ▁located ▁in ▁Santa ▁Cruz , ▁California . ▁The ▁company ▁was ▁started ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁by ▁l uth ier ▁Richard ▁Ho over , ▁who ▁is ▁re put ed ▁to ▁have ▁" tra ined ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁accomplished ▁contemporary ▁l uth iers ▁in ▁his ▁work shop ", ▁and ▁invest ors ▁Bruce ▁Ross ▁and ▁William ▁Davis . ▁They ▁produce ▁somewhere ▁between ▁ |
5 0 0 ▁and ▁ 7 0 0 ▁gu it ars ▁a ▁year , ▁ ▁and ▁their ▁instruments ▁are ▁known ▁for ▁being ▁" some ▁of ▁the ▁world ’ s ▁fin est ▁steel - string ▁gu it ars " ▁with ▁characteristics ▁described ▁as ▁" be ing ▁highly ▁reson ate ▁and ▁having ▁a ▁complexity ▁of ▁over ton es ". ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁L uth ier ▁Richard ▁Ho over ▁began ▁learning ▁his ▁craft ▁from ▁Bruce ▁Mc Gu ire ▁and ▁Jim ▁P atter son ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁and ▁became ▁well ▁known ▁in ▁his ▁home ▁town ▁of ▁Santa ▁Cruz , ▁California ▁after ▁having ▁run ▁his ▁own ▁guitar ▁repair ▁and ▁manufact uring ▁shop ▁for ▁several ▁years . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁there ▁was ▁little ▁information ▁on ▁building ▁steel - string ▁gu it ars ▁available , ▁and ▁build ers ▁like ▁Ho over , ▁Bob ▁Taylor , ▁Jean ▁Lar riv ée , ▁and ▁Michael ▁G ur ian ▁started ▁collabor ating , ▁sharing ▁ideas , ▁tools , ▁and ▁techniques ▁as ▁they ▁discovered ▁them . ▁ ▁Ho over ▁also ▁learned ▁from ▁reading ▁an ▁" arm load ▁of ▁books ▁on ▁how ▁to ▁make ▁viol ins ", ▁supplied ▁by ▁his ▁mother , ▁who ▁was ▁a ▁reference ▁li br arian , ▁and ▁learned ▁techniques ▁on ▁wood ▁finish es ▁from ▁a ▁Swedish ▁finish ▁car p enter . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁Ho over ▁was ▁approached ▁by ▁invest ors ▁Bruce ▁Ross ▁and ▁William ▁Davis , ▁who ▁wanted ▁to ▁start ▁their ▁own ▁ac |
oust ic ▁guitar ▁company . ▁ ▁Ho over ▁had ▁made ▁his ▁own ▁guitar ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁invited ▁to ▁join ▁the ▁team . ▁ ▁The ▁name ▁" S anta ▁Cruz ▁Gu itar ▁Company " ▁was ▁initially ▁a ▁place - holder ▁name ▁that ▁they ▁expected ▁to ▁replace ▁when ▁they ▁thought ▁of ▁a ▁better ▁one , ▁which ▁never ▁happened . ▁ ▁The ▁company ▁called ▁its ▁first ▁model ▁the ▁" D ", ▁a ▁dread n ought ▁that ▁they ▁wanted ▁to ▁have ▁a ▁tone ▁with ▁good ▁balance ▁between ▁bass ▁and ▁tre ble . ▁ ▁They ▁chose ▁ko a ▁wood ▁for ▁the ▁sides ▁and ▁back , ▁a ▁wood ▁common ▁in ▁gu it ars ▁at ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁tw enti eth ▁century , ▁but ▁that ▁had ▁become ▁rare ▁during ▁the ▁Great ▁De pression . ▁ ▁Many ▁things ▁happened ▁with ▁the ▁company ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 8 . ▁ ▁William ▁Davis ▁left ▁because ▁the ▁company ▁was ▁struggling ▁to ▁make ▁a ▁health y ▁profit , ▁and ▁Ho over ▁purchased ▁Davis ' s ▁share . ▁They ▁introduced ▁the ▁H ▁model , ▁named ▁after ▁the ▁initial ▁of ▁Paul ▁Host etter ' s ▁last ▁name , ▁as ▁he ▁introduced ▁the ▁guitar ' s ▁concepts ▁to ▁Ho over ▁and ▁Ross . ▁ ▁The ▁F TC ▁model ▁was ▁also ▁introduced , ▁which ▁has ▁a ▁flat ▁top ▁with ▁a ▁car ved , ▁arch ed ▁back . ▁ ▁This ▁model ▁was ▁a ▁limited ▁edition ▁run , ▁with ▁the ▁ 1 7 th ▁of ▁the ▁series ▁being ▁bought ▁by ▁Eric ▁Cla pton . ▁They ▁later ▁alter ed ▁the |
▁F TC ▁into ▁the ▁F ▁model — which ▁has ▁a ▁flat ▁back , ▁a ▁pla iner ▁f ret board , ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁cut away ▁an ▁option . ▁ ▁Last ly , ▁they ▁started ▁collabor ating ▁with ▁Tony ▁R ice , ▁building ▁a ▁model ▁based ▁on ▁his ▁Martin ▁d - 2 8 , ▁a ▁guitar ▁that ▁has ▁got ten ▁some ▁odd ▁modifications ▁done ▁to ▁it ▁by ▁various ▁repair men . ▁ ▁R ice ▁started ▁tour ing ▁with ▁the ▁guitar ▁which ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁company ▁receiving ▁many ▁phone ▁calls . ▁ ▁They ▁realized ▁they ▁had ▁a ▁something ▁offered ▁by ▁nobody ▁else , ▁and ▁the ▁Tony ▁R ice ▁model ▁was ▁introduced ▁as ▁a ▁standard ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 . ▁ ▁Richard ▁Ho over ▁bought ▁out ▁Bruce ▁Ross ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁( who ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁purs ue ▁his ▁current ▁career ▁in ▁Family ▁Ther apy ) ▁and ▁made ▁several ▁changes , ▁for ▁instance ▁standard izing ▁head stock ▁shapes ▁and ▁neck ▁width s ▁on ▁some ▁models ▁to ▁get ▁the ▁amount ▁of ▁variation ▁down . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s ▁they ▁had ▁over ▁ 2 0 ▁standard ▁models , ▁including ▁ 1 2 ▁f ret , ▁smaller ▁bod ied ▁gu it ars , ▁and ▁offered ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁different ▁custom ization ▁options , ▁including ▁tone ▁woods ▁( C oc ob olo , ▁Z ir ic ote , ▁Brazil ian , ▁Fig ured ▁Mah og any , ▁etc .), ▁custom ▁neck ▁shapes , ▁in l ays ▁and ▁custom ▁vo icing |
/ b rac ing . ▁ ▁The ▁company ▁focus es ▁on ▁fine ▁detail , ▁and ▁limits ▁its ▁size ▁to ▁maintain ▁instrument ▁quality . ▁ ▁They ▁have ▁developed ▁new ▁designs ▁and ▁understanding ▁of ▁materials ▁in ▁purs uit ▁of ▁a ▁greater ▁variation ▁in ▁tone — because ▁where ▁gu it ars ▁tradition ally ▁had ▁to ▁produce ▁sufficient ▁volume ▁to ▁comp ete ▁with ▁other ▁instruments , ▁smaller ▁bod ied ▁gu it ars ▁are ▁now ▁ampl ified ▁if ▁necessary . ▁ ▁The ▁company ▁uses ▁both ▁rec laimed ▁wood ▁and ▁respons ibly ▁har v ested ▁new ▁wood , ▁having ▁had ▁a ▁" green ▁philosophy ▁[ … ] ▁from ▁the ▁company ' s ▁beginning ." ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁company ' s ▁reputation ▁they ▁are ▁often ▁approached ▁by ▁others ▁who ▁have ▁wood ▁available , ▁as ▁for ▁instance ▁when ▁they ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁built ▁gu it ars ▁after ▁accepting ▁an ▁offer ▁of ▁Brazil ian ▁rose wood ▁har v ested ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s . ▁ ▁Their ▁gu it ars ▁are ▁often ▁perce ived ▁as ▁expensive . ▁Some ▁of ▁their ▁well - known ▁models ▁having ▁expensive ▁options , ▁e . g ., ▁one ▁review ▁lists ▁the ▁Don ▁Edwards ▁signature ▁model ▁" C ow boy ▁S inger " ▁at ▁ ▁( approx . ▁ ▁as ▁of ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 2 ). ▁ ▁Other ▁models ▁are ▁pr iced ▁similar ▁to ▁equival ently ▁featured ▁instruments ▁from ▁other ▁mak ers . ▁ ▁Notable ▁players ▁▁ ▁Tony ▁R ice ▁ ▁Bob ▁Bro z man ▁ ▁Dis app ear ▁F |
