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ura ▁and ▁met ap le ura , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁mes ost ern um ▁and ▁met astern um , ▁are ▁used . ▁ ▁The ▁ab d omen ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁tag ma ▁of ▁the ▁insect , ▁which ▁typically ▁consists ▁of ▁ 1 1 – 1 2 ▁segments ▁and ▁is ▁less ▁strongly ▁s cler ot ized ▁than ▁the ▁head ▁or ▁thor ax . ▁Each ▁segment ▁of ▁the ▁ab d omen ▁is ▁represented ▁by ▁a ▁s cler ot ized ▁ter g um ▁and ▁stern um . ▁Ter ga ▁are ▁separated ▁from ▁each ▁other ▁and ▁from ▁the ▁adjacent ▁stern a ▁or ▁ple ura ▁by ▁memb ran es . ▁S pi ra cles ▁are ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁ple ural ▁area . ▁Vari ation ▁of ▁this ▁ground ▁plan ▁includes ▁the ▁fusion ▁of ▁ter ga ▁or ▁ter ga ▁and ▁stern a ▁to ▁form ▁continuous ▁d ors al ▁or ▁vent ral ▁shield s ▁or ▁a ▁con ical ▁t ube . ▁Some ▁insect s ▁bear ▁a ▁s cler ite ▁in ▁the ▁ple ural ▁area ▁called ▁a ▁later ot erg ite . ▁Vent ral ▁s cler ites ▁are ▁sometimes ▁called ▁later ost ern ites . ▁During ▁the ▁emb ry onic ▁stage ▁of ▁many ▁insect s ▁and ▁the ▁post emb ry onic ▁stage ▁of ▁primitive ▁insect s , ▁ 1 1 ▁ab dom inal ▁segments ▁are ▁present . ▁In ▁modern ▁insect s ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁t endency ▁toward ▁reduction ▁in ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁the ▁ab dom inal ▁segments , ▁but ▁the ▁primitive ▁number ▁of ▁ 1 1 ▁is ▁maintained ▁during ▁emb ry |
ogen esis . ▁Vari ation ▁in ▁ab dom inal ▁segment ▁number ▁is ▁considerable . ▁If ▁the ▁Ap ter yg ota ▁are ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁indic ative ▁of ▁the ▁ground ▁plan ▁for ▁p ter yg otes , ▁confusion ▁reign s : ▁adult ▁Pro t ura ▁have ▁ 1 2 ▁segments , ▁Col lem bol a ▁have ▁ 6 . ▁The ▁orth opter an ▁family ▁Ac rid idae ▁has ▁ 1 1 ▁segments , ▁and ▁a ▁foss il ▁spec imen ▁of ▁Z or apter a ▁has ▁a ▁ 1 0 - segment ed ▁ab d omen . ▁▁ ▁Ex os ke leton ▁ ▁The ▁insect ▁outer ▁ske leton , ▁the ▁cut icle , ▁is ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁two ▁layers : ▁the ▁ep icut icle , ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁thin ▁and ▁w axy ▁water ▁resist ant ▁outer ▁layer ▁and ▁contains ▁no ▁ch it in , ▁and ▁a ▁lower ▁layer ▁called ▁the ▁pro cut icle . ▁The ▁pro cut icle ▁is ▁ch it in ous ▁and ▁much ▁th icker ▁than ▁the ▁ep icut icle ▁and ▁has ▁two ▁layers : ▁an ▁outer ▁layer ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁ex oc ut icle ▁and ▁an ▁inner ▁layer ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁end oc ut icle . ▁The ▁t ough ▁and ▁flexible ▁end oc ut icle ▁is ▁built ▁from ▁numerous ▁layers ▁of ▁f ibr ous ▁ch it in ▁and ▁prote ins , ▁cr iss - cross ing ▁each ▁other ▁in ▁a ▁sand wich ▁pattern , ▁while ▁the ▁ex oc ut icle ▁is ▁rig id ▁and ▁hard ened . ▁The ▁ex oc ut icle |
▁is ▁greatly ▁reduced ▁in ▁many ▁insect s ▁during ▁their ▁lar val ▁stages , ▁e . g ., ▁c ater p ill ars . ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁reduced ▁in ▁soft - b od ied ▁adult ▁insect s . ▁ ▁In sect s ▁are ▁the ▁only ▁in verte br ates ▁to ▁have ▁developed ▁active ▁flight ▁cap ability , ▁and ▁this ▁has ▁played ▁an ▁important ▁role ▁in ▁their ▁success . ▁Their ▁flight ▁mus cles ▁are ▁able ▁to ▁contract ▁multiple ▁times ▁for ▁each ▁single ▁n erve ▁imp ulse , ▁allowing ▁the ▁wings ▁to ▁beat ▁faster ▁than ▁would ▁ordin arily ▁be ▁possible . ▁ ▁Having ▁their ▁mus cles ▁attached ▁to ▁their ▁ex os ke let ons ▁is ▁efficient ▁and ▁allows ▁more ▁mus cle ▁connections . ▁▁ ▁In ternal ▁▁▁ ▁N erv ous ▁system ▁ ▁The ▁nerv ous ▁system ▁of ▁an ▁insect ▁can ▁be ▁divided ▁into ▁a ▁brain ▁and ▁a ▁vent ral ▁n erve ▁cord . ▁The ▁head ▁caps ule ▁is ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁six ▁f used ▁segments , ▁each ▁with ▁either ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁gang lia , ▁or ▁a ▁cluster ▁of ▁n erve ▁cells ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁brain . ▁The ▁first ▁three ▁pairs ▁of ▁gang lia ▁are ▁f used ▁into ▁the ▁brain , ▁while ▁the ▁three ▁following ▁pairs ▁are ▁f used ▁into ▁a ▁structure ▁of ▁three ▁pairs ▁of ▁gang lia ▁under ▁the ▁insect ' s ▁es oph ag us , ▁called ▁the ▁sub es oph age al ▁gang l ion . ▁ ▁The ▁thor ac ic ▁segments ▁have ▁one ▁gang l ion ▁on ▁each ▁side , ▁which ▁are |
▁connected ▁into ▁a ▁pair , ▁one ▁pair ▁per ▁segment . ▁This ▁arrangement ▁is ▁also ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁ab d omen ▁but ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁eight ▁segments . ▁Many ▁species ▁of ▁insect s ▁have ▁reduced ▁numbers ▁of ▁gang lia ▁due ▁to ▁fusion ▁or ▁reduction . ▁Some ▁co ck ro aches ▁have ▁just ▁six ▁gang lia ▁in ▁the ▁ab d omen , ▁whereas ▁the ▁was p ▁V es pa ▁c rab ro ▁has ▁only ▁two ▁in ▁the ▁thor ax ▁and ▁three ▁in ▁the ▁ab d omen . ▁Some ▁insect s , ▁like ▁the ▁house ▁fly ▁Mus ca ▁dom est ica , ▁have ▁all ▁the ▁body ▁gang lia ▁f used ▁into ▁a ▁single ▁large ▁thor ac ic ▁gang l ion . ▁ ▁At ▁least ▁a ▁few ▁insect s ▁have ▁n oc ice pt ors , ▁cells ▁that ▁detect ▁and ▁transmit ▁signals ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁sens ation ▁of ▁pain . ▁This ▁was ▁discovered ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁by ▁studying ▁the ▁variation ▁in ▁re actions ▁of ▁lar va e ▁of ▁the ▁common ▁fruit fly ▁D ros oph ila ▁to ▁the ▁touch ▁of ▁a ▁he ated ▁pro be ▁and ▁an ▁un he ated ▁one . ▁The ▁lar va e ▁react ed ▁to ▁the ▁touch ▁of ▁the ▁he ated ▁pro be ▁with ▁a ▁s tere ot yp ical ▁rolling ▁behavior ▁that ▁was ▁not ▁exhib ited ▁when ▁the ▁lar va e ▁were ▁touched ▁by ▁the ▁un he ated ▁pro be . ▁Although ▁n oc ice ption ▁has ▁been ▁demonstrated ▁in ▁insect s , ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁cons ensus |
▁that ▁insect s ▁feel ▁pain ▁cons ci ously ▁ ▁In sect s ▁are ▁capable ▁of ▁learning . ▁▁ ▁Dig est ive ▁system ▁ ▁An ▁insect ▁uses ▁its ▁dig est ive ▁system ▁to ▁extract ▁nut ri ents ▁and ▁other ▁subst ances ▁from ▁the ▁food ▁it ▁cons umes . ▁Most ▁of ▁this ▁food ▁is ▁ing ested ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁mac rom ole cules ▁and ▁other ▁complex ▁subst ances ▁like ▁prote ins , ▁pol ys ac char ides , ▁f ats ▁and ▁nucle ic ▁ac ids . ▁These ▁mac rom ole cules ▁must ▁be ▁broken ▁down ▁by ▁cat abol ic ▁re actions ▁into ▁smaller ▁mole cules ▁like ▁am ino ▁ac ids ▁and ▁simple ▁sug ars ▁before ▁being ▁used ▁by ▁cells ▁of ▁the ▁body ▁for ▁energy , ▁growth , ▁or ▁reprodu ction . ▁This ▁break - down ▁process ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁dig estion . ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁extensive ▁variation ▁among ▁different ▁orders , ▁life ▁stages , ▁and ▁even ▁cast es ▁in ▁the ▁dig est ive ▁system ▁of ▁insect s . ▁This ▁is ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁extreme ▁adapt ations ▁to ▁various ▁l ifest yles . ▁The ▁present ▁description ▁focus ▁on ▁a ▁generalized ▁composition ▁of ▁the ▁dig est ive ▁system ▁of ▁an ▁adult ▁orth opter oid ▁insect , ▁which ▁is ▁considered ▁bas al ▁to ▁interpre ting ▁particular ities ▁of ▁other ▁groups . ▁ ▁The ▁main ▁structure ▁of ▁an ▁insect ' s ▁dig est ive ▁system ▁is ▁a ▁long ▁en closed ▁t ube ▁called ▁the ▁aliment ary ▁canal , ▁which ▁runs ▁length wise ▁through ▁the ▁body . ▁The ▁aliment |
ary ▁canal ▁direct s ▁food ▁un id irection ally ▁from ▁the ▁mouth ▁to ▁the ▁an us . ▁It ▁has ▁three ▁sections , ▁each ▁of ▁which ▁performs ▁a ▁different ▁process ▁of ▁dig estion . ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁aliment ary ▁canal , ▁insect s ▁also ▁have ▁pa ired ▁sal iv ary ▁g lands ▁and ▁sal iv ary ▁res er voir s . ▁These ▁structures ▁usually ▁res ide ▁in ▁the ▁thor ax , ▁adjacent ▁to ▁the ▁for eg ut . ▁The ▁sal iv ary ▁g lands ▁( element ▁ 3 0 ▁in ▁number ed ▁diagram ) ▁in ▁an ▁insect ' s ▁mouth ▁produce ▁sal iva . ▁The ▁sal iv ary ▁du ct s ▁lead ▁from ▁the ▁g lands ▁to ▁the ▁res er voir s ▁and ▁then ▁forward ▁through ▁the ▁head ▁to ▁an ▁opening ▁called ▁the ▁sal iv arium , ▁located ▁behind ▁the ▁hyp oph ary nx . ▁By ▁moving ▁its ▁mouth parts ▁( element ▁ 3 2 ▁in ▁number ed ▁diagram ) ▁the ▁insect ▁can ▁mix ▁its ▁food ▁with ▁sal iva . ▁The ▁mixture ▁of ▁sal iva ▁and ▁food ▁then ▁travel s ▁through ▁the ▁sal iv ary ▁tub es ▁into ▁the ▁mouth , ▁where ▁it ▁begins ▁to ▁break ▁down . ▁Some ▁insect s , ▁like ▁f lies , ▁have ▁extra - oral ▁dig estion . ▁In sect s ▁using ▁extra - oral ▁dig estion ▁exp el ▁dig est ive ▁en zym es ▁onto ▁their ▁food ▁to ▁break ▁it ▁down . ▁This ▁strategy ▁allows ▁insect s ▁to ▁extract ▁a ▁significant ▁proportion ▁of ▁the ▁available ▁nut ri |
ents ▁from ▁the ▁food ▁source . ▁The ▁gut ▁is ▁where ▁almost ▁all ▁of ▁insect s ' ▁dig estion ▁takes ▁place . ▁It ▁can ▁be ▁divided ▁into ▁the ▁for eg ut , ▁mid g ut ▁and ▁h ind g ut . ▁▁ ▁For eg ut ▁▁ ▁The ▁first ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁aliment ary ▁canal ▁is ▁the ▁for eg ut ▁( element ▁ 2 7 ▁in ▁number ed ▁diagram ), ▁or ▁st om od ae um . ▁The ▁for eg ut ▁is ▁l ined ▁with ▁a ▁cut icular ▁l ining ▁made ▁of ▁ch it in ▁and ▁prote ins ▁as ▁protection ▁from ▁t ough ▁food . ▁The ▁for eg ut ▁includes ▁the ▁bu cc al ▁cav ity ▁( mouth ), ▁ph ary nx , ▁es oph ag us ▁and ▁c rop ▁and ▁pro vent ric ulus ▁( any ▁part ▁may ▁be ▁highly ▁modified ), ▁which ▁both ▁store ▁food ▁and ▁sign ify ▁when ▁to ▁continue ▁passing ▁on ward ▁to ▁the ▁mid g ut . ▁ ▁Dig estion ▁starts ▁in ▁bu cc al ▁cav ity ▁( mouth ) ▁as ▁partially ▁che wed ▁food ▁is ▁broken ▁down ▁by ▁sal iva ▁from ▁the ▁sal iv ary ▁g lands . ▁As ▁the ▁sal iv ary ▁g lands ▁produce ▁fluid ▁and ▁car bo h yd rate - dig est ing ▁en zym es ▁( most ly ▁am yl ases ), ▁strong ▁mus cles ▁in ▁the ▁ph ary nx ▁p ump ▁fluid ▁into ▁the ▁bu cc al ▁cav ity , ▁lub ric ating ▁the ▁food ▁like ▁the ▁sal iv arium ▁does , ▁and |
▁helping ▁blood ▁feed ers , ▁and ▁x yle m ▁and ▁ph lo em ▁feed ers . ▁ ▁From ▁there , ▁the ▁ph ary nx ▁passes ▁food ▁to ▁the ▁es oph ag us , ▁which ▁could ▁be ▁just ▁a ▁simple ▁t ube ▁passing ▁it ▁on ▁to ▁the ▁c rop ▁and ▁pro vent ric ulus , ▁and ▁then ▁on ward ▁to ▁the ▁mid g ut , ▁as ▁in ▁most ▁insect s . ▁Altern ately , ▁the ▁for eg ut ▁may ▁expand ▁into ▁a ▁very ▁en larg ed ▁c rop ▁and ▁pro vent ric ulus , ▁or ▁the ▁c rop ▁could ▁just ▁be ▁a ▁di vert icul um , ▁or ▁fluid - filled ▁structure , ▁as ▁in ▁some ▁D ip tera ▁species . ▁▁ ▁Mid g ut ▁ ▁Once ▁food ▁leaves ▁the ▁c rop , ▁it ▁passes ▁to ▁the ▁mid g ut ▁( element ▁ 1 3 ▁in ▁number ed ▁diagram ), ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁m esent er on , ▁where ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁dig estion ▁takes ▁place . ▁Micro scop ic ▁pro jections ▁from ▁the ▁mid g ut ▁wall , ▁called ▁micro v illi , ▁increase ▁the ▁surface ▁area ▁of ▁the ▁wall ▁and ▁allow ▁more ▁nut ri ents ▁to ▁be ▁absor bed ; ▁they ▁tend ▁to ▁be ▁close ▁to ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁mid g ut . ▁In ▁some ▁insect s , ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁the ▁micro v illi ▁and ▁where ▁they ▁are ▁located ▁may ▁vary . ▁For ▁example , ▁special ized ▁micro v illi ▁producing ▁dig est ive ▁en zym es ▁may ▁more |
▁likely ▁be ▁near ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁mid g ut , ▁and ▁absor ption ▁near ▁the ▁origin ▁or ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁mid g ut . ▁▁ ▁H ind g ut ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁h ind g ut ▁( element ▁ 1 6 ▁in ▁number ed ▁diagram ), ▁or ▁pro ct od ae um , ▁und ig ested ▁food ▁particles ▁are ▁joined ▁by ▁u ric ▁acid ▁to ▁form ▁f ec al ▁pel lets . ▁The ▁rect um ▁absor bs ▁ 9 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁water ▁in ▁these ▁f ec al ▁pel lets , ▁and ▁the ▁dry ▁pel let ▁is ▁then ▁elimin ated ▁through ▁the ▁an us ▁( element ▁ 1 7 ), ▁comple ting ▁the ▁process ▁of ▁dig estion . ▁En v agin ations ▁at ▁the ▁anterior ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁h ind g ut ▁form ▁the ▁Mal p igh ian ▁tub ules , ▁which ▁form ▁the ▁main ▁ex cret ory ▁system ▁of ▁insect s . ▁▁ ▁Ex cret ory ▁system ▁ ▁In sect s ▁may ▁have ▁one ▁to ▁hundreds ▁of ▁Mal p igh ian ▁tub ules ▁( element ▁ 2 0 ). ▁These ▁tub ules ▁remove ▁nit ro gen ous ▁was tes ▁from ▁the ▁hem ol ym ph ▁of ▁the ▁insect ▁and ▁reg ulate ▁os m otic ▁balance . ▁W ast es ▁and ▁sol utes ▁are ▁em pt ied ▁directly ▁into ▁the ▁aliment ary ▁canal , ▁at ▁the ▁j unction ▁between ▁the ▁mid g ut ▁and ▁h ind g ut . ▁▁ ▁Re product ive ▁system ▁▁ ▁The ▁re product ive ▁system ▁of |
▁female ▁insect s ▁consist ▁of ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁o var ies , ▁access ory ▁g lands , ▁one ▁or ▁more ▁s per mat he ca e , ▁and ▁du ct s ▁connecting ▁these ▁parts . ▁The ▁o var ies ▁are ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁egg ▁tub es , ▁called ▁o vari oles , ▁which ▁vary ▁in ▁size ▁and ▁number ▁by ▁species . ▁The ▁number ▁of ▁eggs ▁that ▁the ▁insect ▁is ▁able ▁to ▁make ▁vary ▁by ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁o vari oles ▁with ▁the ▁rate ▁that ▁eggs ▁can ▁develop ▁being ▁also ▁influenced ▁by ▁o var io le ▁design . ▁Fem ale ▁insect s ▁are ▁able ▁make ▁eggs , ▁receive ▁and ▁store ▁s perm , ▁manipulate ▁s perm ▁from ▁different ▁males , ▁and ▁lay ▁eggs . ▁Access ory ▁g lands ▁or ▁g land ular ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁o vid uct s ▁produce ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁subst ances ▁for ▁s perm ▁maintenance , ▁transport ▁and ▁fert il ization , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁for ▁protection ▁of ▁eggs . ▁They ▁can ▁produce ▁gl ue ▁and ▁protect ive ▁subst ances ▁for ▁co ating ▁eggs ▁or ▁t ough ▁cover ings ▁for ▁a ▁batch ▁of ▁eggs ▁called ▁o othe ca e . ▁S per mat he ca e ▁are ▁tub es ▁or ▁sac s ▁in ▁which ▁s perm ▁can ▁be ▁stored ▁between ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁m ating ▁and ▁the ▁time ▁an ▁egg ▁is ▁fert il ized . ▁ ▁For ▁males , ▁the ▁re product ive ▁system ▁is ▁the ▁test is , ▁susp ended ▁in ▁the ▁body ▁cav ity ▁by |
▁tra che ae ▁and ▁the ▁fat ▁body . ▁Most ▁male ▁insect s ▁have ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁test es , ▁inside ▁of ▁which ▁are ▁s perm ▁tub es ▁or ▁fol lic les ▁that ▁are ▁en closed ▁within ▁a ▁memb ran ous ▁sac . ▁The ▁fol lic les ▁connect ▁to ▁the ▁vas ▁de fer ens ▁by ▁the ▁vas ▁e f fer ens , ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁tub ular ▁v asa ▁de fer ent ia ▁connect ▁to ▁a ▁median ▁ej ac ul atory ▁du ct ▁that ▁leads ▁to ▁the ▁outside . ▁A ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁vas ▁de fer ens ▁is ▁often ▁en larg ed ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁sem inal ▁ves icle , ▁which ▁stores ▁the ▁s perm ▁before ▁they ▁are ▁dis charg ed ▁into ▁the ▁female . ▁The ▁sem inal ▁ves icles ▁have ▁g land ular ▁lin ings ▁that ▁se crete ▁nut ri ents ▁for ▁n our ishment ▁and ▁maintenance ▁of ▁the ▁s perm . ▁The ▁ej ac ul atory ▁du ct ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁an ▁inv ag ination ▁of ▁the ▁e pid erm al ▁cells ▁during ▁development ▁and , ▁as ▁a ▁result , ▁has ▁a ▁cut icular ▁l ining . ▁The ▁terminal ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁ej ac ul atory ▁du ct ▁may ▁be ▁s cler ot ized ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁int rom itt ent ▁organ , ▁the ▁a ede ag us . ▁The ▁remainder ▁of ▁the ▁male ▁re product ive ▁system ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁emb ry onic ▁mes od erm , ▁except ▁for ▁the ▁germ ▁cells , ▁or ▁s per mat og onia , ▁which |
▁descend ▁from ▁the ▁prim ord ial ▁pole ▁cells ▁very ▁early ▁during ▁emb ry ogen esis . ▁▁ ▁Res p ir atory ▁system ▁▁ ▁In sect ▁resp iration ▁is ▁accomplished ▁without ▁l ungs . ▁Instead , ▁the ▁insect ▁resp ir atory ▁system ▁uses ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁internal ▁tub es ▁and ▁sac s ▁through ▁which ▁g ases ▁either ▁diff use ▁or ▁are ▁act ively ▁p ump ed , ▁deliver ing ▁o xygen ▁directly ▁to ▁t issues ▁that ▁need ▁it ▁via ▁their ▁tra che a ▁( element ▁ 8 ▁in ▁number ed ▁diagram ). ▁In ▁most ▁insect s , ▁air ▁is ▁taken ▁in ▁through ▁open ings ▁on ▁the ▁sides ▁of ▁the ▁ab d omen ▁and ▁thor ax ▁called ▁sp ira cles . ▁ ▁The ▁resp ir atory ▁system ▁is ▁an ▁important ▁factor ▁that ▁limits ▁the ▁size ▁of ▁insect s . ▁As ▁insect s ▁get ▁larger , ▁this ▁type ▁of ▁o xygen ▁transport ▁is ▁less ▁efficient ▁and ▁thus ▁the ▁heav iest ▁insect ▁currently ▁we igh s ▁less ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 g . ▁However , ▁with ▁increased ▁atmos pher ic ▁o xygen ▁levels , ▁as ▁were ▁present ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁Pale oz o ic , ▁larger ▁insect s ▁were ▁possible , ▁such ▁as ▁drag on f lies ▁with ▁wings p ans ▁of ▁more ▁than ▁two ▁feet . ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁many ▁different ▁patterns ▁of ▁gas ▁exchange ▁demonstrated ▁by ▁different ▁groups ▁of ▁insect s . ▁Gas ▁exchange ▁patterns ▁in ▁insect s ▁can ▁range ▁from ▁continuous ▁and ▁diffus ive ▁vent ilation , ▁to ▁dis continu ous ▁gas |
