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and ul fo ' s ▁son ▁Eugen io ▁marry ▁the ▁girls ▁in ▁place ▁of ▁their ▁f athers . ▁ ▁The ▁th ieves ▁have ▁rel ieved ▁the ▁dist ract ed ▁P and ul fo ▁of ▁three ▁thousand ▁pounds ' ▁worth ▁of ▁his ▁property ; ▁but ▁in ▁their ▁gre ed ▁they ▁cut ▁Album azar ▁out ▁of ▁any ▁share ▁in ▁the ▁lo ot . ▁The ▁ch ast ened ▁ast ro lo ger ▁turns ▁them ▁in ; ▁P and ul fo ▁reg ains ▁his ▁wealth , ▁which ▁moder ates ▁his ▁res ent ment ▁at ▁his ▁loss ▁of ▁F lav ia . ▁Album azar ▁is ▁forg iven . ▁ ▁( The ▁play ▁also ▁contains ▁Tom k is ' s ▁Pro log ue , ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁states ▁that ▁he ▁chose ▁to ▁write ▁the ▁work ▁in ▁English ▁rather ▁than ▁Latin , ▁the ▁language ▁of ▁most ▁academic ▁plays , ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁increasing ▁number ▁of ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁audience .) ▁ ▁In flu ences ▁Oliver ▁G olds m ith ▁borrow ed ▁one ▁plot ▁element ▁( a ▁rob ber y ) ▁from ▁Album azar ▁for ▁his ▁ 1 7 7 2 ▁play ▁She ▁Sto ops ▁to ▁Con quer . ▁ ▁Because ▁of ▁Tom k is ' s ▁play ▁and ▁its ▁adapt ations , ▁the ▁name ▁Album azar ▁came ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁generic ▁term ▁for ▁an ▁ast ro lo ger . ▁It ▁is ▁employed ▁in ▁this ▁sense ▁in ▁William ▁Cong re ve ' s ▁Love ▁for ▁Love ▁( 1 6 9 5 ) ▁and ▁in ▁Tob ias ▁Sm ol lett |
' s ▁The ▁Advent ures ▁of ▁Per egr ine ▁Pick le ▁( 1 7 5 1 ). ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : English ▁Renaissance ▁plays ▁Category : 1 6 1 5 ▁plays <0x0A> </s> ▁Bob ▁Bug den ▁( born ▁ 1 9 3 6 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Australian ▁former ▁professional ▁rugby ▁league ▁footballer . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁ ▁with ▁the ▁St . ▁George ▁Drag ons ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁their ▁ 1 1 - year ▁consecutive ▁premi ership ▁winning ▁run ▁from ▁ 1 9 5 6 ▁to ▁ 1 9 6 6 . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁representative ▁in ▁the ▁Australian ▁national ▁team ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 9 ▁and ▁ 1 9 6 0 , ▁making ▁two ▁test ▁appearances . ▁ ▁Early ▁years ▁Bug den ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁northern ▁New ▁South ▁Wales ▁and ▁attended ▁Mur will imb ah ▁High ▁School ▁where ▁he ▁played ▁rugby ▁union . ▁He ▁moved ▁to ▁Sydney ▁aged ▁ 1 5 ▁as ▁a ▁cad et ▁with ▁the ▁Commonwealth ▁Bank ▁and ▁was ▁posted ▁to ▁W oll ong ong ▁where ▁he ▁played ▁under - 1 8 ▁rugby ▁league ▁for ▁Now ra - Shell har bour . ▁Back ▁in ▁Sydney ▁a ▁year ▁later ▁he ▁played ▁with ▁the ▁S uther land ▁Wor on ora ▁junior ▁league ▁side ▁and ▁a ▁St ▁George ▁fourth ▁grade ▁rugby ▁union ▁side . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁champion ▁beach ▁spr inter ▁with ▁the ▁C ron ulla ▁Sur f ▁Life ▁S aving ▁Club , ▁winning ▁three ▁national ▁beach ▁flags ▁titles . ▁ ▁St ▁George ▁Drag ons ▁career ▁He ▁played ▁with |
▁the ▁St ▁George ▁Drag ons ' ▁Pres idents ▁Cup ▁side ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁aged ▁ 1 8 ▁and ▁late ▁that ▁season ▁appeared ▁in ▁reserve ▁grade . ▁He ▁made ▁his ▁first ▁grade ▁debut ▁still ▁aged ▁ 1 8 ▁in ▁the ▁Dragon ' s ▁premi ership ▁semi - final ▁victory ▁over ▁North ▁Sydney ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁and ▁two ▁weeks ▁later ▁appeared ▁and ▁scored ▁a ▁try ▁in ▁the ▁final ▁against ▁New town ▁which ▁St ▁George ▁lost ▁ 2 7 - 3 . ▁His ▁first ▁full ▁year ▁in ▁first ▁grade ▁was ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 5 , ▁learning ▁the ▁ro pes ▁against ▁the ▁powerful ▁South ▁Sydney ▁Rab bit oh s ▁champion ▁out fit ▁to ▁whom ▁his ▁side ▁again ▁bow ed ▁out ▁in ▁the ▁premi ership ▁final ▁with ▁Bug den ▁again ▁scoring ▁a ▁try . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁the ▁Drag ons ' ▁first ▁choice ▁half - back ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁six ▁of ▁their ▁consecutive ▁premi ership ▁vict ories ▁from ▁ 1 9 5 6 – 6 1 ▁and ▁played ▁ 1 3 5 ▁club ▁games ▁( 1 3 3 ▁ 1 st ▁grade ), ▁scoring ▁ 5 6 ▁tries ▁for ▁the ▁club . ▁ ▁After ▁St ▁George ▁signed ▁George ▁Evans ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁as ▁a ▁potential ▁half back , ▁Bug den ▁sought ▁an ▁open ▁transfer ▁and ▁was ▁allowed ▁to ▁leave ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁season . ▁He ▁followed ▁his ▁Drag ons ' ▁coach ▁and ▁captain ▁Ken ▁K ear ney ▁to ▁Par ram atta ▁where ▁he ▁played ▁a |
▁further ▁four ▁seasons , ▁often ▁as ▁vice - capt ain . ▁ ▁Represent ative ▁career ▁Bud gen ▁made ▁his ▁state ▁representative ▁debut ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁and ▁again ▁represented ▁for ▁New ▁South ▁Wales ▁ ▁from ▁the ▁Par ram atta ▁club ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 4 . ▁In ▁Bug den ' s ▁representative ▁career ▁he ▁was ▁v ying ▁against ▁the ▁inc umb ent ▁national ▁half - back , ▁Queensland er ▁Barry ▁Mu ir , ▁who ▁was ▁generally ▁preferred ▁by ▁select ors . ▁At ▁the ▁latter ▁end ▁of ▁Bug den ' s ▁career ▁Arthur ▁Sum m ons ▁was ▁the ▁test ▁half . ▁ ▁Bud gen ▁was ▁picked ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 9 ▁K ang ar oo ▁tour ▁and ▁played ▁in ▁five ▁tour ▁matches ▁but ▁no ▁tests . ▁He ▁was ▁selected ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁World ▁Cup ▁squad ▁and ▁although ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁play ▁in ▁any ▁tournament ▁matches , ▁made ▁two ▁tour ▁match ▁appearances ▁for ▁Australia ▁after ▁the ▁World ▁Cup . ▁Bug den ▁made ▁his ▁Test ▁debut ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁domestic ▁series ▁against ▁France ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 nd ▁Test ▁in ▁Br is b ane . ▁He ▁scored ▁three ▁tries ▁on ▁debut ▁in ▁Australia ' s ▁ 5 6 - 1 0 ▁routing ▁of ▁France ▁and ▁back ed ▁up ▁for ▁the ▁ 3 rd ▁Test ▁where ▁he ▁again ▁crossed ▁for ▁a ▁try . ▁ ▁Post ▁playing ▁Post ▁football , ▁Bud gen ▁worked ▁in ▁the ▁club ▁and ▁hotel ▁industry ▁before ▁finding ▁business ▁success ▁in ▁real |
▁estate ▁sales . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁W riter , ▁Larry ▁( 1 9 9 5 ) ▁Never ▁Before , ▁Never ▁Again , ▁Pan ▁Mac Mill an , ▁Sydney ▁ ▁Andrew s , ▁Mal col m ▁( 2 0 0 6 ) ▁The ▁ABC ▁of ▁Rugby ▁League ▁Australian ▁Broadcast ing ▁Cor pn , ▁Sydney ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : Austral ian ▁rugby ▁league ▁players ▁Category : St . ▁George ▁Drag ons ▁players ▁Category : Austral ia ▁national ▁rugby ▁league ▁team ▁players ▁Category : Par ram atta ▁E els ▁players ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : R ugby ▁league ▁half back s ▁Category : Date ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : R ugby ▁league ▁players ▁from ▁New ▁South ▁Wales <0x0A> </s> ▁Mar ija š ▁( ; ▁, ▁Mar ija š ▁) ▁ ▁or ▁Bog da š ▁( Б о гда ш ) ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁mountain ▁in ▁Kos ovo ▁in ▁the ▁Pro k let ije ▁range . ▁At ▁ ▁high , ▁it ▁is ▁the ▁highest ▁peak ▁of ▁the ▁Bog ić ev ica ▁area ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁highest ▁pe aks ▁in ▁Pro k let ije ▁in ▁Kos ovo . ▁The ▁mountain ▁is ▁located ▁near ▁the ▁Mont en egr in ▁border . ▁ ▁Notes ▁and ▁references ▁ ▁Notes : ▁ ▁References : ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ <0x09> ▁ ▁Category : Mount ains ▁of ▁Kos ovo ▁Category : Pro k let ije ▁Category : Two - th ous and ers ▁of ▁Kos ovo <0x0A> </s> ▁The |
▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁OF C ▁Champions ▁League ▁was ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁edition ▁of ▁the ▁Ocean ian ▁Club ▁Championship , ▁O ce ania ' s ▁premier ▁club ▁football ▁tournament ▁organized ▁by ▁the ▁O ce ania ▁Football ▁Confeder ation ▁( O FC ), ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 3 th ▁season ▁under ▁the ▁current ▁OF C ▁Champions ▁League ▁name . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁final , ▁H ien gh ène ▁Sport ▁defeated ▁Mag enta , ▁becoming ▁the ▁first ▁team ▁from ▁New ▁C aled onia ▁to ▁win ▁the ▁tournament . ▁As ▁the ▁w inners ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁OF C ▁Champions ▁League , ▁they ▁qualified ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁FIFA ▁Club ▁World ▁Cup ▁in ▁Q atar . ▁Team ▁Well ington ▁were ▁the ▁def ending ▁champions , ▁but ▁were ▁elimin ated ▁by ▁H ien gh ène ▁Sport ▁in ▁the ▁semi - final s . ▁ ▁Teams ▁ ▁A ▁total ▁of ▁ 1 8 ▁teams ▁from ▁all ▁ 1 1 ▁OF C ▁member ▁associations ▁entered ▁the ▁competition . ▁The ▁seven ▁developed ▁associations ▁( F iji , ▁New ▁C aled onia , ▁New ▁Zealand , ▁Pap ua ▁New ▁Guinea , ▁Sol omon ▁Islands , ▁T ah iti , ▁Van u atu ) ▁are ▁awarded ▁two ▁ber th s ▁each ▁in ▁the ▁group ▁stage . ▁The ▁four ▁developing ▁associations ▁( American ▁Sam oa , ▁Cook ▁Islands , ▁Sam oa , ▁T ong a ) ▁are ▁awarded ▁one ▁ber th ▁each ▁in ▁the ▁qual ifying ▁stage , ▁with ▁the ▁w inners ▁and ▁run |
ners - up ▁adv ancing ▁to ▁the ▁group ▁stage . ▁ ▁Sch edule ▁The ▁schedule ▁of ▁the ▁competition ▁was ▁as ▁follows . ▁For ▁this ▁season , ▁all ▁t ies ▁in ▁the ▁knock out ▁stage ▁were ▁played ▁as ▁a ▁single ▁match . ▁ ▁Qual ifying ▁stage ▁ ▁Group ▁stage ▁ ▁Group ▁A ▁ ▁Group ▁B ▁ ▁Group ▁C ▁ ▁Group ▁D ▁ ▁Kno ck out ▁stage ▁ ▁Bra cket ▁ ▁Qu arter - final s ▁ ▁Sem i - final s ▁ ▁Final ▁ ▁Top ▁goals cor ers ▁ ▁Awards ▁The ▁following ▁awards ▁were ▁given ▁at ▁the ▁conclusion ▁of ▁the ▁tournament . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁OF C ▁Champions ▁League ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁o ce ania football . com ▁News ▁> ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁OF C ▁Champions ▁League ▁▁▁▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁ 1 <0x0A> </s> ▁Gar b agn ate ▁Milan ese ▁railway ▁station ▁is ▁a ▁railway ▁station ▁in ▁Italy . ▁It ▁serves ▁the ▁town ▁of ▁Gar b agn ate ▁Milan ese . ▁ ▁Services ▁Gar b agn ate ▁Milan ese ▁is ▁served ▁by ▁the ▁lines ▁S 1 ▁and ▁S 3 ▁of ▁the ▁Milan ▁sub urban ▁railway ▁network , ▁operated ▁by ▁the ▁l omb ard ▁railway ▁company ▁T ren ord . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Milan ▁sub urban ▁railway ▁network ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Fer rov ien ord ▁official ▁site ▁- ▁Gar b agn ate ▁Milan ese ▁railway ▁station ▁▁ ▁Category : R ail way ▁stations ▁in ▁Lomb ard y ▁Category : F er rov |
ien ord ▁stations ▁Category : R ail way ▁stations ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 9 ▁Category : Mil an ▁sub urban ▁railway ▁stations ▁Category : 1 8 7 9 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Italy <0x0A> </s> ▁Hop l ery th r inus ▁gr on ov ii ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁tra hi ra ▁( family ▁E ry th rin idae ). ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁tropical , ▁pel ag ic ▁fresh water ▁fish . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : E ry th rin idae <0x0A> </s> ▁John ▁Mut rie ▁( Dec ember ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 1 8 4 9 ▁– ▁ 1 9 2 9 ) ▁was ▁an ▁Ontario ▁far mer ▁and ▁political ▁figure . ▁He ▁represented ▁Well ington ▁South ▁in ▁the ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁of ▁Ontario ▁as ▁a ▁Liberal ▁member ▁from ▁ 1 8 9 4 ▁to ▁ 1 9 0 2 . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Er am osa ▁Township , ▁Canada ▁West , ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁William ▁Mut rie , ▁an ▁imm igr ant ▁from ▁Scotland , ▁and ▁was ▁educated ▁there . ▁Mut rie ▁served ▁on ▁the ▁town ship ▁council , ▁serving ▁as ▁re e ve ▁from ▁ 1 8 8 4 ▁to ▁ 1 8 9 2 , ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁council ▁for ▁Well ington ▁County . ▁Mut rie ▁was ▁county ▁w arden ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 0 ▁and ▁ 1 8 9 1 . ▁He ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁local ▁milit ia , ▁reaching ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁lieutenant - col onel . ▁Mut rie ▁was ▁rec |
ruit ing ▁officer ▁at ▁Gu el ph ▁at ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁post master ▁at ▁Rock wood ▁and ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁justice ▁of ▁the ▁peace . ▁ ▁Mut rie ▁married ▁Margaret ▁Dow ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 3 ; ▁they ▁had ▁four ▁children . ▁He ▁later ▁married ▁Margaret ▁All an . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁The ▁Canadian ▁parliament ary ▁companion , ▁ 1 8 9 7 ▁J A ▁Gem mill ▁ ▁Here ▁and ▁There ▁in ▁Er am osa ; ▁An ▁Historical ▁Sk etch ▁of ▁the ▁Early ▁Years ▁... , ▁F ▁Day ▁( 1 9 5 3 ) ▁Ex cer pt ▁from ▁Historical ▁Atlas ▁of ▁the ▁County ▁of ▁Well ington , ▁Ontario ▁( 1 9 0 6 ) ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 4 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 2 9 ▁death s ▁Category : O nt ario ▁Liberal ▁Party ▁MP P s <0x0A> </s> ▁Catherine ▁" K itt y " ▁Burn ett ▁K isten m acher ▁( F ebru ary ▁ 4 , ▁ 1 9 2 7 ▁- ▁October ▁ 3 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 ) ▁was ▁a ▁major ▁force ▁in ▁the ▁art ▁scene ▁in ▁El ▁Pas o , ▁Texas ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁and ▁the ▁early ▁ 2 1 st ▁century . ▁K isten m acher ▁was ▁crit ically ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁Museum ▁of ▁Art . ▁She ▁is ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁induct ee ▁into ▁the ▁El ▁Pas o ▁Women ' |
s ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame . ▁ ▁Biography ▁ ▁K isten m acher ▁was ▁born ▁Catherine ▁Burn ett ▁on ▁February ▁ 4 , ▁ 1 9 2 7 . ▁She ▁moved ▁with ▁her ▁family ▁to ▁El ▁Pas o , ▁Texas ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 1 . ▁She ▁attended ▁El ▁Pas o ▁High ▁School . ▁K isten m acher ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁R ho ▁D elta ▁Chapter ▁of ▁Chi ▁Om ega ▁while ▁she ▁was ▁a ▁student ▁at ▁the ▁College ▁of ▁M ines ▁and ▁Met all ur gy , ▁would ▁later ▁be ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Texas ▁at ▁El ▁Pas o ▁( UT EP ). ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 8 , ▁she ▁was ▁named ▁an ▁Out standing ▁Al um na ▁at ▁the ▁ 5 0 th ▁anni versary ▁celebr ation ▁of ▁the ▁chapter . ▁She ▁graduated ▁from ▁U TE P ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 . ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 1 , ▁she ▁married ▁George ▁Glen ▁K isten m acher , ▁who ▁she ▁met ▁while ▁in ▁college . ▁They ▁had ▁four ▁children ▁together . ▁▁ ▁K isten m acher ▁became ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁El ▁Pas o ▁art ▁community ▁around ▁ 1 9 7 9 . ▁Because ▁of ▁K isten m acher , ▁the ▁City ▁of ▁El ▁Pas o ▁was ▁persu aded ▁to ▁allow ▁the ▁International ▁Association ▁for ▁the ▁Visual ▁Arts ▁( I AVA ) ▁to ▁open ▁the ▁International ▁Museum ▁of ▁Art ▁in ▁the ▁building ▁that ▁once ▁hous ed ▁the ▁El ▁Pas o ▁Museum ▁of ▁Art . ▁She ▁helped ▁obtain |
▁artifact s ▁for ▁the ▁new ▁museum . ▁When ▁the ▁International ▁Museum ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁she ▁was ▁a ▁co - ch air ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁exhib it , ▁" Master pie ce ▁Mine ." ▁She ▁later ▁became ▁the ▁doc ent ▁coordin ator ▁for ▁the ▁International ▁Museum ▁of ▁Art . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁she ▁became ▁the ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁El ▁Pas o ▁Art ▁Association . ▁She ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁long time ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Women ' s ▁Department ▁of ▁the ▁El ▁Pas o ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Com merce , ▁where ▁she ▁served ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 0 ▁years ▁in ▁various ▁leadership ▁capac ities . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁she ▁was ▁induct ed ▁into ▁the ▁El ▁Pas o ▁Women ' s ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame . ▁ ▁K isten m acher ▁had ▁her ▁last ▁show , ▁" S emi - Abstract ▁Ac ry lic s ," ▁in ▁August ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁at ▁the ▁Cross land ▁Gallery ▁in ▁El ▁Pas o . ▁She ▁died ▁on ▁October ▁ 3 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁after ▁a ▁short ▁ill ness . ▁An ▁art ▁scholar ship ▁was ▁created ▁in ▁her ▁name ▁after ▁her ▁death ▁by ▁the ▁El ▁Pas o ▁Art ▁Association . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Or al ▁history ▁interview ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 0 8 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁El ▁Pas o , ▁Texas ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Texas ▁at |
