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▁professor ▁at ▁Cal cut ta ▁University , ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁a ▁five ▁volume ▁History ▁of ▁Indian ▁Philosoph y . ▁Before ▁reaching ▁the ▁Indian ▁sub contin ent , ▁Eli ade ▁also ▁made ▁a ▁brief ▁visit ▁to ▁Egypt . ▁Once ▁in ▁India , ▁he ▁visited ▁large ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁region , ▁and ▁spent ▁a ▁short ▁period ▁at ▁a ▁H imal ay an ▁as hr am . ▁ ▁He ▁studied ▁the ▁bas ics ▁of ▁Indian ▁philosophy , ▁and , ▁in ▁parallel , ▁learned ▁S ansk rit , ▁Pal i ▁and ▁Beng ali ▁under ▁Das gu pt a ' s ▁direction . ▁At ▁the ▁time , ▁he ▁also ▁became ▁interested ▁in ▁the ▁actions ▁of ▁Mah at ma ▁Gand hi , ▁whom ▁he ▁met ▁personally , ▁and ▁the ▁Sat y agra ha ▁as ▁a ▁phenomenon ; ▁later , ▁Eli ade ▁adapted ▁Gand h ian ▁ideas ▁in ▁his ▁disc ourse ▁on ▁spiritual ity ▁and ▁Rom ania . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 0 , ▁while ▁living ▁with ▁Das gu pt a , ▁Eli ade ▁fell ▁in ▁love ▁with ▁his ▁host ' s ▁daughter , ▁M ait rey i ▁Dev i , ▁later ▁writing ▁a ▁barely ▁disgu ised ▁aut obi ographical ▁novel ▁M ait rey i ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁" La ▁N uit ▁Beng ali " ▁or ▁" B eng al ▁N ights "), ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁claimed ▁that ▁he ▁carried ▁on ▁a ▁physical ▁relationship ▁with ▁her . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁received ▁his ▁PhD ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁with ▁a ▁thesis ▁on ▁Y oga ▁practices |
. ▁The ▁book , ▁which ▁was ▁translated ▁into ▁French ▁three ▁years ▁later , ▁had ▁significant ▁impact ▁in ▁academ ia , ▁both ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁and ▁abroad . ▁ ▁He ▁later ▁recalled ▁that ▁the ▁book ▁was ▁an ▁early ▁step ▁for ▁understanding ▁not ▁just ▁Indian ▁religious ▁practices , ▁but ▁also ▁Roman ian ▁spiritual ity . ▁During ▁the ▁same ▁period , ▁Eli ade ▁began ▁a ▁correspondence ▁with ▁the ▁C ey l ones e - born ▁philos opher ▁An anda ▁Co om ar as w amy . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 – 1 9 3 7 , ▁he ▁function ed ▁as ▁honor ary ▁assistant ▁for ▁I ones cu ' s ▁course , ▁lect uring ▁in ▁Met aph ys ics . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁had ▁a ▁physical ▁relationship ▁with ▁the ▁actress ▁Sor ana ▁ Ț op a , ▁while ▁falling ▁in ▁love ▁with ▁Nina ▁M are ș , ▁whom ▁he ▁ultimately ▁married . ▁The ▁latter , ▁introduced ▁to ▁him ▁by ▁his ▁new ▁friend ▁M ih ail ▁Sebastian , ▁already ▁had ▁a ▁daughter , ▁G iza , ▁from ▁a ▁man ▁who ▁had ▁divor ced ▁her . ▁Eli ade ▁subsequently ▁adopted ▁G iza , ▁and ▁the ▁three ▁of ▁them ▁moved ▁to ▁an ▁apartment ▁at ▁ 1 4 1 ▁D acia ▁Bou lev ard . ▁He ▁left ▁his ▁residence ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁during ▁a ▁trip ▁he ▁made ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁Germany , ▁when ▁he ▁first ▁visited ▁London , ▁Oxford ▁and ▁Berlin . ▁ |
▁C riterion ▁and ▁C uv â nt ul ▁ ▁After ▁contributing ▁various ▁and ▁generally ▁pole m ical ▁pieces ▁in ▁university ▁magazines , ▁Eli ade ▁came ▁to ▁the ▁attention ▁of ▁journalist ▁Pam fil ▁ Ș e ic aru , ▁who ▁invited ▁him ▁to ▁collabor ate ▁on ▁the ▁national ist ▁paper ▁C uv â nt ul , ▁which ▁was ▁noted ▁for ▁its ▁harsh ▁t ones . ▁By ▁then , ▁C uv â nt ul ▁was ▁also ▁hosting ▁articles ▁by ▁I ones cu . ▁ ▁As ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁figures ▁in ▁the ▁C riterion ▁literary ▁society ▁( 1 9 3 3 – 1 9 3 4 ), ▁Eli ade ' s ▁initial ▁encounter ▁with ▁the ▁traditional ▁far ▁right ▁was ▁pole m ical : ▁the ▁group ' s ▁con ferences ▁were ▁storm ed ▁by ▁members ▁of ▁A . ▁C . ▁Cu za ' s ▁National - Christ ian ▁Defense ▁League , ▁who ▁object ed ▁to ▁what ▁they ▁viewed ▁as ▁pac if ism ▁and ▁addressed ▁ant is emit ic ▁insult s ▁to ▁several ▁speakers , ▁including ▁Sebastian ; ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁he ▁was ▁among ▁the ▁sign ers ▁of ▁a ▁manifest o ▁oppos ing ▁Nazi ▁Germany ' s ▁state - en forced ▁racism . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁at ▁a ▁time ▁when ▁Sebastian ▁was ▁publicly ▁insult ed ▁by ▁N ae ▁I ones cu , ▁who ▁pref aced ▁his ▁book ▁( De ▁dou ă ▁m ii ▁de ▁an i ...) ▁with ▁thoughts ▁on ▁the ▁" et ern al ▁damn ation " ▁of |
▁Jews , ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁spoke ▁out ▁against ▁this ▁perspective , ▁and ▁commented ▁that ▁I ones cu ' s ▁references ▁to ▁the ▁ver dict ▁" Out side ▁the ▁Church ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁salv ation " ▁contrad icted ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁God ' s ▁om n ip ot ence . ▁However , ▁he ▁cont ended ▁that ▁I ones cu ' s ▁text ▁was ▁not ▁evidence ▁of ▁ant is emit ism . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁reflect ing ▁on ▁the ▁early ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁its ▁Jewish ▁community , ▁he ▁de pl ored ▁the ▁exp ulsion ▁of ▁Jewish ▁scholars ▁from ▁Rom ania , ▁making ▁specific ▁references ▁to ▁Moses ▁G aster , ▁He im ann ▁Har it on ▁T ikt in ▁and ▁L az ăr ▁ Ș ă ine an u . ▁Eli ade ' s ▁views ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁focused ▁on ▁innovation — in ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁he ▁replied ▁to ▁an ▁anti - mod ern ist ▁critique ▁written ▁by ▁George ▁C ă lines cu : ▁All ▁I ▁wish ▁for ▁is ▁a ▁deep ▁change , ▁a ▁complete ▁transformation . ▁But , ▁for ▁God ' s ▁sake , ▁in ▁any ▁direction ▁other ▁than ▁spiritual ity . ▁ ▁He ▁and ▁friends ▁Em il ▁C ior an ▁and ▁Constant in ▁No ica ▁were ▁by ▁then ▁under ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁Tr ă ir ism , ▁a ▁school ▁of ▁thought ▁that ▁was ▁formed ▁around ▁the ▁ide als ▁expressed ▁by ▁I ones cu . ▁A ▁form ▁of |
▁exist ential ism , ▁Tr ă ir ism ▁was ▁also ▁the ▁synt hesis ▁of ▁traditional ▁and ▁newer ▁right - wing ▁beliefs . ▁Early ▁on , ▁a ▁public ▁pole mic ▁was ▁spark ed ▁between ▁Eli ade ▁and ▁Cam il ▁Pet res cu : ▁the ▁two ▁eventually ▁reconc iled ▁and ▁later ▁became ▁good ▁friends . ▁ ▁Like ▁M ih ail ▁Sebastian , ▁who ▁was ▁himself ▁becoming ▁influenced ▁by ▁I ones cu , ▁he ▁maintained ▁contacts ▁with ▁intellect uals ▁from ▁all ▁sides ▁of ▁the ▁political ▁spectrum : ▁their ▁ent our age ▁included ▁the ▁right - wing ▁Dan ▁Bot ta ▁and ▁Mir ce a ▁V ul c ă nes cu , ▁the ▁non - polit ical ▁Pet res cu ▁and ▁I onel ▁J ian u , ▁and ▁Bel u ▁Z il ber , ▁who ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁illegal ▁Roman ian ▁Communist ▁Party . ▁ ▁The ▁group ▁also ▁included ▁Ha ig ▁Act er ian , ▁M ih ail ▁Pol ih ron i ade , ▁Pet ru ▁Com arn es cu , ▁Mar iet ta ▁Sad ova ▁and ▁Fl oria ▁C aps ali . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁close ▁to ▁Marcel ▁Av r ames cu , ▁a ▁former ▁Sur real ist ▁writer ▁whom ▁he ▁introduced ▁to ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁Ren é ▁Gu én on . ▁A ▁doctor ▁in ▁the ▁Kab bal ah ▁and ▁future ▁Roman ian ▁Orth odox ▁cler ic , ▁Av r ames cu ▁joined ▁Eli ade ▁in ▁editing ▁the ▁short - l ived ▁es oter ic ▁magazine ▁Mem ra ▁( the ▁only ▁one ▁of ▁its |
▁kind ▁in ▁Rom ania ). ▁ ▁Among ▁the ▁intellect uals ▁who ▁attended ▁his ▁lect ures ▁were ▁M ih ai ▁ Ş ora ▁( wh om ▁he ▁deemed ▁his ▁favorite ▁student ), ▁Eug en ▁Sch iler u ▁and ▁M iron ▁Constant ines cu — known ▁later ▁as , ▁respectively , ▁a ▁philos opher , ▁an ▁art ▁critic , ▁and ▁a ▁soci ologist ▁and ▁political ▁figure ▁of ▁the ▁commun ist ▁regime . ▁Mar iana ▁Klein , ▁who ▁became ▁ Ș ora ' s ▁wife , ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁female ▁students , ▁and ▁later ▁auth ored ▁works ▁on ▁his ▁scholarship . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁later ▁rec ount ed ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁himself ▁en listed ▁Z il ber ▁as ▁a ▁C uv â nt ul ▁contributor , ▁in ▁order ▁for ▁him ▁to ▁provide ▁a ▁Marx ist ▁perspective ▁on ▁the ▁issues ▁discussed ▁by ▁the ▁journal . ▁Their ▁relation ▁sou red ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 5 , ▁when ▁the ▁latter ▁publicly ▁accused ▁Eli ade ▁of ▁serving ▁as ▁an ▁agent ▁for ▁the ▁secret ▁police , ▁Sig ur an ța ▁Stat ului ▁( S eb ast ian ▁answered ▁to ▁the ▁statement ▁by ▁alleg ing ▁that ▁Z il ber ▁was ▁himself ▁a ▁secret ▁agent , ▁and ▁the ▁latter ▁eventually ▁re tract ed ▁his ▁claim ). ▁▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁political ▁transition ▁Eli ade ' s ▁articles ▁before ▁and ▁after ▁his ▁ad her ence ▁to ▁the ▁principles ▁of ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁( or , ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁usually ▁known ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁the ▁Leg ion |
ary ▁Movement ), ▁beginning ▁with ▁his ▁It iner ar ▁spiritual ▁(" Sp irit ual ▁It iner ary ", ▁serialized ▁in ▁C uv â nt ul ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 7 ), ▁center ▁on ▁several ▁political ▁ide als ▁advoc ated ▁by ▁the ▁far ▁right . ▁ ▁They ▁displayed ▁his ▁re jection ▁of ▁liberal ism ▁and ▁the ▁modern izing ▁goals ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 4 8 ▁Wall ach ian ▁revolution ▁( per ceived ▁as ▁" an ▁abstract ▁ap ology ▁of ▁M ank ind " ▁and ▁" ape - like ▁im itation ▁of ▁[ W estern ] ▁Europe "), ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁for ▁democracy ▁itself ▁( acc using ▁it ▁of ▁" man aging ▁to ▁crush ▁all ▁attempts ▁at ▁national ▁re naissance ", ▁and ▁later ▁pra ising ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁on ▁the ▁grounds ▁that , ▁according ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁"[ in ▁Italy , ] ▁he ▁who ▁thinks ▁for ▁himself ▁is ▁promoted ▁to ▁the ▁highest ▁office ▁in ▁the ▁short est ▁of ▁times "). ▁He ▁approved ▁of ▁an ▁ethnic ▁national ist ▁state ▁centered ▁on ▁the ▁Orth odox ▁Church ▁( in ▁ 1 9 2 7 , ▁despite ▁his ▁still - v ivid ▁interest ▁in ▁The osoph y , ▁he ▁recommended ▁young ▁intellect uals ▁" the ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁Church "), ▁which ▁he ▁opposed ▁to , ▁among ▁others , ▁the ▁sec ular ▁national ism ▁of ▁Constant in ▁R ă d ules cu - M ot ru ; ▁referring ▁to ▁this ▁particular ▁ideal ▁as ▁" R oman ian ism |
", ▁Eli ade ▁was , ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁still ▁viewing ▁it ▁as ▁" ne ither ▁fasc ism , ▁nor ▁ch au vin ism ". ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁especially ▁diss atisf ied ▁with ▁the ▁inc idence ▁of ▁unemployment ▁among ▁intellect uals , ▁whose ▁careers ▁in ▁state - fin anced ▁institutions ▁had ▁been ▁rendered ▁uncertain ▁by ▁the ▁Great ▁Dep ression . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁the ▁focus ▁of ▁a ▁campaign ▁in ▁the ▁far ▁right ▁press , ▁being ▁targeted ▁for ▁having ▁auth ored ▁" p orn ography " ▁in ▁his ▁Dom ni ș o ara ▁Christ ina ▁and ▁Isabel ▁și ▁a pe le ▁di av ol ului ; ▁similar ▁accus ations ▁were ▁aimed ▁at ▁other ▁cultural ▁figures , ▁including ▁T ud or ▁Arg he zi ▁and ▁Ge o ▁Bog za . ▁Ass ess ments ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁work ▁were ▁in ▁sharp ▁contrast ▁to ▁one ▁another : ▁also ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁Eli ade ▁accepted ▁an ▁award ▁from ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Writ ers ' ▁Society , ▁of ▁which ▁he ▁had ▁been ▁a ▁member ▁since ▁ 1 9 3 4 . ▁In ▁summer ▁ 1 9 3 7 , ▁through ▁an ▁official ▁decision ▁which ▁came ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁accus ations , ▁and ▁despite ▁student ▁protests , ▁he ▁was ▁stripped ▁of ▁his ▁position ▁at ▁the ▁University . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁decided ▁to ▁sue ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Education , ▁asking ▁for ▁a ▁symbol ic ▁compensation ▁of ▁ 1 ▁le u . |
▁He ▁won ▁the ▁trial , ▁and ▁reg ained ▁his ▁position ▁as ▁N ae ▁I ones cu ' s ▁assistant . ▁ ▁Nevertheless , ▁by ▁ 1 9 3 7 , ▁he ▁gave ▁his ▁intellectual ▁support ▁to ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard , ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁saw ▁" a ▁Christian ▁revolution ▁aimed ▁at ▁creating ▁a ▁new ▁Rom ania ", ▁and ▁a ▁group ▁able ▁" to ▁reconc ile ▁Rom ania ▁with ▁God ". ▁His ▁articles ▁of ▁the ▁time , ▁published ▁in ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁papers ▁such ▁as ▁S f arm ă ▁P iat r ă ▁and ▁B una ▁V est ire , ▁contain ▁am ple ▁pra ises ▁of ▁the ▁movement ' s ▁leaders ▁( C orn el iu ▁Z ele a ▁C od re an u , ▁I on ▁Mo ţ a , ▁Vas ile ▁Mar in , ▁and ▁G he org he ▁Cant ac uz ino - Gr ă nic er ul ). ▁The ▁transition ▁he ▁went ▁through ▁was ▁similar ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁his ▁fellow ▁generation ▁members ▁and ▁close ▁collabor ators — am ong ▁the ▁notable ▁exceptions ▁to ▁this ▁rule ▁were ▁Pet ru ▁Com arn es cu , ▁soci ologist ▁Henri ▁H . ▁St ahl ▁and ▁future ▁dram at ist ▁Eug ène ▁I ones co , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁Sebastian . ▁ ▁He ▁eventually ▁en rolled ▁in ▁the ▁Tot ul ▁pentru ▁ Ț ar ă ▁(" Every thing ▁for ▁the ▁Father land " ▁Party ), ▁the ▁political ▁expression ▁of ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard , ▁and ▁contributed ▁to ▁its ▁ 1 9 3 7 ▁elect oral ▁campaign ▁in ▁Pra |
h ova ▁County — as ▁indicated ▁by ▁his ▁inclusion ▁on ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁party ▁members ▁with ▁county - level ▁respons ibilities ▁( published ▁in ▁B una ▁V est ire ). ▁ ▁Intern ment ▁and ▁diplom atic ▁service ▁The ▁stance ▁taken ▁by ▁Eli ade ▁resulted ▁in ▁his ▁arrest ▁on ▁July ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁after ▁a ▁crack down ▁on ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁authorized ▁by ▁King ▁Carol ▁II . ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁his ▁arrest , ▁he ▁had ▁just ▁interrupted ▁a ▁column ▁on ▁Provinc ia ▁și ▁leg ion ar ism ul ▁(" The ▁Province ▁and ▁Leg ion ary ▁Ide ology ") ▁in ▁V reme a , ▁having ▁been ▁sing led ▁out ▁by ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁Arm and ▁C ă lines cu ▁as ▁an ▁author ▁of ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁propaganda . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁kept ▁for ▁three ▁weeks ▁in ▁a ▁cell ▁at ▁the ▁Sig ur an ţ a ▁Stat ului ▁Head quarters , ▁in ▁an ▁attempt ▁to ▁have ▁him ▁sign ▁a ▁" decl aration ▁of ▁diss oci ation " ▁with ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard , ▁but ▁he ▁refused ▁to ▁do ▁so . ▁In ▁the ▁first ▁week ▁of ▁August ▁he ▁was ▁transferred ▁to ▁a ▁makes h ift ▁camp ▁at ▁M ier c ure a - C i uc . ▁When ▁Eli ade ▁began ▁cough ing ▁blood ▁in ▁October ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁he ▁was ▁taken ▁to ▁a ▁clinic ▁in ▁Mor oen i . ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁simply ▁released ▁on ▁November ▁ 1 2 , ▁and ▁subsequently ▁spent ▁his ▁time ▁writing ▁his ▁play |
▁I ph igen ia ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁I fig en ia ). ▁In ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 0 , ▁with ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁Alexand ru ▁Ros etti , ▁became ▁the ▁Cultural ▁Att ach é ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom , ▁a ▁posting ▁cut ▁short ▁when ▁Roman ian - B rit ish ▁foreign ▁relations ▁were ▁broken . ▁ ▁After ▁leaving ▁London ▁he ▁was ▁assigned ▁the ▁office ▁of ▁Coun sel ▁and ▁Press ▁Officer ▁( l ater ▁Cultural ▁Att ach é ) ▁to ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Emb assy ▁in ▁Portugal , ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁kept ▁on ▁as ▁diplom at ▁by ▁the ▁National ▁Leg ion ary ▁State ▁( the ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁government ) ▁and , ▁ultimately , ▁by ▁I on ▁Ant ones cu ' s ▁regime . ▁His ▁office ▁involved ▁disse min ating ▁propaganda ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁state . ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 9 4 1 , ▁weeks ▁after ▁the ▁bloody ▁Leg ion ary ▁Reb ell ion ▁was ▁crushed ▁by ▁Ant ones cu , ▁I ph igen ia ▁was ▁st aged ▁by ▁the ▁National ▁Theater ▁Buch arest — the ▁play ▁soon ▁raised ▁doubts ▁that ▁it ▁o wed ▁inspiration ▁to ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ' s ▁ide ology , ▁and ▁even ▁that ▁its ▁inclusion ▁in ▁the ▁program ▁was ▁a ▁Leg ion ary ▁attempt ▁at ▁sub version . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 2 , ▁Eli ade ▁auth ored ▁a ▁volume ▁in ▁praise ▁of ▁the ▁Estado ▁Nov o , ▁established ▁in ▁Portugal ▁by ▁Ant ón io ▁de ▁Ol ive ira ▁Sal azar , ▁claiming ▁that |
▁" The ▁Sal az arian ▁state , ▁a ▁Christian ▁and ▁total itarian ▁one , ▁is ▁first ▁and ▁fore most ▁based ▁on ▁love ". ▁On ▁July ▁ 7 ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁year , ▁he ▁was ▁received ▁by ▁Sal azar ▁himself , ▁who ▁assigned ▁Eli ade ▁the ▁task ▁of ▁warning ▁Ant ones cu ▁to ▁withdraw ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Army ▁from ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Front ▁(" [ In ▁his ▁place ], ▁I ▁would ▁not ▁be ▁grinding ▁it ▁in ▁Russia "). ▁Eli ade ▁also ▁claimed ▁that ▁such ▁contacts ▁with ▁the ▁leader ▁of ▁a ▁neutral ▁country ▁had ▁made ▁him ▁the ▁target ▁for ▁Gest ap o ▁surveillance , ▁but ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁managed ▁to ▁communicate ▁Sal azar ' s ▁advice ▁to ▁M ih ai ▁Ant ones cu , ▁Rom ania ' s ▁Foreign ▁Minister . ▁ ▁In ▁autumn ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁he ▁traveled ▁to ▁occupied ▁France , ▁where ▁he ▁rejo ined ▁Em il ▁C ior an , ▁also ▁meeting ▁with ▁scholar ▁Georges ▁Dum é z il ▁and ▁the ▁collaboration ist ▁writer ▁Paul ▁Mor and . ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁he ▁applied ▁for ▁a ▁position ▁of ▁lect urer ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Buch arest , ▁but ▁withd rew ▁from ▁the ▁race , ▁leaving ▁Constant in ▁No ica ▁and ▁I on ▁Z am f ires cu ▁to ▁dispute ▁the ▁position , ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁a ▁panel ▁of ▁academ ics ▁compr ising ▁Luc ian ▁Bl aga ▁and ▁D imit rie ▁Gust i ▁( Z am f ires cu ' s ▁event ual ▁selection , ▁going ▁against ▁Bl aga ' |