▁exchange . ▁During ▁continuous ▁gas ▁exchange , ▁o xygen ▁is ▁taken ▁in ▁and ▁carbon ▁dio x ide ▁is ▁released ▁in ▁a ▁continuous ▁cycle . ▁In ▁dis continu ous ▁gas ▁exchange , ▁however , ▁the ▁insect ▁takes ▁in ▁o xygen ▁while ▁it ▁is ▁active ▁and ▁small ▁amounts ▁of ▁carbon ▁dio x ide ▁are ▁released ▁when ▁the ▁insect ▁is ▁at ▁rest . ▁D iff us ive ▁vent ilation ▁is ▁simply ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁continuous ▁gas ▁exchange ▁that ▁occurs ▁by ▁diffusion ▁rather ▁than ▁phys ically ▁taking ▁in ▁the ▁o xygen . ▁Some ▁species ▁of ▁insect ▁that ▁are ▁sub mer ged ▁also ▁have ▁adapt ations ▁to ▁aid ▁in ▁resp iration . ▁As ▁lar va e , ▁many ▁insect s ▁have ▁g ills ▁that ▁can ▁extract ▁o xygen ▁dissol ved ▁in ▁water , ▁while ▁others ▁need ▁to ▁rise ▁to ▁the ▁water ▁surface ▁to ▁re pl en ish ▁air ▁supplies , ▁which ▁may ▁be ▁held ▁or ▁tra pped ▁in ▁special ▁structures . ▁▁ ▁Cir cul atory ▁system ▁ ▁Because ▁o xygen ▁is ▁delivered ▁directly ▁to ▁t issues ▁via ▁tra che oles , ▁the ▁circul atory ▁system ▁is ▁not ▁used ▁to ▁carry ▁o xygen , ▁and ▁is ▁therefore ▁greatly ▁reduced . ▁The ▁insect ▁circul atory ▁system ▁is ▁open ; ▁it ▁has ▁no ▁ve ins ▁or ▁ar ter ies , ▁and ▁instead ▁consists ▁of ▁little ▁more ▁than ▁a ▁single , ▁per for ated ▁d ors al ▁t ube ▁that ▁p uls es ▁per ist alt ically . ▁This ▁d ors al ▁blood ▁vessel ▁( element ▁ 1 4 ) ▁is ▁divided |
▁into ▁two ▁sections : ▁the ▁heart ▁and ▁a ort a . ▁The ▁d ors al ▁blood ▁vessel ▁circul ates ▁the ▁hem ol ym ph , ▁ar th rop ods ' ▁fluid ▁analog ▁of ▁blood , ▁from ▁the ▁rear ▁of ▁the ▁body ▁cav ity ▁forward . ▁Hem ol ym ph ▁is ▁composed ▁of ▁pl asma ▁in ▁which ▁hem ocy tes ▁are ▁susp ended . ▁N ut ri ents , ▁h orm ones , ▁was tes , ▁and ▁other ▁subst ances ▁are ▁transport ed ▁throughout ▁the ▁insect ▁body ▁in ▁the ▁hem ol ym ph . ▁Hem ocy tes ▁include ▁many ▁types ▁of ▁cells ▁that ▁are ▁important ▁for ▁imm une ▁responses , ▁w ound ▁he aling , ▁and ▁other ▁functions . ▁Hem ol ym ph ▁pressure ▁may ▁be ▁increased ▁by ▁mus cle ▁contra ctions ▁or ▁by ▁sw allow ing ▁air ▁into ▁the ▁dig est ive ▁system ▁to ▁aid ▁in ▁m oul ting . ▁Hem ol ym ph ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁major ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁open ▁circul atory ▁system ▁of ▁other ▁ar th rop ods , ▁such ▁as ▁sp iders ▁and ▁cr ust ace ans . ▁▁ ▁Re production ▁and ▁development ▁▁ ▁The ▁majority ▁of ▁insect s ▁h atch ▁from ▁eggs . ▁The ▁fert il ization ▁and ▁development ▁takes ▁place ▁inside ▁the ▁egg , ▁en closed ▁by ▁a ▁shell ▁( chor ion ) ▁that ▁consists ▁of ▁mat ernal ▁t issue . ▁In ▁contrast ▁to ▁eggs ▁of ▁other ▁ar th rop ods , ▁most ▁insect ▁eggs ▁are ▁dr ought ▁resist ant . ▁This ▁is ▁because ▁inside ▁the ▁ch |
or ion ▁two ▁additional ▁memb ran es ▁develop ▁from ▁emb ry onic ▁t issue , ▁the ▁am n ion ▁and ▁the ▁ser osa . ▁This ▁ser osa ▁secre tes ▁a ▁cut icle ▁rich ▁in ▁ch it in ▁that ▁protect s ▁the ▁emb ry o ▁against ▁des ic cation . ▁In ▁Sch iz op hora ▁however ▁the ▁ser osa ▁does ▁not ▁develop , ▁but ▁these ▁f lies ▁lay ▁their ▁eggs ▁in ▁d amp ▁places , ▁such ▁as ▁ro tt ing ▁matter . ▁Some ▁species ▁of ▁insect s , ▁like ▁the ▁co ck ro ach ▁Bla pt ica ▁dub ia , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁ju ven ile ▁a ph ids ▁and ▁t set se ▁f lies , ▁are ▁ov ov iv ip ar ous . ▁The ▁eggs ▁of ▁ov ov iv ip ar ous ▁animals ▁develop ▁entirely ▁inside ▁the ▁female , ▁and ▁then ▁h atch ▁immediately ▁upon ▁being ▁laid . ▁Some ▁other ▁species , ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁in ▁the ▁genus ▁of ▁co ck ro aches ▁known ▁as ▁D ip lop tera , ▁are ▁viv ip ar ous , ▁and ▁thus ▁gest ate ▁inside ▁the ▁mother ▁and ▁are ▁born ▁alive . ▁Some ▁insect s , ▁like ▁par as it ic ▁was ps , ▁show ▁poly emb ry ony , ▁where ▁a ▁single ▁fert il ized ▁egg ▁div ides ▁into ▁many ▁and ▁in ▁some ▁cases ▁thousands ▁of ▁separate ▁emb ry os . ▁In sect s ▁may ▁be ▁un iv olt ine , ▁b iv olt ine ▁or ▁mult iv olt ine , ▁i . e . ▁they |
▁may ▁have ▁one , ▁two ▁or ▁many ▁bro ods ▁( gener ations ) ▁in ▁a ▁year . ▁ ▁Other ▁development al ▁and ▁re product ive ▁variations ▁include ▁ha pl od ip lo id y , ▁polym orphism , ▁pa ed omorph osis ▁or ▁per am orph osis , ▁sexual ▁dim orphism , ▁par then ogen esis ▁and ▁more ▁rarely ▁herm aph rod it ism . ▁In ▁ha pl od ip lo id y , ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁sex - det erm ination ▁system , ▁the ▁off spring ' s ▁sex ▁is ▁determined ▁by ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁sets ▁of ▁chrom os om es ▁an ▁individual ▁receives . ▁This ▁system ▁is ▁typical ▁in ▁be es ▁and ▁was ps . ▁Pol ym orphism ▁is ▁where ▁a ▁species ▁may ▁have ▁different ▁morph s ▁or ▁forms , ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁ob long ▁wing ed ▁kat yd id , ▁which ▁has ▁four ▁different ▁vari eties : ▁green , ▁p ink ▁and ▁yellow ▁or ▁tan . ▁Some ▁insect s ▁may ▁retain ▁phen ot ypes ▁that ▁are ▁normally ▁only ▁seen ▁in ▁ju ven iles ; ▁this ▁is ▁called ▁pa ed omorph osis . ▁In ▁per am orph osis , ▁an ▁opposite ▁sort ▁of ▁phenomen on , ▁insect s ▁take ▁on ▁previously ▁un seen ▁tra its ▁after ▁they ▁have ▁m ature d ▁into ▁adult s . ▁Many ▁insect s ▁display ▁sexual ▁dim orphism , ▁in ▁which ▁males ▁and ▁females ▁have ▁not ably ▁different ▁appearances , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁moth ▁Or gy ia ▁recens ▁as ▁an ▁exempl ar ▁of ▁sexual ▁dim |
orphism ▁in ▁insect s . ▁ ▁Some ▁insect s ▁use ▁par then ogen esis , ▁a ▁process ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁female ▁can ▁reproduce ▁and ▁give ▁birth ▁without ▁having ▁the ▁eggs ▁fert il ized ▁by ▁a ▁male . ▁Many ▁a ph ids ▁under go ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁par then ogen esis , ▁called ▁cy clic al ▁par then ogen esis , ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁alternate ▁between ▁one ▁or ▁many ▁gener ations ▁of ▁a sex ual ▁and ▁sexual ▁reprodu ction . ▁In ▁summer , ▁a ph ids ▁are ▁generally ▁female ▁and ▁par then ogen etic ; ▁in ▁the ▁aut umn , ▁males ▁may ▁be ▁produced ▁for ▁sexual ▁reprodu ction . ▁Other ▁insect s ▁produced ▁by ▁par then ogen esis ▁are ▁be es , ▁was ps ▁and ▁an ts , ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁spawn ▁males . ▁However , ▁overall , ▁most ▁individuals ▁are ▁female , ▁which ▁are ▁produced ▁by ▁fert il ization . ▁The ▁males ▁are ▁ha p lo id ▁and ▁the ▁females ▁are ▁dip lo id . ▁More ▁rarely , ▁some ▁insect s ▁display ▁herm aph rod it ism , ▁in ▁which ▁a ▁given ▁individual ▁has ▁both ▁male ▁and ▁female ▁re product ive ▁org ans . ▁ ▁In sect ▁life - histor ies ▁show ▁adapt ations ▁to ▁with stand ▁cold ▁and ▁dry ▁conditions . ▁Some ▁temper ate ▁region ▁insect s ▁are ▁capable ▁of ▁activity ▁during ▁winter , ▁while ▁some ▁others ▁migr ate ▁to ▁a ▁war mer ▁climate ▁or ▁go ▁into ▁a ▁state ▁of ▁tor por . ▁Still ▁other ▁insect s ▁have ▁evol ved ▁mechan isms |
▁of ▁dia p ause ▁that ▁allow ▁eggs ▁or ▁pup ae ▁to ▁surv ive ▁these ▁conditions . ▁▁ ▁Met am orph osis ▁ ▁Met am orph osis ▁in ▁insect s ▁is ▁the ▁bi ological ▁process ▁of ▁development ▁all ▁insect s ▁must ▁under go . ▁There ▁are ▁two ▁forms ▁of ▁met am orph osis : ▁incomplete ▁met am orph osis ▁and ▁complete ▁met am orph osis . ▁▁ ▁In complete ▁met am orph osis ▁▁ ▁Hem imet abol ous ▁insect s , ▁those ▁with ▁incomplete ▁met am orph osis , ▁change ▁gradually ▁by ▁under going ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁mol ts . ▁An ▁insect ▁mol ts ▁when ▁it ▁out g rows ▁its ▁ex os ke leton , ▁which ▁does ▁not ▁stretch ▁and ▁would ▁otherwise ▁restrict ▁the ▁insect ' s ▁growth . ▁The ▁mol ting ▁process ▁begins ▁as ▁the ▁insect ' s ▁e pid erm is ▁secre tes ▁a ▁new ▁ep icut icle ▁inside ▁the ▁old ▁one . ▁After ▁this ▁new ▁ep icut icle ▁is ▁secret ed , ▁the ▁e pid erm is ▁releases ▁a ▁mixture ▁of ▁en zym es ▁that ▁dig ests ▁the ▁end oc ut icle ▁and ▁thus ▁det aches ▁the ▁old ▁cut icle . ▁When ▁this ▁stage ▁is ▁complete , ▁the ▁insect ▁makes ▁its ▁body ▁sw ell ▁by ▁taking ▁in ▁a ▁large ▁quantity ▁of ▁water ▁or ▁air , ▁which ▁makes ▁the ▁old ▁cut icle ▁split ▁along ▁pre defined ▁weak ness es ▁where ▁the ▁old ▁ex oc ut icle ▁was ▁th inn est . ▁ ▁Im m ature ▁insect s ▁that ▁go ▁through ▁incomplete ▁met |
am orph osis ▁are ▁called ▁n ym ph s ▁or ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁drag on f lies ▁and ▁dam self lies , ▁also ▁na i ads . ▁N ym ph s ▁are ▁similar ▁in ▁form ▁to ▁the ▁adult ▁except ▁for ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁wings , ▁which ▁are ▁not ▁developed ▁until ▁ad ul th ood . ▁With ▁each ▁molt , ▁n ym ph s ▁grow ▁larger ▁and ▁become ▁more ▁similar ▁in ▁appearance ▁to ▁adult ▁insect s . ▁▁ ▁Complete ▁met am orph osis ▁▁ ▁Hol omet abol ism , ▁or ▁complete ▁met am orph osis , ▁is ▁where ▁the ▁insect ▁changes ▁in ▁four ▁stages , ▁an ▁egg ▁or ▁emb ry o , ▁a ▁lar va , ▁a ▁pup a ▁and ▁the ▁adult ▁or ▁im ago . ▁In ▁these ▁species , ▁an ▁egg ▁h atch es ▁to ▁produce ▁a ▁lar va , ▁which ▁is ▁generally ▁w orm - like ▁in ▁form . ▁This ▁w orm - like ▁form ▁can ▁be ▁one ▁of ▁several ▁vari eties : ▁er uc iform ▁( c ater p ill ar - like ), ▁scar ab ae iform ▁( gr ub - like ), ▁camp ode iform ▁( el ong ated , ▁fl atten ed ▁and ▁active ), ▁el ater iform ▁( wire w orm - like ) ▁or ▁verm iform ▁( mag got - like ). ▁The ▁lar va ▁grows ▁and ▁eventually ▁becomes ▁a ▁pup a , ▁a ▁stage ▁marked ▁by ▁reduced ▁movement ▁and ▁often ▁se aled ▁within ▁a ▁c oc oon . ▁There ▁are ▁three ▁types ▁of ▁pup |
ae : ▁ob te ct , ▁ex ar ate ▁or ▁co arct ate . ▁Ob te ct ▁pup ae ▁are ▁compact , ▁with ▁the ▁legs ▁and ▁other ▁append ages ▁en closed . ▁Ex ar ate ▁pup ae ▁have ▁their ▁legs ▁and ▁other ▁append ages ▁free ▁and ▁extended . ▁Co arct ate ▁pup ae ▁develop ▁inside ▁the ▁lar val ▁skin . ▁In sect s ▁under go ▁considerable ▁change ▁in ▁form ▁during ▁the ▁pup al ▁stage , ▁and ▁emer ge ▁as ▁adult s . ▁But ter f lies ▁are ▁a ▁well - known ▁example ▁of ▁insect s ▁that ▁under go ▁complete ▁met am orph osis , ▁although ▁most ▁insect s ▁use ▁this ▁life ▁cycle . ▁Some ▁insect s ▁have ▁evol ved ▁this ▁system ▁to ▁hyper met am orph osis . ▁ ▁Complete ▁met am orph osis ▁is ▁a ▁trait ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁diverse ▁insect ▁group , ▁the ▁End opter yg ota . ▁End opter yg ota ▁includes ▁ 1 1 ▁Or ders , ▁the ▁largest ▁being ▁D ip tera ▁( f lies ), ▁Le pid optera ▁( but ter f lies ▁and ▁moth s ), ▁and ▁H ymen optera ▁( be es , ▁was ps , ▁and ▁an ts ), ▁and ▁Cole optera ▁( be et les ). ▁This ▁form ▁of ▁development ▁is ▁exclusive ▁to ▁insect s ▁and ▁not ▁seen ▁in ▁any ▁other ▁ar th rop ods . ▁▁ ▁S enses ▁and ▁communication ▁ ▁Many ▁insect s ▁possess ▁very ▁sensitive ▁and ▁special ized ▁org ans ▁of ▁per ception . ▁Some ▁insect s ▁such ▁as ▁be |
es ▁can ▁perce ive ▁ult rav io let ▁w avel ength s , ▁or ▁detect ▁polar ized ▁light , ▁while ▁the ▁anten na e ▁of ▁male ▁moth s ▁can ▁detect ▁the ▁ph er om ones ▁of ▁female ▁moth s ▁over ▁distances ▁of ▁many ▁kilom eters . ▁The ▁yellow ▁paper ▁was p ▁( Pol istes ▁vers icol or ) ▁is ▁known ▁for ▁its ▁w ag ging ▁movements ▁as ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁communication ▁within ▁the ▁col ony ; ▁it ▁can ▁w ag gle ▁with ▁a ▁frequency ▁of ▁ 1 0 . 6 ± 2 . 1 Hz ▁( n = 1 9 0 ). ▁These ▁w ag ging ▁movements ▁can ▁signal ▁the ▁arrival ▁of ▁new ▁material ▁into ▁the ▁nest ▁and ▁ag gression ▁between ▁workers ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁stim ulate ▁others ▁to ▁increase ▁for aging ▁exped itions . ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁pron ounced ▁t endency ▁for ▁there ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁trade - off ▁between ▁visual ▁ac u ity ▁and ▁chemical ▁or ▁tact ile ▁ac u ity , ▁such ▁that ▁most ▁insect s ▁with ▁well - develop ed ▁eyes ▁have ▁reduced ▁or ▁simple ▁anten na e , ▁and ▁vice ▁vers a . ▁There ▁are ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁different ▁mechan isms ▁by ▁which ▁insect s ▁perce ive ▁sound ; ▁while ▁the ▁patterns ▁are ▁not ▁universal , ▁insect s ▁can ▁generally ▁hear ▁sound ▁if ▁they ▁can ▁produce ▁it . ▁D ifferent ▁insect ▁species ▁can ▁have ▁varying ▁hearing , ▁though ▁most ▁insect s ▁can ▁hear ▁only ▁a ▁narrow ▁range ▁of ▁frequencies ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁frequency ▁of ▁the ▁sounds |
▁they ▁can ▁produce . ▁Mos qu ito es ▁have ▁been ▁found ▁to ▁hear ▁up ▁to ▁ 2 k Hz , ▁and ▁some ▁grass ho ppers ▁can ▁hear ▁up ▁to ▁ 5 0 k Hz . ▁C ertain ▁pre dat ory ▁and ▁par as it ic ▁insect s ▁can ▁detect ▁the ▁characteristic ▁sounds ▁made ▁by ▁their ▁pre y ▁or ▁hosts , ▁respectively . ▁For ▁instance , ▁some ▁no ct urn al ▁moth s ▁can ▁perce ive ▁the ▁ul tr ason ic ▁em issions ▁of ▁b ats , ▁which ▁helps ▁them ▁avoid ▁pred ation . ▁In sect s ▁that ▁feed ▁on ▁blood ▁have ▁special ▁sens ory ▁structures ▁that ▁can ▁detect ▁inf ra red ▁em issions , ▁and ▁use ▁them ▁to ▁home ▁in ▁on ▁their ▁hosts . ▁ ▁Some ▁insect s ▁display ▁a ▁rud iment ary ▁sense ▁of ▁numbers , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁solit ary ▁was ps ▁that ▁pre y ▁upon ▁a ▁single ▁species . ▁The ▁mother ▁was p ▁l ays ▁her ▁eggs ▁in ▁individual ▁cells ▁and ▁provides ▁each ▁egg ▁with ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁live ▁c ater p ill ars ▁on ▁which ▁the ▁young ▁feed ▁when ▁h atch ed . ▁Some ▁species ▁of ▁was p ▁always ▁provide ▁five , ▁others ▁twelve , ▁and ▁others ▁as ▁high ▁as ▁twenty - four ▁c ater p ill ars ▁per ▁cell . ▁The ▁number ▁of ▁c ater p ill ars ▁is ▁different ▁among ▁species , ▁but ▁always ▁the ▁same ▁for ▁each ▁sex ▁of ▁lar va . ▁The ▁male ▁solit ary ▁was p ▁in ▁the ▁genus ▁E umen es |
▁is ▁smaller ▁than ▁the ▁female , ▁so ▁the ▁mother ▁of ▁one ▁species ▁supplies ▁him ▁with ▁only ▁five ▁c ater p ill ars ; ▁the ▁larger ▁female ▁receives ▁ten ▁c ater p ill ars ▁in ▁her ▁cell . ▁▁ ▁Light ▁production ▁and ▁vision ▁▁ ▁A ▁few ▁insect s , ▁such ▁as ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁families ▁Pod ur idae ▁and ▁O ny chi ur idae ▁( Col lem bol a ), ▁My c et oph il idae ▁( D ip tera ) ▁and ▁the ▁be et le ▁families ▁L amp yr idae , ▁Ph eng od idae , ▁El ater idae ▁and ▁St ap hy lin idae ▁are ▁bi ol um ines cent . ▁The ▁most ▁familiar ▁group ▁are ▁the ▁fire f lies , ▁be et les ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁L amp yr idae . ▁Some ▁species ▁are ▁able ▁to ▁control ▁this ▁light ▁generation ▁to ▁produce ▁flash es . ▁The ▁function ▁var ies ▁with ▁some ▁species ▁using ▁them ▁to ▁attract ▁m ates , ▁while ▁others ▁use ▁them ▁to ▁l ure ▁pre y . ▁C ave ▁dwell ing ▁lar va e ▁of ▁Ara chn oc ampa ▁( My c et oph il idae , ▁fung us ▁g nats ) ▁g low ▁to ▁l ure ▁small ▁flying ▁insect s ▁into ▁stick y ▁str ands ▁of ▁sil k . ▁Some ▁fire f lies ▁of ▁the ▁genus ▁Phot ur is ▁m im ic ▁the ▁flash ing ▁of ▁female ▁Phot inus ▁species ▁to ▁attract ▁males ▁of ▁that ▁species , ▁which ▁are ▁then ▁captured ▁and ▁dev oured . ▁The ▁colors ▁of |
▁em itted ▁light ▁vary ▁from ▁d ull ▁blue ▁( Or fel ia ▁f ult oni , ▁My c et oph il idae ) ▁to ▁the ▁familiar ▁gre ens ▁and ▁the ▁rare ▁red s ▁( Ph rix oth rix ▁tiem anni , ▁Ph eng od idae ). ▁ ▁Most ▁insect s , ▁except ▁some ▁species ▁of ▁cave ▁cr ick ets , ▁are ▁able ▁to ▁perce ive ▁light ▁and ▁dark . ▁Many ▁species ▁have ▁ac ute ▁vision ▁capable ▁of ▁detect ing ▁minute ▁movements . ▁The ▁eyes ▁may ▁include ▁simple ▁eyes ▁or ▁o cel li ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁comp ound ▁eyes ▁of ▁varying ▁sizes . ▁Many ▁species ▁are ▁able ▁to ▁detect ▁light ▁in ▁the ▁inf ra red , ▁ult rav io let ▁and ▁the ▁visible ▁light ▁w avel ength s . ▁Color ▁vision ▁has ▁been ▁demonstrated ▁in ▁many ▁species ▁and ▁ph y log en etic ▁analysis ▁suggests ▁that ▁U V - green - blue ▁tr ich rom acy ▁existed ▁from ▁at ▁least ▁the ▁Dev onian ▁period ▁between ▁ 4 1 6 ▁and ▁ 3 5 9 ▁million ▁years ▁ago . ▁▁ ▁Sound ▁production ▁and ▁hearing ▁ ▁In sect s ▁were ▁the ▁earliest ▁organ isms ▁to ▁produce ▁and ▁sense ▁sounds . ▁In sect s ▁make ▁sounds ▁mostly ▁by ▁mechanical ▁action ▁of ▁append ages . ▁In ▁grass ho ppers ▁and ▁cr ick ets , ▁this ▁is ▁achieved ▁by ▁str id ulation . ▁Cic adas ▁make ▁the ▁loud est ▁sounds ▁among ▁the ▁insect s ▁by ▁producing ▁and ▁ampl ifying ▁sounds ▁with ▁special ▁modifications ▁to ▁their ▁body ▁to ▁form ▁tym |
b als ▁and ▁associated ▁mus cul ature . ▁The ▁African ▁cic ada ▁Bre vis ana ▁bre vis ▁has ▁been ▁measured ▁at ▁ 1 0 6 . 7 de ci b els ▁at ▁a ▁distance ▁of ▁. ▁Some ▁insect s , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Hel ic over pa ▁ze a ▁moth s , ▁ha w k ▁moth s ▁and ▁Hed yl id ▁but ter f lies , ▁can ▁hear ▁ul tras ound ▁and ▁take ▁ev as ive ▁action ▁when ▁they ▁sense ▁that ▁they ▁have ▁been ▁detected ▁by ▁b ats . ▁Some ▁moth s ▁produce ▁ul tr ason ic ▁clicks ▁that ▁were ▁once ▁thought ▁to ▁have ▁a ▁role ▁in ▁jam ming ▁bat ▁e ch ol ocation . ▁The ▁ul tr ason ic ▁clicks ▁were ▁subsequently ▁found ▁to ▁be ▁produced ▁mostly ▁by ▁un pal atable ▁moth s ▁to ▁warn ▁b ats , ▁just ▁as ▁warning ▁color ations ▁are ▁used ▁against ▁pred ators ▁that ▁h unt ▁by ▁sight . ▁Some ▁otherwise ▁pal atable ▁moth s ▁have ▁evol ved ▁to ▁m im ic ▁these ▁calls . ▁More ▁recently , ▁the ▁claim ▁that ▁some ▁moth s ▁can ▁jam ▁bat ▁son ar ▁has ▁been ▁revis ited . ▁Ul tr ason ic ▁recording ▁and ▁high - speed ▁inf ra red ▁vide ography ▁of ▁bat - m oth ▁interactions ▁suggest ▁the ▁pal atable ▁t iger ▁moth ▁really ▁does ▁defend ▁against ▁attack ing ▁big ▁brown ▁b ats ▁using ▁ul tr ason ic ▁clicks ▁that ▁jam ▁bat ▁son ar . ▁ ▁Very ▁low ▁sounds ▁are ▁also ▁produced ▁in ▁various ▁species ▁of ▁Cole optera |