▁El ▁Pas o ▁al umn i ▁Category : American ▁women ▁artists ▁Category : Ch i ▁Om ega <0x0A> </s> ▁Saint - On en - la - Ch ap elle ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁commune ▁in ▁the ▁Il le - et - V ila ine ▁department ▁in ▁Brit t any ▁in ▁north western ▁France . ▁ ▁Population ▁In hab itants ▁of ▁Saint - On en - la - Ch ap elle ▁are ▁called ▁on en ais ▁in ▁French . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Comm unes ▁of ▁the ▁Il le - et - V ila ine ▁department ▁ ▁References ▁IN SEE ▁ ▁May ors ▁of ▁Il le - et - V ila ine ▁Association ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁French ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Culture ▁list ▁for ▁Saint - On en - la - Ch ap elle ▁▁ ▁Category : Comm unes ▁of ▁Il le - et - V ila ine <0x0A> </s> ▁Maria ▁R ibe iro ▁G om es ▁Mart ins ▁( born ▁ 9 ▁July ▁ 1 9 9 9 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Portuguese ▁professional ▁racing ▁cycl ist , ▁who ▁currently ▁r ides ▁for ▁U CI ▁Women ' s ▁Cont inental ▁Team ▁. ▁ ▁In ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁she ▁won ▁the ▁bronze ▁medal ▁in ▁the ▁women ' s ▁scratch ▁event ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁U EC ▁European ▁Track ▁Championships . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 9 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Port ug uese ▁female ▁cycl ists ▁Category : Place ▁of |
▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : Europe an ▁Games ▁compet itors ▁for ▁Portugal ▁Category : Cy cl ists ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁European ▁Games <0x0A> </s> ▁Sed um ▁mex ican um , ▁commonly ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Mexican ▁stone c rop , ▁is ▁a ▁flow ering ▁plant ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Cr ass ul aceae . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁mex ican um <0x0A> </s> ▁H yl osc irt us ▁t igr inus ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁tree ▁f rog ▁native ▁to ▁Colombia ▁and ▁E cuador . ▁It ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁elev ations ▁of ▁up ▁to ▁ 3 0 0 0 ▁meters . ▁ ▁Description ▁ ▁H yl osc irt us ▁t igr inus ▁is ▁a ▁medium - s ized ▁and ▁robust ▁f rog ▁with ▁sp ots ▁covering ▁various ▁parts ▁of ▁its ▁body . ▁It ▁has ▁a ▁distinct ive ▁color ▁pattern , ▁which ▁allows ▁it ▁to ▁be ▁distinguished ▁from ▁other ▁H yl osc irt us ▁species . ▁This ▁is ▁also ▁how ▁the ▁species ▁was ▁named , ▁having ▁a ▁similar ▁pattern ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁t iger . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁t igr inus ▁Category : Am ph ib ians ▁of ▁Colombia ▁Category : Am ph ib ians ▁of ▁E cuador ▁Category : Am ph ib ians ▁described ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 <0x0A> </s> ▁Antonio ▁Gam ber elli ▁( 1 4 2 7 – 1 4 7 9 ), ▁nick named ▁Antonio ▁Ross ell ino ▁for ▁the ▁colour ▁of ▁his ▁hair , ▁was ▁an ▁Italian ▁sculpt or . |
▁His ▁older ▁brother , ▁from ▁whom ▁he ▁received ▁his ▁formal ▁training , ▁was ▁the ▁sculpt or ▁and ▁architect ▁Bern ardo ▁Ross ell ino . ▁ ▁Born ▁in ▁S ett ign ano , ▁now ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁Florence , ▁he ▁was ▁the ▁young est ▁of ▁five ▁brothers , ▁sculpt ors ▁and ▁stone cut ters . ▁He ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁studied ▁under ▁Don at ello ▁and ▁is ▁remarkable ▁for ▁the ▁sharp ness ▁and ▁fin eness ▁of ▁his ▁bas - rel ief . ▁His ▁most ▁important ▁works ▁are ▁the ▁fun eral ▁monument ▁of ▁ ▁( 1 4 5 8 ) ▁for ▁the ▁Black fri ar ▁Church ▁( today ▁a ▁museum ), ▁For l ì , ▁and ▁the ▁monument ▁of ▁Inf ante ▁James ▁of ▁Co im bra , ▁cardinal ▁of ▁Portugal ▁in ▁the ▁Bas il ica ▁di ▁San ▁M ini ato ▁al ▁Monte , ▁Florence ▁( 1 4 6 1 – 1 4 6 7 ). ▁ ▁The ▁portrait ▁b ust ▁of ▁Mat te o ▁Pal m ieri ▁in ▁the ▁B arg ello ▁is ▁signed ▁and ▁dated ▁ 1 4 6 8 . ▁In ▁ 1 4 7 0 ▁he ▁made ▁the ▁monument ▁for ▁the ▁Duch ess ▁of ▁Am alf i , ▁Mary ▁of ▁Arag on , ▁in ▁the ▁Church ▁of ▁Monte ▁Oliv eto , ▁Nap les ; ▁the ▁relief ▁of ▁the ▁N ativity ▁over ▁the ▁alt ar ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁place ▁is ▁also ▁probably ▁his . ▁A ▁statue ▁of ▁John ▁the ▁Bapt ist ▁as ▁a ▁boy ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁B arg ello ; ▁also ▁a |
▁del icate ▁relief ▁of ▁the ▁Madonna ▁and ▁Child , ▁an ▁E c ce ▁H omo , ▁and ▁a ▁b ust ▁of ▁Francesco ▁S ass etti . ▁The ▁so - called ▁Madonna ▁del ▁Lat te ▁on ▁a ▁pill ar ▁in ▁the ▁Church ▁of ▁Santa ▁Cro ce ▁is ▁a ▁mem orial ▁to ▁Francesco ▁N ori , ▁who ▁fell ▁by ▁the ▁st ab ▁intended ▁for ▁Lorenzo ▁de ' ▁Med ici . ▁Other ▁relief s ▁of ▁the ▁Madonna ▁and ▁Child ▁are ▁in ▁the ▁Via ▁della ▁Sp ada , ▁Florence , ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁Victoria ▁and ▁Albert ▁Museum , ▁London . ▁In ▁the ▁latter ▁place ▁is ▁the ▁b ust ▁of ▁Giovanni ▁di ▁San ▁M ini ato , ▁a ▁doctor ▁of ▁arts ▁and ▁medicine , ▁signed ▁and ▁dated ▁ 1 4 5 6 . ▁Working ▁in ▁conj unction ▁with ▁M ino ▁da ▁F ies ole , ▁Ross ell ino ▁executed ▁the ▁relief s ▁of ▁the ▁Ass umption ▁of ▁Mary ▁and ▁the ▁Mart yr dom ▁of ▁St . ▁Stephen ▁for ▁the ▁pul pit ▁at ▁Pr ato . ▁A ▁mar ble ▁b ust ▁of ▁the ▁boy ▁Bapt ist ▁in ▁the ▁Pin ac oteca , ▁Fa enza , ▁and ▁a ▁Christ ▁Child ▁in ▁the ▁Lou vre ▁are ▁attributed ▁to ▁Ross ell ino ▁by ▁some ▁authorities . ▁ ▁Giorg io ▁Vas ari ▁includes ▁a ▁bi ography ▁of ▁Ross ell ino ▁in ▁his ▁L ives . ▁ ▁References ▁and ▁sources ▁References ▁ ▁S ources ▁This ▁article ▁incorpor ates ▁text ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 9 1 3 ▁Catholic ▁Encyclopedia ▁article ▁" Ant onio ▁di ▁Mat |
te o ▁di ▁D omen ico ▁Ross el ino " ▁by ▁M . L . ▁Hand ley , ▁a ▁publication ▁now ▁in ▁the ▁public ▁domain . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁S cul pt ures ▁by ▁Antonio ▁Ross ell ino ▁on ▁Art cyc lopedia ▁ ▁Category : Ital ian ▁Renaissance ▁sculpt ors ▁Category : F lor ent ine ▁sculpt ors ▁Category : 1 4 2 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 4 7 9 ▁death s ▁Category : 1 5 th - century ▁people ▁of ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁Florence ▁Category : 1 5 th - century ▁Italian ▁sculpt ors ▁Category : Ital ian ▁male ▁sculpt ors <0x0A> </s> ▁Q ale h - ye ▁S ork h ▁( , ▁also ▁Roman ized ▁as ▁Q al ‘ eh - ye ▁S ork h ▁and ▁Q al ‘ eh ▁S ork h ; ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁Q al ‘ a ▁Sur kh ▁and ▁Q al ‘ eh ▁Sur kh ) ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁B ala ▁Jam ▁R ural ▁District , ▁Nas rab ad ▁District , ▁Tor bat - e ▁Jam ▁County , ▁Raz avi ▁K hor as an ▁Province , ▁Iran . ▁At ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁census , ▁its ▁population ▁was ▁ 1 , 3 4 4 , ▁in ▁ 3 1 6 ▁families . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁Tor bat - e ▁Jam ▁County <0x0A> </s> ▁Y ours ▁Cond itionally ▁is ▁the ▁fourth ▁studio ▁album ▁by ▁the ▁musical ▁du o ▁Tennis , ▁released ▁on ▁their ▁own ▁label |
, ▁Mut ually ▁Det r iment al , ▁on ▁March ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁ ▁Background ▁As ▁with ▁their ▁debut ▁record , ▁Cape ▁D ory ▁( 2 0 1 1 ), ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁album ▁was ▁written ▁by ▁Patrick ▁R iley ▁and ▁A la ina ▁Moore ▁during ▁a ▁four - month ▁sail ing ▁exc urs ion ▁from ▁San ▁Diego , ▁California ▁to ▁Cab o ▁San ▁Lucas ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁Sea ▁of ▁Cor te z . ▁ ▁Crit ical ▁reception ▁ ▁Y ours ▁Cond itionally ▁was ▁generally ▁well - rece ived ▁upon ▁its ▁init al ▁release . ▁Tim ▁Send ra ▁of ▁All Music ▁gave ▁the ▁album ▁four ▁and ▁a ▁ ½ ▁stars ▁out ▁of ▁five , ▁calling ▁the ▁album ▁" p unch y ▁and ▁sharp , ▁still ▁influenced ▁by ▁classic ▁pop / rock ▁song ▁structures ▁and ▁recogn izable ▁to ▁fans ▁of ▁Bud dy ▁Hol ly ▁or ▁the ▁Sh ire lles , ▁but ▁with ▁some ▁new ▁elements ▁mixed ▁in ," ▁de em ing ▁it ▁their ▁" best ▁record ▁so ▁far ." ▁Pop Mat ters ▁granted ▁the ▁album ▁seven ▁out ▁of ▁ten ▁stars , ▁not ing : ▁" Y ours ▁Cond itionally ▁makes ▁no ▁attempt ▁to ▁rein vent ▁Tennis ▁and ▁suff ers ▁from ▁the ▁same ▁fla ws ▁that ▁have ▁m ired ▁much ▁of ▁their ▁music , ▁namely ▁a ▁t endency ▁toward ▁pleasant ▁predict ability . ▁While ▁the ▁album ▁is ▁largely ▁content ▁to ▁res ide ▁in ▁familiar , ▁un ch alleng ing ▁territory , ▁however , ▁it ▁is ▁also ▁a |
▁lean ▁and ▁well - craft ed ▁set ▁of ▁pop ▁songs ▁with ▁more ▁b ite ▁than ▁it ▁lets ▁on . ▁It ▁remains ▁a ▁largely ▁satisfying ▁vent ure ▁that ▁adds ▁nu ance , ▁definition , ▁and ▁depth ▁to ▁the ▁band ’ s ▁already ▁well - est ab lished ▁sound ." ▁ ▁Canadian ▁publication ▁Ex c laim ! ▁gave ▁the ▁album ▁a ▁positive ▁review , ▁comparing ▁both ▁the ▁instrument ation ▁and ▁Moore ' s ▁vocals ▁to ▁Car ole ▁King ▁and ▁Fle et wood ▁Mac . ▁Laura ▁Brow ning ▁of ▁The ▁A . V . ▁Club ▁published ▁a ▁m idd ling ▁review ▁of ▁the ▁album , ▁writing : ▁" E ven ▁with ▁some ▁out standing ▁singles , ▁the ▁album ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁finds ▁the ▁group ▁somewhere ▁between ▁its ▁comfort ▁zone ▁and ▁a ▁confident ▁next ▁step , ▁with ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁songs ▁ble eding ▁forget t ably ▁into ▁one ▁another ." ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁Person nel ▁A la ina ▁Moore ▁– ▁vocals , ▁keys , ▁guitar , ▁per cussion ▁Patrick ▁R iley ▁– ▁guitar , ▁bass , ▁keys , ▁drums , ▁per cussion ▁Steve ▁V oss ▁– ▁drums , ▁per cussion ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Y ours ▁Cond itionally ▁at ▁Discogs ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 1 7 ▁albums ▁Category : Self - re leased ▁albums ▁Category : T ennis ▁( band ) ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁Jan ▁Ev str at ▁V ith ku q ari ▁( ca . 1 7 5 5 - 1 8 2 2 ) ▁was ▁an ▁Alban ian ▁scholar |
, ▁educ ator , ▁and ▁transl ator . ▁ ▁Life ▁▁ ▁He ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁V ith ku q , ▁southern ▁Alban ia ▁possibly ▁in ▁ 1 7 5 5 . ▁He ▁studied ▁in ▁the ▁New ▁Academy ▁of ▁Mos cop ole , ▁where ▁he ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁teacher . ▁He ▁also ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁teacher ▁in ▁Ar ta , ▁P ë rm et ▁and ▁Io ann ina . ▁A part ▁from ▁Alban ian ▁he ▁knew ▁English ▁and ▁Greek . ▁ ▁He ▁wrote ▁a ▁grammar ▁book ▁of ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁language ▁and ▁was ▁the ▁co - author ▁of ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 0 - word ▁English - G reek - Al ban ian ▁dictionary ▁included ▁in ▁William ▁Martin ▁Le ake ' s ▁Research es ▁in ▁Greece ▁published ▁in ▁ 1 8 1 4 . ▁ ▁S ources ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 7 5 0 s ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 8 2 2 ▁death s ▁Category : Al ban ian ▁sch ol ars ▁Category : Al ban ian ▁transl ators ▁Category : Al ban ian ▁school te ach ers ▁Category : L ingu ists ▁from ▁Alban ia ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Mos cop ole ▁Category : 1 8 th - century ▁transl ators ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁transl ators ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Kor ç ë ▁County ▁Category : E astern ▁Orth odox ▁Christians ▁from ▁Alban ia <0x0A> </s> ▁Sh am ata ▁is ▁a ▁constitu ency ▁w ard ▁of ▁the ▁N dar ag wa ▁Const itu ency ▁of |
▁Ken ya ' s ▁Ny and ar ua ▁County . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁ ▁from ▁N airo bi . ▁ ▁Sh am ata ▁Town ▁is ▁located ▁ 3 3 km ▁from ▁Ny ah ur uru ▁and ▁ 2 8 ▁kilom eters ▁from ▁Mail o - in ya ▁which ▁is ▁only ▁ 2 ▁miles ▁from ▁the ▁famous ▁Thom son ▁falls . ▁ ▁The ▁area ▁is ▁end owed ▁with ▁a ▁ple th ora ▁of ▁resources ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Aber d are ▁National ▁Park , L ake ▁Ol ' bol o os at ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁only ▁lake ▁on ▁the ▁Kin ang op ▁Pl ate au . ▁The ▁lake ▁is ▁well ▁known ▁for ▁its ▁huge ▁number ▁of ▁hi pp op ot am us . ▁ ▁Agricult ure ▁ ▁In ▁terms ▁of ▁agricult ure , ▁it ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁rich est ▁and ▁most ▁product ive ▁areas ▁in ▁Ken ya . ▁It ▁is ▁well ▁known ▁for ▁the ▁huge ▁production ▁of ▁pot atoes , ▁milk , c abb ages , ▁pe as ▁and ▁py re th rum ▁in ▁the ▁past . The ▁area ▁has ▁a ▁great ▁potential ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁huge ▁agricult ural ▁production , ▁but ▁this ▁potential ▁has ▁always ▁been ▁h inder ed ▁by ▁the ▁dil ap id ated ▁nature ▁of ▁roads ▁and ▁political ▁neg lig ence . ▁ ▁Education ▁ ▁School s ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁include ▁Sh am ata ▁girls ▁high ▁school , ▁Ka he ho ▁mixed ▁day ▁secondary ▁school , ▁Lake ▁Ol bol os at ▁secondary ▁school ▁that ▁reached ▁the ▁final ▁of ▁the |
▁Ken ya ▁National ▁Second ary ▁School s ▁games ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁and ▁the ▁semi ▁final s ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁Hor izon ▁Hope ▁Academy , ▁Lake ▁View ▁Academy , ▁M wi hang ' ia ▁primary ▁school , ▁It ony ero ▁primary ▁school , ▁Sim bara ▁primary ▁and ▁secondary ▁schools , ▁War uki ra ▁primary ▁school , ▁and ▁others . ▁ ▁Tour ism ▁ ▁The ▁area ▁is ▁a ▁tour ism ▁hub ▁as ▁it ▁is ▁surrounded ▁by ▁the ▁great ▁Aber d are ▁ranges ▁on ▁one ▁side ▁and ▁Lake ▁Ol bol os at ▁on ▁the ▁other . ▁The ▁Aber d are ▁ranges ▁has ▁all ▁kinds ▁of ▁animals ▁including ▁the ▁big ▁five ; ▁ele ph ant , ▁l ion , ▁le op ard , ▁rh ino , ▁buff alo . ▁Also , ▁there ▁is ▁the ▁che et ah ; ▁the ▁fast est ▁animal ▁in ▁the ▁world , ▁g ira ff es ▁and ▁many ▁more . ▁Lake ▁Ol bol os at ▁has ▁the ▁largest ▁hi pp os ▁in ▁Africa ▁and ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁unusual ▁birds . ▁The ▁tour ism ▁potential ▁is ▁still ▁un t apped ▁since ▁the ▁area ▁has ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁biggest ▁falls ▁in ▁Ken ya , ▁but ▁are ▁yet ▁to ▁be ▁expl ored . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Ge ography ▁of ▁Ken ya ▁Category : N y and ar ua ▁County <0x0A> </s> ▁För ster ▁or ▁Fo er ster ▁is ▁a ▁German ▁surname ▁meaning ▁" for ester ". ▁( It ▁has ▁often ▁been ▁Ang lic ised ▁as ▁For |
ster ). ▁Notable ▁people ▁of ▁this ▁name ▁include : ▁ ▁För ster ▁ ▁Arnold ▁För ster ▁( 1 8 1 0 – 1 8 8 4 ), ▁a ▁German ▁ent om ologist ▁ ▁August ▁För ster ▁( phys ician ) ▁( 1 8 2 2 – 1 8 6 5 ), ▁a ▁German ▁an atom ist ▁and ▁path ologist ▁▁ ▁Ber nd ▁För ster ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 6 ), ▁a ▁German ▁footballer ▁( bro ther ▁of ▁Karl hein z ) ▁ ▁Christoph ▁För ster ▁( 1 6 9 3 – 1 7 4 5 ), ▁a ▁German ▁composer ▁ ▁E ck art ▁För ster , ▁a ▁professor ▁of ▁Philosoph y ▁at ▁Joh ns ▁Hop kins ▁University ▁ ▁Elisabeth ▁För ster - N iet z sche ▁( 1 8 4 6 – 1 9 3 5 ), ▁the ▁sister ▁of ▁Friedrich ▁N iet z sche ▁▁ ▁Em manuel ▁Alo ys ▁För ster ▁( 1 7 4 8 – 1 8 2 3 ), ▁a ▁music ian ▁and ▁teacher ▁in ▁Vienna ▁ ▁Ernst ▁Jo achim ▁För ster ▁( 1 8 0 0 – 1 8 8 5 ), ▁a ▁German ▁art ▁critic ▁ ▁Franz ▁För ster ▁( 1 8 1 9 – 1 8 7 8 ), ▁a ▁German ▁jur ist ▁ ▁Friedrich ▁August ▁För ster ▁( 1 8 2 9 – 1 8 9 7 ), ▁a ▁German ▁piano ▁mak er ▁and ▁entrepr ene ur , ▁August ▁För ster ▁( de ) ▁▁ ▁Friedrich ▁Christoph ▁För ster ▁( 1 7 9 |
1 – 1 8 6 8 ), ▁a ▁German ▁historian ▁and ▁poet ▁ ▁Friedrich ▁För ster ▁( 1 9 0 8 – 1 9 9 9 ), ▁a ▁German ▁spec . ▁N DT , ▁Ф ёр стер , ▁Ф ри дри х ▁( ru ) ▁ ▁He iko ▁Math ias ▁För ster ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 6 ), ▁German ▁conduct or ▁ ▁Heinrich ▁För ster ▁( bishop ) ▁( 1 8 0 0 – 1 8 8 1 ), ▁a ▁German ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁bishop ▁ ▁Hel m uth ▁För ster ▁( 1 8 8 9 – 1 9 6 5 ), ▁a ▁Luft wa ffe ▁general ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁ ▁Karl ▁För ster ▁( 1 7 8 4 – 1 8 4 1 ), ▁a ▁German ▁poet ▁and ▁transl ator ▁ ▁Karl hein z ▁För ster ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 8 ), ▁a ▁German ▁football ▁player ▁( bro ther ▁of ▁Ber nd ) ▁ ▁Ker st in ▁För ster ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 5 ), ▁a ▁German ▁ro wer ▁( w ife ▁of ▁O la f ) ▁ ▁Ludwig ▁För ster ▁( 1 7 9 7 – 1 8 6 3 ), ▁an ▁architect ▁ ▁O la f ▁För ster ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 2 ), ▁a ▁German ▁ro wer ▁( hus band ▁of ▁Ker st in ) ▁ ▁The odor ▁För ster ▁( 1 9 1 0 – 1 9 7 4 ), ▁a ▁phys ic ist ▁and ▁chem ist , ▁discover er |
▁of ▁För ster ▁reson ance ▁energy ▁transfer ▁ ▁Fo er ster ▁▁ ▁Hein z ▁von ▁Fo er ster ▁( 1 9 1 1 – 2 0 0 2 ), ▁an ▁Aust ro - American ▁founder ▁of ▁cy ber net ics ▁ ▁Josef ▁Boh us lav ▁Fo er ster ▁( 1 8 5 9 – 1 9 5 1 ), ▁a ▁Czech ▁composer ▁of ▁classical ▁music ▁ ▁Ot fr id ▁Fo er ster ▁( 1 8 7 3 – 1 9 4 1 ), ▁a ▁German ▁ne uro log ist ▁ ▁Wend elin ▁För ster ▁( or ▁Fo er ster ) ▁( 1 8 4 4 – 1 9 1 5 ), ▁German ▁phil ologist ▁and ▁Arthur ian ▁scholar ▁ ▁Wilhelm ▁Julius ▁För ster ▁( or ▁Fo er ster ) ▁( 1 8 3 2 – 1 9 2 1 ), ▁a ▁German ▁astronom er ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁For ester ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁For r ester ▁( s urname ) ▁ ▁For ster ▁( s urname ) ▁ ▁F oster ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁F ost ers ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁Vor ster ▁ ▁Category : G erman - language ▁s urn ames <0x0A> </s> ▁P inas ▁is ▁a ▁published ▁week ly ▁by ▁the ▁S ons h ine ▁Media ▁Network ▁International ▁located ▁at ▁ 3 rd ▁floor , ▁AC Q ▁Tower ▁Building , ▁Sta . ▁R ita ▁Street , ▁ED SA , ▁Gu ad alu pe ▁Nue vo , ▁Mak ati ▁City . ▁ ▁It ▁has ▁been ▁reform atted ▁by ▁Tag alog |