ear ▁( ▁a ka ▁S ON i A ▁R ut stein ▁) ▁ ▁Don ▁Edwards ▁ ▁Brad ▁P ais ley ▁ ▁Robert ▁Plant ▁ ▁Ben ▁Har per ▁ ▁El vis ▁Cost ello ▁ ▁Lloyd ▁Cole ▁ ▁Jack ▁Black ▁( T ena cious ▁D ) ▁ ▁Ar len ▁Roth ▁ ▁Jack ie ▁Gre ene ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Company ▁home page ▁ ▁Richard ▁Ho over ▁Inter view ▁N AM M ▁Or al ▁History ▁Library ▁( 2 0 0 7 , ▁ 2 0 1 6 ) ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : G uit ar ▁manufact uring ▁companies ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : Man ufact uring ▁companies ▁based ▁in ▁California ▁Category : Comp an ies ▁based ▁in ▁Santa ▁Cruz ▁County , ▁California ▁Category : American ▁companies ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁Category : Man ufact uring ▁companies ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁Category : 1 9 7 6 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁California <0x0A> </s> ▁H ocus ▁P ocus ▁Alf ie ▁At kins ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁Dan ish - N or weg ian - S wed ish ▁animated ▁feature ▁film ▁directed ▁by ▁Tor ill ▁K ove . ▁It ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁book ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁title ▁from ▁the ▁Alf ie ▁At kins ▁book ▁series ▁by ▁Gun illa ▁Berg ström . ▁ ▁Plot ▁Alf ie ▁At kins ▁wants ▁a ▁dog ▁for ▁his ▁birth day , ▁but ▁his ▁father ▁says ▁he ' s ▁way ▁too ▁small ▁to ▁take ▁care ▁of ▁it . ▁When ▁he ▁goes ▁to ▁school |
▁later ▁on , ▁he ' s ▁also ▁told ▁by ▁the ▁bigger ▁children ▁in ▁school ▁that ▁he ' s ▁too ▁small ▁to ▁play ▁with ▁them . ▁Alf ie ▁then ▁meets ▁an ▁old ▁man ▁that ▁can ▁conj ure ▁money ▁out ▁of ▁thin ▁air ▁and ▁dec ides ▁to ▁use ▁his ▁help ▁to ▁gain ▁a ▁dog . ▁ ▁Cast ▁▁ ▁Mark us ▁Eng d ahl - Al f ons ▁Å berg , ▁M å ll gan ▁Å berg ▁ ▁Gust af ▁Ham mar sten - P appa ▁Å berg ▁ ▁Per ▁E gg ers - T roll kar l ▁ ▁Gun illa ▁Rö ör - T roll kar l ▁F ru ▁Sing o alla ▁ ▁Sof ia ▁Wend t - M illa ▁Å berg ▁ ▁Ad rian ▁Br att - V ik tor ▁Å berg ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Category : 2 0 1 3 ▁films ▁Category : S wed ish ▁films ▁Category : S wed ish ▁animated ▁films ▁Category : N or weg ian ▁animated ▁films ▁Category : Dan ish ▁animated ▁films ▁Category : 2 0 1 3 ▁animated ▁films ▁Category : Anim ated ▁films ▁based ▁on ▁children ' s ▁books ▁Category : Fil ms ▁directed ▁by ▁Tor ill ▁K ove <0x0A> </s> ▁Robert ▁Be aum ont ▁( fl . ▁ 1 6 3 9 ), ▁ess ay ist , ▁is ▁chief ly ▁remarkable ▁for ▁his ▁Miss ives , ▁which ▁appear , ▁from ▁one ▁part ▁of ▁Be aum ont ' s ▁ep ist le ▁to ▁the ▁reader , ▁to ▁be ▁his ▁own ▁composition , |
▁and ▁from ▁another ▁part ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁composition ▁of ▁others . ▁But ▁the ▁former ▁int imation ▁has ▁the ▁stronger ▁support . ▁" Let ters ", ▁he ▁says , ▁" should ▁be ▁like ▁a ▁well - f urn ished ▁table , ▁where ▁every ▁guest ▁may ▁eat ▁of ▁what ▁d ish ▁he ▁ple ases ." ▁This ▁rem inds ▁us ▁of ▁B icker st aff ' s ▁once - pop ular ▁opera , ▁Love ▁in ▁a ▁Village ▁▁▁ ▁There ▁are ▁fifteen ▁ess ays ▁on ▁the ▁various ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁body – the ▁head , ▁eye , ▁nose , ▁ear , ▁tongue , ▁and ▁so ▁forth . ▁They ▁are ▁full ▁of ▁tro pe ▁and ▁figure , ▁frequently ▁with ▁much ▁force ▁of ▁application , ▁qu aint ▁and ▁sent ent ious . ▁ ▁The ▁precise ▁title ▁of ▁his ▁work ▁is ▁as ▁follows : ▁Love ' s ▁Miss ives ▁to ▁V irt ue ; ▁with ▁Ess a ies , ▁London ▁printed ▁by ▁William ▁God bid , ▁and ▁are ▁to ▁be ▁sold ▁at ▁the ▁sig ne ▁of ▁the ▁Star , ▁in ▁Little ▁Britain , ▁ 1 6 6 0 . ▁Small ▁oct avo , ▁pages ▁ 1 2 0 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁D NB ▁references ▁These ▁references ▁are ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁D NB ▁article ▁referred ▁to ▁above . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁death ▁missing ▁Category : English ▁letter ▁writers ▁Category : English ▁ess ay ists ▁Category : 1 7 th - century ▁English ▁writers ▁Category : 1 7 th - |
century ▁male ▁writers <0x0A> </s> ▁Sal ik in ▁M ardi ▁Hard jo ▁( 1 9 1 0 - ▁July ▁ 1 9 9 3 ) ▁was ▁a ▁J avan ese - Sur in am ese ▁social ▁activ ist ▁born ▁in ▁Mal ang , ▁J awa ▁Tim ur ▁( E ast ▁Java ), ▁Indones ia . ▁He ▁is ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁opposition ▁to ▁Dutch ▁colonial ▁rule ▁in ▁Sur in ame ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁advoc acy ▁for ▁the ▁J avan ese ▁community ▁in ▁Sur in ame , ▁and ▁their ▁perce ived ▁marg inal isation ▁and ▁orch estr ating ▁the ▁rep atri ation ▁of ▁many ▁J avan ese - Sur in am ese ▁to ▁T ong ar ▁in ▁West ▁Sum atra ▁near ▁Pad ang . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁ ▁Born ▁in ▁Mal ang ▁in ▁East ▁Java . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 0 , ▁he ▁em igr ated ▁to ▁Sur in ame ▁which ▁was ▁a ▁Dutch ▁plant ation ▁col ony ▁at ▁the ▁time . ▁His ▁father , ▁Do el ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁mechan ic ▁in ▁Mo engo ▁in ▁the ▁b aux ite ▁industry . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 6 , ▁the ▁family ▁re located ▁to ▁Par amar ib o . ▁ ▁K la as ▁Bre un issen , ▁an ▁author ▁proved ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁that ▁Hard jo ▁secret ly ▁wrote ▁under ▁the ▁pen ▁name , ▁‘ B ok ▁S ark ’ ▁ ▁pos ing ▁as ▁a ▁J avan ese ▁woman ▁m alt re ated ▁on ▁a |
