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ans h ark ▁and ▁ext ort ion ist ▁G us ▁Alex . ▁ ▁Patrick ▁was ▁imprison ed ▁on ▁June ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁for ▁ro bb ing ▁a ▁bank ▁in ▁C ul ver , ▁Indiana , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁his ▁participation ▁in ▁six ▁sus pected ▁gang land ▁sl ay ings . ▁Patrick ▁was ▁par o led ▁on ▁March ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 9 4 0 , ▁and ▁he ▁continued ▁working ▁for ▁the ▁Chicago ▁Out fit ▁and , ▁by ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 s , ▁his ▁West side ▁restaurant ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁biggest ▁book making ▁operations ▁in ▁the ▁city . ▁He ▁would ▁also ▁expand ▁into ▁legit imate ▁front ▁business es , ▁primarily ▁la und ry ▁companies , ▁for ▁illegal ▁g amb ling , ▁lo ans h ark ing ▁and ▁ext ort ion ▁activities . ▁ ▁On ▁June ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁Patrick ▁received ▁a ▁ 1 0 - year ▁sentence ▁for ▁ro bb ing ▁a ▁bank ▁in ▁C ul ver , ▁Indiana . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 2 , ▁Patrick ▁agreed ▁to ▁become ▁a ▁government ▁witness ▁following ▁his ▁ind ict ment ▁for ▁ra ck ete ering ▁charges . ▁His ▁testim ony ▁would ▁result ▁in ▁the ▁conv iction ▁of ▁G us ▁Alex ▁and ▁several ▁other ▁key ▁figures ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁city ' s ▁ext ort ion ▁ra ckets . ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁Ab adin sky , ▁Howard . ▁Organ ized ▁Crime , ▁ 5 th ▁ed . |
▁ 1 9 9 7 . ▁Kelly , ▁Robert ▁J . ▁Encyclopedia ▁of ▁Organ ized ▁Crime ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁West port , ▁Connecticut : ▁Green wood ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁S if ak is , ▁Carl . ▁The ▁M af ia ▁Encyclopedia . ▁New ▁York : ▁Da ▁Cap o ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁De position ▁taken ▁by ▁the ▁House ▁Select ▁Committee ▁on ▁Ass ass in ations , ▁In ▁the ▁M atter ▁of : ▁Investig ation ▁of ▁the ▁assass ination ▁of ▁President ▁John ▁F . ▁Kennedy , ▁Att orney ▁General ▁Robert ▁Kennedy , ▁Lee ▁Har vey ▁O sw ald , ▁et ▁al ., ▁July ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 1 9 7 8 . ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 1 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 0 6 ▁death s ▁Category : Ch icago ▁Out fit ▁mob sters ▁Category : F eder al ▁Bureau ▁of ▁Investig ation ▁inform ants ▁Category : J ew ish - American ▁mob sters ▁Category : Pe ople ▁who ▁entered ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Federal ▁Wit ness ▁Prote ction ▁Program <0x0A> </s> ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ▁del ▁Cast illo ▁( c . ▁ 1 4 9 6 ▁– ▁January ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 5 8 4 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Spanish ▁conquist ador , ▁who ▁participated ▁as ▁a ▁soldier ▁in ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁Mexico ▁under ▁Hern án ▁Cort és ▁and ▁late ▁in ▁his ▁life ▁wrote ▁an ▁account ▁of ▁the ▁events . ▁As ▁an ▁experienced |
▁soldier ▁of ▁fortune , ▁he ▁had ▁already ▁participated ▁in ▁exped itions ▁to ▁T ierra ▁Fir me , ▁Cuba , ▁and ▁to ▁Y uc at án ▁before ▁joining ▁Cort és . ▁In ▁his ▁later ▁years ▁he ▁was ▁an ▁en com end ero ▁and ▁governor ▁in ▁Gu atem ala ▁where ▁he ▁wrote ▁his ▁mem oir s ▁called ▁The ▁True ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁Con quest ▁of ▁New ▁Spain . ▁He ▁began ▁his ▁account ▁of ▁the ▁con quest ▁almost ▁thirty ▁years ▁after ▁the ▁events ▁and ▁later ▁re vised ▁and ▁expanded ▁it ▁in ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁bi ography ▁published ▁by ▁Cort es ' s ▁chap lain ▁Francisco ▁López ▁de ▁G óm ara , ▁which ▁he ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁largely ▁in ac cur ate ▁in ▁that ▁it ▁did ▁not ▁give ▁due ▁recognition ▁to ▁the ▁efforts ▁and ▁sacrific es ▁of ▁others ▁in ▁the ▁Spanish ▁expedition . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ▁del ▁Cast illo ▁was ▁born ▁around ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 4 9 6 ▁in ▁Med ina ▁del ▁Cam po , ▁a ▁prosper ous ▁commercial ▁city ▁in ▁Cast ile . ▁His ▁parents ▁were ▁Francisco ▁Dí az ▁del ▁Cast illo ▁and ▁María ▁Dí ez ▁Re j ón . ▁His ▁father ▁was ▁a ▁reg idor ▁( city ▁council or ) ▁of ▁Med ina ▁del ▁Cam po ▁which ▁provided ▁the ▁family ▁with ▁some ▁prom in ence . ▁Dí az ▁had ▁at ▁least ▁one ▁older ▁brother ▁and ▁they ▁attended ▁school ▁together , ▁learning ▁to ▁read ▁and ▁write . ▁Bern al ▁Dia z ▁was ▁intellig ent ▁and ▁later ▁showed ▁a ▁kn ack ▁for |
▁languages , ▁learning ▁to ▁speak ▁the ▁native ▁dialect ▁in ▁Cuba , ▁N ahu at l ▁in ▁Mexico , ▁and ▁the ▁C ak chi quel ▁language ▁of ▁the ▁Gu atem al an ▁n atives . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 5 1 4 , ▁when ▁Dí az ▁was ▁about ▁eigh teen ▁years ▁old , ▁he ▁left ▁home ▁to ▁join ▁an ▁expedition ▁to ▁the ▁New ▁World ▁led ▁by ▁Ped r arias ▁D áv ila . ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁largest ▁fleet ▁yet ▁sent ▁to ▁main land ▁America , ▁consisting ▁of ▁ 1 9 ▁vessels ▁and ▁ 1 , 5 0 0 ▁persons . ▁Dí az ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁common ▁foot ▁soldier ▁and ▁hoped ▁to ▁make ▁his ▁fortune ▁but ▁when ▁they ▁reached ▁Dar ien ▁in ▁present - day ▁Colombia , ▁they ▁were ▁quickly ▁overcome ▁by ▁fam ine ▁and ▁an ▁ep ide mic ▁that ▁killed ▁more ▁than ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁sett lers . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁colon ists ▁grew ▁disc ou rag ed ▁and ▁looked ▁elsewhere ▁for ▁new ▁opportun ities ; ▁some ▁returned ▁to ▁Spain ▁while ▁others ▁sa iled ▁to ▁His p ani ola ▁or ▁Cuba . ▁ ▁Ex ped ition ▁to ▁Y uc at án ▁In ▁ 1 5 1 6 , ▁Dia z ▁sa iled ▁to ▁Cuba ▁with ▁about ▁ 1 0 0 ▁other ▁soldiers ▁looking ▁for ▁a ▁share ▁of ▁the ▁gold ▁and ▁native ▁labor ers ▁that ▁were ▁said ▁to ▁be ▁found ▁on ▁the ▁island . ▁They ▁discovered ▁that ▁gold ▁was ▁scar ce ▁and ▁the ▁native ▁labor ▁was ▁in ▁short ▁supply , ▁leading ▁Dí az , ▁in |
▁ 1 5 1 7 , ▁to ▁join ▁an ▁expedition ▁organized ▁by ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁about ▁ 1 1 0 ▁dis aff ected ▁soldiers ▁and ▁sett lers ▁to ▁" dis cover ▁new ▁lands ". ▁They ▁chose ▁Francisco ▁Hern ández ▁de ▁C ór dob a , ▁a ▁wealth y ▁Cub an ▁land owner , ▁to ▁lead ▁the ▁expedition . ▁It ▁was ▁a ▁difficult ▁vent ure ▁and , ▁after ▁sail ing ▁from ▁Cuba ▁for ▁ 2 1 ▁days , ▁they ▁came ▁across ▁the ▁Y uc at án ▁coast ▁in ▁early ▁March ▁ 1 5 1 7 , ▁on ▁the ▁Cape ▁C ato che . ▁ ▁On ▁March ▁ 4 , ▁ 1 5 1 7 , ▁the ▁Spanish ▁had ▁their ▁first ▁encounter ▁with ▁the ▁Y uc at án ▁n atives ▁who ▁came ▁to ▁meet ▁them ▁on ▁five ▁or ▁perhaps ▁ 1 0 , ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁version / trans lation ▁of ▁his ▁work , ▁large ▁wooden ▁can o es . ▁The ▁next ▁day , ▁the ▁Sp ani ards ▁dis emb ark ed , ▁invited ▁by ▁the ▁n atives ▁who ▁wanted ▁to ▁show ▁them ▁their ▁village . ▁They ▁were ▁amb ushed ▁but ▁managed ▁to ▁retre at , ▁after ▁killing ▁ 1 5 ▁loc als ▁and ▁having ▁ 1 5 ▁wounded , ▁ 2 ▁of ▁whom ▁later ▁died . ▁Upon ▁leaving , ▁the ▁Sp ani ards ▁captured ▁ 2 ▁n atives ▁who ▁would ▁be ▁transl ators ▁in ▁future ▁exped itions . ▁The ▁Spanish ▁almost ▁died ▁of ▁th irst ▁and ▁sa iled ▁to ▁Florida ▁in ▁search ▁of ▁pot |
able ▁drink ing ▁water . ▁As ▁they ▁were ▁dig ging ▁a ▁well ▁on ▁the ▁beach , ▁the ▁Sp ani ards ▁were ▁attacked ▁by ▁loc als . ▁During ▁this ▁f rac as , ▁one ▁Sp ani ard ▁was ▁captured ▁by ▁the ▁native ▁Flor id ians ▁while ▁the ▁Spanish ▁killed ▁ 2 2 ▁n atives . ▁The ▁Spanish ▁managed ▁to ▁make ▁a ▁retre at ▁but ▁were ▁also ▁able ▁to ▁gather ▁some ▁water . ▁They ▁returned ▁to ▁Cuba , ▁all ▁of ▁them ▁sever ely ▁wounded . ▁The ▁captain , ▁Francisco ▁Hern ández ▁de ▁C ór dob a , ▁and ▁other ▁soldiers ▁died ▁shortly ▁after ▁making ▁it ▁back ▁to ▁Cuba . ▁ ▁Nevertheless , ▁Dí az ▁returned ▁to ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁Y uc at án ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 5 1 8 , ▁in ▁an ▁expedition ▁led ▁by ▁Juan ▁de ▁G rij al va , ▁with ▁the ▁intent ▁of ▁expl oring ▁the ▁lands . ▁Upon ▁returning ▁to ▁Cuba , ▁he ▁en list ed ▁in ▁a ▁new ▁expedition , ▁this ▁one ▁led ▁by ▁Hern án ▁Cort és . ▁ ▁Con quest ▁of ▁Mexico ▁In ▁this ▁third ▁effort , ▁Dí az ▁took ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁campaign s ▁against ▁the ▁Mex ica , ▁later ▁called ▁the ▁Az te c ▁Empire . ▁By ▁this ▁time , ▁he ▁was ▁a ▁highly ▁experienced ▁member ▁of ▁Hern án ▁Cort és ' s ▁expedition . ▁During ▁this ▁campaign , ▁Dí az ▁spoke ▁frequently ▁with ▁his ▁fellow ▁soldiers ▁about ▁their ▁experiences . ▁These ▁accounts , ▁and ▁especially ▁Dí az ' s ▁own ▁experiences , ▁served ▁as |
▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁the ▁re collections ▁that ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ▁later ▁told ▁with ▁great ▁drama ▁to ▁visitors ▁and , ▁eventually , ▁a ▁book ▁entitled ▁Historia ▁verd ad era ▁de ▁la ▁conqu ista ▁de ▁la ▁Nueva ▁España ▁( ). ▁In ▁the ▁latter , ▁Dí az ▁describes ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 1 9 ▁batt les ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁claims ▁to ▁have ▁participated ▁in , ▁cul min ating ▁in ▁the ▁defeat ▁of ▁the ▁Az te cs ▁in ▁ 1 5 2 1 . ▁▁ ▁This ▁work ▁also ▁claims ▁to ▁describe ▁the ▁diverse ▁native ▁pe op les ▁living ▁in ▁the ▁territory ▁renamed ▁New ▁Spain ▁by ▁the ▁Sp ani ards . ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ▁also ▁exam ines ▁the ▁political ▁rival ries ▁of ▁Sp ani ards , ▁and ▁gives ▁accounts ▁of ▁the ▁n atives ' ▁human ▁sacrific es , ▁can n ib al ism ▁and ▁id ol at ry , ▁which ▁he ▁claims ▁he ▁witness ed ▁first - hand , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁art istic , ▁cultural , ▁political ▁and ▁intellectual ▁achiev ements ▁of ▁the ▁Az te cs , ▁including ▁their ▁pal aces , ▁market ▁places ▁and ▁beautiful ly ▁organized ▁botan ical ▁and ▁zo ological ▁gard ens . ▁His ▁account ▁of ▁the ▁Mex ica ▁along ▁with ▁that ▁of ▁Cort és ▁are ▁first - person ▁accounts ▁recording ▁important ▁aspects ▁of ▁Mes o amer ican ▁culture . ▁True ▁History ▁remains ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁best ▁accounts ▁we ▁have ▁of ▁Mexico ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁con quest , ▁but ▁its ▁purpose ▁and ▁style ▁bet ray s ▁some ▁of |
▁the ▁bi ases ▁that ▁appear ▁in ▁this ▁so - called ▁truth ful ▁history . ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ' s ▁account ▁has ▁not ▁been ▁fully ▁util ized ▁as ▁a ▁source ▁for ▁con quest - era ▁Mes o amer ican ▁culture . ▁ ▁Governor ▁of ▁Ant igua ▁Gu atem ala ▁ ▁As ▁a ▁reward ▁for ▁his ▁service , ▁Dí az ▁was ▁awarded ▁an ▁en com i enda ▁by ▁Cort és ▁in ▁ 1 5 2 2 . ▁That ▁was ▁confirmed ▁and ▁supp lement ed ▁by ▁similar ▁awards ▁in ▁ 1 5 2 7 ▁and ▁ 1 5 2 8 . ▁In ▁ 1 5 4 1 , ▁he ▁settled ▁in ▁Gu atem ala ▁and , ▁during ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁a ▁trip ▁to ▁Spain , ▁was ▁appointed ▁reg idor ▁( g overn or ) ▁of ▁Santiago ▁de ▁los ▁Cab all eros ▁de ▁Gu atem ala , ▁present - day ▁Ant igua ▁Gu atem ala , ▁in ▁ 1 5 5 1 . ▁ ▁True ▁History ▁ ▁His ▁Historia ▁verd ad era ▁de ▁la ▁conqu ista ▁de ▁la ▁Nueva ▁España , ▁finished ▁in ▁ 1 5 6 8 , ▁almost ▁fifty ▁years ▁after ▁the ▁events ▁it ▁described , ▁was ▁begun ▁around ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁as ▁his ▁appointment ▁as ▁reg idor ▁and ▁was ▁well ▁in ▁progress ▁by ▁the ▁mid - 1 5 5 0 s ▁when ▁he ▁wrote ▁to ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁( and ▁king ▁of ▁Spain ), ▁Charles ▁V , ▁describing ▁his ▁services ▁and ▁seeking ▁benefits . ▁That ▁was ▁a ▁standard ▁action ▁of ▁conquer ors |
▁to ▁document ▁their ▁services ▁to ▁the ▁crown ▁and ▁requests ▁for ▁re wards . ▁▁ ▁Some ▁version ▁of ▁his ▁account ▁circul ated ▁in ▁central ▁Mexico ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 5 6 0 s ▁and ▁ 1 5 7 0 s , ▁prior ▁to ▁its ▁sevent e enth - century ▁publication . ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ' s ▁account ▁is ▁mentioned ▁by ▁Al onso ▁de ▁Z or ita , ▁a ▁royal ▁official ▁who ▁wrote ▁an ▁account ▁of ▁ind igen ous ▁society , ▁and ▁mest izo ▁Diego ▁Mu ñ oz ▁Cam argo , ▁who ▁wrote ▁a ▁full - length ▁account ▁of ▁the ▁T lax cal ans ' ▁participation ▁in ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁the ▁Mex ica . ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ' s ▁manuscript ▁was ▁expanded ▁in ▁response ▁to ▁what ▁he ▁later ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁official ▁bi ography ▁of ▁Hern án ▁Cort és ▁commission ed ▁by ▁Cort és ' s ▁he ir , ▁Don ▁Martín ▁Cort és , ▁published ▁in ▁ 1 5 5 2 ▁by ▁Francisco ▁López ▁de ▁G óm ara . ▁The ▁title ▁Historia ▁verd ad era ▁( True ▁History ) ▁is ▁in ▁part ▁a ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁claims ▁made ▁by ▁Hern án ▁Cort és ▁in ▁his ▁published ▁letters ▁to ▁the ▁king , ▁López ▁de ▁G óm ara , ▁Bart ol om é ▁de ▁las ▁Cas as , ▁Gonz alo ▁de ▁Ill es cas ▁and ▁others ▁who ▁had ▁not ▁participated ▁in ▁the ▁campaign . ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ▁also ▁used ▁the ▁publication ▁of ▁Juan ▁G in és ▁de ▁Sep úl ved a ▁on ▁just |
▁war , ▁which ▁allowed ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ▁to ▁cast ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁Mexico ▁as ▁a ▁just ▁con quest . ▁▁ ▁Despite ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ' s ▁lack ▁of ▁formal ▁education ▁and ▁the ▁self - inter est ▁that ▁gave ▁birth ▁to ▁his ▁volume , ▁the ▁Historia ▁verd ad era ▁ev okes , ▁like ▁no ▁other ▁source , ▁the ▁often ▁trag ic ▁and ▁pain ful ▁yet ▁fasc in ating ▁process ▁through ▁which ▁one ▁emp ire ▁ended ▁and ▁another ▁began ▁to ▁take ▁shape . ▁ ▁Death ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ▁died ▁on ▁January ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 5 8 4 . ▁He ▁was ▁alive ▁on ▁ 1 ▁January , ▁but ▁on ▁ 3 ▁January , ▁his ▁son , ▁Francisco , ▁appeared ▁before ▁the ▁Cab ild o ▁of ▁Gu atem ala ▁and ▁informed ▁them ▁that ▁his ▁father ▁had ▁died . ▁Miguel ▁León - Port illa ▁accepts ▁this ▁date ▁in ▁his ▁Introduction ▁( dated ▁July ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁" a ▁cuatro ▁sig los ▁de ▁la ▁muerte ▁de ▁Bern al ") ▁to ▁the ▁anth ology ▁of ▁extended ▁ex cer pts ▁from ▁the ▁Historia ▁verd ad era . ▁A lic ia ▁May er ▁( 2 0 0 5 ) ▁pra ised ▁that ▁edition , ▁its ▁selection , ▁and ▁León - Port illa ' s ▁introduction , ▁saying ▁they ▁remained , ▁down ▁to ▁the ▁date ▁of ▁her ▁review , ▁" fu ente ▁im pres c ind ible ▁de ▁consult a " ▁( an ▁ind isp ens able ▁source ▁to ▁consult ) ▁without ▁seeing ▁his |
▁manuscript ▁published . ▁An ▁expanded ▁and ▁corrected ▁copy ▁of ▁the ▁manuscript ▁kept ▁in ▁Gu atem ala ▁was ▁sent ▁to ▁Spain ▁and ▁published , ▁with ▁revis ions , ▁in ▁ 1 6 3 2 . ▁The ▁manuscript ▁was ▁edited ▁by ▁F ray ▁Al onso ▁de ▁Rem ón ▁and ▁F ray ▁Gabriel ▁Ad ar zo ▁y ▁Sant ander ▁prior ▁to ▁publication . ▁In ▁this ▁first ▁published ▁edition ▁of ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ' s ▁work , ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁chapter ▁( 2 1 2 ), ▁which ▁some ▁consider ▁ap oc ry phal ▁with ▁signs ▁and ▁port ents ▁of ▁the ▁con quest ▁and ▁omitted ▁for ▁later ▁ed itions . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Sa enz ▁de ▁Santa ▁María , ▁Car m elo . ▁Historia ▁de ▁una ▁historia : ▁la ▁cr ónica ▁de ▁Bern al ▁Dí az ▁del ▁Cast illo . ▁Madrid : ▁Conse jo ▁Super ior ▁de ▁Investig aciones ▁C ientí f icas , ▁ 1 9 8 4 . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁La ▁Historia ▁verd ad era ▁de ▁la ▁conqu ista ▁de ▁la ▁Nueva ▁España ▁▁ ▁Category : Span ish ▁conquist adors ▁Category : Span ish ▁colon ization ▁of ▁the ▁Amer icas ▁Category : Span ish ▁histor ians ▁Category : Span ish ▁Mes o amer ican ists ▁Category : Span ish ▁male ▁writers ▁Category : G overn ors ▁of ▁Gu atem ala ▁Category : Pe ople ▁of ▁New ▁Spain ▁Category : 1 4 9 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 5 8 4 ▁death s ▁Category : Col onial ▁Mexico ▁Category : En |
com ender os ▁Category : History ▁of ▁the ▁Az te cs ▁Category : History ▁of ▁the ▁Y uc at án ▁Pen ins ula ▁Category : 1 6 th - century ▁Spanish ▁people ▁Category : 1 6 th - century ▁Spanish ▁writers ▁Category : 1 6 th - century ▁male ▁writers ▁Category : 1 6 th ▁century ▁in ▁Gu atem ala <0x0A> </s> ▁G anti adi ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁O z ur get i ▁Municip ality ▁of ▁G uria ▁in ▁western ▁Georgia . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : C ities ▁and ▁towns ▁in ▁G uria ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁O z ur get i ▁Municip ality <0x0A> </s> ▁H é ctor ▁Ac osta ▁( born ▁ 9 ▁December ▁ 1 9 3 3 ) ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁Argent ine ▁cycl ist . ▁He ▁competed ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁Summer ▁Olympics . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Ar gent ine ▁male ▁cycl ists ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁cycl ists ▁of ▁Argentina ▁Category : Cy cl ists ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : Cy cl ists ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁Ros ario , ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁Category : Pan ▁American ▁Games ▁medal ists ▁in ▁cy cling ▁Category : Pan ▁American ▁Games ▁silver ▁medal ists ▁for ▁Argentina ▁Category : Pan ▁American |
