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{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 4, "ec": 582} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 582 | Meat | Meat Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses.
Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. It is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of |
|
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 4, "sc": 582, "ep": 8, "ec": 143} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 4 | 582 | 8 | 143 | Meat | Terminology | infection with and decomposition by bacteria and fungi.
Meat is important in economy and culture, even though its mass production and consumption has been determined to pose risks for human health and the environment. Many religions have rules about which meat may or may not be eaten. Vegetarians may abstain from eating meat because of concerns about the ethics of eating meat, environmental effects of meat production or nutritional effects of consumption. Terminology The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general. The term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 8, "sc": 143, "ep": 8, "ec": 773} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 8 | 143 | 8 | 773 | Meat | Terminology | Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean 'food'. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian (and to a lesser extent, modern West Frisian) to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets (sweets) and dierfied (animal feed).
Most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. Meat is sometimes also used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, lambs, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish, other seafood, insects, poultry, or |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 8, "sc": 773, "ep": 16, "ec": 191} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 8 | 773 | 16 | 191 | Meat | Terminology & Cultural history & Philosophy | other animals.
In the context of food, meat can also refer to "the edible part of something as distinguished from its covering (such as a husk or shell)", for example, coconut meat. Cultural history For most of human history, meat was a largely unquestioned part of the human diet. Only in the 20th century did it begin to become a topic of discourse and contention in society, politics and wider culture. Philosophy The founders of Western philosophy disagreed about the ethics of eating meat. Plato's Republic has Socrates describe the ideal state as vegetarian. Pythagoras believed that humans and animals |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 16, "sc": 191, "ep": 16, "ec": 884} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 16 | 191 | 16 | 884 | Meat | Philosophy | were equal and therefore disapproved of meat consumption, as did Plutarch, whereas Zeno and Epicurus were vegetarian but allowed meat-eating in their philosophy. Conversely, Aristotle's Politics assert that animals, as inferior beings, exist to serve humans, including as food. Augustine drew on Aristotle to argue that the universe's natural hierarchy allows humans to eat animals, and animals to eat plants. Enlightenment philosophers were likewise divided. Descartes wrote that animals are merely animated machines, and Kant considered them inferior beings for lack of discernment; means rather than ends. But Voltaire and Rousseau disagreed. The latter argued that meat-eating is a social |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 16, "sc": 884, "ep": 16, "ec": 1512} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 16 | 884 | 16 | 1,512 | Meat | Philosophy | rather than a natural act, because children aren't interested in meat.
Later philosophers examined the changing practices of eating meat in the modern age as part of a process of detachment from animals as living beings. Norbert Elias, for instance, noted that in medieval times cooked animals were brought to the table whole, but that since the Renaissance only the edible parts are served, which are no longer recognizably part of an animal. Modern eaters, according to Noëlie Vialles, demand an "ellipsis" between meat and dead animals; for instance, calves' eyes are no longer considered a delicacy as in the Middle |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 16, "sc": 1512, "ep": 20, "ec": 214} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 16 | 1,512 | 20 | 214 | Meat | Philosophy & Consumption | Ages, but provoke disgust. Even in the English language, distinctions emerged between animals and their meat, such as between cattle and beef, pigs and pork. Fernand Braudel wrote that since the European diet of the 15th and 16th century was particularly heavy in meat, European colonialism helped export meat-eating across the globe, as colonized peoples took up the culinary habits of their colonizers, which they associated with wealth and power. Consumption Meat consumption varies worldwide, depending on cultural or religious preferences, as well as economic conditions. Vegetarians choose not to eat meat because of ethical, economic, environmental, religious or health |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 20, "sc": 214, "ep": 20, "ec": 858} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 20 | 214 | 20 | 858 | Meat | Consumption | concerns that are associated with meat production and consumption.
According to the analysis of the FAO the overall consumption for white meat between 1990 and 2009 has dramatically increased. For example, poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. However, on the contrary, bovine meat has decreased from 10.4 kilograms (23 lb)/capita in 1990 to 9.6 kilograms (21 lb)/capita in 2009.
Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 different countries. Ipsos states “An omnivorous diet is the most |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 20, "sc": 858, "ep": 20, "ec": 1495} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 20 | 858 | 20 | 1,495 | Meat | Consumption | common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population.” Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently. Estimates of the non-meat diets were also broken down. About 3% of people followed vegan diets; where consumption of meat, seafood, eggs, and dairy are abstained from. About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets; where consumption of meat and seafood are abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption isn’t strictly restricted. |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 20, "sc": 1495, "ep": 28, "ec": 322} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 20 | 1,495 | 28 | 322 | Meat | Consumption & Growth and development of meat animals & Environment | About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets; where consumption of meat is abstained from, seafood is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted. Growth and development of meat animals Agricultural science has identified several factors bearing on the growth and development of meat in animals. Environment Heat regulation in livestock is of great economic significance, because mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to retard it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 28, "sc": 322, "ep": 32, "ec": 518} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 28 | 322 | 32 | 518 | Meat | Environment & Nutrition | a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one. Static magnetic fields, for reasons still unknown, also retard animal development. Nutrition The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition, i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree, however, about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition.
The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is also an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants, which may digest cellulose, are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 32, "sc": 518, "ep": 32, "ec": 1214} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 32 | 518 | 32 | 1,214 | Meat | Nutrition | excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive (see also Environmental impact below), several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the partial conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action.
In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, for instance, where |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 32, "sc": 1214, "ep": 32, "ec": 1849} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 32 | 1,214 | 32 | 1,849 | Meat | Nutrition | the soil contains limited phosphate, cattle are being fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was at length found to be a result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are also a risk to grazing animals; for instance, sodium fluoroacetate, found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism. Certain man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard due to their tendency |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 32, "sc": 1849, "ep": 36, "ec": 636} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 32 | 1,849 | 36 | 636 | Meat | Nutrition & Human intervention | to bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers. Human intervention Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation-inducing hormones. In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem — possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females.
Growth hormones, particularly anabolic agents such as steroids, are used |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 36, "sc": 636, "ep": 36, "ec": 1288} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 36 | 636 | 36 | 1,288 | Meat | Human intervention | in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy, an international trade dispute. It may also decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects are also counteracted by the administration of hormones.
Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals has been shown to improve growth rates also. This practice is |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 36, "sc": 1288, "ep": 44, "ec": 90} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 36 | 1,288 | 44 | 90 | Meat | Human intervention & Biochemical composition & Main constituents | particularly prevalent in the USA, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. Biochemical composition Numerous aspects of the biochemical composition of meat vary in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved. Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat. Main constituents Adult mammalian muscle flesh consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 44, "sc": 90, "ep": 44, "ec": 806} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 44 | 90 | 44 | 806 | Meat | Main constituents | percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble non-protein substances. These include nitrogenous compounds, such as amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals.
Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass). There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins. Most of them – the glycolytic enzymes – are involved in the glycolytic pathway, i.e., the conversion of stored energy into muscle power. The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin, are responsible for the muscle's overall structure. The |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 44, "sc": 806, "ep": 48, "ec": 265} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 44 | 806 | 48 | 265 | Meat | Main constituents & Red and white meat | remaining protein mass consists of connective tissue (collagen and elastin) as well as organelle tissue.
Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" (esters of glycerol with fatty acids), or intramuscular fat, which contains considerable quantities of phospholipids and of unsaponifiable constituents such as cholesterol. Red and white meat Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fibre. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 48, "sc": 265, "ep": 56, "ec": 33} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 48 | 265 | 56 | 33 | Meat | Red and white meat & Production & Transport | age, and fibre type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibres that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibres that tend to work in short fast bursts.
Generally, the meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white. Production Meat is produced by killing an animal and cutting flesh out of it. These procedures are called slaughter and butchery, respectively. There is ongoing research into producing meat in vitro, that is, outside of animals. Transport Upon reaching a predetermined age |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 56, "sc": 33, "ep": 56, "ec": 652} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 56 | 33 | 56 | 652 | Meat | Transport | or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse. Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route. Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen, and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality. Consequently, and also due to campaigning by animal welfare groups, laws and industry practices in several countries tend to become more restrictive with respect to the duration |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 56, "sc": 652, "ep": 60, "ec": 606} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 56 | 652 | 60 | 606 | Meat | Transport & Slaughter | and other circumstances of livestock transports. Slaughter Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current. In most forms of ritual slaughter, stunning is not allowed.
Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. The exsanguination |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 60, "sc": 606, "ep": 64, "ec": 92} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 60 | 606 | 64 | 92 | Meat | Slaughter & Dressing and cutting | is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs.