▁plant ation ▁in ▁the ▁Sur in am ese ▁magazine ▁De ▁Ban ier ▁van ▁W aar heid ▁en ▁Recht ’ . ▁ ▁Political ▁career ▁ ▁He ▁founded ▁the ▁Per ger ak an ▁Bang sa ▁Indones ia ▁Sur in ame ▁( P B IS ), ▁in ▁English ▁the ▁‘ Pe ople ’ s ▁Party ▁of ▁Indones ians ▁in ▁Sur in ame ’ . ▁The ▁P B IS ▁rival led ▁the ▁Ka um ▁T ani ▁Pers atu an ▁Indones ia , ▁( K T PI ) ▁( Ind ones ian ▁( Mus lim ) ▁Pe asant ’ s ▁Party ) ▁which ▁is ▁now ▁the ▁Party ▁for ▁National ▁Unity ▁and ▁Sol id ar ity . ▁Hard jo ▁and ▁the ▁P B IS ▁eventually ▁lost ▁out ▁to ▁the ▁more ▁traditional ist ▁K T PI , ▁led ▁by ▁Id ing ▁So em ita , ▁the ▁father ▁of ▁Wil ly ▁So em ita . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁after , ▁Sur in ame ▁gained ▁self - g overn ance , ▁all ▁citizens ▁of ▁Sur in ame ▁were ▁granted ▁Dutch ▁citizens hip . ▁In ▁response , ▁the ▁Government ▁of ▁Indones ia ▁sent ▁Ab ikus no ▁T j ok ros uj oso , ▁a ▁leading ▁states man ▁and ▁sign atory ▁to ▁the ▁constitution ▁of ▁Indones ia . ▁It ▁was ▁determined ▁that ▁rep atri ation ▁was ▁popular . ▁After ▁his ▁defeat ▁by ▁the ▁K T PI ▁and ▁the ▁success ▁of ▁T j ok ros uj oso ’ s ▁mission , ▁Hard jo ▁set ▁up ▁the ▁J aj as an ▁ke |
▁Tan ah ▁Air , ▁( J TA ) ▁which ▁transl ates ▁as ▁the ▁' Hom eland ▁Foundation ' ▁which ▁existed ▁to ▁promote ▁the ▁rep atri ation ▁of ▁the ▁J avan ese . ▁A ▁further ▁deleg ation ▁subs id ised ▁by ▁the ▁Indones ian ▁government ▁was ▁sent ▁to ▁Indones ia ▁to ▁discuss ▁rep atri ation ▁efforts , ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁deleg ation ▁met ▁with ▁President ▁of ▁Indones ia , ▁Su kar no , ▁Moh amm ad ▁H atta , ▁then ▁Vice ▁President ▁of ▁Indones ia ▁and ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁of ▁Indones ia , ▁S ut an ▁S j ah rir . ▁It ▁was ▁decided ▁and ▁promised ▁that ▁each ▁rep atri ate ▁household ▁would ▁receive ▁ 2 . 5 ▁hect ares ▁of ▁land ▁and ▁decided ▁that ▁due ▁to ▁over pop ulation , ▁this ▁land ▁would ▁not ▁be ▁in ▁Java ▁but ▁instead ▁in ▁L amp ung , ▁a ▁site ▁already ▁used ▁to ▁transm igration . ▁ ▁Hard jo , ▁migr ated ▁to ▁Indones ia ▁along ▁with ▁his ▁family ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 3 . ▁He ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁the ▁R MS ▁Lang ko e as , ▁which ▁set ▁sail ▁on ▁ 4 ▁January ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁carrying ▁ 1 0 1 4 ▁people , ▁some ▁ 6 4 6 ▁of ▁whom ▁had ▁been ▁born ▁in ▁Sur in ame . ▁‘ At ▁the ▁last ▁minute ’ , ▁the ▁migr ants ▁were ▁informed ▁that ▁they ▁would ▁be ▁granted ▁ 1 . 5 ▁hect ares ▁of ▁land ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁expected ▁ 2 . 5 ▁and ▁that |
▁they ▁should ▁establish ▁their ▁settlement ▁in ▁T ong ar , ▁sometimes ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁T ong ass ▁in ▁West ▁Sum atra ▁rather ▁than ▁L amp ung . ▁ ▁T ong ar ▁was ▁pra ised ▁as ▁‘ model ▁village ’ ▁by ▁Indones ian ▁authorities , ▁but ▁this ▁out look ▁was ▁not ▁shared ▁by ▁many ▁imm igr ants ▁who ▁doubt ed ▁the ▁stability ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁Indones ian ▁state ▁after ▁the ▁Perm esta ▁re bell ion . ▁Many ▁left ▁T ong ar ▁to ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁D uri ▁in ▁R ia u ▁province ▁to ▁work ▁for ▁Cal tex , ▁Pad ang ▁with ▁" Port land ▁C ement " ▁and ▁to ▁Jak arta ▁for ▁general ▁economic ▁prosper ity . ▁The ▁village ▁also ▁grew ▁with ▁the ▁further ▁settlement ▁of ▁J avan ese ▁transm igr ants . ▁Despite ▁its ▁set back s , ▁the ▁‘ Sur in am ese ▁village ' ▁was ▁declared ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁most ▁developed ▁West ▁Sum at ran ▁village ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 8 . ▁ ▁Hard jo ▁died ▁in ▁T ong ar ▁in ▁July ▁ 1 9 9 3 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 1 0 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 9 3 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Mal ang ▁Category : Sur in am ese ▁people ▁of ▁J avan ese ▁descent ▁Category : Ind ones ian ▁em igr ants ▁to ▁Sur in ame ▁Category : Sur in am ese ▁polit icians <0x0A> </s> ▁Three ▁hundred ▁si xty - n ine ▁is ▁the ▁natural ▁number ▁following |
▁three ▁hundred ▁si xty - e ight ▁and ▁preceding ▁three ▁hundred ▁sevent y . ▁ ▁In ▁mathematics ▁▁ 3 6 9 ▁is ▁the ▁magic ▁constant ▁of ▁the ▁ 9 × 9 ▁magic ▁square ▁and ▁the ▁n - Que ens ▁Problem ▁for ▁n = 9 . ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁ 3 6 9 ▁free ▁oct om ino es ▁( poly om ino es ▁of ▁order ▁ 8 ). ▁ ▁In ▁other ▁fields ▁ 3 6 9 ▁is ▁also : ▁▁ ▁The ▁year ▁ 3 6 9 ▁or ▁ 3 6 9 ▁BC ▁ ▁A ▁Singapore ▁gang , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁Sal ak au ▁in ▁H ok k ien ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : In te gers <0x0A> </s> ▁City ▁of ▁Vice ▁is ▁a ▁British ▁historical ▁crime ▁drama ▁television ▁series ▁set ▁in ▁Georg ian ▁London ▁and ▁first ▁screen ed ▁on ▁ 1 4 ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁on ▁Channel ▁ 4 . ▁It ▁was ▁produced ▁by ▁Touch paper ▁Television ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁R DF ▁Media ▁Group . ▁ ▁Prem ise ▁The ▁series ▁mix es ▁fiction ▁with ▁fact ▁following ▁the ▁fort unes ▁of ▁the ▁famous ▁novel ist ▁Henry ▁Field ing ▁( I an ▁Mc Di arm id ) ▁and ▁his ▁brother ▁John ▁( I ain ▁Glen ). ▁Henry ▁and ▁John ▁Field ing ▁were ▁magistr ates ▁of ▁West min ster ▁and ▁the ▁men ▁who ▁created ▁the ▁modern ▁police ▁force ▁in ▁Britain ▁through ▁the ▁Bow ▁Street ▁R unn ers . ▁ ▁The ▁series ▁was ▁written ▁by ▁C live ▁Brad ley ▁and ▁Peter |