, ▁H ymen optera , ▁Le pid optera , ▁Mant ode a ▁and ▁Ne urop tera . ▁These ▁low ▁sounds ▁are ▁simply ▁the ▁sounds ▁made ▁by ▁the ▁insect ' s ▁movement . ▁Through ▁micro scop ic ▁str id ul atory ▁structures ▁located ▁on ▁the ▁insect ' s ▁mus cles ▁and ▁joint s , ▁the ▁normal ▁sounds ▁of ▁the ▁insect ▁moving ▁are ▁ampl ified ▁and ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁warn ▁or ▁communicate ▁with ▁other ▁insect s . ▁Most ▁sound - making ▁insect s ▁also ▁have ▁tym p anal ▁org ans ▁that ▁can ▁perce ive ▁air bor ne ▁sounds . ▁Some ▁species ▁in ▁Hem ip tera , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁cor ix ids ▁( water ▁boat men ), ▁are ▁known ▁to ▁communicate ▁via ▁under water ▁sounds . ▁Most ▁insect s ▁are ▁also ▁able ▁to ▁sense ▁v ibr ations ▁transm itted ▁through ▁surfaces . ▁ ▁Communic ation ▁using ▁surface - bor ne ▁v ibr ational ▁signals ▁is ▁more ▁w ides p read ▁among ▁insect s ▁because ▁of ▁size ▁constraints ▁in ▁producing ▁air - bor ne ▁sounds . ▁In sect s ▁cannot ▁effectively ▁produce ▁low - fre quency ▁sounds , ▁and ▁high - fre quency ▁sounds ▁tend ▁to ▁dis per se ▁more ▁in ▁a ▁dense ▁environment ▁( such ▁as ▁fol i age ), ▁so ▁insect s ▁living ▁in ▁such ▁environments ▁communicate ▁primarily ▁using ▁substr ate - bor ne ▁v ibr ations . ▁The ▁mechan isms ▁of ▁production ▁of ▁v ibr ational ▁signals ▁are ▁just ▁as ▁diverse ▁as ▁those ▁for ▁producing ▁sound ▁in ▁insect s . ▁ ▁Some |
▁species ▁use ▁v ibr ations ▁for ▁communic ating ▁within ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁species , ▁such ▁as ▁to ▁attract ▁m ates ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁songs ▁of ▁the ▁shield ▁bug ▁Ne z ara ▁vir id ula . ▁V ibr ations ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁communicate ▁between ▁entirely ▁different ▁species ; ▁ly ca en id ▁( g oss amer - wing ed ▁but ter fly ) ▁c ater p ill ars , ▁which ▁are ▁my rm ec oph il ous ▁( l iving ▁in ▁a ▁mut ual istic ▁association ▁with ▁an ts ) ▁communicate ▁with ▁an ts ▁in ▁this ▁way . ▁The ▁Mad agas car ▁his sing ▁co ck ro ach ▁has ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁press ▁air ▁through ▁its ▁sp ira cles ▁to ▁make ▁a ▁his sing ▁noise ▁as ▁a ▁sign ▁of ▁ag gression ; ▁the ▁death ' s - head ▁ha w km oth ▁makes ▁a ▁s que aking ▁noise ▁by ▁forcing ▁air ▁out ▁of ▁their ▁ph ary nx ▁when ▁ag itated , ▁which ▁may ▁also ▁reduce ▁ag gress ive ▁worker ▁h oney ▁be e ▁behavior ▁when ▁the ▁two ▁are ▁in ▁close ▁proxim ity . ▁▁ ▁Chem ical ▁communication ▁ ▁Chem ical ▁communic ations ▁in ▁animals ▁rely ▁on ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁aspects ▁including ▁taste ▁and ▁sm ell . ▁Chem ore ception ▁is ▁the ▁phys i ological ▁response ▁of ▁a ▁sense ▁organ ▁( i . e . ▁taste ▁or ▁sm ell ) ▁to ▁a ▁chemical ▁stim ulus ▁where ▁the ▁chemical s ▁act ▁as ▁signals ▁to ▁reg ulate ▁the ▁state ▁or ▁activity ▁of ▁a ▁cell |
. ▁A ▁sem io chem ical ▁is ▁a ▁message - car ry ing ▁chemical ▁that ▁is ▁meant ▁to ▁attract , ▁rep el , ▁and ▁convey ▁information . ▁Types ▁of ▁sem io chem ical s ▁include ▁ph er om ones ▁and ▁k air om ones . ▁One ▁example ▁is ▁the ▁but ter fly ▁Ph eng aris ▁ar ion ▁which ▁uses ▁chemical ▁signals ▁as ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁m im ic ry ▁to ▁aid ▁in ▁pred ation . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁sound ▁for ▁communication , ▁a ▁wide ▁range ▁of ▁insect s ▁have ▁evol ved ▁chemical ▁means ▁for ▁communication . ▁These ▁chemical s , ▁term ed ▁sem io chem ical s , ▁are ▁often ▁derived ▁from ▁plant ▁met abol ites ▁include ▁those ▁meant ▁to ▁attract , ▁rep el ▁and ▁provide ▁other ▁kinds ▁of ▁information . ▁Ph er om ones , ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁sem io chem ical , ▁are ▁used ▁for ▁attract ing ▁m ates ▁of ▁the ▁opposite ▁sex , ▁for ▁aggreg ating ▁cons pec ific ▁individuals ▁of ▁both ▁sex es , ▁for ▁d eter ring ▁other ▁individuals ▁from ▁approaching , ▁to ▁mark ▁a ▁trail , ▁and ▁to ▁trigger ▁ag gression ▁in ▁nearby ▁individuals . ▁All om ones ▁benefit ▁their ▁producer ▁by ▁the ▁effect ▁they ▁have ▁upon ▁the ▁receiver . ▁K air om ones ▁benefit ▁their ▁receiver ▁instead ▁of ▁their ▁producer . ▁Syn om ones ▁benefit ▁the ▁producer ▁and ▁the ▁receiver . ▁While ▁some ▁chemical s ▁are ▁target ed ▁at ▁individuals ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁species , ▁others ▁are ▁used ▁for ▁communication ▁across ▁species |
. ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁sc ents ▁is ▁especially ▁well ▁known ▁to ▁have ▁developed ▁in ▁social ▁insect s . ▁▁ ▁Social ▁behavior ▁▁ ▁Social ▁insect s , ▁such ▁as ▁term ites , ▁an ts ▁and ▁many ▁be es ▁and ▁was ps , ▁are ▁the ▁most ▁familiar ▁species ▁of ▁e uso cial ▁animals . ▁They ▁live ▁together ▁in ▁large ▁well - organ ized ▁colon ies ▁that ▁may ▁be ▁so ▁tight ly ▁integrated ▁and ▁gen et ically ▁similar ▁that ▁the ▁colon ies ▁of ▁some ▁species ▁are ▁sometimes ▁considered ▁super organ isms . ▁It ▁is ▁sometimes ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁various ▁species ▁of ▁h oney ▁be e ▁are ▁the ▁only ▁in verte br ates ▁( and ▁indeed ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁few ▁non - human ▁groups ) ▁to ▁have ▁evol ved ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁abstract ▁symbol ic ▁communication ▁where ▁a ▁behavior ▁is ▁used ▁to ▁represent ▁and ▁convey ▁specific ▁information ▁about ▁something ▁in ▁the ▁environment . ▁In ▁this ▁communication ▁system , ▁called ▁dance ▁language , ▁the ▁angle ▁at ▁which ▁a ▁be e ▁d ances ▁represents ▁a ▁direction ▁relative ▁to ▁the ▁sun , ▁and ▁the ▁length ▁of ▁the ▁dance ▁represents ▁the ▁distance ▁to ▁be ▁flow n . ▁Though ▁perhaps ▁not ▁as ▁advanced ▁as ▁h oney ▁be es , ▁b umble be es ▁also ▁potentially ▁have ▁some ▁social ▁communication ▁behav iors . ▁Bomb us ▁terrest ris , ▁for ▁example , ▁exhib it ▁a ▁faster ▁learning ▁curve ▁for ▁visit ing ▁un famil iar , ▁yet ▁reward ing ▁flowers , ▁when ▁they ▁can ▁see ▁a ▁cons pec ific ▁for aging ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁species |
. ▁ ▁Only ▁insect s ▁that ▁live ▁in ▁n ests ▁or ▁colon ies ▁demonstrate ▁any ▁true ▁capacity ▁for ▁fine - scale ▁spatial ▁orientation ▁or ▁hom ing . ▁This ▁can ▁allow ▁an ▁insect ▁to ▁return ▁un err ingly ▁to ▁a ▁single ▁hole ▁a ▁few ▁mill im eters ▁in ▁diameter ▁among ▁thousands ▁of ▁apparently ▁identical ▁holes ▁cluster ed ▁together , ▁after ▁a ▁trip ▁of ▁up ▁to ▁several ▁kilom eters ' ▁distance . ▁In ▁a ▁phenomen on ▁known ▁as ▁phil op at ry , ▁insect s ▁that ▁hibernate ▁have ▁shown ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁recall ▁a ▁specific ▁location ▁up ▁to ▁a ▁year ▁after ▁last ▁view ing ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁interest . ▁A ▁few ▁insect s ▁season ally ▁migr ate ▁large ▁distances ▁between ▁different ▁ge ographic ▁regions ▁( e . g ., ▁the ▁over w inter ing ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁monarch ▁but ter fly ). ▁▁ ▁Care ▁of ▁young ▁ ▁The ▁e uso cial ▁insect s ▁build ▁n ests , ▁guard ▁eggs , ▁and ▁provide ▁food ▁for ▁off spring ▁full - time ▁( see ▁E uso cial ity ). ▁Most ▁insect s , ▁however , ▁lead ▁short ▁lives ▁as ▁adult s , ▁and ▁rarely ▁interact ▁with ▁one ▁another ▁except ▁to ▁mate ▁or ▁comp ete ▁for ▁m ates . ▁A ▁small ▁number ▁exhib it ▁some ▁form ▁of ▁parent al ▁care , ▁where ▁they ▁will ▁at ▁least ▁guard ▁their ▁eggs , ▁and ▁sometimes ▁continue ▁guard ing ▁their ▁off spring ▁until ▁ad ul th ood , ▁and ▁possibly ▁even ▁feed ing ▁them . ▁Another ▁simple ▁form ▁of ▁parent al ▁care ▁is |
▁to ▁construct ▁a ▁nest ▁( a ▁bur row ▁or ▁an ▁actual ▁construction , ▁either ▁of ▁which ▁may ▁be ▁simple ▁or ▁complex ), ▁store ▁prov isions ▁in ▁it , ▁and ▁lay ▁an ▁egg ▁upon ▁those ▁prov isions . ▁The ▁adult ▁does ▁not ▁contact ▁the ▁growing ▁off spring , ▁but ▁it ▁non eth eless ▁does ▁provide ▁food . ▁This ▁sort ▁of ▁care ▁is ▁typical ▁for ▁most ▁species ▁of ▁be es ▁and ▁various ▁types ▁of ▁was ps . ▁▁ ▁Lo com otion ▁▁▁ ▁Fl ight ▁▁ ▁In sect s ▁are ▁the ▁only ▁group ▁of ▁in verte br ates ▁to ▁have ▁developed ▁flight . ▁The ▁evolution ▁of ▁insect ▁wings ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁subject ▁of ▁debate . ▁Some ▁ent om olog ists ▁suggest ▁that ▁the ▁wings ▁are ▁from ▁par an otal ▁lo bes , ▁or ▁extensions ▁from ▁the ▁insect ' s ▁ex os ke leton ▁called ▁the ▁not a , ▁called ▁the ▁par an otal ▁theory . ▁Other ▁theories ▁are ▁based ▁on ▁a ▁ple ural ▁origin . ▁These ▁theories ▁include ▁suggestions ▁that ▁wings ▁origin ated ▁from ▁modified ▁g ills , ▁sp i rac ular ▁f laps ▁or ▁as ▁from ▁an ▁append age ▁of ▁the ▁ep ico xa . ▁The ▁ep ico x al ▁theory ▁suggests ▁the ▁insect ▁wings ▁are ▁modified ▁ep ico x al ▁ex ites , ▁a ▁modified ▁append age ▁at ▁the ▁base ▁of ▁the ▁legs ▁or ▁co xa . ▁In ▁the ▁Car bon ifer ous ▁age , ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁Meg ane ura ▁drag on f lies ▁had ▁as ▁much ▁as ▁a ▁ ▁wide ▁wings pan |
. ▁The ▁appearance ▁of ▁gig antic ▁insect s ▁has ▁been ▁found ▁to ▁be ▁consistent ▁with ▁high ▁atmos pher ic ▁o xygen . ▁The ▁resp ir atory ▁system ▁of ▁insect s ▁const ra ins ▁their ▁size , ▁however ▁the ▁high ▁o xygen ▁in ▁the ▁atmosphere ▁allowed ▁larger ▁sizes . ▁The ▁largest ▁flying ▁insect s ▁today ▁are ▁much ▁smaller ▁and ▁include ▁several ▁moth ▁species ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Atlas ▁moth ▁and ▁the ▁white ▁w itch ▁( Th ys ania ▁ag ri pp ina ). ▁ ▁In sect ▁flight ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁topic ▁of ▁great ▁interest ▁in ▁aer od ynam ics ▁due ▁partly ▁to ▁the ▁in ability ▁of ▁steady - state ▁theories ▁to ▁explain ▁the ▁lift ▁generated ▁by ▁the ▁tiny ▁wings ▁of ▁insect s . ▁But ▁insect ▁wings ▁are ▁in ▁motion , ▁with ▁fla pping ▁and ▁v ibr ations , ▁resulting ▁in ▁ch urn ing ▁and ▁ed d ies , ▁and ▁the ▁mis con ception ▁that ▁physics ▁says ▁" bum ble be es ▁can ' t ▁fly " ▁pers isted ▁throughout ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁tw enti eth ▁century . ▁ ▁Un like ▁birds , ▁many ▁small ▁insect s ▁are ▁swe pt ▁along ▁by ▁the ▁prev ail ing ▁wind s ▁although ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁larger ▁insect s ▁are ▁known ▁to ▁make ▁migr ations . ▁A ph ids ▁are ▁known ▁to ▁be ▁transport ed ▁long ▁distances ▁by ▁low - level ▁jet ▁streams . ▁As ▁such , ▁fine ▁line ▁patterns ▁associated ▁with ▁conver ging ▁wind s ▁within ▁weather ▁rad ar ▁imag ery , ▁like ▁the ▁W SR - 8 8 |
D ▁rad ar ▁network , ▁often ▁represent ▁large ▁groups ▁of ▁insect s . ▁▁ ▁Walk ing ▁▁ ▁Many ▁adult ▁insect s ▁use ▁six ▁legs ▁for ▁walking ▁and ▁have ▁adopted ▁a ▁tri ped al ▁g ait . ▁The ▁tri ped al ▁g ait ▁allows ▁for ▁rapid ▁walking ▁while ▁always ▁having ▁a ▁stable ▁st ance ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁studied ▁extens ively ▁in ▁co ck ro aches ▁and ▁an ts . ▁The ▁legs ▁are ▁used ▁in ▁alternate ▁tri angles ▁touch ing ▁the ▁ground . ▁For ▁the ▁first ▁step , ▁the ▁middle ▁right ▁leg ▁and ▁the ▁front ▁and ▁rear ▁left ▁legs ▁are ▁in ▁contact ▁with ▁the ▁ground ▁and ▁move ▁the ▁insect ▁forward , ▁while ▁the ▁front ▁and ▁rear ▁right ▁leg ▁and ▁the ▁middle ▁left ▁leg ▁are ▁lifted ▁and ▁moved ▁forward ▁to ▁a ▁new ▁position . ▁When ▁they ▁touch ▁the ▁ground ▁to ▁form ▁a ▁new ▁stable ▁triangle ▁the ▁other ▁legs ▁can ▁be ▁lifted ▁and ▁brought ▁forward ▁in ▁turn ▁and ▁so ▁on . ▁The ▁pur est ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁tri ped al ▁g ait ▁is ▁seen ▁in ▁insect s ▁moving ▁at ▁high ▁spe eds . ▁However , ▁this ▁type ▁of ▁lo com otion ▁is ▁not ▁rig id ▁and ▁insect s ▁can ▁adapt ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁ga its . ▁For ▁example , ▁when ▁moving ▁slowly , ▁turning , ▁avoid ing ▁obst acles , ▁clim bing ▁or ▁sli pp ery ▁surfaces , ▁four ▁( t et rap od ) ▁or ▁more ▁feet ▁( wave - g ait ) ▁may ▁be ▁touch ing ▁the ▁ground . ▁In sect s ▁can ▁also ▁adapt |
▁their ▁g ait ▁to ▁co pe ▁with ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁one ▁or ▁more ▁lim bs . ▁ ▁C ock ro aches ▁are ▁among ▁the ▁fast est ▁insect ▁run ners ▁and , ▁at ▁full ▁speed , ▁adopt ▁a ▁b ip ed al ▁run ▁to ▁reach ▁a ▁high ▁velocity ▁in ▁proportion ▁to ▁their ▁body ▁size . ▁As ▁co ck ro aches ▁move ▁very ▁quickly , ▁they ▁need ▁to ▁be ▁video ▁recorded ▁at ▁several ▁hundred ▁frames ▁per ▁second ▁to ▁reve al ▁their ▁g ait . ▁More ▁sed ate ▁lo com otion ▁is ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁stick ▁insect s ▁or ▁walking ▁st icks ▁( Ph as mat ode a ). ▁A ▁few ▁insect s ▁have ▁evol ved ▁to ▁walk ▁on ▁the ▁surface ▁of ▁the ▁water , ▁especially ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁G err idae ▁family , ▁commonly ▁known ▁as ▁water ▁str iders . ▁A ▁few ▁species ▁of ▁ocean - sk aters ▁in ▁the ▁genus ▁Hal ob ates ▁even ▁live ▁on ▁the ▁surface ▁of ▁open ▁o ce ans , ▁a ▁habitat ▁that ▁has ▁few ▁insect ▁species . ▁▁ ▁Use ▁in ▁robot ics ▁▁ ▁In sect ▁walking ▁is ▁of ▁particular ▁interest ▁as ▁an ▁alternative ▁form ▁of ▁lo com otion ▁in ▁rob ots . ▁The ▁study ▁of ▁insect s ▁and ▁b ip eds ▁has ▁a ▁significant ▁impact ▁on ▁possible ▁robot ic ▁methods ▁of ▁transport . ▁This ▁may ▁allow ▁new ▁rob ots ▁to ▁be ▁designed ▁that ▁can ▁traverse ▁terrain ▁that ▁rob ots ▁with ▁whe els ▁may ▁be ▁unable ▁to ▁handle . ▁▁ ▁Sw imming ▁▁ ▁A ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁insect s ▁live |
▁either ▁part ▁or ▁the ▁whole ▁of ▁their ▁lives ▁under water . ▁In ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁more ▁primitive ▁orders ▁of ▁insect , ▁the ▁imm ature ▁stages ▁are ▁spent ▁in ▁an ▁aqu atic ▁environment . ▁Some ▁groups ▁of ▁insect s , ▁like ▁certain ▁water ▁be et les , ▁have ▁aqu atic ▁adult s ▁as ▁well . ▁ ▁Many ▁of ▁these ▁species ▁have ▁adapt ations ▁to ▁help ▁in ▁under - water ▁lo com otion . ▁Water ▁be et les ▁and ▁water ▁bugs ▁have ▁legs ▁adapted ▁into ▁p addle - like ▁structures . ▁Dragon fly ▁na i ads ▁use ▁jet ▁prop ulsion , ▁for ci b ly ▁exp elling ▁water ▁out ▁of ▁their ▁rect al ▁chamber . ▁Some ▁species ▁like ▁the ▁water ▁str iders ▁are ▁capable ▁of ▁walking ▁on ▁the ▁surface ▁of ▁water . ▁They ▁can ▁do ▁this ▁because ▁their ▁cla ws ▁are ▁not ▁at ▁the ▁tips ▁of ▁the ▁legs ▁as ▁in ▁most ▁insect s , ▁but ▁re cess ed ▁in ▁a ▁special ▁gro ove ▁further ▁up ▁the ▁leg ; ▁this ▁prevents ▁the ▁cla ws ▁from ▁pier cing ▁the ▁water ' s ▁surface ▁film . ▁Other ▁insect s ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁R ove ▁be et le ▁St en us ▁are ▁known ▁to ▁emit ▁pyg id ial ▁g land ▁secret ions ▁that ▁reduce ▁surface ▁t ension ▁making ▁it ▁possible ▁for ▁them ▁to ▁move ▁on ▁the ▁surface ▁of ▁water ▁by ▁Mar ang oni ▁prop ulsion ▁( also ▁known ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁term ▁Ent sp ann ungs sch w im men ). ▁▁ ▁E col ogy ▁▁ ▁In sect ▁e |
col ogy ▁is ▁the ▁scientific ▁study ▁of ▁how ▁insect s , ▁individually ▁or ▁as ▁a ▁community , ▁interact ▁with ▁the ▁surrounding ▁environment ▁or ▁e cos ystem . ▁In sect s ▁play ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁roles ▁in ▁their ▁e cos ystem s , ▁which ▁includes ▁many ▁roles , ▁such ▁as ▁soil ▁turning ▁and ▁aer ation , ▁d ung ▁bur ial , ▁p est ▁control , ▁pol lin ation ▁and ▁wild life ▁nut r ition . ▁An ▁example ▁is ▁the ▁be et les , ▁which ▁are ▁sc av engers ▁that ▁feed ▁on ▁dead ▁animals ▁and ▁fallen ▁trees ▁and ▁thereby ▁rec ycle ▁bi ological ▁materials ▁into ▁forms ▁found ▁useful ▁by ▁other ▁organ isms . ▁These ▁insect s , ▁and ▁others , ▁are ▁responsible ▁for ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁process ▁by ▁which ▁to ps o il ▁is ▁created . ▁▁ ▁Def ense ▁and ▁pred ation ▁▁ ▁In sect s ▁are ▁mostly ▁soft ▁bod ied , ▁frag ile ▁and ▁almost ▁def ens eless ▁compared ▁to ▁other , ▁larger ▁life forms . ▁The ▁imm ature ▁stages ▁are ▁small , ▁move ▁slowly ▁or ▁are ▁imm obile , ▁and ▁so ▁all ▁stages ▁are ▁exposed ▁to ▁pred ation ▁and ▁par as it ism . ▁In sect s ▁then ▁have ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁defense ▁strateg ies ▁to ▁avoid ▁being ▁attacked ▁by ▁pred ators ▁or ▁par as ito ids . ▁These ▁include ▁cam ou fl age , ▁m im ic ry , ▁to x icity ▁and ▁active ▁defense . ▁ ▁Cam ou fl age ▁is ▁an ▁important ▁defense ▁strategy , ▁which ▁involves ▁the |