▁Games ▁bronze ▁medal ists ▁for ▁Argentina ▁Category : Comp et itors ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 9 ▁Pan ▁American ▁Games ▁Category : Cy cl ists ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁Pan ▁American ▁Games <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁XX I st ▁Central ▁American ▁and ▁Car ib bean ▁Games ▁were ▁held ▁in ▁May ag ü ez , ▁Puerto ▁Rico ▁from ▁July ▁ 1 7 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁to ▁August ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁Results ▁by ▁event ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁May ag ü ez ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Official ▁website ▁ ▁Category : N ations ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Central ▁American ▁and ▁Car ib bean ▁Games ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Central ▁American ▁and ▁Car ib bean ▁Games <0x0A> </s> ▁How rah ▁is ▁a ▁sub urb ▁of ▁the ▁City ▁of ▁Clar ence , ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁greater ▁Hob art ▁area , ▁Tas mania , ▁Australia . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁east ▁of ▁B eller ive ▁and ▁north ▁of ▁T ran m ere . ▁ ▁How rah ▁is ▁a ▁beach side ▁sub urb , ▁with ▁views ▁across ▁the ▁Der w ent ▁River ▁to ▁Hob art ▁City . ▁Clar ence ▁Street ▁runs ▁through ▁the ▁centre ▁of ▁the ▁sub urb ▁separ ating ▁the ▁hill side ▁section ▁from ▁the ▁beach side . ▁▁ ▁How rah ▁has ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁par ks ▁including ▁W ent worth ▁Park , ▁which ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁key ▁sport ▁( such ▁as ▁s occer , ▁field ▁hockey ▁and ▁touch ▁football ) |
▁and ▁recre ation ▁areas ▁on ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Sh ore . ▁ ▁Clar ence ▁High ▁School ▁is ▁generally ▁thought ▁to ▁be ▁in ▁How rah , ▁due ▁to ▁it ▁being ▁located ▁east ▁of ▁W ent worth ▁Street , ▁however ▁it ▁is ▁in ▁B eller ive . ▁How rah ▁has ▁a ▁primary ▁school , ▁▁ ▁Sh or eline ▁Sho pping ▁Centre , ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁sho pping ▁centre ▁in ▁How rah . ▁ ▁How rah ▁was ▁named ▁after ▁How rah ▁House , ▁a ▁property ▁established ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 3 0 s ▁on ▁Clar ence ▁Pla ins ▁by ▁a ▁retired ▁Indian ▁Army ▁officer ▁who ▁took ▁the ▁name ▁from ▁a ▁place ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁name ▁near ▁Cal cut ta . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Be aches ▁of ▁Tas mania ▁Category : City ▁of ▁Clar ence <0x0A> </s> ▁Charles ▁Davis ▁( F ebru ary ▁ 1 2 , ▁ 1 9 2 7 ▁– ▁January ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 2 0 1 8 ) ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁sports ▁shoot er . ▁He ▁competed ▁in ▁the ▁ 5 0 ▁met re ▁running ▁target ▁event ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁Summer ▁Olympics . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 1 8 ▁death s ▁Category : American ▁male ▁sport ▁shoot ers ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁shoot ers ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : S ho ot ers ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Haz ard , ▁Kentucky ▁Category |
: S ports people ▁from ▁Kentucky <0x0A> </s> ▁Mark ▁Van ho en acker ▁is ▁a ▁Belg ian - American ▁air line ▁pilot ▁and ▁author . ▁He ▁currently ▁works ▁for ▁British ▁Air ways ▁as ▁a ▁Bo eing ▁ 7 8 7 ▁pilot . ▁His ▁first ▁book , ▁Sky f aring : ▁A ▁J our ney ▁with ▁a ▁Pil ot ▁was ▁published ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁and ▁followed ▁by ▁How ▁to ▁Land ▁a ▁Pl ane ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁He ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁frequent ▁contrib utor ▁for ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁Times , ▁S late ▁( mag azine ) ▁and ▁the ▁Fin an cial ▁Times . ▁ ▁Books ▁ ▁Sky f aring : ▁A ▁J our ney ▁with ▁a ▁Pil ot ▁( 2 0 1 5 ), ▁Alfred ▁A ▁Kn opf ▁( USA ) ▁and ▁P engu in ▁UK ▁( UK ), ▁▁▁ ▁How ▁to ▁Land ▁a ▁Pl ane ▁( 2 0 1 7 ), ▁Qu erc us , ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : American ▁non - f iction ▁writers ▁Category : American ▁column ists ▁Category : Com mer cial ▁av i ators ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) <0x0A> </s> ▁An ita ▁P ich ler ▁( J anu ary ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁– ▁April ▁ 6 , ▁ 1 9 9 7 ) ▁was ▁an ▁Italian ▁author ▁and ▁transl ator ▁from ▁South ▁Ty rol ▁who ▁wrote ▁in |
▁German . ▁She ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁post - war ▁author ▁to ▁achieve ▁visibility ▁outside ▁that ▁region . ▁ ▁Life ▁ ▁She ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Mer ano ▁and ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁Sch en na , ▁Sul den ▁and ▁Tri este . ▁She ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁study ▁modern ▁languages ▁and ▁literature ▁at ▁the ▁Ca ' ▁F osc ari ▁University ▁of ▁Ven ice ▁and ▁S lav ic ▁studies ▁in ▁Prag ue . ▁She ▁received ▁a ▁scholar ship ▁to ▁attend ▁H umb old t ▁University ▁in ▁East ▁Berlin ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 . ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 2 , ▁P ich ler ▁returned ▁to ▁Ven ice , ▁where ▁she ▁was ▁a ▁lect urer ▁for ▁German ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Ven ice . ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁she ▁published ▁her ▁first ▁story ▁Die ▁Za un re iter in . ▁From ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁to ▁ 1 9 9 2 , ▁she ▁was ▁author ▁in ▁residence ▁for ▁the ▁town ▁of ▁B iel / B ienne ▁and , ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 , ▁was ▁official ▁author ▁for ▁Inner v ill gr aten . ▁ ▁She ▁moved ▁to ▁Bol z ano ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁after ▁becoming ▁ill ▁and ▁died ▁there ▁two ▁years ▁later ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 4 9 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁she ▁was ▁port rayed ▁in ▁the ▁film ▁An ita ▁P ich ler ▁- ▁Ich ▁will ▁ein fach ▁er z äh len . ▁ ▁Selected ▁work ▁ ▁Writing ▁▁ ▁Wie |
▁die ▁Mon ate ▁das ▁Jahr . ▁Su hr k amp , ▁narr ative ▁( 1 9 8 9 ) ▁ ▁Die ▁Frauen ▁aus ▁F an is ▁( 1 9 9 2 ) ▁ ▁Be ider ▁Augen ▁B lick . ▁Ne un ▁Vari ationen ▁über ▁das ▁Se hen ▁( 1 9 9 5 ) ▁ ▁Fl atter licht . ▁Ver stre ute ▁und ▁un ver öffentlich te ▁Tex te , ▁post - mort em ▁( 2 0 0 7 ) ▁ ▁Trans l ations ▁( from ▁Italian ▁to ▁German ) ▁▁ ▁Über ▁das ▁In ne halten ▁auf ▁einem ▁Feld weg ▁by ▁ ▁( 1 9 9 3 ) ▁ ▁Die ▁Ste ine ▁von ▁P antal ica ▁by ▁V inc en zo ▁Cons olo ▁( 1 9 9 5 ) ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 4 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 9 7 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Mer ano ▁Category : G erman oph one ▁Italian ▁people ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Italian ▁women ▁writers ▁Category : Ital ian ▁writers ▁in ▁German ▁Category : Ital ian ▁transl ators ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁transl ators <0x0A> </s> ▁Ś wid no ▁may ▁refer ▁to ▁the ▁following ▁places : ▁Ś wid no , ▁Lub lin ▁Vo iv odes hip ▁( east ▁Poland ) ▁Ś wid no , ▁Gr ój ec ▁County ▁in ▁Mas ov ian ▁Vo iv odes hip ▁( east - central ▁Poland ) ▁Ś wid no , ▁Ś wię to kr |
zy skie ▁Vo iv odes hip ▁( s outh - central ▁Poland ) ▁Ś wid no , ▁W ę gr ów ▁County ▁in ▁Mas ov ian ▁Vo iv odes hip ▁( east - central ▁Poland ) <0x0A> </s> ▁S za fran ki ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁administrative ▁district ▁of ▁G mina ▁Ł y se , ▁within ▁Ost ro ł ę ka ▁County , ▁Mas ov ian ▁Vo iv odes hip , ▁in ▁east - central ▁Poland . ▁It ▁lies ▁approximately ▁ ▁south ▁of ▁Ł y se , ▁ ▁north ▁of ▁Ost ro ł ę ka , ▁and ▁ ▁north ▁of ▁Wars aw . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁S za fran ki <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁Portuguese ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁was ▁a ▁Formula ▁One ▁motor ▁race ▁held ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁September ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁at ▁Aut ód rom o ▁do ▁Est or il . ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁th ir teenth ▁race ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁FI A ▁Formula ▁One ▁World ▁Championship . ▁The ▁race ▁was ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁Portuguese ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁and ▁the ▁sevent h ▁to ▁be ▁held ▁at ▁Est or il . ▁It ▁was ▁scheduled ▁to ▁be ▁held ▁over ▁ 7 1 ▁la ps ▁of ▁the ▁ ▁circuit ▁but ▁was ▁stopped ▁after ▁ 6 1 ▁la ps , ▁a ▁race ▁distance ▁of ▁, ▁after ▁an ▁accident ▁involving ▁the ▁Ar rows ▁of ▁Alex ▁C aff i ▁and ▁the ▁L ola ▁of ▁Ag uri ▁Su zu ki . ▁ ▁N ig el ▁Mans |
ell ▁took ▁pole ▁position ▁in ▁his ▁Ferr ari ▁and ▁was ▁leading ▁when ▁the ▁race ▁was ▁stopped , ▁thus ▁taking ▁his ▁only ▁victory ▁of ▁the ▁season ▁and ▁his ▁last ▁for ▁the ▁Ferr ari ▁team . ▁Mans ell ▁finished ▁ 2 . 8 ▁seconds ▁ahead ▁of ▁D ri vers ' ▁Championship ▁leader ▁A yr ton ▁Sen na ▁in ▁the ▁Mc L aren - H onda , ▁who ▁in ▁turn ▁finished ▁ 1 . 3 ▁seconds ▁ahead ▁of ▁rival ▁A lain ▁Pro st ▁in ▁the ▁other ▁Ferr ari . ▁Sen na ▁thus ▁extended ▁his ▁lead ▁over ▁Pro st ▁to ▁ 1 8 ▁points ▁with ▁three ▁races ▁remaining . ▁ ▁Race ▁report ▁T yr rell ' s ▁S ator u ▁Nak aj ima ▁qualified ▁ 2 0 th ▁but ▁with d rew ▁due ▁to ▁influen za ▁after ▁crash ing ▁in ▁the ▁Sunday ▁morning ▁warm - up ▁session . ▁The ▁grid ▁was ▁adjust ed ▁accordingly , ▁although ▁only ▁ 2 5 ▁drivers ▁started ▁as ▁no ▁non - qual ifier ▁was ▁re inst ated . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁start , ▁with ▁both ▁Ferr aris ▁on ▁the ▁front ▁row ▁( M ans ell ▁on ▁pole , ▁A lain ▁Pro st ▁second ), ▁Mans ell ▁got ▁too ▁much ▁wheel sp in ▁and ▁sl id ▁across ▁the ▁track ▁towards ▁Pro st , ▁who ▁had ▁to ▁avoid ▁being ▁sh unted ▁into ▁the ▁pit wall . ▁All ▁of ▁this ▁allowed ▁the ▁Mc Lar ens ▁of ▁A yr ton ▁Sen na ▁and ▁Ger hard ▁Ber ger ▁to ▁s lip ▁past ▁Mans ell ▁and ▁Pro st |
▁to ▁make ▁it ▁a ▁Mc L aren ▁ 1 – 2 ▁with ▁Sen na ▁leading ▁into ▁the ▁first ▁corner . ▁After ▁all ▁the ▁mid ▁race ▁ty re ▁stops , ▁it ▁was ▁Sen na ▁who ▁emer ged ▁as ▁the ▁race ▁leader , ▁followed ▁by ▁Mans ell , ▁Ber ger , ▁and ▁Pro st . ▁A ▁few ▁la ps ▁later ▁Mans ell ▁had ▁caught ▁Sen na ▁and ▁passed ▁him ▁into ▁turn ▁one ▁( S en na ▁letting ▁him ▁through , ▁unlike ▁the ▁year ▁before ▁when ▁they ▁coll ided ). ▁ ▁On ▁lap ▁ 5 2 , ▁race ▁leader ▁N ig el ▁Mans ell ▁was ▁attempting ▁to ▁lap ▁the ▁Lig ier ▁JS 3 3 B ▁of ▁Philippe ▁Al li ot ▁when ▁the ▁French man ▁stuck ▁to ▁the ▁racing ▁line ▁by ▁driving ▁inches ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁Mans ell ▁into ▁the ▁inside ▁of ▁" Cur va ▁ 2 " ▁corner . ▁However , ▁the ▁right ▁rear ▁wheel ▁of ▁his ▁car ▁hit ▁the ▁left ▁front ▁of ▁Mans ell ' s ▁Ferr ari ▁and ▁Al li ot ▁was ▁sent ▁spin ning ▁into ▁the ▁Arm co ▁bar rier . ▁Mans ell ▁came ▁out ▁un sc athed ▁from ▁this ▁incident , ▁and ▁eventually ▁won ▁the ▁race ▁which ▁was ▁stopped ▁early ▁due ▁to ▁an ▁accident ▁between ▁Su zu ki ▁and ▁C aff i . ▁ ▁Ferr ari ▁announced ▁that ▁Jean ▁A les i ▁would ▁partner ▁A lain ▁Pro st ▁for ▁ 1 9 9 1 . ▁A les i ▁was ▁reported ▁to ▁have ▁already ▁signed ▁a ▁contract ▁with ▁Williams , ▁but ▁changed ▁his |
▁mind ▁when ▁Ferr ari ▁showed ▁an ▁interest , ▁feeling ▁that ▁this ▁would ▁give ▁him ▁a ▁better ▁chance ▁of ▁winning ▁a ▁championship . ▁For ▁this ▁race , ▁the ▁Life ▁team ▁abandoned ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁their ▁own ▁in - house ▁W 1 2 ▁engine ▁in ▁favour ▁of ▁Jud d ▁V 8 ▁engines . ▁The ▁engine ▁cover ▁of ▁the ▁Life ▁F 1 9 0 ▁then ▁failed ▁to ▁fit ▁properly ▁as ▁a ▁result . ▁ ▁Classification ▁ ▁Pre - Qual ifying ▁ ▁Qual ifying ▁ ▁Race ▁ ▁Championship ▁stand ings ▁after ▁the ▁race ▁ ▁D ri vers ' ▁Championship ▁stand ings ▁ ▁Con struct ors ' ▁Championship ▁stand ings ▁ ▁Notes ▁Last - ever ▁win ▁for ▁English ▁driver ▁in ▁a ▁Sc ud eria ▁Ferr ari ▁team . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Portuguese ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁Category : Port ug uese ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁Grand ▁Prix <0x0A> </s> ▁Maria ▁Ter esa ▁da ▁Silva ▁Mor ais ▁( born ▁ 2 1 ▁July ▁ 1 9 5 9 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Portuguese ▁politician ▁who ▁served ▁as ▁Minister ▁of ▁Culture , ▁Equ ality ▁and ▁Cit iz ens hip ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁From ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁to ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Mor ais ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁Secretary ▁of ▁State ▁for ▁Parliament ary ▁Affairs ▁and ▁Equ ality . ▁She ▁is ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Social ▁Democratic ▁Party ▁and ▁was ▁elected ▁to ▁the ▁Assembly ▁of ▁the ▁Republic ▁by ▁the ▁Le i ria ▁constitu ency ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 5 |
9 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Port ug uese ▁polit icians ▁Category : Culture ▁minister s ▁of ▁Portugal ▁Category : W omen ▁government ▁minister s ▁of ▁Portugal ▁Category : So cial ▁Democratic ▁Party ▁( Port ug al ) ▁polit icians <0x0A> </s> ▁John ▁Smith ▁C M G ▁▁ ▁( 1 2 ▁December ▁ 1 8 2 1 ▁– ▁ 1 2 ▁October ▁ 1 8 8 5 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Professor ▁of ▁Chem istry ▁and ▁Ex perimental ▁Physics ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Sydney , ▁and ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁New ▁South ▁Wales ▁Legisl ative ▁Council . ▁ ▁Background ▁Smith ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Peter cul ter , ▁Aber de ens hire , ▁Scotland , ▁educated ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Aber de en , ▁where ▁he ▁graduated ▁M . A . ▁and ▁M . D . ▁For ▁five ▁years ▁he ▁taught ▁chem istry ▁at ▁Mar isch al ▁College , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 2 , ▁when ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Sydney ▁was ▁constit uted , ▁he ▁was ▁selected ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁first ▁Professor ▁of ▁Chem istry ▁and ▁Ex perimental ▁Physics , ▁a ▁position ▁which ▁he ▁held ▁for ▁over ▁thirty ▁years . ▁In ▁ 1 8 5 3 ▁he ▁was ▁appointed ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Board ▁of ▁National ▁Education , ▁and ▁served ▁till ▁it ▁was ▁dissol ved ▁by ▁the ▁Public ▁School s ▁Act ▁of ▁ 1 8 6 6 , ▁when ▁he ▁became ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Council ▁of ▁Education ▁constit uted ▁there under , ▁and ▁was ▁for ▁a ▁number ▁of |
▁years ▁president . ▁In ▁ 1 8 6 7 ▁he ▁was ▁appointed ▁to ▁a ▁commission ▁investig ating ▁the ▁water ▁supply ▁for ▁Sydney . ▁ ▁On ▁ 3 ▁November ▁ 1 8 7 4 ▁Smith ▁was ▁nominated ▁to ▁the ▁Legisl ative ▁Council , ▁and ▁strongly ▁advoc ated ▁the ▁ad option ▁of ▁a ▁protection ist ▁policy . ▁In ▁ 1 8 7 6 ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Aber de en ▁con ferred ▁on ▁him ▁the ▁honor ary ▁degree ▁of ▁LL . D ., ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 7 ▁he ▁was ▁created ▁C . M . G . ▁in ▁recognition ▁of ▁his ▁services ▁in ▁the ▁cause ▁of ▁education . ▁In ▁May ▁ 1 8 8 3 ▁the ▁New ▁South ▁Wales ▁Government ▁appointed ▁him ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Board ▁of ▁Techn ical ▁Education , ▁which ▁was ▁abol ished ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 0 . ▁He ▁died ▁on ▁ 1 2 ▁October ▁ 1 8 8 5 . ▁Smith ▁was ▁elected ▁trust ee ▁of ▁the ▁Australian ▁Museum ; ▁vice - pres ident ▁of ▁the ▁Young ▁Men ' s ▁Christian ▁Association ▁and ▁honor ary ▁tre as urer ▁of ▁Sydney ▁Inf irm ary ▁and ▁Dis p ens ary ▁from ▁ 1 8 6 6 ▁until ▁ 1 8 6 7 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 2 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 8 8 5 ▁death s ▁Category : Al umn i ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Aber de en ▁Category : M embers ▁of ▁the ▁New ▁South ▁Wales ▁Legisl ative ▁Council ▁Category : Austral ian |
▁academ ics ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁em igr ants ▁to ▁Australia ▁Category : Austral ian ▁Comp an ions ▁of ▁the ▁Order ▁of ▁St ▁Michael ▁and ▁St ▁George ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁Australian ▁polit icians <0x0A> </s> ▁Nur ia ▁L lag ost era ▁V ives ▁and ▁María ▁José ▁Martínez ▁S ánchez ▁were ▁the ▁def ending ▁champions , ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁final , ▁defeated ▁L our des ▁Dom í ng uez ▁L ino ▁and ▁Ar ant xa ▁Par ra ▁Sant on ja , ▁ 6 – 4 , ▁ 6 – 2 . ▁ ▁Se eds ▁ ▁Draw ▁ ▁Draw ▁ ▁| ▁R D 2 - score 0 1 - 1 = 6 ▁| ▁R D 2 - score 0 1 - 2 = 6 ▁| ▁R D 2 - score 0 1 - 3 = ▁| ▁R D 2 - seed 0 2 = ▁| ▁R D 2 - team 0 2 = ▁S ▁Bor well ▁C ▁Nag le ▁| ▁R D 2 - score 0 2 - 1 = 4 ▁| ▁R D 2 - score 0 2 - 2 = 4 ▁| ▁R D 2 - score 0 2 - 3 = ▁| ▁R D 2 - seed 0 3 = 3 ▁| ▁R D 2 - team 0 3 = ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 1 - 1 = 6 ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 1 - 2 = 6 ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 1 - 3 |
= ▁| ▁R D 3 - seed 0 2 = 3 ▁| ▁R D 3 - team 0 2 = ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 2 - 1 = 2 ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 2 - 2 = 1 ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 2 - 3 = ▁| ▁R D 3 - seed 0 3 = 4 ▁| ▁R D 3 - team 0 3 = ▁G ▁D ul ko ▁F ▁Pen net ta ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 3 - 1 = 3 ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 3 - 2 = 4 ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 3 - 3 = ▁| ▁R D 3 - seed 0 4 = ▁| ▁R D 3 - team 0 4 = ▁L ▁Dom í ng uez ▁L ino ▁A ▁Par ra ▁Sant on ja ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 4 - 1 = 6 | ▁R D 3 - score 0 4 - 2 = 6 ''' ▁| ▁R D 3 - score 0 4 - 3 = ▁| ▁R D 4 - seed 0 1 = 1 ▁| ▁R D 4 - team 0 1 = ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Draw ▁ ▁Ab ierto ▁Mex icano ▁Tel cel ▁- ▁Women ' s ▁Dou bles ▁Category : 2 0 0 9 ▁Ab ierto ▁Mex icano ▁Tel cel <0x0A> </s> ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Est onia ▁( , ▁E K P ; ▁) ▁was |