▁Har ness , ▁whose ▁scripts ▁were ▁nominated ▁for ▁a ▁Writ ers ' ▁Gu ild ▁of ▁Great ▁Britain ▁Award ▁for ▁Best ▁Series , ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁directed ▁by ▁Justin ▁Hard y ▁and ▁Dan ▁Re ed . ▁ ▁The ▁historical ▁consult ant ▁was ▁Hall ie ▁Rub en hold . ▁ ▁Other ▁information ▁The ▁show ▁uses ▁authentic ▁historical ▁research ▁to ▁tell ▁the ▁story ▁of ▁the ▁two ▁men ▁batt ling ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁police ▁force , ▁ 7 5 ▁years ▁before ▁Robert ▁Pe el ▁founded ▁the ▁Metropolitan ▁Police . ▁Henry ▁Field ing ’ s ▁mem oir s ▁and ▁contemporary ▁sources ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Old ▁Ba iley ▁S essions ▁Pap ers ▁have ▁been ▁used ▁to ▁provide ▁historical ▁accuracy ▁to ▁the ▁series . ▁ ▁The ▁series ▁uses ▁innov ative ▁mapping ▁sequences ▁to ▁follow ▁the ▁narr ative ▁and ▁characters ' ▁progress , ▁where in ▁John ▁Roc que ' s ▁map ▁of ▁ 1 7 4 6 ▁is ▁seen ▁from ▁above , ▁becomes ▁first ly ▁ 3 D ▁and ▁ultimately ▁mer ges ▁with ▁film ▁sequences ▁of ▁the ▁next ▁scene ▁to ▁pick ▁up ▁the ▁narr ative ▁tale . ▁ ▁The ▁series ▁won ▁the ▁Royal ▁Television ▁Society ▁Jud ges ' ▁Award , ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁ ▁Epis odes ▁ ▁E pisode ▁One ▁ ▁( W ritten ▁by ▁Peter ▁Har ness . ▁ ▁Direct ed ▁by ▁Justin ▁Hard y .) ▁ ▁The ▁Field ing ▁brothers ▁investigate ▁an ▁attempted ▁murder ▁of ▁a ▁prost itute ▁found ▁ra ped ▁and ▁hor r ific ally ▁m util ated ▁in |
▁a ▁b agn io . ▁ ▁E pisode ▁Two ▁ ▁( W ritten ▁by ▁C live ▁Brad ley . ▁ ▁Direct ed ▁by ▁Dan ▁Re ed .) ▁ ▁The ▁Re ver end ▁Er as mus ▁Cav end ish ▁is ▁found ▁murder ed ▁and ▁the ▁evidence ▁leads ▁to ▁an ▁inf am ous ▁Mol ly ▁house ▁on ▁S aff ron ▁Hill , ▁a ▁ ▁bro th el ▁and ▁rende z vous ▁for ▁London ' s ▁gay ▁men , ▁where ▁William ▁F lyn n ▁is ▁named ▁as ▁the ▁prime ▁ ▁suspect . ▁It ▁also ▁turns ▁out ▁that ▁Mr . ▁Daniel ▁Con n , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Bow ▁Street ▁R unn ers , ▁is ▁a ▁clos et ▁hom osex ual ▁and ▁sod om ite ▁( at ▁the ▁time ▁a ▁crime ▁pun ish able ▁by ▁death ). ▁Mr . ▁Con n ▁must ▁choose ▁between ▁sin ▁( and ▁living ▁a ▁life ▁with ▁his ▁secret ▁hom osex ual ▁lo ver ) ▁and ▁re dem ption . ▁Mr . ▁Con n ▁is ▁eventually ▁discovered ▁to ▁be ▁with ▁his ▁lo ver ▁who ▁also ▁turns ▁out ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁Re ver end ' s ▁k iller . ▁Daniel ▁is ▁summar ily ▁rel ieved ▁of ▁his ▁duties ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Bow ▁Street ▁R unn ers . ▁Tom ▁is ▁found ▁guilty ▁and ▁h anged . ▁ ▁E pisode ▁Three ▁ ▁( W ritten ▁by ▁Peter ▁Har ness . ▁Direct ed ▁by ▁Dan ▁Re ed .) ▁ ▁The ▁Bow ▁Street ▁R unn ers ▁investigate ▁a ▁burg l ary ▁in ▁May f air , ▁the ▁search |
▁leading ▁to ▁the ▁sh ant y ▁towns ▁of ▁Cov ent ▁Garden , ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Seven ▁D ial s , ▁and ▁a ▁gang ▁of ▁Irish ▁imm igr ant ▁crim inals . ▁ ▁E pisode ▁Four ▁ ▁( W ritten ▁by ▁C live ▁Brad ley . ▁ ▁Direct ed ▁by ▁Justin ▁Hard y .) ▁ ▁The ▁gang ▁leader , ▁iron ically ▁named ▁Tom ▁Jones , ▁is ▁broken ▁out ▁of ▁j ail ▁by ▁his ▁Irish ▁gang , ▁who ▁shoot ▁several ▁prison ▁gu ards ▁in ▁the ▁process . ▁The ▁Bow ▁Street ▁R unn ers ▁then ▁travel ▁to ▁the ▁Seven ▁D ial s ▁to ▁re - arr est ▁Jones . ▁Henry ▁Field ing ▁accompan ies ▁them ▁to ▁make ▁sure ▁Jones ▁is ▁app reh ended , ▁but ▁is ▁taken ▁host age ▁by ▁the ▁gang . ▁The ▁R unn ers ▁must ▁decide ▁if ▁they ' re ▁prepared ▁to ▁make ▁a ▁deal ▁with ▁the ▁criminal ▁elements ▁of ▁London ▁to ▁ensure ▁his ▁release . ▁We ▁also ▁learn ▁of ▁how ▁John ▁Field ing , ▁the ▁Mag istr ate ' s ▁half - bro ther ▁became ▁blind ▁(" his ▁sight ▁was ▁poor , ▁but ▁a ▁qu ack ' s ▁rem edy ▁blind ed ▁him .") ▁ ▁E pisode ▁Five ▁ ▁( W ritten ▁by ▁C live ▁Brad ley . ▁ ▁Direct ed ▁by ▁Justin ▁Hard y .) ▁ ▁Henry ' s ▁narr ative ▁returns ▁to ▁the ▁situation ▁before ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁R unn ers . ▁While ▁lo bb ying ▁the ▁Duke ▁of ▁New castle ▁to ▁obtain ▁his ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁vent ure |
, ▁Henry ▁investig ates ▁a ▁secret ive ▁trade ▁in ▁child ▁prost it utes . ▁The ▁UK ▁DVD ▁release ▁of ▁the ▁series ▁has ▁this ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁episode . ▁ ▁Re ception ▁City ▁of ▁Vice ▁launched ▁with ▁ 2 . 7 ▁million ▁view ers ▁and ▁an ▁ 1 1 % ▁share ▁in ▁the ▁ 9 pm ▁hour ▁on ▁Channel ▁ 4 . ▁The ▁first ▁episode ▁of ▁City ▁of ▁Vice ▁was ▁relatively ▁well ▁received ▁in ▁the ▁British ▁press , ▁The ▁Times ▁describing ▁it ▁as ▁" an ▁ant id ote ▁to ▁the ▁current ▁sp ate ▁of ▁twee ▁cost ume ▁dram as " ▁and ▁" more ▁likely ▁to ▁reson ate ▁with ▁c yn ical ▁modern ▁aud ien ces ". ▁The ▁Guardian ▁described ▁it ▁as ▁looking ▁" gra vel led ▁for ▁c ash " ▁but ▁compens ating ▁with ▁" document ary ▁direction ▁and ▁Ian ▁Mc D air mid ' s ▁voice , ▁as ▁rich ▁as ▁a ▁li que ur ." ▁ ▁DVD ▁release ▁Cont ender ▁Entertainment ▁Group ▁released ▁the ▁complete ▁series ▁on ▁DVD ▁in ▁Region ▁ 2 ▁( UK ) ▁on ▁ 1 8 ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁ ▁This ▁release ▁has ▁been ▁dis cont in ued ▁and ▁is ▁now ▁out ▁of ▁print . ▁ ▁Entertainment ▁One ▁released ▁the ▁complete ▁series ▁on ▁DVD ▁in ▁Region ▁ 1 ▁on ▁ 1 0 ▁June ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁ ▁Bow ▁Street ▁Run ner ▁– ▁the ▁game ▁Bow ▁Street ▁Run ner ▁was ▁an ▁online ▁game ▁in ▁five ▁parts ▁to ▁accomp any ▁the ▁series . ▁Like ▁the |