▁use ▁of ▁color ation ▁or ▁shape ▁to ▁bl end ▁into ▁the ▁surrounding ▁environment . ▁This ▁sort ▁of ▁protect ive ▁color ation ▁is ▁common ▁and ▁w ides p read ▁among ▁be et le ▁families , ▁especially ▁those ▁that ▁feed ▁on ▁wood ▁or ▁veget ation , ▁such ▁as ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁leaf ▁be et les ▁( family ▁Ch rys om el idae ) ▁or ▁we ev ils . ▁In ▁some ▁of ▁these ▁species , ▁sculpt uring ▁or ▁various ▁colored ▁scales ▁or ▁hair s ▁cause ▁the ▁be et le ▁to ▁res emble ▁bird ▁d ung ▁or ▁other ▁in ed ible ▁objects . ▁Many ▁of ▁those ▁that ▁live ▁in ▁sand y ▁environments ▁bl end ▁in ▁with ▁the ▁color ation ▁of ▁the ▁substr ate . ▁Most ▁ph asm ids ▁are ▁known ▁for ▁effectively ▁rep lic ating ▁the ▁forms ▁of ▁st icks ▁and ▁leaves , ▁and ▁the ▁bodies ▁of ▁some ▁species ▁( such ▁as ▁O . ▁m ack l otti ▁and ▁Pal oph us ▁cent aur us ) ▁are ▁covered ▁in ▁m oss y ▁or ▁l ichen ous ▁out g row th s ▁that ▁supp lement ▁their ▁dis gu ise . ▁Very ▁rarely , ▁a ▁species ▁may ▁have ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁change ▁color ▁as ▁their ▁surr ound ings ▁shift ▁( B ost ra ▁sc ab rin ota ). ▁In ▁a ▁further ▁behavior al ▁adaptation ▁to ▁supp lement ▁cry ps is , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁species ▁have ▁been ▁noted ▁to ▁perform ▁a ▁rock ing ▁motion ▁where ▁the ▁body ▁is ▁s way ed ▁from ▁side ▁to ▁side ▁that ▁is ▁thought ▁to |
▁reflect ▁the ▁movement ▁of ▁leaves ▁or ▁tw igs ▁s way ing ▁in ▁the ▁b ree ze . ▁Another ▁method ▁by ▁which ▁stick ▁insect s ▁avoid ▁pred ation ▁and ▁res emble ▁tw igs ▁is ▁by ▁fe ign ing ▁death ▁( c ata le ps y ), ▁where ▁the ▁insect ▁enters ▁a ▁motion less ▁state ▁that ▁can ▁be ▁maintained ▁for ▁a ▁long ▁period . ▁The ▁no ct urn al ▁feed ing ▁hab its ▁of ▁adult s ▁also ▁a ids ▁Ph as mat ode a ▁in ▁remaining ▁conce aled ▁from ▁pred ators . ▁ ▁Another ▁defense ▁that ▁often ▁uses ▁color ▁or ▁shape ▁to ▁dece ive ▁potential ▁enemies ▁is ▁m im ic ry . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁long horn ▁be et les ▁( family ▁Cer amb yc idae ) ▁bear ▁a ▁striking ▁res embl ance ▁to ▁was ps , ▁which ▁helps ▁them ▁avoid ▁pred ation ▁even ▁though ▁the ▁be et les ▁are ▁in ▁fact ▁har ml ess . ▁B ates ian ▁and ▁Müller ian ▁m im ic ry ▁complex es ▁are ▁commonly ▁found ▁in ▁Le pid optera . ▁Gen etic ▁polym orphism ▁and ▁natural ▁selection ▁give ▁rise ▁to ▁otherwise ▁ed ible ▁species ▁( the ▁m im ic ) ▁gain ing ▁a ▁surv ival ▁advantage ▁by ▁res emb ling ▁in ed ible ▁species ▁( the ▁model ). ▁Such ▁a ▁m im ic ry ▁complex ▁is ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁B ates ian . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁famous ▁examples , ▁where ▁the ▁vic ero y ▁but ter fly ▁was ▁long ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁B ates ian ▁m im |
ic ▁of ▁the ▁in ed ible ▁monarch , ▁was ▁later ▁dis pro ven , ▁as ▁the ▁vic ero y ▁is ▁more ▁to xic ▁than ▁the ▁monarch , ▁and ▁this ▁res embl ance ▁is ▁now ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁case ▁of ▁Müller ian ▁m im ic ry . ▁In ▁Müller ian ▁m im ic ry , ▁in ed ible ▁species , ▁usually ▁within ▁a ▁tax onom ic ▁order , ▁find ▁it ▁advantage ous ▁to ▁res emble ▁each ▁other ▁so ▁as ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁sampling ▁rate ▁by ▁pred ators ▁who ▁need ▁to ▁learn ▁about ▁the ▁insect s ' ▁in ed ibility . ▁Tax a ▁from ▁the ▁to xic ▁genus ▁Hel icon ius ▁form ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁well ▁known ▁Müller ian ▁complex es . ▁ ▁Chem ical ▁defense ▁is ▁another ▁important ▁defense ▁found ▁among ▁species ▁of ▁Cole optera ▁and ▁Le pid optera , ▁usually ▁being ▁advert ised ▁by ▁bright ▁colors , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁monarch ▁but ter fly . ▁They ▁obtain ▁their ▁to x icity ▁by ▁se quest ering ▁the ▁chemical s ▁from ▁the ▁plants ▁they ▁eat ▁into ▁their ▁own ▁t issues . ▁Some ▁Le pid optera ▁manufact ure ▁their ▁own ▁to x ins . ▁Pred ators ▁that ▁eat ▁poison ous ▁but ter f lies ▁and ▁moth s ▁may ▁become ▁sick ▁and ▁vom it ▁viol ently , ▁learning ▁not ▁to ▁eat ▁those ▁types ▁of ▁species ; ▁this ▁is ▁actually ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁Müller ian ▁m im ic ry . ▁A ▁pred ator ▁who ▁has ▁previously ▁e aten ▁a ▁poison ous ▁le pid opter an ▁may |
▁avoid ▁other ▁species ▁with ▁similar ▁mark ings ▁in ▁the ▁future , ▁thus ▁saving ▁many ▁other ▁species ▁as ▁well . ▁Some ▁ground ▁be et les ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁Car ab idae ▁can ▁sp ray ▁chemical s ▁from ▁their ▁ab d omen ▁with ▁great ▁accuracy , ▁to ▁rep el ▁pred ators . ▁▁ ▁Pol lin ation ▁▁ ▁Pol lin ation ▁is ▁the ▁process ▁by ▁which ▁pol len ▁is ▁transferred ▁in ▁the ▁reprodu ction ▁of ▁plants , ▁thereby ▁en abling ▁fert il isation ▁and ▁sexual ▁reprodu ction . ▁Most ▁flow ering ▁plants ▁require ▁an ▁animal ▁to ▁do ▁the ▁transport ation . ▁While ▁other ▁animals ▁are ▁included ▁as ▁pol lin ators , ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁pol lin ation ▁is ▁done ▁by ▁insect s . ▁Because ▁insect s ▁usually ▁receive ▁benefit ▁for ▁the ▁pol lin ation ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁energy ▁rich ▁ne ct ar ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁grand ▁example ▁of ▁mut ual ism . ▁The ▁various ▁flower ▁tra its ▁( and ▁combinations ▁there of ) ▁that ▁differential ly ▁attract ▁one ▁type ▁of ▁pol lin ator ▁or ▁another ▁are ▁known ▁as ▁pol lin ation ▁synd rom es . ▁These ▁arose ▁through ▁complex ▁plant - an imal ▁adapt ations . ▁Pol lin ators ▁find ▁flowers ▁through ▁bright ▁color ations , ▁including ▁ult rav io let , ▁and ▁attract ant ▁ph er om ones . ▁The ▁study ▁of ▁pol lin ation ▁by ▁insect s ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁an the col ogy . ▁▁ ▁Par as it ism ▁ ▁Many ▁insect s ▁are ▁par as ites ▁of ▁other ▁insect s ▁such |
▁as ▁the ▁par as ito id ▁was ps . ▁These ▁insect s ▁are ▁known ▁as ▁ent om oph ag ous ▁par as ites . ▁They ▁can ▁be ▁benef icial ▁due ▁to ▁their ▁dev ast ation ▁of ▁p ests ▁that ▁can ▁destroy ▁cro ps ▁and ▁other ▁resources . ▁Many ▁insect s ▁have ▁a ▁par as it ic ▁relationship ▁with ▁humans ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁mos qu ito . ▁These ▁insect s ▁are ▁known ▁to ▁spread ▁dise ases ▁such ▁as ▁mal aria ▁and ▁yellow ▁fe ver ▁and ▁because ▁of ▁such , ▁mos qu ito es ▁indirect ly ▁cause ▁more ▁death s ▁of ▁humans ▁than ▁any ▁other ▁animal . ▁▁ ▁Rel ations hip ▁to ▁humans ▁▁▁ ▁As ▁p ests ▁▁ ▁Many ▁insect s ▁are ▁considered ▁p ests ▁by ▁humans . ▁In sect s ▁commonly ▁regarded ▁as ▁p ests ▁include ▁those ▁that ▁are ▁par as it ic ▁( e . g . ▁l ice , ▁bed ▁bugs ), ▁transmit ▁dise ases ▁( mos qu ito es , ▁f lies ), ▁damage ▁structures ▁( ter mit es ), ▁or ▁destroy ▁agricult ural ▁goods ▁( loc ust s , ▁we ev ils ). ▁Many ▁ent om olog ists ▁are ▁involved ▁in ▁various ▁forms ▁of ▁p est ▁control , ▁as ▁in ▁research ▁for ▁companies ▁to ▁produce ▁insect ic ides , ▁but ▁increasing ly ▁rely ▁on ▁methods ▁of ▁bi ological ▁p est ▁control , ▁or ▁bio control . ▁Bio control ▁uses ▁one ▁organ ism ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁population ▁density ▁of ▁another ▁organ ism — the ▁p est — and ▁is ▁considered ▁a |
▁key ▁element ▁of ▁integrated ▁p est ▁management . ▁ ▁Despite ▁the ▁large ▁amount ▁of ▁effort ▁focused ▁at ▁cont rolling ▁insect s , ▁human ▁attempts ▁to ▁kill ▁p ests ▁with ▁insect ic ides ▁can ▁back fire . ▁If ▁used ▁care lessly , ▁the ▁poison ▁can ▁kill ▁all ▁kinds ▁of ▁organ isms ▁in ▁the ▁area , ▁including ▁insect s ' ▁natural ▁pred ators , ▁such ▁as ▁birds , ▁m ice ▁and ▁other ▁insect iv ores . ▁The ▁effects ▁of ▁D DT ' s ▁use ▁exempl ifies ▁how ▁some ▁insect ic ides ▁can ▁threaten ▁wild life ▁beyond ▁intended ▁populations ▁of ▁p est ▁insect s . ▁▁ ▁In ▁benef icial ▁roles ▁▁ ▁Although ▁p est ▁insect s ▁attract ▁the ▁most ▁attention , ▁many ▁insect s ▁are ▁benef icial ▁to ▁the ▁environment ▁and ▁to ▁humans . ▁Some ▁insect s , ▁like ▁was ps , ▁be es , ▁but ter f lies ▁and ▁an ts , ▁pol lin ate ▁flow ering ▁plants . ▁Pol lin ation ▁is ▁a ▁mut ual istic ▁relationship ▁between ▁plants ▁and ▁insect s . ▁As ▁insect s ▁gather ▁ne ct ar ▁from ▁different ▁plants ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁species , ▁they ▁also ▁spread ▁pol len ▁from ▁plants ▁on ▁which ▁they ▁have ▁previously ▁fed . ▁This ▁greatly ▁increases ▁plants ' ▁ability ▁to ▁cross - pol lin ate , ▁which ▁maintain s ▁and ▁possibly ▁even ▁impro ves ▁their ▁evolution ary ▁fit ness . ▁This ▁ultimately ▁affect s ▁humans ▁since ▁ens uring ▁health y ▁cro ps ▁is ▁critical ▁to ▁agricult ure . ▁As ▁well ▁as ▁pol lin ation ▁an |
ts ▁help ▁with ▁seed ▁distribution ▁of ▁plants . ▁This ▁helps ▁to ▁spread ▁the ▁plants , ▁which ▁increases ▁plant ▁divers ity . ▁This ▁leads ▁to ▁an ▁overall ▁better ▁environment . ▁A ▁serious ▁environmental ▁problem ▁is ▁the ▁decl ine ▁of ▁populations ▁of ▁pol lin ator ▁insect s , ▁and ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁species ▁of ▁insect s ▁are ▁now ▁cult ured ▁primarily ▁for ▁pol lin ation ▁management ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁have ▁sufficient ▁pol lin ators ▁in ▁the ▁field , ▁orch ard ▁or ▁green house ▁at ▁blo om ▁time . ▁Another ▁solution , ▁as ▁shown ▁in ▁Del aware , ▁has ▁been ▁to ▁raise ▁native ▁plants ▁to ▁help ▁support ▁native ▁pol lin ators ▁like ▁L . ▁vi ere cki . ▁In sect s ▁also ▁produce ▁useful ▁subst ances ▁such ▁as ▁h oney , ▁w ax , ▁lac quer ▁and ▁sil k . ▁H oney ▁be es ▁have ▁been ▁cult ured ▁by ▁humans ▁for ▁thousands ▁of ▁years ▁for ▁h oney , ▁although ▁contract ing ▁for ▁c rop ▁pol lin ation ▁is ▁becoming ▁more ▁significant ▁for ▁be e keep ers . ▁The ▁sil kw orm ▁has ▁greatly ▁affected ▁human ▁history , ▁as ▁sil k - dri ven ▁trade ▁established ▁relationships ▁between ▁China ▁and ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁world . ▁ ▁In sect iv orous ▁insect s , ▁or ▁insect s ▁that ▁feed ▁on ▁other ▁insect s , ▁are ▁benef icial ▁to ▁humans ▁if ▁they ▁eat ▁insect s ▁that ▁could ▁cause ▁damage ▁to ▁agricult ure ▁and ▁human ▁structures . ▁For ▁example , ▁a ph ids ▁feed ▁on ▁cro ps ▁and ▁cause |
▁problems ▁for ▁far mers , ▁but ▁lady bug s ▁feed ▁on ▁a ph ids , ▁and ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁means ▁to ▁significantly ▁reduce ▁p est ▁a ph id ▁populations . ▁While ▁birds ▁are ▁perhaps ▁more ▁visible ▁pred ators ▁of ▁insect s , ▁insect s ▁themselves ▁account ▁for ▁the ▁vast ▁majority ▁of ▁insect ▁consumption . ▁An ts ▁also ▁help ▁control ▁animal ▁populations ▁by ▁cons uming ▁small ▁verte br ates . ▁Without ▁pred ators ▁to ▁keep ▁them ▁in ▁check , ▁insect s ▁can ▁under go ▁almost ▁un sto pp able ▁population ▁explos ions . ▁ ▁In sect s ▁are ▁also ▁used ▁in ▁medicine , ▁for ▁example ▁fly ▁lar va e ▁( mag g ots ) ▁were ▁formerly ▁used ▁to ▁treat ▁w ounds ▁to ▁prevent ▁or ▁stop ▁gang rene , ▁as ▁they ▁would ▁only ▁consume ▁dead ▁flesh . ▁This ▁treatment ▁is ▁finding ▁modern ▁usage ▁in ▁some ▁hosp it als . ▁Rec ently ▁insect s ▁have ▁also ▁gained ▁attention ▁as ▁potential ▁sources ▁of ▁dru gs ▁and ▁other ▁medic inal ▁subst ances . ▁Ad ult ▁insect s , ▁such ▁as ▁cr ick ets ▁and ▁insect ▁lar va e ▁of ▁various ▁kinds , ▁are ▁also ▁commonly ▁used ▁as ▁fish ing ▁b ait . ▁▁ ▁In ▁research ▁▁ ▁In sect s ▁play ▁important ▁roles ▁in ▁bi ological ▁research . ▁For ▁example , ▁because ▁of ▁its ▁small ▁size , ▁short ▁generation ▁time ▁and ▁high ▁f ec und ity , ▁the ▁common ▁fruit ▁fly ▁D ros oph ila ▁mel an og aster ▁is ▁a ▁model ▁organ ism ▁for ▁studies ▁in |
▁the ▁gen et ics ▁of ▁higher ▁e uk ary otes . ▁D . ▁mel an og aster ▁has ▁been ▁an ▁essential ▁part ▁of ▁studies ▁into ▁principles ▁like ▁gen etic ▁link age , ▁interactions ▁between ▁gen es , ▁chrom os om al ▁gen et ics , ▁development , ▁behavior ▁and ▁evolution . ▁Because ▁gen etic ▁systems ▁are ▁well ▁conser ved ▁among ▁e uk ary otes , ▁understanding ▁basic ▁cell ular ▁processes ▁like ▁DNA ▁rep lication ▁or ▁trans cription ▁in ▁fruit ▁f lies ▁can ▁help ▁to ▁understand ▁those ▁processes ▁in ▁other ▁e uk ary otes , ▁including ▁humans . ▁The ▁gen ome ▁of ▁D . ▁mel an og aster ▁was ▁sequ enced ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁reflect ing ▁the ▁organ ism ' s ▁important ▁role ▁in ▁bi ological ▁research . ▁It ▁was ▁found ▁that ▁ 7 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁fly ▁gen ome ▁is ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁human ▁gen ome , ▁supporting ▁the ▁evolution ▁theory . ▁▁ ▁As ▁food ▁▁ ▁In ▁some ▁cult ures , ▁insect s , ▁especially ▁deep - fried ▁cic adas , ▁are ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁del ica cies , ▁whereas ▁in ▁other ▁places ▁they ▁form ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁normal ▁di et . ▁In sect s ▁have ▁a ▁high ▁protein ▁content ▁for ▁their ▁mass , ▁and ▁some ▁authors ▁suggest ▁their ▁potential ▁as ▁a ▁major ▁source ▁of ▁protein ▁in ▁human ▁nut r ition . ▁In ▁most ▁first - world ▁countries , ▁however , ▁ent om oph agy ▁( the ▁e ating ▁of ▁insect s ), ▁is ▁tab oo . ▁Since |
▁it ▁is ▁impossible ▁to ▁entirely ▁eliminate ▁p est ▁insect s ▁from ▁the ▁human ▁food ▁chain , ▁insect s ▁are ▁in ad vert ently ▁present ▁in ▁many ▁food s , ▁especially ▁gra ins . ▁Food ▁safety ▁laws ▁in ▁many ▁countries ▁do ▁not ▁prohib it ▁insect ▁parts ▁in ▁food , ▁but ▁rather ▁limit ▁their ▁quantity . ▁According ▁to ▁cultural ▁material ist ▁anth rop ologist ▁Mar vin ▁Harris , ▁the ▁e ating ▁of ▁insect s ▁is ▁tab oo ▁in ▁cult ures ▁that ▁have ▁other ▁protein ▁sources ▁such ▁as ▁fish ▁or ▁liv est ock . ▁ ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁abund ance ▁of ▁insect s ▁and ▁a ▁world wide ▁concern ▁of ▁food ▁short ages , ▁the ▁Food ▁and ▁Agricult ure ▁Organ ization ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Nations ▁cons iders ▁that ▁the ▁world ▁may ▁have ▁to , ▁in ▁the ▁future , ▁regard ▁the ▁prospect s ▁of ▁e ating ▁insect s ▁as ▁a ▁food ▁st ap le . ▁In sect s ▁are ▁noted ▁for ▁their ▁nut ri ents , ▁having ▁a ▁high ▁content ▁of ▁protein , ▁min er als ▁and ▁f ats ▁and ▁are ▁e aten ▁by ▁one - third ▁of ▁the ▁global ▁population . ▁▁ ▁As ▁feed ▁▁ ▁Several ▁insect ▁species ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁black ▁soldier ▁fly ▁or ▁the ▁house fly ▁in ▁their ▁mag got ▁forms , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁be et le ▁lar va e ▁such ▁as ▁me al w orm s ▁can ▁be ▁processed ▁and ▁used ▁as ▁feed ▁for ▁far med ▁animals ▁such ▁as ▁ch icken , ▁fish ▁and ▁p igs . ▁▁ ▁In ▁other ▁products ▁▁ ▁In |
sect ▁lar va e ▁( i . e . ▁black ▁soldier ▁fly ▁lar va e ) ▁can ▁provide ▁protein , ▁gre ase , ▁and ▁ch it in . ▁The ▁gre ase ▁is ▁us able ▁in ▁the ▁ph arma ce ut ical ▁industry ▁( cos met ics , ▁sur fact ants ▁for ▁show er ▁gel ) ▁- here by ▁replacing ▁other ▁veget able ▁o ils ▁as ▁pal m ▁oil . ▁ ▁Also , ▁insect ▁cook ing ▁oil , ▁insect ▁but ter ▁and ▁fat ty ▁alco h ols ▁can ▁be ▁made ▁from ▁such ▁insect s ▁as ▁the ▁super w orm ▁( Z oph ob as ▁mor io ' '). ▁ ▁As ▁p ets ▁ ▁Many ▁species ▁of ▁insect s ▁are ▁sold ▁and ▁kept ▁as ▁p ets . ▁ ▁In ▁culture ▁▁ ▁Sc arab ▁be et les ▁held ▁religious ▁and ▁cultural ▁symbol ism ▁in ▁Old ▁Egypt , ▁Greece ▁and ▁some ▁sh aman istic ▁Old ▁World ▁cult ures . ▁The ▁ancient ▁Chinese ▁regarded ▁cic adas ▁as ▁symbols ▁of ▁reb irth ▁or ▁imm ort ality . ▁In ▁Mes op ot am ian ▁literature , ▁the ▁ep ic ▁poem ▁of ▁Gil g ames h ▁has ▁all us ions ▁to ▁Od on ata ▁that ▁sign ify ▁the ▁impos s ibility ▁of ▁imm ort ality . ▁Among ▁the ▁Ab orig ines ▁of ▁Australia ▁of ▁the ▁Arr ern te ▁language ▁groups , ▁h oney ▁an ts ▁and ▁w itch ety ▁gr ubs ▁served ▁as ▁personal ▁cl an ▁to tem s . ▁In ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁the ▁' San ' ▁bush - men |
▁of ▁the ▁Kal ah ari , ▁it ▁is ▁the ▁pray ing ▁mant is ▁that ▁holds ▁much ▁cultural ▁significance ▁including ▁creation ▁and ▁z en - like ▁p atience ▁in ▁waiting . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Chem ical ▁e col ogy ▁ ▁Def ense ▁in ▁insect s ▁ ▁Ent om ology ▁ ▁Eth no ent om ology ▁ ▁F lying ▁and ▁gl iding ▁animals ▁ ▁In sect ▁b iod iversity ▁ ▁In sect ▁e col ogy ▁ ▁In sect - bor ne ▁dise ases ▁ ▁Pre histor ic ▁insect s ▁ ▁P ain ▁in ▁in verte br ates ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁In sect s ▁of ▁North ▁America ▁ ▁Over view ▁of ▁Or ders ▁of ▁In sect s ▁▁▁ ▁A ▁Sa fr inet ▁Man ual ▁for ▁Ent om ology ▁and ▁Ara chn ology ▁S PC ▁ ▁Tree ▁of ▁Life ▁Project ▁– ▁In sect a , ▁In sect a ▁Mov ies ▁ ▁In sect ▁Mor ph ology ▁Over view ▁of ▁insect ▁external ▁and ▁internal ▁an atom y ▁ ▁F oss il ▁In sect ▁Database ▁International ▁Pala e o ent ological ▁Society ▁ ▁U F ▁Book ▁of ▁In sect ▁Records ▁ ▁In sect Images . org ▁ 2 4 , 0 0 0 ▁high ▁resolution ▁insect ▁photograph s ▁ ▁BBC ▁Nature : ▁In sect ▁news , ▁and ▁video ▁cli ps ▁from ▁BBC ▁program mes ▁past ▁and ▁present . ▁ ▁The ▁Nature ▁Ex pl or ers ▁Many ▁insect ▁video ▁cli ps . ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : Ent om ology ▁▁ ▁Category |
: Ext ant ▁Early ▁Dev onian ▁first ▁appearances ▁Category : L ate ▁Dev onian ▁animals <0x0A> </s> ▁V ance ▁is ▁an ▁English ▁surname . ▁ ▁V ance ▁is ▁the ▁surname ▁of : ▁ ▁People ▁ ▁Alfred ▁V ance ▁( 1 8 3 9 – 1 8 8 8 ), ▁English ▁music ▁hall ▁singer ▁and ▁song writer ▁ ▁Clar ice ▁V ance ▁( 1 8 7 1 – 1 9 6 1 ), ▁American ▁v au dev ille ▁perform er ▁ ▁Col m ▁V ance ▁( born ▁ 1 9 9 2 ), ▁Canadian ▁s occer ▁player ▁ ▁Court ney ▁B . ▁V ance ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 0 ), ▁American ▁actor ▁ ▁C yrus ▁V ance ▁( 1 9 1 7 – 2 0 0 2 ), ▁US ▁Secretary ▁of ▁State ▁ ▁C yrus ▁V ance ▁Jr . ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 4 ), ▁New ▁York ▁County ▁District ▁Att orney ▁ ▁David ▁V ance ▁( polit ician ) ▁( 1 8 3 6 – 1 9 1 2 ), ▁American ▁ship master ▁and ▁politician ▁▁ ▁David ▁R . ▁V ance ▁( born ▁ 1 9 4 0 ), ▁American ▁race hor se ▁tra iner ▁▁ ▁D az zy ▁V ance ▁( 1 8 9 1 – 1 9 6 1 ), ▁American ▁baseball ▁pitch er ▁ ▁Dan it ra ▁V ance ▁( 1 9 5 4 – 1 9 9 4 ), ▁American ▁com ed ian ▁and ▁actress ▁ ▁F oy ▁V ance ▁( born ▁ 1 9 7 |
