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▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : M unicip al ities ▁of ▁O ax aca ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁O ax aca <0x0A> </s> ▁Gil ber to ▁R igh i ▁( 1 9 3 7 – 1 9 9 9 ) ▁was ▁an ▁important ▁earth w orm ▁tax onom ist ▁from ▁São ▁Paulo , ▁Brazil , ▁who ▁helped ▁define ▁the ▁magnitude ▁of ▁his ▁country ' s ▁diverse ▁soil ▁fa una . ▁ ▁During ▁more ▁than ▁ 4 0 ▁highly ▁productive ▁years ▁as ▁professor ▁and ▁research er ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁São ▁Paulo , ▁R igh i ▁published ▁over ▁ 1 0 0 ▁scientific ▁papers , ▁ 8 5 ▁of ▁which ▁treat ▁earth w orm ▁tax onomy , ▁ 5 ▁treat ▁earth w orm ▁phys i ology , ▁ 5 ▁treat ▁earth w orm ▁ec ology , ▁and ▁ 3 ▁treat ▁earth w orm ▁bi oge ography . ▁Besides ▁these , ▁he ▁issued ▁ 1 6 ▁papers ▁on ▁micro d rile ▁o lig och a etes ▁and ▁ 1 7 ▁on ▁other ▁in ver te br ate ▁groups , ▁mainly ▁on ▁cr ust ace ans ▁and ▁m oll us cs . ▁Most ▁of ▁R igh i ' s ▁tax onom ic ▁work ▁was ▁on ▁Brazil ian ▁earth w orm s , ▁but ▁he ▁also ▁studied ▁species ▁from ▁other ▁Ne ot rop ical ▁countries , ▁including ▁Per uv ian ▁earth w orm s . ▁R igh i ▁was ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁one ▁new ▁family , ▁ 2 5 ▁new ▁gener a , ▁and ▁ 2
2 4 ▁new ▁species ▁of ▁earth w orm s , ▁mostly ▁from ▁Brazil ▁( Fr ag oso , ▁Brown ▁& ▁Fe ij oo , ▁ 2 0 0 3 ). ▁ ▁R igh i ' s ▁vast ▁collection ▁of ▁earth w orm s , ▁in ▁over ▁ 1 6 0 0 ▁spirit ▁containers , ▁is ▁depos ited ▁in ▁the ▁O lig och a eta ▁collection ▁of ▁the ▁Muse u ▁de ▁Z ool og ia ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁São ▁Paulo ▁( More no ▁& ▁M isch is , ▁ 2 0 0 3 ). ▁In ▁addition , ▁his ▁Amazon ian ▁material ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁at ▁both ▁the ▁Institut o ▁Nacional ▁de ▁P es quis as ▁da ▁Amaz ô nia , ▁in ▁Man aus , ▁and ▁the ▁Muse u ▁Para ense ▁Em í lio ▁Go eld i , ▁in ▁Bel ém . ▁ ▁A ▁complete ▁bibli ography ▁of ▁R igh i ' s ▁publications ▁on ▁earth w orm s ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁in ▁M isch is ▁& ▁Reyn olds ▁( 1 9 9 9 ). ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁words ▁of ▁Dr . ▁M isch is , ▁R igh i ' s ▁student ▁and ▁co - worker : ▁" Pro f ess or ▁Gil ber to ▁R igh i ▁was ▁a ▁man ▁of ▁science ▁who ▁over ▁and ▁above ▁his ▁achievements ▁in ▁the ▁scientific ▁field ▁was ▁a ▁teacher ▁and ▁most ▁of ▁all ▁a ▁man ▁of ▁goodness " ▁( More no ▁& ▁M isch is , ▁ 2 0 0 3 ). ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category
: B raz il ian ▁z ool og ists ▁Category : B raz il ian ▁scientists ▁Category : B raz il ian ▁bi ologists ▁Category : 1 9 9 9 ▁deaths ▁Category : 1 9 3 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁z ool og ists <0x0A> </s> ▁K up fer str ang ▁is ▁a ▁small ▁river ▁of ▁Lower ▁Sax ony , ▁Germany . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁In ner ste ▁in ▁H ild es heim . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁rivers ▁of ▁Lower ▁Sax ony ▁ ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Lower ▁Sax ony ▁ 0 K up fer str ang ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Germany <0x0A> </s> ▁Sing am ada i ▁Ay yan ar ▁Temple ▁is ▁a ▁A i yan ar ▁temple ▁in ▁N all i , ▁at ▁a ▁distance ▁of ▁ 1 8 km ▁from ▁S att ur ▁in ▁Vir ud h un ag ar ▁district ▁in ▁T amil ▁Nad u ▁( Ind ia ). ▁ ▁Pres iding ▁de ity ▁The ▁pres iding ▁de ity ▁of ▁the ▁temple ▁is ▁Sing am ada i ▁Ay yan ar . ▁He ▁is ▁fl anked ▁by ▁his ▁cons orts ▁Pur ana ▁and ▁P ush k ala . ▁ ▁Other ▁de ities ▁In ▁this ▁temple , ▁N ond i ▁Kar upp as amy , ▁Path in ett amp adi ▁Kar upp as amy , ▁Pet chi ▁Am man , ▁Vin ay aka , ▁S apt am at as , ▁N ā ga , ▁V air as
amy , ▁N and hi , ▁Ve er abad rar , ▁Vill adi ▁Kar upp as amy , ▁M uth uk au pp an , ▁L ada ▁S any asi , ▁and ▁Vall ad am uth u ▁are ▁found . ▁R ak k achi , ▁Ma ada an , ▁Mad ath i , ▁Bad h ala ▁and ▁K and ig ai ▁are ▁also ▁found ▁in ▁this ▁temple . ▁ ▁Festival ▁During ▁T amil ▁month ▁of ▁M asi , ▁Mah a ▁Sh iv ar atri ▁held ▁in ▁grand ▁manner . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : H ind u ▁tem ples ▁in ▁Vir ud h un ag ar ▁district ▁Category : Reg ional ▁Hindu ▁gods ▁Category : T amil ▁de ities <0x0A> </s> ▁M ula ▁Ram ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁minister ▁of ▁social ▁justice ▁in ▁Jam mu ▁and ▁K ash mir , ▁India . ▁He ▁is ▁a ▁leader ▁of ▁Indian ▁National ▁Congress . ▁He ▁elected ▁was ▁Ra ip ur - Dom ana ▁and ▁Mar h ▁constitu ency ▁in ▁Jam mu ▁and ▁K ash mir ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Jam mu ▁Category : Ind ian ▁National ▁Congress ▁politicians ▁from ▁Jam mu ▁and ▁K ash mir ▁Category : Members ▁of ▁the ▁Jam mu ▁and ▁K ash mir ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Sc iss ure lla ▁k ais era e ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁minute ▁sea ▁sn ail , ▁a ▁marine ▁g ast
rop od ▁m oll usk ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Sc iss ure ll idae . ▁ ▁Description ▁ ▁Distribution ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Ge iger ▁D . L . ▁( 2 0 0 6 ). ▁Eight ▁new ▁species ▁of ▁Sc iss ure ll idae ▁and ▁An atom idae ▁( M oll us ca : ▁Gast rop oda : ▁V et ig ast rop oda ) ▁from ▁around ▁the ▁world , ▁with ▁discussion ▁of ▁two ▁senior ▁syn ony ms . ▁Z oot ax a ▁ 1 1 2 8 : 1 - 3 3 . ▁ ▁Ge iger ▁D . L . ▁( 2 0 1 2 ) ▁Mon ograph ▁of ▁the ▁little ▁sl it ▁shell s . ▁Volume ▁ 1 . ▁Introduction , ▁Sc iss ure ll idae . ▁pp . ▁ 1 - 7 2 8 . ▁Volume ▁ 2 . ▁An atom idae , ▁Lar oche idae , ▁Dep ress izon idae , ▁S util izon idae , ▁Tem noc incl idae . ▁pp . 7 2 9 – 1 2 9 1 . ▁Santa ▁Barbara ▁Museum ▁of ▁Natural ▁History ▁Mon ograph s ▁Number ▁ 7 ▁ ▁Category : Sc iss ure ll idae ▁Category : G ast rop od s ▁described ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 <0x0A> </s> ▁E up rot om us ▁aur ora ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁sea ▁sn ail , ▁a ▁marine ▁g ast rop od ▁m oll usc ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Str omb idae , ▁the ▁true ▁con chs . ▁ ▁Description ▁ ▁Distribution ▁
▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Str omb idae ▁Category : G ast rop od s ▁described ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁P ten og loss a ▁is ▁an ▁inform al ▁tax onom ic ▁group ▁of ▁sea ▁sn ails . ▁This ▁group ▁was ▁considered ▁par aph y let ic ▁or ▁poly phy let ic ▁by ▁P onder ▁and ▁Lind berg ▁( 1 9 9 7 ) ▁in ▁their ▁classification ▁of ▁g ast rop od ▁m oll us cs . ▁ ▁Tax onomy ▁Super family ▁Ep it onio idea ▁Family ▁Ep it oni idae ▁Family ▁Jan th in idae ▁Family ▁N yst i ell idae ▁Super family ▁E ul imo idea ▁Family ▁E ul im idae ▁Family ▁A cl id idae ▁Super family ▁Tri ph oro idea ▁Family ▁Tri ph or idae ▁Family ▁Cer ith i ops idae ▁Family ▁Newton i ell idae ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁Sea ▁Sl ug ▁Forum ▁ ▁Category : P ten og loss a <0x0A> </s> ▁Tu ining ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁Ch ur ach and pur ▁district ▁of ▁Man ip ur , ▁India . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁in ▁Ch ur ach and pur ▁district <0x0A> </s> ▁Marc ▁Sim mons ▁( born ▁May ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 1 9 3 7 ▁in ▁Texas ) ▁is ▁a ▁historian ▁who ▁special izes ▁in ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁U . S . ▁state ▁of ▁New ▁Mexico . ▁ ▁As ▁an ▁independent ▁scholar , ▁he ▁is ▁cred ited ▁by
▁the ▁University ▁of ▁New ▁Mexico ▁Press ▁with ▁publishing ▁at ▁least ▁ 4 2 ▁books ▁and ▁numerous ▁articles ▁on ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁his ▁home ▁state , ▁with ▁particular ▁reference ▁to ▁the ▁heritage ▁of ▁Native ▁American , ▁Spanish ▁Col onial , ▁and ▁Mexican ▁Col onial ▁elements ▁within ▁this ▁overall ▁history . ▁ ▁Biography ▁Sim mons ▁em igr ated ▁from ▁Texas ▁to ▁New ▁Mexico ▁at ▁an ▁early ▁age , ▁purs uing ▁a ▁passionate ▁attachment ▁to ▁the ▁Land ▁of ▁En chant ment ▁and ▁its ▁horse ▁culture . ▁ ▁He ▁studied ▁history ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁New ▁Mexico ▁and ▁ranch ▁life ▁from ▁New ▁Mex icans , ▁and ▁reporter ▁Howard ▁H ought on ▁said ▁Sim mons ▁“ may ▁have ▁been ▁the ▁only ▁working ▁far rier ▁around ▁with ▁a ▁Ph . D .” ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 0 , ▁Sim mons ▁was ▁awarded ▁a ▁G ug gen heim ▁Fellow ship ▁in ▁U . S . ▁history . ▁▁ ▁From ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁until ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁Sim mons ▁wrote ▁a ▁weekly ▁column ▁for ▁the ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁New ▁Mexican . ▁ ▁Ph yll is ▁Morgan ▁has ▁published ▁a ▁bi ographical ▁essay ▁and ▁bibli ography ▁of ▁Sim mons ' s ▁work . ▁▁▁ ▁Sim mons ▁has , ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁don ated ▁his ▁papers ▁to ▁an ▁archive ▁in ▁the ▁W it l iff ▁Collections ▁at ▁Texas ▁State ▁University . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : American ▁histor ians ▁Category : L iving ▁people
<0x0A> </s> ▁C ú ▁Ch on n acht ▁ Ó ▁C ian á in , ▁d . ▁ 1 6 1 5 , ▁was ▁a ▁ry mer ▁or ▁chronic ler ▁to ▁R ory ▁Mag u ire . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁apparently ▁the ▁first ▁man ▁r acked ▁in ▁Ireland , ▁the ▁instrument ▁being ▁used ▁most ▁severely ▁upon ▁him ▁during ▁an ▁interrog ation ▁into ▁a ▁b ung led ▁ins ur rection ▁in ▁early ▁summer ▁ 1 6 1 5 . ▁On ▁ 3 1 ▁July ▁of ▁that ▁year , ▁he ▁and ▁five ▁others ▁were ▁condem ned ▁to ▁death ▁in ▁Der ry , ▁and ▁he ▁is ▁believed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁h anged ▁shortly ▁afterwards . ▁ ▁He ▁is ▁also ▁described ▁as ▁a ▁ye oman ▁of ▁M oy gh , ▁a ▁place ▁somewhere ▁between ▁B ally m oney ▁and ▁the ▁B ann , ▁County ▁An trim . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁brother ▁of ▁T ad h g ▁Og ▁ Ó ▁C ian á in . ▁ ▁The ▁surn ame ▁ Ó ▁C ian á in ▁is ▁now ▁generally ▁rendered ▁as ▁Ke en an . ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁The ▁Lear ned ▁Family ▁of ▁ Ó ▁C ian á in / Ke en an , ▁N oll a ig ▁ Ó ▁M ura í le , ▁in ▁Cl ough er ▁Record , ▁pp . 3 8 7 – 4 3 6 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁ ▁Tur as ▁na ▁d T ao ise ach ▁n U lt ach ▁as ▁É ir inn ▁from ▁R á
th ▁Ma ol á in ▁to ▁Rome : ▁T ad h g ▁O ▁C ian á in ’ s ▁contemporary ▁narrative ▁of ▁the ▁so - called ▁‘ Fl ight ▁of ▁the ▁Earl s , ▁ 1 6 0 7 - 8 , ▁N oll a ig ▁ Ó ▁M ura í le ( editor ), ▁Four ▁Cour ts ▁Press , ▁Dublin , ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 6 1 5 ▁deaths ▁Category : 1 7 th - century ▁Irish ▁writers ▁Category : 1 6 th - century ▁Irish ▁people ▁Category : 1 6 th - century ▁Irish ▁histor ians ▁Category : People ▁from ▁County ▁An trim ▁Category : Ir ish - language ▁literature ▁Category : Ir ish ▁writers ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁unknown <0x0A> </s> ▁C em ill i ▁Castle ▁( , ▁also ▁called ▁K ale burn u ▁Castle ) ▁is ▁a ▁medieval ▁castle ▁in ▁the ▁rural ▁area ▁of ▁M ers in ▁in ▁southern ▁Turkey . ▁ ▁Ge ography ▁The ▁castle ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁southern ▁sl opes ▁of ▁Tor os ▁Mountains ▁at ▁. ▁It ▁is ▁situated ▁to ▁the ▁east ▁of ▁C em ill i ▁ ▁village ▁and ▁to ▁the ▁west ▁of ▁M ers in . ▁Its ▁distance ▁to ▁M ers in ▁is ▁. ▁Its ▁alt itude ▁is ▁. ▁It ▁overlook s ▁to ▁village ▁and ▁the ▁road ▁connecting ▁M ers in ▁to ▁F ı nd ı k p ı nar ı . ▁ ▁Building ▁Both ▁C em ill i ▁and ▁K ale burn u ▁are ▁Turkish ▁names .
▁The ▁original ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁castle ▁is ▁not ▁known . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁small ▁medieval ▁age ▁castle . ▁It ▁was ▁built ▁probably ▁to ▁control ▁the ▁road ▁to ▁north . ▁Present ly ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁building ▁has ▁been ▁demol ished ▁. ▁There ▁are ▁cracked ▁pieces ▁of ▁cer amic ▁co ating ▁from ▁the ▁By z antine , ▁Sel j uk ▁and ▁Ott oman ▁er as ▁around ▁the ▁castle . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Cast les ▁in ▁M ers in ▁Province ▁Category : R u ined ▁cast les ▁in ▁Turkey ▁Category : Arch ae ological ▁sites ▁in ▁M ers in ▁Province , ▁Turkey <0x0A> </s> ▁P avel ▁Vik tor ov ich ▁K ud rin ▁( ; ▁born ▁ 2 0 ▁February ▁ 1 9 8 3 ) ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁Russian ▁professional ▁football ▁player . ▁ ▁Club ▁career ▁He ▁played ▁in ▁the ▁Russian ▁Football ▁National ▁League ▁for ▁FC ▁F ak el ▁Vor one zh ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : R ussian ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁defend ers ▁Category : FC ▁F ak el ▁Vor one zh ▁players ▁Category : FC ▁Rot or ▁Vol g og rad ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁is ▁the ▁art ▁of ▁appreci ating ▁Japanese ▁inc ense , ▁and ▁involves ▁using ▁inc ense ▁within ▁a ▁structure ▁of ▁cod ified ▁conduct . ▁K ō d ō ▁includes ▁all ▁aspects ▁of ▁the ▁inc ense ▁process , ▁from ▁the ▁, ▁to ▁activities
▁such ▁the ▁inc ense - compar ing ▁games ▁k um ik ō ▁() ▁and ▁gen j ik ō ▁( ). ▁K ō d ō ▁is ▁counted ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁classical ▁Japanese ▁arts ▁of ▁ref inement , ▁along ▁with ▁k ad ō ▁for ▁flower ▁arrangement , ▁and ▁ch ad ō ▁for ▁tea ▁and ▁the ▁tea ▁ceremony . ▁ ▁E ty m ology ▁▁ ▁The ▁word ▁ 香 ▁k ō ▁is ▁written ▁with ▁the ▁Chinese ▁K ang xi ▁radical ▁ 1 8 6 ▁composed ▁of ▁nine ▁stro kes , ▁which ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁expanded ▁up ▁to ▁ 1 8 ▁stro kes ▁ <0xE9> <0xA6> <0xAB> . ▁Trans l ated ▁it ▁means ▁" fr agr ance "; ▁however ▁in ▁this ▁context ▁may ▁also ▁be ▁translated ▁as ▁" inc ense ". ▁▁ ▁The ▁word ▁ 道 ▁d ō ▁( written ▁with ▁the ▁same ▁character ▁as ▁Chinese ▁t ao / dao ) ▁means ▁" way ", ▁both ▁literally ▁( stre et ) ▁and ▁met aphor ically ▁( a ▁stream ▁of ▁life ▁experience ). ▁The ▁suffix ▁- 道 ▁generally ▁denotes , ▁in ▁the ▁broad est ▁sense , ▁the ▁tot ality ▁of ▁a ▁movement ▁as ▁ende avor , ▁tradition , ▁practice ▁and ▁eth os . ▁▁ ▁In ▁the ▁search ▁for ▁a ▁suitable ▁term , ▁transl ations ▁of ▁such ▁words ▁into ▁English ▁sometimes ▁focus ▁on ▁a ▁narrow er ▁aspect ▁of ▁the ▁original ▁term . ▁ ▁One ▁common ▁translation ▁in ▁context ▁is ▁" cer emony ", ▁which ▁ent ails ▁the ▁process ▁of ▁preparation ▁and ▁sm elling ▁in ▁general , ▁but
▁not ▁a ▁specific ▁instance . ▁ ▁In ▁some ▁instances , ▁it ▁functions ▁similarly ▁to ▁the ▁English ▁suffix ▁- ism , ▁and ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁tea ▁( ch ad ō / s ad ō ▁ 茶道 ) ▁one ▁sees ▁tea ism ▁in ▁works ▁dating ▁from ▁early ▁efforts ▁at ▁illustr ating ▁sad ō ▁in ▁English , ▁focusing ▁on ▁its ▁philosophy ▁and ▁eth os . ▁▁ ▁Con vers ely , ▁the ▁sense ▁of ▁the ▁English ▁phrase ▁the ▁way ▁of ▁X ▁appears ▁to ▁have ▁broad ened ▁in ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁need ▁to ▁translate ▁such ▁terms , ▁and ▁to ▁have ▁become ▁more ▁productive ▁with ▁the ▁need ▁to ▁describe ▁with ▁a ▁similar ▁bread th ▁of ▁compass ▁certain ▁things ▁in ▁Western ▁experience . ▁ ▁History ▁▁ ▁According ▁to ▁legend , ▁ag ar wood ▁( al oes wood ) ▁first ▁came ▁to ▁Japan ▁when ▁a ▁log ▁of ▁inc ense ▁wood ▁drift ed ▁ash ore ▁on ▁Aw aj i ▁island ▁in ▁the ▁third ▁year ▁of ▁Em press ▁Su iko ' s ▁reign ▁( 5 9 5 ▁CE ). ▁People ▁who ▁found ▁the ▁inc ense ▁wood ▁noticed ▁that ▁the ▁wood ▁smelled ▁marvel ous ▁when ▁they ▁put ▁it ▁near ▁a ▁fire . ▁Then ▁they ▁presented ▁the ▁wood ▁to ▁local ▁officials . ▁▁ ▁Japan ▁was ▁the ▁eastern ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Sil k ▁Road . ▁Inc ense ▁was ▁brought ▁from ▁China ▁over ▁Korea ▁and ▁developed ▁over ▁ 1 0 0 0 ▁years . ▁The ▁history ▁starts ▁in ▁the ▁ 6 th ▁century ▁CE ▁when ▁Budd h ism ▁arrived ▁during ▁the ▁As u ka
▁period . ▁Ag ar wood ▁is ▁known ▁to ▁have ▁come ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁supplies ▁to ▁build ▁a ▁temple ▁in ▁ 5 3 8 ▁CE . ▁A ▁ritual ▁known ▁as ▁son a ek ō ▁became ▁established . ▁K ō b oku , ▁frag rant ▁wood ▁combined ▁with ▁her bs ▁and ▁other ▁arom atic ▁sub stances , ▁was ▁burned ▁to ▁provide ▁inc ense ▁for ▁religious ▁purposes . ▁The ▁custom ▁of ▁burning ▁inc ense ▁was ▁further ▁developed ▁and ▁bl oss omed ▁amongst ▁the ▁court ▁nob ility . ▁Past ime ▁of ▁tak im ono , ▁a ▁powder ed ▁mixture ▁of ▁arom atic ▁sub stances , ▁developed . ▁Fr ag rant ▁sc ents ▁played ▁a ▁vital ▁role ▁at ▁court ▁life ▁during ▁the ▁He ian ▁period , ▁rob es ▁and ▁even ▁fans ▁were ▁perf umed ▁and ▁poems ▁written ▁about ▁them , ▁it ▁also ▁featured ▁prom in ently ▁in ▁the ▁epic ▁The ▁T ale ▁of ▁Gen ji ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 1 th ▁century . ▁▁ ▁Sam ur ai ▁warriors ▁would ▁prepare ▁for ▁battle ▁by ▁pur ifying ▁their ▁minds ▁and ▁bodies ▁with ▁the ▁inc ense ▁of ▁k ō b oku . ▁They ▁also ▁developed ▁an ▁appreciation ▁for ▁its ▁frag r ances . ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁Mur om achi ▁period ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century , ▁this ▁aesthetic ▁awareness ▁would ▁develop ▁into ▁the ▁accompl ishment ▁known ▁as ▁k ō d ō , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁art ▁of ▁enjoying ▁the ▁inc ense ▁of ▁sm ould ering ▁k ō b oku . ▁The ▁present ▁style ▁of ▁k ō d ō ▁has
▁largely ▁retained ▁the ▁structure ▁and ▁manner ▁of ▁the ▁Mur om achi ▁period , ▁during ▁this ▁time ▁the ▁tea ▁ceremony ▁and ▁the ▁i ke b ana ▁style ▁of ▁flower ▁arrangement ▁developed ▁as ▁well . ▁ ▁Ex pert ise ▁concerning ▁tiny ▁pieces ▁of ▁exotic ▁arom atic ▁woods ▁led ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁and ▁ 1 6 th ▁centuries ▁to ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁various ▁games ▁or ▁cont ests . ▁Some ▁depend ed ▁on ▁the ▁memor ization ▁of ▁sc ents , ▁some ▁involved ▁sequences ▁that ▁held ▁cl ues ▁to ▁classic ▁poems , ▁some ▁merely ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁identifying ▁matching ▁arom as . ▁Inc ense ▁games ▁became ▁a ▁" way " ▁( d ō ), ▁an ▁av ocation . ▁The ▁way ▁of ▁inc ense ▁eventually ▁spread ▁from ▁elite ▁circles ▁to ▁towns men . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁T ens h ō ▁era ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 6 th ▁century , ▁the ▁master ▁craft s men ▁K ō ju ▁was ▁employed ▁at ▁the ▁Ky oto ▁Imperial ▁Palace ▁and ▁pract iced ▁inc ense ▁ceremony . ▁The ▁third ▁K ō ju ▁served ▁under ▁Toy ot omi ▁H ide y oshi , ▁the ▁fourth ▁under ▁Tok ug awa ▁I ey as u . ▁The ▁e ighth ▁K ō ju ▁Tak ae ▁J y u emon ▁was ▁known ▁as ▁a ▁particular ▁master ▁of ▁inc ense ▁of ▁note . ▁▁ ▁During ▁this ▁time ▁the ▁“ Ten ▁V irt ues ▁of ▁K ō ” ▁( 香の十 <0xE5> <0xBE> <0xB3> , ▁k ō no j ū tok u ) ▁were ▁form ulated
, ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁traditional ▁listing ▁of ▁the ▁benefits ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁proper ▁and ▁correct ▁use ▁of ▁quality ▁inc ense : ▁▁▁ 感格鬼神 ▁: ▁Sh arp ens ▁the ▁senses ▁▁ 清 <0xE6> <0xB5> <0x84> 心身 ▁: ▁Pur ifies ▁the ▁body ▁and ▁the ▁spirit ▁▁ 能 <0xE6> <0x89> <0x95> <0xE6> <0xB1> <0x9A> <0xE7> <0xA9> <0xA2> ▁: ▁El im inates ▁poll ut ants ▁▁ 能 <0xE8> <0xA6> <0x9A> <0xE7> <0x9D> <0xA1> <0xE7> <0x9C> <0xA0> ▁: ▁Aw ak ens ▁the ▁spirit ▁▁ 静中成友 ▁: ▁He als ▁l onel iness ▁▁ <0xE5> <0xA1> <0xB5> <0xE8> <0xA3> <0x8F> <0xE6> <0x84> <0x89> <0xE9> <0x96> <0x91> ▁: ▁Cal ms ▁in ▁turb ulent ▁times ▁▁ 多而不 <0xE5> <0x8E> <0xAD> ▁: ▁Is ▁not ▁unple asant , ▁even ▁in ▁abundance ▁▁ <0xE5> <0x8B> <0x9F> 而知足 ▁: ▁Even ▁in ▁small ▁amounts ▁is ▁sufficient ▁▁ 久 <0xE8> <0x94> <0xB5> 不 <0xE6> <0x9C> <0xBD> ▁: ▁Does ▁not ▁break ▁down ▁after ▁a ▁very ▁long ▁time ▁▁ 常用無 <0xE9> <0x9A> <0x9C> ▁: ▁A ▁common ▁use ▁is ▁not ▁harmful ▁ ▁Even ▁today , ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁strong ▁relationship ▁and ▁hol istic ▁approach ▁in ▁k ō d ō ▁between ▁frag rant ▁scent , ▁the ▁senses , ▁the ▁human ▁spirit , ▁and ▁nature . ▁The ▁spiritual ity ▁and ▁ref ined ▁concentration ▁that ▁is ▁central ▁to ▁k ō d ō ▁places ▁it ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁level ▁as ▁k ad ō ▁and ▁ch ad ō . ▁ ▁Material ▁ ▁In ▁k ō d ō , ▁a ▁small ▁piece ▁of ▁frag