▁version ▁of ▁the ▁P inas ▁newspaper ▁since ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 6 . ▁ ▁Category : New sp apers ▁published ▁in ▁Metro ▁Man ila ▁Category : S ons h ine ▁Media ▁Network ▁International ▁Category : Week ly ▁newsp apers ▁published ▁in ▁the ▁Philippines <0x0A> </s> ▁Sh a iv ism ▁() ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁major ▁trad itions ▁within ▁H indu ism ▁that ▁rever es ▁Sh iva ▁as ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Being . ▁The ▁follow ers ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁are ▁called ▁" S ha iv ites " ▁or ▁" Sa iv ites ". ▁It ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁sect s ▁that ▁believe ▁Sh iva , ▁wor sh ipped ▁as ▁a ▁cre ator ▁and ▁destroy er ▁of ▁world s , ▁is ▁the ▁supre me ▁god ▁over ▁all . ▁The ▁Sh a iva ▁have ▁many ▁sub - trad itions ▁r anging ▁from ▁dev ot ional ▁dual istic ▁the ism ▁such ▁as ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h anta ▁to ▁y oga - orient ed ▁mon istic ▁non - the ism ▁such ▁as ▁K ash mi ri ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁It ▁cons iders ▁both ▁the ▁V ed as ▁and ▁the ▁Ag ama ▁texts ▁as ▁important ▁sources ▁of ▁the ology . ▁The ▁origin ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁may ▁be ▁trac ed ▁to ▁the ▁conception ▁of ▁Rud ra ▁in ▁the ▁R ig ▁V eda . ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism ▁has ▁ancient ▁roots , ▁trace able ▁in ▁the ▁V edic ▁literature ▁of ▁ 2 nd ▁mill en ni um ▁B CE , ▁but |
▁this ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁V edic ▁de ity ▁Rud ra . ▁The ▁ancient ▁text ▁Sh vet ash vat ara ▁Up an ish ad ▁dated ▁to ▁late ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁B CE ▁mentions ▁terms ▁such ▁as ▁Rud ra , ▁Sh iva ▁and ▁Mah esh war am , ▁but ▁its ▁interpretation ▁as ▁a ▁the istic ▁or ▁mon istic ▁text ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁is ▁disput ed . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁centuries ▁of ▁the ▁common ▁era ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁clear ▁evidence ▁of ▁P ā ś up ata ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁Both ▁dev ot ional ▁and ▁mon istic ▁Sh a iv ism ▁became ▁popular ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁CE , ▁rapidly ▁becoming ▁the ▁dominant ▁religious ▁tradition ▁of ▁many ▁H indu ▁kingdom s . ▁It ▁arrived ▁in ▁S out heast ▁Asia ▁shortly ▁there after , ▁leading ▁to ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁thousands ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁tem ples ▁on ▁the ▁islands ▁of ▁Indones ia ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁Camb odia ▁and ▁Vietnam , ▁co - e vol ving ▁with ▁Buddh ism ▁in ▁these ▁regions . ▁In ▁the ▁contemporary ▁era , ▁Sh a iv ism ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁major ▁aspects ▁of ▁H indu ism . ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism ▁the ology ▁ranges ▁from ▁Sh iva ▁being ▁the ▁cre ator , ▁pres er ver , ▁and ▁destroy er ▁to ▁being ▁the ▁same ▁as ▁the ▁At man ▁( self , ▁soul ) ▁within ▁ones elf ▁and ▁every ▁living ▁being . ▁It ▁is ▁closely ▁related ▁to ▁Sh |
akt ism , ▁and ▁some ▁Sh a iva ▁worship ▁in ▁Sh iva ▁and ▁Sh ak ti ▁tem ples . ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁H indu ▁tradition ▁that ▁most ▁accepts ▁asc etic ▁life ▁and ▁emphas izes ▁y oga , ▁and ▁like ▁other ▁H indu ▁trad itions ▁encourag es ▁an ▁individual ▁to ▁discover ▁and ▁be ▁one ▁with ▁Sh iva ▁within . ▁Sh a iv ism ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁trad itions ▁within ▁H indu ism . ▁ ▁Et ym ology ▁and ▁nom en cl ature ▁Sh iva ▁( IA ST : ▁, ▁S ansk rit : ▁) ▁literally ▁means ▁kind , ▁friendly , ▁gra cious , ▁or ▁aus p icious . ▁As ▁a ▁proper ▁name , ▁it ▁means ▁" The ▁Aus p icious ▁One ". ▁ ▁The ▁word ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁used ▁as ▁an ▁ad jective ▁in ▁the ▁R ig ▁V eda , ▁as ▁an ▁ep ith et ▁for ▁several ▁R ig ved ic ▁de ities , ▁including ▁Rud ra . ▁The ▁term ▁Sh iva ▁also ▁con notes ▁" li ber ation , ▁final ▁em an cip ation " ▁and ▁" the ▁aus p icious ▁one ", ▁this ▁ad jective ▁sense ▁of ▁usage ▁is ▁addressed ▁to ▁many ▁de ities ▁in ▁V edic ▁layers ▁of ▁literature . ▁The ▁term ▁evol ved ▁from ▁the ▁V edic ▁Rud ra - Sh iva ▁to ▁the ▁n oun ▁Sh iva ▁in ▁the ▁Ep ics ▁and ▁the ▁Pur anas , ▁as ▁an ▁aus p icious ▁de ity ▁who ▁is ▁the ▁" cre ator , ▁reprodu cer ▁and ▁dissol ver ". ▁ |
▁The ▁S ansk rit ▁word ▁ ▁or ▁Sh a iva ▁means ▁" rel ating ▁to ▁the ▁god ▁Sh iva ", ▁while ▁the ▁related ▁belief s , ▁practices , ▁history , ▁literature ▁and ▁sub - trad itions ▁const itute ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁ ▁Over view ▁The ▁rever ence ▁for ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁pan - H indu ▁trad itions , ▁found ▁widely ▁across ▁India , ▁Sri ▁L anka ▁and ▁Nep al . ▁While ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁rever ed ▁broad ly , ▁H indu ism ▁itself ▁is ▁a ▁complex ▁religion ▁and ▁a ▁way ▁of ▁life , ▁with ▁a ▁divers ity ▁of ▁ideas ▁on ▁spiritual ity ▁and ▁trad itions . ▁It ▁has ▁no ▁ecc les iast ical ▁order , ▁no ▁un question able ▁religious ▁authorities , ▁no ▁gover ning ▁body , ▁no ▁proph et ( s ) ▁nor ▁any ▁binding ▁holy ▁book ; ▁H ind us ▁can ▁choose ▁to ▁be ▁poly the istic , ▁p ant he istic , ▁mon othe istic , ▁mon istic , ▁ag nost ic , ▁at he istic , ▁or ▁human ist . ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism ▁is ▁a ▁major ▁tradition ▁within ▁H indu ism , ▁with ▁a ▁the ology ▁that ▁is ▁pre domin antly ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁H indu ▁god ▁Sh iva . ▁Sh a iv ism ▁has ▁many ▁different ▁sub - trad itions ▁with ▁regional ▁variations ▁and ▁differences ▁in ▁philosophy . ▁Sh a iv ism ▁has ▁a ▁vast ▁literature ▁with ▁different ▁philosoph ical ▁schools , ▁r anging ▁from ▁non du al ism , ▁dual |
ism , ▁and ▁mixed ▁schools . ▁ ▁Orig ins ▁and ▁history ▁ ▁The ▁orig ins ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁are ▁unclear ▁and ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁debate ▁among ▁sch ol ars . ▁Some ▁trace ▁the ▁orig ins ▁to ▁the ▁Ind us ▁Valley ▁civil ization , ▁which ▁reached ▁its ▁peak ▁around ▁ 2 5 0 0 – 2 0 0 0 ▁B CE . ▁Ar che ological ▁discover ies ▁show ▁se als ▁that ▁suggest ▁a ▁de ity ▁that ▁somewhat ▁appears ▁like ▁Sh iva . ▁Of ▁these ▁is ▁the ▁P ash up ati ▁se al , ▁which ▁early ▁sch ol ars ▁interpreted ▁as ▁someone ▁se ated ▁in ▁a ▁med it ating ▁y oga ▁pose ▁surrounded ▁by ▁animals , ▁and ▁with ▁horn s . ▁This ▁" P ash up ati " ▁( L ord ▁of ▁Anim als , ▁S ansk rit ▁) ▁se al ▁has ▁been ▁interpreted ▁by ▁these ▁sch ol ars ▁as ▁a ▁prototype ▁of ▁Sh iva . ▁G av in ▁Flo od ▁character izes ▁these ▁views ▁as ▁" spe cul ative ", ▁saying ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁not ▁clear ▁from ▁the ▁se al ▁if ▁the ▁figure ▁has ▁three ▁faces , ▁or ▁is ▁se ated ▁in ▁a ▁y oga ▁post ure , ▁or ▁even ▁that ▁the ▁shape ▁is ▁intended ▁to ▁represent ▁a ▁human ▁figure . ▁ ▁Other ▁sch ol ars ▁state ▁that ▁the ▁Ind us ▁Valley ▁script ▁remains ▁und e ci pher ed , ▁and ▁the ▁interpretation ▁of ▁the ▁P ash up ati ▁se al ▁is ▁uncertain . ▁According ▁to ▁S rin ivas an , ▁the |
▁proposal ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁proto - Sh iva ▁may ▁be ▁a ▁case ▁of ▁project ing ▁" l ater ▁practices ▁into ▁ar che ological ▁find ings ". ▁Similarly , ▁A sko ▁Par p ola ▁states ▁that ▁other ▁arch ae ological ▁finds ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁early ▁El am ite ▁se als ▁dated ▁to ▁ 3 0 0 0 – 2 7 5 0 ▁B CE ▁show ▁similar ▁figures ▁and ▁these ▁have ▁been ▁interpreted ▁as ▁" se ated ▁b ull " ▁and ▁not ▁a ▁y og i , ▁and ▁the ▁b ull ▁interpretation ▁is ▁likely ▁more ▁accurate . ▁ ▁V edic ▁evidence ▁The ▁R ig ved a ▁( ~ 1 5 0 0 – 1 2 0 0 ▁B CE ) ▁has ▁the ▁earliest ▁clear ▁mention ▁of ▁Rud ra ▁in ▁its ▁h ym ns ▁such ▁as ▁ 2 . 3 3 , ▁ 1 . 4 3 ▁and ▁ 1 . 1 1 4 . ▁The ▁text ▁also ▁includes ▁a ▁Sat ar ud ri ya , ▁an ▁influ ential ▁h ymn ▁with ▁embedded ▁hundred ▁ep ith ets ▁for ▁Rud ra , ▁that ▁is ▁c ited ▁in ▁many ▁medieval ▁era ▁Sh a iva ▁texts ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁rec ited ▁in ▁major ▁Sh iva ▁tem ples ▁of ▁H ind us ▁in ▁contemporary ▁times . ▁Yet , ▁the ▁V edic ▁literature ▁only ▁present ▁script ural ▁the ology , ▁but ▁does ▁not ▁att est ▁to ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁ ▁The ▁Sh vet ash vat ara ▁Up an ish ad , ▁likely ▁composed ▁before ▁the ▁Bh |
ag av ad ▁G ita ▁about ▁ 4 th ▁century ▁B CE ▁contains ▁the ▁the istic ▁found ations ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁wrapped ▁in ▁a ▁mon istic ▁structure . ▁It ▁contains ▁the ▁key ▁terms ▁and ▁ideas ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁such ▁as ▁Sh iva , ▁Rud ra , ▁Mah es w ara , ▁G uru , ▁Bh ak ti , ▁Y oga , ▁At man , ▁Bra h man ▁and ▁self - know ledge . ▁ ▁Emer gence ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁▁ ▁According ▁to ▁G av in ▁Flo od , ▁" the ▁formation ▁of ▁Ś a iva ▁trad itions ▁as ▁we ▁understand ▁them ▁begins ▁to ▁occur ▁during ▁the ▁period ▁from ▁ 2 0 0 ▁BC ▁to ▁ 1 0 0 ▁AD ." ▁According ▁to ▁Ch ak rav art i , ▁Sh iva ▁rose ▁to ▁prom in ence ▁as ▁he ▁was ▁identified ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁same ▁as ▁Pur ush a , ▁Rud ra , ▁Ag ni , ▁Ind ra , ▁, ▁, ▁among ▁others . ▁ ▁Pat an j ali ' s ▁, ▁dated ▁to ▁the ▁ 2 nd ▁century ▁B CE , ▁mentions ▁the ▁term ▁Sh iva - b h ag av ata ▁in ▁section ▁ 5 . 2 . 7 6 . ▁Pat an j ali , ▁while ▁explaining ▁Pan ini ' s ▁rules ▁of ▁grammar , ▁states ▁that ▁this ▁term ▁refers ▁to ▁a ▁dev ote e ▁cl ad ▁in ▁animal ▁sk ins ▁and ▁carrying ▁an ▁ay ah ▁sul ik ah ▁( ir on ▁spe ar , |
▁tr ident ▁lance ) ▁as ▁an ▁icon ▁representing ▁his ▁god . ▁ ▁The ▁Mah ab har ata ▁is ▁another ▁ancient ▁S ansk rit ▁text ▁that ▁mentions ▁Sh a iva ▁asc et ics , ▁such ▁as ▁in ▁chap ters ▁ 4 . 1 3 ▁and ▁ 1 3 . 1 4 0 . ▁Other ▁evidence ▁that ▁is ▁possibly ▁linked ▁to ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁in ▁ancient ▁times ▁are ▁in ▁ep ig raph y ▁and ▁num ism at ics , ▁such ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁prominent ▁Sh iva - like ▁relief s ▁on ▁K ush an ▁Empire ▁era ▁gold ▁co ins . ▁However , ▁this ▁is ▁controvers ial , ▁as ▁an ▁alternate ▁hypothesis ▁for ▁these ▁relief s ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁Z oro ast rian ▁O es ho . ▁According ▁to ▁Flo od , ▁co ins ▁dated ▁to ▁the ▁ancient ▁Greek , ▁S aka ▁and ▁Par th ian ▁k ings ▁who ▁ruled ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent ▁after ▁the ▁arrival ▁of ▁Alexander ▁the ▁Great ▁also ▁show ▁Sh iva ▁icon ography , ▁but ▁this ▁evidence ▁is ▁weak ▁and ▁subject ▁to ▁compet ing ▁infer ences . ▁ ▁The ▁ins cri ptions ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁H imal ay an ▁region , ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁in ▁the ▁Kath m and u ▁valley ▁of ▁Nep al ▁suggest ▁that ▁Sh a iv ism ▁( part icular ly ▁P ash up ata ▁mon ism ) ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁this ▁region ▁during ▁the ▁Ma ury as ▁and ▁the ▁Gu pt as ▁reign ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent |
, ▁by ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁century . ▁These ▁ins cri ptions ▁have ▁been ▁dated ▁by ▁modern ▁techniques ▁to ▁between ▁ 4 6 6 ▁and ▁ 6 4 5 ▁CE . ▁ ▁Pur an ik ▁Sh a iv ism ▁During ▁the ▁Gu pta ▁D ynast y ▁( c . ▁ 3 2 0 – 5 0 0 ▁CE ) ▁the ▁genre ▁of ▁Pur ana ▁literature ▁developed ▁in ▁India , ▁and ▁many ▁of ▁these ▁Pur anas ▁contain ▁extensive ▁chap ters ▁on ▁Sh a iv ism ▁– ▁along ▁with ▁Va ish nav ism , ▁Sh akt ism , ▁Sm arta ▁Trad itions ▁of ▁Bra hm ins ▁and ▁other ▁topics ▁– ▁suggesting ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁by ▁then . ▁The ▁most ▁important ▁Sh a iva ▁Pur anas ▁of ▁this ▁period ▁include ▁the ▁Sh iva ▁Pur ana ▁and ▁the ▁L ing a ▁Pur ana . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 7 th ▁century ▁the ▁Chinese ▁Buddh ist ▁pil gr im ▁X u anz ang ▁( H uen ▁Ts ang ) ▁visited ▁India ▁and ▁wrote ▁a ▁mem oir ▁in ▁Chinese ▁that ▁mentions ▁the ▁pre val ence ▁of ▁Sh iva ▁tem ples ▁all ▁over ▁North ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent , ▁including ▁in ▁the ▁H indu ▁K ush ▁region ▁such ▁as ▁Nur istan . ▁Between ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁and ▁ 1 1 th ▁century ▁CE , ▁major ▁Sh a iva ▁tem ples ▁had ▁been ▁built ▁in ▁central , ▁southern ▁and ▁eastern ▁regions ▁of ▁the ▁sub cont inent , ▁including ▁those ▁at ▁Bad ami ▁cave ▁tem ples |
, ▁A i hole , ▁Ele ph anta ▁C aves , ▁Ell ora ▁C aves ▁( K ail asha , ▁cave ▁ 1 6 ), ▁Kh aj ur aho , ▁B hu van esh w ara , ▁Ch id amb aram , ▁Mad ur ai , ▁Con je e var am . ▁ ▁Major ▁sch ol ars ▁of ▁compet ing ▁H indu ▁trad itions ▁from ▁the ▁second ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁CE , ▁such ▁as ▁Ad i ▁Sh ank ara ▁of ▁Adv ait a ▁V ed anta ▁and ▁Ram anu ja ▁of ▁Va ish nav ism , ▁mention ▁several ▁Sh a iva ▁sect s , ▁particularly ▁the ▁four ▁groups : ▁P ash up ata , ▁Lak ul ish a , ▁tant ric ▁Sh a iva ▁and ▁Kap al ika . ▁The ▁description ▁is ▁conflic ting , ▁with ▁some ▁texts ▁stating ▁the ▁tant ric , ▁pur an ik ▁and ▁V edic ▁trad itions ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁to ▁be ▁host ile ▁to ▁each ▁other ▁while ▁others ▁suggest ▁them ▁to ▁be ▁am ic able ▁sub - trad itions . ▁Some ▁texts ▁state ▁that ▁Kap al ik as ▁reject ▁the ▁V ed as ▁and ▁are ▁involved ▁in ▁extreme ▁experiment ation , ▁while ▁others ▁state ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁sub - trad itions ▁re vere ▁the ▁V ed as ▁but ▁are ▁non - P ur an ik . ▁ ▁South ▁India ▁Sh a iv ism ▁was ▁likely ▁the ▁pre domin ant ▁tradition ▁in ▁South ▁India , ▁co - ex isting |
▁with ▁Buddh ism ▁and ▁J ain ism , ▁before ▁the ▁Va ish n ava ▁Al vars ▁launched ▁the ▁Bh ak ti ▁movement ▁in ▁the ▁ 7 th - century , ▁and ▁influ ential ▁V ed anta ▁sch ol ars ▁such ▁as ▁Ram anu ja ▁developed ▁a ▁philosoph ical ▁and ▁organiz ational ▁framework ▁that ▁helped ▁Va ish n ava ▁expand . ▁Though ▁both ▁trad itions ▁of ▁H indu ism ▁have ▁ancient ▁roots , ▁given ▁their ▁mention ▁in ▁the ▁ep ics ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Mah ab har ata , ▁Sh a iv ism ▁fl our ished ▁in ▁South ▁India ▁much ▁earlier . ▁ ▁The ▁Mant ram arga ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁according ▁to ▁Alex is ▁Sand erson , ▁provided ▁a ▁template ▁for ▁the ▁later ▁though ▁independent ▁and ▁highly ▁influ ential ▁Pan car atri ka ▁treat ises ▁of ▁Va ish n ava . ▁This ▁is ▁ev iden ced ▁in ▁H indu ▁texts ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Is var as am h ita , ▁Pad mas am h ita ▁and ▁Par ames var as am h ita . ▁ ▁Al ong ▁with ▁the ▁H imal ay an ▁region ▁stretch ing ▁from ▁K ash mir ▁through ▁Nep al , ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁tradition ▁in ▁South ▁India ▁has ▁been ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁sources ▁of ▁preserved ▁Sh a iv ism - related ▁manuscript s ▁from ▁ancient ▁and ▁medieval ▁India . ▁The ▁region ▁was ▁also ▁the ▁source ▁of ▁H indu ▁arts , ▁temple ▁architecture , ▁and ▁mer ch ants ▁who ▁helped ▁spread ▁Sh a iv ism ▁into ▁sout |
heast ▁Asia ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁CE . ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁tens ▁of ▁thousands ▁of ▁H indu ▁tem ples ▁where ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁either ▁the ▁primary ▁de ity ▁or ▁rever entially ▁included ▁in ▁anth rop omorphic ▁or ▁an icon ic ▁form ▁( ling am , ▁or ▁sv ay amb hu ). ▁N umer ous ▁historic ▁Sh a iva ▁tem ples ▁have ▁surv ived ▁in ▁T amil ▁N adu , ▁Ker ala , ▁parts ▁of ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh ▁and ▁K arn ata ka . ▁C ertain ▁regions ▁have ▁a ▁greater ▁density ▁of ▁Sh iva ▁tem ples , ▁such ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁Th an jav ur ▁region ▁of ▁T amil ▁N adu , ▁where ▁numerous ▁Sh a iva ▁tem ples ▁were ▁built ▁during ▁the ▁Ch ola ▁emp ire ▁era , ▁between ▁ 8 0 0 ▁and ▁ 1 2 0 0 ▁CE . ▁G ud im all am ▁is ▁the ▁oldest ▁known ▁ling am ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁dated ▁to ▁between ▁ 3 rd ▁to ▁ 1 st - century ▁B CE . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁car ved ▁five ▁feet ▁high ▁stone ▁ling am ▁with ▁an ▁anth rop omorphic ▁image ▁of ▁Sh iva ▁on ▁one ▁side . ▁This ▁ancient ▁ling am ▁is ▁in ▁Ch itto or ▁district ▁of ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh . ▁ ▁S out heast ▁Asia ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism ▁arrived ▁in ▁a ▁major ▁way ▁in ▁sout heast ▁Asia ▁from ▁south ▁India , ▁and ▁to ▁much ▁less er ▁extent ▁into ▁China ▁and ▁Tib et ▁from |