4 ), ▁Irish ▁music ian ▁ ▁J . ▁D . ▁V ance ▁( born ▁ 1 9 8 4 ), ▁American ▁author ▁and ▁vent ure ▁capital ist ▁ ▁Jack ▁V ance ▁( 1 9 1 6 – 2 0 1 3 ), ▁American ▁fant asy ▁and ▁science ▁fiction ▁writer ▁ ▁Jim ▁V ance ▁( 1 9 4 2 – 2 0 1 7 ), ▁American ▁news ▁anchor ▁ ▁Joseph ▁V ance ▁( Oh io ▁politician ) ▁( 1 7 8 6 – 1 8 5 2 ), ▁American ▁politician ▁ ▁Joseph ▁W . ▁V ance ▁( 1 8 4 1 – 1 9 2 7 ), ▁American ▁military ▁officer ▁ ▁Joseph ▁Williams ▁V ance ▁Jr . ▁( 1 9 1 8 – 1 9 4 2 ), ▁American ▁sub mar iner ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁ ▁John ▁V ance ▁( MP ) ▁( d ied ▁ 1 8 7 5 ), ▁Member ▁of ▁Parliament ▁for ▁Dublin ▁and ▁Arm agh ▁ ▁Jonathan ▁V ance , ▁Canadian ▁general , ▁current ▁Chief ▁of ▁the ▁Def ence ▁Staff ▁ ▁Leon ▁V ance ▁( 1 9 1 6 – 1 9 4 4 ), ▁US ▁Medal ▁of ▁Honor ▁recip ient ▁ ▁Les ley ▁V ance , ▁( born ▁ 1 9 7 7 ), ▁American ▁painter ▁ ▁Paul ▁V ance ▁( born ▁ 1 9 2 9 ), ▁American ▁song writer ▁ ▁Robert ▁Smith ▁V ance ▁( 1 9 3 1 – 1 9 8 9 ), ▁federal ▁judge ▁ ▁Terry ▁V ance ▁( born ▁ 1 9 |
5 3 ), ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame ▁motor cycle ▁rac er ▁and ▁co - found er ▁of ▁after market ▁parts ▁business ▁V ance ▁& ▁H ines ▁ ▁Tommy ▁V ance ▁( 1 9 4 1 – 2 0 0 5 ), ▁British ▁radio ▁broad c aster ▁ ▁Viv ian ▁V ance ▁( 1 9 0 9 – 1 9 7 9 ), ▁American ▁actor ▁best ▁known ▁for ▁playing ▁Eth el ▁M ert z ▁on ▁I ▁Love ▁Lucy ▁ ▁William ▁R . ▁V ance ▁( 1 8 0 6 – 1 8 8 5 ), ▁sevent h ▁mayor ▁of ▁Louis ville , ▁Kentucky ▁ ▁William ▁Washington ▁V ance ▁( 1 8 4 9 – 1 9 0 0 ), ▁Louisiana ▁politician ▁ ▁Z eb ul on ▁B air d ▁V ance ▁( 1 8 3 0 – 1 8 9 4 ), ▁American ▁politician , ▁Governor ▁of ▁North ▁Carolina , ▁U . S . ▁Senator ▁and ▁Confeder ate ▁officer ▁ ▁Pseud onym ▁Eth el ▁V ance , ▁pseud onym ▁of ▁Grace ▁Z aring ▁Stone ▁( 1 8 9 1 – 1 9 8 1 ), ▁American ▁author ▁ ▁William ▁V ance , ▁pseud onym ▁of ▁William ▁van ▁C uts em ▁( born ▁ 1 9 3 5 ), ▁Belg ian ▁com ic ▁book ▁artist ▁ ▁F ict ional ▁characters ▁▁ ▁A ly x ▁V ance , ▁in ▁the ▁video ▁game ▁Half - Life ▁ 2 ▁B agger ▁V ance , ▁in ▁the ▁movie ▁Leg end ▁of ▁B agger ▁V ance ▁Bro ther ▁V ance , |
▁A ▁character ▁in ▁the ▁game ▁Dest iny ▁and ▁its ▁sequ el ▁Dest iny ▁ 2 ▁Bob ▁V ance , ▁character ▁from ▁the ▁U . S . ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁TV ▁series ▁The ▁Office ▁Dr . ▁Eli ▁V ance , ▁in ▁the ▁video ▁game ▁Half - Life ▁ 2 ▁L ance ▁V ance ▁and ▁Victor ▁V ance , ▁from ▁the ▁video ▁game ▁Grand ▁The ft ▁Auto : ▁Vice ▁City ▁Leon ▁V ance , ▁director ▁of ▁NC IS ▁in ▁the ▁television ▁show ▁NC IS M ary ▁V ance , ▁or phan ▁from ▁L . ▁M . ▁Mont gom ery ' s ▁Rain bow ▁Valley N ell ▁V ance , ▁in ▁the ▁movie ▁The ▁Ha un ting '' ▁ ▁Phil o ▁V ance , ▁detect ive ▁in ▁several ▁nov els ▁by ▁S . ▁S . ▁Van ▁D ine ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁V ance ▁( g iven ▁name ) <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 ▁U M ass ▁Low ell ▁River ▁Haw ks ▁women ' s ▁basketball ▁team ▁will ▁represent ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Massachusetts ▁Low ell ▁in ▁the ▁America ▁East ▁Conference . ▁ ▁The ▁River ▁Haw ks ▁are ▁led ▁by ▁first ▁year ▁head ▁coach ▁J ener rie ▁Harris ▁ ▁and ▁will ▁once ▁again ▁play ▁most ▁their ▁home ▁games ▁in ▁the ▁Cost ello ▁Athlet ic ▁Center ▁while ▁select ▁games ▁will ▁be ▁played ▁in ▁the ▁Ts ong as ▁Center ▁at ▁U M ass ▁Low ell . ▁As ▁part ▁of ▁their ▁transition ▁to ▁Division ▁I , ▁they ▁are ▁in el ig ible ▁for |
▁post ▁season ▁play ▁until ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 7 – 1 8 ▁season . ▁They ▁finished ▁the ▁season ▁ 1 4 – 1 5 , ▁ 7 – 9 ▁in ▁America ▁East ▁play ▁for ▁a ▁sixth - place ▁finish . ▁ ▁Media ▁All ▁non - tele vised ▁home ▁games ▁and ▁conference ▁road ▁games ▁will ▁stream ▁on ▁either ▁ESP N 3 ▁or ▁America E ast . tv . ▁Most ▁road ▁games ▁will ▁stream ▁on ▁the ▁oppon ents ▁website . ▁ ▁R oster ▁ ▁Sch edule ▁ ▁| - ▁! col span = 1 2 ▁style =" background :# 3 3 3 3 9 9 ; ▁color :# CC 3 3 3 3 ;" | ▁Reg ular ▁season ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 ▁U M ass ▁Low ell ▁River ▁Haw ks ▁men ' s ▁basketball ▁team ▁U M ass ▁Low ell ▁River ▁Haw ks ▁women ' s ▁basketball ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : UM ass ▁Low ell ▁River ▁Haw ks ▁women ' s ▁basketball ▁seasons ▁U M ass ▁Low ell ▁U M ass ▁U M ass <0x0A> </s> ▁T uri ▁Tur ini ▁( A ym ara ▁t uri ▁tower , ▁the ▁redu p lication ▁indicates ▁that ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁something , ▁- ni ▁a ▁suffix ▁to ▁indicate ▁ownership , ▁" the ▁one ▁with ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁to wers ", ▁also ▁sp elled ▁T ori ▁Tor ini ) ▁is ▁a ▁mountain ▁in ▁the ▁Boliv ian ▁And es ▁which ▁reaches ▁a ▁height ▁of ▁approximately ▁. ▁It ▁is ▁located |
▁in ▁the ▁C och ab amba ▁Department , ▁Ay op aya ▁Province , ▁Mor och ata ▁Municip ality , ▁south west ▁of ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁Chor ito . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Mount ains ▁of ▁C och ab amba ▁Department <0x0A> </s> ▁At to ▁of ▁Ver cel li ▁or ▁At to ▁II ▁( 8 8 5 – 9 6 1 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Lomb ard ▁who ▁became ▁bishop ▁of ▁Ver cel li ▁in ▁ 9 2 4 . ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁Grand ▁Chan cell or ▁to ▁Hugh ▁of ▁Prov ence ▁and ▁L oth ar ▁II , ▁both ▁Kings ▁of ▁Italy ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century . ▁During ▁his ▁time ▁as ▁bishop , ▁At to ▁was ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁dev otion ▁to ▁the ▁w elf are ▁of ▁the ▁people ▁in ▁his ▁dioc ese , ▁both ▁temporal ▁and ▁spiritual , ▁and ▁the ▁vig or ▁with ▁which ▁he ▁attacked ▁ecc les ial ▁cor ruption . ▁He ▁wrote ▁several ▁works ▁in ▁his ▁lifetime . ▁His ▁major ▁compos itions ▁include ▁Poly ptic um , ▁a ▁treat ise ▁on ▁the ▁mor ality ▁of ▁Italy ▁in ▁the ▁day ; ▁De ▁press ur is ▁ecc les i astic is , ▁an ▁ess ay ▁regarding ▁ecc les iast ical ▁authority ; ▁and ▁the ▁Cap itul are , ▁a ▁collection ▁of ▁canon ▁law ▁from ▁his ▁area , ▁including ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁False ▁Dec ret als , ▁augment ed ▁by ▁his ▁own ▁add itions ▁of ▁ecc les i astic ▁law . ▁A ▁small ▁selection ▁of ▁his ▁ser m ons ▁surv ives |
▁in ▁written ▁form . ▁He ▁died ▁in ▁ 9 6 1 . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁At to ▁was ▁born ▁around ▁ 8 8 5 ▁CE ▁and ▁lived ▁approximately ▁sevent y - five ▁years , ▁dying ▁on ▁December ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 9 6 1 ▁CE . ▁He ▁was ▁born ▁into ▁a ▁noble ▁Lomb ard ▁family ; ▁his ▁father ▁was ▁man ▁named ▁Al deg arius . ▁At to ' s ▁ ▁writing ▁later ▁in ▁life ▁shows ▁a ▁master y ▁of ▁Latin ▁and ▁Greek ▁– ▁Latin ▁being ▁the ▁only ▁common ▁language ▁in ▁Italy ▁by ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁Century ▁– ▁which ▁indicates ▁that ▁his ▁education ▁must ▁have ▁been ▁substantial , ▁in ▁line ▁with ▁the ▁social ▁standing ▁of ▁his ▁family . ▁Little ▁else ▁is ▁known ▁about ▁At to ' s ▁child hood ▁or ▁ecc les i astic ▁career ▁beg inn ings . ▁ ▁Epis cop ate ▁of ▁Ver cel li ▁At to ' s ▁rise ▁to ▁become ▁bishop ▁of ▁Ver cel li ▁was ▁the ▁consequence ▁of ▁a ▁violent ▁attack ▁on ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁P avia . ▁The ▁inv ading ▁army ▁was ▁Hung arian ▁in ▁origin . ▁In ▁ 9 2 4 ▁CE , ▁forces ▁entered ▁Italy , ▁desc ending ▁upon ▁P avia ▁on ▁March ▁ 1 2 . ▁R ag ember t , ▁At to ' s ▁prede cess or ▁as ▁bishop ▁of ▁Ver cel li , ▁was ▁in ▁P avia ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁and ▁per ished ▁in ▁the ▁event . ▁This ▁left ▁the ▁bishop ric ▁of ▁Ver cel li ▁open ▁for ▁At to |
, ▁who ▁must ▁have ▁been ▁a ▁prominent ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁cler gy ▁in ▁Ver cel li ▁already ▁to ▁be ▁el ig ible ▁for ▁the ▁position . ▁The ▁epis cop ate ▁put ▁At to ▁in ▁contact ▁with ▁many ▁powerful ▁men , ▁including ▁Hugh ▁of ▁Prov ence , ▁King ▁of ▁Italy ; ▁L oth ar ▁II , ▁King ▁of ▁Italy ▁and ▁Hugh ' s ▁son ; ▁and ▁the ▁marg ra ve ▁Ber eng ar ▁II . ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁Grand ▁Chan cell or ▁to ▁both ▁Hugh ▁of ▁Prov ence ▁and ▁L oth ar ▁II ▁during ▁their ▁respective ▁reign s ▁over ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy . ▁His ▁position ▁with ▁L oth ar ▁II ▁began ▁in ▁May ▁of ▁ 9 5 0 . ▁At to ▁did ▁not ▁agree ▁with ▁L oth ar ' s ▁un just ▁means ▁of ▁r uling , ▁but ▁was ▁un success ful ▁in ▁making ▁any ▁real ▁changes , ▁as ▁he ▁could ▁only ▁council ▁the ▁young ▁king . ▁ ▁Relig ious ▁Ze al ▁and ▁Church ▁Cor ruption ▁At to ▁was ▁highly ▁concerned ▁with ▁the ▁w elf are ▁of ▁the ▁people ▁in ▁his ▁dioc ese , ▁both ▁spiritual ▁and ▁sec ular . ▁He ▁disapp ro ved ▁of ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁hor os cop es ▁to ▁direct ▁life ▁choices ▁such ▁as ▁marriage . ▁He ▁did ▁not , ▁however , ▁prohib it ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁ast ro log y ▁in ▁his ▁f lock ▁completely , ▁as ▁he ▁said ▁that ▁God ▁created ▁stars ▁for ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁man . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁he ▁encourag ed ▁the ▁practical |
▁application ▁of ▁ast ro log y ▁as ▁a ▁method ▁of ▁telling ▁time , ▁navig ating , ▁and ▁predict ing ▁the ▁weather , ▁for ▁the ▁benefit ▁of ▁his ▁people ▁who ▁re lied ▁upon ▁ast ro log ical ▁calculations ▁for ▁their ▁liv elihood s . ▁He ▁wor ried ▁extens ively ▁about ▁the ▁cor ruption ▁of ▁his ▁f lock : ▁in ▁an ▁E aster ▁ser mon , ▁he ▁dis cred ited ▁public ▁entertain ment ▁such ▁as ▁plays , ▁particularly ▁during ▁the ▁weeks ▁of ▁L ent ▁and ▁E aster . ▁He ▁claimed ▁public ▁entertain ment ▁was ▁fabric ated ▁by ▁the ▁inf am ous ▁“ dem ons ” ▁Liber us ▁and ▁Ven us ▁as ▁a ▁device ▁to ▁in cite ▁dep rav ity . ▁ ▁His ▁spiritual ▁ze al ▁was ▁more ▁fam ously ▁directed ▁toward ▁the ▁church ▁itself . ▁At to ▁was ▁concerned ▁with ▁the ▁cler gy ▁in ▁Northern ▁Italy . ▁Although ▁he ▁noticed ▁pag an ▁super st itions ▁in ▁his ▁parish ion ers , ▁he ▁believed ▁these ▁super st itions ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁fault ▁of ▁the ▁cler gy , ▁who ▁were ▁“ clear ly ▁not ▁particularly ▁devoted ▁to ▁their ▁priest ly ▁duties . ▁He ▁readily ▁pres cribed ▁pun ishment ▁for ▁pri ests ▁who ▁were ▁mis leading ▁or ▁neglect ing ▁their ▁f lock s . ▁At to ▁also ▁wished ▁to ▁rect ify ▁the ▁growing ▁problem ▁of ▁sexual ity ▁within ▁the ▁priest hood . ▁He ▁had ▁discovered ▁that ▁many ▁cler ics , ▁who ▁were , ▁by ▁the ▁dec ree ▁of ▁the ▁Council ▁of ▁N ica ea , ▁supposed ▁to ▁be |
▁cel ib ate , ▁were ▁for nic ating ▁with ▁women . ▁Such ▁cler ics ▁often ▁made ▁exc uses ▁as ▁to ▁why ▁they ▁needed ▁women ▁around , ▁but ▁At to ▁saw ▁through ▁these . ▁Although ▁he ▁didn ’ t ▁threaten ▁any ▁pun ishment ▁to ▁the ▁off ending ▁ecc les iast ics , ▁he ▁did ▁strongly ▁suggest ▁that ▁they ▁should ▁stop . ▁More ▁likely ▁than ▁not , ▁his ▁influence ▁was ▁not ▁very ▁strong ▁on ▁matters ▁that ▁were ▁so ▁tied ▁to ▁human ▁nature , ▁such ▁as ▁this . ▁ ▁At to ▁opposed ▁several ▁other ▁practices ▁within ▁the ▁Church . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁Middle ▁A ges , ▁it ▁was ▁prof itable ▁for ▁cl erg ymen ▁to ▁sell ▁holy ▁cloth , ▁i . e . ▁alt ar ▁furn ish ings ▁or ▁priest ’ s ▁cl othing , ▁to ▁families ▁who ▁wished ▁to ▁carry ▁their ▁dead ▁to ▁the ▁grave ▁with ▁a ▁lit urg ical ▁article ▁for ▁the ▁purpose ▁of ▁ens uring ▁the ▁dead ▁a ▁safe ▁trip ▁into ▁the ▁after life . ▁At to ▁did ▁not ▁disapp ro ve ▁of ▁this ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁actual ▁‘ s elling ’ ▁of ▁holy ▁articles , ▁however . ▁It ▁was ▁said ▁that ▁once ▁restored ▁to ▁its ▁original ▁purpose , ▁the ▁cloth ▁used ▁to ▁bear ▁the ▁dead ▁would ▁be ▁t aint ed ▁and ▁poll ute ▁the ▁alt ar ▁and ▁Mass ▁it ▁was ▁meant ▁to ▁serve . ▁At to ▁thus ▁saw ▁the ▁appropri ation ▁of ▁holy ▁cloth ▁during ▁fun eral ▁services ▁as ▁a ▁fault ▁of ▁the ▁cler gy : ▁in ▁his ▁opinion , ▁the ▁ecc |
les iast ics ▁who ▁performed ▁this ▁practice ▁were ▁una ware ▁of ▁the ▁appropriate ▁way ▁to ▁treat ▁articles ▁that ▁are ▁instrument al ▁in ▁sacred ▁worship . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁centuries ▁before ▁At to ' s ▁time , ▁cler ics ▁from ▁the ▁lowest ▁to ▁the ▁highest ▁ranks ▁were ▁known ▁to ▁take ▁coun sel ▁from ▁mag icians , ▁or ▁se ers . ▁This ▁practice ▁– ▁and ▁the ▁general ▁fear ▁that ▁cl erg ymen ▁were ▁cor rupted ▁by ▁or ▁becoming ▁mag icians ▁– ▁died ▁out ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁Century . ▁At to ▁in exp lic ably ▁decided ▁to ▁warn ▁against ▁the ▁consult ation ▁of ▁mag icians ▁and ▁se ers ▁in ▁all ▁ranks ▁of ▁the ▁cler gy ▁during ▁his ▁time ▁as ▁Bishop ▁of ▁Ver cel li , ▁although ▁there ▁is ▁little ▁evidence ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁still ▁widely ▁regarded ▁as ▁a ▁problem . ▁ ▁Works ▁At to ▁of ▁Ver cel li ' s ▁literary ▁canon ▁surv ives ▁in ▁partial ▁form , ▁and ▁is ▁largely ▁instruction al . ▁His ▁ser m ons ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁contemporary ▁anth ologies , ▁such ▁as ▁At to ' s ▁“ on ▁Pal m ▁Sunday ▁( S erm on ▁VII ) ” ▁in ▁Ray ▁C . ▁Pet ry ' s ▁No ▁Un certain ▁Sound : ▁S erm ons ▁that ▁Sh aped ▁the ▁P ulp it ▁Trad ition , ▁published ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 . ▁Al ong side ▁his ▁larger ▁works , ▁At to ▁also ▁wrote ▁The ▁Ex position ▁on ▁the ▁Ep ist les ▁of ▁Saint ▁Paul , |
▁a ▁comment ary ▁that ▁would ▁have ▁been ▁used ▁to ▁educ ate ▁the ▁cl erg ymen ▁of ▁Ver cel li . ▁A ▁small ▁collection ▁of ▁At to ' s ▁Ep ist ola e , ▁or ▁letters , ▁has ▁been ▁preserved , ▁probably ▁compiled ▁from ▁the ▁cod ices ▁of ▁Ver cel li ▁and ▁the ▁V at ican ▁library . ▁This ▁collection ▁includes ▁nine ▁letters ▁that ▁At to ▁wrote , ▁and ▁two ▁directed ▁to ▁At to ▁from ▁other ▁authors . ▁ ▁De ▁press ur is ▁ecc les i astic is ▁The ▁earliest ▁of ▁his ▁principal ▁compos itions , ▁De ▁press ur is ▁ecc les i astic is ▁was ▁written ▁around ▁ 9 4 0 ▁CE . ▁It ▁is ▁sometimes ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁its ▁full ▁name , ▁De ▁press ur is ▁e cles i astic is ▁lib ell us , ▁meaning ▁“ Book ▁on ▁the ▁Press ures ▁of ▁the ▁Church .” ▁It ▁contains ▁disc ourse ▁regarding ▁the ▁juris diction ▁of ▁the ▁Church ▁and ▁its ▁law , ▁and ▁arg ues ▁against ▁the ▁m alt re at ment ▁of ▁lay people . ▁Al ong side ▁this , ▁it ▁dis pro ves ▁accus ations ▁against ▁the ▁cler gy , ▁including ▁matters ▁regarding ▁the ▁ord ination ▁of ▁ecc les iast ics , ▁especially ▁to ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁b ish ops , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁unw arr anted ▁ex prop ri ation ▁of ▁church ▁property ▁after ▁a ▁bishop ' s ▁death . ▁ ▁Poly ptic um ▁Sometimes ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁Per pend icul um , ▁meaning ▁“ per pend icular ,” |
▁“ line ,” ▁or ▁“ pl um met ,” ▁this ▁work ▁seems ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁completed ▁near ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁At to ' s ▁life , ▁perhaps ▁in ▁his ▁last ▁months . ▁It ▁may ▁have ▁been ▁sent ▁to ▁a ▁friend ▁or ▁colle ague ▁of ▁At to ' s , ▁who ▁wrote ▁the ▁for ew ord ▁using ▁Latin ▁similar ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁At to , ▁before ▁being ▁published . ▁It ▁has ▁been ▁suggested ▁that ▁only ▁the ▁first ▁two ▁draft s ▁of ▁the ▁work ▁are ▁in ▁the ▁hand ▁of ▁At to ▁himself , ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁a for ement ioned ▁friend ▁or ▁colle ague ▁of ▁At to ▁may ▁have ▁for ged ▁his ▁hand ▁for ▁the ▁later ▁edition ▁of ▁the ▁text . ▁The ▁work ▁itself ▁discuss es ▁the ▁trou bling ▁political ▁atmosphere ▁of ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy , ▁al beit ▁in ▁an ▁obsc ure ▁way . ▁It ▁s ati riz es ▁the ▁political ▁strugg les ▁between ▁princes ▁and ▁nob ility ▁in ▁the ▁time ▁period , ▁and ▁shows ▁At to ' s ▁dist aste ▁and ▁p ess im ism ▁about ▁the ▁age ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁lived . ▁ ▁Can ones : ▁E cc les i astic ▁Law ▁The ▁name ▁of ▁At to ' s ▁compilation ▁of ▁canon ▁law ▁is ▁deb atable . ▁L inda ▁F ow ler - M ager l ▁calls ▁it ▁the ▁long - wind ed ▁Capit ula ▁canon um ▁ex cer pt ar um ▁de ▁divers is ▁conc ili is ▁de cret al ibus ▁stat ut is ▁at que ▁ep ist olis ▁con gru |