rant ▁wood ▁is ▁heated ▁on ▁a ▁small ▁M ica ▁plate ▁( G in - yo ), ▁which ▁is ▁heated ▁from ▁below ▁by ▁a ▁piece ▁of ▁char co al ▁that ▁is ▁surrounded ▁by ▁ash . ▁All ▁this ▁is ▁held ▁in ▁a ▁small ▁cer amic ▁c en ser ▁that ▁can ▁look ▁like ▁a ▁cup . ▁It ▁is ▁not ▁usual ▁for ▁wood ▁or ▁inc ense ▁sticks ▁to ▁be ▁burned ▁because ▁that ▁would ▁create ▁smoke ; ▁only ▁the ▁essential ▁arom atic ▁o ils ▁should ▁be ▁released ▁from ▁the ▁wood ▁through ▁the ▁heat ▁below ▁it . ▁▁ ▁A lo es wood , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁ag ar wood ▁( <0xE6> <0xB2> <0x88> 香 ▁j ink ō ), ▁is ▁produced ▁in ▁certain ▁parts ▁of ▁sout heast ▁Asia ▁such ▁as ▁Vietnam . ▁The ▁trees ▁se crete ▁an ▁arom atic ▁res in , ▁which ▁over ▁time ▁then ▁turns ▁into ▁k ō b oku ▁( 香木 ). ▁One ▁particular ▁grade ▁of ▁k ō b oku ▁with ▁a ▁high ▁oil ▁content ▁and ▁superior ▁frag r ance ▁is ▁called ▁k y ara ▁( <0xE4> <0xBC> <0xBD> 羅 ). ▁▁ ▁Another ▁important ▁material ▁is ▁sand al wood ▁( 白 <0xE6> <0xAA> <0x80> ▁by ak ud an ), ▁which ▁origin ates ▁primarily ▁from ▁India , ▁Indonesia , ▁southern ▁China ▁or ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁sout heast ▁Asia . ▁Sand al wood ▁trees ▁need ▁around ▁ 6 0 ▁years ▁to ▁produce ▁their ▁signature ▁frag r ance ▁that ▁can ▁be ▁deemed ▁acceptable ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁for ▁k ō do . ▁▁ ▁Other ▁materials ▁used ▁are ▁c inn amon
▁bark ▁( <0xE6> <0xA1> <0x82> 皮 ▁ke ih i ), ▁che bul ic ▁my ro bal an ▁( <0xE8> <0xAF> <0x83> 子 ▁k ashi ), ▁cl ove ▁( 丁子 ▁cho ji ), ▁g inger ▁l ily ▁( s anna ), ▁lav ender , ▁lic or ice ▁( 甘草属　 k anz ō ), ▁patch ou li ▁( <0xE5> <0xBB> <0xA3> <0xE8> <0x97> <0xBF> 香 ▁k ak k ō ), ▁sp iken ard ▁( <0xE5> <0x8C> <0x99> 葉甘 <0xE9> <0xAC> <0x86> ▁k ans ho ), ▁cam om ile , ▁r hub arb ▁( 大黄 ▁da io h ), ▁sa ff lower ▁( <0xE7> <0xB4> <0x85> 花 ▁ben ib ana ), ▁star ▁an ise ▁( 大 <0xE8> <0x8C> <0xB4> 香 ▁dai ▁u ik yo ) ▁and ▁other ▁her bs . ▁Shell ▁frag r ances ▁( <0xE8> <0xB2> <0x9D> 香 ▁ka ik ō ) ▁and ▁other ▁animal - der ived ▁arom atic ▁materials ▁are ▁also ▁used . ▁▁ ▁Raw ▁materials ▁such ▁as ▁ag ar wood ▁are ▁becoming ▁increasingly ▁rare ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁de pletion ▁of ▁the ▁wild ▁resource . ▁This ▁has ▁made ▁prime ▁material ▁very ▁expensive . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁cost ▁of ▁lower ▁grade ▁k y ara ▁is ▁about ▁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ▁y en ▁per ▁gram . ▁Top ▁quality ▁k y ara ▁costs ▁over ▁ 4 0 , 0 0 0 ▁y en ▁per ▁gram , ▁or ▁many ▁times ▁the ▁equivalent ▁weight ▁of ▁gold ▁( as ▁of ▁late ▁ 2 0 1 2 ). ▁Though ▁it
▁can ▁only ▁be ▁war med ▁and ▁used ▁once ▁for ▁a ▁formal ▁ceremony , ▁it ▁can ▁be ▁stored ▁for ▁hundreds ▁of ▁years . ▁▁ ▁If ▁the ▁particular ▁piece ▁of ▁inc ense ▁wood ▁has ▁a ▁history , ▁the ▁price ▁can ▁be ▁even ▁higher . ▁The ▁highest ▁regarded ▁wood , ▁R anj y ata i ▁( <0xE8> <0x98> <0xAD> <0xE5> <0xA5> <0xA2> 待 ), ▁dates ▁back ▁to ▁at ▁least ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁and ▁is ▁k y ara ▁wood ▁from ▁La os ▁or ▁Vietnam , ▁and ▁was ▁used ▁by ▁em per ors ▁and ▁war l ords ▁for ▁its ▁frag r ance . ▁It ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁contain ▁so ▁much ▁res in ▁that ▁it ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁many ▁times ▁over . ▁The ▁wood ▁is ▁kept ▁at ▁the ▁Sh ō s ō in ▁tre asury ▁in ▁N ara , ▁which ▁is ▁under ▁the ▁administration ▁of ▁the ▁Imperial ▁House hold . ▁▁ ▁The ▁high ▁costs ▁and ▁difficulty ▁in ▁obtaining ▁acceptable ▁raw ▁material ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁reasons ▁why ▁k ō d ō ▁is ▁not ▁as ▁widely ▁pract iced ▁or ▁known ▁compared ▁to ▁the ▁art ▁of ▁flower ▁arrangement ▁or ▁the ▁tea ▁ceremony . ▁▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁oldest ▁traditional ▁inc ense ▁companies ▁in ▁Japan ▁is ▁Ba ie ido , ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 6 5 7 ▁with ▁roots ▁going ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁Mur om achi ▁period . ▁Other ▁traditional ▁and ▁still ▁operating ▁companies ▁include ▁Ky uk y odo ▁( 1 6 6 3 , ▁Ky oto ) ▁and ▁Sh oy e ido , ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 7
0 5 . ▁N ip pon ▁K odo ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁major ▁supplier ▁of ▁inc ense ▁material . ▁ ▁Types ▁of ▁inc ense ▁S as aki ▁D ō y ō ▁( 1 3 0 6 – 1 3 7 3 ), ▁who ▁was ▁regarded ▁as ▁a ▁par agon ▁of ▁eleg ance ▁and ▁luxury ▁and ▁the ▁qu int ess ential ▁military ▁arist ocr at ▁during ▁N an b oku - ch ō ▁period , ▁owned ▁many ▁inc ense ▁woods ▁and ▁named ▁them . ▁ ▁Sh ō gun ▁Ash ik aga ▁Y osh im asa ▁( 1 4 3 6 – 1 4 9 0 ) ▁himself ▁appreciated ▁precious ▁sc ented ▁woods ▁and ▁collected ▁some ▁or ▁inherited ▁them ▁from ▁S as aki . ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁properly ▁organ ise ▁the ▁large ▁collection ▁of ▁inc ense ▁wood , ▁he ▁appointed ▁the ▁experts ▁of ▁that ▁time ▁San jon ishi ▁San et aka , ▁who ▁became ▁the ▁founder ▁of ▁the ▁O ie ▁School , ▁and ▁Sh ino ▁S osh in , ▁the ▁founder ▁of ▁the ▁Sh ino ▁School . ▁They ▁established ▁a ▁class ifying ▁system ▁called ▁ri kk oku ▁g omi , ▁which ▁means ▁" six ▁countries , ▁five ▁sc ents ". ▁▁ ▁* ▁Man aban ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁word ▁nan ban ▁which ▁means ▁" s ou thern ▁bar bar ian ", ▁and ▁was ▁brought ▁to ▁Japan ▁by ▁Portuguese ▁traders ▁with ▁unknown ▁origin . ▁ ▁Inc ense ▁ut ens ils ▁ ▁Inc ense ▁ut ens ils ▁or ▁equipment ▁is ▁called ▁. ▁A ▁range ▁of ▁k ō d ō
gu ▁are ▁available ▁and ▁different ▁styles ▁and ▁mot ifs ▁are ▁used ▁for ▁different ▁events ▁and ▁in ▁different ▁seasons . ▁All ▁the ▁tools ▁for ▁inc ense ▁ceremony ▁are ▁handled ▁with ▁ex quis ite ▁care . ▁They ▁are ▁sc rup ulously ▁cleaned ▁before ▁and ▁after ▁each ▁use ▁and ▁before ▁st oring . ▁Much ▁like ▁the ▁objects ▁and ▁tools ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁tea ▁ceremony , ▁these ▁can ▁be ▁valued ▁as ▁high ▁art . ▁▁ ▁The ▁following ▁are ▁a ▁few ▁of ▁the ▁essential ▁components : ▁▁▁ ▁three - t ier ed ▁container ▁( j uk ō b ako ▁ 重香箱 ), ▁for ▁the ▁inc ense , ▁new ▁m ica ▁plates , ▁and ▁burned ▁out ▁inc ense ▁with ▁its ▁used ▁m ica ▁plate ▁▁ ▁long ▁tray ▁( n ag ab on ▁ 長 <0xE7> <0x9B> <0x86> ) ▁▁ ▁c en ser ▁( k ō r ō ▁ 香 <0xE7> <0x82> <0x89> ), ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁te - k ō ro ▁( 手香 <0xE7> <0x82> <0x89> ▁" hand - held ▁c en ser ") ▁▁ ▁M ica ▁plates ▁( gin - yo ▁ 銀葉 ), ▁where ▁the ▁inc ense ▁wood ▁is ▁placed ▁to ▁stop ▁it ▁from ▁burning ▁if ▁it ▁were ▁to ▁be ▁placed ▁directly ▁on ▁the ▁ash ▁▁ ▁Inc ense ▁holder ▁board ▁( hon k ō ban ▁ 本香 <0xE7> <0x9B> <0xA4> ), ▁a ▁small , ▁wooden ▁tablet ▁with ▁a ▁flower - shaped ▁mother - of - pe arl ▁f itt ings ▁upon ▁which ▁the ▁small ▁inc ense ▁pieces ▁on ▁m ica ▁plates ▁are
▁kept ▁on ▁top ▁for ▁display ▁after ▁use , ▁normally ▁ 6 ▁or ▁ 1 0 ▁in ▁number ▁▁ ▁white ▁ash ▁( T rap a . ▁J apon ica ), ▁but ▁also ▁red ▁ash ▁or ▁other ▁precious ▁ash ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁ ▁Sh ino ▁inc ense ▁packet ▁( sh ino ori ▁ 志野折 ), ▁folded ▁paper ▁packet ▁used ▁to ▁keep ▁inc ense ▁wood ▁chips ▁( the ms el ves ▁in ▁their ▁individual ▁packets ), ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Sh ino ▁School ▁ ▁box ▁( g iny ō - b ako ▁ 銀葉箱 ), ▁silver ▁box ▁for ▁containing ▁the ▁m ica ▁plates ▁ ▁char co al ▁( t ad on ▁ <0xE7> <0x82> <0xAD> <0xE5> <0x9C> <0x98> ), ▁a ▁special , ▁and ▁nearly ▁od our less , ▁char co al ▁b ri qu ette ▁▁ ▁A ▁small ▁v ase ▁( k ō ji - t ate ▁ 香 <0xE7> <0xAD> <0xAF> 建 ), ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁ko ji - t ate ▁( 火 <0xE7> <0xAE> <0xB8> 立 ), ▁keeps ▁the ▁fire ▁ut ens ils ▁( hid ō gu ▁ 火道具 ): ▁▁ ▁metal ▁twe ez ers ▁or ▁tong s ▁( g iny o - bas ami ▁ 銀葉 <0xE6> <0x8C> <0xBE> ) ▁for ▁handling ▁the ▁square ▁m ica ▁plates ▁▁ ▁eb ony ▁chop st icks ▁( 香 <0xE7> <0xAD> <0xAF> ), ▁for ▁picking ▁up ▁pieces ▁of ▁inc ense ▁wood ▁ ▁small ▁spat ula ▁( 香 <0xE5> <0x8C> <0x99> ), ▁for ▁transfer ring ▁inc ense ▁wood ▁onto ▁the ▁m ica
▁plate ▁ ▁metal ▁chop st icks ▁( ko ji ▁ 火 <0xE7> <0xAE> <0xB8> ), ▁used ▁to ▁move ▁the ▁char co al ▁▁ ▁tam per ▁( ha ▁i - oshi ▁ 灰 <0xE6> <0x8A> <0xBC> ), ▁an ▁object ▁shaped ▁rather ▁like ▁a ▁closed ▁fold ing - fan , ▁used ▁to ▁gently ▁t amp ▁and ▁smooth ▁the ▁as hes ▁in ▁the ▁c en ser ▁into ▁a ▁cone ▁around ▁the ▁burning ▁char co al ▁▁ ▁fe ather ▁brush ▁( ko - h ane ▁ 小羽 ), ▁to ▁clean ▁and ▁brush ▁off ▁any ▁as hes ▁ ▁answer ▁sheet ▁holder ▁( <0xE9> <0xB6> <0xAF> ), ▁for ▁secur ing ▁the ▁sheet ▁of ▁paper ▁with ▁answers ▁onto ▁the ▁t at ami ▁mat ▁ ▁Some ▁other ▁items ▁can ▁be ▁included : ▁▁ ▁small ▁inc ense ▁container ▁( k ō g ō ▁ 香合 ), ▁for ▁keeping ▁inc ense ▁in , ▁mainly ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁tea ▁ceremony , ▁or ▁in ▁general ▁▁ ▁ash ▁container ▁( t ak ig ara - ire ▁ <0xE7> <0x82> <0xB7> 空入 ), ▁where ▁fresh ▁ash ▁is ▁kept ▁ ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁ut ens ils ▁could ▁be ▁kept ▁in ▁a ▁special ▁cabinet ▁( dog u - d ana ). ▁In flu ential ▁families ▁would ▁order ▁elaborate ▁and ▁expensive ▁cabin ets ▁made ▁out ▁precious ▁woods ▁and ▁lac quer ▁and ▁gold work . ▁ ▁Mon k ō ▁ ▁The ▁art ▁of ▁enjoying ▁inc ense , ▁with ▁all ▁its ▁prepar atory ▁aspects , ▁is ▁called ▁mon k ō ▁( <0xE8> <0x81> <0x9E> 香 ), ▁which ▁translated
▁means ▁" list ening ▁to ▁inc ense " ▁( although ▁the ▁ <0xE8> <0x81> <0x9E> ▁Kan ji ▁also ▁means ▁" to ▁smell " ▁in ▁Chinese ). ▁The ▁aim ▁is ▁to ▁let ▁the ▁arom a ▁of ▁the ▁material ▁inf use ▁the ▁body ▁and ▁soul ▁and ▁" listen " ▁to ▁its ▁essence ▁in ▁a ▁hol istic ▁manner , ▁as ▁opposed ▁to ▁just ▁reducing ▁it ▁to ▁sm elling . ▁Mon k ō ▁has ▁been ▁depicted ▁in ▁Japanese ▁art , ▁with ▁a ▁well - known ▁dep iction ▁by ▁the ▁artist ▁Sh ins ui ▁It ō ▁( 1 8 9 8 – 1 9 7 2 ). ▁ ▁Particip ants ▁sit ▁near ▁one ▁another ▁and ▁take ▁turns ▁sm elling ▁inc ense ▁from ▁a ▁c en ser ▁as ▁they ▁pass ▁it ▁around ▁the ▁group . ▁Particip ants ▁comment ▁on ▁and ▁make ▁observations ▁about ▁the ▁inc ense , ▁and ▁play ▁games ▁to ▁guess ▁the ▁inc ense ▁material . ▁Gen j ik ō ▁is ▁one ▁such ▁game , ▁in ▁which ▁participants ▁are ▁to ▁determine ▁which ▁of ▁five ▁prepared ▁cens ers ▁contain ▁different ▁sc ents , ▁and ▁which ▁contain ▁the ▁same ▁scent . ▁Players ' ▁determ inations ▁( and ▁the ▁actual ▁answers ) ▁are ▁recorded ▁using ▁symbols ▁in ▁k ō ▁no ▁zu ( 香の <0xE5> <0x9B> <0xB3> ). ▁ ▁The ▁k ō ▁no ▁zu ▁for ▁Gen j ik ō ▁is ▁Gen j ik ō ▁no ▁zu ( 源氏香の <0xE5> <0x9B> <0xB3> ). ▁The ▁geometric ▁pattern ▁of ▁these ▁are ▁also ▁used ▁as ▁mon ▁( called ▁as ▁Gen j ik
ō - mon ( 源氏香 <0xE7> <0xB4> <0x8B> )), ▁for ▁decor ation ▁in ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁other ▁areas ▁such ▁as ▁k im ono , ▁Japanese ▁lac quer ware ▁and ▁Japanese ▁pot tery . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : D ō ▁Category : In c ense ▁Category : J apan ese ▁culture <0x0A> </s> ▁Ag as ar av all i ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁southern ▁state ▁of ▁K arn at aka , ▁India . ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁Bel ur ▁tal uk ▁of ▁Hass an ▁district ▁in ▁K arn at aka . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Hass an ▁ ▁M ang al ore ▁ ▁District s ▁of ▁K arn at aka ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁in ▁Hass an ▁district <0x0A> </s> ▁Cra ug ast or ▁tr ach y der mus ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁fro g ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Cra ug ast or idae . ▁It ▁is ▁end emic ▁to ▁Gu atem ala ▁and ▁only ▁known ▁from ▁its ▁type ▁local ity , ▁X iac am ▁in ▁the ▁Sierra ▁de ▁Santa ▁Cruz , ▁Iz ab al ▁Department , ▁where ▁the ▁type ▁series ▁was ▁collected ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 9 . ▁The ▁species ▁might ▁already ▁be ▁ext inct . ▁However , ▁spec im ens ▁collected ▁some ▁ 1 0 km ▁from ▁the ▁type ▁local ity ▁might ▁belong ▁to ▁this ▁species . ▁ ▁E ty m ology ▁The ▁specific ▁name ▁tr ach y der mus ▁is ▁derived
▁from ▁the ▁Greek ▁tr ach ys ▁( = rough ) ▁and ▁der ma ▁( = skin ). ▁The ▁name ▁all udes ▁to ▁the ▁extremely ▁rug ose ▁nature ▁of ▁this ▁species . ▁ ▁Description ▁The ▁type ▁series ▁consists ▁of ▁two ▁adult ▁males ▁and ▁two ▁adult ▁females . ▁The ▁males ▁measure ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁females ▁ ▁in ▁sn out – vent ▁length . ▁The ▁sn out ▁is ▁o void ▁in ▁d ors al ▁view ▁and ▁trunc ate ▁in ▁profile . ▁The ▁can th us ▁ro str alis ▁is ▁well - defined . ▁The ▁tym pan um ▁is ▁ind ist inct ▁in ▁males ▁and ▁hidden ▁in ▁females . ▁The ▁fingers ▁and ▁toes ▁bear ▁disc s ; ▁the ▁toes ▁have ▁moderate ▁we bbing ▁while ▁the ▁fingers ▁are ▁un we bb ed . ▁The ▁upper ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁body , ▁fl anks , ▁and ▁upper ▁surface ▁of ▁lim bs ▁are ▁strongly ▁gran ular , ▁with ▁the ▁largest ▁tub er cles ▁on ▁the ▁fl anks . ▁D ors al ▁color ation ▁is ▁brown ▁with ▁some ▁ind ist inct ▁mark ings ; ▁the ▁tub er cles ▁are ▁dark ▁brown ▁to ▁black . ▁The ▁v enter ▁is ▁yellow ish ▁brown ▁with ▁some ▁white ▁bl ot ches . ▁ ▁Hab itat ▁and ▁conservation ▁This ▁species ▁is ▁known ▁from ▁an ▁old - grow th ▁prem ont ane ▁wet ▁forest ▁at ▁about ▁ ▁above ▁sea ▁level . ▁Individ uals ▁were ▁seen ▁on ▁rocks ▁at ▁night ▁along ▁a ▁stream . ▁ ▁Cra ug ast or ▁tr ach y der mus ▁is ▁threatened ▁by ▁habitat ▁loss
▁caused ▁by ▁human ▁settlement , ▁agricultural ▁enc ro achment , ▁and ▁wood ▁extr action . ▁Ch y tr idi omy cos is ▁is ▁possibly ▁behind ▁dramatic ▁decl ines ▁seen ▁in ▁many ▁other ▁stream - dw elling ▁fro gs , ▁and ▁could ▁also ▁affect ▁this ▁species . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁tr ach y der mus ▁Category : End emic ▁fa una ▁of ▁Gu atem ala ▁Category : Am ph ib ians ▁of ▁Gu atem ala ▁Category : Am ph ib ians ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁Category : Tax a ▁named ▁by ▁Jonathan ▁A . ▁Campbell ▁Category : Tax onomy ▁articles ▁created ▁by ▁Pol bot <0x0A> </s> ▁O le ▁Christian ▁Wend el ▁( born ▁ 2 4 ▁January ▁ 1 9 9 2 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Norweg ian ▁cross - country ▁sk ier ▁and ▁ski ▁j umper . ▁He ▁was ▁National ▁Junior ▁Champion ▁in ▁both ▁ski ▁jumping , ▁cross ▁country ▁ski ing ▁and ▁Nord ic ▁combined ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁and ▁Junior ▁World ▁Champion ▁in ▁Nord ic ▁Comb ined ▁( team ▁competition ). ▁ ▁He ▁represented ▁Norway ▁in ▁Nord ic ▁Comb ined ▁S ki ing ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Winter ▁Olympics ▁in ▁Vancouver . ▁ ▁He ▁retired ▁after ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁season . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 9 2 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : N or weg ian ▁male ▁cross - country ▁sk iers ▁ ▁Category : N or weg ian ▁male ▁ski ▁jump
ers ▁ ▁Category : N or weg ian ▁male ▁Nord ic ▁combined ▁sk iers <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Lind en ▁Park ▁Place - B elle ▁Avenue ▁Historic ▁District ▁is ▁a ▁residential ▁historic ▁district ▁in ▁High land ▁Park , ▁Illinois . ▁The ▁district ▁includes ▁ 3 4 ▁houses ▁along ▁Lind en ▁Park ▁Place , ▁Park ▁Avenue , ▁Lind en ▁Avenue , ▁El m ▁Place , ▁Park ▁Lane , ▁and ▁B elle ▁Avenue . ▁The ▁district ▁includes ▁the ▁work ▁of ▁not ew orth y ▁architect s ▁such ▁as ▁George ▁W . ▁Ma her ▁and ▁Robert ▁Se y f arth . ▁It ▁also ▁includes ▁several ▁homes ▁built ▁from ▁pattern ▁books ▁during ▁the ▁first ▁wave ▁of ▁High land ▁Park ' s ▁development ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 7 0 s . ▁Architect ural ▁styles ▁present ▁in ▁the ▁district ▁include ▁Victorian ▁G oth ic , ▁Italian ate , ▁and ▁Pra ir ie ▁School . ▁ ▁The ▁district ▁was ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Pl aces ▁on ▁December ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 9 8 3 . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ <0x09> <0x09> ▁Category : National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Pl aces ▁in ▁Lake ▁County , ▁Illinois ▁Category : Hist oric ▁districts ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Pl aces ▁in ▁Illinois ▁Category : High land ▁Park , ▁Illinois . <0x0A> </s> ▁Hur rah ! ▁were ▁a ▁British ▁j angle ▁pop ▁band ▁formed ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁and ▁active ▁until ▁ 1 9 9 1 . ▁Two ▁band ▁members ▁traded ▁off ▁lead ▁vocals
▁on ▁track - by - track ▁basis , ▁giving ▁the ▁band ▁two ▁distinct ly ▁different ▁sounds . ▁ ▁Band ▁history ▁ ▁Line - up ▁Form ed ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁and ▁originally ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Green - E y ed ▁Children , ▁Hur rah ! ▁initially ▁consisted ▁of ▁Paul ▁Hand yside ▁( born ▁ 2 8 ▁September ▁ 1 9 6 0 , ▁New castle - up on - Ty ne ; ▁guitar / v oc als ), ▁David ▁' T aff y ' ▁Hughes ▁( b . ▁ 1 6 ▁March ▁ 1 9 6 1 , ▁South mo or , ▁North umber land ; ▁guitar / v oc als ), ▁David ▁P orth ouse ▁( b . ▁ 1 7 ▁August ▁ 1 9 6 1 , ▁G ates head ; ( b ass ), ▁and ▁Mark ▁Sim ▁( dr ums ). ▁Sim ▁was ▁soon ▁replaced ▁by ▁Dam ien ▁Mah oney . ▁ ▁When ▁Mah oney ▁left ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁to ▁join ▁the ▁police ▁force , ▁after ▁exhaust ive ▁aud itions , ▁the ▁band ▁eventually ▁recru ited ▁Steve ▁Price ▁( b . ▁ 2 7 ▁June ▁ 1 9 6 5 , ▁New port ; ▁drums ) ▁as ▁a ▁permanent ▁replacement ▁drum mer . ▁Ad rian ▁Evans ▁( b . ▁ 6 ▁March ▁ 1 9 6 3 , ▁County ▁Dur ham , ▁England ) ▁became ▁the ▁band ' s ▁fourth ▁drum mer ▁when ▁Steve ▁Price ▁left ▁the ▁band ▁and ▁em igr ated
▁to ▁America . ▁ ▁Re le ases ▁Hur rah ! ▁were ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁acts ▁signed ▁to ▁Kitchen ware ▁Records , ▁who ▁issued ▁the ▁band ' s ▁debut ▁single , ▁" The ▁Sun ▁Sh ines ▁Here ", ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 . ▁Second ▁single ▁" H ip ▁H ip " ▁was ▁released ▁the ▁following ▁year , ▁and ▁gave ▁the ▁band ▁an ▁ind ie ▁chart ▁hit , ▁reaching ▁No . ▁ 2 1 . ▁ ▁The ▁third ▁single , ▁" Who ' d ▁Have ▁Thought ," ▁was ▁another ▁ind ie ▁hit ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁reaching ▁No . ▁ 7 ▁on ▁the ▁British ▁charts . ▁After ▁one ▁more ▁single , ▁" Gl oria " ▁– ▁produced ▁by ▁Jimmy ▁Miller , ▁the ▁band ' s ▁early ▁record ings ▁were ▁compiled ▁on ▁the ▁Box ed ▁album ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 5 . ▁ ▁Hur rah ! ▁signed ▁to ▁Ar ista ▁Records ▁via ▁Kitchen ware ' s ▁deal ▁with ▁the ▁major ▁label , ▁and ▁the ▁Tell ▁God ▁I ' m ▁Here ▁album ▁was ▁re - re leased ▁by ▁the ▁record ▁company . ▁On ▁Ar ista ' s ▁release , ▁the ▁future ▁single ▁" How ▁Many ▁Rivers " ▁was ▁re - record ed ▁with ▁new ▁drum mer ▁Steve ▁Price , ▁and ▁produced ▁by ▁Steve ▁Brown . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁Hur rah ! ▁released ▁their ▁first ▁major - label ▁album ▁and ▁the ▁single , ▁" S weet ▁San ity ," ▁in ▁the ▁UK ▁and ▁the ▁US .