▁the ▁H imal ay an ▁region . ▁It ▁co - develop ed ▁with ▁Buddh ism ▁in ▁this ▁region , ▁in ▁many ▁cases . ▁For ▁example , ▁in ▁the ▁C aves ▁of ▁the ▁Th ous and ▁Bud d has , ▁a ▁few ▁c aves ▁include ▁Sh a iv ism ▁ideas . ▁The ▁ep ig raph ical ▁and ▁cave ▁arts ▁evidence ▁suggest ▁that ▁Sh a iva ▁Mah es var a ▁and ▁Mah ay ana ▁Buddh ism ▁had ▁arrived ▁in ▁Ind o - Ch ina ▁region ▁in ▁the ▁Fun an ▁period , ▁that ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁CE . ▁In ▁Indones ia , ▁tem ples ▁at ▁arch ae ological ▁sites ▁and ▁numerous ▁ins cription ▁evidence ▁dated ▁to ▁the ▁early ▁period ▁( 4 0 0 ▁to ▁ 7 0 0 ▁CE ), ▁suggest ▁that ▁Sh iva ▁was ▁the ▁highest ▁god . ▁This ▁co - ex istence ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁and ▁Buddh ism ▁in ▁Java ▁continued ▁through ▁about ▁ 1 5 0 0 ▁CE ▁when ▁both ▁H indu ism ▁and ▁Buddh ism ▁were ▁replaced ▁with ▁Islam , ▁and ▁pers ists ▁today ▁in ▁the ▁province ▁of ▁B ali . ▁ ▁The ▁Sh a iv ist ▁and ▁Buddh ist ▁trad itions ▁over la pped ▁significantly ▁in ▁sout heast ▁Asia , ▁particularly ▁in ▁Indones ia , ▁Camb odia , ▁and ▁Vietnam ▁between ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 5 th - century . ▁Sh a iv ism ▁and ▁Sh iva ▁held ▁the ▁param ount ▁position ▁in ▁ancient |
▁Java , ▁Sum atra , ▁B ali , ▁and ▁neighbor ing ▁islands , ▁though ▁the ▁sub - trad ition ▁that ▁developed ▁cre atively ▁integrated ▁more ▁ancient ▁belief s ▁that ▁pre - ex isted . ▁In ▁the ▁centuries ▁that ▁followed , ▁the ▁mer ch ants ▁and ▁mon ks ▁who ▁arrived ▁in ▁S out heast ▁Asia , ▁brought ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁Va ish nav ism ▁and ▁Buddh ism , ▁and ▁these ▁developed ▁into ▁a ▁syn cret ic , ▁mut ually ▁supporting ▁form ▁of ▁trad itions . ▁ ▁Indones ia ▁In ▁Bal inese ▁H indu ism , ▁Dutch ▁eth n ograph ers ▁further ▁sub div ided ▁Si wa ▁( sha iv ait es ) ▁Sam pr ad aya " ▁into ▁five ▁– ▁K em enu h , ▁Ken iten , ▁Mas , ▁Man uba ▁and ▁Pet apan . ▁This ▁classification ▁was ▁to ▁accommod ate ▁the ▁observed ▁marriage ▁between ▁higher ▁cas te ▁Bra h mana ▁men ▁with ▁lower ▁cas te ▁women . ▁ ▁Bel ief s ▁and ▁practices ▁Sh a iv ism ▁cent ers ▁around ▁Sh iva , ▁but ▁it ▁has ▁many ▁sub - trad itions ▁whose ▁the ological ▁belief s ▁and ▁practices ▁vary ▁significantly . ▁They ▁range ▁from ▁dual istic ▁dev ot ional ▁the ism ▁to ▁mon istic ▁med itative ▁discovery ▁of ▁Sh iva ▁within ▁ones elf . ▁Within ▁each ▁of ▁these ▁the ologies , ▁there ▁are ▁two ▁sub - groups . ▁One ▁sub - group ▁is ▁called ▁V edic - P ur an ic , ▁who ▁use ▁the ▁terms ▁such ▁as ▁" Sh |
iva , ▁Mah ade va , ▁Mah esh var a ▁and ▁others " ▁syn onym ously , ▁and ▁they ▁use ▁icon ography ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁L ing a , ▁N and i , ▁Tr ish ula ▁( tr ident ), ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁anth rop omorphic ▁stat ues ▁of ▁Sh iva ▁in ▁tem ples ▁to ▁help ▁focus ▁their ▁practices . ▁Another ▁sub - group ▁is ▁called ▁es oter ic , ▁which ▁f uses ▁it ▁with ▁abstract ▁S iv ata ▁( f em in ine ▁energy ) ▁or ▁S iv at va ▁( ne uter ▁abstra ction ), ▁where in ▁the ▁the ology ▁integr ates ▁the ▁god dess ▁( Sh ak ti ) ▁and ▁the ▁god ▁( Sh iva ) ▁with ▁T ant ra ▁practices ▁and ▁Ag ama ▁teach ings . ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁considerable ▁overlap ▁between ▁these ▁Sh a ivas ▁and ▁the ▁Sh ak ta ▁H ind us . ▁ ▁V edic , ▁Pur an ik , ▁and ▁es oter ic ▁Sh a iv ism ▁Sch ol ars ▁such ▁as ▁Alex is ▁Sand erson ▁discuss ▁Sh a iv ism ▁in ▁three ▁categories : ▁V edic , ▁Pur an ik ▁and ▁non - P ur an ik ▁( es oter ic , ▁tant ric ). ▁They ▁place ▁V edic ▁and ▁Pur an ik ▁together ▁given ▁the ▁significant ▁overlap , ▁while ▁placing ▁Non - P ur an ik ▁es oter ic ▁sub - trad itions ▁as ▁a ▁separate ▁category . ▁▁ ▁V edic - P ur an ik . ▁The ▁majority ▁within ▁Sh a iv |
ism ▁follow ▁the ▁V edic - P ur an ik ▁trad itions . ▁They ▁re vere ▁the ▁V ed as , ▁the ▁Pur anas ▁and ▁have ▁belief s ▁that ▁span ▁dual istic ▁the ism ▁style ▁Sh iva ▁Bh ak ti ▁( dev ot ional ism ) ▁to ▁mon istic ▁non - the ism ▁dedicated ▁to ▁y oga ▁and ▁med itative ▁l ifest yle ▁sometimes ▁with ▁ren oun cing ▁house holder ▁life ▁for ▁mon astic ▁purs uits ▁of ▁spiritual ity . ▁The ▁Y oga ▁practice ▁is ▁particularly ▁pron ounced ▁in ▁non du al istic ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁with ▁the ▁practice ▁ref ined ▁into ▁a ▁method ology ▁such ▁as ▁four - fold ▁up aya : ▁being ▁path less ▁( an up aya , ▁ic cha - less , ▁desire - less ), ▁being ▁divine ▁( s amb hav op aya , ▁j n ana , ▁knowledge - full ), ▁being ▁energy ▁( sak top aya , ▁k ri ya , ▁action - full ) ▁and ▁being ▁individual ▁( an av op aya ). ▁ ▁Non - P ur an ik . ▁These ▁are ▁es oter ic , ▁minor ity ▁sub - trad itions ▁where in ▁dev ote es ▁are ▁initi ated ▁() ▁into ▁a ▁specific ▁cult ▁they ▁prefer . ▁Their ▁goals ▁vary , ▁r anging ▁from ▁liber ation ▁in ▁current ▁life ▁( mu kt i ) ▁to ▁seeking ▁ple asures ▁in ▁higher ▁world s ▁( b hu kt i ). ▁Their ▁means ▁also ▁vary , ▁r anging ▁from ▁med itative ▁at im arga |
▁or ▁" outer ▁higher ▁path " ▁versus ▁those ▁whose ▁means ▁are ▁rec itation - dri ven ▁mant ras . ▁The ▁at im arga ▁sub - trad itions ▁include ▁P ash up at as ▁and ▁Lak ula . ▁According ▁to ▁Sand erson , ▁the ▁P ash up at as ▁have ▁the ▁oldest ▁her itage , ▁likely ▁from ▁the ▁ 2 nd ▁century ▁CE , ▁as ▁ev iden ced ▁by ▁ancient ▁H indu ▁texts ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Sh anti ▁Par va ▁book ▁of ▁the ▁Mah ab har ata ▁ep ic . ▁The ▁tant ric ▁sub - trad ition ▁in ▁this ▁category ▁is ▁trace able ▁to ▁post - 8 th ▁to ▁post - 1 1 th ▁century ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁region ▁of ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent , ▁par alle ling ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁Buddh ist ▁and ▁J ain ▁tant ra ▁trad itions ▁in ▁this ▁period . ▁Among ▁these ▁are ▁the ▁dual istic ▁Sa iva ▁S idd h anta ▁and ▁Bh ai ra va ▁Sh a ivas ▁( non - Sa idd h ant ika ), ▁based ▁on ▁whether ▁they ▁recognize ▁any ▁value ▁in ▁V edic ▁orth op ra xy . ▁These ▁sub - trad itions ▁cher ish ▁secre cy , ▁special ▁symbol ic ▁formula e , ▁init iation ▁by ▁a ▁teacher ▁and ▁the ▁purs uit ▁of ▁s idd hi ▁( special ▁powers ). ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁trad itions ▁also ▁incorpor ate ▁the istic ▁ideas , ▁elaborate ▁geometric ▁y ant ra ▁with ▁embedded ▁spiritual ▁meaning , ▁mant ras ▁and ▁rit uals . ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism |
▁versus ▁other ▁H indu ▁trad itions ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism ▁sub - trad itions ▁sub scribe ▁to ▁various ▁philosoph ies , ▁are ▁similar ▁in ▁some ▁aspects ▁and ▁differ ▁in ▁others . ▁These ▁trad itions ▁compare ▁with ▁Va ish nav ism , ▁Sh akt ism ▁and ▁Sm art ism ▁as ▁follows : ▁ ▁Text s ▁{{ Qu ote ▁box ▁ ▁| quote ▁ ▁= ▁Sh a iva ▁manuscript s ▁that ▁have ▁surv ived ( post - 8 th ▁century ) ▁Nep al ▁and ▁H imal ay an ▁region ▁= ▁ 1 4 0 , 0 0 0 ▁South ▁India ▁= ▁ 8 , 6 0 0 ▁O thers ▁( De van ag iri ) ▁= ▁ 2 , 0 0 0 ▁B ali ▁and ▁SE ▁Asia ▁= ▁Many ▁ ▁| source ▁= ▁— Alex is ▁Sand erson , ▁The ▁Sa iva ▁Liter ature < ref ▁name = s and erson 2 0 1 4 p 1 > Alex is ▁Sand erson ▁( 2 0 1 4 ), ▁' The ▁Sa iva ▁Liter ature , ▁Journal ▁of ▁Ind ological ▁Studies , ▁Ky oto , ▁N os . ▁ 2 4 ▁& ▁ 2 5 , ▁pages ▁ 1 – 1 1 3 </ ref > ▁ ▁| bg color = # FF E 0 BB ▁ ▁| align ▁ ▁= ▁right ▁}} ▁Over ▁its ▁history , ▁Sh a iv ism ▁has ▁been ▁n urt ured ▁by ▁numerous ▁texts ▁r anging ▁from ▁script ures ▁to ▁the ological ▁treat ises . ▁These ▁include ▁the ▁V ed |
as ▁and ▁Up an ish ads , ▁the ▁Ag am as , ▁and ▁the ▁B has ya . ▁According ▁to ▁G av in ▁Flo od ▁– ▁a ▁professor ▁at ▁Oxford ▁University ▁special izing ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism ▁and ▁phenomen ology , ▁Sh a iva ▁sch ol ars ▁developed ▁a ▁s oph istic ated ▁the ology , ▁in ▁its ▁diverse ▁trad itions . ▁Among ▁the ▁notable ▁and ▁influ ential ▁comment aries ▁by ▁dv ait a ▁( du al istic ) ▁the istic ▁Sh a iv ism ▁sch ol ars ▁were ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁century ▁S ady aj oti , ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁Ram ak anth a , ▁ 1 1 th ▁century ▁B ho ja de va . ▁The ▁dual istic ▁the ology ▁was ▁challeng ed ▁by ▁the ▁numerous ▁sch ol ars ▁of ▁adv ait a ▁( non du al istic , ▁mon istic ) ▁Sh a iv ism ▁persu asion ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁ 8 th / 9 th ▁century ▁Vas ug upt a , ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁Ab hin av agu pta ▁and ▁ 1 1 th ▁century ▁K sh em ar aja , ▁particularly ▁the ▁sch ol ars ▁of ▁the ▁Pr aty ab h ij na , ▁Sp anda ▁and ▁K ash mi ri ▁Sh a iv ism ▁schools ▁of ▁the olog ians . ▁ ▁V ed as ▁and ▁Princi pal ▁Up an ish ads ▁The ▁V ed as ▁and ▁Up an ish ads ▁are ▁shared ▁script ures ▁of ▁H indu ism , |
▁while ▁the ▁Ag am as ▁are ▁sacred ▁texts ▁of ▁specific ▁sub - trad itions . ▁The ▁surv iving ▁V edic ▁literature ▁can ▁be ▁trac ed ▁to ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁B CE ▁and ▁earlier , ▁while ▁the ▁surv iving ▁Ag am as ▁can ▁be ▁trac ed ▁to ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁of ▁the ▁common ▁era . ▁The ▁V edic ▁literature , ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁is ▁primary ▁and ▁general , ▁while ▁Ag am as ▁are ▁special ▁treat ise . ▁In ▁terms ▁of ▁philosophy ▁and ▁spiritual ▁pre cept s , ▁no ▁Ag ama ▁that ▁goes ▁against ▁the ▁V edic ▁literature , ▁states ▁Mar ias us ai ▁D hav am ony , ▁will ▁be ▁acceptable ▁to ▁the ▁Sh a ivas . ▁According ▁to ▁David ▁Smith , ▁" a ▁key ▁feature ▁of ▁the ▁T amil ▁Sa iva ▁S idd h anta , ▁one ▁might ▁almost ▁say ▁its ▁defining ▁feature , ▁is ▁the ▁claim ▁that ▁its ▁source ▁lies ▁in ▁the ▁V ed as ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁Ag am as , ▁in ▁what ▁it ▁calls ▁the ▁V ed ag am as ". ▁This ▁school ' s ▁view ▁can ▁be ▁sum med ▁as , ▁ ▁The ▁ ▁Up an ish ad ▁( 4 0 0 ▁– ▁ 2 0 0 ▁B CE ) ▁is ▁the ▁earliest ▁text ual ▁ex position ▁of ▁a ▁system atic ▁philosophy ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁ ▁Sh a iva ▁minor ▁Up an ish ads ▁Sh a iv ism - in sp ired ▁sch |
ol ars ▁author ed ▁ 1 4 ▁Sh iva - f oc uss ed ▁Up an ish ads ▁that ▁are ▁called ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁Up an ish ads . ▁These ▁are ▁considered ▁part ▁of ▁ 9 5 ▁minor ▁Up an ish ads ▁in ▁the ▁Mu kt ik ā ▁Up an ish adic ▁cor pus ▁of ▁H indu ▁literature . Peter ▁He e hs ▁( 2 0 0 2 ), ▁Indian ▁Relig ions , ▁New ▁York ▁University ▁Press , ▁, ▁pages ▁ 6 0 – 8 8 ▁The ▁earliest ▁among ▁these ▁were ▁likely ▁composed ▁in ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁B CE , ▁while ▁the ▁last ▁ones ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁medieval ▁era . ▁ ▁The ▁Sh a iva ▁Up an ish ads ▁present ▁diverse ▁ideas , ▁r anging ▁from ▁b h ak ti - style ▁the istic ▁dual ism ▁them es ▁to ▁a ▁synth esis ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁ideas ▁with ▁Adv ait ic ▁( non du al ism ), ▁Y oga , ▁Va ish n ava ▁and ▁Sh ak ti ▁them es . ▁ ▁Sh a iva ▁Ag am as ▁The ▁Ag ama ▁texts ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁are ▁another ▁important ▁foundation ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁the ology . ▁These ▁texts ▁include ▁Sh a iva ▁cosm ology , ▁ep ist em ology , ▁philosoph ical ▁do ctr ines , ▁pre cept s ▁on ▁med itation ▁and ▁practices , ▁four ▁kinds ▁of ▁y oga , ▁mant ras , ▁mean ings ▁and ▁manual s ▁for ▁Sh a iva ▁tem ples |
, ▁and ▁other ▁elements ▁of ▁practice . M arias us ai ▁D hav am ony ▁( 2 0 0 2 ), ▁H indu - Christ ian ▁Dialog ue , ▁Rod op i , ▁, ▁pages ▁ 5 4 – 5 6 ▁These ▁canonical ▁texts ▁exist ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁and ▁in ▁south ▁Indian ▁languages ▁such ▁as ▁T amil . ▁ ▁The ▁Ag am as ▁present ▁a ▁diverse ▁range ▁of ▁philosoph ies , ▁r anging ▁from ▁the istic ▁dual ism ▁to ▁absolute ▁mon ism . Rich ard ▁Davis ▁( 2 0 1 4 ), ▁R it ual ▁in ▁an ▁O sc ill ating ▁Un iverse : ▁Wor sh ipping ▁S iva ▁in ▁Med ieval ▁India , ▁Pr inc eton ▁University ▁Press , ▁, ▁page ▁ 1 6 7 ▁note ▁ 2 1 , ▁Qu ote ▁( page ▁ 1 3 ): ▁" Some ▁ag am as ▁argue ▁a ▁mon ist ▁met aph ys ics , ▁while ▁others ▁are ▁decided ly ▁dual ist . ▁Some ▁claim ▁rit ual ▁is ▁the ▁most ▁eff ica cious ▁means ▁of ▁religious ▁att ain ment , ▁while ▁others ▁assert ▁that ▁knowledge ▁is ▁more ▁important ." ▁In ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁there ▁are ▁ten ▁dual istic ▁( d v ait a ) ▁Ag ama ▁texts , ▁eigh teen ▁qualified ▁mon ism - c um - du al ism ▁( b hed ab h eda ) ▁Ag ama ▁texts ▁and ▁si xty ▁four ▁mon ism ▁( adv ait a ) ▁Ag ama ▁texts . ▁The ▁Bh ai ra va ▁Sh astr |
as ▁are ▁mon istic , ▁while ▁Sh iva ▁Sh astr as ▁are ▁dual istic . JS ▁Vas ug upt a ▁( 2 0 1 2 ), ▁Ś iva ▁S ū tras , ▁Mot il al ▁Ban ars id ass , ▁, ▁pages ▁ 2 5 2 , ▁ 2 5 9 ▁ ▁The ▁Ag ama ▁texts ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁and ▁Va ish n ava ▁schools ▁are ▁prem ised ▁on ▁existence ▁of ▁At man ▁( s oul , ▁self ) ▁and ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁an ▁Ult imate ▁Re ality ▁( B rah man ▁which ▁is ▁considered ▁identical ▁to ▁Sh iva ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁The ▁texts ▁differ ▁in ▁the ▁relation ▁between ▁the ▁two . ▁Some ▁assert ▁the ▁dual istic ▁philosophy ▁of ▁the ▁individual ▁soul ▁and ▁Ult imate ▁Re ality ▁being ▁different , ▁while ▁others ▁state ▁a ▁On eness ▁between ▁the ▁two . ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iva ▁Ag am as ▁posit ▁absolute ▁on eness , ▁that ▁is ▁God ▁( Sh iva ) ▁is ▁within ▁man , ▁God ▁is ▁within ▁every ▁being , ▁God ▁is ▁present ▁everywhere ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁including ▁all ▁non - l iving ▁be ings , ▁and ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁spiritual ▁difference ▁between ▁life , ▁matter , ▁man ▁and ▁God . ▁While ▁Ag am as ▁present ▁diverse ▁the ology , ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁philosophy ▁and ▁spiritual ▁pre cept s , ▁no ▁Ag ama ▁that ▁goes ▁against ▁the ▁V edic ▁literature , ▁states ▁D hav am ony , ▁has ▁been ▁acceptable ▁to ▁the ▁Sh a ivas . ▁ ▁Trad |
itions ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism ▁is ▁ancient , ▁and ▁over ▁time ▁it ▁developed ▁many ▁sub - trad itions . ▁These ▁broad ly ▁existed ▁and ▁are ▁studied ▁in ▁three ▁groups : ▁the istic ▁dual ism , ▁n ont he istic ▁mon ism , ▁and ▁those ▁that ▁combine ▁features ▁or ▁practices ▁of ▁the ▁two . ▁Sand erson ▁presents ▁the ▁historic ▁classification ▁found ▁in ▁Indian ▁texts , ▁namely ▁At im arga ▁of ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁mon ks ▁and ▁Mant ram arga ▁that ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁both ▁the ▁ren unci ates ▁( s anny asi ) ▁and ▁household ers ▁( g ri has tha ) ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁Sub - trad itions ▁of ▁Sh a ivas ▁did ▁not ▁exclus ively ▁focus ▁on ▁Sh iva , ▁but ▁others ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁De vi ▁( god dess ) ▁Sh akt ism . ▁ ▁S anny asi ▁Sh a iva : ▁At im arga ▁The ▁At im arga ▁branch ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁emphas izes ▁liber ation ▁( sal v ation ) ▁– ▁or ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁all ▁D uk k ha ▁– ▁as ▁the ▁primary ▁goal ▁of ▁spiritual ▁purs uits . ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁path ▁for ▁Sh a iva ▁asc et ics , ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁Sh a iva ▁household ers ▁whose ▁path ▁was ▁described ▁as ▁Mant ram arga ▁and ▁who ▁sought ▁both ▁salv ation ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁y og i - s idd hi ▁powers ▁and ▁ple asures ▁in ▁life . ▁The ▁At im arga ▁rever ed ▁the ▁V edic ▁sources |
▁of ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁and ▁sometimes ▁referred ▁to ▁in ▁ancient ▁Indian ▁texts ▁as ▁Ra ud ra ▁( from ▁V edic ▁Rud ra ). ▁ ▁P ash up ata ▁At im arg i ▁ ▁P ash up ata : ▁( IA ST : ▁) ▁are ▁the ▁Sh a iv ite ▁sub - trad ition ▁with ▁the ▁oldest ▁her itage , ▁as ▁ev iden ced ▁by ▁Indian ▁texts ▁dated ▁to ▁around ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁the ▁common ▁era . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁mon ist ▁tradition , ▁that ▁cons iders ▁Sh iva ▁to ▁be ▁within ▁ones elf , ▁in ▁every ▁being ▁and ▁everything ▁observed . ▁The ▁P ash up ata ▁path ▁to ▁liber ation ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁asc etic ism ▁that ▁is ▁tradition ally ▁restricted ▁to ▁Bra h min ▁males . ▁P ash up ata ▁the ology , ▁according ▁to ▁Sh iva ▁S ut ras , ▁a ims ▁for ▁a ▁spiritual ▁state ▁of ▁conscious ness ▁where ▁the ▁P ash up ata ▁y og i ▁" ab ides ▁in ▁one ' s ▁own ▁unf etter ed ▁nature ", ▁where ▁the ▁external ▁rit uals ▁feel ▁unnecessary , ▁where ▁every ▁moment ▁and ▁every ▁action ▁becomes ▁an ▁internal ▁v ow , ▁a ▁spiritual ▁rit ual ▁unto ▁itself . ▁ ▁The ▁P ash up at as ▁derive ▁their ▁S ansk rit ▁name ▁from ▁two ▁words : ▁P ash u ▁( be ast ) ▁and ▁P ati ▁( l ord ), ▁where ▁the ▁cha otic ▁and ▁ignor ant ▁state , ▁one ▁imprison ed ▁by ▁bond age ▁and ▁assumptions , ▁is ▁concept |