▁television ▁series ▁the ▁game ▁attempts ▁to ▁be ▁histor ically ▁accurate . ▁The ▁player ▁takes ▁control ▁of ▁a ▁" B ow ▁Street ▁Run ner " ▁and ▁has ▁to ▁solve ▁several ▁cr imes ▁by ▁collect ing ▁cl ues , ▁consult ing ▁witness es ▁and ▁visit ing ▁several ▁places ▁in ▁Georg ian ▁London . ▁Each ▁character ▁is ▁played ▁by ▁an ▁actor ▁( e . g . ▁John ▁Field ing ▁is ▁played ▁by ▁Julian ▁Glo ver ). ▁The ▁game ▁itself ▁is ▁accompanied ▁by ▁several ▁min ig ames ▁which ▁simulate ▁various ▁activities ▁like ▁pick ing ▁lo cks ▁or ▁shooting . ▁The ▁game ▁was ▁produced ▁by ▁Bright on - based ▁company ▁Little l oud , ▁and ▁won ▁a ▁B AF TA ▁in ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : Channel ▁ 4 ▁television ▁dram as ▁Category : 2 0 0 0 s ▁British ▁drama ▁television ▁series ▁Category : 2 0 0 8 ▁British ▁television ▁series ▁deb uts ▁Category : 2 0 0 8 ▁British ▁television ▁series ▁end ings ▁Category : T ele vision ▁series ▁by ▁R DF ▁Media ▁Group ▁Category : T ele vision ▁series ▁set ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁Category : T ele vision ▁series ▁about ▁organized ▁crime ▁Category : 2 0 0 0 s ▁British ▁crime ▁drama ▁television ▁series <0x0A> </s> ▁M eng al um ▁Island ▁() ▁is ▁an ▁island ▁located ▁on ▁the ▁West ▁Coast ▁Division ▁of ▁Sab ah ▁in ▁the ▁South ▁China ▁Sea ▁on ▁Malays ia . ▁The ▁island ▁is ▁among ▁popular ▁destination ▁for ▁Chinese |
▁tour ists ▁to ▁Sab ah . ▁▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁Chinese ▁tour ist ▁boat ▁m ish ap ▁▁ ▁On ▁ 2 8 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁three ▁Chinese ▁national s ▁died ▁while ▁ 2 2 ▁others ▁res cu ed ▁after ▁their ▁boat ▁s unk ▁in ▁the ▁sea ▁while ▁on ▁their ▁way ▁to ▁visit ing ▁the ▁island . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁islands ▁of ▁Malays ia ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Sab ah ▁Tour ism , ▁see ▁M eng al um ▁Island ▁ ▁Category : Is lands ▁of ▁Sab ah <0x0A> </s> ▁San ation ▁( , ▁) ▁was ▁a ▁Polish ▁political ▁movement ▁that ▁was ▁created ▁in ▁the ▁inter war ▁period , ▁prior ▁to ▁Jó zef ▁Pi ł s ud ski ' s ▁May ▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁C oup ▁d ' État , ▁and ▁came ▁to ▁power ▁in ▁the ▁w ake ▁of ▁that ▁coup . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁its ▁political ▁activ ists ▁would ▁go ▁on ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁Non part isan ▁B loc ▁for ▁Co operation ▁with ▁the ▁Government ▁( BB WR ). ▁ ▁The ▁San ation ▁movement ▁took ▁its ▁name ▁from ▁Pi ł s ud ski ' s ▁asp ir ations ▁for ▁a ▁moral ▁" san ation " ▁( he aling ) ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁body ▁polit ic . ▁ ▁The ▁movement ▁function ed ▁integr ally ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 5 . ▁ ▁Following ▁Pi ł s ud ski ' s ▁death , ▁San ation ▁split ▁into |
▁several ▁compet ing ▁fa ctions , ▁including ▁" the ▁Castle " ▁( Pres ident ▁Ign acy ▁Mo śc icki ▁and ▁his ▁part is ans ). ▁ ▁San ation , ▁which ▁advoc ated ▁author itar ian ▁rule , ▁rest ed ▁on ▁a ▁circle ▁of ▁Pi ł s ud ski ' s ▁close ▁associ ates , ▁including ▁Wal ery ▁S ła we k , ▁Aleks ander ▁P ry stor , ▁Kaz im ierz ▁Ś w ital ski , ▁Jan usz ▁J ę dr zej ew icz , ▁Adam ▁K oc , ▁Jó zef ▁Beck , ▁T ade usz ▁Ho łów ko , ▁Bog us ław ▁M ied zi ński ▁and ▁Edward ▁R yd z - Ś m ig ły . ▁It ▁pre ached ▁the ▁prim acy ▁of ▁the ▁national ▁interest ▁in ▁govern ance , ▁and ▁cont ended ▁against ▁the ▁system ▁of ▁parliament ary ▁dem ocracy . ▁ ▁Background ▁N amed ▁after ▁the ▁Latin ▁word ▁for ▁" he aling " ▁(" san atio "), ▁the ▁San ation ▁movement ▁mainly ▁compr ised ▁former ▁military ▁officers ▁who ▁were ▁dis g usted ▁with ▁the ▁perce ived ▁cor ruption ▁in ▁Polish ▁politics . ▁San ation ▁was ▁a ▁coal ition ▁of ▁right ists , ▁left ists ▁and ▁cent rist s ▁whose ▁main ▁focus ▁was ▁the ▁elim ination ▁of ▁cor ruption ▁and ▁the ▁reduction ▁of ▁infl ation . ▁ ▁San ation ▁appeared ▁prior ▁to ▁the ▁May ▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁C oup ▁d ' État ▁and ▁last ed ▁until ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁but ▁was ▁never ▁formal ized . ▁Pi ł s |
ud ski , ▁though ▁he ▁had ▁been ▁the ▁former ▁leader ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁Social ist ▁Party , ▁had ▁grown ▁to ▁disapp ro ve ▁of ▁political ▁parties , ▁which ▁he ▁saw ▁as ▁prom oting ▁their ▁own ▁interests ▁rather ▁than ▁supporting ▁the ▁state ▁and ▁the ▁people . ▁ ▁For ▁this ▁reason , ▁the ▁San ation ▁movement ▁never ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁a ▁political ▁party . ▁Instead , ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁San ation ▁members ▁created ▁a ▁Bez part yj ny ▁Blo k ▁W sp ół p racy ▁z ▁R zą dem ▁(" Non part isan ▁B loc ▁for ▁Co operation ▁with ▁the ▁Government "), ▁a ▁pro - g overn ment ▁grouping ▁that ▁denied ▁being ▁a ▁political ▁party . ▁ ▁History ▁Although ▁Pi ł s ud ski ▁never ▁claimed ▁personal ▁power , ▁he ▁exerc ised ▁extensive ▁influence ▁over ▁Polish ▁politics ▁after ▁San ation ▁took ▁power ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 6 . ▁For ▁the ▁next ▁de cade , ▁he ▁domin ated ▁Polish ▁affairs ▁as ▁strong man ▁of ▁a ▁generally ▁popular ▁cent rist ▁regime . ▁Kaz im ierz ▁Bart el ' s ▁government ▁and ▁all ▁subsequent ▁govern ments ▁were ▁first ▁uno fficial ly ▁approved ▁by ▁Pi ł s ud ski ▁before ▁they ▁could ▁be ▁confirmed ▁by ▁the ▁President . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁purs uing ▁" san ation ", ▁Pi ł s ud ski ▁mixed ▁dem ocr atic ▁and ▁author itar ian ▁elements . ▁ ▁Poland ' s ▁internal ▁stability ▁was ▁en hanced , ▁while ▁economic ▁st agn ation ▁was ▁ended ▁by ▁Eugen |