▁The ▁video ▁for ▁the ▁song , ▁which ▁featured ▁two ▁women ▁holding ▁hands , ▁was ▁banned ▁from ▁some ▁American ▁television ▁stations ▁for ▁being ▁too ▁controversial . ▁ ▁Hur rah ' s ▁major ▁label ▁debut ▁album , ▁Tell ▁God ▁I ' m ▁Here , ▁reached ▁No . ▁ 7 1 ▁in ▁the ▁UK ▁Albums ▁Chart ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 7 . ▁Tow ards ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁ 1 9 8 7 , ▁a ▁live ▁album , ▁Way ▁A head , ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁the ▁Es ur ient ▁label . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 9 , ▁the ▁band ▁released ▁their ▁second ▁major - label ▁album , ▁The ▁Beautiful , ▁produced ▁by ▁Simon ▁Han h art ▁and ▁Chris ▁Kim sey . ▁The ▁tracks ▁were ▁primarily ▁recorded ▁over ▁six ▁weeks ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁at ▁Ridge ▁Farm , ▁a ▁pictures que ▁residential ▁recording ▁studio ▁in ▁Sur rey , ▁England . ▁The ▁only ▁single ▁from ▁this ▁album ▁was ▁" Big ▁Sky ." ▁ ▁Ar ista ▁released ▁Hur rah ! ▁from ▁their ▁record ▁contract ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 9 . ▁Steve ▁Price ▁left ▁the ▁band ▁in ▁mid - 1 9 9 0 ▁to ▁move ▁to ▁America , ▁and ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁band ▁split ▁up ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁after ▁releasing ▁their ▁last ▁single ▁" That ▁dream ' s ▁over ▁now ". ▁A ▁ret ros pective ▁album ▁of ▁dem os ▁and ▁live ▁tracks , ▁The ▁Sound ▁of ▁Philadelphia , ▁was ▁issued ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 . ▁During ▁the ▁interven
ing ▁years ▁there ▁was ▁much ▁talk ▁of ▁an ▁unre leased ▁' l ost ▁album ' ▁of ▁record ings ▁made ▁just ▁before ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁split . ▁This ▁album ▁was ▁rum oured ▁to ▁feature ▁previously ▁unre leased ▁material ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁developed ▁in ▁the ▁band ' s ▁latter ▁day ▁live ▁sets . ▁Sus pic ions ▁of ▁this ▁album ' s ▁existence ▁proved ▁to ▁be ▁well ▁founded ▁with ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁The ▁return ▁of ▁the ▁cool ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁on ▁the ▁Cher ry ▁Red ▁record ▁label . ▁ ▁T ours ▁The ▁band ▁were ▁invited ▁to ▁support ▁U 2 ▁at ▁W em ble y , ▁and ▁played ▁as ▁the ▁only ▁opening ▁act ▁on ▁the ▁first ▁few ▁dates ▁of ▁The ▁Joshua ▁Tree ▁tour ▁in ▁June ▁ 1 9 8 7 . ▁Later ▁that ▁summer , ▁Hur rah ! ▁played ▁at ▁a ▁music ▁festival ▁in ▁Germany , ▁supporting ▁David ▁B owie ▁on ▁the ▁Glass ▁Sp ider ▁tour . ▁ ▁Hur rah ! ▁tou red ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁during ▁October / N ovember ▁ 1 9 8 7 , ▁appearing ▁on ▁the ▁Co ors - s pons ored ▁" F our ▁Play " ▁tour ▁along ▁with ▁bands ▁Royal ▁Court ▁of ▁China , ▁Will ▁( S ext on ) ▁& ▁the ▁Kill ▁and ▁Northern ▁P ikes . ▁The ▁four ▁bands ▁rot ated ▁the ▁head line ▁slot , ▁and ▁played ▁free ▁shows ▁at ▁club ▁ven ues ▁and ▁colleges ▁in ▁most ▁major ▁met ro ▁areas ▁across ▁the ▁US . ▁ ▁In ▁
1 9 8 8 , ▁Hur rah ! ▁played ▁live ▁shows ▁in ▁Iraq , ▁Egypt ▁and ▁Jordan ▁after ▁accepting ▁an ▁invitation ▁from ▁the ▁British ▁Arts ▁Council . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁" western " ▁bands ▁to ▁play ▁in ▁the ▁Middle ▁East , ▁the ▁group ▁was ▁esc orted ▁by ▁armed ▁troops ▁for ▁the ▁duration ▁of ▁their ▁visit . ▁Public ity ▁materials ▁from ▁their ▁Arts ▁Council ▁tour ▁listed ▁the ▁album ' s ▁name ▁as ▁Tell ▁The m ▁I ' m ▁Here ▁to ▁avoid ▁off ending ▁the ▁host ▁countries . ▁ ▁Post ▁break - up ▁After ▁Hur rah ! , ▁David ▁' T aff y ' ▁Hughes ▁formed ▁Star ▁W itness , ▁later ▁called ▁C andy ▁Col oured ▁Cl own s , ▁and ▁released ▁a ▁c ass ette ▁of ▁rough ▁dem os ▁called ▁" W elcome ▁to ▁R azor ▁Town " ▁( 1 9 9 6 ). ▁Hughes ▁also ▁plays ▁guitar ▁with ▁The ▁Girl ▁with ▁the ▁Re place able ▁Head , ▁a ▁du o ▁formed ▁with ▁female ▁singer ▁Sylv ia . ▁ ▁Paul ▁Hand yside ▁has ▁since ▁released ▁two ▁albums ▁under ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁Bron ze . ▁His ▁first ▁solo ▁album , ▁Future ' s ▁Dream , ▁was ▁released ▁by ▁Mal ady ▁Music ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁Hand yside ' s ▁second ▁solo ▁album ▁Way ward ▁Son ▁was ▁released ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁also ▁on ▁Mal ady ▁Music . ▁ ▁As ▁well ▁as ▁contributing ▁drums , ▁mel ode on ▁and ▁backing ▁vocals ▁on ▁several ▁of ▁Paul ▁Hand yside ' s ▁post
- H ur rah ! ▁releases , ▁David ▁P orth ouse ▁trained ▁as ▁a ▁l uth ier , ▁producing ▁custom ▁built ▁instruments ▁and ▁special ising ▁in ▁lap ▁steel ▁gu it ars . ▁ ▁Disc ography ▁ ▁Albums ▁ ▁Box ed ▁( 1 9 8 5 , ▁Kitchen ware ) ▁ ▁Tell ▁God ▁I ' m ▁Here ▁( 1 9 8 7 , ▁Kitchen ware / Ar ista ) ▁( UK ▁Albums ▁Chart ▁No . ▁ 7 1 ) ▁ ▁Way ▁A head ▁( 1 9 8 7 , ▁Es ur iant ) ▁( UK ▁Ind ie ▁No . ▁ 2 9 ) ▁ ▁The ▁Beautiful ▁( 1 9 8 9 , ▁Kitchen ware / Ar ista ) ▁ ▁Sound ▁of ▁Philadelphia ▁( 1 9 9 3 , ▁C reation ▁Rev - O la ) ▁ ▁The ▁Return ▁of ▁the ▁Cool ▁( 2 0 1 0 ▁Cher ry ▁Red ) ▁ ▁Singles ▁" The ▁Sun ▁Sh ines ▁Here " ▁( 1 9 8 2 ) ▁Kitchen ware ▁" H ip ▁H ip " ▁( 1 9 8 3 ) ▁Kitchen ware ▁( UK ▁Ind ie ▁No . ▁ 2 1 ) ▁" Who ' d ▁Have ▁Thought " ▁( 1 9 8 4 ) ▁Kitchen ware ▁( UK ▁Ind ie ▁No . ▁ 7 ) ▁" Gl oria " ▁( 1 9 8 5 ) ▁Kitchen ware ▁( UK ▁Ind ie ▁No . ▁ 1 2 ) ▁" S weet ▁San ity " ▁( 1 9 8 6 ) ▁Kitchen ware / Ar ista
▁" If ▁Love ▁Could ▁Kill " ▁( 1 9 8 7 ) ▁Kitchen ware / Ar ista ▁" How ▁Many ▁Rivers ?" ▁( 1 9 8 7 ) ▁Kitchen ware / Ar ista ▁" S weet ▁San ity " ▁( 1 9 8 8 ) ▁Kitchen ware / Ar ista ▁" Big ▁Sky " ▁( 1 9 8 9 ) ▁Kitchen ware / Ar ista ▁" That ▁Dream ' s ▁Over ▁Now " ▁( 1 9 9 1 ) ▁Kitchen ware / Ar ista ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : English ▁pop ▁music ▁groups ▁Category : Mus ical ▁groups ▁dis est ab lished ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 <0x0A> </s> ▁C ator hin tha ▁selector ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁leaf - fo oted ▁bug ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Core idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁Caribbean ▁Sea , ▁Central ▁America , ▁North ▁America , ▁and ▁South ▁America . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : Core ini ▁Category : Art icles ▁created ▁by ▁Q bug bot ▁Category : In sect s ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 9 <0x0A> </s> ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁( also ▁known ▁as ▁magnet obre ms stra hl ung ▁radiation ) ▁is ▁the ▁elect romag netic ▁radiation ▁em itted ▁when ▁charged ▁particles ▁are ▁acceler ated ▁rad ially , ▁e . g ., ▁when ▁they ▁are ▁subject ▁to ▁an ▁acceler ation ▁per pend icular ▁to ▁their ▁velocity ▁( ). ▁It ▁is ▁produced , ▁for ▁example , ▁in ▁syn ch
ro tr ons ▁using ▁b ending ▁magn ets , ▁und ul ators ▁and / or ▁w ig gl ers . ▁If ▁the ▁particle ▁is ▁non - rel ativ istic , ▁then ▁the ▁emission ▁is ▁called ▁cycl ot ron ▁emission . ▁If , ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁the ▁particles ▁are ▁relativ istic , ▁sometimes ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁ ▁ul tr are lat iv istic , ▁the ▁emission ▁is ▁called ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁emission . ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁may ▁be ▁achieved ▁art ific ially ▁in ▁syn ch ro tr ons ▁or ▁storage ▁rings , ▁or ▁naturally ▁by ▁fast ▁elect rons ▁moving ▁through ▁magnetic ▁fields . ▁The ▁radiation ▁produced ▁in ▁this ▁way ▁has ▁a ▁characteristic ▁polar ization ▁and ▁the ▁frequencies ▁generated ▁can ▁range ▁over ▁the ▁entire ▁elect romag netic ▁spectrum ▁which ▁is ▁also ▁called ▁continu um ▁radiation . ▁ ▁History ▁S ync rad iation ▁was ▁named ▁after ▁it ▁was ▁discovered ▁in ▁Sche ne ct ady , ▁New ▁York ▁from ▁a ▁General ▁Electric ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁acceler ator ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁and ▁announced ▁in ▁May ▁ 1 9 4 7 ▁by ▁Frank ▁Eld er , ▁An at ole ▁G ure w itsch , ▁Robert ▁Lang mu ir ▁and ▁Her b ▁Poll ock ▁in ▁a ▁letter ▁entitled ▁" Rad iation ▁from ▁Elect rons ▁in ▁a ▁Syn ch ro tr on ". ▁Poll ock ▁rec ount s : ▁ ▁Properties ▁of ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁ ▁Broad ▁Spect rum ▁( which ▁covers ▁from ▁mic row
aves ▁to ▁hard ▁X - r ays ): ▁the ▁users ▁can ▁select ▁the ▁w avelength ▁required ▁for ▁their ▁experiment ; ▁ ▁High ▁Fl ux : ▁high ▁intensity ▁phot on ▁beam ▁allows ▁rapid ▁experiments ▁or ▁use ▁of ▁weak ly ▁scattering ▁cryst als ; ▁ ▁High ▁Br ill iance : ▁highly ▁coll imated ▁phot on ▁beam ▁generated ▁by ▁a ▁small ▁diver gence ▁and ▁small ▁size ▁source ▁( sp at ial ▁co her ence ); ▁ ▁High ▁St ability : ▁sub mic ron ▁source ▁stability ; ▁ ▁Pol ar ization : ▁both ▁linear ▁and ▁circular ; ▁ ▁P uls ed ▁Time ▁Str ucture : ▁puls ed ▁length ▁down ▁to ▁tens ▁of ▁pic ose cond s ▁allows ▁the ▁resolution ▁of ▁process ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁scale . ▁ ▁Em ission ▁mechanism ▁When ▁high - energy ▁particles ▁are ▁in ▁acceler ation , ▁including ▁elect rons ▁forced ▁to ▁travel ▁in ▁a ▁cur ved ▁path ▁by ▁a ▁magnetic ▁field , ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁is ▁produced . ▁This ▁is ▁similar ▁to ▁a ▁radio ▁anten na , ▁but ▁with ▁the ▁difference ▁that , ▁in ▁theory , ▁the ▁relativ istic ▁speed ▁will ▁change ▁the ▁observed ▁frequency ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁Dop pler ▁effect ▁by ▁the ▁L orent z ▁factor , ▁. ▁Rel ativ istic ▁length ▁contr action ▁then ▁b umps ▁the ▁frequency ▁observed ▁by ▁another ▁factor ▁of ▁, ▁thus ▁multip lying ▁the ▁G Hz ▁frequency ▁of ▁the ▁reson ant ▁c avity ▁that ▁acceler ates ▁the ▁elect rons ▁into ▁the ▁X - ray ▁range . ▁The ▁radi ated ▁power ▁is ▁given ▁by
▁the ▁relativ istic ▁L arm or ▁formula ▁while ▁the ▁force ▁on ▁the ▁em itting ▁electron ▁is ▁given ▁by ▁the ▁Abraham – L orent z – Dir ac ▁force . ▁ ▁The ▁radiation ▁pattern ▁can ▁be ▁dist orted ▁from ▁an ▁is ot ropic ▁dip ole ▁pattern ▁into ▁an ▁extremely ▁forward - point ing ▁cone ▁of ▁radiation . ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁is ▁the ▁bright est ▁artificial ▁source ▁of ▁X - r ays . ▁ ▁The ▁plan ar ▁acceler ation ▁geometry ▁appears ▁to ▁make ▁the ▁radiation ▁line arly ▁polar ized ▁when ▁observed ▁in ▁the ▁orb ital ▁plane , ▁and ▁circular ly ▁polar ized ▁when ▁observed ▁at ▁a ▁small ▁angle ▁to ▁that ▁plane . ▁Am plit ude ▁and ▁frequency ▁are ▁however ▁focused ▁to ▁the ▁polar ▁e cl ipt ic . ▁ ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁from ▁acceler ators ▁ ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁may ▁occur ▁in ▁acceler ators ▁either ▁as ▁a ▁nu is ance , ▁causing ▁und es ired ▁energy ▁loss ▁in ▁particle ▁physics ▁context s , ▁or ▁as ▁a ▁deliberately ▁produced ▁radiation ▁source ▁for ▁numerous ▁laboratory ▁applications . ▁Elect rons ▁are ▁acceler ated ▁to ▁high ▁speeds ▁in ▁several ▁stages ▁to ▁achieve ▁a ▁final ▁energy ▁that ▁is ▁typically ▁in ▁the ▁Ge V ▁range . ▁In ▁the ▁L HC ▁pro ton ▁b unches ▁also ▁produce ▁the ▁radiation ▁at ▁increasing ▁amplitude ▁and ▁frequency ▁as ▁they ▁acceler ate ▁with ▁respect ▁to ▁the ▁vacuum ▁field , ▁propag ating ▁photo elect rons , ▁which ▁in ▁turn ▁propag ate ▁secondary ▁elect rons ▁from ▁the ▁pipe ▁walls
▁with ▁increasing ▁frequency ▁and ▁density ▁up ▁to ▁ 7 × 1 0 1 0 . ▁Each ▁pro ton ▁may ▁lose ▁ 6 . 7 ▁ke V ▁per ▁turn ▁due ▁to ▁this ▁phenomenon . ▁ ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁in ▁astr onomy ▁ ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁is ▁also ▁generated ▁by ▁astronom ical ▁objects , ▁typically ▁where ▁relativ istic ▁elect rons ▁sp iral ▁( and ▁hence ▁change ▁velocity ) ▁through ▁magnetic ▁fields . ▁Two ▁of ▁its ▁characteristics ▁include ▁non - ther mal ▁power - law ▁spectra , ▁and ▁polar ization . ▁It ▁is ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁powerful ▁tools ▁in ▁the ▁study ▁of ▁extra - s olar ▁magnetic ▁fields ▁wherever ▁relativ istic ▁charged ▁particles ▁are ▁present . ▁Most ▁known ▁cos mic ▁radio ▁sources ▁emit ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation . ▁It ▁is ▁often ▁used ▁to ▁estimate ▁the ▁strength ▁of ▁large ▁cos mic ▁magnetic ▁fields ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁analyze ▁the ▁contents ▁of ▁the ▁inter stell ar ▁and ▁inter gal actic ▁media . ▁ ▁History ▁of ▁detection ▁It ▁was ▁first ▁detected ▁in ▁a ▁jet ▁em itted ▁by ▁Mess ier ▁ 8 7 ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 6 ▁by ▁Geoff rey ▁R . ▁B urb idge , ▁who ▁saw ▁it ▁as ▁confirmation ▁of ▁a ▁prediction ▁by ▁I os if ▁S . ▁Sh kl ov sky ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 3 , ▁but ▁it ▁had ▁been ▁predicted ▁earlier ▁by ▁Hann es ▁Alf v én ▁and ▁Nicol ai ▁Her lo f son ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 0 .