ual ized ▁as ▁the ▁be ast , ▁and ▁the ▁At man ▁( self , ▁soul , ▁Sh iva ) ▁that ▁is ▁present ▁et ern ally ▁everywhere ▁as ▁the ▁P ati . ▁The ▁tradition ▁a ims ▁at ▁real izing ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁being ▁one ▁with ▁Sh iva ▁within ▁and ▁everywhere . ▁It ▁has ▁extensive ▁literature , ▁and ▁a ▁five fold ▁path ▁of ▁spiritual ▁practice ▁that ▁starts ▁with ▁external ▁practices , ▁evol ving ▁into ▁internal ▁practices ▁and ▁ultimately ▁med itative ▁y oga , ▁with ▁the ▁aim ▁of ▁over coming ▁all ▁suffering ▁( D uk k ha ) ▁and ▁reaching ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁bl iss ▁( An anda ). ▁ ▁The ▁tradition ▁is ▁attributed ▁to ▁a ▁s age ▁from ▁Gu jar at ▁named ▁Lak ul ish a ▁( ~ 2 nd ▁century ▁CE ). ▁He ▁is ▁the ▁pur port ed ▁author ▁of ▁the ▁P ash up ata ▁s ut ras , ▁a ▁found ational ▁text ▁of ▁this ▁tradition . ▁Other ▁texts ▁include ▁the ▁b has ya ▁( comment ary ) ▁on ▁P ash up ata ▁s ut ras ▁by ▁Ka ud in ya , ▁the ▁Ga ṇ ak ā rik ā , ▁Pa ñ ch ā r tha ▁b h ā sh y ad ip ik ā ▁and ▁R ā ś ik ara - b h ā sh ya . ▁The ▁P ash up ath a ▁mon astic ▁path ▁was ▁available ▁to ▁anyone ▁of ▁any ▁age , ▁but ▁it ▁required ▁ren unci ation ▁from ▁four ▁Ash rama ▁( stage ) ▁into ▁the ▁fifth ▁stage ▁of ▁S |
idd ha - A sh rama . ▁The ▁path ▁started ▁as ▁a ▁life ▁near ▁a ▁Sh iva ▁temple ▁and ▁silent ▁med itation , ▁then ▁a ▁stage ▁when ▁the ▁asc etic ▁left ▁the ▁temple ▁and ▁did ▁kar ma ▁exchange ▁( be ▁curs ed ▁by ▁others , ▁but ▁never ▁cur se ▁back ). ▁He ▁then ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁third ▁stage ▁of ▁life ▁where ▁he ▁lived ▁like ▁a ▁lon er ▁in ▁a ▁cave ▁or ▁abandoned ▁places ▁or ▁H imal ay an ▁mountains , ▁and ▁towards ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁his ▁life ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁a ▁cre m ation ▁ground , ▁surv iving ▁on ▁little , ▁peace fully ▁await ing ▁his ▁death . ▁ ▁The ▁P ash up at as ▁have ▁been ▁particularly ▁prominent ▁in ▁Gu jar at , ▁Raj as than , ▁K ash mir ▁and ▁Nep al . ▁The ▁community ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁many ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent . ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁medieval ▁era , ▁P ash up at as ▁Sh a iva ▁asc et ics ▁became ▁ext inct . For ▁P ā ś up ata ▁as ▁an ▁asc etic ▁movement ▁see : ▁Mich a els ▁( 2 0 0 4 ), ▁p . ▁ 6 2 . ▁ ▁Lak ula ▁At im arg i ▁This ▁second ▁division ▁of ▁the ▁At im arga ▁developed ▁from ▁the ▁P ash up at as . ▁Their ▁fundamental ▁text ▁too ▁was ▁the ▁P ash up ata ▁S ut ras . ▁They ▁differ ed ▁from ▁P ash up ata ▁At im arg i ▁in ▁that ▁they ▁depart ed |
▁rad ically ▁from ▁the ▁V edic ▁teach ings , ▁respect ed ▁no ▁V edic ▁or ▁social ▁custom s . ▁He ▁would ▁walk ▁around , ▁for ▁example , ▁almost ▁n aked , ▁d rank ▁liqu or ▁in ▁public , ▁and ▁used ▁a ▁human ▁sk ull ▁as ▁his ▁begg ing ▁bow l ▁for ▁food . ▁The ▁Lak ula ▁Sh a iva ▁asc etic ▁recognized ▁no ▁act ▁nor ▁words ▁as ▁forb idden , ▁he ▁freely ▁did ▁whatever ▁he ▁felt ▁like , ▁much ▁like ▁the ▁classical ▁dep iction ▁of ▁his ▁de ity ▁Rud ra ▁in ▁ancient ▁H indu ▁texts . ▁However , ▁according ▁to ▁Alex is ▁Sand erson , ▁the ▁Lak ula ▁asc etic ▁was ▁strictly ▁cel ib ate ▁and ▁did ▁not ▁eng age ▁in ▁sex . ▁ ▁Second ary ▁literature , ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁written ▁by ▁K ash mi ri ▁K sem ar aja , ▁suggest ▁that ▁the ▁Lak ula ▁had ▁their ▁can ons ▁on ▁the ology , ▁rit uals ▁and ▁literature ▁on ▁pr aman as ▁( ep ist em ology ). ▁However , ▁their ▁primary ▁texts ▁are ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁lost , ▁and ▁have ▁not ▁surv ived ▁into ▁the ▁modern ▁era . ▁ ▁G ri has tha ▁and ▁S anny asi ▁Sh a iva : ▁Mant ram arga ▁ ▁" M ant ram ā r ga " ▁( S ansk rit : ▁ म न ् त ् र म ा र ् ग , ▁" the ▁path ▁of ▁mant ras ") ▁has ▁been ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁tradition ▁for ▁both ▁household ers ▁and ▁mon |
ks . ▁It ▁grew ▁from ▁the ▁At im arga ▁tradition . ▁This ▁tradition ▁sought ▁not ▁just ▁liber ation ▁from ▁D uk k ha ▁( s uffer ing , ▁uns atisf actor iness ), ▁but ▁special ▁powers ▁( s idd hi ) ▁and ▁ple asures ▁( b h oga ), ▁both ▁in ▁this ▁life ▁and ▁next . ▁The ▁s idd hi ▁were ▁particularly ▁the ▁purs uit ▁of ▁Mant ram arga ▁mon ks , ▁and ▁it ▁is ▁this ▁sub - trad ition ▁that ▁experiment ed ▁with ▁a ▁great ▁divers ity ▁of ▁r ites , ▁de ities , ▁rit uals , ▁y og ic ▁techniques ▁and ▁mant ras . ▁Both ▁the ▁Mant ram arga ▁and ▁At im arga ▁are ▁ancient ▁trad itions , ▁more ▁ancient ▁than ▁the ▁date ▁of ▁their ▁texts ▁that ▁have ▁surv ived , ▁according ▁to ▁Sand erson . ▁Mant ram ā r ga ▁grew ▁to ▁become ▁a ▁dominant ▁form ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁in ▁this ▁period . ▁It ▁also ▁spread ▁outside ▁of ▁India ▁into ▁S out heast ▁Asia ' s ▁Kh mer ▁Empire , ▁Java , ▁B ali ▁and ▁Cham . ▁ ▁The ▁Mant ram arga ▁tradition ▁created ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁Ag am as ▁and ▁Sh a iva ▁tant ra ▁( te chni que ) ▁texts . ▁This ▁literature ▁presented ▁new ▁forms ▁of ▁rit ual , ▁y oga ▁and ▁mant ra . ▁This ▁literature ▁was ▁highly ▁influ ential ▁not ▁just ▁to ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁but ▁to ▁all ▁trad itions ▁of ▁H indu ism , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁to ▁Buddh |
ism ▁and ▁J ain ism . ▁Mant ram arga ▁had ▁both ▁the istic ▁and ▁mon istic ▁them es , ▁which ▁co - e vol ved ▁and ▁influenced ▁each ▁other . ▁The ▁tant ra ▁texts ▁reflect ▁this , ▁where ▁the ▁collection ▁contains ▁both ▁dual istic ▁and ▁non - du al istic ▁the ologies . ▁The ▁the ism ▁in ▁the ▁tant ra ▁texts ▁parallel ▁those ▁found ▁in ▁Va ish nav ism ▁and ▁Sh akt ism . ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h anta ▁is ▁a ▁major ▁sub trad ition ▁that ▁emphas ized ▁dual ism ▁during ▁much ▁of ▁its ▁history . ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism ▁has ▁had ▁strong ▁non du al istic ▁( adv ait a ) ▁sub - trad itions . ▁Its ▁central ▁prem ise ▁has ▁been ▁that ▁the ▁At man ▁( s oul , ▁self ) ▁of ▁every ▁being ▁is ▁identical ▁to ▁Sh iva , ▁its ▁various ▁practices ▁and ▁purs uits ▁directed ▁at ▁understanding ▁and ▁being ▁one ▁with ▁the ▁Sh iva ▁within . ▁This ▁mon ism ▁is ▁close ▁but ▁diff ers ▁somewhat ▁from ▁the ▁mon ism ▁found ▁in ▁Adv ait a ▁V ed anta ▁of ▁Ad i ▁Sh ank ara . ▁Un like ▁Sh ank ara ' s ▁Adv ait a , ▁Sh a iv ism ▁mon ist ▁schools ▁consider ▁May a ▁as ▁Sh ak ti , ▁or ▁energy ▁and ▁cre ative ▁prim ord ial ▁power ▁that ▁explains ▁and ▁prop els ▁the ▁exist ential ▁divers ity . ▁ ▁S rik anth a , ▁influenced ▁by ▁Ram anu ja , ▁form ulated ▁Sh a |
iva ▁V ish is ht adv ait a . ▁In ▁this ▁the ology , ▁At man ▁( s oul ) ▁is ▁not ▁identical ▁with ▁Bra h man , ▁but ▁shares ▁with ▁the ▁Supreme ▁all ▁its ▁qual ities . ▁App ay ya ▁D ik sh ita ▁( 1 5 2 0 – 1 5 9 2 ), ▁an ▁Adv ait a ▁scholar , ▁proposed ▁pure ▁mon ism , ▁and ▁his ▁ideas ▁influenced ▁Sh a iva ▁in ▁the ▁K arn ata ka ▁region . ▁His ▁Sh a iva ▁Adv ait a ▁doctrine ▁is ▁ins cribed ▁on ▁the ▁walls ▁of ▁Kal ak anth es var a ▁temple ▁in ▁Ada iy app al am ▁( T ir uv ann am al ai ▁district ). A ▁Top ographical ▁List ▁Of ▁The ▁In scri ptions ▁Of ▁The ▁Mad ras ▁Pres ind ency ▁( collect ed ▁Till ▁ 1 9 1 5 ) ▁With ▁Notes ▁And ▁References ▁Volume ▁I , ▁V . ▁Rang ach ary a , ▁Mad ras ▁Government ▁Press , ▁pages ▁ 4 7 – 4 8 ▁ ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h anta ▁ ▁The ▁Ś a ivas idd h ā nt a ▁(" the ▁established ▁doctrine ▁of ▁Sh iva ") ▁is ▁the ▁earliest ▁sam pr ad aya ▁( trad ition , ▁line age ) ▁of ▁T ant ric ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁d ating ▁from ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁century . S and erson , ▁Alex is ; ▁the ▁Sa iva ▁Age , ▁page ▁ 4 5 . ▁The ▁tradition ▁emphas izes ▁lov ing |
▁dev otion ▁to ▁Sh iva , ▁uses ▁ 5 th ▁to ▁ 9 th - century ▁T amil ▁h ym ns ▁called ▁Tir um ur ai . ▁A ▁key ▁philosoph ical ▁text ▁of ▁this ▁sub - trad ition ▁was ▁composed ▁by ▁ 1 3 th - century ▁Mey k and ar . ▁This ▁the ology ▁presents ▁three ▁universal ▁real ities : ▁the ▁p ash u ▁( ind ividual ▁soul ), ▁the ▁p ati ▁( l ord , ▁Sh iva ), ▁and ▁the ▁p asha ▁( s oul ’ s ▁bond age ) ▁through ▁ignor ance , ▁kar ma ▁and ▁may a . ▁The ▁tradition ▁teach es ▁eth ical ▁living , ▁service ▁to ▁the ▁community ▁and ▁through ▁one ' s ▁work , ▁lov ing ▁worship , ▁y oga ▁practice ▁and ▁discipline , ▁continuous ▁learning ▁and ▁self - know ledge ▁as ▁means ▁for ▁liber ating ▁the ▁individual ▁soul ▁from ▁bond age . ▁ ▁The ▁tradition ▁may ▁have ▁origin ated ▁in ▁K ash mir ▁where ▁it ▁developed ▁a ▁s oph istic ated ▁the ology ▁propag ated ▁by ▁the olog ians ▁S ady oj oti , ▁B hat ta ▁N ā r ā yan ak anth a ▁and ▁his ▁son ▁B hat ta ▁R ā m ak anth a ▁( c . ▁ 9 5 0 – 1 0 0 0 ). ▁However , ▁after ▁the ▁arrival ▁of ▁Islam ic ▁r ul ers ▁in ▁north ▁India , ▁it ▁th riv ed ▁in ▁the ▁south . ▁The ▁philosophy ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h anta , ▁is |
▁particularly ▁popular ▁in ▁south ▁India , ▁Sri ▁L anka , ▁Malays ia ▁and ▁Singapore . ▁ ▁The ▁historic ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h anta ▁literature ▁is ▁an ▁enorm ous ▁body ▁of ▁texts . ▁The ▁tradition ▁includes ▁both ▁Sh iva ▁and ▁Sh ak ti ▁( god dess ), ▁but ▁with ▁a ▁growing ▁emphas is ▁on ▁met aph ys ical ▁abstra ction . ▁Un like ▁the ▁experiment ers ▁of ▁At im arga ▁tradition ▁and ▁other ▁sub - trad itions ▁of ▁Mant ram arga , ▁states ▁Sand erson , ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h anta ▁tradition ▁had ▁no ▁rit ual ▁offering ▁or ▁consumption ▁of ▁" al co hol ic ▁drink s , ▁blood ▁or ▁meat ". ▁Their ▁practices ▁foc uss ed ▁on ▁abstract ▁ideas ▁of ▁spiritual ity , ▁worship ▁and ▁lov ing ▁dev otion ▁to ▁Sh iva ▁as ▁S ada Sh iva , ▁and ▁taught ▁the ▁authority ▁of ▁the ▁V ed as ▁and ▁Sh a iva ▁Ag am as . ▁This ▁tradition ▁divers ified ▁in ▁its ▁ideas ▁over ▁time , ▁with ▁some ▁of ▁its ▁sch ol ars ▁integr ating ▁a ▁non - du al istic ▁the ology . ▁ ▁N ay an ars ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁ 7 th ▁century , ▁the ▁N ay an ars , ▁a ▁tradition ▁of ▁poet - s ain ts ▁in ▁the ▁b h ak ti ▁tradition ▁developed ▁in ▁South ▁India ▁with ▁a ▁focus ▁on ▁Sh iva , ▁compar able ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁V ais n ava ▁Al vars . ▁The ▁dev ot ional ▁po ems ▁of |
▁the ▁N ay an ars ▁are ▁divided ▁into ▁eleven ▁collections ▁together ▁known ▁as ▁" Th ir um ur ai ", ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁T amil ▁Pur ana ▁called ▁the ▁" Per i ya ▁pur an am ". ▁The ▁first ▁seven ▁collections ▁are ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁The var am ▁and ▁are ▁regarded ▁by ▁T amil s ▁as ▁equivalent ▁to ▁the ▁V ed as . ▁They ▁were ▁composed ▁in ▁the ▁ 7 th ▁century ▁by ▁S amb and ar , ▁Appar , ▁and ▁Sund ar ar . ▁ ▁Tir um ular ▁( also ▁sp elled ▁ ▁or ▁), ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁the ▁Tir um ant ir am ▁( also ▁sp elled ▁Tir um and ir am ) ▁is ▁considered ▁by ▁T att wan anda ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁earliest ▁exponent ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁in ▁T amil ▁areas . ▁Tir um ular ▁is ▁dated ▁as ▁ 7 th ▁or ▁ 8 th ▁century ▁by ▁Maurice ▁Win tern itz . ▁The ▁Tir um ant ir am ▁is ▁a ▁primary ▁source ▁for ▁the ▁system ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h anta , ▁being ▁the ▁t enth ▁book ▁of ▁its ▁canon . ▁The ▁Tir uv ac ak am ▁by ▁Man ikk av ac agar ▁is ▁an ▁important ▁collection ▁of ▁h ym ns . ▁ ▁T ant ra ▁D ik sha ▁trad itions ▁The ▁main ▁element ▁of ▁all ▁Sh a iva ▁T ant ra ▁is ▁the ▁practice ▁of ▁d ik sha , ▁a ▁cer emon ial ▁init iation ▁in ▁which ▁div in ely ▁revealed ▁mant ras ▁are ▁given |
▁to ▁the ▁initi ate ▁by ▁a ▁G uru . ▁ ▁A ▁notable ▁feature ▁of ▁some ▁" left ▁tant ra " ▁asc et ics ▁was ▁their ▁purs uit ▁of ▁s idd his ▁( super natural ▁ab ilities ) ▁and ▁b ala ▁( pow ers ), ▁such ▁as ▁aver ting ▁danger ▁( s anti h ) ▁and ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁harm ▁enemies ▁( ab h ic ar ah ). ▁Gan ach ak ras , ▁rit ual ▁fe asts , ▁would ▁sometimes ▁be ▁held ▁in ▁c em eter ies ▁and ▁cre m ation ▁grounds ▁and ▁featured ▁possession ▁by ▁powerful ▁female ▁de ities ▁called ▁Y og in is . ▁The ▁cult ▁of ▁Y og in is ▁aim ed ▁to ▁gain ▁special ▁powers ▁through ▁es oter ic ▁worship ▁of ▁the ▁Sh ak ti ▁or ▁the ▁femin ine ▁aspects ▁of ▁the ▁divine . ▁The ▁groups ▁included ▁sister hood s ▁that ▁participated ▁in ▁the ▁r ites . ▁ ▁Some ▁trad itions ▁defined ▁special ▁powers ▁differently . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁K ash mi ri ▁tant rics ▁explain ▁the ▁powers ▁as ▁an ima ▁( aw aren ess ▁than ▁one ▁is ▁present ▁in ▁everything ), ▁lag h ima ▁( light ness , ▁be ▁free ▁from ▁pres umed ▁divers ity ▁or ▁differences ), ▁ma h ima ▁( he av iness , ▁realize ▁one ' s ▁limit ▁is ▁beyond ▁one ' s ▁own ▁conscious ness ), ▁pra pt i ▁( att ain , ▁be ▁rest ful ▁and ▁at ▁peace ▁with ▁one ' s ▁own ▁nature ), ▁p rak am ya ▁( fore b earance |
, ▁grasp ▁and ▁accept ▁cos mic ▁divers ity ), ▁vas ita ▁( control , ▁realize ▁that ▁one ▁always ▁has ▁power ▁to ▁do ▁whatever ▁one ▁wants ), ▁is it va ▁( self ▁lord ship , ▁a ▁y og i ▁is ▁always ▁free ). ▁More ▁broad ly , ▁the ▁tant ric ▁sub - trad itions ▁sought ▁non du al ▁knowledge ▁and ▁en light ening ▁liber ation ▁by ▁abandon ing ▁all ▁rit uals , ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁reasoning ▁( y u kt ih ), ▁script ures ▁( s astr as ) ▁and ▁the ▁initi ating ▁G uru . ▁ ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iv ism ▁ ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iv ism ▁is ▁an ▁influ ential ▁tradition ▁within ▁Sh a iv ism ▁that ▁emer ged ▁in ▁K ash mir ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁CE ▁and ▁th riv ed ▁in ▁early ▁centuries ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 nd ▁mill en ni um ▁before ▁the ▁region ▁was ▁over wh el med ▁by ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁invas ions ▁from ▁the ▁H indu ▁K ush ▁region . ▁The ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iv ism ▁trad itions ▁became ▁nearly ▁ext inct ▁due ▁to ▁Islam ▁except ▁for ▁their ▁pres ervation ▁by ▁K ash mi ri ▁P and its . ▁ ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iv ism ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁non du al istic ▁school , ▁and ▁is ▁distinct ▁from ▁the ▁dual istic ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h ā nt a ▁tradition ▁that ▁also ▁existed ▁in ▁medieval ▁K ash mir . ▁A |
▁notable ▁philosophy ▁of ▁mon istic ▁K ash mi ri ▁Sh a iv ism ▁has ▁been ▁the ▁Pr aty ab h ij na ▁ideas , ▁particularly ▁those ▁by ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁scholar ▁Ut pal ade va ▁and ▁ 1 1 th ▁century ▁Ab hin av agu pta ▁and ▁K sh em ar aja . W all is , ▁Christopher ; ▁T ant ra ▁Ill umin ated , ▁Chapter ▁ 2 , ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iv ism ▁Their ▁extensive ▁texts ▁established ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁the ology ▁and ▁philosophy ▁in ▁an ▁adv ait a ▁( mon ism ) ▁framework . F lo od , ▁G av in . ▁D . ▁ 1 9 9 6 . ▁An ▁Introduction ▁to ▁H indu ism . ▁P . 1 6 4 - 1 6 7 ▁The ▁S iva ▁S ut ras ▁of ▁ 9 th ▁century ▁Vas ug upt a ▁and ▁his ▁ideas ▁about ▁Sp anda ▁have ▁also ▁been ▁influ ential ▁to ▁this ▁and ▁other ▁Sh a iva ▁sub - trad itions , ▁but ▁it ▁is ▁probable ▁that ▁much ▁older ▁Sh a iva ▁texts ▁once ▁existed . ▁ ▁A ▁notable ▁feature ▁of ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iv ism ▁was ▁its ▁open ness ▁and ▁integration ▁of ▁ideas ▁from ▁Sh akt ism , ▁Va ish nav ism ▁and ▁V aj ray ana ▁Buddh ism . ▁For ▁example , ▁one ▁sub - trad ition ▁of ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iv ism ▁adopt s ▁God dess ▁worship ▁( Sh akt ism ) ▁by ▁stating ▁that |
▁the ▁approach ▁to ▁god ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁through ▁god dess ▁Sh ak ti . ▁This ▁tradition ▁combined ▁mon istic ▁ideas ▁with ▁tant ric ▁practices . ▁Another ▁idea ▁of ▁this ▁school ▁was ▁Tri ka , ▁or ▁modal ▁tri ads ▁of ▁Sh ak ti ▁and ▁cosm ology ▁as ▁developed ▁by ▁S oman anda ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 0 th ▁century . K ash mi ri ▁Sh a iva ▁Philosoph y ▁, ▁David ▁Peter ▁Lawrence , ▁University ▁of ▁Man it oba , ▁IE P ▁( 2 0 1 0 ) ▁ ▁N ath ▁▁ ▁N ath : ▁a ▁Sh a iva ▁sub trad ition ▁that ▁emer ged ▁from ▁a ▁much ▁older ▁S idd ha ▁tradition ▁based ▁on ▁Y oga . ▁The ▁N ath ▁consider ▁Sh iva ▁as ▁" Ad in ath a " ▁or ▁the ▁first ▁g uru , ▁and ▁it ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁small ▁but ▁notable ▁and ▁influ ential ▁movement ▁in ▁India ▁whose ▁dev ote es ▁were ▁called ▁" Y og i ▁or ▁J og i ", ▁given ▁their ▁mon astic ▁un con vent ional ▁ways ▁and ▁emphas is ▁on ▁Y oga . ▁ ▁N ath ▁the ology ▁integrated ▁philosophy ▁from ▁Adv ait a ▁V ed anta ▁and ▁Buddh ism ▁trad itions . ▁Their ▁un con vent ional ▁ways ▁challeng ed ▁all ▁orth odox ▁prem ises , ▁expl oring ▁dark ▁and ▁sh unn ed ▁practices ▁of ▁society ▁as ▁a ▁means ▁to ▁understanding ▁the ology ▁and ▁gain ing ▁inner ▁powers . ▁The ▁tradition ▁traces ▁itself ▁to ▁ 9 th ▁or ▁ 1 0 th ▁century |