ius z ▁K wi at kow ski ' s ▁re forms . ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁the ▁San ation ▁regime ▁pro sec uted ▁commun ist ▁parties ▁( on ▁the ▁ost ens ible ▁formal ▁grounds ▁that ▁they ▁had ▁failed ▁to ▁leg ally ▁register ▁as ▁political ▁parties ) ▁and ▁sought ▁to ▁limit ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁opposition ▁parties ▁by ▁splitting ▁their ▁forces . ▁ ▁A ▁distingu ishing ▁feature ▁of ▁the ▁regime ▁was ▁that , ▁unlike ▁the ▁situation ▁in ▁most ▁of ▁non - dem ocr atic ▁Europe , ▁it ▁never ▁transformed ▁itself ▁into ▁a ▁full - scale ▁dict ator ship . ▁Fre edom ▁of ▁speech ▁and ▁press ▁and ▁political ▁parties ▁were ▁never ▁leg ally ▁abol ished , ▁and ▁oppon ents ▁were ▁usually ▁de alt ▁with ▁via ▁" un ident ified ▁perpet rat ors " ▁rather ▁than ▁court ▁sentences . ▁San ation ▁allowed ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁election ▁to ▁be ▁relatively ▁free , ▁but ▁was ▁de alt ▁a ▁set back ▁when ▁its ▁supp or ters ▁in ▁the ▁BB WR ▁came ▁up ▁far ▁short ▁of ▁a ▁majority . ▁ ▁For ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 ▁election , ▁San ation ▁left ▁nothing ▁to ▁chance ; ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 0 ▁prominent ▁opposition ▁leaders ▁were ▁arrested ▁and ▁the ▁opposition ▁press ▁was ▁g ag ged . ▁ ▁Under ▁these ▁conditions , ▁the ▁BB WR ▁won ▁over ▁ 4 6 ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁vote ▁and ▁a ▁large ▁majority ▁in ▁both ▁houses . ▁ ▁Jó zef ▁Pi ł s ud ski ' s ▁personal ▁cult ▁stem med ▁from ▁his ▁general |
▁popular ity ▁among ▁the ▁nation ▁rather ▁than ▁from ▁top - down ▁propag anda ; ▁this ▁is ▁notable , ▁considering ▁Pi ł s ud ski ' s ▁dis d ain ▁for ▁dem ocracy . ▁San ation ' s ▁ide ology ▁never ▁went ▁beyond ▁popul ist ▁calls ▁to ▁clean ▁up ▁the ▁country ' s ▁politics ▁and ▁economy ; ▁it ▁did ▁not ▁occup y ▁itself ▁with ▁society , ▁as ▁was ▁the ▁case ▁with ▁contemporary ▁fasc ist ▁reg imes . ▁From ▁ 1 9 2 9 , ▁the ▁semi - o fficial ▁newspaper ▁of ▁San ation , ▁and ▁thus ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁government , ▁was ▁Gaz eta ▁Pol ska ▁( the ▁Polish ▁Gazette ). ▁ ▁Legisl ative ▁ag enda ▁The ▁San ation ▁government ▁invalid ated ▁the ▁May ▁ 1 9 3 0 ▁election ▁results ▁by ▁dis band ing ▁the ▁parliament ▁in ▁August ▁and ▁with ▁increasing ▁pressure ▁on ▁the ▁opposition ▁started ▁a ▁new ▁campaign , ▁the ▁new ▁elections ▁being ▁scheduled ▁to ▁November . ▁Using ▁the ▁anti - g overn ment ▁demonstr ations ▁as ▁a ▁pre text , ▁ 2 0 ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁opposition ▁parties , ▁including ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁leaders ▁of ▁Cent role w ▁al liance ▁( from ▁the ▁Social ists , ▁Polish ▁People ' s ▁Party ▁" Pi ast " ▁and ▁Polish ▁People ' s ▁Party ▁" W y zw ol enie ") ▁were ▁arrested ▁in ▁September ▁without ▁a ▁war rant , ▁only ▁on ▁the ▁order ▁of ▁Pi ł s ud ski ▁and ▁the ▁then - Min ister ▁of ▁In ternal ▁Security , ▁Fel ic jan |
▁S ła wo j ▁Sk ład kow ski , ▁acc using ▁them ▁of ▁plot ting ▁an ▁anti - g overn ment ▁coup . ▁The ▁opposition ▁members ▁( who ▁included ▁the ▁former ▁prime ▁minister ▁Win cent y ▁W itos , ▁and ▁Woj cie ch ▁K orf ant y ) ▁were ▁imprison ed ▁in ▁the ▁Br est ▁Fort ress , ▁where ▁their ▁trial ▁took ▁place ▁( th us ▁the ▁popular ▁name ▁for ▁the ▁election : ▁the ▁' B rest ▁election '). ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁less ▁known ▁activ ists ▁were ▁arrested ▁throughout ▁the ▁country . ▁They ▁were ▁released ▁after ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁election ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁month . ▁The ▁Br est ▁trial ▁ended ▁in ▁January ▁ 1 9 3 2 , ▁with ▁ 1 0 ▁accused ▁receiving ▁sentences ▁up ▁to ▁three ▁years ▁of ▁imprison ment ; ▁the ▁appe als ▁of ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁confirmed ▁the ▁sentences . ▁The ▁government ▁however ▁gave ▁the ▁accused ▁choice ▁of ▁em igr ating : ▁five ▁of ▁them ▁took ▁it , ▁the ▁other ▁five ▁to ▁serve ▁the ▁prison ▁term ▁instead . ▁ ▁In ▁April ▁ 1 9 3 5 , ▁shortly ▁before ▁Pi ł s ud ski ' s ▁death , ▁a ▁new ▁constitution ▁( the ▁" A pril ▁Constitution ") ▁was ▁adopted , ▁which ▁supported ▁San ation ' s ▁principal ▁ideas : ▁a ▁strong ▁central ized ▁state ▁with ▁a ▁president ial ▁system ▁of ▁government . ▁Pi ł s ud ski ▁died ▁soon ▁after , ▁however , ▁and ▁San ation ▁faced ▁some ▁serious ▁internal ▁problems . ▁Event ually ▁it |
▁de vol ved ▁into ▁three ▁separate ▁movements : ▁ ▁the ▁San ation ▁Left ▁( L ew ica ▁san acyj na , ▁formed ▁around ▁Wal ery ▁S ła we k ), ▁which ▁sought ▁a ▁mod us ▁viv endi ▁with ▁the ▁opposition ; ▁ ▁the ▁Castle ▁( Z ame k , ▁formed ▁around ▁President ▁Ign acy ▁Mo śc icki , ▁who ▁res ided ▁in ▁the ▁Wars aw ▁Castle ▁— ▁hence ▁the ▁movement ' s ▁name ), ▁which ▁became ▁the ▁center ; ▁and ▁ ▁the ▁San ation ▁Right ▁( P raw ica ▁san acyj na , ▁formed ▁around ▁Edward ▁R yd z - Ś m ig ły ), ▁which ▁soon ▁became ▁virt ually ▁ind ist ingu ish able ▁from ▁the ▁Camp ▁of ▁National ▁Unity . ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁of ▁these ▁San ation ▁movements ▁soon ▁lost ▁much ▁of ▁its ▁importance , ▁but ▁the ▁other ▁two ▁continued ▁the ▁ide ological ▁struggle ▁within ▁the ▁country ▁until ▁the ▁out break ▁of ▁war . ▁ ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁During ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁invasion ▁of ▁Poland , ▁many ▁San ation ▁members ▁were ▁taken ▁prisoner - of - war ▁by ▁the ▁Germ ans , ▁while ▁others ▁ev acu ated ▁to ▁Roman ia , ▁where ▁they ▁remained ▁until ▁war ' s ▁end ▁or ▁were ▁able ▁to ▁go ▁on ▁to ▁France ▁or ▁Britain . ▁ ▁Though ▁France ▁ins isted ▁on ▁ex cluding ▁San ation ists ▁from ▁the ▁Polish ▁Government ▁in ▁Ex ile , ▁many ▁remained ▁highly ▁influ ential . ▁During ▁the ▁war , ▁San ation ▁members ▁created ▁several ▁resistance ▁organizations , ▁including |