▁a ▁political ▁party ▁in ▁Est onia . ▁ ▁E K P ▁was ▁formed ▁November ▁ 5 , ▁ 1 9 2 0 , ▁as ▁the ▁Central ▁Committee ▁of ▁the ▁Est onian ▁Se ctions ▁of ▁the ▁Russian ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁( B ols he vik s ) ▁was ▁separated ▁from ▁its ▁mother ▁party . ▁During ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁the ▁hopes ▁to ▁an ▁immediate ▁world ▁revolution ▁were ▁still ▁held , ▁and ▁Est onian ▁commun ists ▁had ▁their ▁own ▁hopes ▁of ▁rest oring ▁their ▁power . ▁ ▁W ides p read ▁economic ▁and ▁social ▁crisis ▁gave ▁lots ▁of ▁support ▁for ▁that ▁kind ▁of ▁hopes . ▁Activ ists ▁of ▁the ▁party ▁had ▁not ▁only ▁to ▁support ▁the ▁ag enda , ▁but ▁also ▁to ▁be ▁ready ▁to ▁particip ate ▁in ▁the ▁illegal ▁actions , ▁such ▁as ▁organ ising ▁consp ir ative ▁apart ments , ▁transport ing ▁weapons ▁and ▁commun ist ▁propag anda ▁materials , ▁hide ▁under cover ▁activ ists ▁and ▁collect ▁information ▁for ▁the ▁revolution aries . ▁It ▁resulted ▁in ▁a ▁standing ▁conflict ▁situation ▁with ▁the ▁govern ments . ▁As ▁orient ed ▁not ▁to ▁the ▁legal ▁goals ▁E K P ▁never ▁tried ▁to ▁legal ise ▁itself ▁in ▁the ▁Est onian ▁Republic , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁didn ' t ▁abandon ▁dem ands ▁for ▁the ▁armed ▁u pr ising ▁and ▁joining ▁Est onia ▁to ▁the ▁USS R . ▁ ▁Although ▁E K P ▁had ▁dropped ▁much ▁below ▁from ▁their ▁popular ity ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 7 , ▁it ▁still ▁had ▁remarkable |
▁support ▁mostly ▁amongst ▁the ▁industrial ▁pro let ariat , ▁but ▁occasionally ▁also ▁amongst ▁the ▁land less ▁pe as ants , ▁un emp loy ed , ▁teachers ▁and ▁students . ▁Es pecially ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁it ▁had ▁strong ▁positions ▁in ▁the ▁trade ▁union ▁movement . ▁In ▁the ▁parliament ary ▁elections ▁E K P ▁front ▁organis ations ▁took ▁always ▁more ▁than ▁ 5 % ▁of ▁the ▁vote . ▁However , ▁following ▁the ▁failed ▁coup ▁attempt ▁by ▁the ▁Est onian ▁commun ists ▁on ▁December ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 2 4 , ▁the ▁party ▁lost ▁this ▁support ▁and ▁membership ▁fell ▁to ▁around ▁ 7 0 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 ▁people ▁and ▁remained ▁low ▁until ▁ 1 9 4 0 . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁E CP ' s ▁own ▁records , ▁there ▁were ▁only ▁ 1 5 0 ▁party ▁members ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁occupation ▁in ▁July ▁ 1 9 4 0 . ▁ ▁History ▁Like ▁in ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁Russian ▁emp ire , ▁the ▁R SD LP ▁branches ▁in ▁the ▁Governor ate ▁of ▁Est onia ▁had ▁been ▁rav aged ▁by ▁division ▁between ▁B ols he vik s ▁and ▁Mens he vik s . ▁In ▁ 1 9 1 2 ▁the ▁B ols he vik s ▁started ▁a ▁publication , ▁Ki ir , ▁in ▁Nar va . ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 9 1 4 ▁the ▁party ▁took ▁a ▁decision ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁special ▁Central ▁Committee ▁of ▁R SD LP ( b ) ▁of ▁Est onia , ▁named |
▁the ▁Northern - B alt ic ▁Committee ▁of ▁the ▁R SD LP ( b )" ▁( ). ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁February ▁Revolution , ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁emp ire , ▁B ols he vik s ▁started ▁to ▁gain ▁popular ity ▁with ▁their ▁dem ands ▁to ▁end ▁the ▁war ▁immediately , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁their ▁support ▁for ▁fast ▁land ▁reform ▁and ▁originally ▁even ▁eth nic ▁claims ▁( to ▁introduce ▁Est onian ▁as ▁an ▁official ▁language ▁parallel ▁to ▁Russian ). ▁During ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 7 ▁B ols he vik s ▁and ▁their ▁supp or ters ▁took ▁the ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁T all inn ▁Soviet . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁ ▁end ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 7 ▁Est onian ▁B ols he vik s ▁were ▁stronger ▁than ▁ever ▁- ▁holding ▁control ▁over ▁political ▁power ▁and ▁having ▁significant ▁support ▁- ▁remark ably ▁more ▁than ▁in ▁Russia . ▁In ▁the ▁elections ▁into ▁the ▁Russian ▁Const itu ent ▁Assembly ▁their ▁list ▁got ▁ 4 0 , 2 % ▁of ▁the ▁votes ▁in ▁Est onia ▁and ▁ 4 ▁out ▁of ▁ 8 ▁seats ▁allocated ▁to ▁Est onia . ▁The ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁party ▁did ▁however ▁start ▁to ▁decl ine , ▁and ▁the ▁Est onian ▁Const itu ent ▁Assembly ▁election ▁of ▁January ▁ 1 9 1 8 ▁was ▁never ▁completed . ▁Moreover ▁the ▁party ▁faced ▁the ▁situation ▁in ▁which ▁it ▁had ▁difficulty ▁building ▁al li ances . ▁Their ▁oppon ents , ▁the ▁Democratic ▁B loc , ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁initi ate ▁co operation ▁with ▁the |
▁Labour ▁Party , ▁Mens he vik s ▁and ▁the ▁Social ist - Re volution ary ▁Party . ▁Those ▁parties ▁supported ▁different ▁ideas ▁but ▁were ▁un ited ▁around ▁the ▁demand ▁for ▁an ▁independent ▁or ▁Finland - link ed ▁Est onia ▁and ▁wished ▁to ▁dist ribute ▁land ▁to ▁the ▁pe as ants . ▁In ▁the ▁first ▁question ▁the ▁Est onian ▁B ols he vik s , ▁although ▁having ▁introduced ▁Est onian ▁as ▁an ▁official ▁language ▁after ▁their ▁take over , ▁promoted ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁Est onia ▁as ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁Soviet ▁Russia . ▁In ▁the ▁land ▁reform ▁policy , ▁Est onian ▁B ols he vik s ▁continued ▁to ▁support ▁immediate ▁collect iv isation . ▁ ▁B ols he vik ▁rule ▁in ▁Est onia ▁was ▁ended ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁invasion ▁in ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁February ▁ 1 9 1 8 . ▁ ▁The ▁party ▁branch ▁continued ▁to ▁function ▁in ▁ex ile ▁in ▁Russia . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁German ▁revolution ▁in ▁November , ▁when ▁an ▁Est onian ▁government ▁took ▁office , ▁the ▁party ▁together ▁with ▁support ▁of ▁Soviet ▁troops ▁attempted ▁an ▁armed ▁attack ▁against ▁the ▁new ▁state . ▁ ▁However , ▁by ▁this ▁time ▁the ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁party ▁had ▁w an ed , ▁and ▁it ▁failed ▁to ▁mobil ize ▁mass ▁support ▁for ▁revolution ary ▁war fare . ▁ ▁An ▁Est onian ▁Work ers ' ▁Comm une ▁was ▁set ▁up , ▁but ▁with ▁limited ▁real ▁influence . ▁At ▁this ▁time ▁the ▁party ▁branch ▁had ▁been ▁re organ ized ▁into ▁the ▁Central ▁Committee ▁of ▁the ▁Est onian ▁Se |
ctions ▁of ▁the ▁R CP ( b ) '' ▁( ). ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁war ▁a ▁re orientation ▁was ▁found ▁to ▁be ▁necessary ▁( since ▁Est onia ▁was ▁now ▁an ▁independent ▁state ) ▁by ▁the ▁central ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁R CP ( b ) ▁and ▁thus ▁on ▁the ▁November ▁ 5 , ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Est onia ▁( E K P ) ▁was ▁founded ▁as ▁a ▁separate ▁party . ▁In ▁the ▁rig ged ▁ 1 9 4 0 ▁Ri ig iv ol ik og u ▁election , ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁ran ▁within ▁the ▁Est onian ▁Working ▁People ' s ▁Union ▁b loc . ▁ ▁Mer ger ▁with ▁the ▁C PS U ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 0 ▁E K P ▁was ▁merged ▁into ▁the ▁All - Union ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁( bol she vik s ). ▁ ▁The ▁territorial ▁organization ▁of ▁the ▁A U CP ( b ) ▁in ▁the ▁Est onian ▁SS R ▁became ▁known ▁as ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Est onia ▁( bol she vik s ) ▁( E K ( b ) P ). ▁ ▁The ▁E K ( b ) P ▁was ▁p urg ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁its ▁original ▁native ▁leaders ▁they ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁prominent ▁Est oni ans ▁who ▁had ▁grown ▁up ▁in ▁Russia , ▁see ▁" Y est oni ans ". ▁ ▁When ▁the ▁A U CP ( b ) ▁changed ▁its ▁name ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 2 |
▁to ▁C PS U , ▁the ▁E K ( b ) P ▁removed ▁the ▁( b ) ▁from ▁its ▁name . ▁ ▁Split ▁of ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁E K P ▁was ▁divided ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 , ▁as ▁the ▁pro - so vere ig nt y ▁majority ▁fa ction ▁of ▁E K P ▁separated ▁itself ▁from ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁and ▁became ▁the ▁Est onian ▁Democratic ▁Labour ▁Party . ▁The ▁remaining ▁pro - S ov iet ▁fa ction ▁reconst it uted ▁themselves ▁as ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Est onia ▁( CP SU ▁platform ). ▁ ▁First ▁Secret aries ▁of ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Est onia ▁ ▁Karl ▁S äre ▁August ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 4 0 – 1 9 4 3 ▁ ▁Nikol ai ▁Kar ot amm ▁( act ing , ▁in ▁Russian ▁S FS R ▁ex ile ▁to ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 4 ) ▁ 1 9 4 3 – Se ptember ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁ ▁Nikol ai ▁Kar ot amm ▁September ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 4 4 – A pril , ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁ ▁Johannes ▁K ä bin ▁April ▁ 1 9 5 0 – J uly ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁ ▁Karl ▁V ain o ▁July ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 1 9 7 8 – J une ▁ 1 6 , ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁ ▁V |
ain o ▁V äl jas ▁June ▁ 1 6 , ▁ 1 9 8 8 – A pril , ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁ ▁Second ▁Secret aries ▁of ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Est onia ▁ ▁Nikol ai ▁Kar ot amm ▁August ▁ 1 9 4 0 – Se ptember ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁ ▁Serge y ▁S ason ov ▁December ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁– ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁ ▁Georg y ▁K ed rov ▁October ▁ 1 6 , ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁– ▁August ▁ 3 0 , ▁ 1 9 4 9 ▁ ▁Vas ily ▁Kos ov ▁June ▁ 1 9 5 0 - August ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁ ▁Leon id ▁L ents man ▁ ▁August ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁– ▁January ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁ ▁Art ur ▁V ader ▁January ▁ 8 , ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁– ▁February ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 9 7 1 ▁ ▁Konst antin ▁Leb ede v ▁February ▁ 1 9 , ▁ 1 9 7 1 ▁– ▁May ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁ ▁Aleks andr ▁K ud ry av t se v ▁May ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁– ▁December ▁ 4 , ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁ ▁Georg y ▁A les hin ▁February ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 8 |
6 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁ ▁Chair man ▁of ▁the ▁Est onian ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁ ▁V ain o ▁V äl jas ▁(" L ead ing " ▁role ▁of ▁the ▁party ▁abol ished ▁ 1 9 9 0 ) ▁April , ▁ 1 9 9 0 – August , ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁ ▁Prom inent ▁Est onian ▁commun ists ▁ ▁Vik tor ▁King isse pp ▁ ▁Jakob ▁Pal v adre ▁ ▁Har ald ▁T umm elt au ▁ ▁Ja an ▁An vel t ▁ ▁Karl ▁S äre ▁ ▁August ▁K ork ▁ ▁Johannes ▁V ares ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Young ▁Commun ist ▁League ▁of ▁Est onia ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Organ izations ▁of ▁the ▁Revolution s ▁of ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁Category : Comm un ist ▁parties ▁in ▁Est onia ▁Category : Def unct ▁political ▁parties ▁in ▁Est onia ▁Est onia ▁Category : Coll abor ators ▁with ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁Category : 1 9 2 0 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Est onia ▁Category : 1 9 9 0 ▁dis est ab lish ments ▁in ▁Est onia ▁Category : Pol it ical ▁parties ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁Category : E ston ian ▁Soviet ▁Social ist ▁Republic ▁Category : Part ies ▁of ▁one - party ▁systems ▁Category : Comm un ist ▁parties ▁in ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁Category : Sing ing ▁Revolution ▁Category : Pol it ical ▁parties ▁of ▁the ▁Russian ▁Revolution <0x0A> </s> ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁One ▁Live ▁in ▁Con cert ▁is ▁a ▁live ▁album ▁released ▁in ▁ |
1 9 9 3 ▁by ▁British ▁rock ▁band ▁New ▁Model ▁Army . ▁It ▁was ▁taken ▁from ▁the ▁Live ▁In ▁Con cert ▁show ▁broadcast ▁on ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 1 , ▁and ▁was ▁recorded ▁live ▁at ▁the ▁Berlin ▁E iss por th alle ▁on ▁ 5 ▁November ▁ 1 9 9 0 . ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁" Am b ition " ▁" The ▁Char ge " ▁" P urity " ▁" In noc ence " ▁" L ove ▁Songs " ▁" L ur h sta ap " ▁" Green ▁and ▁Grey " ▁" St up id ▁Question s " ▁" Sm all town ▁England " ▁" Arch way ▁Tow ers " ▁" 5 1 st ▁State " ▁" I ▁Love ▁the ▁World " ▁" White ▁Co ats " ▁ ▁Person nel ▁Justin ▁S ull ivan ▁– ▁vocals , ▁guitar ▁Robert ▁He aton ▁– ▁drums ▁Nelson ▁– ▁bass ▁Ad rian ▁Port as ▁– ▁key boards ▁Ed ▁Al ley ne - John son ▁– ▁viol in ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : B BC ▁Radio ▁record ings ▁Category : New ▁Model ▁Army ▁( band ) ▁live ▁albums ▁Category : 1 9 9 3 ▁live ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁N ó gr ád kö ves d ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁N ó gr ád ▁County , ▁Hung ary ▁with ▁ 6 8 3 ▁inhabitants ▁( 2 0 1 4 ). ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁N ó gr ád ▁County <0x0A> </s> ▁P ysz cz yn ▁may ▁refer ▁to ▁the ▁following ▁places ▁in ▁Poland : ▁P ysz cz |
yn , ▁Lower ▁S iles ian ▁Vo iv odes hip ▁( s outh - west ▁Poland ) ▁P ysz cz yn , ▁K uy av ian - P omer an ian ▁Vo iv odes hip ▁( n orth - central ▁Poland ) ▁P ysz cz yn , ▁Gre ater ▁Poland ▁Vo iv odes hip ▁( west - central ▁Poland ) <0x0A> </s> ▁S is ah ani ya ▁is ▁a ▁town ▁and ▁Village ▁Development ▁Committee ▁in ▁D ang ▁De ok h uri ▁District ▁in ▁Province ▁No . ▁ 5 ▁of ▁south - western ▁Nep al . ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁Nep al ▁census ▁it ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 1 1 , 9 7 2 ▁persons ▁living ▁in ▁ 1 5 3 0 ▁individual ▁households . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁UN ▁map ▁of ▁the ▁municipal ities ▁of ▁D ang ▁De ok h uri ▁District ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁D ang ▁District , ▁Nep al <0x0A> </s> ▁Piet ras ik ▁is ▁a ▁surname . ▁Notable ▁people ▁with ▁this ▁surname ▁include : ▁▁ ▁Adam ▁Piet ras ik , ▁Polish ▁sl alom ▁can oe ist ▁ ▁Dam ian ▁Piet ras ik , ▁Polish ▁Par al ym pic ▁sw immer <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁white - gor get ed ▁fly catch er ▁( An th ipes ▁mon ile ger ) ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁passer ine ▁bird ▁in ▁the ▁Old ▁World ▁fly catch er ▁family . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Bang l adesh , ▁Bh ut an , |
▁China , ▁India , ▁La os , ▁My an mar , ▁Nep al , ▁Th ailand , ▁and ▁Vietnam . ▁Its ▁natural ▁habitat ▁is ▁subt rop ical ▁or ▁tropical ▁mo ist ▁mont ane ▁for ests . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁formerly ▁placed ▁in ▁the ▁genus ▁F iced ula . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Bird Life ▁International ▁( 2 0 1 0 ) ▁Species ▁fact sheet : ▁F iced ula ▁mon ile ger ▁ ▁white - gor get ed ▁fly catch er ▁Category : B ird s ▁of ▁Bh ut an ▁Category : B ird s ▁of ▁Nep al ▁Category : B ird s ▁of ▁N ortheast ▁India ▁Category : B ird s ▁of ▁S out heast ▁Asia ▁white - gor get ed ▁fly catch er ▁Category : T ax onomy ▁articles ▁created ▁by ▁Pol bot <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 3 4 th ▁Arm oured ▁Brigade ▁was ▁an ▁arm oured ▁brig ade ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Army ▁that ▁saw ▁active ▁service ▁in ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War . ▁It ▁was ▁formed ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁as ▁the ▁ 3 4 th ▁Army ▁T ank ▁Brigade ▁and ▁subsequently ▁red es ign ated ▁as ▁the ▁ 3 4 th ▁T ank ▁Brigade ▁in ▁February ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁and ▁became ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁ 7 9 th ▁Arm oured ▁Division . ▁It ▁was ▁equ ipped ▁with ▁Church ill ▁t anks ▁and ▁provided ▁close ▁support ▁for ▁assault s ▁by ▁the ▁inf antry . ▁During ▁the ▁fighting ▁in ▁North - west ▁Europe ▁from ▁July ▁ 1 |
9 4 4 ▁to ▁May ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁the ▁brig ade ▁served ▁with ▁both ▁the ▁First ▁Canadian ▁Army ▁and ▁the ▁British ▁Second ▁Army . ▁The ▁brig ade ▁was ▁dis band ed ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 9 4 6 . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁brig ade ▁was ▁formed ▁on ▁ 1 ▁December ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁ten ▁independent ▁Army ▁T ank ▁brig ades ▁to ▁be ▁equ ipped ▁with ▁Church ill ▁t anks . ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 9 4 2 , ▁the ▁word ▁" Ar my " ▁was ▁dropped ▁from ▁the ▁brig ade ' s ▁title ▁and ▁it ▁became ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁M ixed ▁Infantry ▁Division . ▁The ▁ 3 4 th ▁T ank ▁Brigade ▁was ▁transferred ▁to ▁the ▁ 4 3 rd ▁M ixed ▁Infantry ▁Division ▁in ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁and ▁in ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁it ▁returned ▁to ▁independent ▁status ▁( att ached ▁to ▁XII ▁Corps ), ▁when ▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁mixed ▁divisions ▁was ▁abandoned . ▁ ▁Norm andy ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁two ▁and ▁half ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁brig ade ' s ▁existence ▁were ▁spent ▁in ▁training ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁of ▁England ▁and ▁it ▁saw ▁its ▁first ▁active ▁service ▁in ▁the ▁Norm andy ▁bridge head . ▁ ▁Adv ance ▁parties ▁depart ed ▁to ▁Norm andy ▁on ▁D ▁+ ▁ 1 0 ▁( 1 6 ▁June ) ▁but ▁the ▁entire ▁brig ade ▁was ▁not ▁gathered ▁together ▁in ▁France ▁until ▁early ▁July ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁Its ▁first ▁combat |