ent ium ▁ad ▁for ense ▁i ud ici um ▁temp ore ▁dom ini ▁Att on is ▁epis cop i , ▁which ▁transl ates ▁roughly ▁to ▁“ Ex cer pt ▁chap ters ▁of ▁can ons ▁about ▁the ▁different ▁de cret al ▁stat ute ▁coun c ils ▁and ▁the ▁corresponding ▁letters ▁to ▁the ▁legal ▁judgment ▁in ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁lord ▁Bishop ▁At to .” ▁W . ▁C . ▁K orf m acher ▁uses ▁the ▁short ened ▁Can ones ▁stat uta que ▁Ver cell ensis ▁E cc lesia e , ▁roughly ▁meaning ▁“ Can ons ▁and ▁Stat utes ▁of ▁the ▁Church ▁of ▁Ver cel li .” ▁Paul ▁Collins ▁pre fers ▁the ▁abbre vi ated ▁Cap itul are , ▁simply ▁meaning ▁“ cap itul ary .” ▁It ▁is ▁clear ▁in ▁their ▁writing , ▁however , ▁that ▁Collins , ▁K orf m acher , ▁and ▁F ow ler - M ager l ▁reference ▁the ▁same ▁work , ▁namely ▁At to ' s ▁compilation ▁of ▁and ▁add itions ▁to ▁ecc les i astic ▁law . ▁ ▁In ▁this ▁work , ▁At to ▁assemble d ▁pre ex isting ▁law ▁from ▁multiple ▁resources : ▁the ▁decre es ▁and ▁letters ▁of ▁several ▁pop es , ▁decre es ▁from ▁up ▁to ▁th ir teen ▁different ▁coun c ils , ▁and ▁the ▁canon ▁of ▁The od ulf ▁of ▁Or lé ans . ▁Port ions ▁of ▁the ▁de cret als ▁used ▁are ▁from ▁a ▁collection ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁False ▁Dec ret als ▁or ▁Collect io ▁Is id ori ▁Mer c ator is . ▁Some |
▁say ▁that ▁At to ' s ▁compilation ▁de als ▁exclus ively ▁with ▁legisl ation ▁in ▁his ▁dioc ese ▁in ▁Northern ▁Italy . ▁ ▁The ▁collection ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁generally ▁discuss es ▁legisl ation ▁surrounding ▁cler ical ▁discipline ▁and ▁l ifest yle . ▁For ▁example , ▁this ▁set ▁of ▁canon ▁law ▁dem ands ▁cler ics ▁to ▁be ▁very ▁well ▁vers ed ▁in ▁script ure ▁and ▁ecc les i astic ▁law , ▁including ▁knowing ▁the ▁Apost les ' ▁Cre ed ▁and ▁the ▁Nic ene ▁Cre ed ▁verb at im . ▁It ▁requires ▁cler ics ▁to ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁pre ach ▁and ▁celebr ate ▁Mass ▁in ▁Latin . ▁It ▁prohib its ▁economic ▁actions ▁such ▁as ▁le asing ▁property , ▁acqu iring ▁interest ▁on ▁lo ans , ▁and ▁general ▁business ▁transactions . ▁It ▁also ▁cast ig ates ▁those ▁who ▁ren ounce ▁their ▁faith ▁for ▁the ▁worship ▁of ▁false ▁id ols , ▁which ▁At to ▁found ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁ha z ard ▁to ▁orth odox y ▁in ▁his ▁f lock . ▁As ▁always , ▁At to ▁devoted ▁some ▁of ▁his ▁efforts ▁in ▁canon ▁law ▁towards ▁the ▁greater ▁good ▁of ▁his ▁con greg ation : ▁his ▁collection ▁included ▁the ▁requirement ▁of ▁cler ics ▁to ▁b ury ▁their ▁parish ion ers , ▁and ▁to ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁teach ▁them ▁both ▁reading ▁and ▁writing . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁S ources ▁▁▁ ▁Bo enig , ▁Robert . ▁Saint ▁and ▁Hero : ▁Andreas ▁and ▁Med ieval ▁Do ctrine . ▁Lewis burg : ▁Buck nell ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 9 0 . |
▁ ▁Collins , ▁Paul . ▁The ▁B irth ▁of ▁the ▁West : ▁Rome , ▁Germany , ▁France , ▁and ▁the ▁Cre ation ▁of ▁Europe ▁in ▁the ▁T enth ▁Century . ▁New ▁York : ▁Public Aff airs , ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁ ▁Fil ot as , ▁Bern ad ette . ▁P agan ▁Sur viv als , ▁Super st itions , ▁and ▁Popular ▁Cult ures ▁in ▁Early ▁Med ieval ▁Past oral ▁Liter ature . ▁Toronto : ▁Pont ific al ▁Institute ▁of ▁Media eval ▁Studies , ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁ ▁F ow ler - M ager l , ▁L inda . ▁Cla vis ▁Can on um : ▁Selected ▁Can on ▁Law ▁Col lections ▁Before ▁ 1 1 4 0 . ▁Han over : ▁H ahn sche , ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁ ▁K orf m acher , ▁W . ▁C . ▁" At to ▁of ▁Ver cel li ." ▁In ▁New ▁Catholic ▁Encyclopedia . ▁Vol . ▁ 1 . ▁New ▁York : ▁McG raw - H ill , ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁ ▁Pet ry , ▁Ray ▁C , ▁ed . ▁No ▁Un certain ▁Sound : ▁S erm ons ▁that ▁Sh aped ▁the ▁P ulp it ▁Trad ition . ▁Philadelphia : ▁West min ster ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 4 8 . ▁ ▁V alt ort a , ▁Bened etta . ▁Cla vis ▁S criptor um ▁Latin orum ▁Med ii ▁A e vi . ▁A uct ores ▁Italia e ▁( 7 0 0 - 1 0 |
0 0 ). ▁Florence : ▁S IS ME L ▁- ▁Ed izioni ▁del ▁Gall uz zo , ▁ 2 0 0 6 . ▁ ▁W em ple , ▁Su z anne ▁F . ▁“ The ▁Can on ical ▁Resources ▁of ▁At to ▁of ▁Ver cel li ▁( 9 2 6 - 9 6 0 ). ” ▁Trad it io ▁ 2 6 ▁( 1 9 7 0 ): ▁ 3 3 5 - 3 5 0 . ▁ ▁Will h au ck , ▁George ▁Alan . ▁“ The ▁Let ters ▁of ▁At to , ▁Bishop ▁of ▁Ver cel li : ▁Text , ▁Trans lation , ▁and ▁Comment ary .” ▁Ph . ▁D ▁Dis sert ation , ▁Tu ft s ▁University , ▁ 1 9 8 4 . ▁ ▁Ze ig ler , ▁A . K . ▁“ Med ieval ▁Liter ature .” ▁In ▁New ▁Catholic ▁Encyclopedia . ▁Vol . ▁ 9 . ▁New ▁York : ▁McG raw - H ill , ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁ ▁Category : 9 6 0 s ▁death s ▁Category : 1 0 th - century ▁b ish ops ▁Category : B ish ops ▁of ▁Ver cel li ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁unknown ▁Category : 8 8 5 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 0 th - century ▁Latin ▁writers ▁Category : 1 0 th - century ▁Italian ▁writers ▁Category : 1 0 th - century ▁jur ists <0x0A> </s> ▁Cla udi u ▁I ones cu ▁( born ▁ 1 8 ▁August ▁ 1 9 8 |
4 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Roman ian ▁footballer ▁who ▁plays ▁for ▁Liga ▁III ▁club ▁Mus cel ul ▁C â mp ul ung . ▁ ▁Club ▁career ▁ ▁CS ▁Mi oven i ▁I ones cu ▁spent ▁most ▁of ▁his ▁career ▁at ▁CS ▁Mi oven i , ▁making ▁his ▁debut ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁in ▁Liga ▁II . ▁He ▁played ▁his ▁first ▁Liga ▁I ▁game ▁on ▁ 2 ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁against ▁Univers itatea ▁Cl uj . ▁ ▁Pol ite hn ica ▁I a ş i ▁In ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁I ones cu ▁joined ▁newly ▁promoted ▁Pol ite hn ica ▁I a ş i . ▁He ▁scored ▁on ▁his ▁debut ▁match ▁against ▁O ț el ul ▁G ala ți ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 - 2 ▁defeat . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Cla udi u ▁I ones cu ' s ▁profile ▁at ▁club ' s ▁website ▁( R oman ian ) ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 4 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁P ite ști ▁Category : R oman ian ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁for wards ▁Category : L iga ▁I ▁players ▁Category : L iga ▁II ▁players ▁Category : CS ▁Mi oven i ▁players ▁Category : FC ▁Intern a ț ional ▁Cur te a ▁de ▁Ar ge ș ▁players ▁Category : FC ▁Pol ite hn ica ▁I a și ▁( 2 0 1 0 ) ▁players ▁Category : CS ▁Sport ul |
▁Sn ag ov ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁Mans hu ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁Mans hu ▁( Tr ad itional ▁Chinese : ▁ <0xE8> <0xA0> <0xBB> 書 ; ▁Sim pl ified ▁Chinese : ▁ <0xE8> <0x9B> <0xAE> 书 ; ▁p iny in : ▁m án sh ū ; ▁English ▁meaning ▁" Bar bar ous ▁Document " ▁or , ▁roughly , ▁" The ▁Book ▁on ▁the ▁Southern ▁Trib es "), ▁a ▁ 9 th - century ▁Chinese ▁text ▁by ▁F an ▁Ch uo ▁which ▁describes ▁N anz ha o ▁( mod ern ▁Y unn an ), ▁its ▁pe op les ▁and ▁affairs ▁( Wik is ource ▁Trans lation ) ▁ ▁Su ▁Mans hu ▁( 1 8 8 4 1 9 1 8 ), ▁Chinese ▁writer , ▁poet , ▁painter , ▁revolution ist , ▁and ▁transl ator ▁ ▁, ▁Japanese ▁for ▁Man ch uria ▁▁ ▁( AK A ▁Mans h ū ▁or ▁Mans y û ), ▁active ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁and ▁ 1 9 4 0 s ▁ ▁Mans h ū ▁Hay ab usa , ▁an ▁air lin er ▁made ▁by ▁Man ch u ku o ▁A ircraft ▁Company ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁ ▁, ▁the ▁Man ch u ku o ▁national ▁air line ▁ 1 9 3 1 / 3 2 4 5 ▁ ▁Mans hu - in ▁( AK A ▁Mans hu in ▁Mon ze ki ), ▁a ▁T end ai ▁temple ▁located ▁near ▁the ▁Sh ug aku in ▁Imperial ▁Villa ▁at ▁Sak y |
ō - ku , ▁Ich ijo - ji , ▁T aken ouch i - cho , ▁in ▁n ortheast ▁Ky oto , ▁Japan . ▁ ▁" M ans hu ▁Mus ume " ▁( J apan ese ▁for ▁" Man ch ur ian ▁Girl "), ▁a ▁Japanese ▁hit ▁song ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Man ch u ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁Man ch u ku o <0x0A> </s> ▁D ida ▁W ared i ▁is ▁a ▁settlement ▁in ▁Ken ya ' s ▁Coast ▁Province . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁Coast ▁Province <0x0A> </s> ▁Gas l amp ▁fant asy ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁gas light ▁fant asy ▁or ▁gas light ▁rom ance ) ▁is ▁a ▁sub gen re ▁of ▁both ▁fant asy ▁and ▁historical ▁fiction . ▁Gener ally ▁speaking , ▁this ▁particular ▁real m ▁of ▁fant asy ▁emp lo ys ▁either ▁a ▁Victor ian ▁or ▁Edward ian ▁setting . ▁The ▁gas l amp ▁fant asy ▁genre ▁is ▁not ▁to ▁be ▁confused ▁with ▁ste amp unk , ▁which ▁usually ▁has ▁more ▁of ▁a ▁super - s cience ▁edge ▁and ▁u chron ic ▁tone . ▁Gas l amp ▁fant asy ▁also ▁diff ers ▁from ▁classical ▁Victor ian / Ed ward ian ▁fa erie ▁or ▁pure ▁fant asy ▁in ▁the ▁J . R . R . ▁Tol k ien ▁or ▁Lewis ▁Car roll ▁style ▁or ▁from ▁historical ▁crime - nov els ▁in ▁the ▁Anne ▁Perry ▁or ▁June ▁Thom son ▁style ▁by ▁the ▁super natural ▁elements , ▁them es , |
▁and ▁subjects ▁it ▁features . ▁Many ▁of ▁its ▁trop es , ▁them es , ▁and ▁stock ▁characters ▁derive ▁from ▁Goth ic ▁literature — a ▁long - est ab lished ▁genre ▁composed ▁of ▁both ▁rom antic ▁and ▁hor r ific ▁tra its ▁and ▁motiv ated ▁by ▁the ▁desire ▁to ▁r ouse ▁fear , ▁app reh ension , ▁and ▁other ▁inten se ▁emot ions ▁within ▁the ▁reader — and ▁could ▁be ▁described ▁as ▁an ▁attempt ▁to ▁modern ize ▁literary ▁Goth ic ism . ▁ ▁W riter ▁and ▁artist ▁K aja ▁F og lio ▁originally ▁co ined ▁the ▁term ▁in ▁an ▁effort ▁to ▁distinguish ▁her ▁and ▁husband ▁Phil ▁F og lio ' s ▁com ic ▁series , ▁Girl ▁Gen ius , ▁from ▁" ste amp unk ". ▁K aja ▁hoped ▁to ▁suggest ▁the ▁work ' s ▁distinct ive ▁style , ▁a ▁med ley ▁of ▁alternate ▁history ▁and ▁Victor ian - es que ▁" mad ▁science ". ▁ ▁Later ▁on , ▁however , ▁fant asy - f ans ▁redirect ed ▁the ▁term ▁to ▁denote ▁a ▁spin - off ▁genre ▁of ▁Hol mes ian ▁fant asy ▁or ▁Victor ian - based ▁Goth ic ▁tales . ▁According ▁to ▁fant asy - f ans ▁as ▁a ▁whole , ▁the ▁sub gen re ▁consists , ▁namely , ▁of ▁contemporary ▁or ▁modern ▁fant asy ▁pieces ▁set ▁in ▁the ▁Victor ian ▁" gas l amp " ▁era . ▁However , ▁the ▁sub gen re ▁also ▁includes ▁some ▁works ▁with ▁a ▁pre - V ict or ian ▁setting ▁( S us anna ▁Clar ke |
' s ▁Reg ency ▁novel ▁Jonathan ▁Str ange ▁& ▁Mr ▁Nor rell , ▁for ▁example ). ▁More ▁sam pl ings ▁of ▁the ▁genre ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁publications ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Gas light ▁Gr imo ire ▁anth ologies ▁and ▁The ▁League ▁of ▁Ext ra ordinary ▁Gent le men ▁com ics . ▁ ▁Origin ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁" gas l amp ▁fant asy " ▁was ▁first ▁co ined ▁on ▁April ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁by ▁web com ic ▁artist ▁K aja ▁F og lio ▁to ▁differenti ate ▁her ▁com ic , ▁Girl ▁Gen ius , ▁from ▁conventional ▁ste amp unk ▁fiction . ▁ ▁Girl ▁Gen ius , ▁although ▁science ▁fiction ▁set ▁in ▁nin ete enth - century ▁Europe , ▁does ▁not ▁have ▁a ▁firm ▁emphas is ▁on ▁fant astic ▁Indust rial ▁Revolution ▁technology . ▁Element s ▁of ▁other ▁types ▁of ▁fiction ▁are ▁featured , ▁including ▁magic ▁and ▁myth ical ▁cre atures , ▁and ▁the ▁scientific ▁element ▁of ▁it ▁is ▁less ▁prominent . ▁It ▁also ▁includes ▁ste amp unk ▁takes ▁on ▁contemporary ▁sci - fi ▁bi ology ▁elements , ▁like ▁clock work ▁cy borg s , ▁mass - produ ced ▁Fran ken stein - type ▁cre atures , ▁and ▁other ▁mon sters . ▁ ▁Gener ally , ▁the ▁term ▁refers ▁to ▁fiction ▁based ▁in ▁a ▁Victor ian - style ▁setting , ▁similar ▁to ▁ste amp unk , ▁but ▁with ▁a ▁bro ader ▁emphas is . ▁The ▁stories ▁are ▁usually ▁not ▁so ▁focused ▁on ▁mach in ery ▁of ▁the ▁period |
▁( or , ▁often , ▁any ▁mach in ery ▁at ▁all ), ▁take ▁more ▁libert ies ▁with ▁the ▁actual ▁time ▁period , ▁and ▁may ▁contain ▁elements ▁of ▁other ▁gen res . ▁ ▁Since ▁the ▁term ' s ▁co ining , ▁gas l amp ▁fant asy ▁has ▁been ▁retro act ively ▁applied ▁to ▁other ▁fiction ▁written ▁in ▁the ▁Victor ian ▁Age , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁Br am ▁Sto ker , ▁Jules ▁Ver ne , ▁and ▁Sir ▁Arthur ▁Con an ▁Do yle . ▁ ▁Ex amples ▁ ▁Anth ologies ▁ ▁Gas light ▁Gr imo ire : ▁Fant astic ▁T ales ▁of ▁Sher lock ▁Hol mes ▁– ▁eleven ▁short ▁stories ▁by ▁Barbara ▁Hamb ly , ▁Kim ▁New man , ▁Barbara ▁Rod en , ▁Bob ▁Mad ison , ▁Christopher ▁Se que ira , ▁Chris ▁Rob erson , ▁Peter ▁Cal am ai , ▁et ▁al ., ▁each ▁tale ▁involving ▁some ▁super natural ▁element ▁Fore word ▁by ▁David ▁Stuart ▁Dav ies . ▁ ▁" Que en ▁Victoria ' s ▁Book ▁of ▁Sp ells : ▁An ▁Anth ology ▁of ▁Gas l amp ▁Fant asy " ▁– ▁features ▁eigh teen ▁stories , ▁all ▁of ▁which ▁are ▁set ▁in ▁a ▁mag ical ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁nin ete enth ▁century . ▁The ▁anth ology ▁is ▁edited ▁by ▁Ter ri ▁Wind ling ▁and ▁Ellen ▁Dat low . ▁ ▁Internet ▁works ▁ ▁Girl ▁Gen ius ▁– ▁A ▁web com ic ▁featuring ▁an ▁alternate ▁earth ▁( bad ly ) ▁ruled ▁by ▁Mad ▁Scient ist ▁arch et ypes ▁and ▁also ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁term |
. ▁ ▁The ▁G lass ▁Scient ists ▁– ▁A ▁web com ic ▁set ▁in ▁alternate ▁Victor ian ▁Era ▁London , ▁st arring ▁Dr . ▁J ek yll ▁and ▁Mr . ▁Hy de ▁alongside ▁other ▁characters ▁from ▁classic ▁science ▁fiction ▁literature . ▁ ▁Video ▁games ▁D ish on ored ▁series ▁Sun less ▁Sea ▁Return ▁of ▁the ▁O bra ▁D inn ▁Th ief ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁authors ▁of ▁new ▁Sher lock ▁Hol mes ▁stories ▁ ▁Ste amp unk ▁ ▁Fant asy ▁ ▁Sub gen res ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Ed ward ian ▁era ▁Category : F ant asy ▁gen res ▁Category : Ste amp unk ▁Category : V ict or ian ▁era ▁in ▁popular ▁culture ▁Category : G as l amp ▁fant asy <0x0A> </s> ▁ 2 ▁P . M . ▁or ▁ 2 PM ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁The ▁time ▁ 2 : 0 0 ▁p . m . ▁as ▁represented ▁on ▁the ▁ 1 2 - hour ▁clock ▁▁ 2 PM , ▁South ▁Korean ▁boy ▁band ▁ ▁Still ▁ 2 : 0 0 PM , ▁an ▁EP ▁by ▁ 2 PM ▁ ▁The ▁R T - 2 PM ▁Top ol , ▁a ▁mobile ▁inter cont inental ▁ball istic ▁miss ile ▁in ▁Russia ▁▁ 2 PM , ▁a ▁radio ▁station ▁based ▁in ▁Port ▁Mac qu arie , ▁NS W , ▁Australia , ▁currently ▁owned ▁by ▁Broadcast ▁Oper ations ▁Group ▁ ▁Patrick ▁Mah om es ▁II ▁( born ▁ 1 9 9 5 ), ▁Kansas ▁City ▁Chief s ▁quarter back |
▁nick named ▁" 2 PM " ▁ ▁Category : Date ▁and ▁time ▁dis ambiguation ▁pages <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁European ▁J udo ▁Championships ▁were ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁edition ▁of ▁the ▁European ▁J udo ▁Championships , ▁and ▁were ▁held ▁in ▁Ost end , ▁Belg ium ▁on ▁ 1 1 ▁May ▁ 1 9 9 7 . ▁ ▁Medal ▁over view ▁ ▁Men ▁ ▁Women ▁ ▁Medal ▁table ▁ ▁Results ▁over view ▁ ▁Men ▁▁ 6 0 ▁kg ▁▁ 6 5 ▁kg ▁▁ 7 1 ▁kg ▁▁ 7 8 ▁kg ▁▁ 8 6 ▁kg ▁▁ 9 5 ▁kg ▁ ▁+ 9 5 ▁kg ▁ ▁Open ▁class ▁ ▁Women ▁▁ 4 8 ▁kg ▁▁ 5 2 ▁kg ▁▁ 5 6 ▁kg ▁▁ 6 1 ▁kg ▁▁ 6 6 ▁kg ▁▁ 7 2 ▁kg ▁ ▁+ 7 2 ▁kg ▁ ▁Open ▁class ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Results ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁European ▁J udo ▁Championships ▁( J udo In side . com ) ▁▁▁ ▁E ▁J udo ▁Championships ▁Category : Europe an ▁J udo ▁Championships ▁Category : Intern ational ▁sports ▁compet itions ▁hosted ▁by ▁Belg ium ▁Category : S port ▁in ▁Ost end ▁Category : J udo ▁compet itions ▁in ▁Belg ium ▁Category : May ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁sports ▁events ▁in ▁Europe <0x0A> </s> ▁V est ee ▁Jackson ▁II ▁( born ▁August ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 1 9 6 3 ) ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁professional ▁American ▁football ▁corner back ▁in ▁the ▁National ▁Football ▁League . ▁ ▁Colleg |
iate ▁career ▁V est ee ▁finished ▁his ▁college ▁career ▁with ▁ 1 3 ▁inter ception s ▁from ▁ 1 9 8 3 – 1 9 8 5 ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Washington . ▁ ▁NFL ▁career ▁He ▁was ▁draft ed ▁in ▁the ▁second ▁round ▁( 5 5 th ▁overall ) ▁by ▁the ▁B ears ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁NFL ▁D raft . ▁He ▁played ▁eight ▁seasons ▁in ▁the ▁NFL , ▁mostly ▁with ▁the ▁Chicago ▁B ears ▁( 1 9 8 6 – 1 9 9 0 ) ▁and ▁the ▁Miami ▁Dol ph ins ▁( 1 9 9 1 – 1 9 9 3 ). ▁ ▁His ▁ro ok ie ▁year , ▁he ▁had ▁ 3 ▁inter ception s ▁and ▁followed ▁it ▁up ▁with ▁ 2 ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 7 . ▁His ▁best ▁season ▁was ▁ 1 9 8 8 , ▁when ▁he ▁led ▁the ▁N FC ▁with ▁ 8 ▁inter ception s . ▁He ▁would ▁follow ▁it ▁up ▁with ▁ 2 ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁and ▁ 1 ▁inter ception ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 . ▁ ▁With ▁the ▁Miami ▁Dol ph ins , ▁he ▁contributed ▁ 3 ▁inter ception s ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁but ▁would ▁ret ire ▁after ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁season . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Washington ▁H usk ies ▁football ▁statistical ▁leaders ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 6 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁F res |