s ▁recommendation , ▁was ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁topic ▁of ▁a ▁controversy ). ▁In ▁his ▁private ▁notes , ▁Eli ade ▁wrote ▁that ▁he ▁took ▁no ▁further ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁office , ▁because ▁his ▁visits ▁abroad ▁had ▁convinced ▁him ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁" something ▁great ▁to ▁say ", ▁and ▁that ▁he ▁could ▁not ▁function ▁within ▁the ▁conf ines ▁of ▁" a ▁minor ▁culture ". ▁Also ▁during ▁the ▁war , ▁Eli ade ▁traveled ▁to ▁Berlin , ▁where ▁he ▁met ▁and ▁convers ed ▁with ▁controversial ▁political ▁the or ist ▁Carl ▁Sch mitt , ▁and ▁frequently ▁visited ▁Franco ist ▁Spain , ▁where ▁he ▁notably ▁attended ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁L us it ano - Span ish ▁scientific ▁congress ▁in ▁C ó rd oba . ▁It ▁was ▁during ▁his ▁trips ▁to ▁Spain ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁met ▁philosoph ers ▁José ▁Or te ga ▁y ▁G asset ▁and ▁Eug eni ▁d ' Or s . ▁He ▁maintained ▁a ▁friendship ▁with ▁d ' Or s , ▁and ▁met ▁him ▁again ▁on ▁several ▁occasions ▁after ▁the ▁war . ▁ ▁Nina ▁Eli ade ▁fell ▁ill ▁with ▁ut er ine ▁cancer ▁and ▁died ▁during ▁their ▁stay ▁in ▁Lis bon , ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁As ▁the ▁wid ower ▁later ▁wrote , ▁the ▁disease ▁was ▁probably ▁caused ▁by ▁an ▁abortion ▁procedure ▁she ▁had ▁under g one ▁at ▁an ▁early ▁stage ▁of ▁their ▁relationship . ▁He ▁came ▁to ▁suffer ▁from ▁clinical ▁depression , ▁which ▁increased ▁as ▁Rom ania ▁and ▁her ▁A xis ▁allies ▁suffered ▁major ▁defe ats ▁on ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Front |
. ▁Cont empl ating ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁Rom ania ▁as ▁a ▁soldier ▁or ▁a ▁mon k , ▁he ▁was ▁on ▁a ▁continuous ▁search ▁for ▁effective ▁ant ide press ants , ▁medic ating ▁himself ▁with ▁passion ▁flower ▁extract , ▁and , ▁eventually , ▁with ▁meth amp het amine . ▁This ▁was ▁probably ▁not ▁his ▁first ▁experience ▁with ▁drugs : ▁vague ▁ment ions ▁in ▁his ▁notebook s ▁have ▁been ▁read ▁as ▁indication ▁that ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁taking ▁op ium ▁during ▁his ▁travels ▁to ▁Cal cut ta . ▁Later , ▁discussing ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁Ald ous ▁H ux ley , ▁Eli ade ▁wrote ▁that ▁the ▁British ▁author ' s ▁use ▁of ▁mes cal ine ▁as ▁a ▁source ▁of ▁inspiration ▁had ▁something ▁in ▁common ▁with ▁his ▁own ▁experience , ▁indicating ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁as ▁a ▁date ▁of ▁reference ▁and ▁adding ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁" need less ▁to ▁explain ▁why ▁that ▁is ". ▁ ▁Early ▁ex ile ▁At ▁signs ▁that ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁commun ist ▁regime ▁was ▁about ▁to ▁take ▁hold , ▁Eli ade ▁opt ed ▁not ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁country . ▁On ▁September ▁ 1 6 , ▁ 1 9 4 5 , ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁France ▁with ▁his ▁adopted ▁daughter ▁G iza . ▁Once ▁there , ▁he ▁res umed ▁contacts ▁with ▁Dum é z il , ▁who ▁helped ▁him ▁recover ▁his ▁position ▁in ▁academ ia . ▁On ▁Dum é z il ' s ▁recommendation , ▁he ▁taught ▁at ▁the ▁É cole ▁Pr atique ▁des ▁H aut es ▁Ét udes ▁in |
▁Paris . ▁It ▁was ▁estimated ▁that , ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁it ▁was ▁not ▁un common ▁for ▁him ▁to ▁work ▁ 1 5 ▁hours ▁a ▁day . ▁Eli ade ▁married ▁a ▁second ▁time , ▁to ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁ex ile ▁Christ in el ▁C otes cu . ▁His ▁second ▁wife , ▁the ▁desc endant ▁of ▁boy ars , ▁was ▁the ▁sister - in - law ▁of ▁the ▁condu ctor ▁I onel ▁Per le a . ▁ ▁Together ▁with ▁Em il ▁C ior an ▁and ▁other ▁Roman ian ▁exp atri ates , ▁Eli ade ▁r all ied ▁with ▁the ▁former ▁diplom at ▁Alexand ru ▁Bus u io cean u , ▁helping ▁him ▁public ize ▁anti - commun ist ▁opinion ▁to ▁the ▁Western ▁European ▁public . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁briefly ▁involved ▁in ▁publishing ▁a ▁Roman ian - language ▁magazine , ▁titled ▁Lu ce af ăr ul ▁(" The ▁Morning ▁Star "), ▁and ▁was ▁again ▁in ▁contact ▁with ▁M ih ail ▁ Ș ora , ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁granted ▁a ▁scholarship ▁to ▁study ▁in ▁France , ▁and ▁with ▁ Ș ora ' s ▁wife ▁Mar iana . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁he ▁was ▁facing ▁material ▁constraints , ▁and ▁An anda ▁Co om ar as w amy ▁found ▁him ▁a ▁job ▁as ▁a ▁French - language ▁teacher ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁at ▁a ▁school ▁in ▁Arizona ; ▁the ▁arrangement ▁ended ▁upon ▁Co om ar as w amy ' s ▁death ▁in ▁September . ▁ ▁Begin ning ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 , |
▁he ▁wrote ▁for ▁the ▁journal ▁Crit ique , ▁edited ▁by ▁French ▁philos opher ▁ ▁Georges ▁B ata ille . ▁The ▁following ▁year , ▁he ▁went ▁on ▁a ▁visit ▁to ▁Italy , ▁where ▁he ▁wrote ▁the ▁first ▁ 3 0 0 ▁pages ▁of ▁his ▁novel ▁No ap te a ▁de ▁S ân z iene ▁( he ▁visited ▁the ▁country ▁a ▁third ▁time ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 2 ). ▁He ▁collabor ated ▁with ▁Carl ▁Jung ▁and ▁the ▁Er anos ▁circle ▁after ▁Henry ▁Cor bin ▁recommended ▁him ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 9 , ▁and ▁wrote ▁for ▁the ▁Ant ai os ▁magazine ▁( ed ited ▁by ▁Ernst ▁J üng er ). ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 0 , ▁Eli ade ▁began ▁attending ▁Er anos ▁con ferences , ▁meeting ▁Jung , ▁Ol ga ▁Fr ö be - K ap te yn , ▁G ers hom ▁Sch ole m ▁and ▁Paul ▁Rad in . ▁He ▁described ▁Er anos ▁as ▁" one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁creative ▁cultural ▁experiences ▁of ▁the ▁modern ▁Western ▁world ." ▁ ▁In ▁October ▁ 1 9 5 6 , ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁sett ling ▁in ▁Chicago ▁the ▁following ▁year . ▁He ▁had ▁been ▁invited ▁by ▁Jo ach im ▁W ach ▁to ▁give ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁lect ures ▁at ▁W ach ' s ▁home ▁institution , ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Chicago . ▁Eli ade ▁and ▁W ach ▁are ▁generally ▁admitted ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁found ers ▁of ▁the ▁" Ch icago ▁school " ▁that ▁basically ▁defined ▁the ▁study ▁of ▁relig ions ▁for ▁the |
▁second ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century . ▁Upon ▁W ach ' s ▁death ▁before ▁the ▁lect ures ▁were ▁delivered , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁appointed ▁as ▁his ▁replacement , ▁becoming , ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 4 , ▁the ▁S ew ell ▁A very ▁Dist ingu ished ▁Service ▁Professor ▁of ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ions . ▁Begin ning ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 4 , ▁with ▁the ▁first ▁edition ▁of ▁his ▁volume ▁on ▁E ternal ▁Return , ▁Eli ade ▁also ▁enjoyed ▁commercial ▁success : ▁the ▁book ▁went ▁through ▁several ▁ed itions ▁under ▁different ▁titles , ▁which ▁sold ▁over ▁ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁copies . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 6 , ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁became ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁Academy ▁of ▁Arts ▁and ▁Sciences . ▁He ▁also ▁worked ▁as ▁editor - in - ch ief ▁of ▁Mac mill an ▁Publish ers ' ▁En cycl op edia ▁of ▁Relig ion , ▁and , ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 8 , ▁lect ured ▁in ▁religious ▁history ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Santa ▁Barbara . ▁It ▁was ▁also ▁during ▁that ▁period ▁that ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁completed ▁his ▁vol umin ous ▁and ▁influential ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ious ▁Ide as , ▁which ▁group ed ▁together ▁the ▁over views ▁of ▁his ▁main ▁original ▁interpret ations ▁of ▁religious ▁history . ▁He ▁occasionally ▁traveled ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁such ▁as ▁attending ▁the ▁Congress ▁for ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ions ▁in ▁Mar burg ▁( 1 9 6 |
0 ) ▁and ▁visits ▁to ▁Sweden ▁and ▁Norway ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 0 . ▁ ▁Final ▁years ▁and ▁death ▁Init ially , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁attacked ▁with ▁vir ul ence ▁by ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Communist ▁Party ▁press , ▁chief ly ▁by ▁Rom â nia ▁Liber ă — which ▁described ▁him ▁as ▁" the ▁Iron ▁Guard ' s ▁ide olog ue , ▁enemy ▁of ▁the ▁working ▁class , ▁ap ologist ▁of ▁Sal azar ' s ▁dict ators hip ". ▁However , ▁the ▁regime ▁also ▁made ▁secret ive ▁attempts ▁to ▁en list ▁his ▁and ▁C ior an ' s ▁support : ▁Ha ig ▁Act er ian ' s ▁wid ow , ▁theater ▁director ▁Mar iet ta ▁Sad ova , ▁was ▁sent ▁to ▁Paris ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁re - est ablish ▁contacts ▁with ▁the ▁two . ▁Although ▁the ▁move ▁was ▁planned ▁by ▁Roman ian ▁officials , ▁her ▁enc ounters ▁were ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁evidence ▁inc rim inating ▁her ▁at ▁a ▁February ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁trial ▁for ▁tre ason ▁( where ▁Constant in ▁No ica ▁and ▁Din u ▁P ill at ▁were ▁the ▁main ▁defend ants ). ▁Rom ania ' s ▁secret ▁police , ▁the ▁Sec ur itate , ▁also ▁port rayed ▁Eli ade ▁as ▁a ▁spy ▁for ▁the ▁British ▁Secret ▁Intelligence ▁Service ▁and ▁a ▁former ▁agent ▁of ▁the ▁Gest ap o . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁slowly ▁re habil itated ▁at ▁home ▁beginning ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁under ▁the ▁rule ▁of ▁G he org he ▁G he |
or gh iu - De j . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁approached ▁by ▁the ▁Nic ola e ▁Ce au ș es cu ▁regime ▁in ▁several ▁ways , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁have ▁him ▁return . ▁The ▁move ▁was ▁prompt ed ▁by ▁the ▁officially ▁san ction ed ▁national ism ▁and ▁Rom ania ' s ▁claim ▁to ▁independence ▁from ▁the ▁Eastern ▁B loc , ▁as ▁both ▁phen omena ▁came ▁to ▁see ▁Eli ade ' s ▁prest ige ▁as ▁an ▁asset . ▁An ▁unpre ced ented ▁event ▁occurred ▁with ▁the ▁interview ▁that ▁was ▁granted ▁by ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁to ▁poet ▁Ad rian ▁P ă unes cu , ▁during ▁the ▁latter ' s ▁ 1 9 7 0 ▁visit ▁to ▁Chicago ; ▁Eli ade ▁compliment ed ▁both ▁P ă unes cu ' s ▁activ ism ▁and ▁his ▁support ▁for ▁official ▁ten ets , ▁express ing ▁a ▁belief ▁that ▁the ▁youth ▁of ▁Eastern ▁Europe ▁is ▁clearly ▁superior ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁Western ▁Europe . ▁[...] ▁I ▁am ▁convinced ▁that , ▁within ▁ten ▁years , ▁the ▁young ▁revolutionary ▁generation ▁sh an ' t ▁be ▁beh aving ▁as ▁does ▁today ▁the ▁no isy ▁minority ▁of ▁Western ▁cont es ters . ▁[...] ▁Eastern ▁youth ▁have ▁seen ▁the ▁abol ition ▁of ▁traditional ▁institutions , ▁have ▁accepted ▁it ▁[...] ▁and ▁are ▁not ▁yet ▁content ▁with ▁the ▁structures ▁en forced , ▁but ▁rather ▁seek ▁to ▁improve ▁them . ▁ ▁P ă unes cu ' s ▁visit ▁to ▁Chicago ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁national ist |
▁official ▁writer ▁Eug en ▁Bar bu ▁and ▁by ▁Eli ade ' s ▁friend ▁Constant in ▁No ica ▁( who ▁had ▁since ▁been ▁released ▁from ▁jail ). ▁At ▁the ▁time , ▁Eli ade ▁contempl ated ▁returning ▁to ▁Rom ania , ▁but ▁was ▁eventually ▁persu aded ▁by ▁fellow ▁Roman ian ▁intellect uals ▁in ▁ex ile ▁( including ▁Radio ▁Free ▁Europe ' s ▁Vir g il ▁I er un ca ▁and ▁Mon ica ▁Lov ines cu ) ▁to ▁reject ▁Communist ▁proposals . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 7 , ▁he ▁joined ▁other ▁ex iled ▁Roman ian ▁intellect uals ▁in ▁signing ▁a ▁tele gram ▁protest ing ▁the ▁re press ive ▁measures ▁newly ▁en forced ▁by ▁the ▁Ce au ş es cu ▁regime . ▁Writing ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Roman ian ▁anth rop ologist ▁And rei ▁O i ș te an u ▁rec ount ed ▁how , ▁around ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁the ▁Sec ur itate ▁un success fully ▁press ured ▁to ▁become ▁an ▁agent ▁of ▁influence ▁in ▁Eli ade ' s ▁Chicago ▁circle . ▁ ▁During ▁his ▁later ▁years , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁fasc ist ▁past ▁was ▁progress ively ▁exposed ▁publicly , ▁the ▁stress ▁of ▁which ▁probably ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁decline ▁of ▁his ▁health . ▁By ▁then , ▁his ▁writing ▁career ▁was ▁ham per ed ▁by ▁severe ▁ar th rit is . ▁The ▁last ▁academic ▁hon ors ▁best owed ▁upon ▁him ▁were ▁the ▁French ▁Academy ' s ▁B ord in ▁Prize ▁( 1 9 7 7 ) ▁and ▁the ▁title ▁of |
▁Doctor ▁Honor is ▁C aus a , ▁granted ▁by ▁George ▁Washington ▁University ▁( 1 9 8 5 ). ▁ ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁died ▁at ▁the ▁Bernard ▁Mitchell ▁Hospital ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 9 8 6 . ▁Eight ▁days ▁previously , ▁he ▁suffered ▁a ▁stroke ▁while ▁reading ▁Em il ▁C ior an ' s ▁Ex erc ises ▁of ▁Adm iration , ▁and ▁had ▁subsequently ▁lost ▁his ▁speech ▁function . ▁Four ▁months ▁before , ▁a ▁fire ▁had ▁destroyed ▁part ▁of ▁his ▁office ▁at ▁the ▁M ead ville ▁L omb ard ▁The ological ▁School ▁( an ▁event ▁which ▁he ▁had ▁interpreted ▁as ▁an ▁o men ). ▁Eli ade ' s ▁Roman ian ▁disc iple ▁Io an ▁Pet ru ▁C ul ian u , ▁who ▁recalled ▁the ▁scientific ▁community ' s ▁reaction ▁to ▁the ▁news , ▁described ▁Eli ade ' s ▁death ▁as ▁" a ▁m ah ap aran ir v ana ", ▁thus ▁comparing ▁it ▁to ▁the ▁passing ▁of ▁G aut ama ▁Budd ha . ▁His ▁body ▁was ▁cre m ated ▁in ▁Chicago , ▁and ▁the ▁funeral ▁ceremony ▁was ▁held ▁on ▁University ▁grounds , ▁at ▁the ▁Roc ke f eller ▁Chap el . ▁It ▁was ▁attended ▁by ▁ 1 , 2 0 0 ▁people , ▁and ▁included ▁a ▁public ▁reading ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁text ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁recalled ▁the ▁ep iph any ▁of ▁his ▁childhood — the ▁lecture ▁was ▁given ▁by ▁novel ist ▁S aul ▁B ellow , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁colle ague ▁at ▁the ▁University . ▁His ▁grave ▁is ▁located |
▁in ▁Oak ▁Woods ▁C emetery . ▁ ▁Work ▁ ▁The ▁general ▁nature ▁of ▁religion ▁In ▁his ▁work ▁on ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁religion , ▁Eli ade ▁is ▁most ▁highly ▁regarded ▁for ▁his ▁writ ings ▁on ▁Al che my , ▁Sh aman ism , ▁Y oga ▁and ▁what ▁he ▁called ▁the ▁eternal ▁return — the ▁implicit ▁belief , ▁supposed ly ▁present ▁in ▁religious ▁thought ▁in ▁general , ▁that ▁religious ▁behavior ▁is ▁not ▁only ▁an ▁im itation ▁of , ▁but ▁also ▁a ▁participation ▁in , ▁sacred ▁events , ▁and ▁thus ▁rest ores ▁the ▁myth ical ▁time ▁of ▁origins . ▁Eli ade ' s ▁thinking ▁was ▁in ▁part ▁influenced ▁by ▁Rud olf ▁Otto , ▁Ger ard us ▁van ▁der ▁Lee uw , ▁N ae ▁I ones cu ▁and ▁the ▁writ ings ▁of ▁the ▁Trad itional ist ▁School ▁( R en é ▁Gu én on ▁and ▁Jul ius ▁E vol a ). ▁For ▁instance , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁The ▁Sac red ▁and ▁the ▁Prof ane ▁partially ▁builds ▁on ▁Otto ' s ▁The ▁Ide a ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁to ▁show ▁how ▁religion ▁emer ges ▁from ▁the ▁experience ▁of ▁the ▁sacred , ▁and ▁myth s ▁of ▁time ▁and ▁nature . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁is ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁attempt ▁to ▁find ▁broad , ▁cross - c ultural ▁par alle ls ▁and ▁un ities ▁in ▁religion , ▁particularly ▁in ▁myth s . ▁Wend y ▁Don iger , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁colle ague ▁from ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁until ▁his ▁death , ▁has ▁observed ▁that ▁" E li ade ▁argued |
▁bold ly ▁for ▁univers als ▁where ▁he ▁might ▁more ▁safely ▁have ▁argued ▁for ▁widely ▁preval ent ▁patterns ". ▁His ▁Treat ise ▁on ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ions ▁was ▁praised ▁by ▁French ▁phil ologist ▁Georges ▁Dum é z il ▁for ▁its ▁co her ence ▁and ▁ability ▁to ▁synt he size ▁diverse ▁and ▁distinct ▁myth ologies . ▁ ▁Robert ▁Ell wood ▁describes ▁Eli ade ' s ▁approach ▁to ▁religion ▁as ▁follows . ▁Eli ade ▁approaches ▁religion ▁by ▁imag ining ▁an ▁ide ally ▁" rel igious " ▁person , ▁whom ▁he ▁calls ▁hom o ▁relig ios us ▁in ▁his ▁writ ings . ▁Eli ade ' s ▁theories ▁basically ▁describe ▁how ▁this ▁hom o ▁relig ios us ▁would ▁view ▁the ▁world . ▁This ▁does ▁not ▁mean ▁that ▁all ▁religious ▁practition ers ▁actually ▁think ▁and ▁act ▁like ▁hom o ▁relig ios us . ▁Instead , ▁it ▁means ▁that ▁religious ▁behavior ▁" s ays ▁through ▁its ▁own ▁language " ▁that ▁the ▁world ▁is ▁as ▁hom o ▁relig ios us ▁would ▁see ▁it , ▁whether ▁or ▁not ▁the ▁real - life ▁participants ▁in ▁religious ▁behavior ▁are ▁aware ▁of ▁it . ▁However , ▁Ell wood ▁writes ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁" t ends ▁to ▁slide ▁over ▁that ▁last ▁qual ification ", ▁imp lying ▁that ▁traditional ▁societies ▁actually ▁thought ▁like ▁hom o ▁relig ios us . ▁ ▁Sac red ▁and ▁prof ane ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁" Y ah we h ▁is ▁both ▁kind ▁and ▁wr ath ful ; ▁the ▁God ▁of ▁the ▁Christian ▁myst ics ▁and ▁the olog ians ▁is |
▁terrible ▁and ▁gentle ▁at ▁once ". ▁He ▁also ▁thought ▁that ▁the ▁Indian ▁and ▁Chinese ▁myst ic ▁tried ▁to ▁att ain ▁" a ▁state ▁of ▁perfect ▁ind ifference ▁and ▁neutral ity " ▁that ▁resulted ▁in ▁a ▁coinc idence ▁of ▁oppos ites ▁in ▁which ▁" ple asure ▁and ▁pain , ▁desire ▁and ▁rep ulsion , ▁cold ▁and ▁heat ▁[...] ▁are ▁exp ung ed ▁from ▁his ▁awareness ". ▁ ▁Eli ade ' s ▁understanding ▁of ▁religion ▁centers ▁on ▁his ▁concept ▁of ▁hier oph any ▁( man ifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁Sac red ) — a ▁concept ▁that ▁includes , ▁but ▁is ▁not ▁limited ▁to , ▁the ▁older ▁and ▁more ▁restrict ive ▁concept ▁of ▁the oph any ▁( man ifest ation ▁of ▁a ▁god ). ▁From ▁the ▁perspective ▁of ▁religious ▁thought , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues , ▁hier oph an ies ▁give ▁structure ▁and ▁orientation ▁to ▁the ▁world , ▁establishing ▁a ▁sacred ▁order . ▁The ▁" prof ane " ▁space ▁of ▁non rel igious ▁experience ▁can ▁only ▁be ▁divided ▁up ▁geometric ally : ▁it ▁has ▁no ▁" qual itative ▁different iation ▁and , ▁hence , ▁no ▁orientation ▁[ is ] ▁given ▁by ▁virtue ▁of ▁its ▁inher ent ▁structure ". ▁Thus , ▁prof ane ▁space ▁gives ▁man ▁no ▁pattern ▁for ▁his ▁behavior . ▁In ▁contrast ▁to ▁prof ane ▁space , ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁a ▁hier oph any ▁has ▁a ▁sacred ▁structure ▁to ▁which ▁religious ▁man ▁con forms ▁himself . ▁A ▁hier oph any ▁amounts ▁to ▁a ▁" re vel ation ▁of ▁an ▁absolute ▁reality , ▁opposed ▁to ▁the |
▁non - re ality ▁of ▁the ▁vast ▁surrounding ▁exp anse ". ▁As ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁" s ac red ▁space " ▁demanding ▁a ▁certain ▁response ▁from ▁man , ▁Eli ade ▁gives ▁the ▁story ▁of ▁Moses ▁hal ting ▁before ▁Y ah we h ' s ▁manifest ation ▁as ▁a ▁burning ▁bush ▁( Ex od us ▁ 3 : 5 ) ▁and ▁taking ▁off ▁his ▁shoes . ▁ ▁Origin ▁myth s ▁and ▁sacred ▁time ▁Eli ade ▁notes ▁that , ▁in ▁traditional ▁societies , ▁myth ▁represents ▁the ▁absolute ▁truth ▁about ▁prim ord ial ▁time . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁myth s , ▁this ▁was ▁the ▁time ▁when ▁the ▁Sac red ▁first ▁appeared , ▁establishing ▁the ▁world ' s ▁structure — my th s ▁claim ▁to ▁describe ▁the ▁prim ord ial ▁events ▁that ▁made ▁society ▁and ▁the ▁natural ▁world ▁be ▁that ▁which ▁they ▁are . ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁all ▁myth s ▁are , ▁in ▁that ▁sense , ▁origin ▁myth s : ▁" my th , ▁then , ▁is ▁always ▁an ▁account ▁of ▁a ▁creation ". ▁ ▁Many ▁traditional ▁societies ▁believe ▁that ▁the ▁power ▁of ▁a ▁thing ▁lies ▁in ▁its ▁origin . ▁If ▁origin ▁is ▁equivalent ▁to ▁power , ▁then ▁" it ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁a ▁thing ▁that ▁is ▁significant ▁and ▁valid " ▁( a ▁thing ' s ▁reality ▁and ▁value ▁therefore ▁lies ▁only ▁in ▁its ▁first ▁appearance ). ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade ' s ▁theory , ▁only ▁the ▁Sac red ▁has ▁value , ▁only ▁a ▁thing ' s ▁first ▁appearance ▁has ▁value |