The act of slaughtering animals for meat, or of raising or transporting animals for slaughter, may engender both psychological stress and physical trauma in the people involved. Additionally, slaughterhouse workers are exposed to noise of between 76 and 100 dB from the screams of animals being killed. 80 dB is the threshold at which the wearing of ear protection is recommended. Dressing and cutting After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 64, "sc": 92, "ep": 68, "ec": 281} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 64 | 92 | 68 | 281 | Meat | Dressing and cutting & Conditioning | some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle. Cattle and pig carcases, but not those
of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is progressively being fully automated. Conditioning Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (–1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.
During the first day after death, |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 68, "sc": 281, "ep": 68, "ec": 885} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 68 | 281 | 68 | 885 | Meat | Conditioning | glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, is believed to increase the water-holding capacity and tenderness of the flesh when cooked. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as ATP is used up, causing actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin and lowering the meat's water-holding capacity, causing it to lose water ("weep"). In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that is tough on cooking – hence again the need |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 68, "sc": 885, "ep": 68, "ec": 1532} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 68 | 885 | 68 | 1,532 | Meat | Conditioning | to prevent pre-slaughter stress in the animal.
Over time, the muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue, and rigor mortis resolves. Because of these changes, the meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor, but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidates, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis also contributes to conditioning. Hypoxanthine, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to the meat's flavor and odor, as do other |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 68, "sc": 1532, "ep": 76, "ec": 69} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 68 | 1,532 | 76 | 69 | Meat | Conditioning & Misidentification & Imitation meat | products of the decomposition of muscle fat and protein. Misidentification With the rise of complex supply chains, including cold chains, in developed economies, the distance between the farmer or fisherman and customer has grown, increasing the possibility for intentional and unintentional misidentification of meat at various points in the supply chain.
In 2013, reports emerged across Europe that products labelled as containing beef actually contained horse meat. In February 2013 a study was published showing that about one-third of raw fish are misidentified across the United States. Imitation meat Various forms of imitation meat have been created for people who wish |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 76, "sc": 69, "ep": 80, "ec": 404} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 76 | 69 | 80 | 404 | Meat | Imitation meat & Environmental impact | not to eat meat but still want to taste its flavor and texture. Meat imitates are typically some form of processed soybean (tofu, tempeh), but they can also be based on wheat gluten, pea protein isolate, or even fungi (quorn). Environmental impact Various environmental effects are associated with meat production. Among these are greenhouse gas emissions, fossil energy use, water use, water quality changes, and effects on grazed ecosystems.
The livestock sector may be the largest source of water pollution (due to animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides), and it contributes to emergence of antibiotic resistance. It accounts for over 8% of |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 80, "sc": 404, "ep": 84, "ec": 59} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 80 | 404 | 84 | 59 | Meat | Environmental impact & Climate change | global human water use. It is by far the biggest cause of land use, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface. It is a significant driver of biodiversity loss, as it causes deforestation, ocean dead zones, land degradation, pollution, and overfishing.
The occurrence, nature and significance of environmental effects varies among livestock production systems. Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others. Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management. Climate change Meat production is responsible for 14.5% and possibly up to |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 84, "sc": 59, "ep": 84, "ec": 791} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 84 | 59 | 84 | 791 | Meat | Climate change | 51% of the world's anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. However, greenhouse gas emission depends on the economy and country: animal products (meat, fish, and dairy) account for 22%, 65%, and 70% of emissions in the diets of lower-middle–, upper-middle–, and high-income nations, respectively. Some nations show very different impacts to counterparts within the same group, with Brazil and Australia having emissions over 200% higher than the average of their respective income groups and driven by meat consumption.
According to the Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production report produced by United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 84, "sc": 791, "ep": 88, "ec": 5} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 84 | 791 | 88 | 5 | Meat | Climate change & Biodiversity loss | a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented. A 2019 report in The Lancet recommended that global meat (and sugar) consumption be reduced by 50 percent to mitigate climate change. Meat consumption in Western societies needs to be reduced by up to 90% according to a 2018 study published in Nature. The 2019 special report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change advocated for significantly reducing meat consumption, particularly in wealthy countries, in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Biodiversity loss Meat |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 88, "sc": 4, "ep": 88, "ec": 611} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 88 | 4 | 88 | 611 | Meat | Biodiversity loss | consumption is considered one of the primary contributors of the sixth mass extinction. A 2017 study by the World Wildlife Fund found that 60% of global biodiversity loss is attributable to meat-based diets, in particular from the vast scale of feed crop cultivation needed to rear tens of billions of farm animals for human consumption puts an enormous strain on natural resources resulting in a wide-scale loss of lands and species. Currently, livestock make up 60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%). In November 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 88, "sc": 611, "ep": 92, "ec": 154} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 88 | 611 | 92 | 154 | Meat | Biodiversity loss & Environmental benefits | Warning to Humanity calling for, among other things, drastically diminishing our per capita consumption of meat and "dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods". The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, released by IPBES, also recommended reductions in meat consumption in order to mitigate biodiversity loss.