▁in ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁the ▁Fight ing ▁Poland ▁Mov ement ▁( Ob ó z ▁Polski ▁Wal cz ą cej ) ▁and ▁the ▁Convention ▁of ▁Independ ence ▁Organ izations ▁( K on w ent ▁Organ iz acji ▁Nie pod leg ło ści owych ), ▁which ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁became ▁sub ordinate ▁to ▁the ▁Home ▁Army ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁merged ▁into ▁the ▁Union ▁of ▁Independ ence ▁Organ izations ▁( Z jed noc zenie ▁Organ iz acji ▁Nie pod leg ło ści owych ). ▁ ▁After ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁the ▁Soviet - installed ▁commun ist ▁regime ▁forced ▁many ▁San ation ists ▁into ▁permanent ▁ex ile , ▁and ▁brand ed ▁them ▁enemies ▁of ▁the ▁state . ▁ ▁Notable ▁members ▁ ▁Jó zef ▁Beck ▁ ▁T ade usz ▁Ho łów ko ▁ ▁Jan usz ▁J ę dr zej ew icz ▁▁ ▁W ac ław ▁J ę dr zej ew icz ▁ ▁Adam ▁K oc ▁ ▁Leon ▁K oz ł owski ▁ ▁Ign acy ▁M atus zew ski ▁ ▁Bog us ław ▁M ied zi ński ▁ ▁Ign acy ▁Mo śc icki ▁ ▁Bron is ław ▁Pier ack i ▁ ▁Jó zef ▁Pi ł s ud ski ▁ ▁Aleks ander ▁P ry stor ▁ ▁Edward ▁R yd z - Ś m ig ły ▁ ▁Adam ▁Sk war czy ński ▁ ▁Wal ery ▁S ła we k ▁ ▁Kaz im ierz ▁Ś w ital ski ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Bere za ▁K art us ka ▁prison ▁ ▁Confeder ation ▁of |
▁Independent ▁Poland , ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁principal ▁san ation ist ▁political ▁party ▁in ▁Poland ▁today ▁ ▁Inter m arium ▁ ▁Pi ł s ud ski ' s ▁colon els ▁ ▁Polish ▁Under ground ▁State ▁ ▁Prom ethe ism ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Adam ▁Z amo y ski , ▁The ▁Polish ▁Way : ▁A ▁Th ous and - Year ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁Pol es ▁and ▁Their ▁Culture , ▁New ▁York , ▁Hi pp oc rene ▁Books , ▁ 1 9 9 4 , ▁. ▁ ▁En cyk lopedia ▁Polski ▁via ▁Google ▁Books , ▁p . ▁ 6 0 1 - ▁. ▁ ▁Category : Mil it ary ▁dict ator ships ▁Category : J ó zef ▁Pi ł s ud ski ▁Category : Second ▁Polish ▁Republic ▁Category : Pol it ical ▁history ▁of ▁Poland ▁Category : May ▁C oup ▁( Pol and ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Gy rom it ra ▁anth rac ob ia ▁is ▁a ▁post - fire ▁as com yc ete ▁fung us ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Disc in aceae . ▁It ▁was ▁described ▁as ▁new ▁to ▁science ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁from ▁recently ▁burn ed ▁for ests ▁on ▁the ▁island ▁of ▁Cy pr us . ▁ ▁This ▁fung us ▁can ▁strongly ▁res emble ▁a ▁Ver pa ▁species ▁in ▁the ▁field , ▁because ▁of ▁its ▁smooth , ▁h ollow ▁and ▁distinct ly ▁el ong ated ▁st ipe , ▁which ▁is ▁attached ▁to ▁the ▁p ile us ▁only ▁at ▁the ▁a pe x . ▁Its ▁c ere br |
iform ▁( bra in - like ) ▁p ile us , ▁brown - p ig ment ed ▁par aph ys es ▁and ▁big utt ulate ▁cy an oph il ic ▁sp ores , ▁are ▁all ▁typical ▁gy rom it roid ▁features , ▁however . ▁▁ ▁Because ▁of ▁its ▁carbon icol ous ▁e col ogy ▁and ▁isolated ▁ph y log en etic ▁position ▁within ▁Gy rom it ra , ▁G . ▁anth rac ob ia ▁was ▁placed ▁in ▁the ▁new ▁sub gen us ▁Pseud over pa ▁by ▁Cr ous ▁and ▁colle agues ▁( 2 0 1 8 ). ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : F ung i ▁described ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁ ▁Category : Dis cin aceae ▁Category : F ung i ▁of ▁Europe <0x0A> </s> ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁Stream s ▁ ▁In ▁Australia ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( C ly de ▁River ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁C ly de ▁River ▁in ▁New ▁South ▁Wales ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( W al sh ▁River ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Wal sh ▁River ▁in ▁Queensland ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Al aska ) ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Kas il of ▁River ▁in ▁Ken ai ▁Pen ins ula ▁Bor ough ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Al leg hen y ▁River ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Al leg hen y ▁River ▁in ▁Pennsylvania ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Ar k ansas ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary |
▁of ▁the ▁White ▁River ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Ge org ia ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Ch att ahoo che e ▁River ▁near ▁F ult on ▁and ▁G win nett ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Ind iana ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁K ank ake e ▁River ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( I owa ), ▁a ▁main ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Sk unk ▁River ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( H ou ston ▁County , ▁Minnesota ) ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Miss iss ippi ▁River ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Mississippi ▁in ▁Minnesota ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( B ear ▁Creek ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( C oon ▁Creek ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Mer ame c ▁River ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( M ud dy ▁Creek ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( N orth ▁F ork ▁Salt ▁River ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( S alt ▁River ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( W ya conda ▁River ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Th ird ▁F ork ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Head w aters ▁D ivers ion ▁Channel ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁Missouri ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( O regon ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁O wy he e ▁River ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( |