▁and , ▁therefore , ▁only ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁first ▁appearance ▁has ▁value . ▁My th ▁describes ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁first ▁appearance ; ▁therefore , ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age ▁is ▁sacred ▁time , ▁the ▁only ▁time ▁of ▁value : ▁" prim itive ▁man ▁was ▁interested ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁beg innings ▁[...] ▁to ▁him ▁it ▁matter ed ▁little ▁what ▁had ▁happened ▁to ▁himself , ▁or ▁to ▁others ▁like ▁him , ▁in ▁more ▁or ▁less ▁distant ▁times ". ▁Eli ade ▁post ulated ▁this ▁as ▁the ▁reason ▁for ▁the ▁" nost alg ia ▁for ▁origins " ▁that ▁appears ▁in ▁many ▁relig ions , ▁the ▁desire ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁a ▁prim ord ial ▁Parad ise . ▁ ▁E ternal ▁return ▁and ▁" T error ▁of ▁history " ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁traditional ▁man ▁attributes ▁no ▁value ▁to ▁the ▁linear ▁march ▁of ▁historical ▁events : ▁only ▁the ▁events ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age ▁have ▁value . ▁To ▁give ▁his ▁own ▁life ▁value , ▁traditional ▁man ▁performs ▁myth s ▁and ▁rit uals . ▁Because ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁essence ▁lies ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age , ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁first ▁appearance , ▁any ▁later ▁appearance ▁is ▁actually ▁the ▁first ▁appearance ; ▁by ▁rec ount ing ▁or ▁re - en act ing ▁myth ical ▁events , ▁myth s ▁and ▁rit uals ▁" re - actual ize " ▁those ▁events . ▁Eli ade ▁often ▁uses ▁the ▁term ▁" ar che types " ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁the ▁myth ical ▁models ▁established |
▁by ▁the ▁Sac red , ▁although ▁Eli ade ' s ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁should ▁be ▁distinguished ▁from ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁in ▁Jung ian ▁psychology . ▁ ▁Thus , ▁arg ues ▁Eli ade , ▁religious ▁behavior ▁does ▁not ▁only ▁comm emor ate , ▁but ▁also ▁particip ates ▁in , ▁sacred ▁events : ▁ ▁In ▁im itating ▁the ▁exempl ary ▁acts ▁of ▁a ▁god ▁or ▁of ▁a ▁myth ical ▁hero , ▁or ▁simply ▁by ▁rec ount ing ▁their ▁adventures , ▁the ▁man ▁of ▁an ▁arch a ic ▁society ▁det aches ▁himself ▁from ▁prof ane ▁time ▁and ▁mag ically ▁re - ent ers ▁the ▁Great ▁Time , ▁the ▁sacred ▁time . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁called ▁this ▁concept ▁the ▁" et ern al ▁return " ▁( dist ingu ished ▁from ▁the ▁philosoph ical ▁concept ▁of ▁" et ern al ▁return "). ▁Wend y ▁Don iger ▁noted ▁that ▁Eli ade ' s ▁theory ▁of ▁the ▁eternal ▁return ▁" has ▁become ▁a ▁tr u ism ▁in ▁the ▁study ▁of ▁relig ions ". ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁attributes ▁the ▁well - known ▁" cycl ic " ▁vision ▁of ▁time ▁in ▁ancient ▁thought ▁to ▁belief ▁in ▁the ▁eternal ▁return . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁New ▁Year ▁ceremon ies ▁among ▁the ▁Mes op ot am ians , ▁the ▁Egypt ians , ▁and ▁other ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁peoples ▁re - en act ed ▁their ▁cosm og onic ▁myth s . ▁Therefore , ▁by ▁the ▁logic ▁of ▁the ▁eternal ▁return , ▁each ▁New ▁Year ▁ceremony ▁was ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁for ▁these |
▁peoples . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁these ▁peoples ▁felt ▁a ▁need ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁Begin ning ▁at ▁regular ▁intervals , ▁turning ▁time ▁into ▁a ▁circle .< ref > E li ade , ▁My th ▁and ▁Re ality , ▁p . 4 7 – 4 9 </ ref > ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁year ning ▁to ▁remain ▁in ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age ▁causes ▁a ▁" ter ror ▁of ▁history ": ▁traditional ▁man ▁desires ▁to ▁escape ▁the ▁linear ▁success ion ▁of ▁events ▁( which , ▁Eli ade ▁indicated , ▁he ▁viewed ▁as ▁empty ▁of ▁any ▁inher ent ▁value ▁or ▁sac ral ity ). ▁Eli ade ▁suggests ▁that ▁the ▁abandon ment ▁of ▁myth ical ▁thought ▁and ▁the ▁full ▁acceptance ▁of ▁linear , ▁historical ▁time , ▁with ▁its ▁" ter ror ", ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁reasons ▁for ▁modern ▁man ' s ▁anx ieties . ▁Trad itional ▁societies ▁escape ▁this ▁anxiety ▁to ▁an ▁extent , ▁as ▁they ▁refuse ▁to ▁completely ▁acknowledge ▁historical ▁time . ▁ ▁Co inc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁Eli ade ▁claims ▁that ▁many ▁myth s , ▁rit uals , ▁and ▁myst ical ▁experiences ▁involve ▁a ▁" co inc idence ▁of ▁oppos ites ", ▁or ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um . ▁In ▁fact , ▁he ▁calls ▁the ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁" the ▁myth ical ▁pattern ". ▁Many ▁myth s , ▁Eli ade ▁notes , ▁" present ▁us ▁with ▁a ▁two fold ▁revel ation ": ▁they ▁express ▁on ▁the ▁one ▁hand ▁the ▁diam et rical ▁opposition ▁of |
▁two ▁divine ▁figures ▁spr ung ▁from ▁one ▁and ▁the ▁same ▁principle ▁and ▁dest ined , ▁in ▁many ▁versions , ▁to ▁be ▁reconc iled ▁at ▁some ▁ill ud ▁temp us ▁of ▁es chat ology , ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁other , ▁the ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁in ▁the ▁very ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁div inity , ▁which ▁shows ▁itself , ▁by ▁turns ▁or ▁even ▁simultaneously , ▁ben ev olent ▁and ▁terrible , ▁creative ▁and ▁destruct ive , ▁solar ▁and ▁ser pent ine , ▁and ▁so ▁on ▁( in ▁other ▁words , ▁actual ▁and ▁potential ). ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁" Y ah we h ▁is ▁both ▁kind ▁and ▁wr ath ful ; ▁the ▁God ▁of ▁the ▁Christian ▁myst ics ▁and ▁the olog ians ▁is ▁terrible ▁and ▁gentle ▁at ▁once ". ▁He ▁also ▁thought ▁that ▁the ▁Indian ▁and ▁Chinese ▁myst ic ▁tried ▁to ▁att ain ▁" a ▁state ▁of ▁perfect ▁ind ifference ▁and ▁neutral ity " ▁that ▁resulted ▁in ▁a ▁coinc idence ▁of ▁oppos ites ▁in ▁which ▁" ple asure ▁and ▁pain , ▁desire ▁and ▁rep ulsion , ▁cold ▁and ▁heat ▁[...] ▁are ▁exp ung ed ▁from ▁his ▁awareness ". ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁the ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ’ s ▁appeal ▁lies ▁in ▁" man ' s ▁deep ▁diss atisf action ▁with ▁his ▁actual ▁situation , ▁with ▁what ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁human ▁condition ". ▁In ▁many ▁myth ologies , ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age ▁involves ▁a ▁" fall ", ▁a ▁fundamental ▁" ont ological ▁change ▁in ▁the |
▁structure ▁of ▁the ▁World ". ▁Because ▁the ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁is ▁a ▁contrad iction , ▁it ▁represents ▁a ▁den ial ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁current ▁logical ▁structure , ▁a ▁revers al ▁of ▁the ▁" fall ". ▁ ▁Also , ▁traditional ▁man ' s ▁diss atisf action ▁with ▁the ▁post - my th ical ▁age ▁express es ▁itself ▁as ▁a ▁feeling ▁of ▁being ▁" t orn ▁and ▁separate ". ▁In ▁many ▁myth ologies , ▁the ▁lost ▁myth ical ▁age ▁was ▁a ▁Parad ise , ▁" a ▁parad ox ical ▁state ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁contr aries ▁exist ▁side ▁by ▁side ▁without ▁conflict , ▁and ▁the ▁multi plications ▁form ▁aspects ▁of ▁a ▁mysterious ▁Un ity ". ▁The ▁coinc ident ia ▁oppos itor um ▁express es ▁a ▁wish ▁to ▁recover ▁the ▁lost ▁unity ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁Parad ise , ▁for ▁it ▁presents ▁a ▁reconc iliation ▁of ▁oppos ites ▁and ▁the ▁un ification ▁of ▁diversity : ▁On ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁pre - system atic ▁thought , ▁the ▁mystery ▁of ▁tot ality ▁embod ies ▁man ' s ▁ende avor ▁to ▁reach ▁a ▁perspective ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁contr aries ▁are ▁abol ished , ▁the ▁Spirit ▁of ▁Ev il ▁reveals ▁itself ▁as ▁a ▁stim ul ant ▁of ▁Good , ▁and ▁Dem ons ▁appear ▁as ▁the ▁night ▁aspect ▁of ▁the ▁God s . ▁ ▁Ex ceptions ▁to ▁the ▁general ▁nature ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁acknowled ges ▁that ▁not ▁all ▁religious ▁behavior ▁has ▁all ▁the ▁attributes ▁described ▁in ▁his ▁theory ▁of ▁sacred ▁time ▁and ▁the ▁eternal ▁return . ▁The |
▁Z oro ast rian , ▁Jewish , ▁Christian , ▁and ▁Muslim ▁traditions ▁embrace ▁linear , ▁historical ▁time ▁as ▁sacred ▁or ▁capable ▁of ▁sanct ification , ▁while ▁some ▁Eastern ▁traditions ▁largely ▁reject ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁sacred ▁time , ▁seeking ▁escape ▁from ▁the ▁cycles ▁of ▁time . ▁ ▁Because ▁they ▁contain ▁rit uals , ▁Jud a ism ▁and ▁Christianity ▁necessarily — E li ade ▁arg ues — ret ain ▁a ▁sense ▁of ▁cycl ic ▁time : ▁by ▁the ▁very ▁fact ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁religion , ▁Christianity ▁had ▁to ▁keep ▁at ▁least ▁one ▁myth ical ▁aspect — lit urg ical ▁Time , ▁that ▁is , ▁the ▁periodic ▁re dis covery ▁of ▁the ▁ill ud ▁temp us ▁of ▁the ▁beg innings ▁[ and ] ▁an ▁im itation ▁of ▁the ▁Christ ▁as ▁exempl ary ▁pattern . ▁ ▁However , ▁Jud a ism ▁and ▁Christianity ▁do ▁not ▁see ▁time ▁as ▁a ▁circle ▁end lessly ▁turning ▁on ▁itself ; ▁nor ▁do ▁they ▁see ▁such ▁a ▁cycle ▁as ▁des irable , ▁as ▁a ▁way ▁to ▁participate ▁in ▁the ▁Sac red . ▁Instead , ▁these ▁relig ions ▁embrace ▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁linear ▁history ▁progress ing ▁toward ▁the ▁Mess ian ic ▁Age ▁or ▁the ▁Last ▁Jud g ment , ▁thus ▁initi ating ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁" progress " ▁( hum ans ▁are ▁to ▁work ▁for ▁a ▁Parad ise ▁in ▁the ▁future ). ▁However , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁understanding ▁of ▁Jud ae o - Christ ian ▁es chat ology ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁understood ▁as ▁cycl ical ▁in ▁that ▁the ▁" end ▁of |
▁time " ▁is ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁God : ▁" The ▁final ▁cat ast rop he ▁will ▁put ▁an ▁end ▁to ▁history , ▁hence ▁will ▁restore ▁man ▁to ▁etern ity ▁and ▁beat itude ". ▁ ▁The ▁pre - I sl amic ▁Pers ian ▁religion ▁of ▁Z oro ast rian ism , ▁which ▁made ▁a ▁notable ▁" cont ribut ion ▁to ▁the ▁religious ▁formation ▁of ▁the ▁West ", ▁also ▁has ▁a ▁linear ▁sense ▁of ▁time . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁the ▁He bre ws ▁had ▁a ▁linear ▁sense ▁of ▁time ▁before ▁being ▁influenced ▁by ▁Z oro ast rian ism . ▁In ▁fact , ▁Eli ade ▁ident ifies ▁the ▁He bre ws , ▁not ▁the ▁Z oro ast ri ans , ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁culture ▁to ▁truly ▁" val or ize " ▁historical ▁time , ▁the ▁first ▁to ▁see ▁all ▁major ▁historical ▁events ▁as ▁episodes ▁in ▁a ▁continuous ▁divine ▁revel ation . ▁However , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues , ▁Jud a ism ▁elabor ated ▁its ▁myth ology ▁of ▁linear ▁time ▁by ▁adding ▁elements ▁borrow ed ▁from ▁Z oro ast rian ism — including ▁ethical ▁dual ism , ▁a ▁sav ior ▁figure , ▁the ▁future ▁resur rection ▁of ▁the ▁body , ▁and ▁the ▁idea ▁of ▁cos mic ▁progress ▁toward ▁" the ▁final ▁triumph ▁of ▁Good ". ▁ ▁The ▁Indian ▁relig ions ▁of ▁the ▁East ▁generally ▁retain ▁a ▁cycl ic ▁view ▁of ▁time — for ▁instance , ▁the ▁Hindu ▁doctrine ▁of ▁k al pas . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁most ▁relig ions ▁that ▁accept ▁the ▁cycl |
ic ▁view ▁of ▁time ▁also ▁embrace ▁it : ▁they ▁see ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁way ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁sacred ▁time . ▁However , ▁in ▁Budd h ism , ▁J ain ism , ▁and ▁some ▁forms ▁of ▁Hindu ism , ▁the ▁Sac red ▁lies ▁outside ▁the ▁flux ▁of ▁the ▁material ▁world ▁( called ▁may a , ▁or ▁" ill usion "), ▁and ▁one ▁can ▁only ▁reach ▁it ▁by ▁esc aping ▁from ▁the ▁cycles ▁of ▁time . ▁Because ▁the ▁Sac red ▁lies ▁outside ▁cycl ic ▁time , ▁which ▁conditions ▁humans , ▁people ▁can ▁only ▁reach ▁the ▁Sac red ▁by ▁esc aping ▁the ▁human ▁condition . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁Y oga ▁techniques ▁aim ▁at ▁esc aping ▁the ▁limitations ▁of ▁the ▁body , ▁allowing ▁the ▁soul ▁( at man ) ▁to ▁rise ▁above ▁may a ▁and ▁reach ▁the ▁Sac red ▁( n ir v ana , ▁m ok sha ). ▁Im ag ery ▁of ▁" f reedom ", ▁and ▁of ▁death ▁to ▁one ' s ▁old ▁body ▁and ▁reb irth ▁with ▁a ▁new ▁body , ▁occur ▁frequently ▁in ▁Y og ic ▁texts , ▁representing ▁escape ▁from ▁the ▁bond age ▁of ▁the ▁temporal ▁human ▁condition . ▁Eli ade ▁discuss es ▁these ▁themes ▁in ▁detail ▁in ▁Y oga : ▁Imm ort ality ▁and ▁Freedom . ▁ ▁Symbol ism ▁of ▁the ▁Center ▁ ▁A ▁recur rent ▁theme ▁in ▁Eli ade ' s ▁myth ▁analysis ▁is ▁the ▁axis ▁m und i , ▁the ▁Center ▁of ▁the ▁World . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁the ▁Cos mic ▁Center ▁is ▁a |
▁necessary ▁cor ollary ▁to ▁the ▁division ▁of ▁reality ▁into ▁the ▁Sac red ▁and ▁the ▁prof ane . ▁The ▁Sac red ▁contains ▁all ▁value , ▁and ▁the ▁world ▁gains ▁purpose ▁and ▁meaning ▁only ▁through ▁hier oph an ies : ▁In ▁the ▁hom ogeneous ▁and ▁infinite ▁exp anse , ▁in ▁which ▁no ▁point ▁of ▁reference ▁is ▁possible ▁and ▁hence ▁no ▁orientation ▁is ▁established , ▁the ▁hier oph any ▁reveals ▁an ▁absolute ▁fixed ▁point , ▁a ▁center . ▁ ▁Because ▁prof ane ▁space ▁gives ▁man ▁no ▁orientation ▁for ▁his ▁life , ▁the ▁Sac red ▁must ▁manifest ▁itself ▁in ▁a ▁hier oph any , ▁thereby ▁establishing ▁a ▁sacred ▁site ▁around ▁which ▁man ▁can ▁orient ▁himself . ▁The ▁site ▁of ▁a ▁hier oph any ▁estab l ishes ▁a ▁" fixed ▁point , ▁a ▁center ". ▁This ▁Center ▁abol ishes ▁the ▁" hom ogene ity ▁and ▁rel ativity ▁of ▁prof ane ▁space ", ▁for ▁it ▁becomes ▁" the ▁central ▁axis ▁for ▁all ▁future ▁orientation ". ▁ ▁A ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁Sac red ▁in ▁prof ane ▁space ▁is , ▁by ▁definition , ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁something ▁breaking ▁through ▁from ▁one ▁plane ▁of ▁existence ▁to ▁another . ▁Therefore , ▁the ▁initial ▁hier oph any ▁that ▁estab l ishes ▁the ▁Center ▁must ▁be ▁a ▁point ▁at ▁which ▁there ▁is ▁contact ▁between ▁different ▁planes — this , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues , ▁explains ▁the ▁frequent ▁myth ical ▁imag ery ▁of ▁a ▁Cos mic ▁Tree ▁or ▁P ill ar ▁joining ▁Heaven , ▁Earth , ▁and ▁the ▁under world . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁noted |
▁that , ▁when ▁traditional ▁societies ▁found ▁a ▁new ▁territory , ▁they ▁often ▁perform ▁con sec rating ▁rit uals ▁that ▁re en act ▁the ▁hier oph any ▁that ▁established ▁the ▁Center ▁and ▁founded ▁the ▁world . ▁In ▁addition , ▁the ▁designs ▁of ▁traditional ▁buildings , ▁especially ▁tem ples , ▁usually ▁im itate ▁the ▁myth ical ▁image ▁of ▁the ▁axis ▁m und i ▁joining ▁the ▁different ▁cos mic ▁levels . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁Bab ylon ian ▁z igg ur ats ▁were ▁built ▁to ▁re semble ▁cos mic ▁mountains ▁passing ▁through ▁the ▁heaven ly ▁spher es , ▁and ▁the ▁rock ▁of ▁the ▁Temple ▁in ▁Jerusalem ▁was ▁supposed ▁to ▁reach ▁deep ▁into ▁the ▁te hom , ▁or ▁prim ord ial ▁waters . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁logic ▁of ▁the ▁eternal ▁return , ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁each ▁such ▁symbol ic ▁Center ▁will ▁actually ▁be ▁the ▁Center ▁of ▁the ▁World : ▁It ▁may ▁be ▁said , ▁in ▁general , ▁that ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁sacred ▁and ▁ritual ▁trees ▁that ▁we ▁meet ▁with ▁in ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁relig ions ▁are ▁only ▁re plic as , ▁imper fect ▁copies ▁of ▁this ▁exempl ary ▁ar che type , ▁the ▁Cos mic ▁Tree . ▁Thus , ▁all ▁these ▁sacred ▁trees ▁are ▁thought ▁of ▁as ▁situated ▁at ▁the ▁Centre ▁of ▁the ▁World , ▁and ▁all ▁the ▁ritual ▁trees ▁or ▁posts ▁[...] ▁are , ▁as ▁it ▁were , ▁mag ically ▁projected ▁into ▁the ▁Centre ▁of ▁the ▁World . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade ' s ▁interpretation , ▁religious ▁man ▁apparently ▁feels ▁the ▁need ▁to ▁live |
▁not ▁only ▁near , ▁but ▁at , ▁the ▁myth ical ▁Center ▁as ▁much ▁as ▁possible , ▁given ▁that ▁the ▁Center ▁is ▁the ▁point ▁of ▁communication ▁with ▁the ▁Sac red . ▁ ▁Thus , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues , ▁many ▁traditional ▁societies ▁share ▁common ▁out lines ▁in ▁their ▁myth ical ▁ge ograph ies . ▁In ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁known ▁world ▁is ▁the ▁sacred ▁Center , ▁" a ▁place ▁that ▁is ▁sacred ▁above ▁all "; ▁this ▁Center ▁anch ors ▁the ▁established ▁order . ▁Around ▁the ▁sacred ▁Center ▁lies ▁the ▁known ▁world , ▁the ▁realm ▁of ▁established ▁order ; ▁and ▁beyond ▁the ▁known ▁world ▁is ▁a ▁cha otic ▁and ▁dangerous ▁realm , ▁" pe op led ▁by ▁ghost s , ▁dem ons , ▁[ and ] ▁' fore ign ers ' ▁( who ▁are ▁[ ident ified ▁with ] ▁dem ons ▁and ▁the ▁souls ▁of ▁the ▁dead ) ". ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁traditional ▁societies ▁place ▁their ▁known ▁world ▁at ▁the ▁Center ▁because ▁( from ▁their ▁perspective ) ▁their ▁known ▁world ▁is ▁the ▁realm ▁that ▁ob e ys ▁a ▁recogn izable ▁order , ▁and ▁it ▁therefore ▁must ▁be ▁the ▁realm ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁Sac red ▁manif ests ▁itself ; ▁the ▁regions ▁beyond ▁the ▁known ▁world , ▁which ▁seem ▁strange ▁and ▁foreign , ▁must ▁lie ▁far ▁from ▁the ▁Center , ▁outside ▁the ▁order ▁established ▁by ▁the ▁Sac red . ▁ ▁The ▁High ▁God ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁some ▁" ev olution istic " ▁theories ▁of ▁religion , ▁especially ▁that ▁of ▁Edward ▁Burn ett ▁T yl or |
, ▁cultures ▁naturally ▁progress ▁from ▁anim ism ▁and ▁poly the ism ▁to ▁mon othe ism . ▁According ▁to ▁this ▁view , ▁more ▁advanced ▁cultures ▁should ▁be ▁more ▁mon othe istic , ▁and ▁more ▁primitive ▁cultures ▁should ▁be ▁more ▁poly the istic . ▁However , ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁" prim itive ", ▁pre - ag ric ultural ▁societies ▁believe ▁in ▁a ▁sup reme ▁sky - god . ▁Thus , ▁according ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁post - 1 9 th - century ▁scholars ▁have ▁rejected ▁T yl or ' s ▁theory ▁of ▁evolution ▁from ▁anim ism . ▁Based ▁on ▁the ▁discovery ▁of ▁sup reme ▁sky - god s ▁among ▁" pr imit ives ", ▁Eli ade ▁suspect s ▁that ▁the ▁earliest ▁humans ▁worship ed ▁a ▁heaven ly ▁Supreme ▁Being . ▁In ▁Pattern s ▁in ▁Compar ative ▁Relig ion , ▁he ▁writes , ▁" The ▁most ▁popular ▁prayer ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁is ▁addressed ▁to ▁' Our ▁Father ▁who ▁art ▁in ▁heaven .' ▁It ▁is ▁possible ▁that ▁man ' s ▁earliest ▁prayers ▁were ▁addressed ▁to ▁the ▁same ▁heaven ly ▁father ." ▁ ▁However , ▁Eli ade ▁disag rees ▁with ▁Wilhelm ▁Sch midt , ▁who ▁thought ▁the ▁earliest ▁form ▁of ▁religion ▁was ▁a ▁strict ▁mon othe ism . ▁Eli ade ▁dismiss es ▁this ▁theory ▁of ▁" prim ord ial ▁mon othe ism " ▁( U rm on othe ismus ) ▁as ▁" rig id " ▁and ▁un work able . ▁" At ▁most ," ▁he ▁writes , ▁" this ▁schema ▁[ Sch midt ' s ▁theory ] |