▁M ats y end ran ath ▁and ▁to ▁ideas ▁and ▁organization ▁developed ▁by ▁Gor ak sh an ath . ▁They ▁combined ▁both ▁the istic ▁practices ▁such ▁as ▁wor sh ipping ▁god d esses ▁and ▁their ▁historic ▁G urus ▁in ▁tem ples , ▁as ▁well ▁mon istic ▁goals ▁of ▁ach ieving ▁liber ation ▁or ▁j ivan - mu kt i ▁while ▁alive , ▁by ▁reaching ▁the ▁perfect ▁( s idd ha ) ▁state ▁of ▁real izing ▁on eness ▁of ▁self ▁and ▁everything ▁with ▁Sh iva . ▁ ▁They ▁formed ▁mon astic ▁organis ations , ▁and ▁some ▁of ▁them ▁met am orph osed ▁into ▁war rior ▁asc et ics ▁to ▁resist ▁per sec ution ▁during ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁rule ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent . ▁ ▁L ing ay at ism ▁ ▁L ing ay at ism , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁Ve era ▁Sh a iv ism : ▁is ▁a ▁distinct ▁Sh a iv ite ▁religious ▁tradition ▁in ▁India . ▁It ▁was ▁founded ▁by ▁the ▁ 1 2 th - century ▁phil os opher ▁and ▁states man ▁Bas ava ▁and ▁spread ▁by ▁his ▁follow ers , ▁called ▁Sh ar anas . ▁ ▁L ing ay at ism ▁emphas izes ▁qualified ▁mon ism ▁and ▁b h ak ti ▁( lo ving ▁dev otion ) ▁to ▁Sh iva , ▁with ▁philosoph ical ▁found ations ▁similar ▁to ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 1 th – 1 2 th - century ▁South ▁Indian ▁phil os opher ▁Ram anu ja . ▁Its ▁worship ▁is ▁notable ▁for ▁the ▁icon ographic |
▁form ▁of ▁Is ht aling a , ▁which ▁the ▁ad her ents ▁wear . Jan ▁Peter ▁Sch out en ▁( 1 9 9 5 ), ▁Revolution ▁of ▁the ▁Myst ics : ▁On ▁the ▁Social ▁As pect s ▁of ▁V ī ra ś a iv ism , ▁Mot il al ▁Ban ars id ass , ▁, ▁pages ▁ 2 – 3 ▁Lar ge ▁communities ▁of ▁L ing ay ats ▁are ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁Indian ▁state ▁of ▁K arn ata ka ▁and ▁nearby ▁regions .; ▁Qu ote : ▁" The ▁L ing ay ats ▁are ▁a ▁H indu ▁sect ▁concentr ated ▁in ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁K arn ata ka ▁( a ▁southern ▁provincial ▁state ▁of ▁India ), ▁which ▁covers ▁ 1 9 1 , 7 7 3 ▁square ▁kilom eters . ▁The ▁L ing ay ats ▁const itute ▁around ▁ 2 0 ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁total ▁population ▁in ▁that ▁state ." ▁L ing ay at ism ▁has ▁its ▁own ▁the ological ▁literature ▁with ▁s oph istic ated ▁theoretical ▁sub - trad itions . ▁ ▁They ▁were ▁influ ential ▁in ▁the ▁H indu ▁V ij ay an ag ara ▁Empire ▁that ▁revers ed ▁the ▁territorial ▁g ains ▁of ▁Muslim ▁r ul ers , ▁after ▁the ▁invas ions ▁of ▁the ▁De cc an ▁region ▁first ▁by ▁Del hi ▁Sultan ate ▁and ▁later ▁other ▁Sultan ates . ▁L ing ay ats ▁consider ▁their ▁script ure ▁to ▁be ▁Bas ava ▁Pur ana , ▁which ▁was ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 3 6 9 ▁during ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁V ij |
ay an ag ara ▁r uler ▁B uk ka ▁R aya ▁I . ▁L ing ay at ▁( V e er asha iva ) ▁think ers ▁rejected ▁the ▁cust od ial ▁hold ▁of ▁Bra hm ins ▁over ▁the ▁V ed as ▁and ▁the ▁sh astr as , ▁but ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁out right ▁reject ▁the ▁V edic ▁knowledge . ▁The ▁ 1 3 th - century ▁Tel ug u ▁Vir asha iva ▁poet ▁P alk ur iki ▁S oman ath a , ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁the ▁script ure ▁of ▁L ing ay at ism , ▁for ▁example ▁assert ed , ▁" V ir asha iv ism ▁fully ▁conform ed ▁to ▁the ▁V ed as ▁and ▁the ▁sh astr as ." ▁ ▁Dem ography ▁There ▁is ▁no ▁census ▁data ▁available ▁on ▁dem ographic ▁history ▁or ▁tr ends ▁for ▁Sh a iv ism ▁or ▁other ▁trad itions ▁within ▁H indu ism . ▁Est im ates ▁vary ▁on ▁the ▁relative ▁number ▁of ▁ad her ents ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism ▁compared ▁to ▁other ▁trad itions ▁of ▁H indu ism . ▁According ▁to ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁estimate ▁by ▁Johnson ▁and ▁Gr im , ▁the ▁Sh a iv ism ▁tradition ▁is ▁the ▁second ▁largest ▁group ▁with ▁ 2 5 2 ▁million ▁or ▁ 2 6 . 6 % ▁of ▁H ind us . ▁In ▁contrast , ▁according ▁to ▁Jones ▁and ▁Ryan , ▁Sh a iv ism ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁tradition ▁of ▁H indu ism . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Gal vin ▁Flo od , ▁that ▁Sh |
a iv ism ▁and ▁Sh akt ism ▁trad itions ▁are ▁difficult ▁to ▁separate , ▁as ▁many ▁Sh a iva ▁H ind us ▁re vere ▁the ▁god dess ▁Sh ak ti ▁regularly . ▁The ▁denomin ations ▁of ▁H indu ism , ▁states ▁Julius ▁Lip ner , ▁are ▁unlike ▁those ▁found ▁in ▁major ▁relig ions ▁of ▁the ▁world , ▁because ▁H indu ▁denomin ations ▁are ▁f uz zy ▁with ▁individuals ▁rever ing ▁gods ▁and ▁god d esses ▁poly cent r ically , ▁with ▁many ▁Sh a iva ▁and ▁Va ish n ava ▁ad her ents ▁recogn izing ▁Sri ▁( L ak sh mi ), ▁Par v ati , ▁Sar as w ati ▁and ▁other ▁aspects ▁of ▁the ▁god dess ▁De vi . ▁Similarly , ▁Sh ak ta ▁H ind us ▁re vere ▁Sh iva ▁and ▁god d esses ▁such ▁as ▁Par v ati ▁( such ▁as ▁D urg a , ▁Rad ha , ▁S ita ▁and ▁others ) ▁and ▁Sar as w ati ▁important ▁in ▁Sh a iva ▁and ▁Va ish n ava ▁trad itions . ▁ ▁In flu ence ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁a ▁pan - H indu ▁god ▁and ▁Sh a iv ism ▁ideas ▁on ▁Y oga ▁and ▁as ▁the ▁god ▁of ▁performance ▁arts ▁( N atar aja ) ▁have ▁been ▁influ ential ▁on ▁all ▁trad itions ▁of ▁H indu ism . ▁ ▁Sh a iv ism ▁was ▁highly ▁influ ential ▁in ▁sout heast ▁Asia ▁from ▁the ▁late ▁ 6 th ▁century ▁on wards , ▁particularly ▁the ▁Kh mer ▁and ▁Cham ▁kingdom s ▁of |
▁Ind o - Ch ina , ▁and ▁across ▁the ▁major ▁islands ▁of ▁Indones ia ▁such ▁as ▁Sum atra , ▁Java ▁and ▁B ali . ▁This ▁influence ▁on ▁classical ▁Camb odia , ▁Vietnam ▁and ▁Th ailand ▁continued ▁when ▁Mah ay ana ▁Buddh ism ▁arrived ▁with ▁the ▁same ▁Indians . ▁ ▁In ▁Sh a iv ism ▁of ▁Indones ia , ▁the ▁popular ▁name ▁for ▁Sh iva ▁has ▁been ▁Bh att ara ▁G uru , ▁which ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁S ansk rit ▁Bh att ar aka ▁which ▁means ▁“ no ble ▁lord ". ▁He ▁is ▁concept ual ized ▁as ▁a ▁kind ▁spiritual ▁teacher , ▁the ▁first ▁of ▁all ▁G urus ▁in ▁Indones ian ▁H indu ▁texts , ▁mirror ing ▁the ▁Dak sh in am ur ti ▁aspect ▁of ▁Sh iva ▁in ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent . ▁However , ▁the ▁Bh att ara ▁G uru ▁has ▁more ▁aspects ▁than ▁the ▁Indian ▁Sh iva , ▁as ▁the ▁Indones ian ▁H ind us ▁bl ended ▁their ▁spirits ▁and ▁hero es ▁with ▁him . ▁Bh att ara ▁G uru ' s ▁wife ▁in ▁sout heast ▁Asia ▁is ▁the ▁same ▁H indu ▁de ity ▁D urg a , ▁who ▁has ▁been ▁popular ▁since ▁ancient ▁times , ▁and ▁she ▁too ▁has ▁a ▁complex ▁character ▁with ▁bene vol ent ▁and ▁fier ce ▁manifest ations , ▁each ▁visual ized ▁with ▁different ▁names ▁such ▁as ▁U ma , ▁Sri , ▁K ali ▁and ▁others . R . ▁Gh ose ▁( 1 9 6 6 ), ▁Sa iv ism ▁in ▁Indones ia ▁during ▁the ▁H |
indu - J avan ese ▁period , ▁The ▁University ▁of ▁Hong ▁Kong ▁Press , ▁pages ▁ 1 5 – 1 7 ▁Sh iva ▁has ▁been ▁called ▁S adas iva , ▁Param as iva , ▁Mah ade va ▁in ▁bene vol ent ▁forms , ▁and ▁K ala , ▁Bh ai ra va , ▁Mah ak ala ▁in ▁his ▁fier ce ▁forms . ▁The ▁Indones ian ▁H indu ▁texts ▁present ▁the ▁same ▁philosoph ical ▁divers ity ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁trad itions ▁found ▁on ▁the ▁sub cont inent . ▁However , ▁among ▁the ▁texts ▁that ▁have ▁surv ived ▁into ▁the ▁contemporary ▁era , ▁the ▁more ▁common ▁are ▁of ▁those ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁S idd h anta ▁( loc ally ▁also ▁called ▁Si wa ▁S idd h anta , ▁S rid anta ). ▁ ▁As ▁Bh ak ti ▁movement ▁ideas ▁spread ▁in ▁South ▁India , ▁Sh a iv ite ▁dev ot ional ism ▁became ▁a ▁pot ent ▁movement ▁in ▁K arn ata ka ▁and ▁T amil ▁N adu . ▁Sh a iv ism ▁was ▁adopted ▁by ▁several ▁r uling ▁H indu ▁dynast ies ▁as ▁the ▁state ▁religion ▁( though ▁other ▁H indu ▁trad itions , ▁Buddh ism ▁and ▁J ain ism ▁continued ▁in ▁parallel ), ▁including ▁the ▁Ch ola ▁and ▁the ▁Raj put s . ▁A ▁similar ▁tr end ▁was ▁witness ed ▁in ▁early ▁medieval ▁Indones ia ▁with ▁the ▁Maj ap ah it ▁emp ire ▁and ▁pre - I sl am ic ▁Mal aya . For ▁more ▁on ▁the ▁subject ▁of ▁Sa iv ite |
▁influence ▁on ▁Indones ia , ▁one ▁could ▁read ▁N . J . K rom , ▁In le iding ▁tot ▁de ▁H ind oe - Java ans che ▁Kunst / Introduction ▁to ▁H indu - J avan ese ▁Art , ▁The ▁H ague , ▁Martin us ▁N ij hof , ▁ 1 9 2 3 ▁In ▁the ▁H imal ay an ▁H indu ▁kingdom ▁of ▁Nep al , ▁Sh a iv ism ▁remained ▁a ▁popular ▁form ▁of ▁H indu ism ▁and ▁co - e vol ved ▁with ▁Mah ay ana ▁and ▁V aj ray ana ▁Buddh ism . ▁ ▁Sh akt ism ▁The ▁god dess ▁tradition ▁of ▁H indu ism ▁called ▁Sh akt ism ▁is ▁closely ▁related ▁to ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁In ▁many ▁regions ▁of ▁India , ▁not ▁only ▁did ▁the ▁ideas ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁influence ▁the ▁evolution ▁of ▁Sh akt ism , ▁Sh a iv ism ▁itself ▁got ▁influenced ▁by ▁it ▁and ▁progress ively ▁sub sum ed ▁the ▁rever ence ▁for ▁the ▁divine ▁femin ine ▁( De vi ) ▁as ▁an ▁equal ▁and ▁essential ▁partner ▁of ▁divine ▁mascul ine ▁( Sh iva ). ▁The ▁god dess ▁Sh ak ti ▁in ▁eastern ▁states ▁of ▁India ▁is ▁considered ▁as ▁the ▁in separ able ▁partner ▁of ▁god ▁Sh iva . ▁According ▁to ▁Gal vin ▁Flo od , ▁the ▁clos eness ▁between ▁Sh a iv ism ▁and ▁Sh akt ism ▁trad itions ▁is ▁such ▁that ▁these ▁trad itions ▁of ▁H indu ism ▁are ▁at ▁times ▁difficult ▁to ▁separate . ▁Some ▁Sh a iva |
▁worship ▁in ▁Sh iva ▁and ▁Sh ak ti ▁tem ples . ▁ ▁Sm arta ▁Trad ition ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Sm arta ▁Trad ition , ▁sometimes ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁Sm art ism , ▁another ▁tradition ▁of ▁H indu ism . ▁The ▁Sm arta ▁H ind us ▁are ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁Adv ait a ▁V ed anta ▁the ology , ▁and ▁their ▁practices ▁include ▁an ▁inter im ▁step ▁that ▁incorpor ates ▁simultane ous ▁rever ence ▁for ▁five ▁de ities , ▁which ▁includes ▁Sh iva ▁along ▁with ▁V ish nu , ▁S ury a , ▁De vi ▁and ▁G anes ha . ▁This ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁Pan ch ay at ana ▁pu ja . ▁The ▁Sm art as ▁thus ▁accept ▁the ▁primary ▁de ity ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁as ▁a ▁means ▁to ▁their ▁spiritual ▁goals . ▁ ▁Philosoph ically , ▁the ▁Sm arta ▁tradition ▁emphas izes ▁that ▁all ▁id ols ▁( m ur ti ) ▁are ▁icons ▁of ▁sag una ▁Bra h man , ▁a ▁means ▁to ▁real izing ▁the ▁abstract ▁Ult imate ▁Re ality ▁called ▁n ir g una ▁Bra h man . ▁The ▁five ▁or ▁six ▁icons ▁are ▁seen ▁by ▁Sm art as ▁as ▁multiple ▁representations ▁of ▁the ▁one ▁S ag una ▁Bra h man ▁( i . e ., ▁a ▁personal ▁God ▁with ▁form ), ▁rather ▁than ▁as ▁distinct ▁be ings . ▁The ▁ult imate ▁goal ▁in ▁this ▁practice ▁is ▁to ▁transition ▁past ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁icons , ▁then ▁follow ▁a ▁philosoph ical ▁and ▁med itative ▁path ▁to |
▁understanding ▁the ▁on eness ▁of ▁At man ▁( s oul , ▁self ) ▁and ▁Bra h man ▁( met aph ys ical ▁reality ) ▁– ▁as ▁" That ▁art ▁Th ou ". The ▁Four ▁Den omin ations ▁of ▁H indu ism ▁, ▁Bas ics ▁of ▁H indu ism , ▁K au ai ▁H indu ▁Mon aster y ▁ ▁Pan ch ay at ana ▁pu ja ▁that ▁incorpor ates ▁Sh iva ▁became ▁popular ▁in ▁medieval ▁India ▁and ▁is ▁attributed ▁to ▁ 8 th ▁century ▁Ad i ▁Sh ank ara , ▁but ▁arch ae ological ▁evidence ▁suggests ▁that ▁this ▁practice ▁long ▁pred ates ▁the ▁birth ▁of ▁Ad i ▁Sh ank ara . ▁Many ▁Pan ch ay at ana ▁mand al as ▁and ▁tem ples ▁have ▁been ▁un cover ed ▁that ▁are ▁from ▁the ▁Gu pta ▁Empire ▁period , ▁and ▁one ▁Pan ch ay at ana ▁set ▁from ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁N and ▁( about ▁ 2 4 ▁kilom eters ▁from ▁A j mer ) ▁has ▁been ▁dated ▁to ▁belong ▁to ▁the ▁K ush an ▁Empire ▁era ▁( pre - 3 0 0 ▁CE ). ▁According ▁to ▁James ▁Har le , ▁major ▁H indu ▁tem ples ▁from ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁CE ▁commonly ▁embedded ▁the ▁p anc ay at ana ▁architecture , ▁from ▁Od ish a ▁to ▁K arn ata ka ▁to ▁K ash mir . ▁Lar ge ▁tem ples ▁often ▁present ▁multiple ▁de ities ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁temple ▁complex , ▁while ▁some ▁explicitly ▁include ▁fusion ▁de ities ▁such ▁as ▁H ari h |
ara ▁( half ▁Sh iva , ▁half ▁V ish nu ). ▁ ▁Va ish nav ism ▁ ▁Va ish n ava ▁texts ▁rever entially ▁mention ▁Sh iva . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁V ish nu ▁Pur ana ▁primarily ▁focus es ▁on ▁the ▁the ology ▁of ▁H indu ▁god ▁V ish nu ▁and ▁his ▁av at ars ▁such ▁as ▁Kr ish na , ▁but ▁it ▁pra ises ▁Bra h ma ▁and ▁Sh iva ▁and ▁as ser ts ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁one ▁with ▁V ish nu . ▁The ▁V ish nu ▁Sah as ran ama ▁in ▁the ▁Mah ab har ata ▁list ▁a ▁thousand ▁attributes ▁and ▁ep ith ets ▁of ▁V ish nu . ▁The ▁list ▁ident ifies ▁Sh iva ▁with ▁V ish nu . ▁ ▁Re ver ential ▁inclusion ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁ideas ▁and ▁icon ography ▁are ▁very ▁common ▁in ▁major ▁Va ish n ava ▁tem ples , ▁such ▁as ▁Dak sh in am ur ti ▁symbol ism ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁thought ▁is ▁often ▁en sh r ined ▁on ▁the ▁southern ▁wall ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁temple ▁of ▁major ▁Va ish n ava ▁tem ples ▁in ▁pen ins ular ▁India . ▁H ari h ara ▁tem ples ▁in ▁and ▁outside ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent ▁have ▁histor ically ▁combined ▁Sh iva ▁and ▁V ish nu , ▁such ▁as ▁at ▁the ▁L ing ar aj ▁Mah ap rab hu ▁temple ▁in ▁Bh ub an esh war , ▁Od ish a . ▁According ▁to ▁Julius ▁Lip ner , ▁Va ish nav ism ▁trad itions ▁such |
▁as ▁Sri ▁Va ish nav ism ▁em brace ▁Sh iva , ▁G anes ha ▁and ▁others , ▁not ▁as ▁distinct ▁de ities ▁of ▁poly the ism , ▁but ▁as ▁polym orph ic ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁supre me ▁divine ▁principle , ▁providing ▁the ▁dev ote e ▁a ▁poly cent ric ▁access ▁to ▁the ▁spiritual . ▁ ▁Similarly , ▁Sh a iva ▁trad itions ▁have ▁rever entially ▁emb rac ed ▁other ▁gods ▁and ▁god d esses ▁as ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁divine . ▁The ▁Sk anda ▁Pur ana , ▁for ▁example ▁in ▁section ▁ 6 . 2 5 4 . 1 0 0 ▁states , ▁" He ▁who ▁is ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁V ish nu , ▁he ▁who ▁is ▁V ish nu ▁is ▁Sad ash iva ". ▁ ▁Sa ura ism ▁( S un ▁de ity ) ▁The ▁sun ▁god ▁called ▁S ury a ▁is ▁an ▁ancient ▁de ity ▁of ▁H indu ism , ▁and ▁several ▁ancient ▁H indu ▁kingdom s ▁particularly ▁in ▁the ▁north west ▁and ▁eastern ▁regions ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent ▁rever ed ▁S ury a . ▁These ▁dev ote es ▁called ▁Sa uras ▁once ▁had ▁a ▁large ▁cor pus ▁of ▁the ological ▁texts , ▁and ▁Sh a iv ism ▁literature ▁rever entially ▁acknowled ges ▁these . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁Sh a iva ▁text ▁S rik anth iy as am h ita ▁mentions ▁ 8 5 ▁Sa ura ▁texts , ▁almost ▁all ▁of ▁which ▁are ▁believed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁lost ▁during ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁invasion ▁and ▁rule |
▁period , ▁except ▁for ▁large ▁ex cer pts ▁found ▁embedded ▁in ▁Sh a iva ▁manuscript s ▁discovered ▁in ▁the ▁H imal ay an ▁mountains . ▁Sh a iv ism ▁incorpor ated ▁Sa ura ▁ideas , ▁and ▁the ▁surv iving ▁Sa ura ▁manuscript s ▁such ▁as ▁Sa uras am h ita ▁acknow ledge ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁according ▁to ▁Alex is ▁Sand erson , ▁assigning ▁" its elf ▁to ▁the ▁canon ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁text ▁V ath ula - K al ott ara . ▁ ▁Y oga ▁movements ▁ ▁Y oga ▁and ▁med itation ▁has ▁been ▁an ▁integral ▁part ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁and ▁it ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁major ▁innov ator ▁of ▁techniques ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁of ▁H ath a ▁Y oga . Alex is ▁Sand erson ▁( 1 9 9 9 ), ▁Y O GA ▁IN ▁Ś A IV IS M ▁, ▁Oxford ▁University , ▁pages ▁ 1 - 7 ▁Many ▁major ▁Sh iva ▁tem ples ▁and ▁Sh a iva ▁tr ith a ▁( p il gr image ) ▁cent ers ▁dep ict ▁anth rop omorphic ▁icon ography ▁of ▁Sh iva ▁as ▁a ▁giant ▁statue ▁where in ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁a ▁lon er ▁y og i ▁med it ating , ▁as ▁do ▁Sh a iva ▁texts . ▁ ▁In ▁several ▁Sh a iva ▁trad itions ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁K ash mir ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁anyone ▁who ▁see ks ▁personal ▁understanding ▁and ▁spiritual ▁growth ▁has ▁been ▁called ▁a ▁Y og i . ▁The ▁Sh iva |
▁S ut ras ▁( ap hor isms ) ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁teach ▁y oga ▁in ▁many ▁forms . ▁According ▁to ▁Mark ▁D ycz kow ski , ▁y oga ▁– ▁which ▁literally ▁means ▁" union " ▁– ▁to ▁this ▁tradition ▁has ▁meant ▁the ▁" real isation ▁of ▁our ▁true ▁inher ent ▁nature ▁which ▁is ▁inher ently ▁greater ▁than ▁our ▁thoughts ▁can ▁ever ▁conce ive ", ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁goal ▁of ▁y oga ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁" free , ▁et ernal , ▁bl iss ful , ▁perfect , ▁infinite ▁spirit ually ▁conscious " ▁one ▁is . ▁ ▁Many ▁Y oga - emph as izing ▁Sh a iva ▁trad itions ▁emer ged ▁in ▁medieval ▁India , ▁who ▁ref ined ▁y oga ▁methods ▁such ▁as ▁by ▁introdu cing ▁H ath a ▁Y oga ▁techniques . ▁One ▁such ▁movement ▁had ▁been ▁the ▁N ath ▁Y og is , ▁a ▁Sh a iv ism ▁sub - trad ition ▁that ▁integrated ▁philosophy ▁from ▁Adv ait a ▁V ed anta ▁and ▁Buddh ism ▁trad itions . ▁It ▁was ▁founded ▁by ▁M ats y end ran ath ▁and ▁further ▁developed ▁by ▁Gor ak sh an ath . ▁The ▁texts ▁of ▁these ▁Y oga ▁emphas izing ▁H indu ▁trad itions ▁present ▁their ▁ideas ▁in ▁Sh a iva ▁context . ▁ ▁H indu ▁performance ▁arts ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁the ▁lord ▁of ▁dance ▁and ▁dram atic ▁arts ▁in ▁H indu ism . ▁This ▁is ▁celebrated ▁in ▁Sh a iva ▁tem ples ▁as ▁N atar aja , ▁which ▁typically ▁shows ▁Sh iva ▁dan |