no , ▁California ▁Category : Play ers ▁of ▁American ▁football ▁from ▁California ▁Category : American ▁football ▁corner back s ▁Category : W ashington ▁H usk ies ▁football ▁players ▁Category : Ch icago ▁B ears ▁players ▁Category : M iami ▁Dol ph ins ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁Johann ▁P enn arius , ▁O . F . M . ▁( d ied ▁ 1 5 6 3 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁pre late ▁who ▁served ▁as ▁A ux ili ary ▁Bishop ▁of ▁C ologne ▁( 1 5 5 7 – 1 5 6 3 ). ▁ ▁Biography ▁On ▁ 6 ▁Oct ▁ 1 5 5 7 , ▁Johann ▁P enn arius ▁was ▁appointed ▁during ▁the ▁pap acy ▁of ▁Pope ▁Paul ▁IV ▁as ▁A ux ili ary ▁Bishop ▁of ▁C ologne ▁and ▁Tit ular ▁Bishop ▁of ▁Cy rene . ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁A ux ili ary ▁Bishop ▁of ▁C ologne ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁on ▁ 1 1 ▁Sep ▁ 1 5 6 3 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁and ▁additional ▁sources ▁ ▁( for ▁Chron ology ▁of ▁B ish ops ) ▁▁ ▁( for ▁Chron ology ▁of ▁B ish ops ) ▁▁▁ ▁( for ▁Chron ology ▁of ▁B ish ops ) ▁▁ ▁( for ▁Chron ology ▁of ▁B ish ops ) ▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 6 th - century ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁b ish ops ▁Category : B ish ops ▁appointed ▁by ▁Pope ▁Paul ▁IV ▁Category : 1 5 6 3 ▁death s <0x0A> </s> ▁Kar and igh i ▁is ▁a ▁community ▁development ▁block ▁that ▁forms |
▁an ▁administrative ▁division ▁in ▁Is l amp ur ▁sub div ision ▁of ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁in ▁the ▁Indian ▁state ▁of ▁West ▁Beng al . ▁ ▁History ▁Histor ically ▁the ▁western ▁front ier ▁of ▁ancient ▁P und rav ard h ana ▁kingdom , ▁border ing ▁ancient ▁Ang a ▁of ▁Mah ab har at ▁fame , ▁the ▁D ina j pur ▁area ▁remained ▁somewhat ▁obsc ure ▁in ▁the ▁major ▁emp ires ▁that ▁held ▁s way ▁over ▁the ▁region ▁and ▁beyond ▁till ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁the ▁D ina j pur ▁Raj ▁during ▁the ▁M ug hal ▁period . ▁Some ▁areas ▁later ▁forming ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁were ▁parts ▁of ▁kingdom s ▁in ▁Nep al . ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁was ▁constit uted ▁by ▁the ▁British ▁in ▁ 1 7 8 6 , ▁with ▁a ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁estate ▁of ▁D ina j pur ▁Raj . ▁Sub sequ ent ▁to ▁the ▁P erman ent ▁S ett lement ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 3 , ▁the ▁semi - in dependent ▁D ina j pur ▁Raj ▁was ▁further ▁broken ▁down ▁and ▁some ▁of ▁its ▁tract s ▁were ▁transferred ▁to ▁the ▁neighbour ing ▁British ▁districts ▁of ▁Pur nea , ▁Mal da , ▁Raj sh ah i ▁and ▁Bog ra . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁the ▁Rad cl iffe ▁Line ▁placed ▁the ▁Sad ar ▁and ▁Th ak urg a on ▁sub div isions ▁of ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁in ▁East ▁Pakistan . ▁The ▁Bal urg |
hat ▁sub div ision ▁of ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁was ▁reconst it uted ▁as ▁West ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁in ▁West ▁Beng al . ▁ ▁Ra igan j ▁sub div ision ▁was ▁formed ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 . ▁ ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁restore ▁territorial ▁links ▁between ▁northern ▁and ▁southern ▁parts ▁of ▁West ▁Beng al ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁sn apped ▁during ▁the ▁partition ▁of ▁Beng al , ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁recommend ations ▁of ▁the ▁States ▁Re organisation ▁Commission ▁a ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁erst while ▁K ish ang an j ▁sub div ision ▁compr ising ▁Go al p ok har , ▁Is l amp ur ▁and ▁Ch op ra ▁than as ▁( pol ice ▁stations ) ▁and ▁parts ▁of ▁Th ak urg an j ▁than a , ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁adjacent ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁erst while ▁G op al pur ▁than a ▁in ▁K ati har ▁sub div ision ▁were ▁transferred ▁from ▁Pur nea ▁district ▁in ▁Bi har ▁to ▁West ▁Beng al ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 6 , ▁and ▁were ▁formally ▁incorpor ated ▁into ▁Ra igan j ▁sub div ision ▁in ▁West ▁D ina j pur . ▁The ▁town ship ▁of ▁K ish ang an j ▁and ▁its ▁entire ▁municipal ▁boundary ▁remained ▁within ▁Bi har . ▁Is l amp ur ▁sub div ision ▁was ▁formed ▁in ▁March ▁ 1 9 5 9 . ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁the ▁portion ▁of ▁Ch op ra ▁PS ▁lying ▁to ▁the ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁Mah an anda ▁river ▁covering ▁an ▁area ▁that ▁now |
▁compr ises ▁B id h ann agar - 1 ▁gram ▁pan ch ay at , ▁B id h ann agar - 2 ▁GP , ▁Ch ath at - B ans ga on ▁GP ▁and ▁the ▁southern ▁half ▁of ▁Ph ans ide wa - B ans ga on ▁K ism at ▁GP ▁in ▁Dar je eling ▁district , ▁was ▁transferred ▁from ▁West ▁D ina j pur ▁to ▁the ▁juris diction ▁of ▁Ph ans ide wa ▁PS ▁in ▁Dar je eling ▁district . ▁With ▁the ▁introduction ▁of ▁the ▁Community ▁Development ▁Program me ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 0 – 6 1 , ▁community ▁development ▁blocks ▁were ▁set ▁up ▁in ▁West ▁D ina j pur ▁district . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 2 , ▁West ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁was ▁b if ur c ated ▁and ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁was ▁established . ▁ ▁Geography ▁Kar and igh i ▁is ▁located ▁at ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁of ▁West - B eng al ▁state , Ind ia . ▁The ▁latitude ▁ 2 2 . 5 7 ▁and ▁longitude ▁ 8 8 . 3 6 ▁are ▁the ▁ge oco ordinate ▁of ▁the ▁Kar and igh i . ▁ ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁has ▁a ▁flat ▁top ography ▁and ▁s lop es ▁g ently ▁from ▁north ▁to ▁south . ▁All ▁rivers ▁flow ▁in ▁that ▁direction . ▁Ex cept ▁for ▁the ▁eastern ▁fr ing es ▁of ▁Ch op ra ▁CD ▁Block , ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁district |
▁is ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁catch ment ▁area ▁of ▁the ▁Mah an ada ▁and ▁also ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁larger ▁Bar ind ▁T ract . ▁The ▁soil ▁is ▁composed ▁of ▁different ▁vari eties ▁of ▁all u vi um . ▁The ▁main ▁rivers ▁are : ▁Nag ar , ▁Mah an anda , ▁K ul ik , ▁Gam ari , ▁Ch h ir am ati ▁( S rim ati ) ▁and ▁Tang on . ▁The ▁rivers ▁have ▁little ▁water ▁in ▁the ▁dry ▁season ▁but ▁with ▁heavy ▁ra ins , ▁during ▁mon so on , ▁overflow ▁the ▁banks . ▁The ▁Nag ar ▁River ▁flows ▁along ▁the ▁international ▁border ▁with ▁Bang l adesh ▁and ▁then ▁forms ▁the ▁boundary ▁between ▁Kar and igh i ▁and ▁Ra igan j ▁CD ▁Block s . ▁Sud an ▁river ▁flows ▁through ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block . ▁ ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁is ▁bounded ▁by ▁Go al p ok har ▁I ▁and ▁Go al p ok har ▁II ▁CD ▁Block s ▁on ▁the ▁north , ▁Har ip ur ▁Up az ila ▁in ▁Th ak urg a on ▁District ▁of ▁Bang l adesh ▁and ▁Ra igan j ▁CD ▁Block ▁on ▁the ▁east , ▁Bal r amp ur ▁CD ▁Block ▁in ▁K ati har ▁district ▁of ▁Bi har ▁on ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁Bal r amp ur ▁CD ▁Block ▁and ▁B ais i ▁and ▁Am our ▁CD ▁Block s ▁in ▁P urn ia ▁district ▁of ▁Bi har ▁on ▁the ▁west . ▁ ▁Appro xim ately ▁ 2 0 6 km ▁of |
▁the ▁India - B ang l adesh ▁border ▁is ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district . ▁It ▁covers ▁the ▁eastern ▁boundary ▁of ▁the ▁district . ▁On ▁the ▁western ▁side ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁has ▁ 2 2 7 km ▁boundary ▁with ▁Bi har . ▁ ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁( including ▁D alk h ola ) ▁has ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁ 3 9 0 . 5 2 km 2 . It ▁has ▁ 1 ▁pan ch ay at ▁sam ity , ▁ 1 3 ▁gram ▁pan ch ay ats , ▁ 2 1 2 ▁gram ▁sans ads ▁( v ill age ▁coun c ils ), ▁ 2 1 4 ▁mou zas ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 ▁inhab ited ▁villages . ▁Kar and igh i ▁police ▁station ▁serves ▁this ▁block . ▁Head quarters ▁of ▁this ▁CD ▁Block ▁is ▁at ▁Kar and igh i . ▁ ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁smaller ▁districts ▁in ▁the ▁state ▁and ▁stands ▁ 1 5 th ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁area ▁( 3 , 1 4 0 . 0 0 km 2 ) ▁in ▁the ▁state . ▁ ▁Gram ▁pan ch ay ats ▁of ▁Kar and igh i ▁block / ▁pan ch ay at ▁sam iti ▁are : ▁Alt ap ur ▁I , ▁Alt ap ur ▁II , ▁Ras ak how a ▁I , ▁Ras ak how a ▁II , ▁B az arga on ▁I , ▁B az arga on ▁II |
, ▁D alk h ola , ▁Dom oh ona , ▁Kar and igh i ▁I , ▁Kar and igh i ▁II , ▁L ah ut ara ▁I , ▁L ah ut ara ▁II , ▁and ▁Ran igan j . ▁ ▁Dem ograph ics ▁ ▁Population ▁As ▁per ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁Census ▁of ▁India , ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁had ▁a ▁total ▁population ▁of ▁ 3 6 8 , 3 3 2 , ▁all ▁of ▁which ▁were ▁rural . ▁There ▁were ▁ 1 8 8 , 5 7 2 ▁( 5 1 %) ▁males ▁and ▁ 1 7 9 , 7 6 0 ▁( 4 9 ) ▁females . ▁Population ▁below ▁ 6 ▁years ▁was ▁ 6 6 , 9 8 4 . ▁Sch eduled ▁Cast es ▁number ed ▁ 1 0 7 , 9 3 6 ▁( 2 9 . 3 0 %) ▁and ▁Sch eduled ▁Trib es ▁number ed ▁ 2 8 , 7 7 3 ▁( 7 . 8 1 %). ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁census , ▁Kar and igh i ▁community ▁development ▁b loc ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 3 1 8 , 7 9 3 , ▁of ▁which ▁ 1 6 3 , 8 7 6 ▁were ▁males ▁and ▁ 1 5 4 , 9 1 7 ▁were ▁females . ▁Dec adal ▁growth ▁for ▁the ▁period ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁was ▁ 3 8 . 5 3 %, ▁against ▁ 2 8 , |
7 2 % ▁for ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district . ▁ ▁Lar ge ▁villages ▁( with ▁ 4 , 0 0 0 + ▁population ) ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁were ▁( 2 0 1 1 ▁population ▁in ▁brackets ): ▁Bag ela ▁( 6 , 1 2 2 ), ▁Ran igan j ▁( 6 , 6 0 9 ), ▁Bh ul ki ▁( 5 , 1 9 3 ), ▁G op al pur ▁( 7 , 1 0 9 ), ▁ ▁R aut ara ▁( 4 , 2 6 0 ), ▁B hab an ip ur ▁ ▁( 4 , 5 0 9 ), ▁Kh anta ▁( 6 , 4 5 7 ), ▁And h aria ▁( 5 , 0 1 1 ), ▁B aj arga on ▁( 5 , 2 9 6 ), ▁F ate pur ▁( 4 , 6 7 6 ), ▁Koch ra ▁( 5 , 2 5 6 ), ▁D ule pur ▁( 4 , 2 4 3 ), ▁Sab d han ▁( 5 , 8 3 4 ), ▁L ah ut ara ▁( 4 , 3 2 4 ), ▁So har ▁( 4 , 8 9 3 ), ▁Ju j h ap ur ▁( 8 , 6 6 5 ), ▁Kam art or ▁( 4 , 9 9 5 ) ▁and ▁R agh op ur ▁( 8 , 4 3 4 ). ▁ ▁Other ▁villages ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁included ▁( 2 0 1 1 ▁population ▁in ▁brackets ): ▁Alt |
ap ur ▁( 3 , 0 9 2 ). ▁ ▁Dec adal ▁Population ▁G row th ▁R ate ▁( %) ▁ ▁Note : ▁The ▁CD ▁Block ▁data ▁for ▁ 1 9 7 1 – 1 9 8 1 , ▁ 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 9 1 ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 1 - 2 0 0 1 ▁is ▁for ▁Kar and igh i ▁PS ▁covering ▁the ▁block ▁ ▁The ▁dec adal ▁growth ▁of ▁population ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 1 ▁was ▁ 1 5 . 5 1 %. ▁The ▁dec adal ▁growth ▁of ▁population ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁PS ▁ ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 - 2 0 0 1 ▁was ▁ 3 0 . 5 7 %, ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 - 9 1 ▁was ▁ 3 6 . 0 3 % ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 1 - 8 1 ▁was ▁ 3 8 . 4 0 %. ▁The ▁dec adal ▁growth ▁rate ▁of ▁population ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁was ▁as ▁follows : ▁▁ 3 0 . 2 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 1 – 8 1 , ▁ 3 4 . 0 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 – 9 1 , ▁ 2 8 . 7 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 - 2 0 0 1 ▁and ▁ 2 3 . 2 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 – |
1 1 . ▁The ▁dec adal ▁growth ▁rate ▁for ▁West ▁Beng al ▁was ▁ 1 3 . 9 3 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 – 2 0 1 1 , ▁ 1 7 . 7 7 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 – 2 0 0 1 . ▁ 2 4 . 7 3 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 9 1 ▁and ▁ 2 3 . 1 7 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 1 – 1 9 8 1 . ▁ ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁has ▁the ▁highest ▁dec adal ▁population ▁growth ▁rate ▁in ▁West ▁Beng al ▁with ▁a ▁figure ▁of ▁ 2 3 . 2 % ▁for ▁the ▁de cade ▁ 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 1 ▁and ▁is ▁much ▁higher ▁than ▁the ▁state ▁average ▁of ▁ 1 3 . 8 %. ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Human ▁Development ▁Report ▁for ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district , ▁population ▁growth ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁that ▁later ▁became ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁was ▁low ▁in ▁the ▁pre - in dep end ence ▁era ▁and ▁started ▁pick ing ▁up ▁with ▁the ▁waves ▁of ▁East ▁Beng ali ▁refuge es ▁coming ▁in ▁from ▁erst while ▁East ▁Pakistan . ▁Despite ▁the ▁formation ▁of ▁an ▁international ▁border ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁none ▁of ▁the ▁PS ▁areas ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁which ▁later ▁formed ▁Is l amp ur ▁SD ▁showed ▁much ▁increase ▁in ▁settlement ▁density ▁between ▁ |
1 9 4 1 – 5 1 , ▁and ▁acceler ated ▁settlement ▁only ▁came ▁into ▁evidence ▁in ▁this ▁region ▁after ▁ 1 9 6 1 , ▁following ▁their ▁transfer ▁from ▁Bi har ▁to ▁West ▁Beng al . ▁Thus , ▁as ▁population ▁growth ▁in ▁the ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁region ▁acceler ated ▁consider ably ▁under ▁the ▁imp et us ▁of ▁partition ▁migration ▁after ▁ 1 9 5 1 , ▁the ▁Is l amp ur ▁SD ▁areas ▁offered ▁additional ▁living ▁space , ▁eas ing ▁the ▁overall ▁migration ▁pressure ▁on ▁the ▁region . ▁ ▁The ▁Human ▁Development ▁Report ▁anal ys es , ▁“ A ▁sp urt ▁in ▁population ▁growth ▁rates ▁first ▁became ▁evident ▁between ▁ 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 6 1 , ▁and ▁was ▁further ▁magn ified ▁between ▁ 1 9 7 1 - 8 1 ▁after ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁Bang l adesh ▁when ▁population ▁growth ▁in ▁most ▁districts ▁border ing ▁the ▁Bang l adesh - West ▁Beng al ▁front ier ▁showed ▁similar ▁es cal ation . ▁However , ▁after ▁ 1 9 8 1 , ▁when ▁population ▁growth ▁in ▁most ▁other ▁West ▁Beng al ▁districts ▁had ▁t aper ed ▁off , ▁growth ▁rates ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁again ▁showed ▁a ▁fresh ▁sp urt . ▁Thus , ▁no ▁dec eler ation ▁in ▁population ▁growth ▁rates ▁occurred ▁in ▁the ▁district ▁until ▁after ▁ 1 9 9 1 … ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁H indu ▁and ▁trib al ▁migr ants ▁from ▁across ▁the ▁international ▁border , ▁a ▁size able |
▁number ▁of ▁migr ant ▁Muslim s ▁have ▁also ▁settled ▁in ▁the ▁district , ▁mainly ▁driven ▁by ▁economic ▁reasons … ▁migr ants ▁from ▁other ▁states ▁compr ised ▁ 2 3 % ▁of ▁the ▁total ▁migr ants ▁res iding ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur .” ▁The ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁migr ants ▁from ▁other ▁states ▁is ▁mainly ▁from ▁the ▁neighbour ing ▁areas ▁in ▁Bi har . ▁ ▁A ▁study ▁by ▁North ▁Beng al ▁University ▁has ▁observed ▁that ▁“ Im migr ants ▁from ▁East ▁Pakistan / B ang l adesh ▁have ▁arrived ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁in ▁almost ▁equal ▁numbers ▁before ▁and ▁after ▁ 1 9 7 1 .” ▁▁ ▁The ▁Human ▁Development ▁Report ▁op ines , ▁“ The ▁overall ▁post - Part ition ▁impact ▁on ▁the ▁rates ▁of ▁dem ographic ▁growth ▁has ▁been ▁particularly ▁strong ▁in ▁all ▁North ▁Beng al ▁districts . ▁Despite ▁its ▁smaller ▁relative ▁size , ▁the ▁region ▁has ▁received ▁more ▁migration ▁in ▁pro ▁r ata ▁terms ▁than ▁the ▁West ▁Beng al ▁districts ▁lying ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁G anga .” ▁ ▁Liter acy ▁As ▁per ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁census , ▁the ▁total ▁number ▁of ▁liter ates ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁was ▁ 1 6 0 , 9 7 3 ▁( 5 3 . 4 2 % ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁over ▁ 6 ▁years ) ▁out ▁of ▁which ▁males ▁number ed ▁ 9 3 , 1 1 5 ▁( 6 0 . 4 2 % ▁of ▁the ▁male ▁population ▁over ▁ 6 |
▁years ) ▁and ▁females ▁number ed ▁ 6 7 , 8 5 8 ▁( 4 6 . 0 8 % ▁of ▁the ▁female ▁population ▁over ▁ 6 ▁years ). ▁The ▁gender ▁dispar ity ▁( the ▁difference ▁between ▁female ▁and ▁male ▁liter acy ▁rates ) ▁was ▁ 1 4 . 3 4 %. ▁ ▁The ▁liter acy ▁rate ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁at ▁ 6 0 . 1 3 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁up ▁from ▁ 4 7 . 8 9 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁was ▁the ▁lowest ▁amongst ▁all ▁districts ▁of ▁West ▁Beng al . ▁The ▁highest ▁liter acy ▁rate ▁amongst ▁the ▁districts ▁of ▁West ▁Beng al ▁was ▁that ▁of ▁Pur ba ▁Med in ip ur ▁district ▁at ▁ 8 7 . 6 6 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Human ▁Development ▁Report ▁for ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district , ▁ ▁“ Go al p ok har - 1 , ▁Go al p ok har - 2 , ▁Kar and igh i ▁and ▁Is l amp ur ▁blocks ▁in ▁that ▁order ▁stood ▁at ▁the ▁very ▁bottom ▁of ▁the ▁liter acy ▁scale ▁in ▁the ▁state . ▁This ▁pool ing ▁of ▁ill iter acy ▁within ▁Is l amp ur ▁SD ▁also ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁low ▁ranking ▁of ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁at ▁ 4 9 4 th ▁position ▁out ▁of ▁ 5 9 5 ▁Indian ▁districts ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁liter |
acy ▁rates ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁despite ▁which ▁its ▁rank ▁had ▁improved ▁consider ably ▁in ▁relative ▁terms ▁from ▁the ▁ 5 2 3 rd ▁rank ▁it ▁had ▁occupied ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 .” ▁ ▁The ▁five ▁blocks ▁transferred ▁from ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁Bi har ▁to ▁form ▁a ▁new ▁sub div ision ▁in ▁West ▁D ina j pur ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 9 ▁had ▁until ▁ 1 9 5 6 ▁been ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁K ish ang an j ▁region ▁which ▁is ▁still ▁character ised ▁by ▁a ▁low ▁overall ▁liter acy ▁rate ▁of ▁ 3 1 ▁percent ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 , ▁against ▁which ▁the ▁corresponding ▁rate ▁for ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁is ▁a ▁liter acy ▁rate ▁of ▁ 4 8 ▁percent ... ▁“ Like ▁K ish ang an j ▁which ▁is ▁now ▁a ▁full - f led ged ▁Bi har ▁district , ▁Is l amp ur ▁SD ▁too ▁has ▁a ▁largely ▁rural ▁profile , ▁a ▁large ▁Muslim ▁population ▁and ▁deep ▁concentration ▁of ▁rural ▁pover ty ” ... ▁Pers isting ▁regional ▁dispar ities ▁in ▁access ▁to ▁education ▁and ▁infrastr ucture , ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁response ▁and ▁enthus ias m ▁of ▁the ▁local ▁people ▁are ▁largely ▁responsible ▁for ▁making ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁the ▁least ▁liter ate ▁district ▁in ▁West ▁Beng al . ▁“ Th us , ▁a ▁major ▁challenge ▁facing ▁the ▁district ▁rel ates ▁to ▁the ▁improvement ▁of ▁educational ▁att ain ments ▁of ▁the |
▁we aker ▁social ▁sections ▁and ▁women , ▁especially ▁among ▁the ▁Muslim ▁community ▁which ▁has ▁a ▁dominant ▁presence ▁in ▁the ▁Is l amp ur ▁SD ▁region … ▁A ▁huge ▁g ulf ▁separ ates ▁the ▁Muslim ▁liter acy ▁rate ▁of ▁ 3 6 ▁percent ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁from ▁the ▁Muslim ▁liter acy ▁rate ▁of ▁ 5 8 ▁percent ▁achieved ▁by ▁West ▁Beng al ▁as ▁a ▁whole .” ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁– ▁List ▁of ▁West ▁Beng al ▁districts ▁ranked ▁by ▁liter acy ▁rate ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁- ▁Liter acy ▁in ▁Bi har ▁ ▁Language ▁and ▁religion ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁Beng ali ▁was ▁the ▁mother - t ong ue ▁of ▁ 6 6 . 8 % ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district , ▁followed ▁by ▁Sur aj p uri ▁( 1 1 . 7 % ), ▁Ur du ▁( 9 . 8 % ), ▁H indi ▁( 4 . 0 % ), ▁Sant ali ▁( 4 . 0 % ), ▁Tel ug u ▁( 0 . 4 % ), ▁Kur uk h / O ra on ▁( 0 . 3 % ), ▁B ho jp uri ▁( 0 . 3 % ), ▁Sad an / ▁Sad ri ▁( 0 . 1 % ), ▁Nep ali ▁( 0 . 1 %) ▁and ▁Ma ith ili ▁( 0 . 1 %). ▁Other ▁languages ▁spoken ▁were : ▁Raj b ans i , ▁Ori ya , ▁Mar w ari ▁and ▁M unda . ▁The ▁proportion ▁of |
▁population ▁having ▁Beng ali ▁as ▁their ▁mother ▁tongue ▁increased ▁from ▁ 7 2 . 2 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁to ▁ 7 6 . 5 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁and ▁then ▁dropped ▁to ▁ 6 6 . 8 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁The ▁proportion ▁of ▁population ▁having ▁Sur aj p uri ▁as ▁their ▁mother ▁tongue ▁increased ▁from ▁ 3 . 3 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁to ▁ 1 1 . 7 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁The ▁proportion ▁of ▁population ▁having ▁Ur du ▁as ▁their ▁mother ▁tongue ▁decre ased ▁from ▁ 1 0 . 1 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁to ▁ 6 . 0 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 1 ▁and ▁then ▁increased ▁to ▁ 9 . 8 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁Information ▁about ▁mother - t ong ue ▁is ▁available ▁only ▁at ▁the ▁district ▁level ▁and ▁above . ▁In ▁the ▁District ▁Census ▁Hand book ▁for ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁covering ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁census , ▁the ▁mother - t ong ue ▁information ▁is ▁provided ▁for ▁the ▁period ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁ ▁The ▁Human ▁Development ▁Report ▁for ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁describes ▁the ▁Is l amp ur ▁sub div ision ▁as ▁“ a ▁region ▁where ▁Ur du ▁and ▁H indi ▁are ▁widely ▁spoken ▁as ▁a ▁first ▁language ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁prior |
▁transfer ▁of ▁this ▁territory ▁to ▁West ▁Beng al ▁from ▁Bi har ” ▁▁ <0x09> ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁census , ▁Muslim s ▁number ed ▁ 1 9 7 , 8 3 2 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 5 3 . 7 1 % ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block . ▁H ind us ▁number ed ▁ 1 6 8 , 4 6 2 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 4 5 . 7 4 % ▁of ▁the ▁population . ▁Christians ▁number ed ▁ 1 , 4 6 0 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 0 . 4 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁population . ▁O thers ▁number ed ▁ 5 7 8 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 0 . 1 6 % ▁of ▁the ▁population . ▁In ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block , ▁as ▁per ▁the ▁District ▁Statist ical ▁Hand book ▁for ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur , ▁while ▁the ▁proportion ▁of ▁Muslim s ▁increased ▁from ▁ 4 7 . 2 5 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁to ▁ 4 9 . 3 6 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁the ▁proportion ▁of ▁H ind us ▁decl ined ▁from ▁ 5 2 . 4 2 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁to ▁ 4 9 . 9 5 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁census , ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁had ▁ 1 , 5 0 1 , 1 7 0 ▁Muslim s ▁who ▁formed |
▁ 4 9 . 9 2 % ▁of ▁the ▁population , ▁ 1 , 4 8 2 , 9 4 3 ▁H ind us ▁who ▁formed ▁ 4 9 . 3 1 % ▁of ▁the ▁population , ▁ 1 6 , 7 0 2 ▁Christians ▁who ▁formed ▁ 0 . 5 6 % ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁and ▁ 6 , 3 1 9 ▁persons ▁belonging ▁to ▁other ▁relig ions ▁who ▁formed ▁ 0 . 2 3 % ▁of ▁the ▁population . ▁While ▁the ▁proportion ▁of ▁Muslim ▁population ▁in ▁the ▁district ▁increased ▁from ▁ 4 5 . 3 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁to ▁ 4 9 . 9 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁the ▁proportion ▁of ▁H indu ▁population ▁decl ined ▁from ▁ 5 4 . 2 % ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁to ▁ 4 9 . 2 % ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁ ▁R ural ▁pover ty ▁As ▁per ▁the ▁R ural ▁House hold ▁Survey ▁conducted ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁ 3 7 . 2 % ▁of ▁the ▁rural ▁families ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁B PL ▁category , ▁against ▁ 4 6 . 7 % ▁of ▁rural ▁families ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁being ▁in ▁the ▁B PL ▁category . ▁ ▁As ▁per ▁the ▁Human ▁Development ▁Report ▁for ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district , ▁Is l amp ur ▁and ▁Kar and igh i ▁rank ▁sixth ▁and |
▁sevent h ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁human ▁development , ▁with ▁respective ▁Human ▁Development ▁Index ▁( HD Is ) ▁that ▁indicate ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁a ▁wide ▁human ▁development ▁gap ▁between ▁them ▁and ▁the ▁lowest ▁ranked ▁Ra igan j ▁SD ▁block ▁of ▁It ah ar . ▁However , ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁the ▁concentration ▁of ▁human ▁pover ty , ▁they ▁occup y ▁a ▁more ▁fav ou rable ▁position ▁than ▁It ah ar . ▁ ▁Econom y ▁ ▁Liv elihood ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁In ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁amongst ▁the ▁class ▁of ▁total ▁workers , ▁cultiv ators ▁number ed ▁ 3 0 , 5 3 2 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 2 0 . 4 5 %, ▁agricult ural ▁labour ers ▁number ed ▁ 6 4 , 9 3 3 ▁and ▁formed ▁▁ 4 3 . 4 9 %, ▁household ▁industry ▁workers ▁number ed ▁ 1 3 , 3 0 1 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 8 . 9 1 % ▁and ▁other ▁workers ▁number ed ▁▁ 4 0 , 5 3 8 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 2 7 . 1 5 %. ▁Total ▁workers ▁number ed ▁ 1 4 9 , 3 0 4 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 4 0 . 5 4 % ▁of ▁the ▁total ▁population , ▁and ▁non - work ers ▁number ed ▁ 2 1 9 , 0 2 8 ▁and ▁formed ▁ 5 9 . 4 6 % ▁of ▁the ▁population . ▁▁ ▁Note : ▁In ▁the ▁census ▁records ▁a ▁person ▁is ▁considered ▁a ▁cultiv ator , ▁if ▁the ▁person ▁is |
▁engaged ▁in ▁cultiv ation / ▁super vision ▁of ▁land ▁owned ▁by ▁self / g overn ment / inst itution . ▁When ▁a ▁person ▁who ▁works ▁on ▁another ▁person ' s ▁land ▁for ▁w ages ▁in ▁c ash ▁or ▁kind ▁or ▁share , ▁is ▁regarded ▁as ▁an ▁agricult ural ▁labour er . ▁House hold ▁industry ▁is ▁defined ▁as ▁an ▁industry ▁conducted ▁by ▁one ▁or ▁more ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁within ▁the ▁household ▁or ▁village , ▁and ▁one ▁that ▁does ▁not ▁qual ify ▁for ▁registration ▁as ▁a ▁factory ▁under ▁the ▁Fact ories ▁Act . ▁Other ▁workers ▁are ▁persons ▁engaged ▁in ▁some ▁economic ▁activity ▁other ▁than ▁cultiv ators , ▁agricult ural ▁labour ers ▁and ▁household ▁workers . ▁ ▁It ▁includes ▁factory , ▁min ing , ▁plant ation , ▁transport ▁and ▁office ▁workers , ▁those ▁engaged ▁in ▁business ▁and ▁commerce , ▁teachers , ▁entertain ment ▁artist es ▁and ▁so ▁on . ▁ ▁In frastr ucture ▁There ▁are ▁ 2 0 0 ▁inhab ited ▁villages ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block . ▁All ▁ 2 0 0 ▁villages ▁( 1 0 0 %) ▁have ▁power ▁supply . ▁All ▁ 2 0 0 ▁villages ▁( 1 0 0 %) ▁have ▁drink ing ▁water ▁supply . ▁ 1 8 ▁villages ▁( 9 . 0 0 %) ▁have ▁post ▁offices . ▁ 1 7 6 ▁villages ▁( 8 8 . 0 0 %) ▁have ▁tele ph ones ▁( including ▁land lines , ▁public ▁call ▁offices ▁and ▁mobile ▁ph ones ). ▁ 1 0 3 ▁villages ▁( 5 1 . 5 |
0 %) ▁have ▁a ▁pu cca ▁( p aved ) ▁approach ▁road ▁and ▁ 5 8 ▁villages ▁( 2 9 . 0 0 %) ▁have ▁transport ▁communication ▁( includes ▁bus ▁service , ▁rail ▁facility ▁and ▁navig able ▁water ways ). ▁ 3 ▁villages ▁( 1 . 5 0 %) ▁have ▁agricult ural ▁credit ▁soci eties . ▁ 7 ▁villages ▁( 3 . 5 0 %) ▁have ▁banks . ▁ ▁Agricult ure ▁“ With ▁its ▁distinct ive ▁phys i ographic ▁and ▁ag ro cl im atic ▁features , ▁the ▁D ina j pur ▁region ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁bread - b asket ▁area ▁of ▁Beng al ▁for ▁many ▁centuries , ▁growing ▁multiple ▁vari eties ▁of ▁fine ▁and ▁co arse ▁rice ▁in ▁vast ▁quantities , ▁along ▁with ▁major ▁economic ▁cro ps ▁like ▁j ute . ▁The ▁liv elihood ▁profile ▁of ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁has ▁evol ved ▁in ▁association ▁with ▁these ▁old ▁agricult ural ▁patterns , ▁and ▁more ▁than ▁two - third s ▁of ▁its ▁active ▁work force ▁still ▁draw s ▁liv elihood s ▁directly ▁from ▁agricult ure ▁and ▁related ▁occup ations .” ▁ ▁Agricult ural ▁potential ▁has ▁been ▁une ven ▁across ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁based ▁on ▁soil ▁conditions ▁and ▁ir rig ation ▁potential . ▁This ▁has ▁generated ▁considerable ▁internal ▁migration ▁within ▁the ▁district , ▁as ▁areas ▁with ▁higher ▁agricult ural ▁potential ▁and ▁higher ▁labour ▁demand ▁has ▁attract ed ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁people . ▁The ▁impact ▁of ▁land ▁re forms ▁has ▁also ▁varied . ▁As ▁the ▁Is l |
amp ur ▁sub div ision ▁blocks ▁evol ved ▁initially ▁under ▁the ▁Bi har ▁administration , ▁the ▁land ▁est ates ▁were ▁larger ▁in ▁size ▁and ▁the ▁extent ▁of ▁land ▁acquired ▁under ▁ce iling ▁laws ▁were ▁higher . ▁The ▁cultiv ator ▁population ▁in ▁Is l amp ur ▁sub div ision ▁was ▁also ▁th inner . ▁Such ▁conditions ▁have ▁been ▁fav ou rable ▁for ▁migr ants . ▁The ▁movement ▁of ▁people ▁from ▁agricult ural ▁activities ▁to ▁non - ag ric ult ural ▁activities ▁has ▁been ▁low ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁except ▁for ▁some ▁po ckets . ▁ ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁had ▁ 1 4 3 ▁fert il iser ▁dep ots , ▁ 1 4 ▁seed ▁stores ▁and ▁ 4 9 ▁fair ▁price ▁sh ops ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 , ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁produced ▁ 4 7 , 7 4 1 ▁t onnes ▁of ▁A man ▁p addy , ▁the ▁main ▁winter ▁c rop ▁from ▁ 2 0 , 9 8 5 ▁hect ares , ▁ 1 , 8 8 1 ▁t onnes ▁of ▁B oro ▁p addy ▁( spring ▁c rop ) ▁from ▁ 8 6 1 ▁hect ares , ▁ 1 3 , 4 6 4 ▁t onnes ▁of ▁whe at ▁from ▁ 5 , 7 3 6 ▁hect ares , ▁ 1 , 9 8 4 ▁t onnes ▁of ▁ma ize ▁from ▁ 8 1 5 ▁hect |
ares , ▁ 1 1 8 , 3 1 3 ▁t onnes ▁of ▁j ute ▁from ▁ 7 , 8 7 7 ▁hect ares , ▁ 3 7 , 3 6 5 ▁t onnes ▁of ▁pot atoes ▁from ▁ 1 , 5 6 4 ▁hect ares ▁and ▁ 3 1 , 3 7 0 ▁t onnes ▁of ▁sugar ▁can e ▁from ▁ 3 0 0 ▁hect ares .. ▁It ▁also ▁produced ▁p uls es ▁and ▁oil se eds . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 , ▁the ▁total ▁area ▁ir rig ated ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁was ▁ 7 8 8 ▁hect ares , ▁out ▁of ▁which ▁ 6 8 ▁hect ares ▁were ▁ir rig ated ▁by ▁river ▁lift ▁ir rig ation ▁and ▁ 7 2 0 ▁hect ares ▁by ▁deep ▁t ube ▁well s . ▁ ▁C raft ▁based ▁activities ▁“ More ▁than ▁eleven ▁hundred ▁rural ▁households ▁across ▁the ▁district ▁are ▁engaged ▁in ▁traditional craft s ▁based ▁indust ries , ▁among ▁which ▁d h ok ra ▁mat ▁making , ▁ter rac otta , ▁village ▁pot tery ▁and ▁b am bo o ▁craft ▁in ▁the ▁Go al p ok har - 1 ▁and ▁K ali agan j ▁regions ▁are ▁notable .” ▁ ▁Be edi ▁industry ▁“ A ▁fl our ishing ▁be edi ▁binding ▁industry ▁has ▁taken ▁root ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁which ▁eng ages ▁vast ▁numbers ▁of ▁rural ▁women ▁as ▁inform al ▁home ▁based ▁workers .” ▁ ▁Bank ing ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 2 |
– 1 3 , ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁had ▁offices ▁of ▁ 6 ▁commercial ▁banks ▁and ▁ 4 ▁gr amin ▁banks . ▁ ▁Back ward ▁Reg ions ▁Grant ▁Fund ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district ▁is ▁listed ▁as ▁a ▁back ward ▁region ▁and ▁receives ▁financial ▁support ▁from ▁the ▁Back ward ▁Reg ions ▁Grant ▁Fund . ▁ ▁The ▁fund , ▁created ▁by ▁the ▁Government ▁of ▁India , ▁is ▁designed ▁to ▁red ress ▁regional ▁im bal ances ▁in ▁development . ▁As ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁ 2 7 2 ▁districts ▁across ▁the ▁country ▁were ▁listed ▁under ▁this ▁scheme . ▁The ▁list ▁includes ▁ 1 1 ▁districts ▁of ▁West ▁Beng al . ▁ ▁Transport ▁ ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁has ▁ 1 ▁fer ry ▁service , ▁ 3 ▁origin ating / ▁termin ating ▁bus ▁routes . ▁The ▁nearest ▁railway ▁station ▁is ▁ 1 5 km ▁from ▁CD ▁Block ▁headquarters ▁ ▁The ▁How rah – New ▁J al pa ig uri ▁line ▁passes ▁through ▁western ▁edge ▁of ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁and ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁station ▁at ▁D alk h ola , ▁outside ▁the ▁CD ▁Block , ▁but ▁adjacent ▁to ▁it . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁when ▁Far ak ka ▁Bar rage ▁was ▁being ▁ ▁constructed , ▁a ▁far ▁reaching ▁change ▁was ▁made . ▁Indian ▁Rail ways ▁constructed ▁a ▁new ▁broad - g au ge ▁rail ▁link ▁from ▁south ▁Beng al ▁to ▁connect ▁North ▁Beng al . ▁ ▁National |
▁Highway ▁ 1 2 ▁( old ▁number ▁N H ▁ 3 4 ) ▁passes ▁through ▁Kar and igh i ▁village ▁and ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁and ▁meets ▁National ▁Highway ▁ 2 7 ▁at ▁D alk h ola . ▁ ▁Education ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 , ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁had ▁ 1 4 5 ▁primary ▁schools ▁with ▁ 2 9 , 8 9 1 ▁students , ▁ 9 ▁middle ▁schools ▁with ▁ 1 , 4 3 7 ▁students , ▁ 4 ▁high ▁schools ▁with ▁ 6 , 6 8 9 ▁students ▁and ▁ 2 0 ▁higher ▁secondary ▁schools ▁with ▁ 2 7 , 4 2 2 ▁students . ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁had ▁ 6 6 4 ▁institutions ▁for ▁special ▁and ▁non - form al ▁education ▁with ▁ 5 1 , 5 1 9 ▁students . ▁ ▁As ▁per ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁census , ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block , ▁amongst ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 ▁inhab ited ▁villages , ▁ 1 1 ▁villages ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁a ▁school , ▁ 1 4 5 ▁villages ▁had ▁ 1 ▁or ▁more ▁ ▁primary ▁schools , ▁ 4 4 ▁villages ▁had ▁at ▁least ▁ 1 ▁primary ▁and ▁ 1 ▁middle ▁school ▁and ▁ 2 2 ▁villages ▁had ▁at ▁least ▁ 1 ▁middle ▁and ▁ 1 ▁secondary ▁school . ▁ ▁The ▁mid - day ▁me al ▁programme ▁for ▁rural ▁school ▁children ▁was ▁launched ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 ▁in |
▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district . ▁As ▁on ▁ 3 0 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁ 6 0 2 , 5 5 7 ▁children ▁in ▁ 3 , 0 0 6 ▁schools ▁were ▁covered ▁under ▁this ▁programme . ▁ ▁Health care ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁Block ▁had ▁ 1 ▁block ▁primary ▁health ▁centre ▁and ▁ 2 ▁primary ▁health ▁cent res , ▁with ▁total ▁ 4 6 ▁b eds ▁and ▁ 7 ▁do ctors ▁( ex cluding ▁private ▁bodies ). ▁It ▁had ▁ 4 8 ▁family ▁w elf are ▁sub cent res . ▁ 7 , 8 9 6 ▁patients ▁were ▁treated ▁ind oor ▁and ▁ 4 0 3 , 2 6 4 ▁patients ▁were ▁treated ▁out door ▁in ▁the ▁hosp it als , ▁health ▁cent res ▁and ▁sub cent res ▁of ▁the ▁CD ▁Block . ▁ ▁Kar and igh i ▁rural ▁hospital ▁at ▁Kar and igh i ▁( with ▁ 3 0 ▁b eds ) ▁is ▁the ▁main ▁medical ▁facility ▁in ▁Kar and igh i ▁CD ▁block . ▁There ▁are ▁primary ▁health ▁cent res ▁at ▁D alk h ola ▁( with ▁ 6 ▁b eds ), ▁Ras ak b owa ▁( with ▁ 1 0 ▁b eds ). ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Comm unity ▁development ▁blocks ▁in ▁U tt ar ▁D ina j pur ▁district <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Dom estic ▁C ann ab is ▁Er adic ation / Supp ression ▁Program ▁is ▁a ▁D rug |
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