▁rend ers ▁an ▁account ▁of ▁human ▁[ rel igious ] ▁evolution ▁since ▁the ▁P ale ol ith ic ▁era ". ▁If ▁an ▁U rm on othe ismus ▁did ▁exist , ▁Eli ade ▁adds , ▁it ▁probably ▁differ ed ▁in ▁many ▁ways ▁from ▁the ▁concept ions ▁of ▁God ▁in ▁many ▁modern ▁mon othe istic ▁faith s : ▁for ▁instance , ▁the ▁prim ord ial ▁High ▁God ▁could ▁manifest ▁himself ▁as ▁an ▁animal ▁without ▁losing ▁his ▁status ▁as ▁a ▁cel est ial ▁Supreme ▁Being . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁heaven ly ▁Supreme ▁Be ings ▁are ▁actually ▁less ▁common ▁in ▁more ▁advanced ▁cultures . ▁Eli ade ▁spec ulates ▁that ▁the ▁discovery ▁of ▁agriculture ▁brought ▁a ▁host ▁of ▁fert ility ▁gods ▁and ▁god dess es ▁into ▁the ▁fore front , ▁causing ▁the ▁cel est ial ▁Supreme ▁Being ▁to ▁fade ▁away ▁and ▁eventually ▁van ish ▁from ▁many ▁ancient ▁relig ions . ▁Even ▁in ▁primitive ▁hun ter - gather er ▁societies , ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁is ▁a ▁vague , ▁distant ▁figure , ▁dw elling ▁high ▁above ▁the ▁world . ▁Often ▁he ▁has ▁no ▁cult ▁and ▁receives ▁prayer ▁only ▁as ▁a ▁last ▁resort , ▁when ▁all ▁else ▁has ▁failed . ▁Eli ade ▁calls ▁the ▁distant ▁High ▁God ▁a ▁de us ▁ot ios us ▁(" idle ▁god "). ▁ ▁In ▁belief ▁systems ▁that ▁involve ▁a ▁de us ▁ot ios us , ▁the ▁distant ▁High ▁God ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁closer ▁to ▁humans ▁during ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age . ▁After ▁finishing ▁his ▁works ▁of ▁creation , ▁the ▁High ▁God |
▁" f ors ook ▁the ▁earth ▁and ▁withd rew ▁into ▁the ▁highest ▁heaven ". ▁This ▁is ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁Sac red ' s ▁distance ▁from ▁" prof ane " ▁life , ▁life ▁lived ▁after ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age : ▁by ▁esc aping ▁from ▁the ▁prof ane ▁condition ▁through ▁religious ▁behavior , ▁figures ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁sh aman ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁conditions ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age , ▁which ▁include ▁ne arness ▁to ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁(" by ▁his ▁flight ▁or ▁asc ension , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁[...] ▁meets ▁the ▁God ▁of ▁Heaven ▁face ▁to ▁face ▁and ▁speaks ▁directly ▁to ▁him , ▁as ▁man ▁sometimes ▁did ▁in ▁ill o ▁temp ore "). ▁The ▁sh aman istic ▁behaviors ▁surrounding ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁are ▁a ▁particularly ▁clear ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁eternal ▁return . ▁ ▁Sh aman ism ▁ ▁Over view ▁ ▁Eli ade ' s ▁schol arly ▁work ▁includes ▁a ▁study ▁of ▁sh aman ism , ▁Sh aman ism : ▁Arch a ic ▁Techn iques ▁of ▁Ec st asy , ▁a ▁survey ▁of ▁sh aman istic ▁practices ▁in ▁different ▁areas . ▁His ▁My th s , ▁Dream s ▁and ▁Myst eries ▁also ▁addresses ▁sh aman ism ▁in ▁some ▁detail . ▁ ▁In ▁Sh aman ism , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁for ▁a ▁restrict ive ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁word ▁sh aman : ▁it ▁should ▁not ▁apply ▁to ▁just ▁any ▁mag ician ▁or ▁medicine ▁man , ▁as ▁that ▁would ▁make ▁the ▁term ▁redu nd ant ; ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁he ▁arg ues ▁against ▁restrict ing |
▁the ▁term ▁to ▁the ▁practition ers ▁of ▁the ▁sacred ▁of ▁S iber ia ▁and ▁Central ▁Asia ▁( it ▁is ▁from ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁titles ▁for ▁this ▁function , ▁namely , ▁š am án , ▁considered ▁by ▁Eli ade ▁to ▁be ▁of ▁T ung us ic ▁origin , ▁that ▁the ▁term ▁itself ▁was ▁introduced ▁into ▁Western ▁languages ). ▁Eli ade ▁defines ▁a ▁sh aman ▁as ▁follows : ▁he ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁cure , ▁like ▁all ▁doctors , ▁and ▁to ▁perform ▁mir acles ▁of ▁the ▁f ak ir ▁type , ▁like ▁all ▁mag icians ▁[...] ▁But ▁beyond ▁this , ▁he ▁is ▁a ▁psych op omp , ▁and ▁he ▁may ▁also ▁be ▁a ▁priest , ▁myst ic , ▁and ▁poet . ▁ ▁If ▁we ▁define ▁sh aman ism ▁this ▁way , ▁Eli ade ▁claims , ▁we ▁find ▁that ▁the ▁term ▁covers ▁a ▁collection ▁of ▁phen omena ▁that ▁share ▁a ▁common ▁and ▁unique ▁" structure " ▁and ▁" history ". ▁( When ▁thus ▁defined , ▁sh aman ism ▁tends ▁to ▁occur ▁in ▁its ▁pure st ▁forms ▁in ▁hunting ▁and ▁past oral ▁societies ▁like ▁those ▁of ▁S iber ia ▁and ▁Central ▁Asia , ▁which ▁re vere ▁a ▁cel est ial ▁High ▁God ▁" on ▁the ▁way ▁to ▁becoming ▁a ▁de us ▁ot ios us ". ▁Eli ade ▁takes ▁the ▁sh aman ism ▁of ▁those ▁regions ▁as ▁his ▁most ▁representative ▁example .) ▁ ▁In ▁his ▁exam inations ▁of ▁sh aman ism , ▁Eli ade ▁emphas izes ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁attribute ▁of ▁reg aining ▁man ' s ▁condition |
▁before ▁the ▁" Fall " ▁out ▁of ▁sacred ▁time : ▁" The ▁most ▁representative ▁myst ical ▁experience ▁of ▁the ▁arch a ic ▁societies , ▁that ▁of ▁sh aman ism , ▁bet r ays ▁the ▁N ost alg ia ▁for ▁Parad ise , ▁the ▁desire ▁to ▁recover ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁freedom ▁and ▁beat itude ▁before ▁' the ▁Fall ' ." ▁This ▁concern — which , ▁by ▁itself , ▁is ▁the ▁concern ▁of ▁almost ▁all ▁religious ▁behavior , ▁according ▁to ▁Eli ade — man if ests ▁itself ▁in ▁specific ▁ways ▁in ▁sh aman ism . ▁ ▁Death , ▁resur rection ▁and ▁secondary ▁functions ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁common ▁sh aman istic ▁themes ▁is ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁supposed ▁death ▁and ▁resur rection . ▁This ▁occurs ▁in ▁particular ▁during ▁his ▁init iation . ▁Often , ▁the ▁procedure ▁is ▁supposed ▁to ▁be ▁performed ▁by ▁spirits ▁who ▁dis member ▁the ▁sh aman ▁and ▁strip ▁the ▁flesh ▁from ▁his ▁bones , ▁then ▁put ▁him ▁back ▁together ▁and ▁rev ive ▁him . ▁In ▁more ▁than ▁one ▁way , ▁this ▁death ▁and ▁resur rection ▁represents ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁elev ation ▁above ▁human ▁nature . ▁ ▁First , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁dies ▁so ▁that ▁he ▁can ▁rise ▁above ▁human ▁nature ▁on ▁a ▁quite ▁literal ▁level . ▁After ▁he ▁has ▁been ▁dis member ed ▁by ▁the ▁initi atory ▁spirits , ▁they ▁often ▁replace ▁his ▁old ▁org ans ▁with ▁new , ▁magical ▁ones ▁( the ▁sh aman ▁dies ▁to ▁his ▁prof ane ▁self ▁so ▁that ▁he |
▁can ▁rise ▁again ▁as ▁a ▁new , ▁sanct ified , ▁being ). ▁Second , ▁by ▁being ▁reduced ▁to ▁his ▁bones , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁experiences ▁reb irth ▁on ▁a ▁more ▁symbol ic ▁level : ▁in ▁many ▁hunting ▁and ▁her ding ▁societies , ▁the ▁bone ▁represents ▁the ▁source ▁of ▁life , ▁so ▁reduction ▁to ▁a ▁ske leton ▁" is ▁equivalent ▁to ▁re - ent ering ▁the ▁wom b ▁of ▁this ▁prim ord ial ▁life , ▁that ▁is , ▁to ▁a ▁complete ▁renew al , ▁a ▁myst ical ▁reb irth ". ▁Eli ade ▁considers ▁this ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁source ▁of ▁life ▁essentially ▁equivalent ▁to ▁the ▁eternal ▁return . ▁ ▁Third , ▁the ▁sh aman istic ▁phenomenon ▁of ▁repeated ▁death ▁and ▁resur rection ▁also ▁represents ▁a ▁trans fig uration ▁in ▁other ▁ways . ▁The ▁sh aman ▁dies ▁not ▁once ▁but ▁many ▁times : ▁having ▁died ▁during ▁init iation ▁and ▁ris en ▁again ▁with ▁new ▁powers , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁can ▁send ▁his ▁spirit ▁out ▁of ▁his ▁body ▁on ▁err ands ; ▁thus , ▁his ▁whole ▁career ▁consists ▁of ▁repeated ▁deaths ▁and ▁resur re ctions . ▁The ▁sh aman ' s ▁new ▁ability ▁to ▁die ▁and ▁return ▁to ▁life ▁shows ▁that ▁he ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁bound ▁by ▁the ▁laws ▁of ▁prof ane ▁time , ▁particularly ▁the ▁law ▁of ▁death : ▁" the ▁ability ▁to ▁' die ' ▁and ▁come ▁to ▁life ▁again ▁[...] ▁denotes ▁that ▁[ the ▁sh aman ] ▁has ▁sur pass ed ▁the ▁human ▁condition ". ▁ ▁Having ▁ris en ▁above ▁the ▁human ▁condition , |
▁the ▁sh aman ▁is ▁not ▁bound ▁by ▁the ▁flow ▁of ▁history . ▁Therefore , ▁he ▁enjo ys ▁the ▁conditions ▁of ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age . ▁In ▁many ▁myth s , ▁humans ▁can ▁speak ▁with ▁animals ; ▁and , ▁after ▁their ▁initi ations , ▁many ▁sh am ans ▁claim ▁to ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁communicate ▁with ▁animals . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁this ▁is ▁one ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁return ▁to ▁" the ▁ill ud ▁temp us ▁described ▁to ▁us ▁by ▁the ▁parad isi ac ▁myth s ". ▁ ▁The ▁sh aman ▁can ▁descend ▁to ▁the ▁under world ▁or ▁asc end ▁to ▁heaven , ▁often ▁by ▁climbing ▁the ▁World ▁Tree , ▁the ▁cos mic ▁pill ar , ▁the ▁sacred ▁ladder , ▁or ▁some ▁other ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁axis ▁m und i . ▁Often , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁will ▁asc end ▁to ▁heaven ▁to ▁speak ▁with ▁the ▁High ▁God . ▁Because ▁the ▁gods ▁( part icular ly ▁the ▁High ▁God , ▁according ▁to ▁Eli ade ' s ▁de us ▁ot ios us ▁concept ) ▁were ▁closer ▁to ▁humans ▁during ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age , ▁the ▁sh aman ' s ▁easy ▁communication ▁with ▁the ▁High ▁God ▁represents ▁an ▁abol ition ▁of ▁history ▁and ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁myth ical ▁age . ▁ ▁Because ▁of ▁his ▁ability ▁to ▁communicate ▁with ▁the ▁gods ▁and ▁descend ▁to ▁the ▁land ▁of ▁the ▁dead , ▁the ▁sh aman ▁frequently ▁functions ▁as ▁a ▁psych op omp ▁and ▁a ▁medicine ▁man . ▁ ▁Eli ade ' s ▁philosophy ▁ |
▁Early ▁contributions ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁his ▁political ▁essays , ▁the ▁young ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁auth ored ▁others , ▁philosoph ical ▁in ▁content . ▁Conne cted ▁with ▁the ▁ide ology ▁of ▁Tr ă ir ism , ▁they ▁were ▁often ▁prop hetic ▁in ▁tone , ▁and ▁saw ▁Eli ade ▁being ▁h ailed ▁as ▁a ▁her ald ▁by ▁various ▁representatives ▁of ▁his ▁generation . ▁When ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁ 2 1 ▁years ▁old ▁and ▁publishing ▁his ▁It iner ar ▁spiritual , ▁literary ▁critic ▁ Ş er ban ▁Ci oc ules cu ▁described ▁him ▁as ▁" the ▁column ▁leader ▁of ▁the ▁spirit ually ▁myst ical ▁and ▁Orth odox ▁youth ." ▁Ci oc ules cu ▁discussed ▁his ▁" im press ive ▁er ud ition ", ▁but ▁argued ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁" occ asion ally ▁ple th oric , ▁poet ically ▁in eb ri ating ▁itself ▁through ▁abuse ". ▁Ci oc ules cu ' s ▁colle ague ▁Per p ess ici us ▁saw ▁the ▁young ▁author ▁and ▁his ▁generation ▁as ▁marked ▁by ▁" the ▁spect er ▁of ▁war ", ▁a ▁notion ▁he ▁connected ▁to ▁various ▁essays ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁and ▁ 3 0 s ▁in ▁which ▁Eli ade ▁threatened ▁the ▁world ▁with ▁the ▁ver dict ▁that ▁a ▁new ▁conflict ▁was ▁lo oming ▁( while ▁asking ▁that ▁young ▁people ▁be ▁allowed ▁to ▁manifest ▁their ▁will ▁and ▁fully ▁experience ▁freedom ▁before ▁per ishing ). ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁noted ▁contributions ▁in ▁this ▁respect ▁was ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 2 ▁Sol |
ilo qu ii ▁(" S ol ilo qu ies "), ▁which ▁explored ▁exist ential ▁philosophy . ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁who ▁saw ▁in ▁it ▁" an ▁echo ▁of ▁N ae ▁I ones cu ' s ▁lect ures ", ▁tr aced ▁a ▁parallel ▁with ▁the ▁essays ▁of ▁another ▁of ▁I ones cu ' s ▁dis ciples , ▁Em il ▁C ior an , ▁while ▁noting ▁that ▁C ior an ' s ▁were ▁" of ▁a ▁more ▁ex ult ed ▁tone ▁and ▁written ▁in ▁the ▁a ph or istic ▁form ▁of ▁K ier ke ga ard ". ▁C ă lines cu ▁recorded ▁Eli ade ' s ▁re jection ▁of ▁object ivity , ▁c iting ▁the ▁author ' s ▁stated ▁ind ifference ▁towards ▁any ▁" na ï vet é " ▁or ▁" contr ad ictions " ▁that ▁the ▁reader ▁could ▁possibly ▁re pro ach ▁him , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁his ▁dismiss ive ▁thoughts ▁of ▁" the oret ical ▁data " ▁and ▁mainstream ▁philosophy ▁in ▁general ▁( E li ade ▁saw ▁the ▁latter ▁as ▁" in ert , ▁infer tile ▁and ▁path ogen ic "). ▁Eli ade ▁thus ▁argued , ▁" a ▁sinc ere ▁brain ▁is ▁un ass ailable , ▁for ▁it ▁den ies ▁itself ▁to ▁any ▁relationship ▁with ▁outside ▁truth s ." ▁ ▁The ▁young ▁writer ▁was ▁however ▁careful ▁to ▁clar ify ▁that ▁the ▁existence ▁he ▁took ▁into ▁consideration ▁was ▁not ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁" inst inct s ▁and ▁personal ▁id ios ync ras ies ", ▁which ▁he ▁believed ▁determined ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁many ▁humans |
, ▁but ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁distinct ▁set ▁compr ising ▁" personal ities ". ▁He ▁described ▁" personal ities " ▁as ▁characterized ▁by ▁both ▁" pur pose " ▁and ▁" a ▁much ▁more ▁complicated ▁and ▁dangerous ▁al che my ". ▁This ▁different iation , ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁believed , ▁echo ed ▁I ones cu ' s ▁met aphor ▁of ▁man , ▁seen ▁as ▁" the ▁only ▁animal ▁who ▁can ▁fail ▁at ▁living ", ▁and ▁the ▁duck , ▁who ▁" shall ▁remain ▁a ▁duck ▁no ▁matter ▁what ▁it ▁does ". ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁the ▁purpose ▁of ▁personal ities ▁is ▁in finity : ▁" conscious ly ▁and ▁gl or iously ▁bringing ▁[ ex istence ] ▁to ▁waste , ▁into ▁as ▁many ▁sk ies ▁as ▁possible , ▁continuously ▁fulfill ing ▁and ▁pol ishing ▁ones elf , ▁seeking ▁as cent ▁and ▁not ▁circum ference ." ▁ ▁In ▁Eli ade ' s ▁view , ▁two ▁roads ▁await ▁man ▁in ▁this ▁process . ▁One ▁is ▁glory , ▁determined ▁by ▁either ▁work ▁or ▁pro cre ation , ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁the ▁asc etic ism ▁of ▁religion ▁or ▁magic — both , ▁C ă lines cu ▁believed , ▁were ▁aimed ▁at ▁reaching ▁the ▁absolute , ▁even ▁in ▁those ▁cases ▁where ▁Eli ade ▁described ▁the ▁latter ▁as ▁an ▁" aby ss al ▁experience " ▁into ▁which ▁man ▁may ▁take ▁the ▁pl unge . ▁The ▁critic ▁pointed ▁out ▁that ▁the ▁addition ▁of ▁" a ▁magical ▁solution " ▁to ▁the ▁options ▁taken ▁into ▁consideration ▁seemed ▁to ▁be ▁Eli ade ' s |
▁own ▁original ▁contributions ▁to ▁his ▁ment or ' s ▁philosophy , ▁and ▁proposed ▁that ▁it ▁may ▁have ▁o wed ▁inspiration ▁to ▁Jul ius ▁E vol a ▁and ▁his ▁dis ciples . ▁He ▁also ▁recorded ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁applied ▁this ▁concept ▁to ▁human ▁creation , ▁and ▁specifically ▁to ▁artistic ▁creation , ▁c iting ▁him ▁describing ▁the ▁latter ▁as ▁" a ▁magical ▁joy , ▁the ▁vict orious ▁break ▁of ▁the ▁iron ▁circle " ▁( a ▁reflection ▁of ▁im itat io ▁dei , ▁having ▁salv ation ▁for ▁its ▁ultimate ▁goal ). ▁ ▁Phil os opher ▁of ▁religion ▁ ▁Anti - redu ction ism ▁and ▁the ▁" trans conscious " ▁By ▁profession , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁a ▁historian ▁of ▁religion . ▁However , ▁his ▁schol arly ▁works ▁draw ▁heavily ▁on ▁philosoph ical ▁and ▁psychological ▁termin ology . ▁In ▁addition , ▁they ▁contain ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁philosoph ical ▁arguments ▁about ▁religion . ▁In ▁particular , ▁Eli ade ▁often ▁implies ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁a ▁universal ▁psychological ▁or ▁spiritual ▁" ess ence " ▁behind ▁all ▁religious ▁phen omena . ▁Because ▁of ▁these ▁arguments , ▁some ▁have ▁accused ▁Eli ade ▁of ▁over - general ization ▁and ▁" ess ential ism ", ▁or ▁even ▁of ▁promoting ▁a ▁the ological ▁agenda ▁under ▁the ▁gu ise ▁of ▁historical ▁scholarship . ▁However , ▁others ▁argue ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁is ▁better ▁understood ▁as ▁a ▁scholar ▁who ▁is ▁willing ▁to ▁openly ▁discuss ▁sacred ▁experience ▁and ▁its ▁consequences . ▁ ▁In ▁studying ▁religion , ▁Eli ade ▁reject s ▁certain ▁" redu ction ist " ▁approaches . ▁Eli ade |
▁thinks ▁a ▁religious ▁phenomenon ▁cannot ▁be ▁reduced ▁to ▁a ▁product ▁of ▁culture ▁and ▁history . ▁He ▁ins ists ▁that , ▁although ▁religion ▁involves ▁" the ▁social ▁man , ▁the ▁economic ▁man , ▁and ▁so ▁forth ", ▁nonetheless ▁" all ▁these ▁condition ing ▁factors ▁together ▁do ▁not , ▁of ▁themselves , ▁add ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁the ▁spirit ". ▁ ▁Using ▁this ▁anti - redu ction ist ▁position , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁against ▁those ▁who ▁acc use ▁him ▁of ▁over general izing , ▁of ▁looking ▁for ▁univers als ▁at ▁the ▁expense ▁of ▁particular s . ▁Eli ade ▁adm its ▁that ▁every ▁religious ▁phenomenon ▁is ▁shaped ▁by ▁the ▁particular ▁culture ▁and ▁history ▁that ▁produced ▁it : ▁When ▁the ▁Son ▁of ▁God ▁inc arn ated ▁and ▁became ▁the ▁Christ , ▁he ▁had ▁to ▁speak ▁Ar ama ic ; ▁he ▁could ▁only ▁conduct ▁himself ▁as ▁a ▁He brew ▁of ▁his ▁times ▁[...] ▁His ▁religious ▁message , ▁however ▁universal ▁it ▁might ▁be , ▁was ▁condition ed ▁by ▁the ▁past ▁and ▁present ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁He brew ▁people . ▁If ▁the ▁Son ▁of ▁God ▁had ▁been ▁born ▁in ▁India , ▁his ▁spoken ▁language ▁would ▁have ▁had ▁to ▁conform ▁itself ▁to ▁the ▁structure ▁of ▁the ▁Indian ▁languages . ▁ ▁However , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁against ▁those ▁he ▁calls ▁" hist oric ist ▁or ▁exist ential ist ▁philosoph ers " ▁who ▁do ▁not ▁recognize ▁" man ▁in ▁general " ▁behind ▁particular ▁men ▁produced ▁by ▁particular ▁situations ▁( E li ade ▁c ites ▁Im manuel ▁K ant ▁as ▁the |
▁likely ▁for er un ner ▁of ▁this ▁kind ▁of ▁" hist oric ism "). ▁He ▁adds ▁that ▁human ▁consciousness ▁transc ends ▁( is ▁not ▁redu c ible ▁to ) ▁its ▁historical ▁and ▁cultural ▁condition ing , ▁and ▁even ▁suggests ▁the ▁possibility ▁of ▁a ▁" trans conscious ". ▁By ▁this , ▁Eli ade ▁does ▁not ▁necessarily ▁mean ▁anything ▁super natural ▁or ▁myst ical : ▁within ▁the ▁" trans conscious ", ▁he ▁places ▁religious ▁mot ifs , ▁symbols , ▁images , ▁and ▁nost alg ias ▁that ▁are ▁supposed ly ▁universal ▁and ▁whose ▁causes ▁therefore ▁cannot ▁be ▁reduced ▁to ▁historical ▁and ▁cultural ▁condition ing . ▁ ▁Pl aton ism ▁and ▁" prim itive ▁ont ology " ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁traditional ▁man ▁feels ▁that ▁things ▁" ac quire ▁their ▁reality , ▁their ▁identity , ▁only ▁to ▁the ▁extent ▁of ▁their ▁participation ▁in ▁a ▁transc endent ▁reality ". ▁To ▁traditional ▁man , ▁the ▁prof ane ▁world ▁is ▁" mean ing less ", ▁and ▁a ▁thing ▁r ises ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁prof ane ▁world ▁only ▁by ▁conform ing ▁to ▁an ▁ideal , ▁myth ical ▁model . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁describes ▁this ▁view ▁of ▁reality ▁as ▁a ▁fundamental ▁part ▁of ▁" prim itive ▁ont ology " ▁( the ▁study ▁of ▁" ex istence " ▁or ▁" re ality "). ▁Here ▁he ▁sees ▁a ▁similar ity ▁with ▁the ▁philosophy ▁of ▁Pl ato , ▁who ▁believed ▁that ▁physical ▁phen omena ▁are ▁pale ▁and ▁trans ient ▁im itations ▁of ▁eternal ▁models ▁or ▁" Forms " ▁( see ▁Theory ▁of ▁forms ). |