▁was ▁in ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁( Sc ott ish ) ▁Infantry ▁Division ▁in ▁Operation ▁Green line ▁from ▁ 1 5 ▁to ▁ 1 8 ▁July , ▁to ▁en large ▁the ▁Od on ▁bridge head ▁and ▁advance ▁beyond ▁Hill ▁ 1 1 2 ; ▁the ▁German ▁opposition ▁held ▁a ▁strong ▁position ▁and ▁ 1 5 3 rd ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁suffered ▁particularly ▁severe ▁cas ual ties , ▁including ▁its ▁command ing ▁officer . ▁Over all , ▁the ▁brig ade ▁lost ▁ 3 0 ▁officers ▁and ▁ 1 5 6 ▁other ▁ranks ▁in ▁this ▁action . ▁The ▁brig ade ▁continued ▁in ▁active ▁service ▁in ▁Norm andy ▁until ▁late ▁August . ▁ ▁Operation ▁Ast onia ▁After ▁a ▁ 1 4 - day ▁rest ▁and ▁re organisation ▁and ▁now ▁under ▁the ▁First ▁Canadian ▁Army , ▁the ▁brig ade ▁crossed ▁the ▁River ▁Seine ▁on ▁ 4 ▁September ▁to ▁prepare ▁to ▁assault ▁Le ▁Hav re . ▁On ▁arrival ▁outside ▁Le ▁Hav re ▁on ▁ 6 ▁September , ▁the ▁brig ade ▁came ▁under ▁command ▁of ▁ 4 9 th ▁( West ▁R iding ) ▁Infantry ▁Division , ▁who ▁were ▁to ▁assault ▁Le ▁Hav re ▁from ▁the ▁north ▁east ▁and ▁east . ▁The ▁def enders ' ▁mor ale ▁was ▁low ▁despite ▁impress ive ▁defence ▁works ▁and ▁victory ▁was ▁completed ▁on ▁ 1 2 ▁September ▁with ▁minimal ▁cas ual ties . ▁A ▁tro op ▁of ▁ 7 th ▁Royal ▁T ank ▁Regiment , ▁without ▁inf antry , ▁had ▁entered ▁the ▁fort ▁at ▁ 1 1 : |
3 0 am ▁and ▁had ▁captured ▁Ober st ▁Hermann - E ber hard ▁W ilder m uth , ▁the ▁g arrison ▁commander , ▁his ▁whole ▁staff ▁and ▁ 4 0 0 ▁prisoners . ▁ ▁Ar ound ▁this ▁time , ▁the ▁Al lied ▁arm ies ' ▁supply ▁lines ▁were ▁under ▁great ▁stress ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁us able ▁ports ▁and ▁the ▁brig ade ' s ▁transport ▁was ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁supply ▁chain ▁for ▁the ▁front ▁line ▁in ▁Belg ium . ▁The ▁brig ade ▁as ▁such ▁was ▁effectively ▁ground ed ▁and ▁out ▁of ▁action . ▁By ▁ 1 8 ▁September , ▁the ▁brig ade ▁was ▁concentr ated ▁about ▁mid way ▁between ▁Die ppe ▁and ▁Rou en . ▁On ▁ 2 9 ▁September . ▁still ▁lack ing ▁its ▁transport , ▁the ▁brig ade ' s ▁ 3 0 0 ▁Church ills ▁( including ▁a ▁delivery ▁squad ron ), ▁heavily ▁loaded ▁with ▁m un itions , ▁moved ▁on ▁tracks ▁north wards ▁for ▁three ▁days ▁to ▁Des v res , ▁near ▁Bou log ne . ▁On ▁ 2 ▁October , ▁one ▁regiment , ▁ 7 th ▁Royal ▁T ank ▁Regiment , ▁was ▁det ached ▁to ▁assist ▁the ▁contain ment ▁of ▁D unk irk ▁by ▁ 5 1 st ▁( High land ) ▁Infantry ▁Division , ▁where ▁it ▁took ▁an ▁active ▁and ▁successful ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁sie ge . ▁ ▁By ▁ 6 ▁October , ▁the ▁brig ade ▁had ▁reached ▁the ▁E ind h oven ▁area ▁and ▁all ▁reg iments ▁were ▁immediately ▁deployed ▁into ▁the ▁front ▁line . |
▁ ▁Clar ke force ▁ ▁The ▁strateg ic ▁requirement ▁now ▁was ▁to ▁clear ▁the ▁Sch eld t ▁Est u ary ▁and ▁get ▁the ▁port ▁of ▁Ant werp ▁into ▁use ▁as ▁an ▁Al lied ▁supply ▁base . ▁As ▁part ▁of ▁these ▁operations , ▁ 4 9 th ▁( West ▁R iding ) ▁Division ▁was ▁to ▁attack ▁towards ▁Lo en h out , ▁and ▁then ▁un le ash ▁a ▁mobile ▁force ▁to ▁explo it ▁the ▁break through ▁and ▁move ▁up ▁the ▁main ▁road ▁to ▁Wu ust we zel ▁in ▁Operation ▁Reb ound . ▁This ▁mobile ▁force ▁was ▁commanded ▁by ▁Brig ad ier ▁W . S . ▁Clar ke ▁of ▁ 3 4 th ▁T ank ▁Brigade ▁and ▁named ▁' C lar ke force '. ▁ ▁Control led ▁by ▁ 3 4 th ▁T ank ▁B de ' s ▁H Q , ▁Clar ke force ▁consisted ▁of ▁Church ill ▁t anks ▁of ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps , ▁with ▁C ▁Squadron ▁carrying ▁inf antry ▁of ▁D ▁Company , ▁ 1 st ▁Battalion , ▁Le ic esters hire ▁Regiment , ▁accompanied ▁by ▁a ▁tro op ▁of ▁Ach illes ▁self - prop elled ▁ 1 7 - p ound ers ▁from ▁ 2 4 8 ▁B ty , ▁ 6 2 nd ▁Anti - T ank ▁Regiment , ▁Royal ▁Art illery , ▁a ▁tro op ▁of ▁Church ill ▁Cro cod ile ▁fl am eth row ing ▁t anks ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁F ife ▁and ▁For far ▁Ye oman ry ▁and ▁two |
▁sections ▁of ▁Royal ▁Engine ers . ▁The ▁field ▁art illery ▁support ▁was ▁provided ▁by ▁the ▁ 2 5 - p ound er ▁guns ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 st ▁( H ert ford shire ▁and ▁Es sex ▁Ye oman ry ) ▁Field ▁Regiment , ▁Royal ▁Art illery . ▁ ▁Operation ▁Reb ound ▁( part ▁of ▁the ▁larger ▁off ensive ▁of ▁Operation ▁P he asant ) ▁began ▁on ▁ 2 0 ▁October ▁with ▁a ▁bar rage ▁fired ▁by ▁the ▁field ▁reg iments ▁of ▁ 4 9 th ▁( WR ) ▁Division ▁rein for ced ▁by ▁two ▁medium ▁reg iments , ▁then ▁ 5 6 th ▁Infantry ▁B de ▁and ▁ 9 th ▁Royal ▁T ank ▁Regiment ▁seized ▁St ap el he ide ▁as ▁a ▁start ▁line ▁for ▁Clar ke force , ▁which ▁was ▁launched ▁through ▁the ▁gap ▁at ▁ 1 6 . 0 0 . ▁The ▁column ▁by pass ed ▁some ▁strong points ▁to ▁be ▁mo pped ▁up ▁by ▁supporting ▁troops , ▁but ▁progress ▁was ▁not ▁fast : ▁the ▁route ▁was ▁restricted ▁to ▁one ▁tank ' s ▁width , ▁and ▁the ▁M 3 ▁Stuart ▁(' H oney ') ▁light ▁t anks ▁of ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁R AC ' s ▁Re con na issance ▁Tro op ▁were ▁held ▁up ▁by ▁the ▁bad ▁tank ▁going . ▁At ▁ 1 7 . 0 0 ▁B ▁S q n ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁R AC ▁reached ▁a ▁road ▁j unction ▁and ▁det ached ▁half ▁the ▁squad ron ▁to ▁cover ▁this , ▁while ▁the ▁rest ▁of |
▁the ▁squad ron ▁pushed ▁on ▁to ▁' St one ▁Bridge '. ▁The ▁fight ▁for ▁this ▁point , ▁supported ▁by ▁fire ▁from ▁ 1 9 1 st ▁( H & EY ) ▁F d ▁R gt , ▁took ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁remaining ▁day light , ▁but ▁the ▁bridge ▁was ▁seized ▁before ▁it ▁could ▁be ▁completely ▁demol ished ▁and ▁B ▁S q n ▁crossed , ▁followed ▁by ▁the ▁Rec ce ▁Tr p . ▁B ▁Squadron ▁formed ▁a ▁bridge head ▁facing ▁north ▁and ▁north - west , ▁and ▁A ▁S q n ▁passed ▁through ▁to ▁complete ▁the ▁bridge head ▁to ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁south - west . ▁By ▁now ▁it ▁was ▁dark , ▁but ▁C ▁S q n ▁and ▁the ▁inf antry ▁pushed ▁on ▁to ▁clear ▁Wu ust we zel , ▁taking ▁some ▁prisoners . ▁By ▁ 2 2 . 0 0 , ▁ 1 4 7 th ▁Infantry ▁Brigade ▁of ▁ 4 9 th ▁( WR ) ▁Division ▁had ▁moved ▁up ▁to ▁rel ieve ▁Clar ke force , ▁and ▁the ▁t anks ▁were ▁ ▁ordered ▁to ▁push ▁on : ▁' The ▁night ▁was ▁pitch ▁dark , ▁it ▁was ▁ra ining , ▁and ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁moon '. ▁Progress ▁was ▁slow ▁and ▁the ▁Rec ce ▁Tr p ▁sc out ing ▁ahead ▁were ▁held ▁up ▁by ▁a ▁road block ▁of ▁trees , ▁which ▁were ▁cleared ▁by ▁the ▁leading ▁Church ills . ▁ ▁After ▁a ▁short ▁rest , ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁R AC ▁and ▁the ▁company ▁of ▁Le ic esters ▁moved ▁on ▁at ▁ 0 8 |
0 0 ▁the ▁following ▁morning ▁towards ▁Nie uw mo er . ▁By ▁now ▁the ▁Rec ce ▁Tr p ▁had ▁run ▁out ▁of ▁fuel , ▁and ▁the ▁advance ▁was ▁led ▁by ▁A ▁S q n ▁of ▁ 4 9 th ▁( West ▁R iding ) ▁Re con na issance ▁Regiment , ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps . ▁When ▁they ▁came ▁across ▁a ▁bridge ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁blow n , ▁the ▁reconna issance ▁troops ▁and ▁t anks ▁had ▁to ▁fan ▁out ▁to ▁the ▁fl anks ▁in ▁search ▁of ▁alternative ▁cross ings , ▁and ▁with ▁no ▁cover ▁they ▁were ▁engaged ▁over ▁the ▁flat ▁country ▁by ▁German ▁Self - prop elled ▁guns ▁conce aled ▁in ▁Nie uw mo er . ▁The ▁advance ▁had ▁to ▁be ▁covered ▁by ▁smoke . ▁Once ▁clear ance ▁of ▁the ▁village ▁was ▁well ▁in ▁hand , ▁the ▁Rec ce ▁Tr p ▁came ▁up ▁and ▁pushed ▁on ▁care lessly ▁into ▁a ▁wood ▁occupied ▁by ▁German ▁troops ▁and ▁SP ▁guns . ▁Four ▁H one ys ▁were ▁knock ed ▁out , ▁bringing ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁R AC ' s ▁cas ual ties ▁to ▁eight ▁t anks ▁in ▁the ▁day . ▁Meanwhile ▁the ▁troops ▁round ▁Stone ▁Bridge , ▁including ▁ 1 st ▁Le ic esters ▁and ▁ 1 9 1 st ▁( H & EY ) ▁F d ▁R gt , ▁had ▁to ▁beat ▁off ▁counter - att acks ▁by ▁German ▁arm our . ▁ 5 3 2 ▁Field ▁B atter y , ▁which ▁had ▁already ▁crossed ▁over , ▁was ▁called ▁upon ▁to ▁deploy ▁and ▁fire |
▁its ▁ 2 5 - p ound ers ▁in ▁an ▁anti - t ank ▁( A / T ) ▁role , ▁while ▁the ▁other ▁batter ies ▁back track ed ▁and ▁found ▁an ▁alternative ▁route ▁for wards . ▁At ▁last ▁light , ▁ 1 9 1 st ▁( H & EY ) ▁F d ▁R gt ▁called ▁in ▁fire ▁from ▁every ▁divis ional ▁and ▁Army ▁Group ▁Royal ▁Art illery ▁gun ▁within ▁range ▁( about ▁ 2 0 0 ) ▁to ▁dev ast ate ▁the ▁wood land ▁that ▁was ▁holding ▁up ▁Clar ke force . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 2 ▁October , ▁the ▁advance ▁continued ▁towards ▁Es schen , ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁R AC ▁eng aging ▁enemy ▁inf antry ▁and ▁SP ▁guns , ▁and ▁crossing ▁a ▁canal ▁by ▁means ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁ 3 4 th ▁T ank ▁B de ' s ▁bridge - lay ing ▁t anks . ▁ 1 9 1 st ▁( H & EY ) ▁Field ▁R gt ▁moved ▁up ▁to ▁Nie uw mo er , ▁despite ▁po ckets ▁of ▁enemy ▁resistance ▁along ▁the ▁route , ▁which ▁amb ushed ▁some ▁of ▁▁ 1 0 7 th ▁R AC ' s ▁A ▁E ch el on ▁vehicles ▁and ▁a ▁field ▁art illery ▁reconna issance ▁party . ▁ 4 9 th ▁Rec ce ▁R gt ▁began ▁clear ing ▁the ▁enemy ▁po ckets ▁before ▁night fall . ▁For ▁the ▁next ▁day ' s ▁advance ▁the ▁Le ic esters ▁were ▁rel ieved ▁by ▁two ▁companies ▁from ▁ 7 th ▁B n ▁Duke ▁of |
▁Well ington ' s ▁Regiment , ▁who ▁attacked ▁Sch ank er ▁successfully ▁with ▁C ▁S q n ' s ▁Church ills ▁on ▁the ▁morning ▁of ▁ 2 4 ▁October . ▁The ▁inf antry ' s ▁A / T ▁guns ▁then ▁took ▁over ▁the ▁defence . ▁ ▁Clar ke force ▁rest ed ▁on ▁ 2 5 ▁October ▁to ▁plan ▁the ▁next ▁phase ▁of ▁its ▁advance ▁towards ▁Ro os enda al ( Operation ▁Th r uster ). ▁Once ▁again , ▁ 5 6 th ▁Infantry ▁B de ▁prepared ▁the ▁way ▁by ▁adv ancing ▁from ▁Es schen ▁to ▁N is pen ▁during ▁the ▁night ▁of ▁ 2 5 / 2 6 ▁October . ▁After ▁supporting ▁this ▁advance , ▁ 1 9 1 st ▁( H & EY ) ▁F d ▁R gt ' s ▁For ward ▁Observ ation ▁Offic ers ▁( FO Os ) ▁rejo ined ▁Clar ke force ▁for ▁its ▁push ▁towards ▁B rem bos ch , ▁beginning ▁at ▁ 1 0 . 0 0 ▁the ▁following ▁morning . ▁The ▁advance ▁encountered ▁strong ▁enemy ▁re arg u ards , ▁losing ▁four ▁t anks ▁and ▁an ▁SP ▁gun ▁from ▁ 2 4 5 ▁B ty , ▁ 6 2 nd ▁A / T ▁R gt , ▁but ▁Clar ke force ▁reached ▁the ▁town ▁by ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁day . ▁The ▁following ▁morning ▁the ▁Le ic esters ▁crossed ▁a ▁massive ▁anti - t ank ▁d itch ▁using ▁l add ers , ▁then ▁a ▁bul ld oz er ▁tried ▁to ▁make ▁it ▁pass able . ▁In ▁the |
▁end , ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁concrete ▁obst acle ▁was ▁shot ▁away ▁using ▁high ▁explos ive ▁and ▁arm our - p ier cing ▁shell s ▁from ▁the ▁Church ills ▁and ▁Ach illes . ▁It ▁took ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁day ▁and ▁concentr ated ▁art illery ▁fire power ▁to ▁push ▁the ▁enemy ▁off ▁two ▁hill top ▁strong points . ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁day , ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁R AC ▁supported ▁the ▁Le ic esters ▁in ▁an ▁attack ▁along ▁the ▁B rem bos ch – W ou we ▁Hil ▁road , ▁and ▁reached ▁O ost la ar ▁by ▁night fall . ▁At ▁first ▁light ▁on ▁ 2 8 ▁October , ▁while ▁re pl en ishing ▁their ▁t anks , ▁C ▁S q n ▁came ▁under ▁fire , ▁lost ▁some ▁vehicles ▁and ▁had ▁to ▁withdraw ▁under ▁smoke ▁and ▁covering ▁fire , ▁but ▁ ▁at ▁ 0 8 . 1 5 ▁the ▁regiment ▁was ▁ready ▁to ▁support ▁an ▁attack ▁by ▁ 1 1 th ▁B n ▁Royal ▁Sc ots ▁F us ili ers ▁and ▁cut ▁the ▁W ou we – Ber gen - op - Z oom ▁road , ▁despite ▁enemy ▁SP ▁guns . ▁The ▁adv ances ▁were ▁mask ed ▁by ▁smoke ▁and ▁covered ▁by ▁the ▁remaining ▁Ach illes . ▁Clar ke force ▁spent ▁the ▁night ▁in ▁W ou we . ▁▁ 4 9 th ▁( WR ) ▁Division ▁found ▁the ▁approaches ▁to ▁Ro os enda al ▁strongly ▁held , ▁and ▁the ▁command ing ▁officer ▁of ▁ 1 / 4 th ▁B n ▁King ' |
s ▁O wn ▁York shire ▁Light ▁Infantry ▁requested ▁a ▁set - pie ce ▁art illery - ▁and ▁arm our - supported ▁assault . ▁The ▁art illery ▁support ▁involved ▁three ▁field , ▁two ▁medium ▁and ▁two ▁heavy ▁anti - air craft ▁reg iments ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁ 1 9 1 st ▁( H & EY ) ▁F d ▁R gt , ▁while ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁R AC ▁was ▁position ed ▁to ▁support ▁an ▁attack ▁by ▁the ▁inf antry ▁and ▁ 9 th ▁R TR . ▁However , ▁a ▁pat rol ▁in fil tr ated ▁the ▁town ▁under ▁cover ▁of ▁mist ▁and ▁found ▁that ▁the ▁Germ ans ▁had ▁pulled ▁out . ▁▁ 4 9 th ▁( WR ) ▁Division ' s ▁final ▁objective ▁was ▁Wille m stad ▁on ▁the ▁Hol lands ▁Die p ▁( part ▁of ▁the ▁Ma as ▁Est u ary ). ▁This ▁was ▁ ▁away ▁across ▁poor ▁country ▁for ▁arm our , ▁so ▁Clar ke force ▁was ▁dis band ed ▁and ▁the ▁division ▁carried ▁out ▁a ▁conventional ▁inf antry ▁advance ▁( Operation ▁Hum id ), ▁supported ▁by ▁ 3 4 th ▁T ank ▁B de ▁in ▁its ▁more ▁familiar ▁inf antry ▁tank ▁role . ▁Wille m stad ▁was ▁liber ated ▁on ▁ 6 ▁November ▁after ▁the ▁German ▁g arrison ▁with d rew ▁across ▁the ▁Ma as . ▁ ▁Operation ▁Ver itable ▁In ▁February , ▁ 1 9 4 5 , ▁the ▁ 3 4 th ▁Arm oured ▁Brigade ▁provided ▁arm oured ▁support ▁to ▁inf antry ▁units , ▁mainly ▁the ▁ 5 |
3 rd ▁( Wel sh ) ▁Infantry ▁Division , ▁during ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁the ▁Reich sw ald , ▁in ▁ground ▁conditions ▁that ▁caused ▁more ▁damage ▁to ▁its ▁t anks ▁than ▁the ▁enemy . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁cross ings , ▁the ▁brig ade ▁saw ▁no ▁further ▁active ▁service ▁in ▁Europe ▁and ▁was ▁in ▁prepar ation ▁for ▁transfer ▁to ▁South - E ast ▁Asian ▁theatre ▁when ▁the ▁war ▁ended . ▁ ▁Command ers ▁The ▁ 3 4 th ▁Arm oured ▁Brigade ▁had ▁just ▁two ▁command ing ▁officers : ▁Brig ad ier ▁J . ▁N . ▁T et ley ▁until ▁June ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁( left ▁to ▁command ▁ 2 5 th ▁T ank ▁Brigade ) ▁and ▁then ▁Brig ad ier ▁W . ▁S . ▁Clar ke , ▁who ▁commanded ▁the ▁brig ade ▁until ▁it ▁was ▁dis band ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 . ▁ ▁Order ▁of ▁battle ▁The ▁composition ▁of ▁ 3 4 th ▁Arm oured ▁Brigade ▁was ▁as ▁follows : ▁▁ 1 ▁December ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁( formation ▁date ) ▁ ▁Brigade ▁Head quarters ▁( formed ▁from ▁ 2 2 6 th ▁Independent ▁Infantry ▁Brigade ) ▁ ▁North ▁Irish ▁Hor se ▁( L t . ‑ Col . ▁D . ▁Da wn ay ) ▁▁ 1 4 7 th ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁( L t . ‑ Col . ▁A . ▁R . ▁W . ▁S . ▁K oe ) ▁( former ly ▁ 1 0 th ▁Battalion , ▁Ham pshire ▁Regiment ) ▁▁ |
1 5 3 rd ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁( L t . ‑ Col . ▁C . ▁L . ▁Wilson , ▁M . C .) ▁( former ly ▁ 8 th ▁Battalion , ▁Es sex ▁Regiment ) ▁▁ ▁Aut umn , ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁ ▁Brigade ▁Head quarters ▁▁ 1 4 7 th ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁( L t . ‑ Col . ▁A . ▁R . ▁W . ▁S . ▁K oe ) ▁▁ 1 5 1 st ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁( L t . ‑ Col . ▁S . ▁H . ▁Crow ) ▁renamed ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁as ▁ 1 0 7 th ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁( former ly ▁ 1 0 th ▁Battalion , ▁King ' s ▁O wn ▁Royal ▁Regiment ▁( L anc aster )) ▁▁ 1 5 3 rd ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁( L t . ‑ Col . ▁C . ▁L . ▁Wilson , ▁M . C .) ▁▁▁ 4 ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁Short ly ▁after ▁ 1 5 ▁August ▁ 1 9 4 4 , ▁ 1 5 3 ▁R AC ▁were ▁dis band ed ▁and ▁their ▁men ▁and ▁mater i è l ▁were ▁used ▁to ▁make ▁up ▁losses ▁in ▁the ▁remaining ▁reg iments ▁in ▁the ▁brig ade . ▁ ▁Brigade ▁Head quarters ▁▁ 1 0 7 th ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁▁ 1 4 7 th ▁Regiment ▁Royal ▁Arm oured ▁Corps ▁( L t . ‑ |
Col . ▁A . ▁R . ▁W . ▁S . ▁K oe ) ▁( tem por arily ▁attached ▁to ▁ 1 5 th ▁( Sc ott ish ) ▁Infantry ▁Division ▁until ▁end ▁September ) ▁▁ 7 th ▁Royal ▁T ank ▁Regiment ▁▁ 9 th ▁Royal ▁T ank ▁Regiment ▁ ▁The ▁headquarters ▁of ▁a ▁tank ▁or ▁arm oured ▁brig ade ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁was ▁equ ipped ▁with ▁ 1 0 ▁t anks ▁plus ▁eight ▁Arm oured ▁Observ ation ▁Post ▁( OP ) ▁t anks ▁for ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁attached ▁art illery ▁units . ▁By ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁Norm andy ▁campaign ▁it ▁also ▁included ▁three ▁Church ill ▁brid gel ayer ▁t anks . ▁By ▁March ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁gun ▁t anks ▁at ▁H Q ▁had ▁been ▁reduced ▁to ▁seven , ▁but ▁two ▁Cr us ader ▁anti - air craft ▁( AA ) ▁t anks ▁had ▁been ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁establishment . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁British ▁Arm oured ▁form ations ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁John ▁Buck ley , ▁Mont y ' s ▁Men : ▁The ▁British ▁Army ▁and ▁the ▁Liber ation ▁of ▁Europe , ▁London : ▁Y ale ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁. ▁▁ ▁Major ▁L . F . ▁Ell is , ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁Military ▁Series : ▁Vict ory ▁in ▁the ▁West , ▁Vol ▁I : ▁The ▁Battle ▁of ▁Norm andy , ▁London : ▁H M ▁Station ery ▁Office |