T ennessee ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Little ▁River ▁in ▁Bl ount ▁County ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( T i oga ▁River ), ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Ti oga ▁River ▁in ▁Pennsylvania ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( Sum mit ▁County , ▁Ut ah ) ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁( G uy and otte ▁River ), ▁a ▁stream ▁in ▁West ▁Virginia ▁ ▁Commun ities ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek , ▁Al aska , ▁a ▁census - design ated ▁place ▁( CD P ) ▁in ▁Beth el ▁Census ▁Area ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek , ▁West ▁Virginia , ▁an ▁un in cor por ated ▁community ▁in ▁Log an ▁County ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek , ▁Al berta , ▁an ▁un in cor por ated ▁community ▁in ▁Canada ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek , ▁Ontario , ▁a ▁community ▁in ▁Canada ▁ ▁Other ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁cr ater , ▁an ▁impact ▁cr ater ▁in ▁C raw ford ▁County , ▁Missouri , ▁USA ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁Form ation , ▁a ▁ge olog ic ▁formation ▁in ▁Me ade ▁County , ▁Kansas , ▁USA ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁Cro oked ▁River ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁Cro oked ▁Creek ▁Township ▁( disambiguation ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Town ▁of ▁C rows ▁N est ▁Historic ▁District ▁is ▁a ▁national ▁historic ▁district ▁located ▁at ▁Indian apolis , ▁Indiana . ▁ ▁It ▁en comp ass es ▁ 2 9 ▁contrib uting ▁buildings , ▁ 5 ▁contrib uting ▁sites , ▁ 4 ▁contrib uting ▁structures , ▁and ▁ 3 ▁contrib uting ▁objects ▁in ▁an ▁exclusive |
▁resident ial ▁enc lave ▁of ▁Indian apolis . ▁ ▁The ▁district ▁developed ▁between ▁about ▁ 1 9 0 5 ▁and ▁ 1 9 5 0 , ▁and ▁includes ▁representative ▁examples ▁of ▁T ud or ▁Rev ival , ▁Col onial ▁Rev ival , ▁Renaissance ▁Rev ival , ▁and ▁Art ▁Dec o ▁style ▁architecture . ▁Notable ▁contrib uting ▁resources ▁include ▁V ell amed a ▁( 1 9 0 4 - 1 9 0 5 ), ▁W . ▁H ath away ▁Sim m ons ▁House ▁( 1 9 1 4 ), ▁Wal den ▁Est ate ▁( 1 9 2 7 ), ▁Lane ' s ▁End ▁Est ate ▁( 1 9 2 8 ), ▁Good man ▁House ▁( 1 9 2 7 ), ▁and ▁Eli ▁L illy ▁House ▁( 1 9 3 0 ). ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : H istor ic ▁districts ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁Indiana ▁Category : Col onial ▁Rev ival ▁architecture ▁in ▁Indiana ▁Category : Art ▁Dec o ▁architecture ▁in ▁Indiana ▁Category : T ud or ▁Rev ival ▁architecture ▁in ▁Indiana ▁Category : R ena issance ▁Rev ival ▁architecture ▁in ▁Indiana ▁Category : H istor ic ▁districts ▁in ▁Indian apolis ▁Category : National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁Indian apolis <0x0A> </s> ▁Ford ▁Cr ull ▁( born ▁June ▁ 6 , ▁ 1 9 5 4 ) ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁ne o - symbol ist ▁abstract ▁artist . ▁Cr ull ▁was |
▁born ▁in ▁Boston , ▁MA , ▁but ▁lived ▁in ▁Seattle ▁until ▁ 1 9 7 6 , ▁after ▁which ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁to ▁emb ark ▁on ▁his ▁professional ▁career . ▁While ▁still ▁an ▁art ▁student ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Washington , ▁he ▁won ▁many ▁pri zes ▁at ▁local ▁arts ▁festiv als , ▁and ▁was ▁the ▁young est ▁ever ▁artist ▁to ▁be ▁invited ▁to ▁show ▁at ▁the ▁North west ▁Art ▁Ann ual . ▁Consider ed ▁a ▁pre co cious ▁talent , ▁Cr ull ▁joined ▁F oster ▁White ▁Gallery , ▁one ▁of ▁Seattle ' s ▁premier ▁at ▁gall eries ▁where ▁he ▁had ▁several ▁exhib itions ▁before ▁gradu ating ▁university . ▁ ▁From ▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁to ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁Cr ull ' s ▁paint ings ▁focused ▁on ▁organ ic , ▁bi omorphic ▁shapes ▁on ▁white ▁background s , ▁a ▁gest ational ▁period ▁for ▁the ▁artist ▁that ▁expressed ▁in ▁a ▁pure ▁abstract ▁manner ▁with ▁imp asto ▁like ▁surfaces . ▁He ▁joined ▁the ▁St ella ▁Pol aris ▁Gallery ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 3 , ▁where ▁he ▁met ▁art ▁critic ▁and ▁writer ▁Edward ▁Gold man , ▁and ▁host ▁of ▁K CR W ' s ▁“ Art ▁T alk .” ▁Gold man ▁champion ed ▁Cr ull ' s ▁works , ▁which ▁were ▁acquired ▁by ▁corpor ate ▁art ▁collections , ▁and ▁was ▁also ▁instrument al ▁in ▁Cr ull ' s ▁first ▁significant ▁non - g allery ▁show ▁at ▁the ▁US C ▁Fish er ▁Museum ▁of ▁Art ▁( then , ▁the ▁Fish er ▁Gallery |
) ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁California . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁Cr ull ▁re located ▁to ▁New ▁York ▁City , ▁and ▁became ▁a ▁sem inal ▁figure ▁in ▁the ▁East ▁Village ▁art ▁scene . ▁He ▁was ▁discovered ▁by ▁Col in ▁de ▁Land , ▁founder ▁of ▁V ox ▁Pop uli , ▁and ▁the ▁Arm ory ▁Art ▁Show . ▁Cr ull ▁had ▁several ▁shows ▁at ▁the ▁V ox ▁Pop uli , ▁a ▁time ▁marked ▁also ▁by ▁commercial ▁success , ▁and ▁national ▁recognition ▁for ▁the ▁artist . ▁Cr ull ' s ▁works ▁were ▁acquired ▁by ▁the ▁Metropolitan ▁Museum ▁of ▁Art , ▁the ▁Brook lyn ▁Museum , ▁the ▁National ▁Gallery ▁of ▁Art , ▁and ▁the ▁Day ton ▁Art ▁Institute . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 9 , ▁Cr ull ▁was ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁very ▁first ▁showing ▁of ▁American ▁artists ▁in ▁the ▁USS R , ▁P ain ting ▁Bey ond ▁the ▁Death ▁of ▁P ain ting ▁at ▁the ▁K uz net sky ▁Most ▁Ex hib ition ▁Hall ▁in ▁Moscow ▁cur ated ▁by ▁American ▁art ▁critic ▁and ▁historian , ▁Donald ▁K us pit . ▁This ▁coinc ided ▁with ▁the ▁time ▁Cr ull ▁was ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁Philosoph y ▁of ▁D ual ism . ▁Upon ▁his ▁return ▁from ▁Russia , ▁Cr ull ▁began ▁using ▁steel ▁fr aming ▁for ▁his ▁paint ings , ▁with ▁the ▁edges ▁burn ed . ▁It ▁was ▁an ▁in vention ▁that ▁came ▁to ▁him ▁after ▁seeing ▁the ▁ancient ▁icons ▁in ▁Russia . ▁The ▁new ▁works ▁were ▁titled , ▁“ Rel ic ▁Series ”. |
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