▁He ▁argued : ▁Pl ato ▁could ▁be ▁regarded ▁as ▁the ▁outstanding ▁philos opher ▁of ▁' prim itive ▁ment ality ,' ▁that ▁is , ▁as ▁the ▁think er ▁who ▁succeeded ▁in ▁giving ▁philosoph ic ▁currency ▁and ▁valid ity ▁to ▁the ▁modes ▁of ▁life ▁and ▁behavior ▁of ▁arch a ic ▁humanity . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁thinks ▁the ▁Pl at onic ▁Theory ▁of ▁forms ▁is ▁" prim itive ▁ont ology " ▁pers isting ▁in ▁Greek ▁philosophy . ▁He ▁claims ▁that ▁Pl aton ism ▁is ▁the ▁" most ▁fully ▁elabor ated " ▁version ▁of ▁this ▁primitive ▁ont ology . ▁ ▁In ▁The ▁Str ucture ▁of ▁Relig ious ▁Know ing : ▁En counter ing ▁the ▁Sac red ▁in ▁Eli ade ▁and ▁L on er gan , ▁John ▁Daniel ▁D ados ky ▁arg ues ▁that , ▁by ▁making ▁this ▁statement , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁acknowled ging ▁" inde bt ed ness ▁to ▁Greek ▁philosophy ▁in ▁general , ▁and ▁to ▁Pl ato ' s ▁theory ▁of ▁forms ▁specifically , ▁for ▁his ▁own ▁theory ▁of ▁ar che types ▁and ▁repet ition ". ▁However , ▁D ados ky ▁also ▁states ▁that ▁" one ▁should ▁be ▁caut ious ▁when ▁trying ▁to ▁assess ▁Eli ade ' s ▁inde bt ed ness ▁to ▁Pl ato ". ▁D ados ky ▁quotes ▁Robert ▁Seg al , ▁a ▁professor ▁of ▁religion , ▁who ▁draws ▁a ▁distinction ▁between ▁Pl aton ism ▁and ▁Eli ade ' s ▁" prim itive ▁ont ology ": ▁for ▁Eli ade , ▁the ▁ideal ▁models ▁are ▁patterns ▁that ▁a ▁person ▁or ▁object ▁may ▁or ▁may |
▁not ▁im itate ; ▁for ▁Pl ato , ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁Form ▁for ▁everything , ▁and ▁everything ▁im it ates ▁a ▁Form ▁by ▁the ▁very ▁fact ▁that ▁it ▁exists . ▁ ▁Ex ist ential ism ▁and ▁sec ular ism ▁Behind ▁the ▁diverse ▁cultural ▁forms ▁of ▁different ▁relig ions , ▁Eli ade ▁propos es ▁a ▁universal : ▁traditional ▁man , ▁he ▁claims , ▁" always ▁believes ▁that ▁there ▁is ▁an ▁absolute ▁reality , ▁the ▁sacred , ▁which ▁transc ends ▁this ▁world ▁but ▁manif ests ▁itself ▁in ▁this ▁world , ▁thereby ▁sanct ifying ▁it ▁and ▁making ▁it ▁real ". ▁Furthermore , ▁traditional ▁man ' s ▁behavior ▁gains ▁purpose ▁and ▁meaning ▁through ▁the ▁Sac red : ▁" By ▁im itating ▁divine ▁behavior , ▁man ▁puts ▁and ▁keeps ▁himself ▁close ▁to ▁the ▁gods — that ▁is , ▁in ▁the ▁real ▁and ▁the ▁significant ." ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁" mod ern ▁non rel igious ▁man ▁assumes ▁a ▁new ▁exist ential ▁situation ". ▁For ▁traditional ▁man , ▁historical ▁events ▁gain ▁significance ▁by ▁im itating ▁sacred , ▁transc endent ▁events . ▁In ▁contrast , ▁non rel igious ▁man ▁lack s ▁sacred ▁models ▁for ▁how ▁history ▁or ▁human ▁behavior ▁should ▁be , ▁so ▁he ▁must ▁decide ▁on ▁his ▁own ▁how ▁history ▁should ▁proceed — he ▁" reg ards ▁himself ▁solely ▁as ▁the ▁subject ▁and ▁agent ▁of ▁history , ▁and ▁ref uses ▁all ▁appeal ▁to ▁transc end ence ". ▁▁ ▁From ▁the ▁stand point ▁of ▁religious ▁thought , ▁the ▁world ▁has ▁an ▁objective ▁purpose ▁established ▁by ▁myth ical ▁events , |
▁to ▁which ▁man ▁should ▁conform ▁himself : ▁" My th ▁teaches ▁[ rel igious ▁man ] ▁the ▁prim ord ial ▁' st ories ' ▁that ▁have ▁const ituted ▁him ▁exist entially ." ▁From ▁the ▁stand point ▁of ▁sec ular ▁thought , ▁any ▁purpose ▁must ▁be ▁invented ▁and ▁imposed ▁on ▁the ▁world ▁by ▁man . ▁Because ▁of ▁this ▁new ▁" exist ential ▁situation ", ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues , ▁the ▁Sac red ▁becomes ▁the ▁primary ▁obst acle ▁to ▁non rel igious ▁man ' s ▁" f reedom ". ▁In ▁viewing ▁himself ▁as ▁the ▁proper ▁maker ▁of ▁history , ▁non rel igious ▁man ▁res ists ▁all ▁not ions ▁of ▁an ▁extern ally ▁( for ▁instance , ▁div inely ) ▁imposed ▁order ▁or ▁model ▁he ▁must ▁obey : ▁modern ▁man ▁" m akes ▁himself , ▁and ▁he ▁only ▁makes ▁himself ▁completely ▁in ▁proportion ▁as ▁he ▁des ac ral izes ▁himself ▁and ▁the ▁world . ▁[...] ▁He ▁will ▁not ▁truly ▁be ▁free ▁until ▁he ▁has ▁killed ▁the ▁last ▁god ". ▁ ▁Relig ious ▁surviv als ▁in ▁the ▁sec ular ▁world ▁Eli ade ▁says ▁that ▁sec ular ▁man ▁cannot ▁escape ▁his ▁bond age ▁to ▁religious ▁thought . ▁By ▁its ▁very ▁nature , ▁sec ular ism ▁depends ▁on ▁religion ▁for ▁its ▁sense ▁of ▁identity : ▁by ▁res isting ▁sacred ▁models , ▁by ▁ins isting ▁that ▁man ▁make ▁history ▁on ▁his ▁own , ▁sec ular ▁man ▁ident ifies ▁himself ▁only ▁through ▁opposition ▁to ▁religious ▁thought : ▁" He ▁[ sec ular ▁man ] ▁recogn izes ▁himself ▁in ▁proportion ▁as ▁he |
▁' f rees ' ▁and ▁' pur ifies ' ▁himself ▁from ▁the ▁' super st itions ' ▁of ▁his ▁ancestors ." ▁Furthermore , ▁modern ▁man ▁" st ill ▁ret ains ▁a ▁large ▁stock ▁of ▁cam ou fl aged ▁myth s ▁and ▁degener ated ▁rit uals ". ▁For ▁example , ▁modern ▁social ▁events ▁still ▁have ▁similar ities ▁to ▁traditional ▁init iation ▁rit uals , ▁and ▁modern ▁novels ▁feature ▁myth ical ▁mot ifs ▁and ▁themes . ▁Finally , ▁sec ular ▁man ▁still ▁particip ates ▁in ▁something ▁like ▁the ▁eternal ▁return : ▁by ▁reading ▁modern ▁literature , ▁" mod ern ▁man ▁succeed s ▁in ▁obtaining ▁an ▁' escape ▁from ▁time ' ▁comparable ▁to ▁the ▁' em erg ence ▁from ▁time ' ▁effect ed ▁by ▁myth s ". ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁sees ▁traces ▁of ▁religious ▁thought ▁even ▁in ▁sec ular ▁academ ia . ▁He ▁thinks ▁modern ▁scientists ▁are ▁motivated ▁by ▁the ▁religious ▁desire ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁sacred ▁time ▁of ▁origins : ▁One ▁could ▁say ▁that ▁the ▁anxious ▁search ▁for ▁the ▁origins ▁of ▁Life ▁and ▁Mind ; ▁the ▁fasc ination ▁in ▁the ▁' m yst eries ▁of ▁Nature '; ▁the ▁urge ▁to ▁pen et rate ▁and ▁dec ipher ▁the ▁inner ▁structure ▁of ▁M atter — all ▁these ▁long ings ▁and ▁drives ▁denote ▁a ▁sort ▁of ▁nost alg ia ▁for ▁the ▁prim ord ial , ▁for ▁the ▁original ▁universal ▁matrix . ▁M atter , ▁Sub stance , ▁represents ▁the ▁absolute ▁origin , ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁all ▁things . ▁Eli ade ▁believes ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁material ism ▁in ▁the |
▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁forced ▁the ▁religious ▁nost alg ia ▁for ▁" orig ins " ▁to ▁express ▁itself ▁in ▁science . ▁He ▁ment ions ▁his ▁own ▁field ▁of ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ions ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁fields ▁that ▁was ▁obs essed ▁with ▁origins ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century : ▁The ▁new ▁discipline ▁of ▁History ▁of ▁Relig ions ▁developed ▁rapidly ▁in ▁this ▁cultural ▁context . ▁And , ▁of ▁course , ▁it ▁followed ▁a ▁like ▁pattern : ▁the ▁posit iv istic ▁approach ▁to ▁the ▁facts ▁and ▁the ▁search ▁for ▁origins , ▁for ▁the ▁very ▁beginning ▁of ▁religion . ▁All ▁Western ▁histor i ography ▁was ▁during ▁that ▁time ▁obs essed ▁with ▁the ▁quest ▁of ▁origins . ▁[...] ▁This ▁search ▁for ▁the ▁origins ▁of ▁human ▁institutions ▁and ▁cultural ▁cre ations ▁prolong s ▁and ▁complet es ▁the ▁natural ist ' s ▁quest ▁for ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁species , ▁the ▁bi ologist ' s ▁dream ▁of ▁gras ping ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁life , ▁the ▁ge ologist ' s ▁and ▁the ▁astronom er ' s ▁ende avor ▁to ▁understand ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁Earth ▁and ▁the ▁Universe . ▁From ▁a ▁psychological ▁point ▁of ▁view , ▁one ▁can ▁dec ipher ▁here ▁the ▁same ▁nost alg ia ▁for ▁the ▁' prim ord ial ' ▁and ▁the ▁' original '. ▁ ▁In ▁some ▁of ▁his ▁writ ings , ▁Eli ade ▁describes ▁modern ▁political ▁ide ologies ▁as ▁sec ular ized ▁myth ology . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁Marx ism ▁" t akes ▁up ▁and ▁carries ▁on ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁great |
▁es chat ological ▁myth s ▁of ▁the ▁Middle ▁Eastern ▁and ▁Mediterranean ▁world , ▁namely : ▁the ▁red empt ive ▁part ▁to ▁be ▁played ▁by ▁the ▁Just ▁( the ▁' elect ', ▁the ▁' an oint ed ', ▁the ▁' inn oc ent ', ▁the ▁' mission ers ', ▁in ▁our ▁own ▁days ▁the ▁pro let ari at ), ▁whose ▁suffer ings ▁are ▁invoked ▁to ▁change ▁the ▁ont ological ▁status ▁of ▁the ▁world ." ▁Eli ade ▁sees ▁the ▁widespread ▁myth ▁of ▁the ▁Golden ▁Age , ▁" which , ▁according ▁to ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁traditions , ▁lies ▁at ▁the ▁beginning ▁and ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁History ", ▁as ▁the ▁" pre ced ent " ▁for ▁Karl ▁Marx ' s ▁vision ▁of ▁a ▁class less ▁society . ▁Finally , ▁he ▁sees ▁Marx ' s ▁belief ▁in ▁the ▁final ▁triumph ▁of ▁the ▁good ▁( the ▁pro let ari at ) ▁over ▁the ▁evil ▁( the ▁bour ge ois ie ) ▁as ▁" a ▁truly ▁mess ian ic ▁Jud ae o - Christ ian ▁ide ology ". ▁Despite ▁Marx ' s ▁host ility ▁toward ▁religion , ▁Eli ade ▁implies , ▁his ▁ide ology ▁works ▁within ▁a ▁concept ual ▁framework ▁inherited ▁from ▁religious ▁myth ology . ▁ ▁Like wise , ▁Eli ade ▁notes ▁that ▁Naz ism ▁involved ▁a ▁pseudo - p agan ▁myst icism ▁based ▁on ▁ancient ▁German ic ▁religion . ▁He ▁suggests ▁that ▁the ▁differences ▁between ▁the ▁Naz is ' ▁pseudo - G erman ic ▁myth ology ▁and ▁Marx ' s ▁pseudo - J ud ae o - Christ |
ian ▁myth ology ▁explain ▁their ▁differ ing ▁success : ▁In ▁comparison ▁with ▁the ▁vig orous ▁optim ism ▁of ▁the ▁commun ist ▁myth , ▁the ▁myth ology ▁propag ated ▁by ▁the ▁national ▁social ists ▁seems ▁particularly ▁in e pt ; ▁and ▁this ▁is ▁not ▁only ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁limitations ▁of ▁the ▁racial ▁myth ▁( how ▁could ▁one ▁imagine ▁that ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁Europe ▁would ▁volunt arily ▁accept ▁submission ▁to ▁the ▁master - r ace ? ), ▁but ▁above ▁all ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁fundamental ▁p ess im ism ▁of ▁the ▁German ic ▁myth ology . ▁[...] ▁For ▁the ▁es chat on ▁prop hes ied ▁and ▁expected ▁by ▁the ▁ancient ▁Germans ▁was ▁the ▁r agn ar ok — that ▁is , ▁a ▁cat astro ph ic ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁world . ▁ ▁Modern ▁man ▁and ▁the ▁" ter ror ▁of ▁history " ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁modern ▁man ▁displays ▁" tr aces " ▁of ▁" my th ological ▁behavior " ▁because ▁he ▁intens ely ▁needs ▁sacred ▁time ▁and ▁the ▁eternal ▁return . ▁Despite ▁modern ▁man ' s ▁claims ▁to ▁be ▁non rel igious , ▁he ▁ultimately ▁cannot ▁find ▁value ▁in ▁the ▁linear ▁progress ion ▁of ▁historical ▁events ; ▁even ▁modern ▁man ▁feels ▁the ▁" ter ror ▁of ▁history ": ▁" Here ▁too ▁[...] ▁there ▁is ▁always ▁the ▁struggle ▁against ▁Time , ▁the ▁hope ▁to ▁be ▁freed ▁from ▁the ▁weight ▁of ▁' dead ▁Time ,' ▁of ▁the ▁Time ▁that ▁cr ushes ▁and ▁kills ." ▁ ▁This ▁" ter ror ▁of ▁history " ▁becomes ▁especially ▁ac ute |
▁when ▁violent ▁and ▁threatening ▁historical ▁events ▁confront ▁modern ▁man — the ▁mere ▁fact ▁that ▁a ▁terrible ▁event ▁has ▁happened , ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁history , ▁is ▁of ▁little ▁comfort ▁to ▁those ▁who ▁suffer ▁from ▁it . ▁Eli ade ▁asks ▁rhet or ically ▁how ▁modern ▁man ▁can ▁" tol er ate ▁the ▁cat ast rop hes ▁and ▁hor rors ▁of ▁history — from ▁collective ▁deport ations ▁and ▁mass ac res ▁to ▁atomic ▁bomb ings — if ▁beyond ▁them ▁he ▁can ▁glimpse ▁no ▁sign , ▁no ▁trans hist or ical ▁meaning ". ▁He ▁indicates ▁that , ▁if ▁repet itions ▁of ▁myth ical ▁events ▁provided ▁sacred ▁value ▁and ▁meaning ▁for ▁history ▁in ▁the ▁eyes ▁of ▁ancient ▁man , ▁modern ▁man ▁has ▁denied ▁the ▁Sac red ▁and ▁must ▁therefore ▁invent ▁value ▁and ▁purpose ▁on ▁his ▁own . ▁Without ▁the ▁Sac red ▁to ▁confer ▁an ▁absolute , ▁objective ▁value ▁upon ▁historical ▁events , ▁modern ▁man ▁is ▁left ▁with ▁" a ▁relativ istic ▁or ▁n ih il istic ▁view ▁of ▁history " ▁and ▁a ▁resulting ▁" sp irit ual ▁ar idity ". ▁In ▁chapter ▁ 4 ▁(" The ▁T error ▁of ▁History ") ▁of ▁The ▁My th ▁of ▁the ▁E ternal ▁Return ▁and ▁chapter ▁ 9 ▁(" Rel igious ▁Symbol ism ▁and ▁the ▁Modern ▁Man ' s ▁An x iety ") ▁of ▁My th s , ▁Dream s , ▁and ▁Myst eries , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁at ▁length ▁that ▁the ▁re jection ▁of ▁religious ▁thought ▁is ▁a ▁primary ▁cause ▁of ▁modern ▁man ' s ▁anx ieties |
. ▁ ▁Inter - c ultural ▁dialogue ▁and ▁a ▁" new ▁human ism " ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁modern ▁man ▁may ▁escape ▁the ▁" T error ▁of ▁history " ▁by ▁learning ▁from ▁traditional ▁cultures . ▁For ▁example , ▁Eli ade ▁thinks ▁Hindu ism ▁has ▁advice ▁for ▁modern ▁Western ers . ▁According ▁to ▁many ▁branches ▁of ▁Hindu ism , ▁the ▁world ▁of ▁historical ▁time ▁is ▁ill us ory , ▁and ▁the ▁only ▁absolute ▁reality ▁is ▁the ▁imm ort al ▁soul ▁or ▁at man ▁within ▁man . ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁Hind us ▁thus ▁escape ▁the ▁terror ▁of ▁history ▁by ▁ref using ▁to ▁see ▁historical ▁time ▁as ▁the ▁true ▁reality . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁notes ▁that ▁a ▁Western ▁or ▁Contin ental ▁philos opher ▁might ▁feel ▁suspicious ▁toward ▁this ▁Hindu ▁view ▁of ▁history : ▁One ▁can ▁easily ▁guess ▁what ▁a ▁European ▁historical ▁and ▁exist ential ist ▁philos opher ▁might ▁reply ▁[...] ▁You ▁ask ▁me , ▁he ▁would ▁say , ▁to ▁' die ▁to ▁History '; ▁but ▁man ▁is ▁not , ▁and ▁he ▁cannot ▁be ▁anything ▁else ▁but ▁History , ▁for ▁his ▁very ▁essence ▁is ▁tempor ality . ▁You ▁are ▁asking ▁me , ▁then , ▁to ▁give ▁up ▁my ▁authentic ▁existence ▁and ▁to ▁take ▁refuge ▁in ▁an ▁ab stra ction , ▁in ▁pure ▁Being , ▁in ▁the ▁at man : ▁I ▁am ▁to ▁sacrifice ▁my ▁dignity ▁as ▁a ▁creator ▁of ▁History ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁live ▁an ▁a - hist oric , ▁in aut hentic ▁existence , ▁empty ▁of ▁all ▁human ▁content . ▁Well , ▁I |
▁prefer ▁to ▁put ▁up ▁with ▁my ▁anxiety : ▁at ▁least , ▁it ▁cannot ▁dep rive ▁me ▁of ▁a ▁certain ▁hero ic ▁grand eur , ▁that ▁of ▁becoming ▁conscious ▁of , ▁and ▁accepting , ▁the ▁human ▁condition . ▁ ▁However , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁the ▁Hindu ▁approach ▁to ▁history ▁does ▁not ▁necessarily ▁lead ▁to ▁a ▁re jection ▁of ▁history . ▁On ▁the ▁contrary , ▁in ▁Hindu ism ▁historical ▁human ▁existence ▁is ▁not ▁the ▁" abs urd ity " ▁that ▁many ▁Contin ental ▁philosoph ers ▁see ▁it ▁as . ▁According ▁to ▁Hindu ism , ▁history ▁is ▁a ▁divine ▁creation , ▁and ▁one ▁may ▁live ▁content edly ▁within ▁it ▁as ▁long ▁as ▁one ▁maint ains ▁a ▁certain ▁degree ▁of ▁det achment ▁from ▁it : ▁" One ▁is ▁dev oured ▁by ▁Time , ▁by ▁History , ▁not ▁because ▁one ▁lives ▁in ▁them , ▁but ▁because ▁one ▁thinks ▁them ▁real ▁and , ▁in ▁consequence , ▁one ▁forget s ▁or ▁und erv al ues ▁etern ity ." ▁Furthermore , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁Western ers ▁can ▁learn ▁from ▁non - W estern ▁cultures ▁to ▁see ▁something ▁besides ▁absurd ity ▁in ▁suffering ▁and ▁death . ▁Trad itional ▁cultures ▁see ▁suffering ▁and ▁death ▁as ▁a ▁r ite ▁of ▁passage . ▁In ▁fact , ▁their ▁init iation ▁rit uals ▁often ▁involve ▁a ▁symbol ic ▁death ▁and ▁resur rection , ▁or ▁symbol ic ▁or de als ▁followed ▁by ▁relief . ▁Thus , ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues , ▁modern ▁man ▁can ▁learn ▁to ▁see ▁his ▁historical ▁or de als , ▁even |
▁death , ▁as ▁necessary ▁initi ations ▁into ▁the ▁next ▁stage ▁of ▁one ' s ▁existence . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁even ▁suggests ▁that ▁traditional ▁thought ▁offers ▁relief ▁from ▁the ▁vague ▁anxiety ▁caused ▁by ▁" our ▁obsc ure ▁present iment ▁of ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁world , ▁or ▁more ▁exactly ▁of ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁our ▁world , ▁our ▁own ▁civilization ". ▁Many ▁traditional ▁cultures ▁have ▁myth s ▁about ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁their ▁world ▁or ▁civilization ; ▁however , ▁these ▁myth s ▁do ▁not ▁succeed ▁" in ▁par al ys ing ▁either ▁Life ▁or ▁Culture ". ▁These ▁traditional ▁cultures ▁emphas ize ▁cycl ic ▁time ▁and , ▁therefore , ▁the ▁inevitable ▁rise ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁world ▁or ▁civilization ▁on ▁the ▁ru ins ▁of ▁the ▁old . ▁Thus , ▁they ▁feel ▁comfort ed ▁even ▁in ▁contempl ating ▁the ▁end ▁times . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁arg ues ▁that ▁a ▁Western ▁spiritual ▁reb irth ▁can ▁happen ▁within ▁the ▁framework ▁of ▁Western ▁spiritual ▁traditions . ▁However , ▁he ▁says , ▁to ▁start ▁this ▁reb irth , ▁Western ers ▁may ▁need ▁to ▁be ▁stim ulated ▁by ▁ideas ▁from ▁non - W estern ▁cultures . ▁In ▁his ▁My th s , ▁Dream s , ▁and ▁Myst eries , ▁Eli ade ▁claims ▁that ▁a ▁" gen u ine ▁encounter " ▁between ▁cultures ▁" m ight ▁well ▁const itute ▁the ▁point ▁of ▁departure ▁for ▁a ▁new ▁human ism , ▁upon ▁a ▁world ▁scale ". ▁ ▁Christianity ▁and ▁the ▁" sal v ation " ▁of ▁History ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁sees ▁the ▁Abraham ic ▁relig |
ions ▁as ▁a ▁turning ▁point ▁between ▁the ▁ancient , ▁cycl ic ▁view ▁of ▁time ▁and ▁the ▁modern , ▁linear ▁view ▁of ▁time , ▁noting ▁that , ▁in ▁their ▁case , ▁sacred ▁events ▁are ▁not ▁limited ▁to ▁a ▁far - off ▁prim ord ial ▁age , ▁but ▁continue ▁throughout ▁history : ▁" time ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁[ only ] ▁the ▁circular ▁Time ▁of ▁the ▁E ternal ▁Return ; ▁it ▁has ▁become ▁linear ▁and ▁irre vers ible ▁Time ". ▁He ▁thus ▁sees ▁in ▁Christianity ▁the ▁ultimate ▁example ▁of ▁a ▁religion ▁embr acing ▁linear , ▁historical ▁time . ▁When ▁God ▁is ▁born ▁as ▁a ▁man , ▁into ▁the ▁stream ▁of ▁history , ▁" all ▁history ▁becomes ▁a ▁the oph any ". ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁" Christ ian ity ▁st riv es ▁to ▁save ▁history ". ▁In ▁Christianity , ▁the ▁Sac red ▁enters ▁a ▁human ▁being ▁( Christ ) ▁to ▁save ▁humans , ▁but ▁it ▁also ▁enters ▁history ▁to ▁" save " ▁history ▁and ▁turn ▁otherwise ▁ordinary , ▁historical ▁events ▁into ▁something ▁" cap able ▁of ▁transm itting ▁a ▁trans - hist or ical ▁message ". ▁ ▁From ▁Eli ade ' s ▁perspective , ▁Christianity ' s ▁" trans - hist or ical ▁message " ▁may ▁be ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁help ▁that ▁modern ▁man ▁could ▁have ▁in ▁confront ing ▁the ▁terror ▁of ▁history . ▁In ▁his ▁book ▁M ito ▁(" My th "), ▁Italian ▁research er ▁Fur io ▁Jes i ▁arg ues ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁den ies ▁man ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁a ▁true ▁protagon ist |