, ▁ 1 9 6 2 / U ck field : ▁Naval ▁& ▁Military , ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁. ▁ ▁Major ▁L . F . ▁Ell is , ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁Military ▁Series : ▁Vict ory ▁in ▁the ▁West , ▁Vol ▁II : ▁The ▁De fe at ▁of ▁Germany , ▁London : ▁H M ▁Station ery ▁Office , ▁ 1 9 6 8 / U ck field : ▁Naval ▁& ▁Military , ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁. ▁ ▁L t - Col ▁H . F . ▁Jos len , ▁Or ders ▁of ▁Battle , ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁Col onial ▁Form ations ▁and ▁Units ▁in ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁ 1 9 3 9 – 1 9 4 5 , ▁London : ▁H M ▁Station ery ▁Office , ▁ 1 9 6 0 / U ck field : ▁Naval ▁& ▁Military ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁. ▁ ▁L t - Col ▁J . D . ▁S ains bury , ▁The ▁H ert ford shire ▁Ye oman ry ▁Reg iments , ▁Royal ▁Art illery , ▁Part ▁ 1 : ▁The ▁Field ▁Reg iments ▁ 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 4 6 , ▁Wel w yn : ▁H ert ford shire ▁Ye oman ry ▁and ▁Art illery ▁Trust / H art ▁Books , ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁. ▁ ▁External ▁sources ▁ ▁Gener als ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁ ▁Category : Arm oured ▁brig ades ▁of |
▁the ▁British ▁Army ▁Category : Arm oured ▁brig ades ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Army ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁Category : Mil it ary ▁units ▁and ▁form ations ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁Category : Mil it ary ▁units ▁and ▁form ations ▁dis est ab lished ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 <0x0A> </s> ▁Col um nea ▁pur pur ata ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁Ges ner ia ceae ▁that ▁is ▁native ▁to ▁Costa ▁Rica , ▁Colombia , ▁and ▁Bel ize . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁pur pur ata ▁Category : Pl ants ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 5 ▁Category : Fl ora ▁of ▁Costa ▁Rica <0x0A> </s> ▁Live ▁At ▁Bell ' s ▁is ▁the ▁third ▁release ▁from ▁the ▁w inners ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁Tell ur ide ▁Bl u egr ass ▁Festival ▁Band ▁Compet ition , ▁Gre ens ky ▁Bl u egr ass . ▁Record ed ▁in ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁at ▁their ▁home ▁base ▁of ▁ ▁Bell ' s ▁Bre wer y , ▁this ▁album ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁ ▁live ▁offering ▁by ▁the ▁boys ▁from ▁Kal am az oo , ▁Michigan . ▁The ▁album ▁contains ▁a ▁cover ▁of ▁the ▁T alk ing ▁He ads ▁hit ▁Road ▁To ▁Now here , ▁and ▁their ▁original ▁t une ▁" Radio ▁Blues " ▁is ▁currently ▁playing ▁on ▁X M ▁Radio ' s ▁' X - Country '. ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁B ont ' s ▁Break down ▁( B ont ) ▁Middle ▁Mountain ▁Town s ▁( |
H off man ) ▁B ott le ▁D ry ▁( B ru zza , ▁Hoff man ) ▁Send ▁Me ▁Your ▁Address ▁From ▁Heaven ▁( Tr ad itional ) ▁Can ' t ▁Make ▁Time ▁( H off man ) ▁Road ▁To ▁Now here ▁( By r ne ) ▁My ▁S ally ▁( B race ) ▁R unn in ' ▁The ▁B ri ars ▁( B ont ) ▁Cass id y ▁( Bar low , ▁We ir ) ▁Old ▁Bar ns ▁( H off man ) ▁T ues day ▁Let ter ▁( H off man ) ▁Air mail ▁Special ▁( Christ ian , ▁Good man , ▁M und y ) ▁New ▁R ize ▁Hill ▁( B ont , ▁Bru zza , ▁Hoff man ) ▁ ▁Person nel ▁ ▁Michael ▁Ar len ▁B ont ▁- ▁Ban jo , ▁vocals ▁David ▁Bru zza ▁- ▁Gu it ars , ▁vocals ▁Mike ▁De vol ▁- ▁Bass , ▁vocals ▁Paul ▁Hoff man ▁- ▁Mand olin , ▁vocals ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Bl u egr ass ▁B log ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Home ▁Page ▁ ▁Category : G reens ky ▁Bl u egr ass ▁albums ▁Category : 2 0 0 7 ▁live ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁Conf ession ▁of ▁judgment ▁is ▁a ▁legal ▁term ▁that ▁refers ▁to ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁contract ▁( or ▁a ▁clause ▁with ▁such ▁a ▁provision ) ▁in ▁which ▁a ▁party ▁agre es ▁to ▁let ▁the ▁other ▁party ▁enter ▁a ▁judgment ▁against ▁him ▁or ▁her . ▁Such ▁contract s ▁are ▁highly ▁controvers ial ▁and ▁may ▁be ▁invalid ated ▁as ▁a |
▁viol ation ▁of ▁due ▁process ▁by ▁courts , ▁since ▁the ▁oblig or ▁is ▁essentially ▁contract ing ▁away ▁his ▁right ▁to ▁raise ▁any ▁legit imate ▁def enses . ▁ ▁United ▁States ▁Conf essions ▁of ▁judgment ▁are ▁permitted ▁in ▁many ▁states . ▁New ▁Jersey ▁and ▁Pennsylvania ▁permit ▁them , ▁among ▁others . ▁Some ▁states , ▁including ▁Michigan , ▁require ▁they ▁be ▁spe cially ▁label led ▁or ▁have ▁other ▁proced ural ▁requirements . ▁However , ▁according ▁to ▁testim ony ▁before ▁an ▁Al aska ▁State ▁Legisl ature ▁committee , ▁" Conf ession ▁of ▁Jud gment ▁is ▁illegal ▁in ▁Al aska , ▁it ' s ▁illegal ▁in ▁Pennsylvania ▁in ▁consumer ▁transactions , ▁but ▁not ▁in ▁commercial ▁transactions ." ▁ ▁A ▁Law ▁Review ▁article ▁ ▁distingu ishes ▁three ▁groups ▁of ▁state ▁laws , ▁one ▁group ▁compr ising ▁sevent een ▁states ▁that ▁make ▁void ▁any ▁agreement ▁to ▁conf ess ▁judgment ▁entered ▁into ▁before ▁comm enc ement ▁of ▁a ▁suit . ▁ ▁A ▁typical ▁conf ession ▁of ▁judgment ▁reads , ▁" The ▁unders igned ▁ir rev oc ably ▁author izes ▁any ▁att orney ▁to ▁appear ▁in ▁any ▁court ▁of ▁compet ent ▁juris diction ▁and ▁conf ess ▁a ▁judgment ▁without ▁process ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁the ▁cred itor ▁for ▁such ▁amount ▁as ▁may ▁then ▁appear ▁un pa id ▁here on , ▁and ▁to ▁consent ▁to ▁immediate ▁execution ▁upon ▁such ▁judgment ." ▁ ▁Such ▁cla uses ▁should ▁be ▁distinguished ▁from ▁liquid ated ▁dam ages ▁cla uses , ▁which ▁do ▁not ▁result ▁in ▁binding ▁jud g ments ▁against ▁the ▁oblig or . ▁ ▁A ▁conf |
ession ▁of ▁judgment ▁may ▁also ▁be ▁called ▁a ▁cogn ov it ▁note . ▁ ▁Ris ks ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁example : ▁" The ▁unders igned ▁ir rev oc ably ▁author izes ▁any ▁att orney ▁to ▁appear ▁in ▁any ▁court ▁of ▁compet ent ▁juris diction ▁and ▁conf ess ▁a ▁judgment ▁without ▁process ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁the ▁cred itor ▁for ▁such ▁amount ▁as ▁may ▁then ▁appear ▁un pa id ▁here on , ▁and ▁to ▁consent ▁to ▁immediate ▁execution ▁upon ▁such ▁judgment .", ▁there ▁is ▁an ▁un limited ▁risk ▁if ▁the ▁amounts , ▁such ▁as ▁" amount ▁as ▁may ▁then ▁appear ▁un pa id ", ▁are ▁not ▁exactly ▁defined ▁or ▁c apped ▁in ▁the ▁contract , ▁as ▁collection , ▁processing , ▁contract ▁or ▁administrative ▁fe es ▁can ▁be ▁set ▁to ▁any ▁arbitrary ▁amount . ▁ ▁Additionally , ▁no ▁conditions ▁are ▁set ▁for ▁" author ization " ▁such ▁as ▁a ▁bre ach ▁of ▁terms , ▁a ▁late ▁payment ▁or ▁a ▁default ▁in ▁payment , ▁and ▁collection ▁can ▁occur ▁without ▁notice . ▁The ▁first ▁the ▁" und ers igned " ▁will ▁know ▁anything ▁is ▁aw ry ▁is ▁that ▁assets ▁have ▁already ▁been ▁seized , ▁c ash ▁funds ▁already ▁with dra wn ▁or ▁bank ▁accounts ▁se quest ered . ▁ ▁This ▁may ▁not ▁be ▁legal ▁in ▁many ▁states , ▁but ▁if ▁a ▁jud g ement ▁is ▁passed ▁in ▁a ▁state ▁where ▁it ▁is ▁legal , ▁then ▁the ▁jud g ement ▁can ▁be ▁applied ▁in ▁any ▁US ▁state ▁or ▁country ▁that ▁honor ▁US ▁court ▁jud g ements ▁such ▁as ▁Puerto |
▁Rico . ▁ ▁The ▁Conf ession ▁of ▁Jud g ement ▁wa ives ▁all ▁legal ▁rights ▁to ▁due ▁process ▁in ▁the ▁court ▁system . ▁ ▁Rec ent ▁juris pr ud ence ▁The ▁United ▁States ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁issued ▁two ▁r ul ings ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁rel ating ▁to ▁conf essions ▁of ▁judgment . ▁It ▁held ▁that : ▁▁ ▁conf ession ▁of ▁judgment ▁procedures ▁do ▁not ▁viol ate ▁due ▁process ▁if ▁the ▁w ai ver ▁of ▁constitution al ▁rights ▁made ▁by ▁a ▁conf ession ▁of ▁judgment ▁is ▁volunt ary , ▁knowing , ▁and ▁intellig ently ▁made . ▁ ▁conf essions ▁must ▁be ▁review ed ▁on ▁a ▁case - by - case ▁basis ; ▁where ▁the ▁contract ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁ad hes ion , ▁where ▁there ▁is ▁great ▁dispar ity ▁of ▁b arg aining ▁power , ▁and ▁where ▁the ▁deb tor ▁receives ▁nothing ▁for ▁the ▁conf ession , ▁the ▁w ai ver ▁of ▁rights ▁may ▁not ▁be ▁valid . ▁ ▁R ely ing ▁on ▁Over my er , ▁the ▁California ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁ruled ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁that ▁the ▁conf ession ▁of ▁judgment ▁procedure , ▁as ▁constit uted ▁in ▁that ▁State , ▁was ▁constitution ally ▁invalid , ▁r uling : ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 0 , ▁the ▁California ▁Court ▁of ▁App e al ▁for ▁the ▁First ▁District ▁ruled ▁that ▁California ▁courts ▁will ▁not ▁en force ▁jud g ments ▁from ▁other ▁states ▁entered ▁on ▁conf essions ▁of ▁judgment ▁to ▁the ▁extent ▁that ▁such ▁jud g ments ▁fail ▁to ▁comp ly ▁with |
▁the ▁strict ▁due ▁process ▁requirements ▁out lined ▁in ▁Is bell . ▁ ▁Canada ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁cogn ov it ▁action em ▁began ▁to ▁be ▁restricted ▁in ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 7 , ▁with ▁passage ▁of ▁a ▁requirement ▁that ▁such ▁instruments ▁be ▁registered ▁within ▁thirty ▁days ▁at ▁the ▁County ▁Court ▁( a ▁prede cess or ▁of ▁the ▁present ▁Ontario ▁Super ior ▁Court ▁of ▁Justice ). ▁Further ▁provision ▁was ▁made ▁the ▁following ▁year ▁to ▁void ▁any ▁such ▁conf ession ▁entered ▁into ▁by ▁an ▁ins ol vent ▁person ▁to ▁either ▁defeat ▁or ▁delay ▁his ▁credit ors ▁or ▁to ▁give ▁a ▁fra ud ul ent ▁preference . ▁C ogn ov it ▁action em ▁eventually ▁fell ▁into ▁dis use , ▁and ▁was ▁abol ished ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 3 ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁reform ▁of ▁the ▁civil ▁procedure ▁rules ▁that ▁year . ▁ ▁The ▁procedure ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁abol ished ▁in ▁British ▁Columbia . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Conf ession ▁of ▁error ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : J ud gment ▁( law ) ▁Category : Contract ▁cla uses <0x0A> </s> ▁Andre j ▁P áz man ▁( born ▁ 1 9 3 8 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Slov ak ▁math ematic ian ▁working ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁optim um ▁experimental ▁design ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁theory ▁of ▁non linear ▁statistical ▁models . ▁He ▁is ▁an ▁elected ▁fellow ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁Statist ical ▁Institute ▁( 2 0 0 4 ), ▁of ▁the ▁Lear ned ▁Society ▁of ▁S AS ▁( 2 |
0 0 4 ) ▁ ▁and ▁also ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Statist ical ▁Society ▁( 1 9 9 2 ). ▁He ▁wrote ▁also ▁several ▁books , ▁three ▁of ▁them ▁are ▁mon ograph s ▁published ▁in ▁English . ▁Today ▁there ▁are ▁all ▁presented ▁by ▁Springer . ▁He ▁obtained ▁the ▁Price ▁of ▁the ▁Slov ak ▁Liter ary ▁Fund ▁for ▁the ▁Non linear ▁statistical ▁models ▁▁ ▁( 1 9 9 4 ). ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁he ▁obtained ▁the ▁W U ▁Best ▁P aper ▁Award ▁der ▁Stadt ▁Wien ▁( t ogether ▁with ▁W . G . ▁Mu eller ), ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁the ▁Golden ▁Medal ▁of ▁the ▁re ctor ▁of ▁C U ▁Br atis lava , ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁the ▁Golden ▁Medal ▁of ▁S AS ▁and ▁also ▁the ▁Price ▁for ▁Science ▁and ▁Technology ▁from ▁the ▁Minister ▁of ▁Education ▁of ▁Slov ak ia . ▁ ▁He ▁is ▁currently ▁a ▁professor ▁( prof essor ▁emer it us ▁from ▁ 2 0 1 6 ) ▁at ▁Com en ius ▁University ▁Br atis lava . ▁ ▁Biography ▁ ▁Born ▁ 6 ▁December ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁in ▁Prag ue , ▁studied ▁physics ▁and ▁mathematics ▁at ▁Com en ius ▁University ▁( C U ). ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁he ▁obtained ▁his ▁Ph D ▁in ▁statistics ▁( in ▁measurement ▁theory ) ▁from ▁the ▁Institute ▁of ▁Me asure ment ▁of ▁the ▁Slov ak ▁Academy ▁of ▁Sciences ▁( S AS ). ▁He ▁left ▁this ▁inst itute ▁in ▁ 1 |
9 8 1 ▁to ▁enter ▁in ▁the ▁Mathemat ical ▁Institute ▁of ▁S AS ▁until ▁ 1 9 9 1 . ▁In ▁the ▁years ▁ 1 9 6 6 – 6 9 ▁he ▁has ▁been ▁research er ▁in ▁statistics ▁for ▁physics ▁in ▁the ▁J oint ▁Instit utes ▁for ▁N uc lear ▁Research ▁in ▁Dub na , ▁Russia . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁he ▁became ▁full ▁professor ▁in ▁probability ▁and ▁statistics ▁at ▁the ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Mathemat ics , ▁Physics ▁and ▁In format ics ▁of ▁Com en ius ▁University , ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁department ▁ 1 9 9 2 – 1 9 9 8 , ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁Section ▁of ▁Mathemat ics ▁ 1 9 9 9 – 2 0 0 2 . ▁He ▁has ▁been ▁appointed ▁as ▁invited ▁professor ▁at ▁W U ▁Wien ▁( 1 9 9 5 ), ▁at ▁Universität ▁A ugs burg ▁( 1 9 9 8 – 1 9 9 9 ) ▁and ▁at ▁T U ▁Wien ▁( 2 0 0 0 ), ▁each ▁time ▁for ▁one ▁sem ester . ▁He ▁published ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 ▁research ▁papers . ▁Main ▁results : ▁Hil bert ▁space ▁methods ▁in ▁experimental ▁design , ▁probability ▁density ▁of ▁the ▁non - linear ▁M LE ▁under ▁finite ▁samples , ▁a ▁differential - ge ometric ▁analysis ▁of ▁the ▁uniqu eness ▁of ▁the ▁non - linear ▁M LE , ▁the ▁method ▁of ▁virtual ▁noise ▁for ▁design ▁under ▁correl ated ▁observations , ▁various ▁methods ▁for ▁the ▁design ▁in ▁non - linear ▁models . ▁He ▁educated ▁ |
9 ▁Ph D ▁students . ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁other ▁publications ▁ ▁http :// d bl p . uni - tri er . de / pers / hd / p / P = a ac ute = z man : And re j ▁ ▁http :// www . iam . fm ph . un iba . sk / os pm / P az man / pp az man . htm ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Com en ius ▁University ▁website ▁ ▁Category : S lov ak ▁mathemat icians ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 1 9 3 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : C zech oslov ak ▁mathemat icians <0x0A> </s> ▁Atl ant as ell us ▁is ▁a ▁genus ▁of ▁cr ust ace ans , ▁and ▁the ▁only ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁Atl ant as ell idae . ▁It ▁contains ▁these ▁species : ▁ ▁Atl ant as ell us ▁ca vern icol us ▁is ▁en demic ▁to ▁B erm uda ▁and ▁is ▁included ▁on ▁the ▁IU CN ▁Red ▁List ▁as ▁Crit ically ▁End anger ed . ▁Atl ant as ell us ▁domin ican us ▁was ▁described ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁having ▁been ▁collected ▁in ▁coast al ▁kar st s ▁in ▁the ▁Domin ican ▁Republic . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Is op od ▁gener a ▁Category : Mon ot yp ic ▁cr ust ace an ▁gener a ▁Category : T ax onomy ▁articles ▁created ▁by ▁Pol bot <0x0A> </s> ▁B ř ez ina ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁and |
▁municipality ▁( ob ec ) ▁in ▁Br no - Country ▁District ▁in ▁the ▁South ▁Mor av ian ▁Region ▁of ▁the ▁Czech ▁Republic . ▁It ▁used ▁to ▁be ▁in ▁Ti š nov ▁District . ▁ ▁( An other ▁municipality ▁called ▁B ř ez ina , ▁now ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁district , ▁used ▁to ▁be ▁in ▁Bl ans ko ▁District .) ▁ ▁The ▁municipality ▁covers ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁, ▁and ▁has ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 2 3 5 . ▁ ▁B ř ez ina ▁lies ▁approximately ▁ ▁north - west ▁of ▁Br no ▁and ▁ ▁south - east ▁of ▁Prag ue . ▁ ▁References ▁Czech ▁Statist ical ▁Office : ▁Municipal ities ▁of ▁Br no - Country ▁District ▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁in ▁Br no - Country ▁District <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 ▁C yp ri ot ▁First ▁Division ▁was ▁the ▁ 5 2 nd ▁season ▁of ▁the ▁C yp ri ot ▁top - level ▁football ▁league . ▁Ap oll on ▁Lim ass ol ▁won ▁their ▁ 1 st ▁title . ▁ ▁Format ▁Four teen ▁teams ▁participated ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 ▁C yp ri ot ▁First ▁Division . ▁All ▁teams ▁played ▁against ▁each ▁other ▁twice , ▁once ▁at ▁their ▁home ▁and ▁once ▁away . ▁The ▁team ▁with ▁the ▁most ▁points ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁season ▁crown ed ▁champions . ▁The ▁last ▁two ▁teams ▁were ▁re leg ated ▁to ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 – 9 2 ▁C yp ri ot |
▁Second ▁Division . ▁The ▁ 1 2 th - pla ced ▁team ▁faced ▁the ▁ 3 rd - pla ced ▁team ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 ▁C yp ri ot ▁Second ▁Division , ▁in ▁a ▁two - leg ged ▁re leg ation ▁play - off ▁for ▁one ▁spot ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 – 9 2 ▁C yp ri ot ▁First ▁Division . ▁ ▁The ▁champions ▁ens ured ▁their ▁participation ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 – 9 2 ▁European ▁Cup ▁and ▁the ▁run ners - up ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 – 9 2 ▁UEFA ▁Cup . ▁ ▁Point ▁system ▁Teams ▁received ▁two ▁points ▁for ▁a ▁win , ▁one ▁point ▁for ▁a ▁draw ▁and ▁zero ▁points ▁for ▁a ▁loss . ▁ ▁Ch anges ▁from ▁previous ▁season ▁Ev ag or as ▁Pap hos ▁and ▁Eth nik os ▁Ach na ▁were ▁re leg ated ▁from ▁previous ▁season ▁and ▁played ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 ▁C yp ri ot ▁Second ▁Division . ▁They ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁the ▁first ▁two ▁teams ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 9 – 9 0 ▁C yp ri ot ▁Second ▁Division , ▁E PA ▁L arn aca ▁and ▁A PE P . ▁ ▁Stad ia ▁and ▁locations ▁ ▁League ▁stand ings ▁ ▁Results ▁ ▁Re leg ation ▁play - off ▁The ▁ 1 2 th - pla ced ▁team ▁En osis ▁Ne on ▁Par al im ni ▁faced ▁the ▁ 3 rd - pla ced |