cing ▁in ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁pos es ▁in ▁the ▁ancient ▁H indu ▁text ▁on ▁performance ▁arts ▁called ▁the ▁Nat ya ▁Sh ast ra . ▁ ▁Dan cing ▁Sh iva ▁as ▁a ▁met ap hor ▁for ▁celebr ating ▁life ▁and ▁arts ▁is ▁very ▁common ▁in ▁ancient ▁and ▁medieval ▁H indu ▁tem ples . ▁For ▁example , ▁it ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Bad ami ▁cave ▁tem ples , ▁Ell ora ▁C aves , ▁Kh aj ur aho , ▁Ch id amb aram ▁and ▁others . ▁The ▁Sh a iva ▁link ▁to ▁the ▁performance ▁arts ▁is ▁celebrated ▁in ▁Indian ▁classical ▁d ances ▁such ▁as ▁B har atan aty am ▁and ▁Ch h au . ▁ ▁Buddh ism ▁Buddh ism ▁and ▁Sh a iv ism ▁have ▁interact ed ▁and ▁influenced ▁each ▁other ▁since ▁ancient ▁times , ▁in ▁both ▁South ▁Asia ▁and ▁S out heast ▁Asia . ▁Their ▁S idd has ▁and ▁es oter ic ▁trad itions , ▁in ▁particular , ▁have ▁over la pped ▁to ▁an ▁extent ▁where ▁Buddh ists ▁and ▁H ind us ▁would ▁worship ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁temple ▁such ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁Set o ▁Mach ind ran ath . ▁In ▁sout heast ▁Asia , ▁the ▁two ▁trad itions ▁were ▁not ▁presented ▁in ▁compet itive ▁or ▁po lem ical ▁terms , ▁rather ▁as ▁two ▁alternate ▁paths ▁that ▁lead ▁to ▁the ▁same ▁goals ▁of ▁liber ation , ▁with ▁the olog ians ▁disag ree ing ▁which ▁of ▁these ▁is ▁faster ▁and ▁simpler . ▁Sch ol ars ▁disag ree ▁whether ▁a ▁syn cret ic ▁tradition ▁emer ged ▁from ▁Buddh ism |
▁and ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁or ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁coal ition ▁with ▁free ▁borrow ing ▁of ▁ideas , ▁but ▁they ▁agree ▁that ▁the ▁two ▁trad itions ▁co - ex isted ▁peace fully . ▁ ▁The ▁earliest ▁evidence ▁of ▁a ▁close ▁relationship ▁between ▁Sh a iv ism ▁and ▁Buddh ism ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁arch ae ological ▁sites ▁and ▁dam aged ▁sculpt ures ▁from ▁the ▁north west ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent , ▁such ▁as ▁Gand h ara . ▁These ▁are ▁dated ▁to ▁about ▁the ▁ 1 st - century ▁CE , ▁with ▁Sh iva ▁dep icted ▁in ▁Buddh ist ▁arts . ▁The ▁Buddh ist ▁A val ok ites h var a ▁is ▁linked ▁to ▁Sh iva ▁in ▁many ▁of ▁these ▁arts , ▁but ▁in ▁others ▁Sh iva ▁is ▁linked ▁to ▁Bod his att va ▁M ait re ya ▁with ▁he ▁shown ▁as ▁carrying ▁his ▁own ▁water ▁pot ▁like ▁V edic ▁pri ests . ▁According ▁to ▁Richard ▁Bl ur ton , ▁the ▁ancient ▁works ▁show ▁that ▁the ▁Bod his att va ▁of ▁Com pass ion ▁in ▁Buddh ism ▁has ▁many ▁features ▁in ▁common ▁with ▁Sh iva ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁The ▁Sh a iva ▁H indu ▁and ▁Buddh ist ▁syn cret ism ▁continues ▁in ▁the ▁contemporary ▁era ▁in ▁the ▁island ▁of ▁B ali , ▁Indones ia . ▁In ▁Central ▁Asian ▁Buddh ism , ▁and ▁its ▁historic ▁arts , ▁syn cret ism ▁and ▁a ▁shared ▁expression ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism , ▁Buddh ism ▁and ▁T ant ra ▁them es ▁has ▁been ▁common . |
▁ ▁The ▁syn cret ism ▁between ▁Buddh ism ▁and ▁Sh a iv ism ▁was ▁particularly ▁marked ▁in ▁sout heast ▁Asia , ▁but ▁this ▁was ▁not ▁unique , ▁rather ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁common ▁phenomen on ▁also ▁observed ▁in ▁the ▁eastern ▁regions ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent , ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁the ▁H imal ay an ▁regions . ▁This ▁tradition ▁continues ▁in ▁pre domin antly ▁H indu ▁B ali ▁Indones ia ▁in ▁the ▁modern ▁era , ▁where ▁Bud d ha ▁is ▁considered ▁the ▁younger ▁brother ▁of ▁Sh iva . ▁In ▁the ▁pre - I sl am ic ▁Java , ▁Sh a iv ism ▁and ▁Buddh ism ▁were ▁considered ▁very ▁close ▁and ▁al lied ▁relig ions , ▁though ▁not ▁identical ▁relig ions . ▁This ▁idea ▁is ▁also ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁sculpt ures ▁and ▁tem ples ▁in ▁the ▁eastern ▁states ▁of ▁India ▁and ▁the ▁H imal ay an ▁region . ▁For ▁example , ▁H indu ▁tem ples ▁in ▁these ▁regions ▁show ▁H ari h ara ▁( half ▁Sh iva , ▁half ▁V ish nu ) ▁fl ank ed ▁by ▁a ▁standing ▁Bud d ha ▁on ▁its ▁right ▁and ▁a ▁standing ▁S ury a ▁( H indu ▁Sun ▁god ) ▁on ▁left . R k ▁Sah u ▁( 2 0 1 1 ), ▁Icon ography ▁of ▁S ury a ▁in ▁the ▁Temple ▁Art ▁of ▁Od ish a ▁, ▁Or issa ▁Review , ▁Volume ▁ 1 1 , ▁page ▁ 3 1 ▁ ▁On ▁major ▁festiv als ▁of ▁B ali ▁H ind us , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Ny |
ep i ▁– ▁a ▁" f estival ▁of ▁silence ", ▁the ▁observations ▁are ▁offici ated ▁by ▁both ▁Buddh ist ▁and ▁Sh a iva ▁pri ests . ▁ ▁J ain ism ▁J ain ism ▁co - ex isted ▁with ▁Sh a iva ▁culture ▁since ▁ancient ▁times , ▁particularly ▁in ▁western ▁and ▁southern ▁India ▁where ▁it ▁received ▁royal ▁support ▁from ▁H indu ▁k ings ▁of ▁Cha ul uk ya , ▁G anga ▁and ▁Ras ht rak uta ▁dynast ies . ▁In ▁late ▁ 1 st ▁mill en ni um ▁CE , ▁J ain ism ▁too ▁developed ▁a ▁Sh a iva - like ▁tant ric ▁rit ual ▁culture ▁with ▁Mant ra - god d esses . ▁These ▁J ain ▁rit uals ▁were ▁aim ed ▁at ▁m und ane ▁benefits ▁using ▁jap as ▁( m ant ra ▁rec itation ) ▁and ▁making ▁offer ings ▁into ▁H oma ▁fire . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Alex is ▁Sand erson , ▁the ▁link ▁and ▁development ▁of ▁Sh a iva ▁god d esses ▁into ▁J ain a ▁god dess ▁is ▁more ▁transparent ▁than ▁a ▁similar ▁connection ▁between ▁Sh a iv ism ▁and ▁Buddh ism . ▁The ▁ 1 1 th - century ▁J ain ▁text ▁‘ ’ B hai rav ap ad m av at ikal pa ’ ’ , ▁for ▁example , ▁equ ates ▁Pad m av ati ▁of ▁J ain ism ▁with ▁T rip ura - b hai ra vi ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁and ▁Sh akt ism . ▁Among ▁the ▁major ▁god d esses ▁of ▁J ain ism |
▁that ▁are ▁root ed ▁in ▁H indu ▁p ant he on , ▁particularly ▁Sh a iva , ▁include ▁Lak sh mi ▁and ▁V ag ish vari ▁( S ar as v ati ) ▁of ▁the ▁higher ▁world ▁in ▁J ain ▁cosm ology , ▁Vid y ade vis ▁of ▁the ▁middle ▁world , ▁and ▁Y ak sh is ▁such ▁as ▁Amb ika , ▁C ak resh vari , ▁Pad m av ati ▁and ▁J val am al ini ▁of ▁the ▁lower ▁world ▁according ▁to ▁J ain ism . ▁ ▁Sh a iva - Sh ak ti ▁icon ography ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁major ▁J ain ▁tem ples . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁Os ian ▁temple ▁of ▁J ain ism ▁near ▁J od h pur ▁features ▁Cham unda , ▁D urg a , ▁S ital a , ▁and ▁a ▁n aked ▁Bh ai ra va . ▁While ▁Sh a iva ▁and ▁J ain ▁practices ▁had ▁considerable ▁overlap , ▁the ▁interaction ▁between ▁the ▁J ain ▁community ▁and ▁Sh a iva ▁community ▁differ ed ▁on ▁the ▁accept ance ▁of ▁rit ual ▁animal ▁sacrific es ▁before ▁god d esses . ▁J ain ▁remained ▁strictly ▁veget arian ▁and ▁avoided ▁animal ▁sacrifice , ▁while ▁Sh a iva ▁accepted ▁the ▁practice . ▁ ▁Tem ples ▁and ▁pil gr image ▁ ▁Sh a iva ▁Pur anas , ▁Ag am as ▁and ▁other ▁regional ▁literature ▁refer ▁to ▁tem ples ▁by ▁various ▁terms ▁such ▁as ▁Mand ir , ▁Sh iv ay at ana , ▁Sh ival aya , ▁Sh amb h un ath a , |
▁J y ot ir ling am , ▁S hr is th ala , ▁Ch att ra ka , ▁B hav agg ana , ▁B hu van esh var a , ▁G op ut ika , ▁Har ay at ana , ▁K ail asha , ▁Mah ade v ag ri ha , ▁Sa ud h ala ▁and ▁others . ▁In ▁S out heast ▁Asia ▁Sh a iva ▁tem ples ▁are ▁called ▁Cand i ▁( Java ), ▁P ura ▁( B ali ), ▁and ▁Wat ▁( C amb odia ▁and ▁nearby ▁regions ). ▁ ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁Sh iva - related ▁pil gr image ▁sites ▁such ▁as ▁Var an asi , ▁Am arn ath , ▁K ed arn ath , ▁Som n ath , ▁and ▁others ▁are ▁broad ly ▁considered ▁holy ▁in ▁H indu ism . ▁They ▁are ▁called ▁k ṣ ét ra ▁( S ansk rit : ▁ क ् ष े त ् र ). ▁A ▁k ṣ ét ra ▁has ▁many ▁tem ples , ▁including ▁one ▁or ▁more ▁major ▁ones . ▁These ▁tem ples ▁and ▁its ▁location ▁attract s ▁pil gr image ▁called ▁t irth a ▁( or ▁t irth ay atra ). ▁ ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁historic ▁Pur anas ▁literature ▁embed ▁tour ism ▁guide ▁to ▁Sh a iv ism - related ▁pil gr image ▁cent ers ▁and ▁tem ples . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁Sk anda ▁Pur ana ▁de als ▁primarily ▁with ▁T irth a ▁Mah at my as ▁( p il gr image ▁travel ▁gu ides ) ▁to ▁numerous ▁ge |
ographical ▁points , ▁but ▁also ▁includes ▁a ▁chapter ▁stating ▁that ▁a ▁temple ▁and ▁t irth a ▁is ▁ultimately ▁a ▁state ▁of ▁mind ▁and ▁virt uous ▁every day ▁life . ▁ ▁Major ▁rivers ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub cont inent ▁and ▁their ▁confl u ence ▁( s ang am ), ▁natural ▁spr ings , ▁origin ▁of ▁G anges ▁River ▁( and ▁pan cha - gang a ), ▁along ▁with ▁high ▁mountains ▁such ▁as ▁K ail asha ▁with ▁Mans ov ar ▁Lake ▁are ▁particularly ▁rever ed ▁sp ots ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism . ▁Tw elve ▁j y ot ir ling a ▁sites ▁across ▁India ▁have ▁been ▁particularly ▁important ▁pil gr image ▁sites ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism ▁representing ▁the ▁radi ant ▁light ▁( j y oti ) ▁of ▁inf init eness , H arding ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁pp . ▁ 1 5 8 - 1 5 8 ▁as ▁per ▁Ś iva ▁Mah ā pur ā ṇ a . ▁They ▁are ▁Som n ath a , ▁Mal lik ar j una , ▁Mah ak ales h war , ▁O mk ares h war , ▁K ed arn ath a , ▁Bh im ash ank ar , ▁V ish esh var a , ▁T ray amb akes var a , ▁Va id yan ath a , ▁N ages h var a , ▁R ames h var a ▁and ▁Gr ish nes h war . ▁Other ▁texts ▁mention ▁five ▁K ed ras ▁( K ed arn ath a , ▁T ung an ath a , |
▁Rud ran ath a , ▁Mad hy ames var a ▁and ▁Kal pes h var a ), ▁five ▁Bad ri ▁( B adr in ath a , ▁P and uk esh var a , ▁Su j nan ien , ▁An ni ▁math a ▁and ▁Ur gh ava ), ▁snow ▁ling am ▁of ▁Am arn ath a , ▁fl ame ▁of ▁J wal am uk hi , ▁all ▁of ▁the ▁N arm ada ▁River , ▁and ▁others . ▁K ashi ▁( Var an asi ) ▁is ▁declared ▁as ▁particularly ▁special ▁in ▁numerous ▁Sh a iva ▁texts ▁and ▁Up an ish ads , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁pan - H indu ▁S anny asa ▁Up an ish ads ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁J ab ala ▁Up an ish ad ' '. ▁ ▁The ▁early ▁Bh ak ti ▁movement ▁po ets ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁composed ▁po ems ▁about ▁pil gr image ▁and ▁tem ples , ▁using ▁these ▁sites ▁as ▁met aph ors ▁for ▁internal ▁spiritual ▁journey . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Ein ▁Sof ▁ ▁H indu ▁denomin ations ▁ ▁History ▁of ▁Sh a iv ism ▁ ▁J ang am ▁L ing ay at ▁ ▁S idd ha ▁ ▁Soph ia ▁( w is dom ) ▁ ▁S uf ism ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Cit ations ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁▁▁ ▁( four th ▁re vised ▁& ▁en larg ed ▁edition ). ▁▁▁▁ ▁Third ▁A ES ▁repr int ▁edition , ▁ 1 9 9 5 . ▁▁ ▁Four ▁volumes . ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ |
▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Second ▁edition . ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Second ▁re vised ▁repr int ▁edition . ▁Two ▁volumes . ▁First ▁published ▁ 1 9 2 7 ▁by ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Cal cut ta . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Encyclop ædia ▁Britannica , ▁" S ha iv ism " ▁Sa iv ism . Net ▁Alex is ▁sand erson , ▁Publications , ▁scholar ly ▁studies ▁in ▁Sh a iv ism ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : The istic ▁Indian ▁philosophy ▁Category : H indu ▁denomin ations ▁Category : Mon othe istic ▁relig ions <0x0A> </s> ▁Bh ut an itis ▁lid der dal ii , ▁the ▁Bh ut an ▁glory , ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁sw allow tail ▁but ter fly ▁( family ▁Pap il ion idae ), ▁which ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Bh ut an , ▁parts ▁of ▁n ort he astern ▁India ▁and ▁of ▁S out heast ▁Asia . ▁A ▁spect ac ular ▁insect ▁much ▁sought ▁after ▁by ▁collect ors , ▁the ▁species ▁ep ith et ▁is ▁after ▁Dr ▁R . ▁L id der dale , ▁from ▁whose ▁collection ▁the ▁but ter fly ▁was ▁first ▁described ▁by ▁William ▁Stephen ▁At kin son ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 3 . ▁List ed ▁under ▁C IT ES ▁Append ix ▁II , ▁the ▁status ▁of ▁the ▁but ter fly ▁has ▁been ▁recorded ▁as ▁rare ▁by ▁some ▁authorities ▁but ▁as ▁being ▁of ▁least ▁concern ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁by ▁the ▁Red ▁Book ▁of ▁the ▁IU CN . ▁ ▁Description ▁▁ ▁The ▁sex es ▁of ▁the ▁Bh ut an ▁glory ▁are ▁identical ▁in ▁appearance , |
▁having ▁long ▁rounded ▁for ew ings ▁with ▁convex ▁term en ▁and ▁many - ta iled ▁h ind w ings . ▁The ▁but ter fly ▁is ▁d ull ▁black ▁above ▁with ▁sl im , ▁w avy , ▁cre am - col oured ▁stri ations ▁running ▁vert ically ▁across ▁the ▁wings . ▁A bove , ▁the ▁h ind wing ▁has ▁a ▁prominent , ▁large ▁torn al ▁patch ▁with ▁yellow - or ange ▁lun ules ▁border ing ▁the ▁t ails , ▁central ▁bl u ish - black ▁patch es ▁with ▁white ▁o cel li ▁and ▁a ▁crim son ▁post - dis cal ▁band ▁on ▁the ▁inner ▁edge . ▁Below , ▁the ▁base ▁colour ▁is ▁gre yer , ▁the ▁stri ations ▁are ▁pron ounced ▁and ▁the ▁colours ▁sub du ed ▁or ▁pal er . ▁ ▁The ▁detailed ▁description ▁provided ▁by ▁Charles ▁Thomas ▁B ingham ▁( 1 9 0 7 ) ▁is ▁as ▁follows : ▁ ▁W ings pan : ▁ 9 0 – 1 1 0 mm . ▁ ▁Distribution ▁▁ ▁The ▁but ter fly ▁was ▁described ▁by ▁William ▁Stephen ▁At kin son ▁in ▁the ▁Pro ceed ings ▁of ▁the ▁Zo ological ▁Society ▁of ▁London ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 3 . ▁He ▁writes : ▁ ▁George ▁Tal bot ▁in ▁The ▁Fa una ▁of ▁British ▁India , ▁In cluding ▁C ey lon ▁and ▁Bur ma ▁( 1 9 3 9 ) ▁provides ▁some ▁interesting ▁detail : ▁▁ ▁The ▁but ter fly ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Bh ut an ▁and ▁n ort he astern ▁India ▁( Ass am |
, ▁S ik kim , ▁Man ip ur ▁and ▁Nag aland ). ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁found ▁in ▁northern ▁My an mar , ▁Th ailand , ▁Vietnam , ▁La os ▁and ▁S zech wan ▁and ▁Y unn an ▁provinces ▁of ▁China . ▁ ▁Tax onomy ▁▁ ▁There ▁are ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁four ▁sub species ▁of ▁B . ▁lid der dal ii . ▁These ▁sub species ▁( with ▁type ▁local ities ) ▁are : ▁▁ ▁B . ▁lid der dal ii ▁lid der dal ii ▁At kin son ▁ 1 8 7 3 ▁- ▁( n omin ate ) ▁B ux a , ▁Bh ut an ▁ ▁B . ▁lid der dal ii ▁spin osa ▁St ich el , ▁ 1 9 0 7 ▁- ▁S ich uan , ▁China ▁ ▁B . ▁lid der dal ii ▁o cell atom ac ul ata ▁I gar ashi , ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁- ▁Chi ang ▁Mai , ▁northern ▁Th ailand ▁ ▁B . ▁lid der dal ii ▁no bu co ae ▁Mor ita , ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁- ▁north ▁K ach in , ▁My an mar ▁ ▁Status ▁▁ ▁The ▁Bh ut an ▁glory ▁has ▁been ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁" rare " ▁by ▁Indian ▁authors ▁such ▁as ▁William ▁Harry ▁Evans ▁( 1 9 3 2 ), ▁Mark ▁Alexander ▁W yn ter - B ly th ▁( 1 9 5 7 ) ▁and ▁Isaac ▁Ke him kar ▁( 2 0 0 9 ). ▁The ▁nomin ate ▁sub species ▁is ▁protected ▁under ▁law ▁in ▁India |
. ▁ ▁However ▁Collins ▁and ▁Morris ▁( 1 9 8 5 ) ▁in ▁the ▁IU CN ▁Red ▁Data ▁Book ▁on ▁the ▁threatened ▁sw allow t ails ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁gives ▁it ▁a ▁status ▁of ▁" ins u fficient ly ▁known " ▁arg uing ▁that ▁the ▁Bh ut an ▁glory ▁is ▁widely ▁distributed ▁and ▁hence ▁unlikely ▁to ▁be ▁in ▁danger ▁at ▁the ▁moment ▁though ▁more ▁information ▁is ▁needed ▁on ▁this ▁compar atively ▁poor ly ▁known ▁species . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁it ▁was ▁listed ▁as ▁a ▁least ▁concern ▁species ▁in ▁the ▁Red ▁List ▁of ▁the ▁IU CN . ▁International ▁trade ▁in ▁B . ▁lid der dal ii ▁is ▁restricted ▁under ▁C IT ES ▁Append ix ▁II . ▁ ▁Hab itat ▁loss ▁due ▁to ▁excess ive ▁f elling ▁of ▁for ests ▁may ▁be ▁a ▁significant ▁threat ▁region ally . ▁ ▁The ▁Th ai ▁sub species , ▁found ▁in ▁northern ▁Th ailand ▁around ▁Chi ang ▁Mai ▁is ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁re lict ▁population ▁and ▁hundreds ▁of ▁spec im ens ▁were ▁collected ▁ann ually ▁for ▁the ▁spec imen . ▁It ▁is ▁now ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁ext inct , ▁probably ▁due ▁to ▁loss ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁and ▁damage ▁to ▁its ▁habitat ▁by ▁forest ▁fire . ▁ ▁Hab itat ▁▁ ▁B . ▁lid der dal ii ▁f lies ▁from ▁ ▁in ▁its ▁Indian ▁range . ▁It ▁generally ▁keeps ▁to ▁the ▁rid ges ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁valle ys . ▁ ▁Hab its ▁▁ ▁F lies ▁at ▁tree - top ▁level , ▁with ▁a ▁slow , |
▁dr ifting , ▁un predict able ▁flight ▁a kin ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁tree ▁n ym ph ▁( I de a ▁l yn ce us ). ▁The ▁but ter f lies ▁transparent ▁grey ish ▁unders ide ▁makes ▁it ▁difficult ▁to ▁distinguish ▁in ▁the ▁sh adows . ▁During ▁rain , ▁it ▁s its ▁on ▁leaves ▁with ▁the ▁for ew ings ▁dro oped ▁over ▁the ▁h ind w ings , ▁conce aling ▁its ▁bright ▁upper ▁colour ation . ▁The ▁but ter fly ▁has ▁a ▁habit ▁of ▁hill - to pping ▁and ▁vis its ▁flowers ▁of ▁diverse ▁species . ▁ ▁Life ▁cycle ▁▁ ▁It ▁is ▁known ▁to ▁have ▁two ▁bro ods ▁- ▁the ▁first ▁in ▁May ▁and ▁June ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁from ▁August ▁to ▁October . ▁L ik ely ▁to ▁be ▁un pal atable ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁food ▁plant ▁being ▁Ar istol och ia ▁species . ▁ ▁Food ▁plant ▁▁ ▁Lar va ▁on ▁Ar istol och ia ▁species ▁such ▁as ▁A . ▁ka emp fer ii , ▁A . ▁mand sh uri ensis , ▁A . ▁gr iff ith ii , ▁A . ▁sh im ada i ▁and ▁A . ▁deb ilis ▁( I gar ashi , ▁ 1 9 8 5 , ▁ 1 9 8 9 ). ▁ ▁C ited ▁references ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁Pap il ion idae ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁but ter f lies ▁of ▁India ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁but ter f lies ▁of ▁India ▁( P ap il ion idae ) ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Bh ut an itis ▁lid der |