▁in ▁history : ▁for ▁Eli ade , ▁true ▁human ▁experience ▁lies ▁not ▁in ▁intellect ually ▁" making ▁history ", ▁but ▁in ▁man ' s ▁experiences ▁of ▁joy ▁and ▁grief . ▁Thus , ▁from ▁Eli ade ' s ▁perspective , ▁the ▁Christ ▁story ▁becomes ▁the ▁perfect ▁myth ▁for ▁modern ▁man . ▁In ▁Christianity , ▁God ▁will ingly ▁entered ▁historical ▁time ▁by ▁being ▁born ▁as ▁Christ , ▁and ▁accepted ▁the ▁suffering ▁that ▁followed . ▁By ▁identifying ▁with ▁Christ , ▁modern ▁man ▁can ▁learn ▁to ▁confront ▁painful ▁historical ▁events . ▁Ult imately , ▁according ▁to ▁Jes i , ▁Eli ade ▁sees ▁Christianity ▁as ▁the ▁only ▁religion ▁that ▁can ▁save ▁man ▁from ▁the ▁" T error ▁of ▁history ". ▁ ▁In ▁Eli ade ' s ▁view , ▁traditional ▁man ▁sees ▁time ▁as ▁an ▁endless ▁repet ition ▁of ▁myth ical ▁ar che types . ▁In ▁contrast , ▁modern ▁man ▁has ▁abandoned ▁myth ical ▁ar che types ▁and ▁entered ▁linear , ▁historical ▁time — in ▁this ▁context , ▁unlike ▁many ▁other ▁relig ions , ▁Christianity ▁attributes ▁value ▁to ▁historical ▁time . ▁Thus , ▁Eli ade ▁concl udes , ▁" Christ ian ity ▁in cont est ably ▁proves ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁religion ▁of ▁' fall en ▁man '", ▁of ▁modern ▁man ▁who ▁has ▁lost ▁" the ▁parad ise ▁of ▁ar che types ▁and ▁repet ition ". ▁ ▁" Mod ern ▁g nost icism ", ▁Rom antic ism ▁and ▁Eli ade ' s ▁nost alg ia ▁In ▁analy zing ▁the ▁similar ities ▁between ▁the ▁" my th ologists " ▁Eli ade |
, ▁Joseph ▁Campbell ▁and ▁Carl ▁Jung , ▁Robert ▁Ell wood ▁concluded ▁that ▁the ▁three ▁modern ▁myth ologists , ▁all ▁of ▁whom ▁believed ▁that ▁myth s ▁reveal ▁" tim eless ▁truth ", ▁ful filled ▁the ▁role ▁" gn ost ics " ▁had ▁in ▁ant iqu ity . ▁The ▁diverse ▁religious ▁movements ▁covered ▁by ▁the ▁term ▁" gn ost icism " ▁share ▁the ▁basic ▁do ctr ines ▁that ▁the ▁surrounding ▁world ▁is ▁fundament ally ▁evil ▁or ▁in h osp itable , ▁that ▁we ▁are ▁trapped ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁through ▁no ▁fault ▁of ▁our ▁own , ▁and ▁that ▁we ▁can ▁be ▁saved ▁from ▁the ▁world ▁only ▁through ▁secret ▁knowledge ▁( gn osis ). ▁Ell wood ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁three ▁myth ologists ▁were ▁" mod ern ▁g nost ics ▁through ▁and ▁through ", ▁remark ing , ▁Whether ▁in ▁August an ▁Rome ▁or ▁modern ▁Europe , ▁democracy ▁all ▁too ▁easily ▁gave ▁way ▁to ▁total itarian ism , ▁technology ▁was ▁as ▁readily ▁used ▁for ▁battle ▁as ▁for ▁comfort , ▁and ▁immense ▁wealth ▁lay ▁alongside ▁ab ys mal ▁poverty . ▁[...] ▁G nost ics ▁past ▁and ▁present ▁sought ▁answers ▁not ▁in ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁out ward ▁human ▁events , ▁but ▁in ▁knowledge ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁beginning , ▁of ▁what ▁lies ▁above ▁and ▁beyond ▁the ▁world , ▁and ▁of ▁the ▁secret ▁places ▁of ▁the ▁human ▁soul . ▁To ▁all ▁this ▁the ▁myth ologists ▁spoke , ▁and ▁they ▁acquired ▁large ▁and ▁loyal ▁follow ings . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Ell wood , ▁the ▁myth ologists ▁believed ▁in ▁g nost icism ' |
s ▁basic ▁do ctr ines ▁( even ▁if ▁in ▁a ▁sec ular ized ▁form ). ▁Ell wood ▁also ▁believes ▁that ▁Rom antic ism , ▁which ▁stim ulated ▁the ▁modern ▁study ▁of ▁myth ology , ▁strongly ▁influenced ▁the ▁myth ologists . ▁Because ▁Rom ant ics ▁stress ▁that ▁emotion ▁and ▁imagination ▁have ▁the ▁same ▁dignity ▁as ▁reason , ▁Ell wood ▁arg ues , ▁they ▁tend ▁to ▁think ▁political ▁truth ▁" is ▁known ▁less ▁by ▁rational ▁consider ations ▁than ▁by ▁its ▁capacity ▁to ▁fire ▁the ▁pass ions " ▁and , ▁therefore , ▁that ▁political ▁truth ▁is ▁" very ▁apt ▁to ▁be ▁found ▁[...] ▁in ▁the ▁distant ▁past ". ▁ ▁As ▁modern ▁g nost ics , ▁Ell wood ▁arg ues , ▁the ▁three ▁myth ologists ▁felt ▁alien ated ▁from ▁the ▁surrounding ▁modern ▁world . ▁As ▁scholars , ▁they ▁knew ▁of ▁prim ord ial ▁societies ▁that ▁had ▁operated ▁differently ▁from ▁modern ▁ones . ▁And ▁as ▁people ▁influenced ▁by ▁Rom antic ism , ▁they ▁saw ▁myth s ▁as ▁a ▁saving ▁g n osis ▁that ▁offered ▁" aven ues ▁of ▁eternal ▁return ▁to ▁simpler ▁prim ord ial ▁ages ▁when ▁the ▁values ▁that ▁rule ▁the ▁world ▁were ▁for ged ". ▁In ▁addition , ▁Ell wood ▁ident ifies ▁Eli ade ' s ▁personal ▁sense ▁of ▁nost alg ia ▁as ▁a ▁source ▁for ▁his ▁interest ▁in , ▁or ▁even ▁his ▁theories ▁about , ▁traditional ▁societies . ▁He ▁c ites ▁Eli ade ▁himself ▁claiming ▁to ▁desire ▁an ▁" et ern al ▁return " ▁like ▁that ▁by ▁which ▁traditional ▁man ▁returns ▁to ▁the ▁myth ical |
▁parad ise : ▁" My ▁essential ▁pre occup ation ▁is ▁precisely ▁the ▁means ▁of ▁esc aping ▁History , ▁of ▁saving ▁myself ▁through ▁symbol , ▁myth , ▁r ite , ▁ar che types ". ▁ ▁In ▁Ell wood ' s ▁view , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁nost alg ia ▁was ▁only ▁enhanced ▁by ▁his ▁ex ile ▁from ▁Rom ania : ▁" In ▁later ▁years ▁Eli ade ▁felt ▁about ▁his ▁own ▁Roman ian ▁past ▁as ▁did ▁prim al ▁folk ▁about ▁myth ic ▁time . ▁He ▁was ▁drawn ▁back ▁to ▁it , ▁yet ▁he ▁knew ▁he ▁could ▁not ▁live ▁there , ▁and ▁that ▁all ▁was ▁not ▁well ▁with ▁it ." ▁He ▁suggests ▁that ▁this ▁nost alg ia , ▁along ▁with ▁Eli ade ' s ▁sense ▁that ▁" ex ile ▁is ▁among ▁the ▁profound est ▁met aph ors ▁for ▁all ▁human ▁life ", ▁influenced ▁Eli ade ' s ▁theories . ▁Ell wood ▁sees ▁evidence ▁of ▁this ▁in ▁Eli ade ' s ▁concept ▁of ▁the ▁" T error ▁of ▁history " ▁from ▁which ▁modern ▁man ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁shield ed . ▁In ▁this ▁concept , ▁Ell wood ▁sees ▁an ▁" element ▁of ▁nost alg ia " ▁for ▁earlier ▁times ▁" when ▁the ▁sacred ▁was ▁strong ▁and ▁the ▁terror ▁of ▁history ▁had ▁barely ▁raised ▁its ▁head ". ▁ ▁Crit icism ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁scholarship ▁ ▁Over general ization ▁Eli ade ▁c ites ▁a ▁wide ▁variety ▁of ▁myth s ▁and ▁rit uals ▁to ▁support ▁his ▁theories . ▁However , ▁he ▁has ▁been ▁accused ▁of ▁making ▁over - general |
izations : ▁many ▁scholars ▁think ▁he ▁lack s ▁sufficient ▁evidence ▁to ▁put ▁forth ▁his ▁ideas ▁as ▁universal , ▁or ▁even ▁general , ▁principles ▁of ▁religious ▁thought . ▁According ▁to ▁one ▁scholar , ▁" E li ade ▁may ▁have ▁been ▁the ▁most ▁popular ▁and ▁influential ▁contemporary ▁historian ▁of ▁religion ", ▁but ▁" many , ▁if ▁not ▁most , ▁specialists ▁in ▁anth rop ology , ▁soci ology , ▁and ▁even ▁history ▁of ▁relig ions ▁have ▁either ▁ignored ▁or ▁quickly ▁dismissed " ▁Eli ade ' s ▁works . ▁ ▁The ▁classic ist ▁G . ▁S . ▁Kirk ▁critic izes ▁Eli ade ' s ▁ins istence ▁that ▁Australian ▁Ab orig ines ▁and ▁ancient ▁Mes op ot am ians ▁had ▁concepts ▁of ▁" being ", ▁" non - being ", ▁" real ", ▁and ▁" be coming ", ▁although ▁they ▁lack ed ▁words ▁for ▁them . ▁Kirk ▁also ▁believes ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁over ext ends ▁his ▁theories : ▁for ▁example , ▁Eli ade ▁claims ▁that ▁the ▁modern ▁myth ▁of ▁the ▁" nob le ▁sav age " ▁results ▁from ▁the ▁religious ▁tendency ▁to ▁ideal ize ▁the ▁prim ord ial , ▁myth ical ▁age . ▁According ▁to ▁Kirk , ▁" such ▁extr av ag ances , ▁together ▁with ▁a ▁marked ▁repet it ious ness , ▁have ▁made ▁Eli ade ▁un pop ular ▁with ▁many ▁anth rop ologists ▁and ▁soci ologists ". ▁In ▁Kirk ' s ▁view , ▁Eli ade ▁derived ▁his ▁theory ▁of ▁eternal ▁return ▁from ▁the ▁functions ▁of ▁Australian ▁Ab original ▁myth ology ▁and ▁then ▁proceed ed ▁to ▁apply |
▁the ▁theory ▁to ▁other ▁myth ologies ▁to ▁which ▁it ▁did ▁not ▁apply . ▁For ▁example , ▁Kirk ▁arg ues ▁that ▁the ▁eternal ▁return ▁does ▁not ▁accurately ▁describe ▁the ▁functions ▁of ▁Native ▁American ▁or ▁Greek ▁myth ology . ▁Kirk ▁concl udes , ▁" E li ade ' s ▁idea ▁is ▁a ▁valuable ▁perception ▁about ▁certain ▁myth s , ▁not ▁a ▁guide ▁to ▁the ▁proper ▁understanding ▁of ▁all ▁of ▁them ". ▁ ▁Even ▁Wend y ▁Don iger , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁success or ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Chicago , ▁claims ▁( in ▁an ▁introduction ▁to ▁Eli ade ' s ▁own ▁Sh aman ism ) ▁that ▁the ▁eternal ▁return ▁does ▁not ▁apply ▁to ▁all ▁myth s ▁and ▁rit uals , ▁although ▁it ▁may ▁apply ▁to ▁many ▁of ▁them . ▁However , ▁although ▁Don iger ▁agrees ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁made ▁over - general izations , ▁she ▁notes ▁that ▁his ▁willing ness ▁to ▁" arg ue ▁bold ly ▁for ▁univers als " ▁allowed ▁him ▁to ▁see ▁patterns ▁" that ▁sp anned ▁the ▁entire ▁globe ▁and ▁the ▁whole ▁of ▁human ▁history ". ▁Whether ▁they ▁were ▁true ▁or ▁not , ▁she ▁arg ues , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁theories ▁are ▁still ▁useful ▁" as ▁starting ▁points ▁for ▁the ▁compar ative ▁study ▁of ▁religion ". ▁She ▁also ▁arg ues ▁that ▁Eli ade ' s ▁theories ▁have ▁been ▁able ▁to ▁accommodate ▁" new ▁data ▁to ▁which ▁Eli ade ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁access ". ▁ ▁L ack ▁of ▁emp irical ▁support ▁Several ▁researchers ▁have ▁critic ized ▁Eli ade ' s ▁work ▁as |
▁having ▁no ▁emp irical ▁support . ▁Thus , ▁he ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁" failed ▁to ▁provide ▁an ▁adequate ▁method ology ▁for ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁relig ions ▁and ▁to ▁establish ▁this ▁discipline ▁as ▁an ▁emp irical ▁science ", ▁though ▁the ▁same ▁critics ▁admit ▁that ▁" the ▁history ▁of ▁relig ions ▁should ▁not ▁aim ▁at ▁being ▁an ▁emp irical ▁science ▁anyway ". ▁Specific ally , ▁his ▁claim ▁that ▁the ▁sacred ▁is ▁a ▁structure ▁of ▁human ▁consciousness ▁is ▁dist r usted ▁as ▁not ▁being ▁emp ir ically ▁prov able : ▁" no ▁one ▁has ▁yet ▁turned ▁up ▁the ▁basic ▁category ▁sacred ". ▁Also , ▁there ▁has ▁been ▁mention ▁of ▁his ▁tendency ▁to ▁ignore ▁the ▁social ▁aspects ▁of ▁religion . ▁Anth rop ologist ▁Alice ▁Ke ho e ▁is ▁highly ▁critical ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁work ▁on ▁Sh aman ism , ▁namely ▁because ▁he ▁was ▁not ▁an ▁anth rop ologist ▁but ▁a ▁historian . ▁She ▁cont ends ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁never ▁did ▁any ▁field ▁work ▁or ▁contacted ▁any ▁ind igenous ▁groups ▁that ▁pract iced ▁Sh aman ism , ▁and ▁that ▁his ▁work ▁was ▁synt hes ized ▁from ▁various ▁sources ▁without ▁being ▁supported ▁by ▁direct ▁field ▁research . ▁ ▁In ▁contrast , ▁Professor ▁Ke es ▁W . ▁Bol le ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁arg ues ▁that ▁" Pro f ess or ▁Eli ade ' s ▁approach , ▁in ▁all ▁his ▁works , ▁is ▁emp irical ": ▁Bol le ▁sets ▁Eli ade ▁apart ▁for ▁what ▁he ▁sees ▁as ▁Eli ade ' s ▁particularly ▁close |
▁" att ention ▁to ▁the ▁various ▁particular ▁mot ifs " ▁of ▁different ▁myth s . ▁French ▁research er ▁Daniel ▁Dub u isson ▁places ▁doubt ▁on ▁Eli ade ' s ▁scholarship ▁and ▁its ▁scientific ▁character , ▁c iting ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁academic ' s ▁alleged ▁ref usal ▁to ▁accept ▁the ▁treatment ▁of ▁relig ions ▁in ▁their ▁historical ▁and ▁cultural ▁context , ▁and ▁propos ing ▁that ▁Eli ade ' s ▁notion ▁of ▁hier oph any ▁refers ▁to ▁the ▁actual ▁existence ▁of ▁a ▁super natural ▁level . ▁ ▁Ronald ▁Ind en , ▁a ▁historian ▁of ▁India ▁and ▁University ▁of ▁Chicago ▁professor , ▁critic ized ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade , ▁alongside ▁other ▁intellectual ▁figures ▁( C arl ▁Jung ▁and ▁Joseph ▁Campbell ▁among ▁them ), ▁for ▁encouraging ▁a ▁" rom antic ▁view " ▁of ▁Hindu ism . ▁He ▁argued ▁that ▁their ▁approach ▁to ▁the ▁subject ▁rel ied ▁mainly ▁on ▁an ▁Ori ental ist ▁approach , ▁and ▁made ▁Hindu ism ▁seem ▁like ▁" a ▁private ▁realm ▁of ▁the ▁imagination ▁and ▁the ▁religious ▁which ▁modern , ▁Western ▁man ▁lack s ▁but ▁needs ." ▁ ▁Far ▁right ▁and ▁national ist ▁influences ▁Although ▁his ▁schol arly ▁work ▁was ▁never ▁sub ord inated ▁to ▁his ▁early ▁political ▁beliefs , ▁the ▁school ▁of ▁thought ▁he ▁was ▁associated ▁with ▁in ▁inter war ▁Rom ania , ▁namely ▁Tr ă ir ism , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁Jul ius ▁E vol a ▁he ▁continued ▁to ▁draw ▁inspiration ▁from , ▁have ▁them atic ▁links ▁to ▁fasc ism . ▁Writer ▁and ▁academic ▁Marcel ▁Tol ce a |
▁has ▁argued ▁that , ▁through ▁E vol a ' s ▁particular ▁interpretation ▁of ▁Gu én on ' s ▁works , ▁Eli ade ▁kept ▁a ▁trace able ▁connection ▁with ▁far ▁right ▁ide ologies ▁in ▁his ▁academic ▁contributions . ▁Daniel ▁Dub u isson ▁sing led ▁out ▁Eli ade ' s ▁concept ▁of ▁hom o ▁relig ios us ▁as ▁a ▁reflection ▁of ▁fasc ist ▁el it ism , ▁and ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁scholar ' s ▁views ▁of ▁Jud a ism ▁and ▁the ▁Old ▁Testament , ▁which ▁depicted ▁He bre ws ▁as ▁the ▁enemies ▁of ▁an ▁ancient ▁cos mic ▁religion , ▁were ▁ultimately ▁the ▁preserv ation ▁of ▁an ▁ant is emit ic ▁disc ourse . ▁ ▁A ▁piece ▁auth ored ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 0 ▁saw ▁Eli ade ▁defining ▁Jul ius ▁E vol a ▁as ▁a ▁great ▁think er ▁and ▁offering ▁praise ▁to ▁the ▁controversial ▁intellect uals ▁O sw ald ▁Sp eng ler , ▁Arthur ▁de ▁G ob ine au , ▁Houston ▁Stewart ▁Chamber l ain ▁and ▁the ▁Nazi ▁ide olog ue ▁Alfred ▁Rosen berg . ▁E vol a , ▁who ▁continued ▁to ▁defend ▁the ▁core ▁principles ▁of ▁myst ical ▁fasc ism , ▁once ▁protest ed ▁to ▁Eli ade ▁about ▁the ▁latter ' s ▁failure ▁to ▁c ite ▁him ▁and ▁Gu én on . ▁Eli ade ▁replied ▁that ▁his ▁works ▁were ▁written ▁for ▁a ▁contemporary ▁public , ▁and ▁not ▁to ▁initi ates ▁of ▁es oter ic ▁circles . ▁After ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁he , ▁together ▁with ▁E vol a |
, ▁Louis ▁Rou g ier , ▁and ▁other ▁intellect uals , ▁offered ▁support ▁to ▁Al ain ▁de ▁Ben o ist ' s ▁controversial ▁Group ement ▁de ▁recher che ▁et ▁d ' ét udes ▁pour ▁la ▁civil isation ▁europ é enne , ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Nou velle ▁D ro ite ▁intellectual ▁trend . ▁ ▁Not ably , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁also ▁pre occup ied ▁with ▁the ▁cult ▁of ▁Th rac ian ▁de ity ▁Z al m ox is ▁and ▁its ▁supposed ▁mon othe ism . E li ade , ▁" Z al m ox is , ▁The ▁Van ishing ▁God ", ▁in ▁Sl av ic ▁Review , ▁Vol . ▁ 3 3 , ▁No . ▁ 4 ▁( De cember ▁ 1 9 7 4 ), ▁p . 8 0 7 – 8 0 9 ▁This , ▁like ▁his ▁conclusion ▁that ▁Roman ization ▁had ▁been ▁super f icial ▁inside ▁Roman ▁D acia , ▁was ▁a ▁view ▁celebrated ▁by ▁contemporary ▁part is ans ▁of ▁Pro to chron ist ▁national ism . ▁According ▁to ▁historian ▁Sor in ▁Ant oh i , ▁Eli ade ▁may ▁have ▁actually ▁encouraged ▁Pro to chron ists ▁such ▁as ▁Ed gar ▁Pap u ▁to ▁carry ▁out ▁research ▁which ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁claim ▁that ▁medieval ▁Roman ians ▁had ▁anticipated ▁the ▁Rena issance . ▁ ▁In ▁his ▁study ▁of ▁Eli ade , ▁Jung , ▁and ▁Campbell , ▁Ell wood ▁also ▁discuss es ▁the ▁connection ▁between ▁academic ▁theories ▁and ▁controversial ▁political ▁involve ments , ▁noting ▁that ▁all ▁three ▁myth ologists ▁have ▁been ▁accused ▁of ▁reaction |
ary ▁political ▁positions . ▁Ell wood ▁notes ▁the ▁obvious ▁parallel ▁between ▁the ▁conserv at ism ▁of ▁myth , ▁which ▁speaks ▁of ▁a ▁prim ord ial ▁golden ▁age , ▁and ▁the ▁conserv at ism ▁of ▁far ▁right ▁politics . ▁However , ▁Ell wood ▁arg ues ▁that ▁the ▁explanation ▁is ▁more ▁complex ▁than ▁that . ▁Where ver ▁their ▁political ▁sym path ies ▁may ▁have ▁sometimes ▁been , ▁he ▁claims , ▁the ▁three ▁myth ologists ▁were ▁often ▁" apol it ical ▁if ▁not ▁ant ip ol it ical , ▁sc or ning ▁any ▁this - world ly ▁salv ation ". ▁Moreover , ▁the ▁connection ▁between ▁myth ology ▁and ▁politics ▁diff ers ▁for ▁each ▁of ▁the ▁myth ologists ▁in ▁question : ▁in ▁Eli ade ' s ▁case , ▁Ell wood ▁believes , ▁a ▁strong ▁sense ▁of ▁nost alg ia ▁(" for ▁childhood , ▁for ▁historical ▁times ▁past , ▁for ▁cos mic ▁religion , ▁for ▁parad ise "), ▁influenced ▁not ▁only ▁the ▁scholar ' s ▁academic ▁interests , ▁but ▁also ▁his ▁political ▁views . ▁ ▁Because ▁Eli ade ▁stayed ▁out ▁of ▁politics ▁during ▁his ▁later ▁life , ▁Ell wood ▁tries ▁to ▁extract ▁an ▁implicit ▁political ▁philosophy ▁from ▁Eli ade ' s ▁schol arly ▁works . ▁Ell wood ▁arg ues ▁that ▁the ▁later ▁Eli ade ' s ▁nost alg ia ▁for ▁ancient ▁traditions ▁did ▁not ▁make ▁him ▁a ▁political ▁reaction ary , ▁even ▁a ▁quiet ▁one . ▁He ▁concl udes ▁that ▁the ▁later ▁Eli ade ▁was , ▁in ▁fact , ▁a ▁" rad ical ▁modern ist ". ▁According ▁to |
▁Ell wood , ▁Those ▁who ▁see ▁Eli ade ' s ▁fasc ination ▁with ▁the ▁prim ord ial ▁as ▁merely ▁reaction ary ▁in ▁the ▁ordinary ▁political ▁or ▁religious ▁sense ▁of ▁the ▁word ▁do ▁not ▁understand ▁the ▁mature ▁Eli ade ▁in ▁a ▁sufficiently ▁radical ▁way . ▁[...] ▁Trad ition ▁was ▁not ▁for ▁him ▁exactly ▁Bur ke an ▁' pres cription ' ▁or ▁sacred ▁trust ▁to ▁be ▁kept ▁alive ▁generation ▁after ▁generation , ▁for ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁fully ▁aware ▁that ▁tradition , ▁like ▁men ▁and ▁nations , ▁lives ▁only ▁by ▁changing ▁and ▁even ▁occ ult ation . ▁The ▁tack ▁is ▁not ▁to ▁try ▁fruit lessly ▁to ▁keep ▁it ▁un changing , ▁but ▁to ▁discover ▁where ▁it ▁is ▁hiding . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Eli ade , ▁religious ▁elements ▁survive ▁in ▁sec ular ▁culture , ▁but ▁in ▁new , ▁" cam ou fl aged " ▁forms . ▁Thus , ▁Ell wood ▁believes ▁that ▁the ▁later ▁Eli ade ▁probably ▁thought ▁modern ▁man ▁should ▁preserve ▁elements ▁of ▁the ▁past , ▁but ▁should ▁not ▁try ▁to ▁restore ▁their ▁original ▁form ▁through ▁reaction ary ▁politics . ▁He ▁suspect s ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁would ▁have ▁fav ored ▁" a ▁minimal ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁maximal ist ▁state " ▁that ▁would ▁allow ▁personal ▁spiritual ▁transformation ▁without ▁en for cing ▁it . ▁ ▁Many ▁scholars ▁have ▁accused ▁Eli ade ▁of ▁" ess ential ism ", ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁over - general ization ▁in ▁which ▁one ▁incorrect ly ▁attributes ▁a ▁common ▁" ess ence " ▁to ▁a ▁whole ▁group — in ▁this ▁case , ▁all ▁" rel |
igious " ▁or ▁" tr ad itional " ▁societies . ▁Furthermore , ▁some ▁see ▁a ▁connection ▁between ▁Eli ade ' s ▁essential ism ▁with ▁regard ▁to ▁religion ▁and ▁fasc ist ▁essential ism ▁with ▁regard ▁to ▁races ▁and ▁nations . ▁To ▁Ell wood , ▁this ▁connection ▁" se ems ▁rather ▁tort ured , ▁in ▁the ▁end ▁amount ing ▁to ▁little ▁more ▁than ▁an ▁ad ▁hom in em ▁argument ▁which ▁attempts ▁to ▁tar ▁Eli ade ' s ▁entire ▁[ sch ol arly ] ▁work ▁with ▁the ▁ill - re pute ▁all ▁decent ▁people ▁feel ▁for ▁storm ▁tro op ers ▁and ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ". ▁However , ▁Ell wood ▁adm its ▁that ▁common ▁tend encies ▁in ▁" my th ological ▁thinking " ▁may ▁have ▁caused ▁Eli ade , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁Jung ▁and ▁Campbell , ▁to ▁view ▁certain ▁groups ▁in ▁an ▁" ess ential ist " ▁way , ▁and ▁that ▁this ▁may ▁explain ▁their ▁pur port ed ▁ant is emit ism : ▁" A ▁tendency ▁to ▁think ▁in ▁generic ▁terms ▁of ▁peoples , ▁races , ▁relig ions , ▁or ▁parties , ▁which ▁as ▁we ▁shall ▁see ▁is ▁und oubtedly ▁the ▁profound est ▁flaw ▁in ▁myth ological ▁thinking , ▁including ▁that ▁of ▁such ▁modern ▁myth ologists ▁as ▁our ▁three , ▁can ▁connect ▁with ▁nas cent ▁anti - S emit ism , ▁or ▁the ▁connection ▁can ▁be ▁the ▁other ▁way ." ▁ ▁Liter ary ▁works ▁ ▁Generic ▁traits ▁Many ▁of ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ' s ▁literary ▁works , ▁in ▁particular ▁his ▁earliest ▁ones , ▁are ▁noted |