▁team ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 ▁C yp ri ot ▁Second ▁Division ▁Eth nik os ▁Ach na , ▁in ▁a ▁two - leg ged ▁play - off ▁for ▁one ▁spot ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 – 9 2 ▁C yp ri ot ▁First ▁Division . ▁En osis ▁Ne on ▁Par al im ni ▁won ▁both ▁matches ▁and ▁secured ▁their ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 – 9 2 ▁C yp ri ot ▁First ▁Division . ▁ ▁En osis ▁Ne on ▁Par al im ni ▁ 4 – 0 ▁Eth nik os ▁Ach na ▁Eth nik os ▁Ach na ▁ 1 – 3 ▁En osis ▁Ne on ▁Par al im ni ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁C yp ri ot ▁First ▁Division ▁▁ 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 ▁C yp ri ot ▁Cup ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁top ▁goals cor ers ▁in ▁C yp ri ot ▁First ▁Division ▁by ▁season ▁ ▁C yp ri ot ▁football ▁clubs ▁in ▁European ▁compet itions ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁Category : C yp ri ot ▁First ▁Division ▁seasons ▁Cy pr us ▁Category : 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 ▁in ▁C yp ri ot ▁football <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Ur skog – H ø land ▁Line ▁( ), ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁T ert itten , ▁is ▁a ▁narrow ▁gauge ▁railway ▁between ▁S ø rum s and ▁and ▁Sk uler ud ▁in ▁Norway . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁original ▁line ▁was ▁ ▁long ▁and ▁was ▁built ▁in ▁three ▁stages |
: ▁Ur skog ban en ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 6 , ▁running ▁from ▁B ings f ossen ▁to ▁B j ør kel angen ; ▁H ø lands ban en ▁from ▁B j ør kel angen ▁to ▁Sk uler ud ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 8 ▁and ▁finally ▁the ▁line ▁between ▁B ings f os ▁and ▁S ø rum s and ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 3 . ▁Today ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁line ▁is ▁preserved ▁as ▁a ▁museum ▁at ▁S ø rum s and ▁in ▁S ø rum ▁komm une . ▁The ▁railway ▁company ▁was ▁head qu arter ed ▁at ▁B j ør kel angen . ▁The ▁line ▁was ▁built ▁in ▁the ▁least ▁expensive ▁way ▁as ▁a ▁so - called ▁t ert i ary ▁railway ▁with ▁a ▁ ▁gauge ▁track . ▁This ▁gave ▁the ▁line ▁its ▁dimin utive , ▁affection ate ▁nick name , ▁" T ert itten ". ▁The ▁railway ▁was ▁run ▁as ▁a ▁priv ately ▁owned ▁joint ▁stock ▁company ▁until ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁when ▁it ▁was ▁bought ▁by ▁the ▁government ▁and ▁run ▁by ▁the ▁Norwegian ▁State ▁Rail ways ▁( N SB ) ▁under ▁the ▁name ▁Aur skog - H ø land ban en . ▁ ▁The ▁basis ▁for ▁the ▁railway ▁lay ▁mostly ▁in ▁forest ▁and ▁agricult ure ▁products . ▁L umber ▁was ▁transport ed ▁to ▁Sk uler ud ▁and ▁from ▁there ▁it ▁was ▁ra ft ed ▁to ▁Hal den . ▁At ▁one ▁time ▁a ▁tour ▁bil led ▁as ▁" The ▁Great ▁Round tri p " ▁was ▁a |
▁popular ▁tour ist ▁att raction , ▁combining ▁the ▁train ▁ride ▁with ▁a ▁boat ▁ride ▁on ▁the ▁steam ▁ship ▁" DS ▁Tur isten " ▁which ▁tra ff icked ▁the ▁Hal den ▁Canal . ▁ ▁The ▁rest oration ▁A ▁co oper ative ▁consisting ▁of ▁volunte ers ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁with ▁the ▁aim ▁of ▁se cur ing ▁the ▁line ▁for ▁poster ity . ▁A ▁ 3 - kil ometer ▁track ▁at ▁S ø rum s and ▁was ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁group ▁along ▁with ▁two ▁steam ▁locomot ives ▁and ▁some ▁other ▁stock . ▁The ▁first ▁run ▁as ▁a ▁her itage ▁railway ▁was ▁undert aken ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 6 . ▁This ▁stretch ▁had ▁no ▁buildings ▁or ▁side ▁tracks , ▁and ▁all ▁facilities ▁which ▁meet ▁the ▁present - day ▁visitor ▁was ▁built ▁after ▁becoming ▁a ▁her itage ▁railway . ▁Three ▁of ▁the ▁steam ▁locomot ives ▁and ▁two ▁passenger ▁carri ages ▁were ▁restored . ▁ ▁When ▁the ▁her itage ▁railway ▁was ▁established ▁the ▁termin us ▁was ▁just ▁outside ▁the ▁town ▁center ▁of ▁S ø rum s and , ▁with ▁the ▁track ▁leading ▁to ▁the ▁station ▁building ▁already ▁having ▁been ▁removed . ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁the ▁line ▁had ▁been ▁extended ▁and ▁the ▁first ▁train ▁could ▁depart ▁from ▁the ▁town ▁center ▁again . ▁After ▁another ▁two ▁years ▁the ▁entire ▁operation , ▁including ▁station ▁building , ▁was ▁finished , ▁and ▁the ▁extended ▁track ▁was ▁officially ▁inaugur ated . ▁The ▁entire ▁complex ▁is ▁protected ▁by ▁law . ▁The ▁Ur skog – H ø land |
▁Line ▁is ▁now ▁a ▁museum ▁under ▁the ▁um bre lla ▁of ▁Muse ene ▁i ▁Ak ers hus ▁( M i A ) ▁run ▁i ▁co operation ▁with ▁" V enne for en ingen ▁T ert itten ". ▁ ▁Lo comot ives ▁ ▁Ste am ▁ ▁Dies el ▁ ▁Rol ling ▁stock ▁ ▁Pass enger ▁ ▁Fre ight ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁N arrow ▁gauge ▁rail ways ▁in ▁Norway ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁photos ▁from ▁Ur skog - H ø lands ban en ▁Ur skog - H ø land ▁Line ▁Home page ▁ ▁Category : Her itage ▁rail ways ▁in ▁Norway ▁Category : M useum s ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 6 ▁Category : M useum s ▁in ▁V iken ▁Category : Private ▁railway ▁lines ▁in ▁Norway ▁Category : R ail way ▁lines ▁in ▁V iken ▁Category : R ail way ▁lines ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 6 ▁Category : R ail way ▁lines ▁closed ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁Category : 1 8 9 6 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Norway ▁Category : 1 9 6 6 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Norway ▁Category : 7 5 0 ▁mm ▁gauge ▁rail ways ▁in ▁Norway <0x0A> </s> ▁From ▁the ▁in vention ▁of ▁computer ▁programming ▁languages ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 7 0 s , ▁most ▁computer ▁program mers ▁created , ▁edited ▁and ▁stored ▁their ▁programs ▁line ▁by ▁line ▁on ▁p unch ▁cards . ▁ ▁P unch ed ▁cards ▁ ▁A ▁p unch ed ▁card ▁is ▁a ▁flexible ▁write - once ▁medium ▁that ▁enc |
odes ▁data , ▁most ▁commonly ▁ 8 0 ▁characters . ▁Gr oups ▁or ▁" de cks " ▁of ▁cards ▁form ▁programs ▁and ▁collections ▁of ▁data . ▁The ▁term ▁is ▁often ▁used ▁inter change ably ▁with ▁p unch ▁card , ▁the ▁difference ▁being ▁that ▁an ▁un used ▁card ▁is ▁a ▁" p unch ▁card ," ▁but ▁once ▁information ▁had ▁been ▁encoded ▁by ▁p unch ing ▁holes ▁in ▁the ▁card , ▁it ▁was ▁now ▁a ▁" p unch ed ▁card ." ▁For ▁simplicity , ▁this ▁article ▁will ▁use ▁the ▁term ▁" p unch ed ▁card " ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁either . ▁ ▁O ften ▁program mers ▁first ▁wrote ▁their ▁program ▁out ▁on ▁special ▁forms ▁called ▁coding ▁sheets , ▁taking ▁care ▁to ▁distinguish ▁the ▁digit ▁zero ▁from ▁the ▁letter ▁O , ▁the ▁digit ▁one ▁from ▁the ▁letter ▁I , ▁eight ▁from ▁B , ▁two ▁from ▁Z , ▁and ▁so ▁on ▁using ▁local ▁convent ions ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁" slash ed ▁zero ". ▁These ▁forms ▁were ▁then ▁taken ▁by ▁key p unch ▁operators , ▁who ▁using ▁a ▁key p unch ▁machine ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁IBM ▁ 0 2 9 ▁p unch ed ▁the ▁actual ▁deck . ▁O ften ▁another ▁key ▁p unch ▁operator ▁would ▁then ▁take ▁that ▁deck ▁and ▁re - p unch ▁from ▁the ▁coding ▁sheets ▁- ▁but ▁using ▁a ▁" ver ifier " ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁IBM ▁ 0 5 9 ▁that ▁simply ▁checked ▁that ▁the ▁original ▁p unch ing ▁had ▁no ▁errors . ▁ ▁A ▁typing ▁error ▁generally ▁necess itated ▁rep unch ing ▁an |
▁entire ▁card . ▁The ▁editing ▁of ▁programs ▁was ▁facil itated ▁by ▁re organ izing ▁the ▁cards , ▁and ▁removing ▁or ▁replacing ▁the ▁lines ▁that ▁had ▁changed ; ▁programs ▁were ▁back ed ▁up ▁by ▁dup lic ating ▁the ▁deck , ▁or ▁writing ▁it ▁to ▁magnetic ▁t ape . ▁ ▁In ▁smaller ▁organizations ▁program mers ▁might ▁do ▁all ▁their ▁own ▁p unch ing , ▁and ▁in ▁all ▁cases ▁would ▁often ▁have ▁access ▁to ▁a ▁key p unch ▁to ▁make ▁small ▁changes ▁to ▁a ▁deck . ▁ ▁Work ▁environment ▁The ▁description ▁below ▁describes ▁an ▁all - IB M ▁shop ▁( a ▁" shop " ▁is ▁programmer ▁j arg on ▁for ▁a ▁programming ▁site ) ▁but ▁sh ops ▁using ▁other ▁br ands ▁of ▁main frames ▁( or ▁min ic om put ers ) ▁would ▁have ▁similar ▁equipment ▁although ▁because ▁of ▁cost ▁or ▁avail ability ▁might ▁have ▁different ▁manufact urer ' s ▁equipment , ▁e . g . ▁an ▁N CR , ▁I CL , ▁H ew lett - Pack ard ▁( HP ) ▁or ▁Control ▁Data ▁shop ▁would ▁have ▁N CR , ▁I CL , ▁H P , ▁or ▁Control ▁Data ▁computers , ▁printer s ▁and ▁so ▁forth , ▁but ▁have ▁IBM ▁ 0 2 9 ▁key p unch es . ▁IBM ' s ▁huge ▁size ▁and ▁industry ▁foot print ▁often ▁caused ▁many ▁of ▁their ▁convent ions ▁to ▁be ▁adopted ▁by ▁other ▁vend ors , ▁so ▁the ▁example ▁below ▁is ▁fairly ▁similar ▁to ▁most ▁places , ▁even ▁in ▁non - IB M ▁sh ops . ▁ ▁A |
▁typical ▁corpor ate ▁or ▁university ▁computer ▁installation ▁would ▁have ▁a ▁suite ▁of ▁rooms , ▁with ▁a ▁large , ▁access - rest rict ed , ▁air ▁condition ed ▁room ▁for ▁the ▁computer ▁( similar ▁to ▁today ' s ▁server ▁room ) ▁and ▁a ▁smaller ▁qui eter ▁adjacent ▁room ▁for ▁subm itting ▁jobs . ▁Near by ▁would ▁be ▁a ▁room ▁full ▁of ▁key p unch ▁machines ▁for ▁programmer ▁use . ▁An ▁IBM ▁ 4 0 7 ▁Account ing ▁Machine ▁might ▁be ▁set ▁up ▁to ▁allow ▁newly ▁created ▁or ▁edited ▁programs ▁to ▁be ▁listed ▁( print ed ▁out ▁on ▁fan - fold ▁paper ) ▁for ▁proof ▁reading . ▁An ▁IBM ▁ 5 1 9 ▁might ▁be ▁provided ▁to ▁reproduce ▁program ▁de cks ▁for ▁backup ▁or ▁to ▁p unch ▁sequ ential ▁numbers ▁in ▁columns ▁ 7 3 - 8 0 . ▁▁▁ ▁In ▁such ▁main frame ▁install ations , ▁known ▁as ▁" closed ▁sh ops ," ▁program mers ▁submitted ▁the ▁program ▁de cks , ▁often ▁followed ▁by ▁data ▁cards ▁to ▁be ▁read ▁by ▁the ▁program , ▁to ▁a ▁person ▁working ▁behind ▁a ▁counter ▁in ▁the ▁computer ▁room . ▁During ▁peak ▁times , ▁it ▁was ▁common ▁to ▁stand ▁in ▁line ▁waiting ▁to ▁submit ▁a ▁deck . ▁To ▁solve ▁that ▁problem , ▁the ▁card ▁reader ▁could ▁be ▁re installed ▁( or ▁initially ▁installed ) ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁computer ▁room ▁to ▁allow ▁program mers ▁to ▁do ▁" self - service " ▁job ▁submission . ▁ ▁Many ▁computer ▁install ations ▁used ▁cards ▁with ▁the ▁opposite ▁corner ▁cut ▁( s ometimes ▁no |
▁corner ▁cut ) ▁as ▁" job ▁separ ators ", ▁so ▁that ▁an ▁operator ▁could ▁stack ▁several ▁job ▁de cks ▁in ▁the ▁card ▁reader ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁and ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁quickly ▁separate ▁the ▁de cks ▁manually ▁when ▁they ▁removed ▁them ▁from ▁the ▁stack er . ▁These ▁cards ▁( e . g ., ▁a ▁J CL ▁" J OB " ▁card ▁to ▁start ▁a ▁new ▁job ) ▁were ▁often ▁prep unch ed ▁in ▁large ▁quantities ▁in ▁advance . ▁This ▁was ▁especially ▁useful ▁when ▁the ▁main ▁computer ▁did ▁not ▁read ▁the ▁cards ▁directly , ▁but ▁instead ▁read ▁their ▁images ▁from ▁magnetic ▁t ape ▁that ▁was ▁prepared ▁off line ▁by ▁smaller ▁computers ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁IBM ▁ 1 4 0 1 . ▁After ▁reading ▁the ▁cards ▁in , ▁the ▁computer ▁operator ▁would ▁return ▁the ▁card ▁deck ▁- ▁typically ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁a ▁set ▁of ▁alphabet ically ▁label led ▁cub by ▁holes , ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁programmer ' s ▁last ▁initial . ▁Because ▁programs ▁were ▁run ▁in ▁batch - mode ▁processing ▁it ▁might ▁be ▁a ▁considerable ▁time ▁before ▁any ▁hard copy ▁printed ▁or ▁p unch ed ▁output ▁was ▁produced , ▁and ▁put ▁into ▁these ▁same ▁cub by ▁holes ▁- ▁however , ▁on ▁a ▁light ly ▁used ▁system , ▁it ▁was ▁possible ▁to ▁make ▁alter ations ▁and ▁r er un ▁a ▁program ▁in ▁less ▁than ▁an ▁hour . ▁ ▁D edic ated ▁program mers ▁might ▁stay ▁up ▁well ▁past ▁mid night ▁to ▁get ▁a ▁few ▁quick ▁turn ar ounds . ▁Use ▁of ▁this ▁expensive ▁equipment ▁was ▁often |
▁charged ▁to ▁a ▁user ' s ▁account . ▁A ▁main frame ▁computer ▁could ▁cost ▁millions ▁of ▁dollars ▁and ▁usage ▁was ▁measured ▁in ▁seconds ▁per ▁job . ▁▁▁ ▁Sm aller ▁computers ▁like ▁the ▁IBM ▁ 1 0 0 0 , ▁ 1 6 2 0 ▁and ▁ 1 1 3 0 , ▁and ▁min ic om put ers ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁P DP - 1 1 ▁were ▁less ▁expensive , ▁and ▁often ▁run ▁as ▁an ▁" open ▁shop ", ▁where ▁program mers ▁had ▁exclusive ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁computer ▁for ▁a ▁block ▁of ▁time . ▁A ▁key p unch ▁was ▁usually ▁located ▁nearby ▁for ▁quick ▁corre ctions ▁- ▁although ▁many ▁of ▁these ▁smaller ▁machines ▁ran ▁from ▁p unch ed ▁t ape . ▁ ▁Ident ification ▁and ▁sequence ▁ ▁Many ▁early ▁programming ▁languages , ▁including ▁Fort ran , ▁Cob ol ▁and ▁the ▁various ▁IBM ▁assemb ler ▁languages , ▁used ▁only ▁the ▁first ▁ 7 2 ▁columns ▁of ▁a ▁card ▁— ▁a ▁tradition ▁that ▁traces ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁IBM ▁ 7 1 1 ▁card ▁reader ▁used ▁on ▁the ▁IBM ▁ 7 0 4 / 7 0 9 / 7 0 9 0 / 7 0 9 4 ▁series ▁( es pecially ▁the ▁IBM ▁ 7 0 4 , ▁the ▁first ▁mass - produ ced ▁computer ▁with ▁floating ▁point ▁arithmetic ▁hardware ), ▁which ▁could ▁only ▁read ▁ 7 2 ▁of ▁the ▁ 8 0 ▁columns ▁in ▁one ▁pass . ▁▁ ▁Column s ▁ 7 3 - 8 0 ▁were ▁ignored ▁by ▁the ▁comp ilers ▁and ▁could ▁be ▁used |
▁for ▁identification ▁or ▁a ▁sequence ▁number ▁so ▁that ▁if ▁the ▁card ▁deck ▁was ▁dropped ▁it ▁could ▁be ▁restored ▁to ▁its ▁proper ▁order ▁using ▁a ▁card ▁sor ter . ▁ ▁Depending ▁on ▁the ▁programming ▁language , ▁debugging ▁output ▁statements ▁could ▁be ▁quickly ▁activ ated ▁and ▁" comment ed ▁out " ▁by ▁using ▁cards ▁with ▁such ▁statements ▁p unch ed ▁with ▁the ▁comment ▁character ▁( e . g ., ▁' C ' ▁in ▁Fort ran ) ▁in ▁column ▁ 8 0 ▁of ▁the ▁card ; ▁turning ▁the ▁card ▁end - for - end ▁would ▁put ▁the ▁' C ' ▁in ▁the ▁leading ▁column , ▁which ▁transformed ▁the ▁now ▁backwards ▁card ' s ▁contents ▁into ▁a ▁comment ▁while ▁leaving ▁the ▁physical ▁card ▁in ▁place ▁in ▁deck . ▁ ▁( An ▁alternative , ▁imper fect ▁but ▁commonly ▁employed ▁technique ▁to ▁maintain ▁proper ▁card ▁order ▁was ▁to ▁draw ▁one ▁or ▁more ▁diagonal ▁stri pes ▁across ▁the ▁top ▁edge ▁of ▁all ▁the ▁cards ▁in ▁a ▁deck .) ▁ ▁In ▁later ▁years , ▁as ▁p unch ▁card ▁data ▁was ▁converted ▁to ▁magnetic ▁t ape ▁files ▁the ▁sequence ▁numbers ▁were ▁often ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁column ▁in ▁an ▁array ▁as ▁an ▁index ▁value ▁that ▁can ▁be ▁correl ated ▁to ▁time ▁sequences , ▁such ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁natural ▁sciences ▁where ▁the ▁data ▁on ▁the ▁cards ▁were ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁periodic ▁output ▁of ▁a ▁meas uring ▁device ▁such ▁as ▁water ▁stage ▁level ▁record ers ▁for ▁rivers ▁and ▁streams ▁in ▁hydro log y , ▁or ▁temper atures ▁in ▁meteor ology . ▁ ▁Ent ire ▁v |
ault s ▁full ▁of ▁card ▁de cks ▁could ▁be ▁reduced ▁to ▁much ▁smaller ▁ra cks ▁of ▁nine - track ▁t apes . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Unit ▁record ▁equipment ▁history ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁ ▁Article ▁about ▁the ▁programming ▁culture ▁that ▁developed ▁around ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁p unch ed ▁card , ▁following ▁F isk ' s ▁experience ▁of ▁" learning ▁the ▁craft " ▁from ▁people ▁around ▁him . ▁Columbia ▁University ▁Comput ing ▁History : ▁The ▁Columbia ▁University ▁Self ▁Service ▁Input / Output ▁Area ▁E . ▁I . ▁Organ ick , ▁A ▁Fort ran ▁IV ▁Pr imer , ▁Add ison - W es ley , ▁ 1 9 6 6 ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁IBM ▁P unch ed ▁Card ▁Data ▁Process ing ▁Princi ples ▁( 1 9 6 1 ) ▁hosted ▁at ▁www . comput er collect or . com ▁ ▁Gallery ▁ ▁Category : Comput er ▁programming ▁Program ming ▁in ▁the ▁p unch ▁card ▁era <0x0A> </s> ▁Marshall ▁Ryan ▁Mar es ca ▁( born ▁ 1 9 7 3 ) ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁fant asy ▁author , ▁best ▁known ▁for ▁the ▁multiple ▁series ▁of ▁Mar ada ine ▁nov els , ▁consisting ▁of ▁four ▁different ▁series ▁set ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁fant ast ical ▁city . ▁ ▁He ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁up state ▁New ▁York , ▁studied ▁film ▁production ▁at ▁P enn ▁State . ▁▁ ▁He ▁currently ▁lives ▁in ▁Austin , ▁Texas . ▁ ▁His ▁debut ▁novel , ▁The ▁Th orn ▁of ▁D ent on hill , ▁was ▁nominated ▁for ▁the ▁Com pton ▁Cro ok ▁Award . ▁ |
▁Life ▁and ▁career ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁being ▁a ▁writer , ▁Mar es ca ▁works ▁with ▁his ▁wife , ▁an ▁independent ▁Spanish ▁teacher ▁in ▁Austin , ▁Texas . ▁ ▁He ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁a ▁stage ▁actor , ▁a ▁the atr ical ▁director ▁and ▁an ▁amateur ▁chef . ▁ ▁He ▁states ▁that ▁as ▁an ▁actor , ▁he ▁mostly ▁played ▁minor ▁roles , ▁which ▁he ▁attributes ▁to ▁helping ▁him ▁understand ▁the ▁motiv ations ▁and ▁point ▁of ▁view ▁of ▁his ▁different ▁characters . ▁ ▁He ▁has ▁also ▁written ▁several ▁plays ▁produced ▁in ▁the ▁Austin ▁area , ▁including ▁S low ▁Night ▁at ▁Mc L augh lin ’ s ▁and ▁Ent ropy . ▁ ▁Mar es ca ▁has ▁named ▁among ▁his ▁influ ences ▁Z il pha ▁Ke at ley ▁S ny der , ▁David ▁Edd ings ▁and ▁Isaac ▁As im ov . ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁Mar ada ine ▁Nov els ▁ ▁The ▁Th orn ▁of ▁D ent on hill , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 5 ) ▁▁ ▁The ▁Al ch emy ▁of ▁Cha os , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 6 ) ▁ ▁The ▁Imp ost ers ▁of ▁A vent il , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 7 ) ▁ ▁The ▁Mar ada ine ▁Const ab ul ary ▁ ▁A ▁Mur der ▁of ▁M ages , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 5 ) ▁ ▁An ▁Import ▁of ▁In tr igue , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 6 ) ▁▁ ▁A ▁Parliament ▁of ▁Bod ies , ▁DA W |
▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 9 ) ▁▁ ▁The ▁Stre ets ▁of ▁Mar ada ine ▁ ▁The ▁Hol ver ▁Al ley ▁C rew , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 7 ) ▁ ▁Lady ▁H ent erman ' s ▁Ward ro be , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 8 ) ▁▁ ▁The ▁Fen m ere ▁Job , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( for th coming , ▁ 2 0 2 0 ) ▁The ▁Mar ada ine ▁El ite ▁ ▁The ▁Way ▁of ▁the ▁Sh ield , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( 2 0 1 8 ) ▁The ▁Sh ield ▁of ▁the ▁People , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( for th coming , ▁ 2 0 1 9 ) ▁ ▁The ▁People ▁of ▁the ▁City , ▁DA W ▁Books ▁( for th coming , ▁ 2 0 2 0 ) ▁Short ▁St ories ▁" Rem inder " ▁appearing ▁in ▁H int ▁F iction : ▁An ▁Anth ology ▁of ▁St ories ▁in ▁ 2 5 ▁W ords ▁or ▁Fe wer ▁edited ▁by ▁Robert ▁Sw art wood ▁( 2 0 1 0 ) ▁" J ump ▁the ▁Black " ▁appearing ▁in ▁Ray g uns ▁Over ▁Texas ▁edited ▁by ▁Rick ▁K law ▁( 2 0 1 3 ) ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁novel ists ▁Category : American ▁fant asy ▁writers ▁Category : American ▁male ▁novel ists ▁Category : W rit ers ▁from ▁Sy rac use , ▁New ▁York ▁Category : 1 9 |