▁Solar ▁fl ares ▁acceler ate ▁particles ▁that ▁emit ▁in ▁this ▁way , ▁as ▁suggested ▁by ▁R . ▁Gi ovan elli ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁and ▁described ▁crit ically ▁by ▁J . H . ▁P idd ington ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 2 . ▁ ▁T . ▁K . ▁Bre us ▁noted ▁that ▁questions ▁of ▁priority ▁on ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁ast ro phys ical ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁are ▁complicated , ▁writing : ▁ ▁Super mass ive ▁black ▁holes ▁have ▁been ▁suggested ▁for ▁producing ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation , ▁by ▁e jection ▁of ▁j ets ▁produced ▁by ▁grav itation ally ▁acceler ating ▁ ions ▁through ▁the ▁super ▁cont orted ▁' t ub ular ' ▁polar ▁areas ▁of ▁magnetic ▁fields . ▁Such ▁j ets , ▁the ▁nearest ▁being ▁in ▁Mess ier ▁ 8 7 , ▁have ▁been ▁confirmed ▁by ▁the ▁H ubble ▁teles cope ▁as ▁apparently ▁super l um inal , ▁travelling ▁at ▁ ▁( six ▁times ▁the ▁speed ▁of ▁light ) ▁from ▁our ▁planet ary ▁frame . ▁This ▁phenomenon ▁is ▁caused ▁because ▁the ▁j ets ▁are ▁travelling ▁very ▁near ▁the ▁speed ▁of ▁light ▁and ▁at ▁a ▁very ▁small ▁angle ▁towards ▁the ▁observer . ▁Because ▁at ▁every ▁point ▁of ▁their ▁path ▁the ▁high - vel ocity ▁j ets ▁are ▁em itting ▁light , ▁the ▁light ▁they ▁emit ▁does ▁not ▁approach ▁the ▁observer ▁much ▁more ▁quickly ▁than ▁the ▁jet ▁itself . ▁Light ▁em itted ▁over ▁hundreds ▁of ▁years ▁of ▁travel ▁thus ▁arrives ▁at ▁the ▁observer ▁over ▁a ▁much ▁smaller ▁time
▁period ▁( ten ▁or ▁twenty ▁years ) ▁giving ▁the ▁illusion ▁of ▁faster ▁than ▁light ▁travel . ▁There ▁is ▁no ▁violation ▁of ▁special ▁rel ativity . ▁ ▁P uls ar ▁wind ▁ne b ula e ▁A ▁class ▁of ▁astronom ical ▁sources ▁where ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁emission ▁is ▁important ▁is ▁the ▁puls ar ▁wind ▁ne b ula e , ▁a . k . a . ▁pl er ions , ▁of ▁which ▁the ▁Cr ab ▁ne b ula ▁and ▁its ▁associated ▁puls ar ▁are ▁ar che ty pal . ▁P uls ed ▁emission ▁g amma - ray ▁radiation ▁from ▁the ▁Cr ab ▁has ▁recently ▁been ▁observed ▁up ▁to ▁ ≥ 2 5 Ge V , ▁probably ▁due ▁to ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁emission ▁by ▁elect rons ▁trapped ▁in ▁the ▁strong ▁magnetic ▁field ▁around ▁the ▁puls ar . ▁Pol ar ization ▁in ▁the ▁Cr ab ▁at ▁energies ▁from ▁ 0 . 1 ▁to ▁ 1 . 0 ▁Me V ▁illustr ates ▁a ▁typical ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation . ▁ ▁Inter stell ar ▁and ▁Inter gal actic ▁Media ▁Much ▁of ▁what ▁is ▁known ▁about ▁the ▁magnetic ▁environment ▁of ▁the ▁inter stell ar ▁medium ▁and ▁inter gal actic ▁medium ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁observations ▁of ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation . ▁Cos mic ▁ray ▁elect rons ▁moving ▁through ▁the ▁medium ▁interact ▁with ▁relativ istic ▁plasma ▁and ▁emit ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁which ▁is ▁detected ▁on ▁Earth . ▁The ▁properties ▁of ▁the ▁radiation ▁allow ▁astronom ers ▁to ▁make ▁in ferences ▁about ▁the
▁magnetic ▁field ▁strength ▁and ▁orientation ▁in ▁these ▁regions , ▁however ▁accurate ▁calculations ▁of ▁field ▁strength ▁cannot ▁be ▁made ▁without ▁knowing ▁the ▁relativ istic ▁electron ▁density . ▁ ▁Form ulation ▁ ▁L ién ard – W ie ch ert ▁Field ▁We ▁start ▁with ▁the ▁expressions ▁for ▁the ▁L ién ard – W ie ch ert ▁field ▁of ▁a ▁point ▁charge ▁of ▁mass ▁ ▁and ▁charge ▁: ▁ ▁where ▁, ▁and ▁ ▁, ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁unit ▁vector ▁between ▁the ▁observation ▁point ▁and ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁the ▁charge ▁at ▁the ▁ret arded ▁time , ▁and ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁ret arded ▁time . ▁ ▁In ▁equation ▁( ), ▁and ▁( ), ▁the ▁first ▁terms ▁for ▁B ▁and ▁E ▁resulting ▁from ▁the ▁particle ▁fall ▁off ▁as ▁the ▁inverse ▁square ▁of ▁the ▁distance ▁from ▁the ▁particle , ▁and ▁this ▁first ▁term ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁general ized ▁C oul omb ▁field ▁or ▁velocity ▁field . ▁These ▁terms ▁represents ▁the ▁particle ▁static ▁field ▁effect , ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁function ▁of ▁the ▁component ▁of ▁its ▁motion ▁that ▁has ▁zero ▁or ▁constant ▁velocity , ▁as ▁seen ▁by ▁a ▁distant ▁observer ▁at ▁r . ▁By ▁contrast , ▁the ▁second ▁terms ▁fall ▁off ▁as ▁the ▁inverse ▁first ▁power ▁of ▁the ▁distance ▁from ▁the ▁source , ▁and ▁these ▁second ▁terms ▁are ▁called ▁the ▁acceler ation ▁field ▁or ▁radiation ▁field ▁because ▁they ▁represent ▁components ▁of ▁field ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁charge ' s ▁acceler ation ▁( changing ▁velocity ), ▁and ▁they ▁represent ▁E ▁and ▁B ▁which ▁are ▁em itted ▁as ▁elect romag netic ▁radiation ▁from ▁the ▁particle
▁to ▁an ▁observer ▁at ▁r . ▁ ▁If ▁we ▁ignore ▁the ▁velocity ▁field ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁find ▁the ▁power ▁of ▁em itted ▁EM ▁radiation ▁only , ▁the ▁radial ▁component ▁of ▁P oy nt ing ' s ▁vector ▁resulting ▁from ▁the ▁L ién ard – W ie ch ert ▁fields ▁can ▁be ▁calculated ▁to ▁be ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁ ▁The ▁spatial ▁relationship ▁between ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁determines ▁the ▁detailed ▁angular ▁power ▁distribution . ▁The ▁relativ istic ▁effect ▁of ▁transform ing ▁from ▁the ▁rest ▁frame ▁of ▁the ▁particle ▁to ▁the ▁observer ' s ▁frame ▁manif ests ▁itself ▁by ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁the ▁factors ▁ ▁in ▁the ▁denom inator ▁of ▁Eq . ▁( ). ▁For ▁ul tr are lat iv istic ▁particles ▁the ▁latter ▁effect ▁domin ates ▁the ▁whole ▁angular ▁distribution . ▁ ▁The ▁energy ▁radi ated ▁into ▁per ▁solid ▁angle ▁during ▁a ▁finite ▁period ▁of ▁acceler ation ▁from ▁ ▁to ▁ ▁is ▁ ▁Integr ating ▁Eq . ▁() ▁over ▁the ▁all ▁solid ▁angles , ▁we ▁get ▁the ▁relativ istic ▁general ization ▁of ▁L arm or ' s ▁formula ▁ ▁\| ▁ ▁However , ▁this ▁also ▁can ▁be ▁derived ▁by ▁relativ istic ▁transformation ▁of ▁the ▁ 4 - ac cel er ation ▁in ▁L arm or ' s ▁formula . ▁ ▁Vel ocity ▁per pend icular ▁to ▁acceler ation ▁( v ▁ <0xE2> <0x9F> <0x82> ▁a ): ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁ ▁When ▁the ▁charge ▁is ▁in ▁instant aneous ▁circular ▁motion , ▁its ▁acceler ation ▁ ▁is ▁per pend icular ▁to ▁its ▁velocity ▁.
▁Cho osing ▁a ▁coordinate ▁system ▁such ▁that ▁instant ane ously ▁ ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁ ▁direction ▁and ▁ ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁ ▁direction , ▁with ▁the ▁polar ▁and ▁az im uth ▁angles ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁defining ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁observation , ▁the ▁general ▁formula ▁Eq . ▁() ▁reduces ▁to ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁relativ istic ▁limit ▁, ▁the ▁angular ▁distribution ▁can ▁be ▁written ▁approximately ▁as ▁ ▁The ▁factors ▁ ▁in ▁the ▁denomin ators ▁tip ▁the ▁angular ▁distribution ▁forward ▁into ▁a ▁narrow ▁cone ▁like ▁the ▁beam ▁of ▁a ▁head light ▁pointing ▁ahead ▁of ▁the ▁particle . ▁A ▁plot ▁of ▁the ▁angular ▁distribution ▁( ▁vs . ▁) ▁shows ▁a ▁sharp ▁peak ▁around ▁. ▁ ▁If ▁we ▁neglect ▁any ▁electric ▁force ▁on ▁the ▁particle , ▁the ▁total ▁power ▁radi ated ▁( over ▁all ▁solid ▁angle ) ▁from ▁Eq . ▁() ▁is ▁ ▁where ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁particle ' s ▁total ▁( kin etic ▁plus ▁rest ) ▁energy , ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁magnetic ▁field , ▁and ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁radius ▁of ▁curv ature ▁of ▁the ▁track ▁in ▁the ▁field . ▁Note ▁that ▁the ▁radi ated ▁power ▁is ▁proport ional ▁to ▁, ▁, ▁and ▁. ▁In ▁some ▁cases ▁the ▁surfaces ▁of ▁vacuum ▁ch ambers ▁hit ▁by ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁have ▁to ▁be ▁cool ed ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁high ▁power ▁of ▁the ▁radiation . ▁ ▁Using ▁ ▁where ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁angle ▁between ▁the ▁velocity ▁and ▁the ▁magnetic ▁field ▁and ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁radius ▁of ▁the ▁circular ▁acceler ation , ▁the ▁power ▁em itted ▁is : ▁
▁Thus ▁the ▁power ▁em itted ▁scales ▁as ▁energy ▁to ▁the ▁fourth , ▁and ▁decre ases ▁with ▁the ▁square ▁of ▁the ▁radius ▁and ▁the ▁fourth ▁power ▁of ▁particle ▁mass . ▁This ▁radiation ▁is ▁what ▁limits ▁the ▁energy ▁of ▁an ▁electron - pos it ron ▁circular ▁coll ider . ▁Gener ally , ▁pro ton - pro ton ▁coll iders ▁are ▁instead ▁limited ▁by ▁the ▁maximum ▁magnetic ▁field ; ▁this ▁is ▁why , ▁for ▁example , ▁the ▁L HC ▁has ▁a ▁center - of - mass ▁energy ▁ 7 0 ▁times ▁higher ▁than ▁the ▁L EP ▁even ▁though ▁the ▁pro ton ▁mass ▁is ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁times ▁the ▁electron ▁mass . ▁ ▁Rad iation ▁integral ▁The ▁energy ▁received ▁by ▁an ▁observer ▁( per ▁unit ▁solid ▁angle ▁at ▁the ▁source ) ▁is ▁ ▁Using ▁the ▁Fou rier ▁transformation ▁we ▁move ▁to ▁the ▁frequency ▁space ▁ ▁Ang ular ▁and ▁frequency ▁distribution ▁of ▁the ▁energy ▁received ▁by ▁an ▁observer ▁( cons ider ▁only ▁the ▁radiation ▁field ) ▁ ▁Therefore , ▁if ▁we ▁know ▁the ▁particle ' s ▁motion , ▁cross ▁products ▁term , ▁and ▁phase ▁factor , ▁we ▁could ▁calculate ▁the ▁radiation ▁integral . ▁However , ▁calculations ▁are ▁generally ▁quite ▁length y ▁( even ▁for ▁simple ▁cases ▁as ▁for ▁the ▁radiation ▁em itted ▁by ▁an ▁electron ▁in ▁a ▁b ending ▁magnet , ▁they ▁require ▁Air y ▁function ▁or ▁the ▁modified ▁B ess el ▁functions ). ▁ ▁Example ▁ 1 : ▁b ending ▁magnet ▁ ▁Integr ating ▁ ▁Tra ject ory ▁of ▁the ▁arc ▁of ▁circum ference ▁is
▁ ▁In ▁the ▁limit ▁of ▁small ▁angles ▁we ▁compute ▁ ▁Sub st itut ing ▁into ▁the ▁radiation ▁integral ▁and ▁introducing ▁ ▁where ▁the ▁function ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁modified ▁B ess el ▁function ▁of ▁the ▁second ▁kind . ▁ ▁F requency ▁distribution ▁of ▁radi ated ▁energy ▁ ▁From ▁Eq . ▁( ), ▁we ▁observe ▁that ▁the ▁radiation ▁intensity ▁is ▁negl igible ▁for ▁. ▁Crit ical ▁frequency ▁is ▁defined ▁as ▁the ▁frequency ▁when ▁ ▁and ▁. ▁So , ▁ ▁and ▁critical ▁angle ▁is ▁defined ▁as ▁the ▁angle ▁for ▁which ▁ ▁and ▁is ▁approximately ▁ ▁For ▁frequencies ▁much ▁larger ▁than ▁the ▁critical ▁frequency ▁and ▁angles ▁much ▁larger ▁than ▁the ▁critical ▁angle , ▁the ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁emission ▁is ▁negl igible . ▁ ▁Integr ating ▁on ▁all ▁angles , ▁we ▁get ▁the ▁frequency ▁distribution ▁of ▁the ▁energy ▁radi ated . ▁ ▁If ▁we ▁define ▁▁▁▁ ▁where ▁. ▁Then ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁, ▁if ▁, ▁and ▁, ▁if ▁▁ ▁The ▁formula ▁for ▁spectral ▁distribution ▁of ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation , ▁given ▁above , ▁can ▁be ▁expressed ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁a ▁rapidly ▁conver ging ▁integral ▁with ▁no ▁special ▁functions ▁involved ▁( see ▁also ▁modified ▁B ess el ▁functions ▁) ▁by ▁means ▁of ▁the ▁relation : ▁ ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁emission ▁as ▁a ▁function ▁of ▁the ▁beam ▁energy ▁ ▁First , ▁define ▁the ▁critical ▁phot on ▁energy ▁as ▁ ▁Then , ▁the ▁relationship ▁between ▁radi ated ▁power ▁and ▁phot on ▁energy ▁is ▁shown ▁in ▁the ▁graph ▁on ▁the ▁right ▁side . ▁The
▁higher ▁the ▁critical ▁energy , ▁the ▁more ▁phot ons ▁with ▁high ▁energies ▁are ▁generated . ▁Note ▁that , ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁dependence ▁on ▁the ▁energy ▁at ▁longer ▁w avelength . ▁ ▁Pol ar ization ▁of ▁syn ch ro tr on ▁radiation ▁In ▁Eq . ▁( ), ▁the ▁first ▁term ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁radiation ▁power ▁with ▁polar ization ▁in ▁the ▁orbit ▁plane , ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁term ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁polar ization ▁orth og onal ▁to ▁the ▁orbit ▁plane . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁orbit ▁plane ▁, ▁the ▁polar ization ▁is ▁purely ▁horizontal . ▁Integr ating ▁on ▁all ▁frequencies , ▁we ▁get ▁the ▁angular ▁distribution ▁of ▁the ▁energy ▁radi ated ▁ ▁Integr ating ▁on ▁all ▁the ▁angles , ▁we ▁find ▁that ▁seven ▁times ▁as ▁much ▁energy ▁is ▁radi ated ▁with ▁parallel ▁polar ization ▁as ▁with ▁per pend icular ▁polar ization . ▁The ▁radiation ▁from ▁a ▁relativ istically ▁moving ▁charge ▁is ▁very ▁strongly , ▁but ▁not ▁completely , ▁polar ized ▁in ▁the ▁plane ▁of ▁motion . ▁ ▁Example ▁ 2 : ▁und ulator ▁ ▁Solution ▁of ▁equation ▁of ▁motion ▁and ▁und ulator ▁equation ▁ ▁An ▁und ulator ▁consists ▁of ▁a ▁periodic ▁array ▁of ▁magn ets , ▁so ▁that ▁they ▁provide ▁a ▁sin us oid al ▁magnetic ▁field . ▁ ▁Solution ▁of ▁equation ▁of ▁motion ▁is ▁ ▁where ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁parameter ▁ ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁und ulator ▁parameter . ▁ ▁Condition ▁for ▁the ▁construct ive ▁interference ▁of ▁radiation ▁em itted ▁at ▁different ▁pol es ▁is ▁ ▁Exp and ing ▁ ▁and ▁neglect ing ▁the
▁terms ▁ ▁in ▁the ▁resulting ▁equation , ▁one ▁obt ains ▁ ▁For ▁, ▁one ▁finally ▁gets ▁ ▁This ▁equation ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁und ulator ▁equation . ▁ ▁Rad iation ▁from ▁the ▁und ulator ▁Rad iation ▁integral ▁is ▁ ▁Using ▁the ▁periodic ity ▁of ▁the ▁traject ory , ▁we ▁can ▁split ▁the ▁radiation ▁integral ▁into ▁a ▁sum ▁over ▁ ▁terms , ▁where ▁▁ ▁is ▁the ▁total ▁number ▁of ▁b ending ▁magn ets ▁of ▁the ▁und ulator . ▁ ▁where ▁ 　 ▁ ▁, ▁and ▁, 　 , 　 and 　 ▁▁▁▁ ▁The ▁radiation ▁integral ▁in ▁an ▁und ulator ▁can ▁be ▁written ▁as ▁ ▁where ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁frequency ▁difference ▁to ▁the ▁n - th ▁harm onic . ▁The ▁sum ▁of ▁ ▁generates ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁sharp ▁peaks ▁in ▁the ▁frequency ▁spectrum ▁harmon ics ▁of ▁fundamental ▁w avelength ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁depends ▁on ▁the ▁angles ▁of ▁observations ▁and ▁▁ ▁On ▁the ▁axis ▁( ), ▁the ▁radiation ▁integral ▁becomes ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁where ▁▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁only ▁odd ▁harmon ics ▁are ▁radi ated ▁on - axis , ▁and ▁as ▁ ▁increases ▁higher ▁harm onic ▁becomes ▁stronger . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Bre ms stra hl ung ▁Cycl ot ron ▁turn over ▁Free - elect ron ▁laser ▁Rad iation ▁reaction ▁Rel ativ istic ▁be aming ▁S ok ol ov – T ern ov ▁effect ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁Bra u , ▁Charles ▁A . ▁Modern ▁Pro ble ms ▁in ▁Class ical ▁Elect rod ynamics . ▁Oxford ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 0 4 . ▁. ▁Jackson
, ▁John ▁David . ▁Class ical ▁Elect rod ynamics . ▁John ▁W iley ▁& ▁S ons , ▁ 1 9 9 9 . ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Cos mic ▁Mag net obre ms stra hl ung ▁( syn ch ro tr on ▁Rad iation ), ▁by ▁G inz burg , ▁V . ▁L ., ▁Sy rov at sk ii , ▁S . ▁I ., ▁AR AA , ▁ 1 9 6 5 ▁Develop ments ▁in ▁the ▁Theory ▁of ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁Rad iation ▁and ▁its ▁Re abs or ption , ▁by ▁G inz burg , ▁V . ▁L ., ▁Sy rov at sk ii , ▁S . ▁I ., ▁AR AA , ▁ 1 9 6 9 ▁L ights ources . org ▁Bio Sync ▁– ▁a ▁structural ▁bi ologist ' s ▁resource ▁for ▁high ▁energy ▁data ▁collection ▁facilities ▁X - Ray ▁Data ▁Book let ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Part icle ▁physics ▁Category : S yn ch ro tr on - related ▁techniques ▁Category : E lect romag netic ▁radiation ▁Category : Exper imental ▁particle ▁physics <0x0A> </s> ▁K ops ia ▁l ar ut ensis ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁plant ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Ap oc yn aceae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Pen ins ular ▁Malaysia , ▁Bor neo ▁and ▁Thailand . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁l ar ut ensis ▁Category : Data ▁def icient ▁plants ▁Category : Fl ora ▁of ▁Pen ins ular ▁Malaysia ▁Category : Fl ora ▁of ▁Sar aw ak ▁Category : Fl ora ▁of ▁Thailand ▁Category : Pl ants
▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 8 ▁Category : Tax onomy ▁articles ▁created ▁by ▁Pol bot <0x0A> </s> ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁large ▁se ab ird s ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Di om ede idae . ▁They ▁are ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁pro cell ari ids , ▁storm ▁pet rel s , ▁and ▁d iving ▁pet rel s ▁in ▁the ▁order ▁Pro cell ari iform es ▁( the ▁tub en oses ). ▁They ▁range ▁widely ▁in ▁the ▁Southern ▁Ocean ▁and ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific . ▁They ▁are ▁absent ▁from ▁the ▁North ▁Atlantic , ▁although ▁foss il ▁remains ▁show ▁they ▁once ▁occurred ▁there ▁and ▁occasional ▁v agr ants ▁are ▁found . ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁among ▁the ▁largest ▁of ▁flying ▁birds , ▁and ▁species ▁of ▁the ▁genus ▁Di om ede a ▁( g reat ▁al bat ross es ) ▁have ▁the ▁longest ▁wings p ans ▁of ▁any ▁ext ant ▁birds , ▁reaching ▁up ▁to ▁. ▁The ▁al bat ross es ▁are ▁usually ▁regarded ▁as ▁falling ▁into ▁four ▁gener a , ▁but ▁disag reement ▁exists ▁over ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁species . ▁ ▁They ▁feed ▁on ▁squ id , ▁fish , ▁and ▁kr ill ▁by ▁either ▁sc av eng ing , ▁surface ▁se izing , ▁or ▁d iving . ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁colonial , ▁nest ing ▁for ▁the ▁most ▁part ▁on ▁remote ▁ocean ic ▁islands , ▁often ▁with ▁several ▁species ▁nest ing ▁together . ▁P air ▁bonds ▁between ▁males ▁and ▁females ▁form ▁over ▁several ▁years , ▁with ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁" rit ual ised ▁d
ances ", ▁and ▁ ▁last ▁for ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁the ▁pair . ▁A ▁breed ing ▁season ▁can ▁take ▁over ▁a ▁year ▁from ▁laying ▁to ▁fled ging , ▁with ▁a ▁single ▁egg ▁laid ▁in ▁each ▁breed ing ▁attempt . ▁A ▁L ays an ▁al bat ross , ▁named ▁Wis dom , ▁on ▁Mid way ▁Island ▁is ▁recognised ▁as ▁the ▁oldest ▁wild ▁bird ▁in ▁the ▁world ; ▁she ▁was ▁first ▁band ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 6 ▁by ▁Chand ler ▁Rob b ins . ▁ ▁Of ▁the ▁ 2 2 ▁species ▁of ▁al bat ross es ▁recognised ▁by ▁the ▁I U CN , ▁all ▁are ▁listed ▁as ▁at ▁some ▁level ▁of ▁concern ; ▁three ▁species ▁are ▁crit ically ▁end ang ered , ▁five ▁species ▁are ▁end ang ered , ▁seven ▁species ▁are ▁near ▁threatened , ▁and ▁seven ▁species ▁are ▁vulnerable . ▁Num bers ▁of ▁al bat ross es ▁have ▁declined ▁in ▁the ▁past ▁due ▁to ▁harvest ing ▁for ▁fe athers . ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁threatened ▁by ▁introduced ▁species , ▁such ▁as ▁r ats ▁and ▁fer al ▁cats ▁that ▁attack ▁eggs , ▁ch icks , ▁and ▁nest ing ▁adults ; ▁by ▁pollution ; ▁by ▁a ▁serious ▁decline ▁in ▁fish ▁stocks ▁in ▁many ▁regions ▁largely ▁due ▁to ▁over f ishing ; ▁and ▁by ▁long line ▁fishing . ▁Long line ▁fisher ies ▁pose ▁the ▁greatest ▁threat , ▁as ▁feeding ▁birds ▁are ▁attracted ▁to ▁the ▁b ait , ▁become ▁hook ed ▁on ▁the ▁lines , ▁and ▁d rown . ▁Ident ified ▁stake holders ▁such ▁as ▁governments
, ▁conservation ▁organisations , ▁and ▁people ▁in ▁the ▁fishing ▁industry ▁are ▁all ▁working ▁toward ▁reducing ▁this ▁by catch . ▁ ▁Science ▁ ▁Tax onomy ▁and ▁evolution ▁ ▁The ▁" al bat ross " ▁design ation ▁compris es ▁between ▁ 1 3 ▁and ▁ 2 4 ▁species ▁( the ▁number ▁is ▁still ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁some ▁debate , ▁ 2 1 ▁being ▁the ▁most ▁commonly ▁accepted ▁number ) ▁in ▁four ▁gener a . ▁These ▁gener a ▁are ▁the ▁great ▁al bat ross es ▁( Di om ede a ), ▁the ▁mol ly ma w ks ▁( Th al ass ar che ), ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es ▁( P ho eb ast ria ), ▁and ▁the ▁so ot y ▁al bat ross es ▁or ▁so ot ies ▁( P ho eb et ria ). ▁The ▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es ▁are ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁sister ▁tax on ▁to ▁the ▁great ▁al bat ross es , ▁while ▁the ▁so ot y ▁al bat ross es ▁are ▁considered ▁closer ▁to ▁the ▁mol ly ma w ks . ▁ ▁The ▁tax onomy ▁of ▁the ▁al bat ross ▁group ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁source ▁of ▁much ▁debate . ▁The ▁S ible y - A hl qu ist ▁tax onomy ▁places ▁se ab ird s , ▁birds ▁of ▁prey , ▁and ▁many ▁others ▁in ▁a ▁greatly ▁en larg ed ▁order , ▁the ▁C icon i iform es , ▁whereas ▁the ▁or n ith ological ▁organisations ▁in ▁North ▁America , ▁Europe , ▁South ▁Africa , ▁Australia ,
▁and ▁New ▁Zealand ▁retain ▁the ▁more ▁traditional ▁order ▁Pro cell ari iform es . ▁The ▁al bat ross es ▁can ▁be ▁separated ▁from ▁the ▁other ▁Pro cell ari iform es ▁both ▁gen et ically ▁and ▁through ▁morph ological ▁characteristics , ▁size , ▁their ▁legs , ▁and ▁the ▁arrangement ▁of ▁their ▁nas al ▁tub es ▁( see ▁below : ▁Mor ph ology ▁and ▁flight ). ▁ ▁Within ▁the ▁family , ▁the ▁assignment ▁of ▁gener a ▁has ▁been ▁deb ated ▁for ▁over ▁ 1 0 0 ▁years . ▁Origin ally ▁placed ▁into ▁a ▁single ▁genus , ▁Di om ede a , ▁they ▁were ▁re arr anged ▁by ▁Re ichen bach ▁into ▁four ▁different ▁gener a ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 2 , ▁then ▁l umped ▁back ▁together ▁and ▁split ▁apart ▁again ▁several ▁times , ▁acqu iring ▁ 1 2 ▁different ▁genus ▁names ▁in ▁total ▁( though ▁never ▁more ▁than ▁eight ▁at ▁one ▁time ) ▁by ▁ 1 9 6 5 ▁( Di om ede a , ▁Ph o eb ast ria , ▁Th al ass ar che , ▁Ph o eb et ria , ▁Th al ass ager on , ▁Di omed ella , ▁Ne al bat rus , ▁Rh oth onia , ▁Jul iet ata , ▁Gal ap ag orn is , ▁L ays an orn is , ▁and ▁P enth ire nia ). ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 9 6 5 , ▁in ▁an ▁attempt ▁to ▁bring ▁some ▁order ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁classification ▁of ▁al bat ross es , ▁they ▁were ▁l umped ▁into