▁for ▁their ▁er otic ism ▁and ▁their ▁focus ▁on ▁subject ive ▁experience . ▁Modern ist ▁in ▁style , ▁they ▁have ▁drawn ▁compar isons ▁to ▁the ▁contemporary ▁writ ings ▁of ▁M ih ail ▁Sebastian , ▁I . ▁Val er ian , ▁and ▁I on ▁B iber i . ▁Along side ▁Honor é ▁de ▁Bal z ac ▁and ▁Giovanni ▁Pap ini , ▁his ▁literary ▁pass ions ▁included ▁Ald ous ▁H ux ley ▁and ▁Miguel ▁de ▁Un am uno , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁André ▁G ide . ▁Eli ade ▁also ▁read ▁with ▁interest ▁the ▁pro se ▁of ▁Rom ain ▁Roll and , ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en , ▁and ▁the ▁En light en ment ▁think ers ▁Vol ta ire ▁and ▁Den is ▁D ider ot . ▁As ▁a ▁youth , ▁he ▁read ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁Roman ian ▁authors ▁such ▁as ▁Liv iu ▁Reb re an u ▁and ▁Pan ait ▁I str ati ; ▁initially , ▁he ▁was ▁also ▁interested ▁in ▁I onel ▁Te od ore an u ' s ▁pro se ▁works , ▁but ▁later ▁rejected ▁them ▁and ▁critic ized ▁their ▁author . ▁ ▁Invest ig ating ▁the ▁works ' ▁main ▁characteristics , ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁stressed ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁o wed ▁much ▁of ▁his ▁style ▁to ▁the ▁direct ▁influence ▁of ▁French ▁author ▁André ▁G ide , ▁concl uding ▁that , ▁alongside ▁Cam il ▁Pet res cu ▁and ▁a ▁few ▁others , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁among ▁G ide ' s ▁leading ▁dis ciples ▁in ▁Roman ian ▁literature . ▁He ▁commented ▁that , ▁like ▁G |
ide , ▁Eli ade ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁artist ▁" does ▁not ▁take ▁a ▁stand , ▁but ▁experiences ▁good ▁and ▁evil ▁while ▁setting ▁himself ▁free ▁from ▁both , ▁maintaining ▁an ▁intact ▁curiosity ." ▁A ▁specific ▁aspect ▁of ▁this ▁focus ▁on ▁experience ▁is ▁sexual ▁experiment ation — C ă lines cu ▁notes ▁that ▁Eli ade ' s ▁fiction ▁works ▁tend ▁to ▁dep ict ▁a ▁male ▁figure ▁" poss ess ing ▁all ▁pract ic able ▁women ▁in ▁[ a ▁given ] ▁family ". ▁He ▁also ▁considered ▁that , ▁as ▁a ▁rule , ▁Eli ade ▁dep icts ▁woman ▁as ▁" a ▁basic ▁means ▁for ▁a ▁sexual ▁experience ▁and ▁rep udi ated ▁with ▁harsh ▁e got ism ." ▁ ▁For ▁C ă lines cu , ▁such ▁a ▁perspective ▁on ▁life ▁cul min ated ▁in ▁" ban ality ", ▁leaving ▁authors ▁gri pped ▁by ▁the ▁" c ult ▁of ▁the ▁self " ▁and ▁" a ▁cont empt ▁for ▁literature ". ▁P ole m ically , ▁C ă lines cu ▁proposed ▁that ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ' s ▁supposed ▁focus ▁on ▁" ag gress ive ▁youth " ▁served ▁to ▁inst ill ▁his ▁inter war ▁Roman ian ▁writers ▁with ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁they ▁had ▁a ▁common ▁dest iny ▁as ▁a ▁generation ▁apart . ▁He ▁also ▁commented ▁that , ▁when ▁set ▁in ▁Rom ania , ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ' s ▁stories ▁lack ed ▁the ▁" per ception ▁of ▁immediate ▁reality ", ▁and , ▁analy zing ▁the ▁non - tr ad itional ▁names ▁the ▁writer ▁t ended ▁to ▁asc ribe |
▁to ▁his ▁Roman ian ▁characters , ▁that ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁dep ict ▁" specific ity ". ▁Additionally , ▁in ▁C ă lines cu ' s ▁view , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁stories ▁were ▁often ▁" s ens ational ist ▁compos itions ▁of ▁the ▁illustrated ▁magazine ▁kind ." ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ' s ▁assessment ▁of ▁his ▁own ▁pre - 1 9 4 0 ▁literary ▁contributions ▁oscill ated ▁between ▁expressions ▁of ▁pride ▁and ▁the ▁bitter ▁ver dict ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁written ▁for ▁" an ▁audience ▁of ▁little ▁ladies ▁and ▁high ▁school ▁students ". ▁ ▁A ▁secondary ▁but ▁un ifying ▁feature ▁present ▁in ▁most ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁stories ▁is ▁their ▁setting , ▁a ▁magical ▁and ▁part - f ict ional ▁Buch arest . ▁In ▁part , ▁they ▁also ▁serve ▁to ▁illustr ate ▁or ▁all ude ▁to ▁Eli ade ' s ▁own ▁research ▁in ▁the ▁field ▁of ▁religion , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁to ▁the ▁concepts ▁he ▁introduced . ▁Thus , ▁comment ators ▁such ▁as ▁M ate i ▁C ă lines cu ▁and ▁Carm en ▁Mu ș at ▁have ▁also ▁argued ▁that ▁a ▁main ▁characteristic ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁fantasy ▁pro se ▁is ▁a ▁subst itution ▁between ▁the ▁super natural ▁and ▁the ▁m und ane : ▁in ▁this ▁interpretation , ▁Eli ade ▁turns ▁the ▁daily ▁world ▁into ▁an ▁in com pre hens ible ▁place , ▁while ▁the ▁intr usive ▁super natural ▁aspect ▁promises ▁to ▁offer ▁the ▁sense ▁of ▁life . ▁The ▁notion ▁was ▁in ▁turn ▁linked ▁to ▁Eli ade ' s ▁own ▁thoughts |
▁on ▁transc end ence , ▁and ▁in ▁particular ▁his ▁idea ▁that , ▁once ▁" cam ou fl aged " ▁in ▁life ▁or ▁history , ▁mir acles ▁become ▁" un recogn izable ". ▁ ▁Ori ental ▁them ed ▁novels ▁One ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁earliest ▁fiction ▁writ ings , ▁the ▁controversial ▁first - person ▁narrative ▁Isabel ▁ ş i ▁a pe le ▁di av ol ului , ▁focused ▁on ▁the ▁figure ▁of ▁a ▁young ▁and ▁brilliant ▁academic , ▁whose ▁self - decl ared ▁fear ▁is ▁that ▁of ▁" being ▁common ". ▁The ▁hero ' s ▁experience ▁is ▁recorded ▁in ▁" not ebook s ", ▁which ▁are ▁compiled ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁actual ▁narrative , ▁and ▁which ▁serve ▁to ▁record ▁his ▁unusual , ▁mostly ▁sexual , ▁experiences ▁in ▁British ▁India — the ▁narr ator ▁describes ▁himself ▁as ▁dominated ▁by ▁" a ▁devil ish ▁ind ifference " ▁towards ▁" all ▁things ▁having ▁to ▁do ▁with ▁art ▁or ▁met aph ys ics ", ▁focusing ▁instead ▁on ▁er otic ism . ▁The ▁guest ▁of ▁a ▁past or , ▁the ▁scholar ▁p onders ▁sexual ▁adventures ▁with ▁his ▁host ' s ▁wife , ▁servant ▁girl , ▁and ▁finally ▁with ▁his ▁daughter ▁Isabel . ▁Pers u ading ▁the ▁past or ' s ▁adoles cent ▁son ▁to ▁run ▁away ▁from ▁home , ▁becoming ▁the ▁sexual ▁initi ator ▁of ▁a ▁twelve - year - old ▁girl ▁and ▁the ▁lover ▁of ▁a ▁much ▁older ▁woman , ▁the ▁character ▁also ▁attempts ▁to ▁sed uce ▁Isabel . ▁Although ▁she ▁falls ▁in ▁love , ▁the ▁young ▁woman |
▁does ▁not ▁give ▁in ▁to ▁his ▁press ures , ▁but ▁eventually ▁allows ▁herself ▁to ▁be ▁ab used ▁and ▁imp reg n ated ▁by ▁another ▁character , ▁letting ▁the ▁object ▁of ▁her ▁affection ▁know ▁that ▁she ▁had ▁thought ▁of ▁him ▁all ▁along . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁best - known ▁works , ▁the ▁novel ▁M ait rey i , ▁dwell s ▁on ▁Eli ade ' s ▁own ▁experience , ▁compr ising ▁cam ou fl aged ▁details ▁of ▁his ▁relationships ▁with ▁Sure nd ran ath ▁Das gu pt a ▁and ▁Das gu pt a ' s ▁daughter ▁M ait rey i ▁Dev i . ▁The ▁main ▁character , ▁All an , ▁is ▁an ▁English man ▁who ▁visits ▁the ▁Indian ▁engineer ▁N are nd ra ▁Sen ▁and ▁courts ▁his ▁daughter , ▁herself ▁known ▁as ▁M ait rey i . ▁The ▁narrative ▁is ▁again ▁built ▁on ▁" not ebook s " ▁to ▁which ▁All an ▁adds ▁his ▁comments . ▁This ▁technique ▁C ă lines cu ▁describes ▁as ▁" bor ing ", ▁and ▁its ▁result ▁" c yn ical ". ▁ ▁All an ▁himself ▁stands ▁alongside ▁Eli ade ' s ▁male ▁characters , ▁whose ▁focus ▁is ▁on ▁action , ▁sensation ▁and ▁experience — his ▁ch aste ▁contacts ▁with ▁M ait rey i ▁are ▁encouraged ▁by ▁Sen , ▁who ▁hopes ▁for ▁a ▁marriage ▁which ▁is ▁nonetheless ▁ab hor red ▁by ▁his ▁would - be ▁European ▁son - in - law . ▁Instead , ▁All an ▁is ▁fasc inated ▁to ▁discover ▁M ait rey i ' s |
▁Ori ental ▁version ▁of ▁Pl at onic ▁love , ▁marked ▁by ▁spiritual ▁attachment ▁more ▁than ▁by ▁physical ▁contact . ▁However , ▁their ▁affair ▁soon ▁after ▁turns ▁physical , ▁and ▁she ▁decides ▁to ▁attach ▁herself ▁to ▁All an ▁as ▁one ▁would ▁to ▁a ▁husband , ▁in ▁what ▁is ▁an ▁inform al ▁and ▁intimate ▁wedding ▁ceremony ▁( which ▁sees ▁her ▁v owing ▁her ▁love ▁and ▁inv oking ▁an ▁earth ▁god dess ▁as ▁the ▁seal ▁of ▁union ). ▁Upon ▁discover ing ▁this , ▁N are nd ra ▁Sen ▁becomes ▁en r aged , ▁reject ing ▁their ▁guest ▁and ▁keeping ▁M ait rey i ▁in ▁conf inement . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁his ▁daughter ▁decides ▁to ▁have ▁inter course ▁with ▁a ▁low ly ▁stranger , ▁becoming ▁pregnant ▁in ▁the ▁hope ▁that ▁her ▁parents ▁would ▁consequ ently ▁allow ▁her ▁to ▁marry ▁her ▁lover . ▁However , ▁the ▁story ▁also ▁cast s ▁doubt ▁on ▁her ▁earlier ▁actions , ▁reflect ing ▁rum ors ▁that ▁M ait rey i ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁vir gin ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁she ▁and ▁All an ▁first ▁met , ▁which ▁also ▁seems ▁to ▁expose ▁her ▁father ▁as ▁a ▁hyp oc rite . ▁ ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁object ed ▁to ▁the ▁narrative , ▁arguing ▁that ▁both ▁the ▁physical ▁affair ▁and ▁the ▁father ' s ▁rage ▁seemed ▁artificial , ▁while ▁comment ing ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁placing ▁doubt ▁on ▁his ▁Indian ▁characters ' ▁honest y ▁had ▁turned ▁the ▁plot ▁into ▁a ▁piece ▁of ▁" eth n ological ▁humor ". ▁Not ing ▁that ▁the ▁work ▁developed ▁on ▁a |
▁classical ▁theme ▁of ▁mis ce gen ation , ▁which ▁recalled ▁the ▁pro se ▁of ▁François - R en é ▁de ▁Ch ate a ub ri and ▁and ▁Pierre ▁L oti , ▁the ▁critic ▁proposed ▁that ▁its ▁main ▁mer it ▁was ▁in ▁introducing ▁the ▁exotic ▁novel ▁to ▁local ▁literature . ▁ ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ' s ▁other ▁early ▁works ▁include ▁ Ș ant ier ▁(" Build ing ▁Site "), ▁a ▁part - nov el , ▁part - di ary ▁account ▁of ▁his ▁Indian ▁so jour n . ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁object ed ▁to ▁its ▁" mon ot ony ", ▁and , ▁noting ▁that ▁it ▁featured ▁a ▁set ▁of ▁" int ellig ent ▁observations ", ▁critic ized ▁the ▁" ban ality ▁of ▁its ▁ide ological ▁conversations ." ▁ Ș ant ier ▁was ▁also ▁noted ▁for ▁its ▁port ray al ▁of ▁drug ▁addiction ▁and ▁into x ication ▁with ▁op ium , ▁both ▁of ▁which ▁could ▁have ▁referred ▁to ▁Eli ade ' s ▁actual ▁travel ▁experience . ▁ ▁Port ra its ▁of ▁a ▁generation ▁In ▁his ▁earliest ▁novel , ▁titled ▁Nov el ▁of ▁the ▁N ears ight ed ▁Ad oles cent ▁and ▁written ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁person , ▁Eli ade ▁dep icts ▁his ▁experience ▁through ▁high ▁school . ▁It ▁is ▁proof ▁of ▁the ▁influence ▁exerc ised ▁on ▁him ▁by ▁the ▁literature ▁of ▁Giovanni ▁Pap ini , ▁and ▁in ▁particular ▁by ▁Pap ini ' s ▁story ▁Un ▁u omo ▁fin ito . ▁Each ▁of ▁its ▁chapters ▁reads ▁like ▁an ▁independent ▁nov ella , ▁and |
, ▁in ▁all , ▁the ▁work ▁experiments ▁with ▁the ▁limits ▁tr aced ▁between ▁novel ▁and ▁diary . ▁Liter ary ▁critic ▁Eug en ▁Sim ion ▁called ▁it ▁" the ▁most ▁valuable " ▁among ▁Eli ade ' s ▁earliest ▁literary ▁attempts , ▁but ▁noted ▁that , ▁being ▁" amb it ious ", ▁the ▁book ▁had ▁failed ▁to ▁achieve ▁" an ▁aest het ically ▁satisf actory ▁format ". ▁According ▁to ▁Sim ion , ▁the ▁innovative ▁intent ▁of ▁the ▁Nov el ... ▁was ▁provided ▁by ▁its ▁technique , ▁by ▁its ▁goal ▁of ▁providing ▁authentic ity ▁in ▁dep ict ing ▁experiences , ▁and ▁by ▁its ▁insight ▁into ▁adoles cent ▁psychology . ▁The ▁novel ▁notably ▁shows ▁its ▁narr ator ▁practicing ▁self - flag ell ation . ▁ ▁Eli ade ' s ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁novel ▁Î nt o arc ere a ▁din ▁r ai ▁(" Return ▁from ▁Parad ise ") ▁centers ▁on ▁P avel ▁An ic et , ▁a ▁young ▁man ▁who ▁seeks ▁knowledge ▁through ▁what ▁C ă lines cu ▁defined ▁as ▁" sex ual ▁excess ". ▁His ▁search ▁leaves ▁him ▁with ▁a ▁reduced ▁sensitivity : ▁right ▁after ▁being ▁confront ed ▁with ▁his ▁father ' s ▁death , ▁An ic et ▁breaks ▁out ▁in ▁tears ▁only ▁after ▁sitting ▁through ▁an ▁entire ▁dinner . ▁The ▁other ▁characters , ▁standing ▁for ▁Eli ade ' s ▁generation , ▁all ▁seek ▁knowledge ▁through ▁violence ▁or ▁retreat ▁from ▁the ▁world — non etheless , ▁unlike ▁An ic et , ▁they ▁ultimately ▁fail ▁at ▁im posing ▁rig ors ▁upon ▁themselves . ▁P avel |
▁himself ▁eventually ▁ab and ons ▁his ▁belief ▁in ▁sex ▁as ▁a ▁means ▁for ▁en light en ment , ▁and ▁comm its ▁suicide ▁in ▁hopes ▁of ▁reaching ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁prim ord ial ▁unity . ▁The ▁solution , ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁noted , ▁mir ro red ▁the ▁strange ▁murder ▁in ▁G ide ' s ▁La fc adio ' s ▁Advent ures . ▁Eli ade ▁himself ▁indicated ▁that ▁the ▁book ▁dealt ▁with ▁the ▁" loss ▁of ▁the ▁beat itude , ▁ill usions , ▁and ▁optim ism ▁that ▁had ▁dominated ▁the ▁first ▁twenty ▁years ▁of ▁' Gre ater ▁Rom ania ' ." ▁Robert ▁Ell wood ▁connected ▁the ▁work ▁to ▁Eli ade ' s ▁recur ring ▁sense ▁of ▁loss ▁in ▁respect ▁to ▁the ▁" at mos phere ▁of ▁e up hor ia ▁and ▁faith " ▁of ▁his ▁adoles c ence . ▁C ă lines cu ▁critic izes ▁Î nt o arc ere a ▁din ▁r ai , ▁describing ▁its ▁dialog ▁sequences ▁as ▁" awk ward ", ▁its ▁narrative ▁as ▁" void ", ▁and ▁its ▁artistic ▁interest ▁as ▁" non - ex istent ", ▁propos ing ▁that ▁the ▁reader ▁could ▁however ▁find ▁it ▁relevant ▁as ▁the ▁" document ▁of ▁a ▁ment ality ". ▁ ▁The ▁length y ▁novel ▁H ul igan ii ▁(" The ▁H ool ig ans ") ▁is ▁intended ▁as ▁the ▁fres co ▁of ▁a ▁family , ▁and , ▁through ▁it , ▁that ▁of ▁an ▁entire ▁generation . ▁The ▁book ' s ▁main ▁protagon ist , ▁Pet ru ▁An ic et , ▁is ▁a |
▁composer ▁who ▁places ▁value ▁in ▁experiments ; ▁other ▁characters ▁include ▁Dr agu , ▁who ▁considers ▁" a ▁h ool igan ' s ▁experience " ▁as ▁" the ▁only ▁fert ile ▁debut ▁into ▁life ", ▁and ▁the ▁total itarian ▁Alexand ru ▁Ple ş a , ▁who ▁is ▁on ▁the ▁search ▁for ▁" the ▁hero ic ▁life " ▁by ▁en list ing ▁youth ▁in ▁" per fect ▁reg iments , ▁equally ▁into x icated ▁by ▁a ▁collective ▁myth ." E li ade , ▁in ▁C ă lines cu , ▁p . 9 5 8 – 9 5 9 ▁C ă lines cu ▁thought ▁that ▁the ▁young ▁male ▁characters ▁all ▁o wed ▁inspiration ▁to ▁F y od or ▁D osto ev sky ' s ▁Rod ion ▁Roman ov ich ▁R ask ol nik ov ▁( see ▁Crime ▁and ▁Pun ishment ). ▁An ic et , ▁who ▁partly ▁shares ▁Ple ș a ' s ▁vision ▁for ▁a ▁collective ▁experiment , ▁is ▁also ▁pr one ▁to ▁sexual ▁adventures , ▁and ▁sed u ces ▁the ▁women ▁of ▁the ▁Le cca ▁family ▁( who ▁have ▁hired ▁him ▁as ▁a ▁piano ▁teacher ). ▁Roman ian - born ▁novel ist ▁Norman ▁M ane a ▁called ▁An ic et ' s ▁experiment : ▁" the ▁par aded ▁def iance ▁of ▁bour ge ois ▁convent ions , ▁in ▁which ▁ven ere al ▁disease ▁and ▁lub ric ity ▁dwell ▁together ." ▁In ▁one ▁episode ▁of ▁the ▁book , ▁An ic et ▁convin ces ▁An i ș o ara ▁Le cca ▁to ▁grat uit ously ▁steal |
▁from ▁her ▁parents — an ▁outrage ▁which ▁leads ▁her ▁mother ▁to ▁moral ▁decay ▁and , ▁eventually , ▁to ▁suicide . ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁critic ized ▁the ▁book ▁for ▁incons ist encies ▁and ▁" ex cess es ▁in ▁D ost oy ev sk ian ism ", ▁but ▁noted ▁that ▁the ▁Le cca ▁family ▁port ray al ▁was ▁" s uggest ive ", ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁dramatic ▁scenes ▁were ▁written ▁with ▁" a ▁remarkable ▁poet ic ▁calm ." ▁ ▁The ▁novel ▁Mar riage ▁in ▁Heaven ▁dep icts ▁the ▁correspondence ▁between ▁two ▁male ▁friends , ▁an ▁artist ▁and ▁a ▁common ▁man , ▁who ▁complain ▁to ▁each ▁other ▁about ▁their ▁failures ▁in ▁love : ▁the ▁former ▁compl ains ▁about ▁a ▁lover ▁who ▁wanted ▁his ▁children ▁when ▁he ▁did ▁not , ▁while ▁the ▁other ▁rec alls ▁being ▁abandoned ▁by ▁a ▁woman ▁who , ▁despite ▁his ▁intentions , ▁did ▁not ▁want ▁to ▁become ▁pregnant ▁by ▁him . ▁Eli ade ▁lets ▁the ▁reader ▁understand ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁in ▁fact ▁talking ▁about ▁the ▁same ▁woman . ▁ ▁Fant astic ▁and ▁fantasy ▁literature ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ' s ▁earliest ▁works , ▁most ▁of ▁which ▁were ▁published ▁at ▁later ▁stages , ▁belong ▁to ▁the ▁fantasy ▁genre . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁such ▁literary ▁exercises ▁to ▁be ▁printed , ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 1 ▁C um ▁am ▁g ă s it ▁pi atra ▁fil os of al ă , ▁showed ▁its ▁adoles cent ▁author ' s ▁interest ▁in ▁themes ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁to ▁explore ▁throughout ▁his ▁career , ▁in |
▁particular ▁es oter icism ▁and ▁al che my . ▁Wr itten ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁person , ▁it ▁dep icts ▁an ▁experiment ▁which , ▁for ▁a ▁moment , ▁seems ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁discovery ▁of ▁the ▁philosoph ers ' ▁stone . ▁These ▁early ▁writ ings ▁also ▁include ▁two ▁sk et ches ▁for ▁novels : ▁Min un ata ▁că l ă tor ie ▁a ▁cel or ▁cin ci ▁că r ă bu și ▁in ▁ ț ara ▁furn ic ilor ▁ro ș ii ▁(" The ▁Wonder ful ▁Jour ney ▁of ▁the ▁Five ▁Be et les ▁into ▁the ▁Land ▁of ▁the ▁Red ▁Ant s ") ▁and ▁Mem ori ile ▁un ui ▁sold at ▁de ▁pl umb ▁(" The ▁Mem oirs ▁of ▁a ▁Lead ▁Sold ier "). ▁In ▁the ▁former , ▁a ▁company ▁of ▁be et le ▁sp ies ▁is ▁sent ▁among ▁the ▁red ▁an ts — the ir ▁travel ▁offers ▁a ▁setting ▁for ▁sat irical ▁comment ary . ▁Eli ade ▁himself ▁explained ▁that ▁Mem ori ile ▁un ui ▁sold at ▁de ▁pl umb ▁was ▁an ▁ambitious ▁project , ▁designed ▁as ▁a ▁fres co ▁to ▁include ▁the ▁birth ▁of ▁the ▁Universe , ▁ab i ogen esis , ▁human ▁evolution , ▁and ▁the ▁entire ▁world ▁history . ▁ ▁Eli ade ' s ▁fantasy ▁novel ▁Dom ni ș o ara ▁Christ ina , ▁was , ▁on ▁its ▁own , ▁the ▁topic ▁of ▁a ▁scandal . ▁The ▁novel ▁deals ▁with ▁the ▁fate ▁of ▁an ▁ecc entric ▁family , ▁the ▁Mos c us , ▁who ▁are ▁ha unted ▁by ▁the ▁ghost ▁of |
▁a ▁murdered ▁young ▁woman , ▁known ▁as ▁Christ ina . ▁The ▁appar ition ▁shares ▁characteristics ▁with ▁vamp ires ▁and ▁with ▁str ig oi : ▁she ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁drinking ▁the ▁blood ▁of ▁cattle ▁and ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁young ▁family ▁member . ▁The ▁young ▁man ▁E gor ▁becomes ▁the ▁object ▁of ▁Christ ina ' s ▁desire , ▁and ▁is ▁shown ▁to ▁have ▁inter course ▁with ▁her . ▁Not ing ▁that ▁the ▁plot ▁and ▁setting ▁reminded ▁one ▁of ▁horror ▁fiction ▁works ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁author ▁Hann s ▁He inz ▁E w ers , ▁and ▁defending ▁Dom ni ş o ara ▁Christ ina ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁h ars her ▁criticism , ▁C ă lines cu ▁nonetheless ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁" intern ational ▁environment " ▁in ▁which ▁it ▁took ▁place ▁was ▁" up setting ". ▁He ▁also ▁depicted ▁the ▁plot ▁as ▁focused ▁on ▁" major ▁imp urity ", ▁summar izing ▁the ▁story ' s ▁references ▁to ▁ne cro ph ilia , ▁men stru al ▁fet ish ▁and ▁ep he b oph ilia . ▁ ▁Eli ade ' s ▁short ▁story ▁ Ș ar pe le ▁(" The ▁Sn ake ") ▁was ▁described ▁by ▁George ▁C ă lines cu ▁as ▁" her metic ". ▁While ▁on ▁a ▁trip ▁to ▁the ▁forest , ▁several ▁persons ▁witness ▁a ▁feat ▁of ▁magic ▁performed ▁by ▁the ▁male ▁character ▁And ronic , ▁who ▁sum mons ▁a ▁snake ▁from ▁the ▁bottom ▁of ▁a ▁river ▁and ▁places ▁it ▁on ▁an ▁island . ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁story , ▁And ronic ▁and ▁the ▁female |