7 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁male ▁writers ▁Category : Nov el ists ▁from ▁New ▁York ▁( state ) <0x0A> </s> ▁K ound in ya ▁N ath i ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁river ▁flow ing ▁in ▁the ▁Ch itto or ▁District ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh ▁and ▁V ell ore ▁district ▁T amil ▁N adu . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁rivers ▁of ▁T amil ▁N adu ▁ ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁T amil ▁N adu ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁India ▁ ▁ta : க <0xE0> <0xAF> <0x8C> <0xE0> <0xAE> <0xA3> ் ட ி ன ் ய ▁ ந த ி ▁( <0xE0> <0xAE> <0x86> ற ு ) <0x0A> </s> ▁T rom ø y ▁Church ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁parish ▁church ▁in ▁Ar end al ▁municipality ▁in ▁Aust - Ag der ▁county , ▁Norway . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁Bre k ka ▁on ▁the ▁east ▁coast ▁of ▁the ▁island ▁of ▁T rom ø y . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁two ▁churches ▁for ▁the ▁T rom ø y ▁parish ▁which ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Ar end al ▁prost i ▁( de an ery ) ▁in ▁the ▁Dioc ese ▁of ▁Ag der ▁og ▁Te lem ark . ▁ ▁This ▁was ▁the ▁main ▁church ▁for ▁the ▁municipality ▁of ▁T rom ø y ▁from ▁ 1 8 7 8 ▁until ▁its ▁dissol ution ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 . ▁ ▁The ▁white , ▁stone ▁church ▁was ▁built ▁around ▁the ▁year ▁ |
1 1 5 0 ▁and ▁over ▁the ▁centuries ▁it ▁was ▁en larg ed ▁and ▁expanded . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 7 4 8 , ▁the ▁church ▁was ▁converted ▁into ▁a ▁cru c iform ▁design ▁by ▁the ▁architect ▁Ole ▁N iel sen ▁We ier hol t . ▁ ▁The ▁church ▁now ▁seats ▁about ▁ 2 9 0 ▁people . ▁As ▁a ▁medieval ▁building , ▁it ▁automatically ▁has ▁protected ▁cultural ▁her itage ▁status . ▁ ▁Location ▁ ▁The ▁church ▁stands ▁between ▁H ove ▁and ▁Bre k ka , ▁on ▁the ▁outer ▁shore ▁of ▁the ▁island ▁of ▁T rom ø y . ▁Before ▁aff or est ation ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 0 0 s , ▁the ▁church ▁was ▁visible ▁from ▁the ▁sea . ▁The ▁church ▁was ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁land mark ▁for ▁navigation ▁in ▁the ▁Sk ager rak ▁because ▁it ▁was ▁an ▁easily ▁recogn izable ▁element ▁in ▁the ▁outline ▁of ▁the ▁coast ▁seen ▁by ▁sail ors . ▁It ▁is ▁marked ▁on ▁all ▁na ut ical ▁charts , ▁and ▁until ▁ 1 9 4 0 ▁the ▁National ▁Office ▁for ▁L ighth ouses ▁and ▁Coast al ▁Saf ety ▁( Stat ens ▁f yr - ▁og ▁mer ke ves en ) ▁was ▁responsible ▁for ▁painting ▁the ▁church ' s ▁south ▁walls ▁white . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁first ▁priest ▁known ▁to ▁have ▁served ▁at ▁the ▁church ▁was ▁S ira ▁If var , ▁mentioned ▁in ▁a ▁court ▁document ▁from ▁ 1 3 2 0 . ▁ ▁As ▁late ▁as ▁ 1 7 9 4 , ▁T rom |
ø y ▁Church ▁was ▁the ▁parish ▁church ▁for ▁Hol t , ▁which ▁covered ▁a ▁much ▁larger ▁ge ographic ▁area ▁than ▁T rom ø y ▁itself , ▁and ▁many ▁had ▁a ▁long ▁journey ▁to ▁church ▁that ▁was ▁ha z ard ous ▁in ▁winter . ▁Since ▁ 1 8 7 8 , ▁they ▁have ▁been ▁separate ▁par ishes ; ▁the ▁main land ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁parish ▁of ▁T rom ø y ▁covered ▁an ▁area ▁from ▁Str ø ms bu ▁( west ▁of ▁Ar end al ) ▁to ▁E y de hav n , ▁at ▁that ▁time ▁it ▁also ▁included ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁municipality ▁of ▁Aust re ▁Mol and ▁as ▁well . ▁ ▁Original ▁construction ▁Most ▁likely , ▁T rom ø y ▁Church ▁originally ▁had ▁a ▁rect angular ▁layout ▁that ▁concluded ▁with ▁an ▁ap se ▁facing ▁east . ▁Its ▁walls ▁are ▁ ▁thick . ▁Exper ts ▁that ▁have ▁studied ▁the ▁church ▁believe ▁that ▁the ▁church ▁was ▁first ▁built ▁in ▁the ▁old ▁style ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁structure ' s ▁style ▁and ▁details ▁suggest ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁oldest ▁existing ▁churches ▁in ▁Norway ▁today . ▁Arch ae ological ▁exc av ations ▁are ▁required ▁for ▁more ▁accurate ▁d ating . ▁In ▁Old ▁Norwegian ▁the ▁church ▁was ▁called ▁Th rum u ▁k irk ja ▁( T hr um u ▁Church ). ▁The ▁church ▁was ▁later ▁extended ▁and ▁the ▁cho ir ▁was ▁expanded ▁to ▁the ▁east . ▁This ▁probably ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges ▁during ▁the ▁Goth ic ▁period , ▁at ▁some ▁point ▁between ▁ 1 3 |
0 0 ▁and ▁ 1 4 0 0 . ▁ ▁It ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁hypoth es ized ▁that ▁T rom ø y ▁Church ▁may ▁have ▁had ▁a ▁round ▁west ▁tower . ▁Many ▁of ▁its ▁re used ▁stones ▁have ▁a ▁slightly ▁cur ved ▁surface , ▁which ▁may ▁indicate ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁outer ▁surface ▁of ▁a ▁circular ▁construction . ▁It ▁is ▁known , ▁for ▁example , ▁that ▁L un ner ▁Church ▁had ▁such ▁a ▁round ▁tower . ▁ ▁Reb u ild ing ▁and ▁rest oration ▁The ▁church ▁was ▁entirely ▁re built ▁in ▁ 1 7 4 8 . ▁The ▁medieval ▁long ▁church ▁was ▁divided ▁in ▁half ▁and ▁used ▁as ▁the ▁tr anse pt ▁for ▁a ▁cru c iform ▁church ▁with ▁a ▁nave ▁and ▁cho ir ▁built ▁of ▁wood . ▁Ole ▁N ils en ▁We ier hol t ▁was ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁the ▁construction . ▁All ▁of ▁the ▁walls ▁were ▁increased ▁in ▁height , ▁and ▁the ▁ce iling ▁was ▁bar rel - v ault ed . ▁The ▁church ▁was ▁rich ly ▁decor ated ▁with ▁Roc oco ▁orn ament ation ▁painted ▁by ▁J ør gen ▁Sch ult z ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 7 5 0 s . ▁This ▁was ▁painted ▁over ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 8 0 s , ▁but ▁was ▁un cover ed ▁again ▁during ▁a ▁major ▁rest oration ▁carried ▁out ▁between ▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁and ▁ 1 9 3 9 . ▁ ▁Pres erved ▁interior ▁elements ▁The ▁church ▁contains ▁a ▁medieval ▁bapt ism al ▁font ▁car ved ▁from ▁soap |
stone . ▁The ▁church ' s ▁alt ar ▁and ▁the ▁pul pit ▁date ▁from ▁ 1 7 2 5 ▁and ▁were ▁created ▁by ▁M og ens ▁Christian ▁T rane . ▁The ▁wooden ▁ch an cel ▁screen ▁displays ▁the ▁mon ogram ▁of ▁King ▁Frederick ▁V , ▁fl ank ed ▁by ▁l ions ▁and ▁ang els ; ▁it ▁was ▁car ved ▁by ▁Ole ▁N ils en ▁We ier hol t . ▁We ier hol t ▁probably ▁also ▁produced ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁other ▁car v ings ▁in ▁the ▁church ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁front s ▁of ▁the ▁gall eries ▁and ▁the ▁conf essional . ▁ ▁The ▁church ▁also ▁has ▁a ▁vot ive ▁ship ▁from ▁ 1 7 5 1 ▁h anging ▁from ▁the ▁ce iling . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁model ▁of ▁a ▁fr ig ate ▁from ▁C open hagen , ▁the ▁East ▁Ind ies ▁ship ▁D ron ningen ▁av ▁Dan mark ▁( Que en ▁of ▁Den mark ). ▁J ens ▁Bo ye ▁gave ▁the ▁model ▁to ▁the ▁church ; ▁he ▁was ▁a ▁priest ▁on board ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁ship ' s ▁jour ne ys ▁to ▁Gu ang z hou , ▁China ▁and ▁later ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁parish ▁priest ▁in ▁T rom ø y . ▁Bo ye ▁also ▁gave ▁the ▁church ▁a ▁book ▁about ▁the ▁ship ' s ▁journey ▁to ▁China . ▁The ▁ship ' s ▁first ▁officer , ▁Zach arias ▁Alle welt , ▁owned ▁the ▁M erd ø ▁farm ▁at ▁the ▁out port ▁on ▁neighbor ing ▁M erd ø ▁island . ▁The ▁church ▁also ▁preserved ▁an ▁organ |
▁from ▁▁ 1 7 5 0 , ▁which ▁is ▁now ▁kept ▁at ▁the ▁Norwegian ▁Museum ▁of ▁Cultural ▁History ▁in ▁Os lo . ▁ ▁Gro tes ques ▁ ▁The ▁church ▁has ▁a ▁re work ed ▁Roman es que ▁portal ▁with ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁gro tes ques ▁on ▁the ▁wall , ▁one ▁on ▁each ▁side . ▁The ▁left ▁one ▁is ▁a ▁face ▁with ▁a ▁hand ▁pulling ▁the ▁be ard , ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁is ▁a ▁face ▁stick ing ▁out ▁its ▁tongue . ▁The ▁mot ifs ▁have ▁similar ▁par alle ls ▁car ved ▁in ▁stone ▁at ▁Hed rum ▁Church ▁in ▁V est fold ▁and ▁at ▁L un ner ▁Church , ▁but ▁are ▁sty list ically ▁different . ▁A ▁tale ▁says ▁that ▁the ▁gro tes ques ▁represent ▁two ▁sever ed ▁heads ▁that ▁were ▁br icked ▁into ▁the ▁wall , ▁belonging ▁to ▁two ▁th ieves ▁that ▁st ole ▁the ▁church ' s ▁silver ▁and ▁were ▁then ▁captured ▁and ▁executed . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Kultur min nes ø k : ▁T rom ø y ▁k irk ested . ▁Kir kes ø k : ▁T rom ø y ▁kir ke . ▁N ors ke ▁kir ke by gg : ▁T rom ø y ▁kir ke . ▁ ▁Category : Ch urch es ▁in ▁Aust - Ag der ▁Category : C ult ural ▁her itage ▁of ▁Norway ▁Category : Build ings ▁and ▁structures ▁in ▁Ar end al ▁Category : St one ▁churches ▁in ▁Norway ▁Category : 1 2 th - century ▁Church ▁of ▁Norway ▁church ▁buildings |
▁Category : 1 2 th - century ▁churches ▁Category : C ru c iform ▁churches ▁in ▁Norway <0x0A> </s> ▁In sect s ▁or ▁In sect a ▁( from ▁Latin ▁) ▁are ▁hex ap od ▁in verte br ates ▁and ▁the ▁largest ▁group ▁within ▁the ▁ar th rop od ▁ph yl um . ▁De fin itions ▁and ▁circ ums cri ptions ▁vary ; ▁usually , ▁insect s ▁compr ise ▁a ▁class ▁within ▁the ▁Ar th rop oda . ▁As ▁used ▁here , ▁the ▁term ▁In sect a ▁is ▁syn onymous ▁with ▁E ct ogn ath a . ▁In sect s ▁have ▁a ▁ch it in ous ▁ex os ke leton , ▁a ▁three - part ▁body ▁( head , ▁thor ax ▁and ▁ab d omen ), ▁three ▁pairs ▁of ▁joint ed ▁legs , ▁comp ound ▁eyes ▁and ▁one ▁pair ▁of ▁anten na e . ▁In sect s ▁are ▁the ▁most ▁diverse ▁group ▁of ▁animals ; ▁they ▁include ▁more ▁than ▁a ▁million ▁described ▁species ▁and ▁represent ▁more ▁than ▁half ▁of ▁all ▁known ▁living ▁organ isms . ▁The ▁total ▁number ▁of ▁ext ant ▁species ▁is ▁estimated ▁at ▁between ▁six ▁and ▁ten ▁million ; ▁potentially ▁over ▁ 9 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁animal ▁life ▁forms ▁on ▁Earth ▁are ▁insect s . ▁In sect s ▁may ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁nearly ▁all ▁environments , ▁although ▁only ▁a ▁small ▁number ▁of ▁species ▁res ide ▁in ▁the ▁o ce ans , ▁which ▁are ▁domin ated ▁by ▁another ▁ar th rop od ▁group , ▁cr ust ace ans . ▁ ▁Near ly |
▁all ▁insect s ▁h atch ▁from ▁eggs . ▁In sect ▁growth ▁is ▁const rained ▁by ▁the ▁in el astic ▁ex os ke leton ▁and ▁development ▁involves ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁mol ts . ▁The ▁imm ature ▁stages ▁often ▁differ ▁from ▁the ▁adult s ▁in ▁structure , ▁habit ▁and ▁habitat , ▁and ▁can ▁include ▁a ▁pass ive ▁pup al ▁stage ▁in ▁those ▁groups ▁that ▁under go ▁ ▁four - stage ▁met am orph osis . ▁In sect s ▁that ▁under go ▁three - stage ▁met am orph osis ▁lack ▁a ▁pup al ▁stage ▁and ▁adult s ▁develop ▁through ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁n ym phal ▁stages . ▁The ▁higher ▁level ▁relationship ▁of ▁the ▁insect s ▁is ▁unclear . ▁F oss il ized ▁insect s ▁of ▁enorm ous ▁size ▁have ▁been ▁found ▁from ▁the ▁Pale oz o ic ▁Era , ▁including ▁giant ▁drag on f lies ▁with ▁wings p ans ▁of ▁ 5 5 ▁to ▁ 7 0 cm ▁( 2 2 ▁to ▁ 2 8 in ). ▁The ▁most ▁diverse ▁insect ▁groups ▁appear ▁to ▁have ▁co e vol ved ▁with ▁flow ering ▁plants . ▁ ▁Ad ult ▁insect s ▁typically ▁move ▁about ▁by ▁walking , ▁flying , ▁or ▁sometimes ▁sw imming . ▁As ▁it ▁allows ▁for ▁rapid ▁yet ▁stable ▁movement , ▁many ▁insect s ▁adopt ▁a ▁tri ped al ▁g ait ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁walk ▁with ▁their ▁legs ▁touch ing ▁the ▁ground ▁in ▁altern ating ▁tri angles , ▁composed ▁of ▁the ▁front ▁& ▁rear ▁on ▁one ▁side ▁with ▁the ▁middle ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁side |
. ▁In sect s ▁are ▁the ▁only ▁in verte br ates ▁to ▁have ▁evol ved ▁flight , ▁and ▁all ▁flying ▁insect s ▁derive ▁from ▁one ▁common ▁ancest or . ▁Many ▁insect s ▁spend ▁at ▁least ▁part ▁of ▁their ▁lives ▁under ▁water , ▁with ▁lar val ▁adapt ations ▁that ▁include ▁g ills , ▁and ▁some ▁adult ▁insect s ▁are ▁aqu atic ▁and ▁have ▁adapt ations ▁for ▁sw imming . ▁Some ▁species , ▁such ▁as ▁water ▁str iders , ▁are ▁capable ▁of ▁walking ▁on ▁the ▁surface ▁of ▁water . ▁In sect s ▁are ▁mostly ▁solit ary , ▁but ▁some , ▁such ▁as ▁certain ▁be es , ▁an ts ▁and ▁term ites , ▁are ▁social ▁and ▁live ▁in ▁large , ▁well - organ ized ▁colon ies . ▁Some ▁insect s , ▁such ▁as ▁ear wig s , ▁show ▁mat ernal ▁care , ▁guard ing ▁their ▁eggs ▁and ▁young . ▁In sect s ▁can ▁communicate ▁with ▁each ▁other ▁in ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁ways . ▁Male ▁moth s ▁can ▁sense ▁the ▁ph er om ones ▁of ▁female ▁moth s ▁over ▁great ▁distances . ▁Other ▁species ▁communicate ▁with ▁sounds : ▁cr ick ets ▁str id ulate , ▁or ▁rub ▁their ▁wings ▁together , ▁to ▁attract ▁a ▁mate ▁and ▁rep el ▁other ▁males . ▁L amp y rid ▁be et les ▁ ▁communicate ▁with ▁light . ▁ ▁Hum ans ▁regard ▁certain ▁insect s ▁as ▁p ests , ▁and ▁attempt ▁to ▁control ▁them ▁using ▁insect ic ides , ▁and ▁a ▁host ▁of ▁other ▁techniques . ▁Some ▁insect s ▁damage ▁cro ps |
▁by ▁feed ing ▁on ▁sap , ▁leaves , ▁f ruits , ▁or ▁wood . ▁Some ▁species ▁are ▁par as it ic , ▁and ▁may ▁vector ▁dise ases . ▁Some ▁insect s ▁perform ▁complex ▁e colog ical ▁roles ; ▁blow - f lies , ▁for ▁example , ▁help ▁consume ▁car r ion ▁but ▁also ▁spread ▁dise ases . ▁In sect ▁pol lin ators ▁are ▁essential ▁to ▁the ▁life ▁cycle ▁of ▁many ▁flow ering ▁plant ▁species ▁on ▁which ▁most ▁organ isms , ▁including ▁humans , ▁are ▁at ▁least ▁partly ▁dependent ; ▁without ▁them , ▁the ▁terrest rial ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁b ios phere ▁would ▁be ▁dev ast ated . ▁Many ▁insect s ▁are ▁considered ▁e colog ically ▁benef icial ▁as ▁pred ators ▁and ▁a ▁few ▁provide ▁direct ▁economic ▁benefit . ▁Sil kw orm s ▁produce ▁sil k ▁and ▁h oney ▁be es ▁produce ▁h oney ▁and ▁both ▁have ▁been ▁domestic ated ▁by ▁humans . ▁In sect s ▁are ▁consum ed ▁as ▁food ▁in ▁ 8 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁nations , ▁by ▁people ▁in ▁roughly ▁ 3 0 0 0 ▁eth nic ▁groups . ▁Human ▁activities ▁also ▁have ▁effects ▁on ▁insect ▁b iod iversity . ▁ ▁Et ym ology ▁ ▁The ▁word ▁" in sect " ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁Latin ▁word ▁, ▁meaning ▁" with ▁a ▁not ched ▁or ▁divided ▁body ", ▁or ▁literally ▁" cut ▁into ", ▁from ▁the ▁neut er ▁singular ▁perfect ▁pass ive ▁partici ple ▁of ▁, ▁" to ▁cut ▁into , ▁to ▁cut ▁up ", ▁from ▁in - |
▁" into " ▁and ▁sec are ▁" to ▁cut "; ▁because ▁insect s ▁appear ▁" cut ▁into " ▁three ▁sections . ▁A ▁cal que ▁of ▁Greek ▁ ▁[], ▁" cut ▁into ▁sections ", ▁Pl iny ▁the ▁E lder ▁introduced ▁the ▁Latin ▁design ation ▁as ▁a ▁loan - trans lation ▁of ▁the ▁Greek ▁word ▁ ▁( ént om os ) ▁or ▁" in sect " ▁( as ▁in ▁ent om ology ), ▁which ▁was ▁Arist ot le ' s ▁term ▁for ▁this ▁class ▁of ▁life , ▁also ▁in ▁reference ▁to ▁their ▁" not ched " ▁bodies . ▁" In sect " ▁first ▁appears ▁documented ▁in ▁English ▁in ▁ 1 6 0 1 ▁in ▁Holland ' s ▁translation ▁of ▁Pl iny . ▁Trans l ations ▁of ▁Arist ot le ' s ▁term ▁also ▁form ▁the ▁usual ▁word ▁for ▁" in sect " ▁in ▁Wel sh ▁( , ▁from ▁ ▁" to ▁cut " ▁and ▁ ▁mil , ▁" an imal "), ▁Ser bo - C ro at ian ▁( z are znik , ▁from ▁rez ati , ▁" to ▁cut "), ▁Russian ▁( ▁n ase kom o je , ▁from ▁se č ' /- se k at '' ', ▁" to ▁cut "), ▁etc . ▁▁ ▁De fin itions ▁ ▁The ▁precise ▁definition ▁of ▁the ▁tax on ▁In sect a ▁and ▁the ▁equivalent ▁English ▁name ▁" in sect " ▁var ies ; ▁three ▁alternative ▁definitions ▁are ▁shown ▁in ▁the ▁table . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁broad est ▁circ ums cription , ▁In sect a ▁sens u |
▁l ato ▁consists ▁of ▁all ▁hex ap ods . ▁Trad itionally , ▁insect s ▁defined ▁in ▁this ▁way ▁were ▁divided ▁into ▁" Ap ter yg ota " ▁( the ▁first ▁five ▁groups ▁in ▁the ▁table ) — the ▁wing less ▁insect s — and ▁P ter yg ota — the ▁wing ed ▁insect s . ▁However , ▁modern ▁ph y log en etic ▁studies ▁have ▁shown ▁that ▁" Ap ter yg ota " ▁is ▁not ▁mon oph y let ic , ▁and ▁so ▁does ▁not ▁form ▁a ▁good ▁tax on . ▁A ▁nar ro wer ▁circ ums cription ▁restrict s ▁insect s ▁to ▁those ▁hex ap ods ▁with ▁external ▁mouth parts , ▁and ▁compr ises ▁only ▁the ▁last ▁three ▁groups ▁in ▁the ▁table . ▁In ▁this ▁sense , ▁In sect a ▁sens u ▁str ic to ▁is ▁equivalent ▁to ▁E ct ogn ath a . ▁In ▁the ▁narrow est ▁circ ums cription , ▁insect s ▁are ▁restricted ▁to ▁hex ap ods ▁that ▁are ▁either ▁wing ed ▁or ▁desc ended ▁from ▁wing ed ▁ancest ors . ▁In sect a ▁sens u ▁strict iss imo ▁is ▁then ▁equivalent ▁to ▁P ter yg ota . ▁For ▁the ▁purposes ▁of ▁this ▁article , ▁the ▁middle ▁definition ▁is ▁used ; ▁insect s ▁consist ▁of ▁two ▁wing less ▁tax a , ▁Arch ae ogn ath a ▁( j ump ing ▁br ist let ails ) ▁and ▁Z yg ent oma ▁( sil ver fish ), ▁plus ▁the ▁wing ed ▁or ▁second arily ▁wing less ▁P ter yg ota . |
▁▁ ▁Ph y log eny ▁and ▁evolution ▁▁ ▁The ▁evolution ary ▁relationship ▁of ▁insect s ▁to ▁other ▁animal ▁groups ▁remains ▁unclear . ▁ ▁Although ▁tradition ally ▁grouped ▁with ▁mill ip edes ▁and ▁cent ip edes — poss ibly ▁on ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁conver gent ▁adapt ations ▁to ▁terrest rial isation — ev idence ▁has ▁emer ged ▁favor ing ▁closer ▁evolution ary ▁t ies ▁with ▁cr ust ace ans . ▁In ▁the ▁P anc rust ace a ▁theory , ▁insect s , ▁together ▁with ▁Ent ogn ath a , ▁Rem ipedia , ▁and ▁Ce phal oc ar ida , ▁make ▁up ▁a ▁natural ▁cla de ▁l abeled ▁Mi rac rust ace a . ▁ ▁In sect s ▁form ▁a ▁single ▁cla de , ▁closely ▁related ▁to ▁cr ust ace ans ▁and ▁my ri ap ods . ▁ ▁Other ▁terrest rial ▁ar th rop ods , ▁such ▁as ▁cent ip edes , ▁mill ip edes , ▁sc orp ions , ▁and ▁sp iders , ▁are ▁sometimes ▁confused ▁with ▁insect s ▁since ▁their ▁body ▁plans ▁can ▁appear ▁similar , ▁sharing ▁( as ▁do ▁all ▁ar th rop ods ) ▁a ▁joint ed ▁ex os ke leton . ▁However , ▁upon ▁closer ▁exam ination , ▁their ▁features ▁differ ▁significantly ; ▁most ▁notice ably , ▁they ▁do ▁not ▁have ▁the ▁six - leg ged ▁characteristic ▁of ▁adult ▁insect s . ▁ ▁The ▁higher - level ▁ph y log eny ▁of ▁the ▁ar th rop ods ▁continues ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁debate ▁and ▁research . ▁In ▁ 2 |