▁two ▁gener a , ▁Ph o eb et ria ▁( the ▁so ot y ▁al bat ross es ▁which ▁most ▁closely ▁seemed ▁to ▁re semble ▁the ▁pro cell ar ids ▁and ▁were ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁considered ▁" prim itive " ▁) ▁and ▁Di om ede a ▁( the ▁rest ). ▁Though ▁a ▁case ▁was ▁made ▁for ▁the ▁simpl ification ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁( part icular ly ▁the ▁nom en cl ature ), ▁the ▁classification ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁morph ological ▁analysis ▁by ▁Ell i ott ▁Cou es ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 6 , ▁and ▁paid ▁little ▁attention ▁to ▁more ▁recent ▁studies ▁and ▁even ▁ignored ▁some ▁of ▁Cou es ' s ▁suggestions . ▁ ▁More ▁recent ▁research ▁by ▁Gary ▁N unn ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁Museum ▁of ▁Natural ▁History ▁( 1 9 9 6 ) ▁and ▁other ▁researchers ▁around ▁the ▁world ▁studied ▁the ▁mit och ond rial ▁DNA ▁of ▁all ▁ 1 4 ▁accepted ▁species , ▁finding ▁four , ▁not ▁two , ▁mon oph y let ic ▁groups ▁within ▁the ▁al bat ross es . ▁They ▁proposed ▁the ▁resur rection ▁of ▁two ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁genus ▁names , ▁Ph o eb ast ria ▁for ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es ▁and ▁Th al ass ar che ▁for ▁the ▁mol ly ma w ks , ▁with ▁the ▁great ▁al bat ross es ▁ret aining ▁Di om ede a ▁and ▁the ▁so ot y ▁al bat ross es ▁staying ▁in ▁Ph o eb et ria . ▁Both ▁the ▁British ▁Or n ith ologists ' ▁Union
▁and ▁the ▁South ▁African ▁authorities ▁split ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁into ▁four ▁gener a ▁as ▁N unn ▁suggested , ▁and ▁the ▁change ▁has ▁been ▁accepted ▁by ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁researchers . ▁ ▁While ▁some ▁agree ▁on ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁gener a , ▁fewer ▁agree ▁on ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁species . ▁Histor ically , ▁up ▁to ▁ 8 0 ▁different ▁tax a ▁have ▁been ▁described ▁by ▁different ▁researchers ; ▁most ▁of ▁these ▁were ▁incorrect ly ▁identified ▁ju ven ile ▁birds . ▁ ▁Based ▁on ▁the ▁work ▁on ▁al bat ross ▁gener a , ▁Roberts on ▁and ▁N unn ▁went ▁on ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁to ▁propose ▁a ▁rev ised ▁tax onomy ▁with ▁ 2 4 ▁different ▁species , ▁compared ▁to ▁the ▁ 1 4 ▁then ▁accepted . ▁This ▁expanded ▁tax onomy ▁elev ated ▁many ▁established ▁sub spec ies ▁to ▁full ▁species , ▁but ▁was ▁critic ised ▁for ▁not ▁using , ▁in ▁every ▁case , ▁peer ▁reviewed ▁information ▁to ▁justify ▁the ▁spl its . ▁Since ▁then , ▁further ▁studies ▁have ▁in ▁some ▁instances ▁supported ▁or ▁dis pro ved ▁the ▁spl its ; ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁paper ▁analys ing ▁the ▁mit och ond rial ▁DNA ▁and ▁mic ros at ell ites ▁agreed ▁with ▁the ▁conclusion ▁that ▁the ▁Ant ip ode an ▁al bat ross ▁and ▁the ▁Tr istan ▁al bat ross ▁were ▁distinct ▁from ▁the ▁wand ering ▁al bat ross , ▁per ▁Roberts on ▁and ▁N unn , ▁but ▁found ▁that ▁the ▁suggested ▁Gib son ' s ▁al bat ross
, ▁Di om ede a ▁g ib son i , ▁was ▁not ▁distinct ▁from ▁the ▁Ant ip ode an ▁al bat ross . ▁For ▁the ▁most ▁part , ▁an ▁inter im ▁tax onomy ▁of ▁ 2 1 ▁species ▁is ▁accepted ▁by ▁IT IS ▁and ▁many ▁other ▁researchers , ▁though ▁by ▁no ▁means ▁all — in ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁Pen hall ur ick ▁and ▁W ink ▁called ▁for ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁species ▁to ▁be ▁reduced ▁to ▁ 1 3 ▁( including ▁the ▁l ump ing ▁of ▁the ▁Amsterdam ▁al bat ross ▁with ▁the ▁wand ering ▁al bat ross ), ▁although ▁this ▁paper ▁was ▁itself ▁controversial . ▁On ▁all ▁sides ▁is ▁the ▁widespread ▁agreement ▁on ▁the ▁need ▁for ▁further ▁research ▁to ▁clar ify ▁the ▁issue . ▁ ▁S ible y ▁and ▁A hl qu ist ' s ▁molecular ▁study ▁of ▁the ▁evolution ▁of ▁the ▁bird ▁families ▁has ▁put ▁the ▁radiation ▁of ▁the ▁Pro cell ari iform es ▁in ▁the ▁O lig oc ene ▁period ▁ 3 5 – 3 0 ▁ ▁million ▁years ▁ago ▁( M ya ), ▁though ▁this ▁group ▁probably ▁origin ated ▁earlier , ▁with ▁a ▁foss il ▁sometimes ▁attributed ▁to ▁the ▁order , ▁a ▁se ab ird ▁known ▁as ▁T yt th ost ony x , ▁being ▁found ▁in ▁late ▁C ret ace ous ▁rocks ▁( 7 0 ▁My a ). ▁The ▁molecular ▁evidence ▁suggests ▁that ▁the ▁storm ▁pet rel s ▁were ▁the ▁first ▁to ▁diver ge ▁from ▁the ▁ancest ral ▁stock , ▁and ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁next
, ▁with ▁the ▁pro cell ar ids ▁and ▁d iving ▁pet rel s ▁separ ating ▁later . ▁The ▁earliest ▁foss il ▁al bat ross es ▁were ▁found ▁in ▁E oc ene ▁to ▁O lig oc ene ▁rocks , ▁although ▁some ▁of ▁these ▁are ▁only ▁tent atively ▁assigned ▁to ▁the ▁family ▁and ▁none ▁appear ▁to ▁be ▁particularly ▁close ▁to ▁the ▁living ▁forms . ▁They ▁are ▁Mur unk us ▁( M iddle ▁E oc ene ▁of ▁U zb ek istan ), ▁Man u ▁( ear ly ▁O lig oc ene ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand ), ▁and ▁an ▁und esc ribed ▁form ▁from ▁the ▁Late ▁O lig oc ene ▁of ▁South ▁Carolina . ▁The ▁oldest ▁widely ▁accepted ▁foss il ▁al bat ross ▁is ▁Ty de a ▁sept entr ional is ▁from ▁the ▁early ▁O lig oc ene ▁of ▁Belgium . ▁Di omed av us ▁kn ap pton ensis ▁is ▁smaller ▁than ▁all ▁ext ant ▁al bat ross es ▁and ▁was ▁found ▁in ▁late ▁O lig oc ene ▁str ata ▁of ▁Washington ▁State , ▁USA . ▁Plot orn is ▁was ▁formerly ▁often ▁considered ▁a ▁pet rel ▁but ▁is ▁now ▁accepted ▁as ▁an ▁al bat ross . ▁It ▁is ▁from ▁the ▁Middle ▁Mi oc ene ▁of ▁France , ▁a ▁time ▁when ▁the ▁split ▁between ▁the ▁four ▁modern ▁gener a ▁was ▁already ▁under way ▁as ▁ev id enced ▁by ▁Ph o eb ast ria ▁cal iforn ica ▁and ▁Di om ede a ▁mill eri , ▁both ▁being ▁mid - M ioc ene ▁species ▁from ▁Sh ark to oth ▁Hill ,
▁California . ▁These ▁show ▁that ▁the ▁split ▁between ▁the ▁great ▁al bat ross es ▁and ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es ▁occurred ▁by ▁ 1 5 ▁My a . ▁Similar ▁foss il ▁finds ▁in ▁the ▁Southern ▁Hem is phere ▁put ▁the ▁split ▁between ▁the ▁so ot ies ▁and ▁mol ly ma w ks ▁at ▁ 1 0 ▁My a . ▁The ▁foss il ▁record ▁of ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁in ▁the ▁Northern ▁Hem is phere ▁is ▁more ▁complete ▁than ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁Southern , ▁and ▁many ▁foss il ▁forms ▁of ▁al bat ross ▁have ▁been ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Atlantic , ▁which ▁today ▁has ▁no ▁al bat ross es . ▁The ▁remains ▁of ▁a ▁colony ▁of ▁short - t ailed ▁al bat ross es ▁have ▁been ▁un covered ▁on ▁the ▁island ▁of ▁B erm uda , ▁and ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁foss il ▁al bat ross es ▁from ▁the ▁North ▁Atlantic ▁have ▁been ▁of ▁the ▁genus ▁Ph o eb ast ria ▁( the ▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es ); ▁one , ▁Ph o eb ast ria ▁ang lica , ▁has ▁been ▁found ▁in ▁depos its ▁in ▁both ▁North ▁Carolina ▁and ▁England . ▁Due ▁to ▁conver gent ▁evolution ▁in ▁particular ▁of ▁the ▁leg ▁and ▁foot ▁bones , ▁remains ▁of ▁the ▁pre hist oric ▁pseud oto oth ▁birds ▁( P el ag orn ith idae ) ▁may ▁be ▁mistaken ▁for ▁those ▁of ▁ext inct ▁al bat ross es ; ▁Man u ▁may ▁be ▁such ▁a ▁case , ▁and ▁quite ▁certainly ▁the ▁supposed ▁giant
▁al bat ross ▁fem ur ▁from ▁the ▁Early ▁Ple ist oc ene ▁D ain ichi ▁Form ation ▁at ▁K ake g awa , ▁Japan , ▁actually ▁is ▁from ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁last ▁pseud oto oth ▁birds . ▁Ald i omed es ▁ang ust iro str is ▁was ▁a ▁uniqu ely ▁narrow - be aked ▁species ▁from ▁the ▁P li oc ene ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand . ▁The ▁articles ▁on ▁Di om ede a , ▁Ph o eb ast ria , ▁and ▁Th al ass ar che ▁contain ▁more ▁data ▁on ▁foss il ▁species ▁of ▁living ▁al bat ross ▁gener a . ▁ ▁Mor ph ology ▁and ▁flight ▁▁ ▁The ▁al bat ross es ▁are ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁large ▁to ▁very ▁large ▁birds ; ▁they ▁are ▁the ▁largest ▁of ▁the ▁Pro cell ari iform es . ▁The ▁bill ▁is ▁large , ▁strong , ▁and ▁sharp - ed ged , ▁with ▁the ▁upper ▁mand ible ▁term inating ▁in ▁a ▁large ▁hook . ▁This ▁bill ▁is ▁composed ▁of ▁several ▁horn y ▁plates , ▁and ▁along ▁the ▁sides ▁are ▁the ▁two ▁" t ub es ", ▁long ▁nost r ils ▁that ▁give ▁the ▁order ▁its ▁former ▁name . ▁The ▁tub es ▁of ▁all ▁al bat ross es ▁are ▁along ▁the ▁sides ▁of ▁the ▁bill , ▁unlike ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁Pro cell ari iform es , ▁where ▁the ▁tub es ▁run ▁along ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁bill . ▁These ▁tub es ▁allow ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁to ▁measure ▁the ▁exact ▁air speed ▁in ▁flight ; ▁the ▁nost
r ils ▁are ▁analog ous ▁to ▁the ▁pit ot ▁tub es ▁in ▁modern ▁aircraft . ▁The ▁al bat ross ▁needs ▁accurate ▁air speed ▁measurement ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁perform ▁dynamic ▁so aring . ▁Like ▁other ▁Pro cell ari iform es , ▁they ▁use ▁their ▁uniqu ely ▁developed ▁sense ▁of ▁smell ▁to ▁locate ▁potential ▁food ▁sources , ▁whereas ▁most ▁birds ▁depend ▁on ▁eyes ight . ▁The ▁feet ▁have ▁no ▁hind ▁toe ▁and ▁the ▁three ▁anterior ▁toes ▁are ▁completely ▁we bb ed . ▁The ▁legs ▁are ▁strong ▁for ▁Pro cell ari iform es , ▁making ▁them ▁and ▁the ▁giant ▁pet rel s ▁the ▁only ▁members ▁of ▁that ▁order ▁that ▁can ▁walk ▁well ▁on ▁land . ▁ ▁Al bat ross es , ▁along ▁with ▁all ▁Pro cell ari iform es , ▁must ▁ex crete ▁the ▁sal ts ▁they ▁ing est ▁in ▁drinking ▁sea ▁water ▁and ▁eating ▁marine ▁in ver te br ates . ▁All ▁birds ▁have ▁an ▁en larg ed ▁nas al ▁g land ▁at ▁the ▁base ▁of ▁the ▁bill , ▁above ▁their ▁eyes . ▁This ▁g land ▁is ▁in active ▁in ▁species ▁that ▁do ▁not ▁require ▁it , ▁but ▁in ▁the ▁Pro cell ari iform es , ▁it ▁acts ▁as ▁a ▁salt ▁g land . ▁Scient ists ▁are ▁uncertain ▁as ▁to ▁its ▁exact ▁processes , ▁but ▁do ▁know ▁in ▁general ▁terms ▁that ▁it ▁rem oves ▁salt ▁by ▁secre ting ▁a ▁ 5 % ▁sal ine ▁solution ▁that ▁dri ps ▁out ▁of ▁their ▁nos es ▁or ▁is ▁for c ibly ▁e ject ed . ▁ ▁The ▁adult
▁pl um age ▁of ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁is ▁usually ▁some ▁variation ▁of ▁dark ▁upper - wing ▁and ▁back ▁with ▁white ▁unders ides , ▁often ▁compared ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁g ull . ▁The ▁extent ▁of ▁colour ation ▁varies : ▁the ▁southern ▁royal ▁al bat ross ▁is ▁almost ▁completely ▁white ▁except ▁for ▁the ▁ends ▁and ▁trailing ▁edges ▁of ▁the ▁wings ▁in ▁fully ▁mature ▁males , ▁while ▁the ▁Amsterdam ▁al bat ross ▁has ▁an ▁almost ▁ju ven ile - like ▁breed ing ▁pl um age ▁with ▁a ▁great ▁deal ▁of ▁brown , ▁particularly ▁a ▁strong ▁brown ▁band ▁around ▁the ▁chest . ▁Several ▁species ▁of ▁mol ly ma w ks ▁and ▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es ▁have ▁face ▁mark ings ▁like ▁eye ▁patches ▁or ▁have ▁grey ▁or ▁yellow ▁on ▁the ▁head ▁and ▁n ape . ▁Three ▁al bat ross ▁species , ▁the ▁black - fo oted ▁al bat ross ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁so ot y ▁al bat ross es , ▁vary ▁completely ▁from ▁the ▁usual ▁patterns ▁and ▁are ▁almost ▁entirely ▁dark ▁brown ▁( or ▁dark ▁grey ▁in ▁places ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁the ▁light - m ant led ▁al bat ross ). ▁Al bat ross es ▁take ▁several ▁years ▁to ▁get ▁their ▁full ▁adult ▁breed ing ▁pl um age . ▁ ▁The ▁wings p ans ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁great ▁al bat ross es ▁( gen us ▁Di om ede a ) ▁are ▁the ▁largest ▁of ▁any ▁bird , ▁exceed ing ▁, ▁although ▁the ▁other ▁species ' ▁wings p ans ▁are ▁considerably
▁smaller ▁at , ▁down ▁to ▁. ▁The ▁wings ▁are ▁stiff ▁and ▁cam ber ed , ▁with ▁thick ened ▁stream lined ▁leading ▁edges . ▁Al bat ross es ▁travel ▁huge ▁distances ▁with ▁two ▁techniques ▁used ▁by ▁many ▁long - wing ed ▁se ab ird s : ▁dynamic ▁so aring ▁and ▁slope ▁so aring . ▁D ynamic ▁so aring ▁involves ▁repeatedly ▁rising ▁into ▁wind ▁and ▁desc ending ▁down wind , ▁thus ▁gaining ▁energy ▁from ▁the ▁vertical ▁wind ▁gradient . ▁The ▁only ▁effort ▁expend ed ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁turns ▁at ▁the ▁top ▁and ▁bottom ▁of ▁every ▁such ▁loop . ▁This ▁man eu ver ▁allows ▁the ▁bird ▁to ▁cover ▁almost ▁ 1 0 0 0 km / day ▁without ▁fl apping ▁its ▁wings . ▁S lope ▁so aring ▁uses ▁the ▁rising ▁air ▁on ▁the ▁wind ward ▁side ▁of ▁large ▁waves . ▁Al bat ross ▁have ▁high ▁gl ide ▁rat ios , ▁around ▁ 2 2 : 1 ▁to ▁ 2 3 : 1 , ▁meaning ▁that ▁for ▁every ▁met re ▁they ▁drop , ▁they ▁can ▁travel ▁forward ▁ 2 2 met res . ▁They ▁are ▁a ided ▁in ▁so aring ▁by ▁a ▁shoulder - lock , ▁a ▁sheet ▁of ▁tend on ▁that ▁locks ▁the ▁wing ▁when ▁fully ▁extended , ▁allowing ▁the ▁wing ▁to ▁be ▁kept ▁out stret ched ▁without ▁any ▁muscle ▁expend iture , ▁a ▁morph ological ▁adaptation ▁they ▁share ▁with ▁the ▁giant ▁pet rel s . ▁ ▁Al bat ross es ▁combine ▁these ▁so aring ▁techniques ▁with ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁predict able ▁weather ▁systems
: ▁al bat ross es ▁in ▁the ▁Southern ▁Hem is phere ▁flying ▁north ▁from ▁their ▁colon ies ▁take ▁a ▁clock wise ▁route , ▁and ▁those ▁flying ▁south ▁ ▁fly ▁counter clock wise . ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁so ▁well ▁adapted ▁to ▁this ▁lifestyle ▁that ▁their ▁heart ▁rates ▁while ▁flying ▁are ▁close ▁to ▁their ▁bas al ▁heart ▁rate ▁when ▁resting . ▁This ▁efficiency ▁is ▁such ▁that ▁the ▁most ▁energet ically ▁demanding ▁aspect ▁of ▁a ▁for aging ▁trip ▁is ▁not ▁the ▁distance ▁covered , ▁but ▁the ▁land ings , ▁take - offs ▁and ▁hunting ▁they ▁undert ake ▁having ▁found ▁a ▁food ▁source . ▁A ▁common ▁assumption ▁is ▁that ▁al bat ross es ▁must ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁sleep ▁in ▁flight , ▁although ▁no ▁direct ▁evidence ▁has ▁ever ▁been ▁obtained . ▁ ▁This ▁efficient ▁long - distance ▁travelling ▁under l ies ▁the ▁al bat ross ' s ▁success ▁as ▁a ▁long - distance ▁for ager , ▁covering ▁great ▁distances ▁and ▁ex pending ▁little ▁energy ▁looking ▁for ▁patch ily ▁distributed ▁food ▁sources . ▁Their ▁adaptation ▁to ▁gl iding ▁flight ▁makes ▁them ▁dependent ▁on ▁wind ▁and ▁waves , ▁but ▁their ▁long ▁wings ▁are ▁ill - su ited ▁to ▁powered ▁flight ▁and ▁most ▁species ▁lack ▁the ▁muscles ▁and ▁energy ▁to ▁undert ake ▁sustained ▁fl apping ▁flight . ▁Al bat ross es ▁in ▁calm ▁seas ▁rest ▁on ▁the ▁ocean ' s ▁surface ▁until ▁the ▁wind ▁picks ▁up ▁again , ▁as ▁using ▁powered ▁flight ▁is ▁not ▁energet ically ▁worth while ▁though ▁they ▁are ▁capable ▁of ▁flight ▁to ▁avoid ▁danger . ▁The
▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es ▁can ▁use ▁a ▁flight ▁style ▁known ▁as ▁fl ap - gl iding , ▁where ▁the ▁bird ▁progress es ▁by ▁burst s ▁of ▁fl apping ▁followed ▁by ▁gl iding . ▁When ▁taking ▁off , ▁al bat ross es ▁need ▁to ▁take ▁a ▁run ▁up ▁to ▁allow ▁enough ▁air ▁to ▁move ▁under ▁the ▁wing ▁to ▁provide ▁lift . ▁ ▁The ▁dynamic ▁so aring ▁of ▁al bat ross es ▁is ▁insp iring ▁to ▁air plane ▁designers : ▁German ▁a eros pace ▁engineer ▁Johannes ▁Tra ug ott ▁and ▁colleagues ▁have ▁chart ed ▁the ▁al bat ross ' s ▁nu anced ▁flight ▁pattern ▁and ▁are ▁looking ▁for ▁ways ▁to ▁apply ▁this ▁to ▁aircraft , ▁especially ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁dr ones ▁and ▁unm anned ▁aircraft . ▁ ▁Distribution ▁and ▁range ▁at ▁sea ▁▁ ▁Most ▁al bat ross es ▁range ▁in ▁the ▁Southern ▁Hem is phere ▁from ▁Ant ar ct ica ▁to ▁Australia , ▁South ▁Africa ▁and ▁South ▁America . ▁The ▁exceptions ▁to ▁this ▁are ▁the ▁four ▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es , ▁of ▁which ▁three ▁occur ▁exclusively ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific , ▁from ▁Hawaii ▁to ▁Japan , ▁California , ▁and ▁Alaska ; ▁and ▁one , ▁the ▁waved ▁al bat ross , ▁breed s ▁in ▁the ▁Gal á pag os ▁Islands ▁and ▁feed s ▁off ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁South ▁America . ▁The ▁need ▁for ▁wind ▁to ▁enable ▁gl iding ▁is ▁the ▁reason ▁al bat ross es ▁are ▁for ▁the ▁most ▁part ▁conf ined ▁to ▁higher ▁lat itudes : ▁being ▁un su ited
▁to ▁sustained ▁fl apping ▁flight ▁makes ▁crossing ▁the ▁d old rum s ▁extremely ▁difficult . ▁The ▁exception , ▁the ▁waved ▁al bat ross , ▁is ▁able ▁to ▁live ▁in ▁the ▁equ ator ial ▁waters ▁around ▁the ▁Gal á pag os ▁Islands ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁cool ▁waters ▁of ▁the ▁H umb old t ▁Current ▁and ▁the ▁resulting ▁winds . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁not ▁known ▁for ▁certain ▁why ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁became ▁ext inct ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Atlantic , ▁although ▁rising ▁sea ▁levels ▁due ▁to ▁an ▁inter gl ac ial ▁war ming ▁period ▁are ▁thought ▁to ▁have ▁sub mer ged ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁a ▁short - t ailed ▁al bat ross ▁colony ▁that ▁has ▁been ▁exc av ated ▁in ▁B erm uda . ▁Some ▁southern ▁species ▁have ▁occasionally ▁turned ▁up ▁as ▁v agr ants ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Atlantic ▁and ▁can ▁become ▁ex iled , ▁remaining ▁there ▁for ▁decades . ▁One ▁of ▁these ▁ex iles , ▁a ▁black - b row ed ▁al bat ross , ▁returned ▁to ▁g ann et ▁colon ies ▁in ▁Scotland ▁for ▁many ▁years ▁in ▁an ▁attempt ▁to ▁breed . ▁ ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁satellite ▁tracking ▁is ▁teaching ▁scientists ▁a ▁great ▁deal ▁about ▁the ▁way ▁al bat ross es ▁range ▁across ▁the ▁ocean ▁to ▁find ▁food . ▁They ▁undert ake ▁no ▁annual ▁migration , ▁but ▁dis per se ▁widely ▁after ▁breed ing — S ou thern ▁Hem is phere ▁species ▁often ▁undert ake ▁circ ump olar ▁trips . ▁Ev idence ▁also ▁exists ▁of ▁separate ▁ranges ▁for ▁different ▁species ▁at ▁sea
. ▁A ▁comparison ▁of ▁the ▁for aging ▁nic hes ▁of ▁two ▁related ▁species ▁that ▁breed ▁on ▁Campbell ▁Island , ▁the ▁Campbell ▁al bat ross ▁and ▁the ▁grey - headed ▁al bat ross , ▁showed ▁the ▁Campbell ▁al bat ross ▁primarily ▁fed ▁over ▁the ▁Campbell ▁Pl ate au , ▁whereas ▁the ▁grey - headed ▁al bat ross ▁fed ▁in ▁more ▁pel ag ic , ▁ocean ic ▁waters . ▁W and ering ▁al bat ross es ▁also ▁react ▁strongly ▁to ▁bath ym etry , ▁feeding ▁only ▁in ▁waters ▁deeper ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 0 m ▁( 3 2 8 1 ft ); ▁so ▁rigid ly ▁did ▁the ▁satellite ▁pl ots ▁match ▁this ▁cont our ▁that ▁one ▁scientist ▁remarked , ▁" It ▁almost ▁appears ▁as ▁if ▁the ▁birds ▁notice ▁and ▁obey ▁a ▁' No ▁Entry ' ▁sign ▁where ▁the ▁water ▁shall ows ▁to ▁less ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 0 m ". ▁Also , ▁evidence ▁shows ▁different ▁ranges ▁for ▁the ▁two ▁sex es ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁species ; ▁a ▁study ▁of ▁Tr istan ▁al bat ross es ▁breed ing ▁on ▁G ough ▁Island ▁showed ▁that ▁males ▁for aged ▁to ▁the ▁west ▁of ▁G ough ▁and ▁females ▁to ▁the ▁east . ▁ ▁Bird life ▁has ▁satellite ▁tracking ▁records ▁for ▁each ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 2 ▁species ▁of ▁al bat ross ▁in ▁their ▁se ab ird - track ing ▁database . ▁ ▁Diet ▁▁ ▁The ▁al bat ross ▁diet ▁is ▁predomin antly ▁c ep hal op od s , ▁fish , ▁cr ust ace
ans , ▁and ▁off al ▁( organ ▁meat ), ▁although ▁they ▁will ▁also ▁sc aven ge ▁car r ion ▁and ▁feed ▁on ▁other ▁z oop l ank ton . ▁For ▁most ▁species ▁a ▁comprehensive ▁understanding ▁of ▁diet ▁is ▁known ▁for ▁only ▁the ▁breed ing ▁season , ▁when ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁regularly ▁return ▁to ▁land ▁and ▁study ▁is ▁possible . ▁The ▁importance ▁of ▁each ▁of ▁these ▁food ▁sources ▁varies ▁from ▁species ▁to ▁species , ▁and ▁even ▁from ▁population ▁to ▁population ; ▁some ▁concentrate ▁on ▁squ id ▁alone , ▁others ▁take ▁more ▁kr ill ▁or ▁fish . ▁Of ▁the ▁two ▁al bat ross ▁species ▁found ▁in ▁Hawaii , ▁one , ▁the ▁black - fo oted ▁al bat ross , ▁takes ▁mostly ▁fish ▁while ▁the ▁L ays an ▁feed s ▁on ▁squ id . ▁ ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁data ▁log gers ▁at ▁sea ▁that ▁record ▁ing est ion ▁of ▁water ▁against ▁time ▁( prov iding ▁a ▁likely ▁time ▁of ▁feeding ) ▁suggests ▁that ▁al bat ross es ▁predomin antly ▁feed ▁during ▁the ▁day . ▁Analysis ▁of ▁the ▁squ id ▁be aks ▁reg urg itated ▁by ▁al bat ross es ▁has ▁shown ▁that ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁squ id ▁eaten ▁are ▁too ▁large ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁caught ▁alive , ▁and ▁include ▁mid - water ▁species ▁likely ▁to ▁be ▁beyond ▁the ▁reach ▁of ▁al bat ross , ▁suggesting ▁that , ▁for ▁some ▁species ▁( like ▁the ▁wand ering ▁al bat ross ), ▁sc av eng ed ▁squ id ▁may ▁be ▁an ▁important ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁diet .
▁The ▁source ▁of ▁these ▁dead ▁squ id ▁is ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁debate ; ▁some ▁certainly ▁comes ▁from ▁squ id ▁fisher ies , ▁but ▁in ▁nature ▁it ▁primarily ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁die - off ▁that ▁occurs ▁after ▁squ id ▁spawn ing ▁and ▁the ▁vom it ▁of ▁squ id - e ating ▁wh ales ▁( s perm ▁wh ales , ▁pilot ▁wh ales ▁and ▁southern ▁bott len ose ▁wh ales ). ▁The ▁diet ▁of ▁other ▁species , ▁like ▁the ▁black - b row ed ▁al bat ross ▁or ▁the ▁grey - headed ▁al bat ross , ▁is ▁rich ▁with ▁smaller ▁species ▁of ▁squ id ▁that ▁tend ▁to ▁sink ▁after ▁death , ▁and ▁sc av eng ing ▁is ▁not ▁assumed ▁to ▁play ▁a ▁large ▁role ▁in ▁their ▁diet . ▁The ▁waved ▁al bat ross ▁has ▁been ▁observed ▁pract ising ▁kle pt op ar as it ism , ▁harass ing ▁bo ob ies ▁to ▁steal ▁their ▁food , ▁making ▁it ▁the ▁only ▁member ▁of ▁its ▁order ▁to ▁do ▁so ▁regularly . ▁ ▁Until ▁recently , ▁al bat ross es ▁were ▁thought ▁to ▁be ▁predomin antly ▁surface ▁feed ers , ▁swimming ▁at ▁the ▁surface ▁and ▁sn apping ▁up ▁squ id ▁and ▁fish ▁pushed ▁to ▁the ▁surface ▁by ▁current s , ▁pred ators , ▁or ▁death . ▁The ▁deployment ▁of ▁cap ill ary ▁depth ▁record ers , ▁which ▁record ▁the ▁maximum ▁dive ▁depth ▁undert aken ▁by ▁a ▁bird , ▁has ▁shown ▁that ▁while ▁some ▁species , ▁like ▁the ▁wand ering ▁al bat ross , ▁do ▁not ▁dive ▁deeper ▁than
▁a ▁met re , ▁some ▁species , ▁like ▁the ▁light - m ant led ▁al bat ross , ▁have ▁a ▁mean ▁d iving ▁depth ▁of ▁almost ▁ 5 m ▁and ▁can ▁dive ▁as ▁deep ▁as ▁ 1 2 . 5 m . ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁surface ▁feeding ▁and ▁d iving , ▁they ▁have ▁also ▁been ▁observed ▁pl unge ▁d iving ▁from ▁the ▁air ▁to ▁sn atch ▁prey . ▁ ▁B reed ing ▁and ▁dancing ▁▁ ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁colonial , ▁usually ▁nest ing ▁on ▁isolated ▁islands ; ▁where ▁colon ies ▁are ▁on ▁larger ▁land mass es , ▁they ▁are ▁found ▁on ▁exposed ▁head lands ▁with ▁good ▁approaches ▁from ▁the ▁sea ▁in ▁several ▁directions , ▁like ▁the ▁colony ▁on ▁the ▁O tag o ▁Pen insula ▁in ▁Dun ed in , ▁New ▁Zealand . ▁Many ▁Bull er ' s ▁al bat ross es ▁and ▁black - fo oted ▁al bat ross es ▁nest ▁under ▁trees ▁in ▁open ▁forest . ▁Col on ies ▁vary ▁from ▁the ▁very ▁dense ▁aggreg ations ▁fav oured ▁by ▁the ▁mol ly ma w ks ▁( black - b row ed ▁al bat ross ▁colon ies ▁on ▁the ▁F alk land ▁Islands ▁have ▁dens ities ▁of ▁ 7 0 ▁n ests ▁per ▁ 1 0 0 m 2 ) ▁to ▁the ▁much ▁lo oser ▁groups ▁and ▁widely ▁sp aced ▁individual ▁n ests ▁fav oured ▁by ▁the ▁so ot y ▁and ▁great ▁al bat ross es . ▁All ▁al bat ross ▁colon ies ▁are ▁on ▁islands ▁that ▁histor
ically ▁were ▁free ▁of ▁land ▁mamm als . ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁highly ▁phil op at ric , ▁meaning ▁they ▁usually ▁return ▁to ▁their ▁nat al ▁colony ▁to ▁breed . ▁This ▁tendency ▁ ▁is ▁so ▁strong ▁that ▁a ▁study ▁of ▁L ays an ▁al bat ross es ▁showed ▁that ▁the ▁average ▁distance ▁between ▁h atch ing ▁site ▁and ▁the ▁site ▁where ▁a ▁bird ▁established ▁its ▁own ▁territory ▁was ▁. ▁ ▁Al bat ross es ▁live ▁much ▁longer ▁than ▁other ▁birds ; ▁they ▁delay ▁breed ing ▁for ▁longer ▁and ▁invest ▁more ▁effort ▁into ▁fewer ▁young . ▁Most ▁species ▁survive ▁up wards ▁of ▁ 5 0 ▁years , ▁the ▁oldest ▁recorded ▁being ▁a ▁L ays an ▁al bat ross ▁named ▁Wis dom ▁that ▁was ▁ring ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 6 ▁as ▁a ▁mature ▁adult ▁and ▁hat ched ▁another ▁chick ▁in ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁making ▁her ▁at ▁least ▁ 6 6 ▁years ▁old . ▁She ▁is ▁the ▁oldest ▁confirmed ▁wild ▁bird ▁and ▁the ▁oldest ▁band ed ▁bird ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁ ▁Al bat ross es ▁reach ▁sexual ▁mat urity ▁slowly , ▁after ▁about ▁five ▁years , ▁but ▁even ▁once ▁they ▁have ▁reached ▁mat urity , ▁they ▁do ▁not ▁begin ▁to ▁breed ▁for ▁another ▁few ▁years ▁( even ▁up ▁to ▁ 1 0 ▁years ▁for ▁some ▁species ). ▁Young ▁non bre ed ers ▁attend ▁a ▁colony ▁prior ▁to ▁beginning ▁to ▁breed , ▁spending ▁many ▁years ▁pract ising ▁the ▁elaborate ▁breed ing ▁rit uals ▁and ▁" d ances " ▁for
▁which ▁the ▁family ▁is ▁famous . ▁Bird s ▁arriving ▁back ▁at ▁the ▁colony ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁already ▁have ▁the ▁stere ot yp ed ▁behavi ours ▁that ▁comp ose ▁al bat ross ▁language , ▁but ▁can ▁neither ▁" read " ▁that ▁behaviour ▁as ▁exhib ited ▁by ▁other ▁birds ▁nor ▁respond ▁appropri ately . ▁After ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁trial ▁and ▁error ▁learning , ▁the ▁young ▁birds ▁learn ▁the ▁syntax ▁and ▁perfect ▁the ▁d ances . ▁This ▁language ▁is ▁master ed ▁more ▁rapidly ▁if ▁the ▁younger ▁birds ▁are ▁around ▁older ▁birds . ▁ ▁The ▁re per toire ▁of ▁behaviour ▁involves ▁synchron ised ▁performances ▁of ▁various ▁actions ▁such ▁as ▁pre ening , ▁pointing , ▁calling , ▁bill ▁cl acking , ▁staring , ▁and ▁combinations ▁of ▁such ▁behavi ours ▁( such ▁as ▁the ▁sky - call ). ▁When ▁a ▁bird ▁first ▁returns ▁to ▁the ▁colony , ▁it ▁d ances ▁with ▁many ▁partners , ▁but ▁after ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁years , ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁interactions ▁drops , ▁until ▁one ▁partner ▁is ▁chosen ▁and ▁a ▁pair ▁is ▁formed . ▁They ▁then ▁continue ▁to ▁perfect ▁an ▁individual ▁language ▁that ▁will ▁eventually ▁be ▁unique ▁to ▁that ▁one ▁pair . ▁Having ▁established ▁a ▁pair ▁bond ▁that ▁will ▁last ▁for ▁life , ▁however , ▁most ▁of ▁that ▁dance ▁will ▁never ▁be ▁used ▁again . ▁ ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁held ▁to ▁undert ake ▁these ▁elaborate ▁and ▁pain st aking ▁rit uals ▁to ▁ensure ▁that ▁the ▁appropriate ▁partner ▁has ▁been ▁chosen ▁and ▁to ▁perfect ▁partner ▁recognition , ▁as ▁egg ▁laying ▁and ▁chick ▁re
aring ▁is ▁a ▁huge ▁investment . ▁Even ▁species ▁that ▁can ▁complete ▁an ▁egg - lay ing ▁cycle ▁in ▁under ▁a ▁year ▁sel dom ▁lay ▁eggs ▁in ▁consecutive ▁years . ▁The ▁great ▁al bat ross es ▁( i . e . ▁wand ering ▁al bat ross ) ▁take ▁over ▁a ▁year ▁to ▁raise ▁a ▁chick ▁from ▁laying ▁to ▁fled ging . ▁Al bat ross es ▁lay ▁a ▁single ▁sub elli pt ical ▁egg , ▁white ▁with ▁redd ish - b rown ▁spots , ▁in ▁a ▁breed ing ▁season ; ▁if ▁the ▁egg ▁is ▁lost ▁to ▁pred ators ▁or ▁accidentally ▁broken , ▁then ▁no ▁further ▁breed ing ▁attempts ▁are ▁made ▁that ▁year . ▁The ▁larger ▁eggs ▁weigh ▁from ▁. ▁The ▁" div or ce " ▁of ▁a ▁pair ▁is ▁a ▁rare ▁occur rence , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁dimin ished ▁lifetime ▁re product ive ▁success ▁it ▁causes , ▁and ▁usually ▁happens ▁only ▁after ▁several ▁years ▁of ▁breed ing ▁failure . ▁ ▁All ▁the ▁southern ▁al bat ross es ▁create ▁large ▁n ests ▁for ▁their ▁egg , ▁using ▁grass , ▁shr ub s , ▁soil , ▁pe at , ▁and ▁even ▁p engu in ▁fe athers , ▁whereas ▁the ▁three ▁species ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific ▁make ▁more ▁r ud iment ary ▁n ests . ▁The ▁waved ▁al bat ross , ▁though , ▁makes ▁no ▁nest ▁and ▁ ▁even ▁moves ▁its ▁egg ▁around ▁the ▁pair ' s ▁territory , ▁as ▁much ▁as ▁, ▁sometimes ▁causing ▁it ▁to ▁lose ▁the ▁egg . ▁In ▁all ▁al bat ross ▁species ,
▁both ▁parents ▁inc ub ate ▁the ▁egg ▁in ▁st int s ▁that ▁last ▁between ▁one ▁day ▁and ▁three ▁weeks . ▁Inc ub ation ▁last s ▁around ▁ 7 0 ▁to ▁ 8 0 ▁days ▁( long er ▁for ▁the ▁larger ▁al bat ross es ), ▁the ▁longest ▁inc ub ation ▁period ▁of ▁any ▁bird . ▁It ▁can ▁be ▁an ▁energet ically ▁demanding ▁process , ▁with ▁the ▁adult ▁losing ▁as ▁much ▁as ▁ ▁of ▁body ▁weight ▁a ▁day . ▁ ▁After ▁h atch ing , ▁the ▁chick , ▁which ▁is ▁sem ial tr icial , ▁is ▁bro oded ▁and ▁guard ed ▁for ▁three ▁weeks ▁until ▁it ▁is ▁large ▁enough ▁to ▁defend ▁and ▁therm ore g ulate ▁itself . ▁During ▁this ▁period , ▁the ▁parents ▁feed ▁the ▁chick ▁small ▁meals ▁when ▁they ▁relie ve ▁each ▁other ▁from ▁duty . ▁After ▁the ▁bro oding ▁period ▁is ▁over , ▁the ▁chick ▁is ▁fed ▁in ▁regular ▁intervals ▁by ▁both ▁parents . ▁The ▁parents ▁adopt ▁alternative ▁patterns ▁of ▁short ▁and ▁long ▁for aging ▁trips , ▁providing ▁meals ▁that ▁weigh ▁around ▁ 1 2 % ▁of ▁their ▁body ▁weight ▁( around ▁). ▁The ▁meals ▁are ▁composed ▁of ▁fresh ▁squ id , ▁fish , ▁and ▁kr ill , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁stomach ▁oil , ▁an ▁energy - rich ▁food ▁that ▁is ▁lighter ▁to ▁carry ▁than ▁und ig ested ▁prey ▁items . ▁This ▁oil ▁is ▁created ▁in ▁a ▁stomach ▁organ ▁known ▁as ▁a ▁pro vent ric ulus ▁from ▁dig ested ▁prey ▁items ▁by ▁most ▁Pro cell ari iform es , ▁and ▁gives
▁them ▁their ▁distinctive ▁must y ▁smell . ▁ ▁Al bat ross ▁ch icks ▁take ▁a ▁long ▁time ▁to ▁fl edge . ▁In ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁the ▁great ▁al bat ross es , ▁it ▁can ▁take ▁up ▁to ▁ 2 8 0 ▁days ; ▁even ▁for ▁the ▁smaller ▁al bat ross es , ▁it ▁takes ▁between ▁ 1 4 0 ▁and ▁ 1 7 0 ▁days . ▁Like ▁many ▁se ab ird s , ▁al bat ross ▁ch icks ▁will ▁gain ▁enough ▁weight ▁to ▁be ▁heav ier ▁than ▁their ▁parents , ▁and ▁prior ▁to ▁fled ging ▁they ▁use ▁these ▁reserves ▁to ▁build ▁up ▁body ▁condition ▁( part icular ly ▁growing ▁all ▁their ▁flight ▁fe athers ), ▁usually ▁fled ging ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁weight ▁as ▁their ▁parents . ▁Between ▁ 1 5 % ▁and ▁ 6 5 % ▁of ▁those ▁fled ged ▁survive ▁to ▁breed . ▁Al bat ross ▁ch icks ▁fl edge ▁on ▁their ▁own ▁and ▁receive ▁no ▁further ▁help ▁from ▁their ▁parents , ▁which ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁nest ▁after ▁fled ging , ▁un aware ▁their ▁chick ▁has ▁left . ▁Studies ▁of ▁ju ven iles ▁dispers ing ▁at ▁sea ▁have ▁suggested ▁an ▁inn ate ▁migration ▁behaviour , ▁a ▁gen et ically ▁c oded ▁navigation ▁route , ▁which ▁helps ▁young ▁birds ▁when ▁they ▁are ▁first ▁out ▁at ▁sea . ▁ ▁Hy brid ization ▁is ▁rare ▁in ▁al bat ross es , ▁largely ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁low ▁inc idence ▁of ▁breed ing - site ▁v agr ancy . ▁ ▁Al bat ross es ▁and ▁humans ▁
▁E ty m ology ▁ ▁The ▁name ▁" al bat ross " ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁Arab ic ▁al - q ā d ū s ▁or ▁al - <0xE1> <0xB8> <0xA1> a ṭ ṭ ā s ▁( a ▁pel ican ; ▁literally , ▁" the ▁diver "), ▁which ▁trav elled ▁to ▁English ▁via ▁the ▁Portuguese ▁form ▁al cat raz ▁(" g ann et "), ▁which ▁is ▁also ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁former ▁prison , ▁Al cat raz . ▁The ▁Oxford ▁English ▁Dictionary ▁notes ▁that ▁the ▁word ▁al cat raz ▁was ▁originally ▁applied ▁to ▁the ▁fr igate bird ; ▁the ▁modification ▁to ▁al bat ross ▁was ▁perhaps ▁influenced ▁by ▁Latin ▁al bus , ▁meaning ▁" white ", ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁fr igate bird s , ▁which ▁are ▁black . ▁In ▁modern ▁Portuguese , ▁the ▁word ▁used ▁for ▁the ▁bird , ▁al bat roz , ▁is ▁in ▁turn ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁English ▁al bat ross . ▁ ▁They ▁were ▁once ▁commonly ▁known ▁as ▁go onie ▁birds ▁or ▁go oney ▁birds , ▁particularly ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific . ▁In ▁the ▁Southern ▁Hem is phere , ▁the ▁name ▁mol ly ma w k ▁is ▁still ▁well ▁established ▁in ▁some ▁areas , ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁cor rupted ▁form ▁of ▁m alle - m ug ge , ▁an ▁old ▁Dutch ▁name ▁for ▁the ▁northern ▁ful mar . ▁The ▁name ▁Di om ede a , ▁assigned ▁to ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁by ▁Lin na e us , ▁references ▁the ▁myth ical ▁met am orph osis
▁of ▁the ▁companions ▁of ▁the ▁Greek ▁warrior ▁Di omed es ▁into ▁birds . ▁Finally , ▁the ▁name ▁for ▁the ▁order , ▁Pro cell ari iform es , ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁Latin ▁word ▁proc ella ▁meaning ▁" a ▁violent ▁wind " ▁or ▁" a ▁storm ". ▁ ▁In ▁culture ▁▁ ▁Al bat ross es ▁have ▁been ▁described ▁as ▁" the ▁most ▁legendary ▁of ▁all ▁birds ". ▁An ▁al bat ross ▁is ▁the ▁central ▁em blem ▁in ▁The ▁R ime ▁of ▁the ▁Anc ient ▁Mar iner ▁by ▁Samuel ▁Taylor ▁Col er idge , ▁representing ▁the ▁innoc ence ▁and ▁beauty ▁of ▁God ' s ▁creation . ▁The ▁al bat ross ▁met aphor ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁this ▁poem ; ▁someone ▁bearing ▁a ▁burden ▁or ▁facing ▁an ▁obst acle ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁" an ▁al bat ross ▁around ▁his ▁neck ", ▁the ▁punishment ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁mar iner ▁who ▁killed ▁the ▁al bat ross . ▁A ▁widespread ▁myth ▁holds ▁that ▁sail ors ▁believe ▁shooting ▁or ▁harm ing ▁an ▁al bat ross ▁is ▁dis astr ous , ▁due ▁in ▁part ▁to ▁the ▁poem ; ▁in ▁truth , ▁sail ors ▁regularly ▁killed ▁and ▁ate ▁them , ▁as ▁reported ▁by ▁James ▁Cook ▁in ▁ 1 7 7 2 . ▁However , ▁other ▁sail ors ▁reported ly ▁caught ▁the ▁birds ▁but ▁let ▁them ▁free ▁again , ▁possibly ▁believing ▁that ▁al bat ross es ▁were ▁the ▁souls ▁of ▁lost ▁sail ors , ▁so ▁killing ▁them ▁would ▁bring ▁bad ▁luck . ▁The ▁head ▁of ▁an ▁al bat ross ▁being ▁caught ▁with ▁a ▁hook
▁is ▁used ▁as ▁the ▁em blem ▁of ▁the ▁Cape ▁Horn ers , ▁i . e . ▁sail ors ▁who ▁have ▁rounded ▁Cape ▁Horn ▁on ▁fre ighters ▁under ▁sail ; ▁capt ains ▁of ▁such ▁ships ▁even ▁received ▁themselves ▁the ▁title ▁" al bat ross es " ▁in ▁the ▁Cape ▁Horn ers ' ▁organisation . ▁ ▁A ▁capt ive ▁al bat ross ▁tor ment ed ▁by ▁je ering ▁sail ors ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁met aphor ▁for ▁the ▁social ▁trav ails ▁of ▁the ▁sensitive ▁po ète ▁ma ud it ▁in ▁ ▁Charles ▁B aud ela ire ' s ▁poem ▁L ' Al bat ros : ▁Le ▁Po ète ▁est ▁sem bl able ▁au ▁prince ▁des ▁nu ées ▁ ▁Q ui ▁h ante ▁la ▁temp ête ▁et ▁se ▁rit ▁de ▁l ' arch er ; ▁ ▁Ex il é ▁sur ▁le ▁sol ▁au ▁mil ieu ▁des ▁h u ées , ▁ ▁S es ▁a iles ▁de ▁gé ant ▁l ' emp ê che nt ▁de ▁march er .( The ▁poet ▁is ▁like ▁this ▁prince ▁of ▁the ▁clouds , ▁who ▁ha unts ▁the ▁storm ▁and ▁m ocks ▁the ▁arch er ; ▁but ▁ex iled ▁on ▁earth ▁surrounded ▁by ▁je ers , ▁his ▁giant ▁wings ▁make ▁him ▁helpless ▁to ▁walk .) ▁ ▁In ▁golf , ▁shooting ▁three ▁under ▁par ▁on ▁a ▁single ▁hole ▁has ▁recently ▁been ▁term ed ▁scoring ▁an ▁" al bat ross ", ▁as ▁a ▁continu ation ▁on ▁the ▁bird ie ▁and ▁e agle ▁theme . ▁ ▁Non - Europe an ▁myth ologies ▁▁ ▁The ▁Ma ori
▁used ▁the ▁wing ▁bones ▁of ▁the ▁al bat ross ▁to ▁car ve ▁fl utes . ▁In ▁Hawai ian ▁myth ology , ▁L ays an ▁al bat ross es ▁are ▁considered ▁a um ak ua , ▁being ▁a ▁sacred ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁the ▁ancestors , ▁and ▁quite ▁possibly ▁also ▁the ▁sacred ▁bird ▁of ▁K ā ne . ▁ ▁Japanese ▁myth ology , ▁by ▁contrast , ▁refers ▁to ▁the ▁short - t ailed ▁al bat ross ▁as ▁a ho - d ori , ▁" id iot ▁bird ", ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁ins ular ▁habitat ▁making ▁it ▁dis reg ard ▁ter rest rial ▁pred ators , ▁and ▁was ▁considered ▁an ▁excellent ▁target ▁for ▁consumption . ▁ ▁Bird watch ing ▁ ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁popular ▁birds ▁for ▁bird watch ers , ▁and ▁their ▁colon ies ▁are ▁popular ▁dest inations ▁for ▁ec ot our ists . ▁Regular ▁bird watch ing ▁trips ▁are ▁taken ▁out ▁of ▁many ▁coastal ▁towns ▁and ▁cities , ▁such ▁as ▁Mon ter ey , ▁Dun ed in , ▁Ka ik our a , ▁W oll ong ong , ▁Sydney , ▁Port ▁Fair y , ▁Hob art , ▁and ▁Cape ▁Town , ▁to ▁see ▁pel ag ic ▁se ab ird s . ▁Al bat ross es ▁are ▁easily ▁attracted ▁to ▁these ▁sight see ing ▁boats ▁by ▁the ▁deployment ▁of ▁fish ▁oil ▁and ▁bur ley ▁into ▁the ▁sea . ▁Vis its ▁to ▁colon ies ▁can ▁be ▁very ▁popular : ▁the ▁northern ▁royal ▁al bat ross ▁colony ▁at ▁Tai aro a ▁Head ▁in ▁Dun ed in