dal ii ▁on ▁Tree ▁of ▁Life ▁website ▁ ▁Host ▁plants ▁of ▁Bh ut an itis ▁lid der dal ii ▁on ▁H OST S ▁- ▁a ▁Database ▁of ▁the ▁World ' s ▁Le pid opter an ▁Host pl ants . ▁N M N H , ▁London ▁ ▁L ▁Category : But ter f lies ▁of ▁Ind och ina ▁Category : But ter f lies ▁of ▁India ▁Category : In sect s ▁of ▁S out heast ▁Asia ▁Category : In sect s ▁of ▁Th ailand ▁Category : But ter f lies ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 3 ▁Category : T ax a ▁named ▁by ▁William ▁Stephen ▁At kin son <0x0A> </s> ▁__ NOT OC __ ▁ ▁The ▁Burg ess ▁Model ▁H ▁was ▁an ▁early ▁United ▁States ▁air plane ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁air ▁machines ▁specifically ▁designed ▁and ▁built ▁for ▁military ▁use . ▁ ▁History ▁Class ified ▁as ▁the ▁" Model ▁H ▁military ▁tra ctor ", ▁it ▁was ▁developed ▁and ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 2 ▁by ▁Burg ess ▁Company ▁and ▁Curt is , ▁which ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 4 ▁became ▁the ▁Burg ess ▁Company . ▁ ▁Power ed ▁by ▁a ▁ 7 0 hp ▁Ren ault ▁engine ▁with ▁the ▁prop eller ▁in ▁the ▁tra ctor ▁configuration , ▁the ▁bi plane ▁tra iner ▁had ▁tan dem ▁open ▁co ck p its ▁after ▁a ▁red es ign ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 4 ▁by ▁Gro ver ▁Lo ening , ▁then ▁a ▁civil ian ▁engineer ▁with ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Army . |
▁Lo ening ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁person ▁to ▁receive ▁an ▁advanced ▁engineering ▁degree ▁in ▁aer onaut ics , ▁from ▁Columbia ▁University ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 , ▁and ▁later ▁was ▁a ▁found ing ▁member ▁of ▁both ▁St ur te v ant ▁A ircraft ▁Company ▁and ▁Lo ening ▁A ircraft ▁Engineering . ▁ ▁The ▁Aer onaut ical ▁Division , ▁U . S . ▁Sign al ▁Corps ▁purchased ▁its ▁initial ▁Burg ess ▁Model ▁H ▁as ▁Sign al ▁Corps ▁No . ▁ 9 ▁in ▁August ▁ 1 9 1 2 , ▁then ▁five ▁more ▁of ▁the ▁Lo ening ▁design ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁A ero ▁Squadron ▁at ▁North ▁Field , ▁California ▁between ▁November ▁ 1 9 1 3 ▁and ▁July ▁ 1 9 1 4 . ▁They ▁were ▁the ▁ 2 4 th ▁through ▁ 2 8 th ▁aircraft ▁acquired ▁by ▁the ▁Army . ▁A ▁sevent h ▁Model ▁H ▁went ▁to ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Navy , ▁where ▁it ▁was ▁known ▁first ▁as ▁the ▁D - 2 ▁and ▁later ▁as ▁the ▁AB - 7 ▁( He avier - than - air / f lying ▁boat , ▁model ▁ 7 ). ▁ ▁Oper ators ▁ ▁United ▁States ▁Army ▁United ▁States ▁Navy ▁ ▁Spec ifications ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Burg ess ▁Company ▁air plan es , ▁Aer of iles ▁ ▁Model ▁H ▁Category : Single - eng ined ▁tra ctor ▁aircraft ▁Category : Bi plan es ▁Category : 1 9 1 0 s ▁United ▁States ▁military ▁tra iner ▁aircraft <0x0A> </s> ▁Gol am ▁Sab ur ▁T ulu |
▁was ▁a ▁Bang l adesh ▁Aw ami ▁League ▁politician ▁and ▁the ▁inc umb ent ▁Member ▁of ▁Parliament ▁from ▁B arg una - 2 . ▁ ▁Career ▁T ulu ▁was ▁elected ▁to ▁parliament ▁from ▁B arg una - 2 ▁as ▁a ▁Bang l adesh ▁Aw ami ▁League ▁candidate ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁ ▁Death ▁T ulu ▁was ▁killed ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁in ▁a ▁road ▁accident ▁on ▁V anga ▁in ▁Far id pur ▁District . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : B ang l adesh ▁Aw ami ▁League ▁polit icians ▁Category : 2 0 1 3 ▁death s ▁Category : 9 th ▁J ati ya ▁S angs ad ▁members ▁Category : Ro ad ▁incident ▁death s ▁in ▁Bang l adesh <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁yellow - bel lied ▁to ad ▁( B omb ina ▁var ieg ata ) ▁belongs ▁to ▁the ▁order ▁An ura , ▁the ▁arch ae ob at rach ial ▁family ▁Bom bin ator idae , ▁and ▁the ▁genus ▁of ▁fire - bel lied ▁to ads . ▁ ▁Mor ph ology ▁and ▁Phys i ology ▁▁ ▁Spec im ens ▁range ▁from ▁ 2 8 – 5 6 mm , ▁typically ▁we igh ing ▁between ▁ 2 . 3 ▁and ▁ 1 2 ▁g . ▁This ▁places ▁them ▁among ▁the ▁smaller ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁Bom bin ator idae , ▁which ▁can ▁reach ▁sizes ▁of ▁ 7 cm . ▁Their ▁top ▁side ▁is ▁grey - b rown , ▁often ▁with ▁was hed - out |
, ▁bright ▁sp ots . ▁Their ▁under ▁side , ▁including ▁the ▁inner ▁sides ▁of ▁the ▁lim bs , ▁fingers , ▁and ▁to es , ▁is ▁grey - blue ▁to ▁black - blue ▁with ▁striking , ▁bright ▁yellow ▁to ▁orange ▁sp ots ▁or ▁patch es , ▁usually ▁covering ▁more ▁than ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁unders ide . ▁Y ellow - bel lied ▁to ads ▁have ▁compact ▁bodies ▁- ▁though ▁not ▁so ▁flat ▁as ▁the ▁related ▁European ▁fire - bel lied ▁to ad ▁- ▁and ▁a ▁rounded ▁sn out . ▁The ▁pup ils ▁are ▁heart - sh aped , ▁with ▁the ▁e ard rum s ▁not ▁visible . ▁The ▁o vers ide ▁has ▁numerous ▁w arts ▁with ▁raised ▁sw irls . ▁A ▁study ▁conducted ▁by ▁research ers ▁from ▁Br ill ▁Academ ic ▁Publish ers ▁had ▁concluded ▁that ▁there ▁are ▁sex ually ▁dim orph ic ▁differences ▁noted ▁within ▁the ▁species . ▁M ales ▁of ▁the ▁species ▁have ▁not ably ▁longer ▁hum er us ▁length ▁resulting ▁in ▁a ▁longer ▁for el imb ▁length ; ▁It ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁give ▁them ▁an ▁advantage ▁while ▁coupling ▁and ▁while ▁fighting ▁other ▁males ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁species . ▁ ▁Vari ation ▁A ▁study ▁conducted ▁by ▁Bog dan ▁Stu gren ▁and ▁Stefan ▁V ance a ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 8 ▁on ▁yellow - bel lied ▁to ads ▁in ▁Roman ia ▁and ▁the ▁USS R ▁established ▁eight ▁different ▁forms ▁of ▁B . ▁var ieg ata , ▁expand ing ▁on ▁the ▁three ▁forms ▁previously ▁pos ited ▁by ▁Mich al owski ▁in ▁ 1 9 |
5 8 . ▁Each ▁of ▁these ▁forms ▁represents ▁a ▁ratio ▁of ▁yellow ▁to ▁black ▁mark ings ▁on ▁the ▁unders ide ▁of ▁the ▁to ad , ▁r anging ▁from ▁nearly ▁completely ▁yellow ▁( Form ▁ 1 ) ▁to ▁nearly ▁completely ▁black ▁( Form ▁ 8 ). ▁Stu gren ▁and ▁V ance a ▁found ▁that ▁the ▁unders ides ▁of ▁B . ▁var ieg ata ▁spec im ens ▁from ▁northern ▁regions ▁typically ▁had ▁greater ▁coverage ▁by ▁black ▁mark ings ▁than ▁those ▁that ▁were ▁found ▁in ▁southern ▁regions . ▁ ▁Life ▁cycle ▁ ▁E gg s ▁B . ▁var ieg ata ▁l ays ▁ 7 3 ▁eggs ▁on ▁average , ▁with ▁cl utch ▁size ▁r anging ▁from ▁ 4 5 ▁to ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 ▁eggs . ▁Ind ividual s ▁typically ▁lay ▁multiple ▁cl ut ches ▁every ▁summer , ▁allowing ▁a ▁single ▁female ▁to ▁produce ▁as ▁many ▁as ▁ 3 0 0 ▁eggs ▁in ▁a ▁year . ▁E gg s ▁are ▁ 1 . 5 - 2 mm ▁large ▁and ▁co ated ▁in ▁a ▁jel ly ▁ 5 - 8 mm ▁thick ▁and ▁semi - op aque , ▁r anging ▁in ▁color ▁from ▁mud - like ▁to ▁light ▁brown . ▁T ad pol es ▁typically ▁h atch ▁within ▁ 4 ▁days ▁after ▁eggs ▁are ▁laid . ▁ ▁T ad pol es ▁T ad pol es ▁develop ▁rapidly ▁and ▁can ▁reach ▁ 5 5 mm ▁in ▁length . ▁They ▁have ▁a ▁bl unt ▁tail ▁and ▁are ▁typically ▁gray ish - b rown ▁or , ▁in ▁rare |
▁cases , ▁transparent . ▁T ad pol es ▁and ▁eggs ▁are ▁vulner able ▁to ▁pred ation ▁from ▁various ▁small ▁p ond - d well ing ▁cre atures , ▁such ▁as ▁le ech es , ▁fish , ▁and ▁some ▁aqu atic ▁be et les .< ref ▁name =" E uropa ▁Fact sheet "> {{ cite ▁web | title = Y ellow - bel lied ▁To ad : ▁Bomb ina ▁var ieg ata ' | url = http :// ec . e uropa . eu / environment / n ature / n atura 2 0 0 0 / management / docs / B omb ina % 2 0 vari ag ata % 2 0 fact sheet % 2 0 -% 2 0 S WI FI . pdf | website = The ▁European ▁Commission | publish er = E U ▁Wild life ▁and ▁S ust ain able ▁Farm ing ▁Project ▁ 2 0 0 9 | access date = 2 2 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 7 }} </ ref > ▁A ▁study ▁published ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁in ▁the ▁Canadian ▁Journal ▁of ▁Zo ology ▁indicated ▁that ▁t ad pol es ▁in ▁war mer ▁water ▁develop ▁more ▁quickly ▁than ▁those ▁in ▁cool er ▁clim ates , ▁meant ▁to ▁m im ic ▁the ▁differ ing ▁environments ▁found ▁in ▁for ested ▁areas ▁and ▁sun ny ▁quar ries . ▁ ▁M ating ▁M ales ▁begin ▁to ▁produce ▁m ating ▁calls ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁spring ▁and ▁continue ▁as ▁late ▁as ▁August . ▁As ▁the ▁species ▁does ▁not ▁have |
▁a ▁vocal ▁bl ad der , ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁the ▁red - bel lied ▁to ad , ▁its ▁call ▁is ▁quite ▁gentle . ▁▁ ▁Distribution ▁▁ ▁The ▁yellow - bel lied ▁to ad ▁is ▁an ▁am ph ib ian ▁closely ▁bound ▁to ▁areas ▁of ▁water . ▁Origin ally , ▁the ▁species ▁typically ▁lived ▁along ▁bro oks ▁and ▁rivers . ▁It ▁settled ▁there ▁dependent ▁on ▁the ▁flo od ▁dynamic ▁of ▁temporary ▁and ▁continu ously ▁sh ifting ▁small ▁bodies ▁of ▁water . ▁In ▁its ▁replacement ▁habit ats ▁in ▁human ▁civil ization , ▁it ▁is ▁still ▁dependent ▁on ▁temporary ▁small ▁bodies ▁of ▁water ▁on ▁lo amy ▁ground , ▁such ▁as ▁tra ctor ▁tra ils , ▁p ud d les , ▁and ▁small ▁d itch es . ▁Most ly , ▁these ▁areas ▁are ▁bere ft ▁of ▁veget ation ▁and ▁free ▁of ▁compet ing ▁species ▁and ▁pred ators . ▁Through ▁the ▁quick ▁he ating ▁of ▁small ▁bodies ▁of ▁water , ▁a ▁rapid ▁development ▁of ▁spawn ▁and ▁lar va e ▁is ▁guaranteed . ▁These ▁pione er ▁species ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁mainly ▁in ▁quar ries , ▁cl ay ▁and ▁gra vel ▁p its , ▁and ▁on ▁march ing ▁grounds . ▁ ▁The ▁superior ▁mob ility ▁of ▁the ▁young ▁of ▁the ▁species ▁allows ▁sp ont aneous ▁settlement ▁of ▁newly ▁discovered ▁living ▁spaces . ▁On ▁land , ▁the ▁cre atures ▁look ▁for ▁hiding ▁places ▁under ▁stones ▁or ▁dead ▁wood ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁fur rows ▁and ▁cre v ices ▁of ▁rocks . ▁The ▁yellow - bel lied ▁to ad ▁dwell s ▁in ▁mountain |
ous ▁and ▁h illy ▁countries ▁in ▁middle ▁and ▁southern ▁Europe . ▁It ▁is ▁widely ▁spread ▁across ▁the ▁high ▁hill ▁area ▁of ▁middle ▁and ▁southern ▁Germany ▁and ▁the ▁Upper ▁Rh ine ▁River ▁Pla ins , ▁but ▁in ▁few ▁places . ▁▁ ▁Syn onym s ▁▁▁ ▁R ana ▁var ieg ata , ▁Lin na eus , ▁ 1 7 5 8 ▁ ▁Bomb yn ator ▁p ach yp us ' ', ▁Bon ap arte ▁ 1 8 3 8 ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁▁ ▁Database ▁entry ▁includes ▁a ▁range ▁map ▁and ▁just ification ▁for ▁why ▁this ▁species ▁is ▁of ▁least ▁concern ▁Much ▁of ▁the ▁content ▁of ▁this ▁article ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁equivalent ▁German - language ▁Wikipedia ▁article ▁( re tr ieved ▁ 1 4 ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 6 ) ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁A ▁few ▁pictures ▁( G erman ) ▁More ▁pictures ▁( G erman ) ▁Pictures ▁from ▁Am phi ensch utz . de ▁( G erman ) ▁Character istics ▁at ▁www . erd k ro ete . de ▁( G erman ) ▁Audio ▁Record ings ▁on ▁Kal erne . net ▁ ▁Category : B omb ina ▁Category : Am ph ib ians ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 7 5 8 <0x0A> </s> ▁" H ell ▁Bre aks ▁Lo ose " ▁is ▁a ▁song ▁by ▁American ▁ra pper ▁E min em , ▁featured ▁on ▁his ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁album ▁Rel ap se : ▁Re fill ▁the ▁re - release ▁of ▁Rel ap se . ▁" H ell ▁Bre aks ▁Lo ose " ▁was ▁a |
▁prom ot ional ▁single ▁released ▁on ▁December ▁ 1 5 , ▁re le asing ▁the ▁same ▁day ▁as ▁" E lev ator ". ▁The ▁song ▁features ▁Dr . ▁Dre , ▁who ▁also ▁produced ▁the ▁song ▁with ▁Mark ▁Bat son . ▁On ▁the ▁week ▁ending ▁January ▁ 2 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁" H ell ▁Bre aks ▁Lo ose " ▁deb uted ▁at ▁# 2 9 ▁on ▁the ▁Billboard ▁Hot ▁ 1 0 0 , ▁as ▁the ▁week ' s ▁Hot ▁Sh ot ▁Deb ut . ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 9 ▁singles ▁Category : E min em ▁songs ▁Category : Dr . ▁Dre ▁songs ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁E min em ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁Dr . ▁Dre ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁Mark ▁Bat son ▁Category : S ong ▁record ings ▁produced ▁by ▁Dr . ▁Dre ▁Category : Sh ady ▁Records ▁singles ▁Category : After math ▁Entertainment ▁singles ▁Category : In ters cope ▁Records ▁singles ▁Category : H ard core ▁hip ▁hop ▁songs ▁Category : Hor ror core ▁songs ▁Category : S ong ▁record ings ▁produced ▁by ▁Mark ▁Bat son ▁Category : 2 0 0 9 ▁songs <0x0A> </s> ▁B jar ne ▁Peters en ▁( born ▁ 5 ▁April ▁ 1 9 5 2 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Dan ish ▁former ▁football ▁player , ▁who ▁was ▁the ▁top ▁goals cor er ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 5 ▁Dan ish ▁football ▁championship ▁while |
▁playing ▁for ▁K j ø ben hav ns ▁B old kl ub . ▁He ▁played ▁one ▁game ▁for ▁the ▁Den mark ▁national ▁under - 2 1 ▁football ▁team . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Dan ish ▁national ▁team ▁profile ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 5 2 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Dan ish ▁football ers ▁Category : K j ø ben hav ns ▁B old kl ub ▁players ▁Category : Den mark ▁under - 2 1 ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁for wards <0x0A> </s> ▁E usch ist us ▁vari ol arius , ▁the ▁one - sp otted ▁st ink ▁bug , ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁st ink ▁bug ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Pent atom idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁Car ib bean ▁Sea ▁and ▁North ▁America . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Art icles ▁created ▁by ▁Q bug bot ▁Category : In sect s ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 1 7 ▁Category : P ent atom ini <0x0A> </s> ▁info Dev ▁is ▁a ▁World ▁Bank ▁Group ▁program ▁that ▁supports ▁high - g row th ▁entrepr ene urs ▁in ▁developing ▁econom ies . ▁The ▁program ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁In nov ation ▁and ▁Entre pr ene ur ship ▁Unit ▁of ▁the ▁World ▁Bank ▁Group ' s ▁Trade ▁and ▁Compet it iveness ▁Global ▁Pract ice . ▁ ▁info Dev ▁connect s ▁entrepr ene urs ▁with ▁knowledge , ▁fund ing ▁and ▁ment ors ▁through ▁a ▁global ▁network ▁of ▁business ▁inc ub ators . ▁The ▁program ▁has ▁launched ▁Cl imate |
▁In nov ation ▁Cent ers , ▁Mobile ▁Application ▁L abs ▁( m L abs ), ▁and ▁Ag rib us iness ▁Entre pr ene ur ship ▁Cent ers ▁in ▁developing ▁countries ▁around ▁the ▁world , ▁including ▁the ▁Car ib bean , ▁Eth iop ia , ▁Gh ana , ▁Ken ya , ▁Mor oc co , ▁South ▁Africa ▁and ▁Vietnam . ▁ ▁Cl imate ▁Technology ▁Program ▁▁ ▁The ▁Cl imate ▁Technology ▁Program ▁helps ▁developing ▁econom ies ▁identify ▁prof itable ▁solutions ▁to ▁climate ▁change . ▁A ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁info Dev ▁study , ▁Building ▁Compet itive ▁Green ▁Indust ries , ▁found ▁that ▁$ 6 . 4 ▁tr ill ion ▁will ▁be ▁inv ested ▁in ▁clean ▁techn ologies ▁in ▁developing ▁countries ▁over ▁the ▁next ▁de cade . ▁ ▁info Dev ▁has ▁launched ▁seven ▁Cl imate ▁In nov ation ▁Cent ers , ▁which ▁offer ▁seed ▁finan cing , ▁policy ▁inter vent ions , ▁network ▁link ages , ▁and ▁technical ▁and ▁business ▁training ▁to ▁entrepr ene urs . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Cl imate ▁In nov ation ▁Cent ers ▁supported ▁ 2 7 0 ▁clean ▁technology ▁start ups . ▁ ▁Digital ▁Entre pr ene ur ship ▁Program ▁▁ ▁The ▁Digital ▁Entre pr ene ur ship ▁Program ▁supports ▁the ▁growth ▁of ▁compet itive ▁mobile ▁application ▁indust ries ▁in ▁emer ging ▁and ▁front ier ▁mark ets . ▁The ▁program ▁has ▁established ▁Mobile ▁Application ▁L abs ▁( m L abs ) — inc ub ation ▁facilities ▁and ▁innov ation ▁hub s ▁for ▁digital ▁entrepr ene urs — |
in ▁Ken ya , ▁South ▁Africa ▁and ▁Sen eg al . ▁ ▁info Dev ▁published ▁a ▁Business ▁Anal ytics ▁Tool kit ▁for ▁Te ch ▁Hub ▁Man agers ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁ ▁Ag rib us iness ▁Entre pr ene ur ship ▁Program ▁▁ ▁The ▁Ag rib us iness ▁Entre pr ene ur ship ▁Program ▁supports ▁the ▁growth ▁of ▁compet itive ▁ag ro - processing ▁enter pr ises ▁by ▁adv ancing ▁innov ation ▁in ▁products , ▁processes ▁and ▁business ▁models . ▁The ▁World ▁Bank ▁Group ▁estimates ▁that ▁Africa ’ s ▁food ▁market ▁will ▁be ▁worth ▁$ 1 ▁tr ill ion ▁by ▁ 2 0 3 0 . ▁ ▁The ▁program ▁has ▁launched ▁Ag rib us iness ▁Entre pr ene ur ship ▁Cent ers ▁in ▁T anz ania ▁and ▁Nep al . ▁ ▁Access ▁to ▁Fin ance ▁Program ▁ ▁The ▁Access ▁to ▁Fin ance ▁Program ▁connect s ▁entrepr ene urs ▁with ▁early - stage ▁capital ▁and ▁networks . ▁The ▁program ▁also ▁publish es ▁research ▁on ▁innov ative ▁forms ▁of ▁finan cing ▁for ▁entrepr ene urs ▁in ▁developing ▁econom ies , ▁including ▁crow df und ing ▁and ▁ang el ▁invest ors . ▁ ▁info Dev ▁has ▁published ▁Crow df und ing ▁in ▁Emer ging ▁Mark ets : ▁Less ons ▁from ▁East ▁African ▁Start ups ▁and ▁Creating ▁Your ▁O wn ▁Angel ▁In vest or ▁Group : ▁A ▁Guide ▁for ▁Emer ging ▁and ▁Front ier ▁Mark ets . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Information ▁and ▁communication ▁techn ologies ▁for ▁development ▁Category : |
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