0 0 8 , ▁research ers ▁at ▁Tu ft s ▁University ▁un cover ed ▁what ▁they ▁believe ▁is ▁the ▁world ' s ▁oldest ▁known ▁full - body ▁impression ▁of ▁a ▁primitive ▁flying ▁insect , ▁a ▁ 3 0 0 - mill ion - year - old ▁spec imen ▁from ▁the ▁Car bon ifer ous ▁period . ▁The ▁oldest ▁definit ive ▁insect ▁foss il ▁is ▁the ▁Dev onian ▁Rh yn i ogn ath a ▁h irst i , ▁from ▁the ▁ 3 9 6 - mill ion - year - old ▁Rh ynie ▁ch ert . ▁It ▁may ▁have ▁super f icial ly ▁res emble d ▁a ▁modern - day ▁silver fish ▁insect . ▁This ▁species ▁already ▁possessed ▁dic ond y lic ▁mand ibles ▁( two ▁art ic ulations ▁in ▁the ▁mand ible ), ▁a ▁feature ▁associated ▁with ▁wing ed ▁insect s , ▁suggesting ▁that ▁wings ▁may ▁already ▁have ▁evol ved ▁at ▁this ▁time . ▁Thus , ▁the ▁first ▁insect s ▁probably ▁appeared ▁earlier , ▁in ▁the ▁Sil ur ian ▁period . ▁ ▁Four ▁super ▁radi ations ▁of ▁insect s ▁have ▁occurred : ▁be et les ▁( from ▁about ▁ 3 0 0 ▁million ▁years ▁ago ), ▁f lies ▁( from ▁about ▁ 2 5 0 ▁million ▁years ▁ago ), ▁moth s ▁and ▁was ps ▁( both ▁from ▁about ▁ 1 5 0 ▁million ▁years ▁ago ). ▁These ▁four ▁groups ▁account ▁for ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁described ▁species . ▁The ▁f lies ▁and ▁moth s ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁fle as ▁evol ved ▁from ▁the ▁M |
ec optera . ▁ ▁The ▁orig ins ▁of ▁insect ▁flight ▁remain ▁obsc ure , ▁since ▁the ▁earliest ▁wing ed ▁insect s ▁currently ▁known ▁appear ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁capable ▁f liers . ▁Some ▁ext inct ▁insect s ▁had ▁an ▁additional ▁pair ▁of ▁wing lets ▁att aching ▁to ▁the ▁first ▁segment ▁of ▁the ▁thor ax , ▁for ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁three ▁pairs . ▁As ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁no ▁evidence ▁suggests ▁the ▁insect s ▁were ▁a ▁particularly ▁successful ▁group ▁of ▁animals ▁before ▁they ▁evol ved ▁to ▁have ▁wings . ▁ ▁Late ▁Car bon ifer ous ▁and ▁Early ▁Perm ian ▁insect ▁orders ▁include ▁both ▁ext ant ▁groups , ▁their ▁stem ▁groups , ▁and ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁Pale oz o ic ▁groups , ▁now ▁ext inct . ▁During ▁this ▁era , ▁some ▁giant ▁drag on fly - like ▁forms ▁reached ▁wings p ans ▁of ▁, ▁making ▁them ▁far ▁larger ▁than ▁any ▁living ▁insect . ▁This ▁gig ant ism ▁may ▁have ▁been ▁due ▁to ▁higher ▁atmos pher ic ▁o xygen ▁levels ▁that ▁allowed ▁increased ▁resp ir atory ▁efficiency ▁relative ▁to ▁today . ▁The ▁lack ▁of ▁flying ▁verte br ates ▁could ▁have ▁been ▁another ▁factor . ▁Most ▁ext inct ▁orders ▁of ▁insect s ▁developed ▁during ▁the ▁Perm ian ▁period ▁that ▁began ▁around ▁ 2 7 0 ▁million ▁years ▁ago . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁groups ▁became ▁ext inct ▁during ▁the ▁Perm ian - Tri ass ic ▁ext inction ▁event , ▁the ▁largest ▁mass ▁ext inction ▁in ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁Earth , ▁around ▁ 2 5 |
2 ▁million ▁years ▁ago . ▁ ▁The ▁remark ably ▁successful ▁H ymen optera ▁appeared ▁as ▁long ▁as ▁ 1 4 6 ▁million ▁years ▁ago ▁in ▁the ▁C ret ace ous ▁period , ▁but ▁achieved ▁their ▁wide ▁divers ity ▁more ▁recently ▁in ▁the ▁C en oz o ic ▁era , ▁which ▁began ▁ 6 6 ▁million ▁years ▁ago . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁highly ▁successful ▁insect ▁groups ▁evol ved ▁in ▁conj unction ▁with ▁flow ering ▁plants , ▁a ▁powerful ▁illustr ation ▁of ▁co e volution . ▁ ▁Many ▁modern ▁insect ▁gener a ▁developed ▁during ▁the ▁C en oz o ic . ▁In sect s ▁from ▁this ▁period ▁on ▁are ▁often ▁found ▁preserved ▁in ▁am ber , ▁often ▁in ▁perfect ▁condition . ▁The ▁body ▁plan , ▁or ▁morph ology , ▁of ▁such ▁spec im ens ▁is ▁thus ▁easily ▁compared ▁with ▁modern ▁species . ▁The ▁study ▁of ▁foss il ized ▁insect s ▁is ▁called ▁pale o ent om ology . ▁ ▁Ph y log eny ▁ ▁Tax onomy ▁ ▁Trad itional ▁morph ology - based ▁or ▁appearance - based ▁system at ics ▁have ▁usually ▁given ▁the ▁H ex ap oda ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁super class , ▁and ▁identified ▁four ▁groups ▁within ▁it : ▁insect s ▁( E ct ogn ath a ), ▁spring t ails ▁( Col lem bol a ), ▁Pro t ura , ▁and ▁Di pl ura , ▁the ▁latter ▁three ▁being ▁grouped ▁together ▁as ▁the ▁Ent ogn ath a ▁on ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁internal ized ▁mouth ▁parts . ▁Sup ra ord inal ▁relationships ▁have |
▁under g one ▁numerous ▁changes ▁with ▁the ▁advent ▁of ▁methods ▁based ▁on ▁evolution ary ▁history ▁and ▁gen etic ▁data . ▁A ▁recent ▁theory ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁H ex ap oda ▁are ▁poly phy let ic ▁( where ▁the ▁last ▁common ▁ancest or ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁group ), ▁with ▁the ▁ent ogn ath ▁classes ▁having ▁separate ▁evolution ary ▁histor ies ▁from ▁the ▁In sect a . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁appearance - based ▁tax a ▁have ▁been ▁shown ▁to ▁be ▁par ap hy let ic , ▁so ▁rather ▁than ▁using ▁ranks ▁like ▁subclass , ▁super order , ▁and ▁inf ra order , ▁it ▁has ▁proved ▁better ▁to ▁use ▁mon oph y let ic ▁group ings ▁( in ▁which ▁the ▁last ▁common ▁ancest or ▁is ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁group ). ▁The ▁following ▁represents ▁the ▁best - supported ▁mon oph y let ic ▁group ings ▁for ▁the ▁In sect a . ▁ ▁In sect s ▁can ▁be ▁divided ▁into ▁two ▁groups ▁histor ically ▁treated ▁as ▁sub classes : ▁wing less ▁insect s , ▁known ▁as ▁Ap ter yg ota , ▁and ▁wing ed ▁insect s , ▁known ▁as ▁P ter yg ota . ▁The ▁Ap ter yg ota ▁consist ▁of ▁the ▁primit ively ▁wing less ▁order ▁of ▁the ▁silver fish ▁( Zyg ent oma ). ▁Arch ae ogn ath a ▁make ▁up ▁the ▁Mon o cond yl ia ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁shape ▁of ▁their ▁mand ibles , ▁while ▁Z yg ent oma ▁and ▁P ter yg ota ▁are ▁grouped ▁together ▁as ▁Dic |
ond yl ia . ▁The ▁Z yg ent oma ▁themselves ▁possibly ▁are ▁not ▁mon oph y let ic , ▁with ▁the ▁family ▁Le pid ot rich idae ▁being ▁a ▁sister ▁group ▁to ▁the ▁Dic ond yl ia ▁( P ter yg ota ▁and ▁the ▁remaining ▁Z yg ent oma ). ▁ ▁Pale optera ▁and ▁Ne optera ▁are ▁the ▁wing ed ▁orders ▁of ▁insect s ▁differenti ated ▁by ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁hard ened ▁body ▁parts ▁called ▁s cler ites , ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁Ne optera , ▁mus cles ▁that ▁allow ▁their ▁wings ▁to ▁fol d ▁flat ly ▁over ▁the ▁ab d omen . ▁Ne optera ▁can ▁further ▁be ▁divided ▁into ▁incomplete ▁met am orph osis - based ▁( Pol y ne optera ▁and ▁Par ane optera ) ▁and ▁complete ▁met am orph osis - based ▁groups . ▁It ▁has ▁proved ▁difficult ▁to ▁clarify ▁the ▁relationships ▁between ▁the ▁orders ▁in ▁Poly ne optera ▁because ▁of ▁constant ▁new ▁find ings ▁calling ▁for ▁revision ▁of ▁the ▁tax a . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁Par ane optera ▁have ▁turned ▁out ▁to ▁be ▁more ▁closely ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁End opter yg ota ▁than ▁to ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁Ex opter yg ota . ▁The ▁recent ▁mole cular ▁finding ▁that ▁the ▁traditional ▁l ouse ▁orders ▁Mal lo ph aga ▁and ▁An op l ura ▁are ▁derived ▁from ▁within ▁Ps oc optera ▁has ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁new ▁tax on ▁P so code a . ▁Ph as mat ode a ▁and ▁Em bi id ina ▁have ▁been ▁suggested ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁E |
uk in ol ab ia . ▁Mant ode a , ▁Bl att ode a , ▁and ▁Is optera ▁are ▁thought ▁to ▁form ▁a ▁mon oph y let ic ▁group ▁term ed ▁D ict y optera . ▁ ▁The ▁Ex opter yg ota ▁likely ▁are ▁par ap hy let ic ▁in ▁regard ▁to ▁the ▁End opter yg ota . ▁Mat ters ▁that ▁have ▁in cur red ▁controvers y ▁include ▁Stre ps ip tera ▁and ▁D ip tera ▁grouped ▁together ▁as ▁Hal ter ia ▁based ▁on ▁a ▁reduction ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁wing ▁pairs — a ▁position ▁not ▁well - supported ▁in ▁the ▁ent om ological ▁community . ▁The ▁Ne urop ter ida ▁are ▁often ▁l ump ed ▁or ▁split ▁on ▁the ▁wh ims ▁of ▁the ▁tax onom ist . ▁Fle as ▁are ▁now ▁thought ▁to ▁be ▁closely ▁related ▁to ▁bore id ▁me cop ter ans . ▁Many ▁questions ▁remain ▁in ▁the ▁bas al ▁relationships ▁among ▁end opter yg ote ▁orders , ▁particularly ▁the ▁H ymen optera . ▁ ▁The ▁study ▁of ▁the ▁classification ▁or ▁tax onomy ▁of ▁any ▁insect ▁is ▁called ▁system atic ▁ent om ology . ▁If ▁one ▁works ▁with ▁a ▁more ▁specific ▁order ▁or ▁even ▁a ▁family , ▁the ▁term ▁may ▁also ▁be ▁made ▁specific ▁to ▁that ▁order ▁or ▁family , ▁for ▁example ▁system atic ▁dip ter ology . ▁▁ ▁E volution ary ▁relationships ▁ ▁In sect s ▁are ▁pre y ▁for ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁organ isms , ▁including ▁terrest rial ▁verte br ates . ▁The ▁earliest ▁verte br ates ▁on ▁land |
▁existed ▁ 4 0 0 ▁million ▁years ▁ago ▁and ▁were ▁large ▁am ph ib ious ▁p isc iv ores . ▁Through ▁grad ual ▁evolution ary ▁change , ▁insect iv ory ▁was ▁the ▁next ▁di et ▁type ▁to ▁evol ve . ▁ ▁In sect s ▁were ▁among ▁the ▁earliest ▁terrest rial ▁her b iv ores ▁and ▁acted ▁as ▁major ▁selection ▁agents ▁on ▁plants . ▁Pl ants ▁evol ved ▁chemical ▁def enses ▁against ▁this ▁her b iv ory ▁and ▁the ▁insect s , ▁in ▁turn , ▁evol ved ▁mechan isms ▁to ▁deal ▁with ▁plant ▁to x ins . ▁Many ▁insect s ▁make ▁use ▁of ▁these ▁to x ins ▁to ▁protect ▁themselves ▁from ▁their ▁pred ators . ▁Such ▁insect s ▁often ▁advert ise ▁their ▁to x icity ▁using ▁warning ▁colors . ▁This ▁successful ▁evolution ary ▁pattern ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁used ▁by ▁m im ics . ▁Over ▁time , ▁this ▁has ▁led ▁to ▁complex ▁groups ▁of ▁co e vol ved ▁species . ▁Con vers ely , ▁some ▁interactions ▁between ▁plants ▁and ▁insect s , ▁like ▁pol lin ation , ▁are ▁benef icial ▁to ▁both ▁organ isms . ▁Co e volution ▁has ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁very ▁specific ▁mut ual isms ▁in ▁such ▁systems . ▁▁ ▁D iversity ▁▁ ▁Est im ates ▁on ▁the ▁total ▁number ▁of ▁insect ▁species , ▁or ▁those ▁within ▁specific ▁orders , ▁often ▁vary ▁consider ably . ▁G lob ally , ▁aver ages ▁of ▁these ▁estimates ▁suggest ▁there ▁are ▁around ▁ 1 . 5 ▁million ▁be et le ▁species ▁and ▁ 5 . |
5 ▁million ▁insect ▁species , ▁with ▁about ▁ 1 ▁million ▁insect ▁species ▁currently ▁found ▁and ▁described . ▁ ▁Between ▁ 9 5 0 , 0 0 0 – 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁of ▁all ▁described ▁species ▁are ▁insect s , ▁so ▁over ▁ 5 0 % ▁of ▁all ▁described ▁e uk ary otes ▁( 1 . 8 ▁million ) ▁are ▁insect s ▁( see ▁illustr ation ). ▁With ▁only ▁ 9 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁known ▁non - in sect s , ▁if ▁the ▁actual ▁number ▁of ▁insect s ▁is ▁ 5 . 5 ▁million , ▁they ▁may ▁represent ▁over ▁ 8 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁total . ▁ ▁As ▁only ▁about ▁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ▁new ▁species ▁of ▁all ▁organ isms ▁are ▁described ▁each ▁year , ▁most ▁insect ▁species ▁may ▁remain ▁und es cribed , ▁unless ▁the ▁rate ▁of ▁species ▁descri ptions ▁greatly ▁increases . ▁Of ▁the ▁ 2 4 ▁orders ▁of ▁insect s , ▁four ▁domin ate ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁numbers ▁of ▁described ▁species ; ▁at ▁least ▁ 6 7 0 , 0 0 0 ▁identified ▁species ▁belong ▁to ▁Cole optera , ▁D ip tera , ▁H ymen optera ▁or ▁Le pid optera . ▁ ▁As ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁at ▁least ▁ 6 6 ▁insect ▁species ▁ext in ctions ▁had ▁been ▁recorded ▁in ▁the ▁previous ▁ 5 0 0 ▁years , ▁which ▁generally ▁occurred ▁on ▁ocean ic ▁islands . ▁Dec lines ▁in ▁insect ▁abund ance ▁have ▁been |
▁attributed ▁to ▁artificial ▁light ing , ▁land ▁use ▁changes ▁such ▁as ▁urban ization ▁or ▁agricult ural ▁use , ▁p estic ide ▁use , ▁and ▁invas ive ▁species . ▁Studies ▁summar ized ▁in ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁review ▁suggested ▁a ▁large ▁proportion ▁of ▁insect ▁species ▁are ▁threatened ▁with ▁ext inction ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 1 st ▁century . ▁Though ▁e colog ist ▁Man u ▁Sand ers ▁notes ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁review ▁was ▁bi ased ▁by ▁mostly ▁ex cluding ▁data ▁showing ▁increases ▁or ▁stability ▁in ▁insect ▁population , ▁with ▁the ▁studies ▁limited ▁to ▁specific ▁ge ographic ▁areas ▁and ▁specific ▁groups ▁of ▁species . ▁A ▁larger ▁meta - stud y ▁published ▁in ▁ 2 0 2 0 , ▁analyz ing ▁data ▁from ▁ 1 6 6 ▁long - term ▁surve ys , ▁suggested ▁that ▁populations ▁of ▁terrest rial ▁insect s ▁are ▁decre asing ▁by ▁about ▁ 9 % ▁per ▁de cade . ▁Cla ims ▁of ▁pending ▁mass ▁insect ▁ext in ctions ▁or ▁" in sect ▁ap ocal yp se " ▁based ▁on ▁a ▁subset ▁of ▁these ▁studies ▁have ▁been ▁popular ized ▁in ▁news ▁reports , ▁but ▁often ▁ext rap olate ▁beyond ▁the ▁study ▁data ▁or ▁hyper bol ize ▁study ▁find ings . ▁Other ▁areas ▁have ▁shown ▁increases ▁in ▁some ▁insect ▁species , ▁although ▁tr ends ▁in ▁most ▁regions ▁are ▁currently ▁unknown . ▁It ▁is ▁difficult ▁to ▁assess ▁long - term ▁tr ends ▁in ▁insect ▁abund ance ▁or ▁divers ity ▁because ▁historical ▁measurements ▁are ▁generally ▁not ▁known ▁for ▁many ▁species . ▁Rob |
ust ▁data ▁to ▁assess ▁at - ris k ▁areas ▁or ▁species ▁is ▁especially ▁lack ing ▁for ▁ar ctic ▁and ▁tropical ▁regions ▁and ▁a ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁southern ▁hem is phere . ▁▁ ▁Mor ph ology ▁and ▁phys i ology ▁▁▁ ▁External ▁▁ ▁In sect s ▁have ▁segment ed ▁bodies ▁supported ▁by ▁ex os ke let ons , ▁the ▁hard ▁outer ▁covering ▁made ▁mostly ▁of ▁ch it in . ▁The ▁segments ▁of ▁the ▁body ▁are ▁organized ▁into ▁three ▁distinct ive ▁but ▁inter connected ▁units , ▁or ▁tag m ata : ▁a ▁head , ▁a ▁thor ax ▁and ▁an ▁ab d omen . ▁The ▁head ▁supports ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁sens ory ▁anten na e , ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁comp ound ▁eyes , ▁zero ▁to ▁three ▁simple ▁eyes ▁( or ▁o cel li ) ▁and ▁three ▁sets ▁of ▁various ly ▁modified ▁append ages ▁that ▁form ▁the ▁mouth parts . ▁The ▁thor ax ▁is ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁three ▁segments : ▁the ▁pro th or ax , ▁mes oth or ax ▁and ▁the ▁met ath or ax . ▁Each ▁thor ac ic ▁segment ▁supports ▁one ▁pair ▁of ▁legs . ▁The ▁mes o - ▁and ▁met ath or ac ic ▁segments ▁may ▁each ▁have ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁wings , ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁insect . ▁The ▁ab d omen ▁consists ▁of ▁eleven ▁segments , ▁though ▁in ▁a ▁few ▁species ▁of ▁insect s , ▁these ▁segments ▁may ▁be ▁f used ▁together ▁or ▁reduced ▁in ▁size . ▁The ▁ab d omen ▁also ▁contains ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁dig est ive , ▁resp ir |
atory , ▁ex cret ory ▁and ▁re product ive ▁internal ▁structures . ▁Consider able ▁variation ▁and ▁many ▁adapt ations ▁in ▁the ▁body ▁parts ▁of ▁insect s ▁occur , ▁especially ▁wings , ▁legs , ▁anten na ▁and ▁mouth parts . ▁▁ ▁Seg ment ation ▁ ▁The ▁head ▁is ▁en closed ▁in ▁a ▁hard , ▁heavily ▁s cler ot ized , ▁un segment ed , ▁ex os ke let al ▁head ▁caps ule , ▁or ▁ep ic ran ium , ▁which ▁contains ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁sens ing ▁org ans , ▁including ▁the ▁anten na e , ▁o cell us ▁or ▁eyes , ▁and ▁the ▁mouth parts . ▁Of ▁all ▁the ▁insect ▁orders , ▁Orth optera ▁displays ▁the ▁most ▁features ▁found ▁in ▁other ▁insect s , ▁including ▁the ▁s ut ures ▁and ▁s cler ites . ▁Here , ▁the ▁vertex , ▁or ▁the ▁a pe x ▁( d ors al ▁region ), ▁is ▁situated ▁between ▁the ▁comp ound ▁eyes ▁for ▁insect s ▁with ▁a ▁hyp ogn ath ous ▁and ▁op is th ogn ath ous ▁head . ▁In ▁pro gn ath ous ▁insect s , ▁the ▁vertex ▁is ▁not ▁found ▁between ▁the ▁comp ound ▁eyes , ▁but ▁rather , ▁where ▁the ▁o cel li ▁are ▁normally . ▁This ▁is ▁because ▁the ▁primary ▁axis ▁of ▁the ▁head ▁is ▁rot ated ▁ 9 0 ° ▁to ▁become ▁parallel ▁to ▁the ▁primary ▁axis ▁of ▁the ▁body . ▁In ▁some ▁species , ▁this ▁region ▁is ▁modified ▁and ▁assumes ▁a ▁different ▁name . ▁ ▁The ▁thor ax ▁is ▁a ▁tag ma |
▁composed ▁of ▁three ▁sections , ▁the ▁pro th or ax , ▁mes oth or ax ▁and ▁the ▁met ath or ax . ▁The ▁anterior ▁segment , ▁closest ▁to ▁the ▁head , ▁is ▁the ▁pro th or ax , ▁with ▁the ▁major ▁features ▁being ▁the ▁first ▁pair ▁of ▁legs ▁and ▁the ▁pron ot um . ▁The ▁middle ▁segment ▁is ▁the ▁mes oth or ax , ▁with ▁the ▁major ▁features ▁being ▁the ▁second ▁pair ▁of ▁legs ▁and ▁the ▁anterior ▁wings . ▁The ▁third ▁and ▁most ▁posterior ▁segment , ▁ab ut ting ▁the ▁ab d omen , ▁is ▁the ▁met ath or ax , ▁which ▁features ▁the ▁third ▁pair ▁of ▁legs ▁and ▁the ▁posterior ▁wings . ▁Each ▁segment ▁is ▁dil ine ated ▁by ▁an ▁inter segment al ▁s uture . ▁Each ▁segment ▁has ▁four ▁basic ▁regions . ▁The ▁d ors al ▁surface ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁ter g um ▁( or ▁not um ) ▁to ▁distinguish ▁it ▁from ▁the ▁ab dom inal ▁ter ga . ▁The ▁two ▁later al ▁regions ▁are ▁called ▁the ▁ple ura ▁( sing ular : ▁ple ur on ) ▁and ▁the ▁vent ral ▁aspect ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁stern um . ▁In ▁turn , ▁the ▁not um ▁of ▁the ▁pro th or ax ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁pron ot um , ▁the ▁not um ▁for ▁the ▁mes oth or ax ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁mes on ot um ▁and ▁the ▁not um ▁for ▁the ▁met ath or ax ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁met an ot um . ▁Cont inu ing ▁with ▁this ▁logic , ▁the ▁mes ople |
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