, ▁New ▁Zealand , ▁attract s ▁ 4 0 , 0 0 0 ▁visitors ▁a ▁year , ▁and ▁more ▁isolated ▁colon ies ▁are ▁regular ▁attra ctions ▁on ▁cru ises ▁to ▁sub ant ar ctic ▁islands . ▁ ▁Th reat s ▁and ▁conservation ▁▁ ▁In ▁spite ▁of ▁often ▁being ▁accord ed ▁legendary ▁status , ▁al bat ross es ▁have ▁not ▁escaped ▁either ▁indirect ▁or ▁direct ▁pressure ▁from ▁humans . ▁Early ▁enc ounters ▁with ▁al bat ross es ▁by ▁Pol yn es ians ▁and ▁Ale uts ▁resulted ▁in ▁hunting ▁and ▁in ▁some ▁cases ▁ext ir p ation ▁from ▁some ▁islands ▁( such ▁as ▁Easter ▁Island ). ▁As ▁Europe ans ▁began ▁sail ing ▁the ▁world , ▁they , ▁too , ▁began ▁to ▁hunt ▁al bat ross , ▁" f ishing " ▁for ▁them ▁from ▁boats ▁to ▁serve ▁at ▁the ▁table ▁or ▁bl asting ▁them ▁for ▁sport . ▁This ▁sport ▁reached ▁its ▁peak ▁on ▁em igration ▁lines ▁bound ▁for ▁Australia , ▁and ▁only ▁died ▁down ▁when ▁ships ▁became ▁too ▁fast ▁to ▁fish ▁from , ▁and ▁regulations ▁for b ade ▁the ▁dis charge ▁of ▁weapons ▁for ▁safety ▁reasons . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁al bat ross ▁colon ies , ▁particularly ▁those ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific , ▁were ▁harvest ed ▁for ▁the ▁fe ather ▁trade , ▁leading ▁to ▁the ▁near - ext inction ▁of ▁the ▁short - t ailed ▁al bat ross . ▁ ▁Of ▁the ▁ 2 1 ▁al bat ross ▁species ▁recognised ▁by ▁I U CN ▁on ▁their ▁Red ▁List , ▁ 1
9 ▁are ▁threatened , ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁two ▁are ▁near ▁threatened . ▁Three ▁species ▁( as ▁recognised ▁by ▁the ▁I U CN ) ▁are ▁considered ▁crit ically ▁end ang ered : ▁the ▁Amsterdam ▁al bat ross , ▁Tr istan ▁al bat ross , ▁and ▁waved ▁al bat ross . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁threats ▁is ▁commercial ▁long line ▁fishing , ▁as ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁and ▁other ▁se ab ird s — which ▁will ▁readily ▁feed ▁on ▁off al — are ▁attracted ▁to ▁the ▁set ▁b ait , ▁become ▁hook ed ▁on ▁the ▁lines ▁and ▁d rown . ▁An ▁estimated ▁ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁al bat ross ▁per ▁year ▁are ▁killed ▁in ▁this ▁fashion . ▁Un reg ulated ▁pir ate ▁fisher ies ▁ex acer b ate ▁the ▁problem . ▁ ▁On ▁Mid way ▁At oll , ▁coll isions ▁between ▁L ays an ▁al bat ross es ▁and ▁aircraft ▁have ▁resulted ▁in ▁human ▁and ▁bird ▁deaths , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁severe ▁dis ru ptions ▁in ▁military ▁flight ▁operations . ▁Studies ▁were ▁made ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 5 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁that ▁examined ▁the ▁results ▁of ▁control ▁methods ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁killing ▁of ▁birds , ▁the ▁lev elling ▁and ▁clearing ▁of ▁land ▁to ▁eliminate ▁up draft s , ▁and ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁annual ▁nest ing ▁sites . ▁Tall ▁structures ▁such ▁as ▁traffic ▁control ▁and ▁radio ▁tow ers ▁killed ▁ 3 0 0 0 ▁birds ▁in ▁flight ▁coll isions ▁during ▁ 1
9 6 4 – 1 9 6 5 ▁before ▁the ▁tow ers ▁were ▁taken ▁down . ▁Cl os ure ▁of ▁Naval ▁Air ▁Fac ility ▁Mid way ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁eliminated ▁the ▁problem ▁of ▁coll isions ▁with ▁military ▁aircraft . ▁Recent ▁redu ctions ▁in ▁human ▁activity ▁on ▁the ▁island ▁have ▁helped ▁reduce ▁bird ▁deaths , ▁though ▁lead ▁paint ▁pollution ▁near ▁military ▁buildings ▁continues ▁to ▁poison ▁birds ▁by ▁ing est ion . ▁Al bat ross ▁pl umes ▁were ▁popular ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 2 0 th ▁century . ▁In ▁ 1 9 0 9 ▁alone , ▁over ▁ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁al bat ross es ▁were ▁killed ▁on ▁Mid way ▁Island ▁and ▁L ays an ▁Island ▁for ▁their ▁pl umes . ▁ ▁Another ▁threat ▁to ▁al bat ross es ▁is ▁introduced ▁species , ▁such ▁as ▁r ats ▁or ▁fer al ▁cats , ▁which ▁directly ▁attack ▁al bat ross es ▁or ▁their ▁ch icks ▁and ▁eggs . ▁Al bat ross es ▁have ▁evolved ▁to ▁breed ▁on ▁islands ▁where ▁land ▁mamm als ▁are ▁absent ▁and ▁have ▁not ▁developed ▁def ences ▁against ▁them . ▁Even ▁species ▁as ▁small ▁as ▁m ice ▁can ▁be ▁det r imental ; ▁on ▁G ough ▁Island , ▁the ▁ch icks ▁of ▁Tr istan ▁al bat ross es ▁are ▁attacked ▁and ▁eaten ▁alive ▁by ▁introduced ▁house ▁m ice . ▁Int rodu ced ▁species ▁can ▁have ▁other ▁indirect ▁effects ; ▁cattle ▁over g raz ed ▁essential ▁cover ▁on ▁Amsterdam ▁Island , ▁threatening ▁the ▁Amsterdam ▁al bat ross ;
▁on ▁other ▁islands , ▁introduced ▁plants ▁reduce ▁potential ▁nest ing ▁habitat . ▁ ▁In gest ion ▁of ▁plastic ▁fl ots am ▁is ▁another ▁problem , ▁one ▁faced ▁by ▁many ▁se ab ird s . ▁The ▁amount ▁of ▁plastic ▁in ▁the ▁seas ▁has ▁increased ▁dramatically ▁since ▁the ▁first ▁record ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁coming ▁from ▁waste ▁disc arded ▁by ▁ships , ▁off shore ▁dump ing , ▁litter ▁on ▁be aches , ▁and ▁waste ▁washed ▁to ▁sea ▁by ▁rivers . ▁It ▁is ▁impossible ▁to ▁digest ▁and ▁takes ▁up ▁space ▁in ▁the ▁stomach ▁or ▁g izz ard ▁that ▁should ▁be ▁used ▁for ▁food , ▁or ▁can ▁cause ▁an ▁obst ruction ▁that ▁star ves ▁the ▁bird ▁directly . ▁Studies ▁of ▁birds ▁in ▁the ▁North ▁Pacific ▁have ▁shown ▁that ▁ing est ion ▁of ▁pl ast ics ▁results ▁in ▁decl ining ▁body ▁weight ▁and ▁body ▁condition . ▁This ▁plastic ▁is ▁sometimes ▁reg urg itated ▁and ▁fed ▁to ▁ch icks ; ▁a ▁study ▁of ▁L ays an ▁al bat ross ▁ch icks ▁on ▁Mid way ▁At oll ▁showed ▁large ▁amounts ▁of ▁ing ested ▁plastic ▁in ▁naturally ▁dead ▁ch icks ▁compared ▁to ▁healthy ▁ch icks ▁killed ▁in ▁accidents . ▁While ▁not ▁the ▁direct ▁cause ▁of ▁death , ▁this ▁plastic ▁causes ▁phys i ological ▁stress ▁and ▁causes ▁the ▁chick ▁to ▁feel ▁full ▁during ▁feed ings , ▁reducing ▁its ▁food ▁int ake ▁and ▁the ▁chances ▁of ▁survival . ▁ ▁Scient ists ▁and ▁conservation ists ▁( most ▁importantly ▁Bird Life ▁International ▁and ▁their ▁partners , ▁who ▁run ▁the ▁Save
▁the ▁Al bat ross ▁campaign ) ▁are ▁working ▁with ▁governments ▁and ▁fisher men ▁to ▁find ▁solutions ▁to ▁the ▁threats ▁al bat ross es ▁face . ▁Techn iques ▁such ▁as ▁setting ▁long line ▁b ait ▁at ▁night , ▁d ye ing ▁the ▁b ait ▁blue , ▁setting ▁the ▁b ait ▁under water , ▁increasing ▁the ▁amount ▁of ▁weight ▁on ▁lines , ▁and ▁using ▁bird ▁scar ers ▁can ▁all ▁reduce ▁the ▁se ab ird ▁by catch . ▁For ▁example , ▁a ▁collabor ative ▁study ▁between ▁scientists ▁and ▁fisher men ▁in ▁New ▁Zealand ▁successfully ▁tested ▁an ▁under water ▁setting ▁device ▁for ▁long lin ers , ▁which ▁set ▁the ▁lines ▁below ▁the ▁reach ▁of ▁vulnerable ▁al bat ross ▁species . ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁some ▁of ▁these ▁techniques ▁in ▁the ▁Pat agon ian ▁tooth fish ▁fisher y ▁in ▁the ▁F alk land ▁Islands ▁is ▁thought ▁to ▁have ▁reduced ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁black - b row ed ▁al bat ross es ▁taken ▁by ▁the ▁fleet ▁in ▁the ▁last ▁ 1 0 ▁years . ▁Conserv ation ists ▁have ▁also ▁worked ▁on ▁the ▁field ▁of ▁island ▁restoration , ▁removing ▁introduced ▁species ▁that ▁threat en ▁native ▁wildlife , ▁which ▁protect s ▁al bat ross es ▁from ▁introduced ▁pred ators . ▁ ▁One ▁important ▁step ▁towards ▁protecting ▁al bat ross es ▁and ▁other ▁se ab ird s ▁is ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁treat y , ▁the ▁Agreement ▁on ▁the ▁Conserv ation ▁of ▁Al bat ross es ▁and ▁Pet rel s , ▁which ▁came ▁into ▁force ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4
▁and ▁has ▁been ▁rat ified ▁by ▁thirteen ▁countries , ▁Argentina , ▁Australia , ▁Brazil , ▁Chile , ▁E cu ador , ▁France , ▁New ▁Zealand , ▁Norway , ▁Peru , ▁South ▁Africa , ▁Spain , ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁U rugu ay . ▁The ▁treat y ▁requires ▁these ▁countries ▁to ▁take ▁specific ▁actions ▁to ▁reduce ▁by catch , ▁pollution ▁and ▁to ▁remove ▁introduced ▁species ▁from ▁nest ing ▁islands . ▁ ▁Spec ies ▁ ▁Current ▁thinking ▁div ides ▁the ▁al bat ross es ▁into ▁four ▁gener a . ▁The ▁number ▁of ▁species ▁is ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁debate . ▁The ▁I U CN ▁and ▁Bird Life ▁International ▁recogn ise ▁ 2 2 ▁ext ant ▁species ▁( listed ▁below ), ▁IT IS ▁recogn ise ▁ 2 1 ▁( the ▁ 2 2 ▁below ▁min us ▁T . ▁stead i ), ▁and ▁one ▁recent ▁paper ▁proposed ▁a ▁reduction ▁to ▁ 1 3 ▁( ind icated ▁in ▁parent hes es ▁below ), ▁compr ising ▁the ▁traditional ▁ 1 4 ▁species ▁min us ▁D . ▁am sterdam ensis . ▁▁ ▁Great ▁al bat ross es ▁( Di om ede a ) ▁ ▁W and ering ▁al bat ross ▁( D . ▁ex ul ans ) ▁ ▁Ant ip ode an ▁al bat ross ▁( D . ▁( ex ul ans ) ▁ant ip od ensis ) ▁ ▁Amsterdam ▁al bat ross ▁( D . ▁( ex ul ans ) ▁am sterdam ensis ) ▁ ▁Tr istan ▁al bat ross ▁( D . ▁( ex ul ans ) ▁d ab
ben ena ) ▁ ▁Northern ▁royal ▁al bat ross ▁( D . ▁( ep om or pha ) ▁san ford i ) ▁ ▁Southern ▁royal ▁al bat ross ▁( D . ▁ep om op hora ) ▁ ▁North ▁Pacific ▁al bat ross es ▁( P ho eb ast ria ) ▁ ▁W aved ▁al bat ross ▁( P . ▁ir ror ata ) ▁ ▁Short - t ailed ▁al bat ross ▁( P . ▁al bat rus ) ▁ ▁Black - fo oted ▁al bat ross ▁( P . ▁n ig ri pes ) ▁ ▁L ays an ▁al bat ross ▁( P . ▁im mut abil is ) ▁ ▁Molly ma w ks ▁( Th al ass ar che ) ▁ ▁Black - b row ed ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁mel an op hr is ▁) ▁ ▁Campbell ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁( mel an op hr is ) ▁imp av ida ) ▁ ▁Sh y ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁caut a ) ▁ ▁White - c apped ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁( c aut a ) ▁stead i ) ▁ ▁Ch ath am ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁( c aut a ) ▁er em ita ) ▁ ▁Sal vin ' s ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁( c aut a ) ▁salv ini ) ▁ ▁Grey - headed ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁ch rys ost oma ) ▁ ▁Atlantic ▁yellow - n osed ▁al bat ross ▁( T
. ▁ch lor or h yn chos ▁ ▁Indian ▁yellow - n osed ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁( ch lor or h yn chos ) ▁car ter i ) ▁ ▁Bull er ' s ▁al bat ross ▁( T . ▁bull eri ) ▁ ▁So ot y ▁al bat ross es ▁( P ho eb et ria ) ▁ ▁So ot y ▁al bat ross ▁( P . ▁fus ca ) ▁ ▁Light - m ant led ▁al bat ross ▁( P . ▁pal pe br ata ) ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁al bat ross ▁breed ing ▁locations ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁H AN Z AB ▁complete ▁species ▁list ▁( Hand book ▁of ▁Australian , ▁New ▁Zealand ▁and ▁Ant ar ctic ▁Bird s .) ▁ ▁Bird Life ▁International ▁Save ▁the ▁Al bat ross ▁campaign ▁ ▁The ▁Agreement ▁for ▁the ▁Conserv ation ▁of ▁Al bat ross es ▁and ▁Pet rel s ▁( AC AP ) ▁ ▁Al bat ross : ▁Don ▁Rob erson ' s ▁family ▁page ▁ ▁Track ing ▁Ocean ▁W ander ers ▁The ▁global ▁distribution ▁of ▁al bat ross es ▁and ▁pet rel s : ▁Results ▁from ▁the ▁Global ▁Pro cell ari iform ▁Track ing ▁Work shop , ▁ 1 – 5 ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁Gordon ' s ▁Bay , ▁South ▁Africa . ▁Bird Life ▁International ▁ ▁Al bat ross ▁videos ▁on ▁the ▁Internet ▁Bird ▁Collection ▁ ▁Al bat ross ▁species ▁profile ▁at ▁the ▁W WF ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : Ext
ant ▁O lig oc ene ▁first ▁appearances ▁Category : Se ab ird s <0x0A> </s> ▁N ika ▁C . ▁El ug ardo ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁attorney ▁and ▁politician ▁who ▁serves ▁as ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Massachusetts ▁House ▁of ▁Represent atives . ▁She ▁represents ▁the ▁towns ▁of ▁Boston ▁and ▁Brook line . ▁El ug ardo ▁serves ▁on ▁the ▁House ▁Committee ▁on ▁Technology ▁and ▁Inter govern ment al ▁Affairs , ▁the ▁J oint ▁Committee ▁on ▁Children , ▁Famil ies ▁and ▁Pers ons ▁with ▁Dis abilities , ▁the ▁J oint ▁Committee ▁on ▁Eld er ▁Affairs , ▁and ▁the ▁J oint ▁Committee ▁on ▁Tour ism , ▁Arts ▁and ▁Cultural ▁Development . ▁ ▁Education ▁ ▁El ug ardo ▁earned ▁her ▁Bachelor ▁of ▁Science ▁in ▁Urban ▁Planning ▁from ▁the ▁Massachusetts ▁Institute ▁of ▁Technology , ▁an ▁Master ▁of ▁Public ▁Policy ▁from ▁the ▁John ▁F . ▁Kennedy ▁School ▁of ▁Government , ▁and ▁a ▁Jur is ▁Doctor ▁from ▁the ▁Boston ▁University ▁School ▁of ▁Law . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁After ▁gradu ating ▁from ▁law ▁school , ▁El ug ardo ▁worked ▁at ▁the ▁National ▁Cons umer ▁Law ▁Center ▁in ▁Boston . ▁El ug ardo ▁then ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁Jama ica ▁Pl ain ▁L ia ison ▁and ▁Senior ▁Policy ▁Ad visor ▁to ▁Massachusetts ▁State ▁Senator ▁Son ia ▁Ch ang - D í az . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁election , ▁El ug ardo ▁mounted ▁a ▁successful ▁primary ▁challenge ▁to ▁inc umb ent ▁Represent ative ▁Jeff rey ▁San chez . ▁A ▁political ▁progressive , ▁El ug ardo ▁participated ▁in ▁an ▁event ▁hosted
▁by ▁the ▁Boston ▁chapter ▁of ▁the ▁Democratic ▁Social ists ▁of ▁America , ▁where ▁she ▁described ▁herself ▁as ▁a ▁social ist . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁politicians ▁Category : W omen ▁state ▁legisl ators ▁in ▁Massachusetts ▁Category : Mass achusetts ▁Democrats ▁Category : Members ▁of ▁the ▁Massachusetts ▁House ▁of ▁Represent atives ▁Category : Mass achusetts ▁Institute ▁of ▁Technology ▁al umn i ▁Category : B oston ▁University ▁School ▁of ▁Law ▁al umn i ▁Category : John ▁F . ▁Kennedy ▁School ▁of ▁Government ▁al umn i ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁women ▁politicians ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Red ▁River ▁Broad cast ing ▁is ▁a ▁television ▁broadcast ing ▁company ▁based ▁in ▁F argo , ▁North ▁Dakota . ▁It ▁operates ▁Fox ▁affiliates ▁in ▁the ▁F argo , ▁North ▁Dakota ▁and ▁D ul uth , ▁Minnesota – Super ior , ▁Wisconsin ▁television ▁markets . ▁ ▁Curt is ▁S quire , ▁Inc ., ▁a ▁holding ▁company ▁in ▁E den ▁Pra ir ie , ▁Minnesota , ▁owns ▁ 1 0 0 % ▁of ▁Red ▁River ▁Broad cast ing . ▁The ▁company , ▁which ▁formerly ▁owned ▁Reg is ▁Corporation , ▁is ▁owned ▁by ▁An ita , ▁Bill , ▁David , ▁D rew , ▁and ▁James ▁K un in . ▁Kath y ▁Lau ▁is ▁the ▁CO O . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁television ▁stations , ▁Red ▁River ▁Broad cast ing ▁once ▁operated ▁radio ▁stations ▁through ▁a ▁sister ▁company
▁named ▁Red ▁Rock ▁Radio . ▁At ▁its ▁height , ▁Red ▁Rock ▁Radio ▁owned ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁ 2 5 ▁stations ▁in ▁Minnesota ▁and ▁Wisconsin . ▁However , ▁following ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁My ron ▁K un in ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁his ▁surviving ▁family ▁members ▁decided ▁to ▁liquid ate ▁his ▁broadcast ing ▁assets ▁and ▁sold ▁the ▁stations ▁to ▁various ▁buyers . ▁ ▁Current ▁properties ▁ ▁Former ▁properties ▁ ▁Television ▁ ▁Radio ▁ ▁Minnesota <0x09> ▁▁ ▁K Q DS , ▁D ul uth ▁( now ▁K JO Q ) ▁ ▁K Q DS - FM , ▁D ul uth ▁ ▁K A OD , ▁B abb itt ▁( sim ul cast ▁K Q DS - FM , ▁now ▁K Z J Z ) ▁ ▁K BA J , ▁De er ▁River ▁( sim ul cast ▁K Q DS - FM ) ▁ ▁W XX Z , ▁Grand ▁Mar ais ▁( sim ul cast ▁K Q DS - FM , ▁now ▁W V VE ) ▁ ▁W WA X , ▁Herm ant own ▁▁ ▁K Z IO , ▁Two ▁Har b ors ▁ ▁K G HS , ▁International ▁Falls ▁ ▁K SD M , ▁International ▁Falls ▁ ▁K GP Z , ▁Col er aine ▁( now ▁W D KE ) ▁ ▁K R BT , ▁Eve le th ▁ ▁WE VE - FM , ▁Eve le th ▁ ▁K F GI , ▁C ros by ▁▁ ▁K L KS , ▁B ree zy ▁Point ▁ ▁W W WI , ▁B ax ter ▁
▁W W WI - FM , ▁P ill ager ▁▁ ▁K K IN , ▁A it kin ▁ ▁K K IN - FM , ▁A it kin ▁ ▁WC MP , ▁P ine ▁City ▁ ▁WC MP - FM , ▁P ine ▁City ▁ ▁Wisconsin ▁ ▁W L MX - FM , ▁B als am ▁Lake ▁( now ▁W ZE Z ) ▁ ▁W X C X , ▁S ire n ▁ ▁W HS M , ▁Hay ward ▁( now ▁WC BN ) ▁ ▁W HS M - FM , ▁Hay ward ▁ ▁W X CE , ▁Amer y ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Com pan ies ▁based ▁in ▁F argo – M oor head ▁Category : Tele vision ▁broadcast ing ▁companies ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁AR IA ▁Dance ▁Chart ▁is ▁a ▁chart ▁that ▁ranks ▁the ▁best - per forming ▁dance ▁singles ▁of ▁Australia . ▁It ▁is ▁published ▁by ▁Australian ▁Rec ording ▁Industry ▁Association ▁( AR IA ), ▁an ▁organisation ▁who ▁collect ▁music ▁data ▁for ▁the ▁weekly ▁AR IA ▁Ch arts . ▁To ▁be ▁eligible ▁to ▁appear ▁on ▁the ▁chart , ▁the ▁recording ▁must ▁be ▁a ▁single , ▁and ▁be ▁" pred omin antly ▁of ▁a ▁dance ▁nature , ▁or ▁with ▁a ▁featured ▁track ▁of ▁a ▁dance ▁nature , ▁or ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁AR IA ▁Club ▁Chart ▁or ▁a ▁comparable ▁overseas ▁chart ". ▁ ▁Chart ▁history ▁ ▁Number - one ▁artists ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁AR IA ▁Ch arts ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁in ▁music ▁ ▁Re ferences