▁character ▁Dor ina ▁are ▁found ▁on ▁the ▁island , ▁naked ▁and ▁locked ▁in ▁a ▁sens ual ▁embrace . ▁C ă lines cu ▁saw ▁the ▁piece ▁as ▁an ▁all usion ▁to ▁G nost icism , ▁to ▁the ▁Kab bal ah , ▁and ▁to ▁Bab ylon ian ▁myth ology , ▁while ▁link ing ▁the ▁snake ▁to ▁the ▁Greek ▁myth ological ▁figure ▁and ▁major ▁ser pent ▁symbol ▁O ph ion . ▁He ▁was ▁however ▁diss atisf ied ▁with ▁this ▁introduction ▁of ▁icon ic ▁images , ▁describing ▁it ▁as ▁" l angu ishing ". ▁ ▁The ▁short ▁story ▁Un ▁om ▁mare ▁(" A ▁Big ▁Man "), ▁which ▁Eli ade ▁auth ored ▁during ▁his ▁stay ▁in ▁Portugal , ▁shows ▁a ▁common ▁person , ▁the ▁engineer ▁Cu co anes , ▁who ▁grows ▁stead ily ▁and ▁un cont roll ably , ▁reaching ▁immense ▁proport ions ▁and ▁ultimately ▁disappe aring ▁into ▁the ▁wild erness ▁of ▁the ▁Bu ce gi ▁Mountains . ▁Eli ade ▁himself ▁refer enced ▁the ▁story ▁and ▁Ald ous ▁H ux ley ' s ▁experiments ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁section ▁of ▁his ▁private ▁notes , ▁a ▁matter ▁which ▁allowed ▁M ate i ▁C ă lines cu ▁to ▁propose ▁that ▁Un ▁om ▁mare ▁was ▁a ▁direct ▁product ▁of ▁its ▁author ' s ▁experience ▁with ▁drugs . ▁The ▁same ▁comment ator , ▁who ▁deemed ▁Un ▁om ▁mare ▁" per haps ▁Eli ade ' s ▁most ▁memorable ▁short ▁story ", ▁connected ▁it ▁with ▁the ▁ur ia și ▁characters ▁present ▁in ▁Roman ian ▁fol kl ore . ▁ ▁Other ▁writ ings ▁Eli ade ▁re |
interpret ed ▁the ▁Greek ▁myth ological ▁figure ▁I ph ig ene ia ▁in ▁his ▁e pon ym ous ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁play . ▁Here , ▁the ▁maid en ▁falls ▁in ▁love ▁with ▁Ach illes , ▁and ▁accepts ▁to ▁be ▁sacrific ed ▁on ▁the ▁py re ▁as ▁a ▁means ▁to ▁ensure ▁both ▁her ▁lover ' s ▁happiness ▁( as ▁predicted ▁by ▁an ▁or acle ) ▁and ▁her ▁father ▁Ag am em non ' s ▁victory ▁in ▁the ▁Tro jan ▁War . ▁Dis cuss ing ▁the ▁association ▁I ph igen ia ' s ▁character ▁makes ▁between ▁love ▁and ▁death , ▁Roman ian ▁theater ▁critic ▁Rad u ▁Alb ala ▁noted ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁possible ▁echo ▁of ▁Me ş ter ul ▁Man ole ▁legend , ▁in ▁which ▁a ▁builder ▁of ▁the ▁Cur te a ▁de ▁Ar ge ș ▁Mon aster y ▁has ▁to ▁sacrifice ▁his ▁wife ▁in ▁exchange ▁for ▁permission ▁to ▁complete ▁work . ▁In ▁contrast ▁with ▁early ▁rend itions ▁of ▁the ▁myth ▁by ▁authors ▁such ▁as ▁E ur ip ides ▁and ▁Jean ▁R ac ine , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁version ▁ends ▁with ▁the ▁sacrifice ▁being ▁carried ▁out ▁in ▁full . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁his ▁fiction , ▁the ▁ex iled ▁Eli ade ▁auth ored ▁several ▁volumes ▁of ▁mem oirs ▁and ▁di aries ▁and ▁travel ▁writ ings . ▁They ▁were ▁published ▁sp or ad ically , ▁and ▁covered ▁various ▁stages ▁of ▁his ▁life . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁such ▁pieces ▁was ▁India , ▁group ing ▁accounts ▁of ▁the ▁travels ▁he ▁made ▁through ▁the |
▁Indian ▁sub contin ent . ▁Writing ▁for ▁the ▁Spanish ▁journal ▁La ▁V angu ard ia , ▁comment ator ▁Ser gio ▁V ila - San ju án ▁described ▁the ▁first ▁volume ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁Aut obi ography ▁( cover ing ▁the ▁years ▁ 1 9 0 7 ▁to ▁ 1 9 3 7 ) ▁as ▁" a ▁great ▁book ", ▁while ▁noting ▁that ▁the ▁other ▁main ▁volume ▁was ▁" more ▁conventional ▁and ▁ins inc ere ." ▁In ▁V ila - San ju án ' s ▁view , ▁the ▁texts ▁reveal ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁himself ▁as ▁" a ▁D ost oy ev sky ian ▁character ", ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁" an ▁accomplished ▁person , ▁a ▁Go eth ian ▁figure ". ▁ ▁A ▁work ▁that ▁drew ▁particular ▁interest ▁was ▁his ▁J urn al ▁port ug he z ▁(" Port ug uese ▁Di ary "), ▁completed ▁during ▁his ▁stay ▁in ▁Lis bon ▁and ▁published ▁only ▁after ▁its ▁author ' s ▁death . ▁A ▁portion ▁of ▁it ▁dealing ▁with ▁his ▁stay ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁lost . ▁The ▁travels ▁to ▁Spain , ▁partly ▁recorded ▁in ▁J urn al ▁port ug he z , ▁also ▁led ▁to ▁a ▁separate ▁volume , ▁J urn al ▁cord ob ez ▁(" C ord ob an ▁Di ary "), ▁which ▁Eli ade ▁compiled ▁from ▁various ▁independent ▁notebook s . ▁ ▁J urn al ▁port ug he z ▁shows ▁Eli ade ▁cop ing ▁with ▁clinical ▁depression ▁and ▁political ▁crisis , ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁described ▁by ▁And |
rei ▁O i ș te an u ▁as ▁" an ▁overwhelming ▁[ read ], ▁through ▁the ▁immense ▁suffering ▁it ▁exh ales ." ▁Liter ary ▁historian ▁Paul ▁C ern at ▁argued ▁that ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁volume ▁is ▁" a ▁master piece ▁of ▁its ▁time ", ▁while ▁concl uding ▁that ▁some ▁ 7 0 0 ▁pages ▁were ▁pass able ▁for ▁the ▁" am ong ▁others " ▁section ▁of ▁Eli ade ' s ▁bibli ography . ▁Not ing ▁that ▁the ▁book ▁featured ▁parts ▁where ▁Eli ade ▁spoke ▁of ▁himself ▁in ▁e ul og istic ▁terms , ▁notably ▁comparing ▁himself ▁favor ably ▁to ▁Go ethe ▁and ▁Rom ania ' s ▁national ▁poet ▁M ih ai ▁E min es cu , ▁C ern at ▁accused ▁the ▁writer ▁of ▁" eg ol at ry ", ▁and ▁ded uced ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁" ready ▁to ▁step ▁over ▁dead ▁bodies ▁for ▁the ▁sake ▁of ▁his ▁spiritual ▁' mission ' ▁". ▁The ▁same ▁pass ages ▁led ▁philos opher ▁and ▁journalist ▁C ă t ă lin ▁Av r ames cu ▁to ▁argue ▁that ▁Eli ade ' s ▁behavior ▁was ▁evidence ▁of ▁" m eg alom ania ". ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁also ▁wrote ▁various ▁essays ▁of ▁literary ▁criticism . ▁In ▁his ▁youth , ▁alongside ▁his ▁study ▁on ▁Jul ius ▁E vol a , ▁he ▁published ▁essays ▁which ▁introduced ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁public ▁to ▁representatives ▁of ▁modern ▁Spanish ▁literature ▁and ▁philosophy , ▁among ▁them ▁Ad ol fo ▁Bon illa ▁San ▁Mart ín , ▁Miguel ▁de ▁Un am uno , ▁José ▁Or te ga ▁y |
▁G asset , ▁Eug eni ▁d ' Or s , ▁Vic ente ▁Bl as co ▁I b á ñ ez ▁and ▁Marcel ino ▁Men é nd ez ▁y ▁Pel ay o . ▁He ▁also ▁wrote ▁an ▁essay ▁on ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁James ▁Joy ce , ▁connecting ▁it ▁with ▁his ▁own ▁theories ▁on ▁the ▁eternal ▁return ▁(" [ J oy ce ' s ▁literature ▁is ] ▁sat ur ated ▁with ▁nost alg ia ▁for ▁the ▁myth ▁of ▁the ▁eternal ▁repet ition "), ▁and ▁de em ing ▁Joy ce ▁himself ▁an ▁anti - hist oric ist ▁" arch a ic " ▁figure ▁among ▁the ▁modern ists . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁Eli ade ▁edited ▁the ▁collected ▁works ▁of ▁Roman ian ▁historian ▁Bog dan ▁Pet rice ic u ▁Has de u . ▁ ▁M . ▁L . ▁R icket ts ▁discovered ▁and ▁translated ▁into ▁English ▁a ▁previously ▁un published ▁play ▁written ▁by ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁in ▁Paris ▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁A vent ura ▁Spirit ual ă ▁( A ▁Spirit ual ▁Advent ure ). ▁It ▁was ▁published ▁by ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁in ▁Theory ▁in ▁Action ▁- the ▁journal ▁of ▁the ▁Trans form ative ▁Studies ▁Institute , ▁vol . ▁ 5 ▁( 2 0 1 2 ): ▁ 2 – 5 8 . ▁ ▁Ad apt ations ▁▁ ▁The ▁Beng ali ▁Night ▁( 1 9 8 8 ) ▁ ▁Dom ni ş o ara ▁Christ ina ▁(" Miss ▁Christ ina ") ▁( 1 9 9 2 ) ▁▁ |
Ș ar pe le ▁(" The ▁Sn ake ") ▁( 1 9 9 6 ) ▁ ▁Eu ▁s unt ▁Adam ! ▁( 1 9 9 6 ) ▁ ▁Youth ▁Without ▁Youth ▁( 2 0 0 7 ) ▁ ▁Dom ni ş o ara ▁Christ ina ▁(" Miss is ▁Christ ina ") ▁( 2 0 1 3 ) ▁ ▁Cont ro vers y : ▁ant is emit ism ▁and ▁links ▁with ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁ ▁Early ▁statements ▁The ▁early ▁years ▁in ▁Eli ade ' s ▁public ▁career ▁show ▁him ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁highly ▁toler ant ▁of ▁Jews ▁in ▁general , ▁and ▁of ▁the ▁Jewish ▁minority ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁in ▁particular . ▁His ▁early ▁condem n ation ▁of ▁Nazi ▁ant is emit ic ▁policies ▁was ▁accompanied ▁by ▁his ▁caution ▁and ▁moder ation ▁in ▁regard ▁to ▁N ae ▁I ones cu ' s ▁various ▁anti - J ew ish ▁attacks . Or nea , ▁p . 4 0 8 – 4 0 9 , ▁ 4 1 2 ▁ ▁Late ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁M ih ail ▁Sebastian ▁was ▁marginal ized ▁by ▁Rom ania ' s ▁ant is emit ic ▁policies , ▁and ▁came ▁to ▁reflect ▁on ▁his ▁Roman ian ▁friend ' s ▁association ▁with ▁the ▁far ▁right . ▁The ▁subsequent ▁ide ological ▁break ▁between ▁him ▁and ▁Eli ade ▁has ▁been ▁compared ▁by ▁writer ▁Gab ri ela ▁Ad ame ş te an u ▁with ▁that ▁between ▁Jean - Paul ▁S art re ▁and ▁Albert ▁Cam us . ▁In ▁his ▁Journal , |
▁published ▁long ▁after ▁his ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁death , ▁Sebastian ▁claimed ▁that ▁Eli ade ' s ▁actions ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁show ▁him ▁to ▁be ▁an ▁ant is em ite . ▁According ▁to ▁Sebastian , ▁Eli ade ▁had ▁been ▁friendly ▁to ▁him ▁until ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁his ▁political ▁commit ments , ▁after ▁which ▁he ▁sever ed ▁all ▁ties . S eb ast ian , ▁pass im ▁Before ▁their ▁friendship ▁came ▁apart , ▁however , ▁Sebastian ▁claimed ▁that ▁he ▁took ▁notes ▁on ▁their ▁conversations ▁( which ▁he ▁later ▁published ) ▁during ▁which ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁supposed ▁to ▁have ▁expressed ▁ant is emit ic ▁views . ▁According ▁to ▁Sebastian , ▁Eli ade ▁said ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 9 : ▁ ▁The ▁Pol es ' ▁resistance ▁in ▁Wars aw ▁is ▁a ▁Jewish ▁resistance . ▁Only ▁y ids ▁are ▁capable ▁of ▁the ▁black mail ▁of ▁putting ▁women ▁and ▁children ▁in ▁the ▁front ▁line , ▁to ▁take ▁advantage ▁of ▁the ▁Germans ' ▁sense ▁of ▁sc ru ple . ▁The ▁Germans ▁have ▁no ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁Rom ania . ▁Only ▁a ▁pro - G erman ▁government ▁can ▁save ▁us ... ▁What ▁is ▁happening ▁on ▁the ▁front ier ▁with ▁B uk ov ina ▁is ▁a ▁scandal , ▁because ▁new ▁waves ▁of ▁Jews ▁are ▁flo oding ▁into ▁the ▁country . ▁Rather ▁than ▁a ▁Rom ania ▁again ▁inv aded ▁by ▁k ikes , ▁it ▁would ▁be ▁better ▁to ▁have ▁a ▁German ▁prote ctor ate . ▁ ▁The ▁friendship ▁between ▁Eli ade ▁and ▁Sebastian |
▁dr astically ▁declined ▁during ▁the ▁war : ▁the ▁latter ▁writer , ▁fear ing ▁for ▁his ▁security ▁during ▁the ▁pro - N azi ▁I on ▁Ant ones cu ▁regime ▁( see ▁Rom ania ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁II ), ▁hoped ▁that ▁Eli ade , ▁by ▁then ▁a ▁diplom at , ▁could ▁interven e ▁in ▁his ▁favor ; ▁however , ▁upon ▁his ▁brief ▁return ▁to ▁Rom ania , ▁Eli ade ▁did ▁not ▁see ▁or ▁approach ▁Sebastian . ▁ ▁Later , ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ▁expressed ▁his ▁regret ▁at ▁not ▁having ▁had ▁the ▁chance ▁to ▁rede em ▁his ▁friendship ▁with ▁Sebastian ▁before ▁the ▁latter ▁was ▁killed ▁in ▁a ▁car ▁accident . ▁Paul ▁C ern at ▁notes ▁that ▁Eli ade ' s ▁statement ▁includes ▁an ▁admission ▁that ▁he ▁" count ed ▁on ▁[ S eb ast ian ' s ] ▁support , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁get ▁back ▁into ▁Roman ian ▁life ▁and ▁culture ", ▁and ▁propos es ▁that ▁Eli ade ▁may ▁have ▁expected ▁his ▁friend ▁to ▁v ouch ▁for ▁him ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁hostile ▁authorities . ▁Some ▁of ▁Sebastian ' s ▁late ▁record ings ▁in ▁his ▁diary ▁show ▁that ▁their ▁author ▁was ▁reflect ing ▁with ▁nost alg ia ▁on ▁his ▁relationship ▁with ▁Eli ade , ▁and ▁that ▁he ▁de pl ored ▁the ▁outcome . ▁ ▁Eli ade ▁provided ▁two ▁distinct ▁explan ations ▁for ▁not ▁having ▁met ▁with ▁Sebastian : ▁one ▁was ▁related ▁to ▁his ▁claim ▁of ▁being ▁followed ▁around ▁by ▁the ▁Gest ap o , ▁and ▁the ▁other , ▁expressed ▁in ▁his ▁di aries , ▁was ▁that |
▁the ▁shame ▁of ▁representing ▁a ▁regime ▁that ▁hum ili ated ▁Jews ▁had ▁made ▁him ▁avoid ▁facing ▁his ▁former ▁friend . ▁Another ▁take ▁on ▁the ▁matter ▁was ▁advanced ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁by ▁the ▁Israeli ▁magazine ▁Tol ad ot , ▁who ▁claimed ▁that , ▁as ▁an ▁official ▁representative , ▁Eli ade ▁was ▁aware ▁of ▁Ant ones cu ' s ▁agreement ▁to ▁implement ▁the ▁Final ▁Solution ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁and ▁of ▁how ▁this ▁could ▁affect ▁Sebastian ▁( see ▁Hol oca ust ▁in ▁Rom ania ). ▁In ▁addition , ▁rum ors ▁were ▁spark ed ▁that ▁Sebastian ▁and ▁Nina ▁M are ş ▁had ▁a ▁physical ▁relationship , ▁one ▁which ▁could ▁have ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁cl ash ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁literary ▁figures . ▁ ▁Beyond ▁his ▁involvement ▁with ▁a ▁movement ▁known ▁for ▁its ▁ant is emit ism , ▁Eli ade ▁did ▁not ▁usually ▁comment ▁on ▁Jewish ▁issues . ▁However , ▁an ▁article ▁titled ▁P ilo ţ ii ▁or bi ▁(" The ▁Bl ind ▁Pil ots "), ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁journal ▁V reme a ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁showed ▁that ▁he ▁supported ▁at ▁least ▁some ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁accus ations ▁against ▁the ▁Jewish ▁community : ▁ ▁Since ▁the ▁war ▁[ that ▁is , ▁World ▁War ▁I ], ▁Jews ▁have ▁occupied ▁the ▁villages ▁of ▁M aram ure ş ▁and ▁B uk ov ina , ▁and ▁gained ▁the ▁absolute ▁majority ▁in ▁the ▁towns ▁and ▁cities ▁in ▁B ess ar ab ia . ▁[...] ▁It ▁would ▁be ▁absurd ▁to ▁expect ▁Jews ▁to ▁resign ▁themselves ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁become |
▁a ▁minority ▁with ▁certain ▁rights ▁and ▁very ▁many ▁duties — after ▁they ▁have ▁t asted ▁the ▁honey ▁of ▁power ▁and ▁conqu ered ▁as ▁many ▁command ▁positions ▁as ▁they ▁have . ▁Jews ▁are ▁currently ▁fighting ▁with ▁all ▁forces ▁to ▁maintain ▁their ▁positions , ▁expecting ▁a ▁future ▁offensive — and , ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁I ▁am ▁concerned , ▁I ▁understand ▁their ▁fight ▁and ▁adm ire ▁their ▁vital ity , ▁ten acity , ▁genius . ▁ ▁One ▁year ▁later , ▁a ▁text , ▁accompanied ▁by ▁his ▁picture , ▁was ▁featured ▁as ▁answer ▁to ▁an ▁in quiry ▁by ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ' s ▁B una ▁V est ire ▁about ▁the ▁reasons ▁he ▁had ▁for ▁supporting ▁the ▁movement . ▁A ▁short ▁section ▁of ▁it ▁summar izes ▁an ▁anti - J ew ish ▁attitude : ▁ ▁Can ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁nation ▁end ▁its ▁life ▁in ▁the ▁s add est ▁decay ▁witnessed ▁by ▁history , ▁und erm ined ▁by ▁mis ery ▁and ▁sy ph ilis , ▁conqu ered ▁by ▁Jews ▁and ▁torn ▁to ▁pieces ▁by ▁foreign ers , ▁dem oral ized , ▁bet rayed , ▁sold ▁for ▁a ▁few ▁million ▁le i ? E li ade , ▁ 1 9 3 7 , ▁in ▁Or nea , ▁p . 4 1 3 ; ▁in ▁the ▁Final ▁Report , ▁p . 4 9 ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁literary ▁critic ▁Z . ▁Or nea , ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁Eli ade ▁denied ▁auth orship ▁of ▁the ▁text . ▁He ▁explained ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁his ▁signature , ▁his ▁picture |
, ▁and ▁the ▁picture ' s ▁c aption , ▁as ▁having ▁been ▁applied ▁by ▁the ▁magazine ' s ▁editor , ▁M ih ail ▁Pol ih ron i ade , ▁to ▁a ▁piece ▁the ▁latter ▁had ▁written ▁after ▁having ▁failed ▁to ▁obtain ▁Eli ade ' s ▁contribution ; ▁he ▁also ▁claimed ▁that , ▁given ▁his ▁respect ▁for ▁Pol ih ron i ade , ▁he ▁had ▁not ▁wished ▁to ▁public ize ▁this ▁matter ▁previously . ▁ ▁P ole m ics ▁and ▁ex ile ▁Dum it ru ▁G . ▁Daniel opol , ▁a ▁fellow ▁diplom at ▁present ▁in ▁London ▁during ▁Eli ade ' s ▁stay ▁in ▁the ▁city , ▁later ▁stated ▁that ▁the ▁latter ▁had ▁identified ▁himself ▁as ▁" a ▁gu iding ▁light ▁of ▁[ the ▁Iron ▁Guard ] ▁movement " ▁and ▁victim ▁of ▁Carol ▁II ' s ▁re pression . ▁In ▁October ▁ 1 9 4 0 , ▁as ▁the ▁National ▁Leg ion ary ▁State ▁came ▁into ▁existence , ▁the ▁British ▁Foreign ▁Office ▁black listed ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade , ▁alongside ▁five ▁other ▁ ▁Roman ians , ▁due ▁to ▁his ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁connections ▁and ▁suspic ions ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁prepared ▁to ▁spy ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁Nazi ▁Germany . ▁According ▁to ▁various ▁sources , ▁while ▁in ▁Portugal , ▁the ▁diplom at ▁was ▁also ▁preparing ▁to ▁disse min ate ▁propaganda ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard . ▁In ▁J urn al ▁port ug he z , ▁Eli ade ▁defines ▁himself ▁as ▁" a ▁Leg ion ary ", ▁and ▁speaks ▁of ▁his ▁own ▁" Leg ion ary |
▁clim ax " ▁as ▁a ▁stage ▁he ▁had ▁gone ▁through ▁during ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 4 0 s . ▁ ▁The ▁de polit isation ▁of ▁Eli ade ▁after ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁his ▁diplom atic ▁career ▁was ▁also ▁m istr usted ▁by ▁his ▁former ▁close ▁friend ▁Eug ène ▁I ones co , ▁who ▁indicated ▁that , ▁upon ▁the ▁close ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁personal ▁beliefs ▁as ▁commun icated ▁to ▁his ▁friends ▁amount ed ▁to ▁" all ▁is ▁over ▁now ▁that ▁Commun ism ▁has ▁won ". ▁This ▁forms ▁part ▁of ▁I ones co ' s ▁severe ▁and ▁succ inct ▁review ▁of ▁the ▁careers ▁of ▁Leg ion ary - in sp ired ▁intellect uals , ▁many ▁of ▁them ▁his ▁friends ▁and ▁former ▁friends , ▁in ▁a ▁letter ▁he ▁sent ▁to ▁T ud or ▁V ian u . Or nea , ▁p . 1 8 4 – 1 8 5 ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 6 , ▁I ones co ▁indicated ▁to ▁Pet ru ▁Com arn es cu ▁that ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁want ▁to ▁see ▁either ▁Eli ade ▁or ▁C ior an , ▁and ▁that ▁he ▁considered ▁the ▁two ▁of ▁them ▁" Leg ion aries ▁for ▁ever "— adding ▁" we ▁are ▁hy enas ▁to ▁one ▁another ". ▁ ▁Eli ade ' s ▁former ▁friend , ▁the ▁commun ist ▁Bel u ▁Z il ber , ▁who ▁was ▁attending ▁the ▁Paris ▁Conference ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 , ▁refused ▁to ▁see ▁Eli ade , ▁arguing ▁that , ▁as ▁an ▁Iron ▁Guard |
▁affiliate , ▁the ▁latter ▁had ▁" den ounced ▁left - wing ers ", ▁and ▁contrast ing ▁him ▁with ▁C ior an ▁(" They ▁are ▁both ▁Leg ion aries , ▁but ▁[ C ior an ] ▁is ▁honest "). ▁Three ▁years ▁later , ▁Eli ade ' s ▁political ▁activities ▁were ▁brought ▁into ▁discussion ▁as ▁he ▁was ▁getting ▁ready ▁to ▁publish ▁a ▁translation ▁of ▁his ▁Techn iques ▁du ▁Y oga ▁with ▁the ▁left - lean ing ▁Italian ▁company ▁Gi ul io ▁E ina udi ▁Edit ore — the ▁den unci ation ▁was ▁probably ▁or chestr ated ▁by ▁Roman ian ▁officials . ▁ ▁In ▁August ▁ 1 9 5 4 , ▁when ▁H oria ▁Sim a , ▁who ▁led ▁the ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁during ▁its ▁ex ile , ▁was ▁rejected ▁by ▁a ▁f action ▁inside ▁the ▁movement , ▁Mir ce a ▁Eli ade ' s ▁name ▁was ▁included ▁on ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁persons ▁who ▁supported ▁the ▁latter — although ▁this ▁may ▁have ▁happened ▁without ▁his ▁consent . ▁According ▁to ▁ex iled ▁diss ident ▁and ▁novel ist ▁Dum it ru ▁ Ţ ep ene ag , ▁around ▁that ▁date , ▁Eli ade ▁expressed ▁his ▁sympathy ▁for ▁Iron ▁Guard ▁members ▁in ▁general , ▁whom ▁he ▁viewed ▁as ▁" c our age ous ". ▁However , ▁according ▁to ▁Robert ▁Ell wood , ▁the ▁Eli ade ▁he ▁met ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁was ▁entirely ▁ap ol it ical , ▁remained ▁al o of ▁from ▁" the ▁passionate ▁politics ▁of ▁that ▁era ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ", ▁and |
Subsets and Splits