▁ ▁Australia ▁Dance ▁Dance ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁Number - one ▁dance ▁singles <0x0A> </s> ▁Susan ▁Jan et ▁Ball ion , ▁known ▁profession ally ▁as ▁Si ou xs ie ▁Si oux ▁( , ▁born ▁ 2 7 ▁May ▁ 1 9 5 7 ), ▁is ▁an ▁English ▁singer , ▁song writer , ▁musician ▁and ▁producer . ▁ ▁She ▁is ▁best ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁lead ▁singer ▁of ▁the ▁rock ▁band ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁the ▁B ans he es ▁( 1 9 7 6 – 1 9 9 6 ). ▁They ▁released ▁ 1 1 ▁studio ▁albums ▁and ▁had ▁several ▁UK ▁Top ▁ 2 0 ▁singles ▁including ▁" H ong ▁Kong ▁Garden ", ▁" H appy ▁House ", ▁" Pe ek - a - B oo ", ▁plus ▁a ▁US ▁Bill board ▁Top ▁ 2 5 ▁hit ▁" K iss ▁The m ▁for ▁Me ". ▁▁ ▁Si ou xs ie ▁also ▁formed ▁a ▁second ▁band ▁the ▁Creat ures ▁( 1 9 8 1 – 2 0 0 5 ). ▁With ▁the ▁Creat ures , ▁she ▁recorded ▁four ▁studio ▁albums ▁and ▁the ▁hit ▁single ▁" Right ▁Now ". ▁After ▁dis band ing ▁the ▁Creat ures ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 2 0 0 0 s , ▁she ▁has ▁continued ▁as ▁a ▁solo ▁artist , ▁using ▁the ▁name ▁Si ou xs ie , ▁and ▁released ▁M ant ar ay ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁ ▁All Music ▁named ▁Si ou xs ie ▁as ▁" one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁influential ▁British ▁sing ers ▁of
▁the ▁rock ▁era ". ▁Her ▁songs ▁have ▁been ▁covered ▁by ▁Jeff ▁Buck ley , ▁Tr icky ▁and ▁L CD ▁Sounds ystem . ▁Her ▁records ▁have ▁also ▁been ▁praised ▁by ▁artists ▁such ▁as ▁P J ▁Harvey ▁and ▁TV ▁on ▁the ▁Radio . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁she ▁was ▁awarded ▁for ▁Out standing ▁Contribut ion ▁to ▁Music ▁at ▁the ▁Q ▁Awards ▁and ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁at ▁the ▁I vor ▁Nov ello ▁Awards , ▁she ▁received ▁the ▁Insp iration ▁Award . ▁ ▁Biography ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁( 1 9 5 7 – 1 9 7 6 ) ▁Si ou xs ie ▁was ▁born ▁Susan ▁Jan et ▁Ball ion ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁May ▁ 1 9 5 7 ▁at ▁Guy ' s ▁Hospital ▁in ▁South w ark , ▁England . ▁She ▁is ▁ 1 0 ▁years ▁younger ▁than ▁her ▁two ▁siblings . ▁Her ▁sister ▁and ▁her ▁brother ▁were ▁born ▁while ▁the ▁family ▁was ▁based ▁in ▁the ▁Belg ian ▁Cong o . ▁Her ▁parents ▁met ▁in ▁that ▁colony ▁and ▁stayed ▁working ▁there ▁for ▁a ▁few ▁years . ▁Her ▁mother , ▁Bet ty , ▁was ▁of ▁half ▁Scottish ▁and ▁half ▁English ▁descent , ▁and ▁was ▁a ▁secretary ▁who ▁spoke ▁both ▁French ▁and ▁English . ▁Her ▁father ▁was ▁a ▁bacter i ologist ▁who ▁milk ed ▁ven om ▁from ▁sn akes , ▁and ▁was ▁a ▁Wall oon ▁from ▁the ▁French - spe aking ▁part ▁of ▁Belgium . ▁In ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 5 0 s , ▁before ▁Si ou xs ie '
s ▁birth , ▁the ▁family ▁moved ▁to ▁England . ▁▁ ▁The ▁Ball ions ▁lived ▁in ▁a ▁subur ban ▁district ▁in ▁Ch isle h urst , ▁Kent . ▁Si ou xs ie ▁was ▁an ▁isolated ▁child . ▁Her ▁friends ▁invited ▁her ▁home , ▁but ▁she ▁could ▁not ▁recip roc ate ▁as ▁her ▁father , ▁an ▁alcohol ic , ▁drank ▁at ▁home ▁and ▁did ▁not ▁work . ▁She ▁was ▁the ▁only ▁female ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁who ▁had ▁any ▁sympathy ▁for ▁this ▁" int ellig ent , ▁well - read ▁man " ▁who ▁didn ' t ▁fit ▁in ▁this ▁" rig id ▁middle - class ▁society ". ▁During ▁moments ▁of ▁sob ri ety , ▁her ▁father ▁shared ▁with ▁her ▁his ▁love ▁for ▁books . ▁She ▁was ▁aware ▁that ▁her ▁family ▁was ▁different . ▁The ▁Ball ions ▁were ▁not ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁community ▁and ▁lived ▁in ▁a ▁house ▁that ▁was ▁different ▁from ▁the ▁neighb ours '. ▁El se where , ▁" life ▁in ▁all ▁its ▁norm ality ▁was ▁being ▁par aded ". ▁She ▁later ▁said : ▁" The ▁subur bs ▁inspired ▁intense ▁hatred ." ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 9 , ▁she ▁and ▁a ▁friend ▁were ▁sex ually ▁assault ed ▁by ▁a ▁stranger . ▁The ▁most ▁dam aging ▁aspect ▁was ▁that ▁the ▁assault ▁was ▁ignored ▁by ▁her ▁parents ▁and ▁the ▁police . ▁The ▁episode ▁became ▁an ▁un sp oken ▁item . ▁From ▁that ▁moment , ▁she ▁started ▁to ▁acquire ▁dis respect ▁for ▁ad ul th ood . ▁Years ▁later , ▁she ▁stated : ▁" I ▁grew
▁up ▁having ▁no ▁faith ▁in ▁adults ▁as ▁responsible ▁people . ▁And ▁being ▁the ▁youngest ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁I ▁was ▁isolated ▁– ▁I ▁had ▁no ▁one ▁to ▁conf ide ▁in . ▁So ▁I ▁invented ▁my ▁own ▁world , ▁my ▁own ▁reality . ▁It ▁was ▁my ▁own ▁way ▁of ▁defending ▁myself ▁– ▁protecting ▁myself ▁from ▁the ▁outside ▁world . ▁The ▁only ▁way ▁I ▁could ▁deal ▁with ▁how ▁to ▁survive ▁was ▁to ▁get ▁some ▁strong ▁arm our ." ▁ ▁Her ▁father ▁died ▁of ▁alcohol ism - related ▁illness ▁when ▁Si ou xs ie ▁was ▁ 1 4 ▁years ▁old , ▁resulting ▁in ▁an ▁immediate ▁ad verse ▁effect ▁on ▁her ▁health . ▁She ▁lost ▁a ▁lot ▁of ▁weight ▁and ▁missed ▁school . ▁After ▁several ▁mis di agn oses , ▁she ▁was ▁operated ▁on ▁and ▁survived ▁a ▁bout ▁of ▁ul cer ative ▁col itis . ▁During ▁the ▁weeks ▁of ▁recovery ▁in ▁mid - 1 9 7 2 , ▁she ▁watched ▁television ▁in ▁the ▁hospital ▁and ▁saw ▁David ▁B owie ▁on ▁Top ▁of ▁the ▁P ops . ▁ ▁At ▁ 1 7 , ▁she ▁left ▁school . ▁It ▁was ▁during ▁this ▁period ▁that ▁she ▁began ▁frequent ing ▁the ▁local ▁gay ▁disc os ▁where ▁most ▁of ▁her ▁sister ' s ▁friends ▁used ▁to ▁go . ▁She ▁introduced ▁her ▁own ▁friends ▁to ▁that ▁scene . ▁In ▁November ▁ 1 9 7 5 , ▁a ▁new ▁young ▁group ▁called ▁the ▁Sex ▁P ist ols ▁performed ▁at ▁the ▁local ▁art ▁college ▁in ▁Ch isle h urst . ▁Si ou xs ie ▁did ▁not
▁attend , ▁but ▁one ▁of ▁her ▁friends ▁told ▁her ▁how ▁their ▁singer , ▁Johnny ▁Rot ten , ▁threatened ▁the ▁string ▁of ▁students ▁present ▁at ▁that ▁gig . ▁He ▁added ▁that ▁they ▁sounded ▁like ▁the ▁Sto og es . ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 9 7 6 , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁her ▁friend ▁Steven ▁Sever in ▁( then ▁still ▁called ▁Steven ▁Ba iley ) ▁went ▁to ▁see ▁the ▁Sex ▁P ist ols ▁play ▁in ▁the ▁capital . ▁After ▁ch atting ▁with ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁band , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁Sever in ▁decided ▁to ▁follow ▁them ▁regularly . ▁In ▁the ▁following ▁months , ▁journalist ▁Caroline ▁Co on ▁co ined ▁the ▁term ▁" B rom ley ▁Cont ing ent " ▁to ▁describe ▁this ▁group ▁of ▁ecc entric ▁teen agers ▁devoted ▁to ▁the ▁Sex ▁P ist ols . ▁ ▁Si ou xs ie ▁became ▁well ▁known ▁in ▁the ▁London ▁club ▁scene ▁for ▁her ▁gl am , ▁fet ish , ▁and ▁bond age ▁att ire , ▁which ▁later ▁became ▁part ▁of ▁punk ▁fashion . ▁She ▁would ▁also ▁later ▁ep it om ise ▁g oth ic ▁style ▁with ▁her ▁signature ▁cat - ey e ▁makeup , ▁deep ▁red ▁lip stick , ▁sp ik y ▁dy ed - black ▁hair , ▁and ▁black ▁clothing . ▁ ▁In ▁early ▁September ▁ 1 9 7 6 , ▁the ▁B rom ley ▁Cont ing ent ▁followed ▁the ▁Sex ▁P ist ols ▁to ▁France , ▁where ▁Si ou xs ie ▁was ▁beaten ▁up ▁for ▁wearing ▁a ▁cu pless ▁bra ▁and ▁a
▁black ▁ar mb and ▁with ▁a ▁sw ast ika ▁on ▁it . ▁She ▁claimed ▁her ▁intent ▁was ▁to ▁shock ▁the ▁bour ge ois ie , ▁not ▁to ▁make ▁a ▁political ▁statement . ▁She ▁later ▁wrote ▁the ▁song ▁" Met al ▁Post card ▁( M itt age isen )" ▁( in ▁memory ▁of ▁the ▁anti - N azi ▁artist ▁John ▁Heart field ). ▁ ▁Following ▁the ▁eth os ▁of ▁DI Y ▁and ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁people ▁in ▁the ▁audience ▁could ▁be ▁the ▁people ▁on ▁stage , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁Sever in ▁decided ▁to ▁form ▁a ▁band . ▁When ▁a ▁support ▁slot ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 0 0 ▁Club ▁Punk ▁Festival ▁( organ ised ▁by ▁Mal colm ▁Mc L aren ) ▁opened ▁up , ▁they ▁decided ▁to ▁make ▁an ▁attempt ▁at ▁performing , ▁although ▁at ▁that ▁time ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁know ▁how ▁to ▁play ▁any ▁songs . ▁On ▁ 2 0 ▁September ▁ 1 9 7 6 , ▁the ▁band ▁impro vised ▁music ▁as ▁Si ou xs ie ▁sang ▁the ▁" L ord ' s ▁Pray er ". ▁The ▁performance ▁lasted ▁ 2 0 ▁minutes . ▁ ▁For ▁critic ▁Jon ▁Sav age , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁was ▁" un like ▁any ▁female ▁singer ▁before ▁or ▁since , ▁command ing ▁yet ▁al o of , ▁entirely ▁modern ". ▁She ▁opened ▁a ▁new ▁era ▁for ▁women ▁in ▁music , ▁as ▁Viv ▁Albert ine ▁from ▁the ▁Sl its ▁would ▁later ▁comment : ▁" Si ou xs ie ▁just ▁appeared ▁fully ▁made , ▁fully ▁in
▁control , ▁utterly ▁confident . ▁It ▁totally ▁blew ▁me ▁away . ▁There ▁she ▁was ▁doing ▁something ▁that ▁I ▁d ared ▁to ▁dream ▁but ▁she ▁took ▁it ▁and ▁did ▁it ▁and ▁it ▁wiped ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁festival ▁for ▁me , ▁that ▁was ▁it . ▁I ▁can ' t ▁even ▁remember ▁everything ▁else ▁about ▁it ▁except ▁that ▁one ▁performance ." ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁Si ou xs ie ' s ▁first ▁public ▁appearances ▁was ▁with ▁the ▁Sex ▁P ist ols ▁on ▁Bill ▁Grund y ' s ▁television ▁show , ▁on ▁Th ames ▁Television . ▁Stand ing ▁next ▁to ▁the ▁band , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁made ▁fun ▁of ▁the ▁present er ▁when ▁he ▁asked ▁her ▁how ▁she ▁was ▁doing . ▁She ▁responded : ▁" I ' ve ▁always ▁wanted ▁to ▁meet ▁you , ▁Bill ." ▁Grund y , ▁who ▁claimed ▁he ▁was ▁drunk , ▁suggested ▁a ▁meeting ▁after ▁the ▁show . ▁That ▁directly ▁prov oked ▁a ▁reaction ▁from ▁guitar ist ▁Steve ▁Jones , ▁who ▁responded ▁with ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁ex plet ive ▁words ▁never ▁heard ▁before ▁on ▁early - ev ening ▁television . ▁This ▁episode ▁created ▁a ▁media ▁f uro re ▁on ▁the ▁front ▁covers ▁of ▁several ▁tab lo ids , ▁including ▁the ▁Daily ▁Mir ror , ▁which ▁published ▁the ▁head line ▁" Si ou xs ie ' s ▁a ▁Punk ▁Sh ocker ". ▁This ▁event ▁had ▁a ▁major ▁impact ▁on ▁the ▁Sex ▁P ist ols ' ▁subsequent ▁career , ▁and ▁they ▁became ▁a ▁household ▁name ▁overnight . ▁ ▁Not ▁lik ing ▁the ▁cl ich
és ▁put ▁forward ▁by ▁the ▁press , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁dist anced ▁herself ▁from ▁that ▁scene ▁and ▁stopped ▁seeing ▁Sex ▁P ist ols ▁shows . ▁She ▁decided ▁to ▁focus ▁all ▁her ▁energy ▁on ▁her ▁own ▁band , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁the ▁B ans he es . ▁ ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁the ▁B ans he es , ▁and ▁the ▁Creat ures ▁( 1 9 7 7 – 2 0 0 3 ) ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 7 , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁began ▁tour ing ▁in ▁England ▁as ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁the ▁B ans he es . ▁One ▁year ▁later , ▁their ▁first ▁single , ▁" H ong ▁Kong ▁Garden ", ▁reached ▁number ▁ 7 ▁in ▁the ▁UK ▁Singles ▁Chart ; ▁it ▁was ▁pop ▁and ▁catch y . ▁With ▁its ▁orient al - inf lected ▁x yl oph one ▁mot if , ▁Mel ody ▁M aker ▁deemed ▁it ▁" a ▁gl orious ▁debut ▁[...] ▁All ▁the ▁elements ▁come ▁together ▁with ▁remarkable ▁effect . ▁The ▁song ▁is ▁str ident ▁and ▁powerful ▁with ▁tant al ising ▁orient al ▁guitar ▁rif fs ▁plus ▁words ▁and ▁vocals ▁that ▁are ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁anger , ▁dis d ain ▁and ▁isolation . ▁No - one ▁will ▁be ▁sing led ▁out ▁because ▁everyone ▁is ▁part ▁and ▁par cel ▁of ▁the ▁whole . ▁It ▁might ▁even ▁be ▁a ▁hit ". ▁ ▁Their ▁first ▁album , ▁The ▁Scre am , ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁post - p unk ▁records ▁released . ▁It ▁received
▁ 5 - star ▁reviews ▁in ▁Sounds ▁and ▁Record ▁Mir ror . ▁The ▁latter ▁said ▁that ▁the ▁record ▁" points ▁to ▁the ▁future , ▁real ▁music ▁for ▁the ▁new ▁age ". ▁The ▁music ▁was ▁different ▁than ▁the ▁single ; ▁it ▁was ▁angular , ▁dark ▁and ▁jag ged . ▁The ▁Scre am ▁was ▁later ▁h ailed ▁by ▁N ME ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁best ▁debut ▁albums ▁of ▁all ▁time ▁along ▁with ▁P atti ▁Smith ' s ▁H ors es . ▁Join ▁H ands ▁followed ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁with ▁war ▁as ▁the ▁l yr ical ▁theme . ▁ ▁The ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁album ▁K ale idos cope ▁marked ▁a ▁change ▁in ▁musical ▁direction ▁with ▁the ▁arrival ▁of ▁John ▁Mc Ge och , ▁considered ▁" one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁innovative ▁and ▁influential ▁guitar ists ▁of ▁the ▁past ▁ 3 0 ▁years " ▁by ▁The ▁Guard ian , ▁and ▁drum mer ▁Bud gie , ▁the ▁latter ▁of ▁whom ▁would ▁continue ▁to ▁perform ▁and ▁record ▁with ▁Si ou xs ie ▁throughout ▁her ▁career ▁until ▁ 2 0 0 4 . ▁The ▁hit ▁single ▁" H appy ▁House " ▁was ▁qualified ▁as ▁" g reat ▁Pop " ▁with ▁" li qu id ▁guitar " ▁and ▁other ▁songs ▁like ▁" Red ▁Light " ▁were ▁lay ered ▁with ▁electronic ▁sounds . ▁K ale idos cope ▁wid ened ▁Si ou xs ie ' s ▁audience , ▁reaching ▁the ▁top ▁ 5 ▁in ▁the ▁UK ▁charts . ▁J uj u ▁followed ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 ,
▁reaching ▁number ▁ 7 ; ▁the ▁singles ▁" Spell bound " ▁and ▁" Ar ab ian ▁Kn ights " ▁were ▁described ▁as ▁" pop ▁marvel s " ▁by ▁The ▁Guard ian . ▁During ▁recording ▁sessions ▁for ▁J uj u , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁Bud gie ▁formed ▁a ▁per cussion - oriented ▁du o ▁called ▁the ▁Creat ures , ▁characterized ▁by ▁a ▁stripped - down ▁sound ▁focused ▁on ▁vocals ▁and ▁drums ; ▁their ▁first ▁record , ▁the ▁EP ▁Wild ▁Things , ▁was ▁a ▁commercial ▁success . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 2 , ▁the ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁the ▁B ans he es ' ▁album ▁A ▁Kiss ▁in ▁the ▁Dream house ▁was ▁widely ▁ac claimed ▁by ▁critics . ▁Richard ▁Cook ▁of ▁N ME ▁depicted ▁it ▁as ▁" a ▁feat ▁of ▁imagination ▁scarc ely ▁ever ▁recorded ". ▁The ▁single ▁" Sl ow d ive " ▁was ▁" a ▁viol in - colored ▁dance ▁beat ▁number ". ▁They ▁included ▁strings ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁on ▁several ▁songs . ▁However , ▁the ▁recording ▁sessions ▁took ▁its ▁toll , ▁and ▁Mc Ge och ▁was ▁forced ▁to ▁quit ▁the ▁band . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 3 , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁went ▁to ▁Hawaii ▁to ▁record ▁the ▁Creat ures ' ▁first ▁album , ▁Fe ast , ▁which ▁included ▁the ▁hit ▁single ▁" Miss ▁the ▁Girl ". ▁It ▁was ▁her ▁first ▁in curs ion ▁into ▁ex ot ica , ▁incorpor ating ▁sounds ▁of ▁waves , ▁local ▁Hawai ian ▁cho irs ▁and ▁local ▁per cussion
. ▁Later ▁that ▁year , ▁Si ou xs ie ▁and ▁Bud gie ▁released ▁" Right ▁Now ", ▁a ▁song ▁from ▁Mel ▁T orm é ' s ▁re per toire ▁that ▁the ▁Creat ures ▁re - or chestr ated ▁with ▁brass ▁arrangements ; ▁" Right ▁Now " ▁soon ▁became ▁a ▁top ▁ 2 0 ▁hit ▁single ▁in ▁the ▁UK . ▁Then , ▁with ▁the ▁B ans he es ▁( including ▁guitar ist ▁Robert ▁Smith ▁of ▁the ▁C ure ), ▁she ▁covered ▁the ▁Beat les ' ▁" D ear ▁P rud ence ", ▁which ▁reached ▁number ▁ 3 ▁on ▁the ▁UK ▁Singles ▁Chart . ▁Two ▁albums ▁followed ▁with ▁Smith : ▁No ct urn e , ▁recorded ▁live ▁in ▁London ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 3 , ▁and ▁ 1 9 8 4 ' s ▁Hy æ na . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 5 , ▁the ▁single ▁" C ities ▁in ▁D ust " ▁was ▁recorded ▁with ▁sequ enc ers ; ▁it ▁climbed ▁to ▁number ▁ 2 1 ▁in ▁the ▁UK ▁charts . ▁Entertainment ▁Week ly ▁noted ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁of ▁a ▁handful ▁of ▁alt - rock ▁radio ▁hits ▁in ▁the ▁U . S . ▁ 1 9 8 6 ' s ▁T inder box ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁covers ▁album ▁Through ▁the ▁Looking ▁Glass ▁both ▁reached ▁the ▁top ▁ 1 5 ▁in ▁the ▁UK . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 8 , ▁the ▁single ▁" Pe ek - a - B oo " ▁marked ▁a ▁musical ▁departure

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