A July 2018 study in Science says that meat consumption is set to rise as the human population increases along with affluence, which will increase greenhouse gas emissions and further reduce biodiversity. Environmental benefits Meat-producing livestock can provide environmental benefits through waste reduction, e.g. conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops. Manure from |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 92, "sc": 154, "ep": 96, "ec": 286} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 92 | 154 | 96 | 286 | Meat | Environmental benefits & Spoilage and preservation | meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer; it may be composted before application to food crops. Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers. Spoilage and preservation The spoilage of meat occurs, if untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 96, "sc": 286, "ep": 100, "ec": 114} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 96 | 286 | 100 | 114 | Meat | Spoilage and preservation & Methods of preparation | animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied. Without the application of preservatives and stabilizers, the fats in meat may also begin to rapidly decompose after cooking or processing, leading to an objectionable taste known as warmed over flavor. Methods of preparation Fresh meat can be cooked for immediate consumption, or be processed, that is, treated for longer-term preservation |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 100, "sc": 114, "ep": 100, "ec": 770} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 100 | 114 | 100 | 770 | Meat | Methods of preparation | and later consumption, possibly after further preparation. Fresh meat cuts or processed cuts may produce iridescence, commonly thought to be due to spoilage but actually caused by structural coloration and diffraction of the light. A common additive to processed meats, both for preservation and because it prevents discoloring, is sodium nitrite, which, however, is also a source of health concerns, because it may form carcinogenic nitrosamines when heated.
Meat is prepared in many ways, as steaks, in stews, fondue, or as dried meat like beef jerky. It may be ground then formed into patties (as hamburgers or croquettes), loaves, or sausages, |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 100, "sc": 770, "ep": 100, "ec": 1365} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 100 | 770 | 100 | 1,365 | Meat | Methods of preparation | or used in loose form (as in "sloppy joe" or Bolognese sauce).
Some meat is cured by smoking, which is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to the smoke from burning or smoldering plant materials, most often wood. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is more often used now, and beech to a lesser extent. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods are commonly used for smoking. Meat can also be cured by pickling, preserving in salt or brine (see salted meat and other curing methods). Other |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 100, "sc": 1365, "ep": 100, "ec": 1984} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 100 | 1,365 | 100 | 1,984 | Meat | Methods of preparation | kinds of meat are marinated and barbecued, or simply boiled, roasted, or fried.
Meat is generally eaten cooked, but many recipes call for raw beef, veal or fish (tartare). Steak tartare is a meat dish made from finely chopped or minced raw beef or horse meat. Meat is often spiced or seasoned, particularly with meat products such as sausages. Meat dishes are usually described by their source (animal and part of body) and method of preparation (e.g., a beef rib).
Meat is a typical base for making sandwiches. Popular varieties of sandwich meat include ham, pork, salami and other sausages, and beef, |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 100, "sc": 1984, "ep": 104, "ec": 476} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 100 | 1,984 | 104 | 476 | Meat | Methods of preparation & Health | such as steak, roast beef, corned beef, pepperoni, and pastrami. Meat can also be molded or pressed (common for products that include offal, such as haggis and scrapple) and canned. Health There is concern and debate regarding the potential association of meat, in particular red and processed meat, with a variety of health risks. A study of 400,000 subjects conducted by the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition and published in 2013 showed "a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer."
A 1999 metastudy combined data from five |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 104, "sc": 476, "ep": 104, "ec": 1125} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 104 | 476 | 104 | 1,125 | Meat | Health | studies from western countries. The metastudy reported mortality ratios, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for fish eaters to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, occasional meat eaters to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00.
In response to changing prices as well as health concerns about saturated fat and cholesterol, consumers have altered their consumption of various meats. A USDA report points out that consumption of beef in the United States between 1970–1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of chicken increased by 90%. During the same period of time, the price |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 104, "sc": 1125, "ep": 108, "ec": 311} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 104 | 1,125 | 108 | 311 | Meat | Health & Contamination | of chicken dropped by 14% relative to the price of beef. From 1995–1996, beef consumption increased due to higher supplies and lower prices.
The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods because they eat too much protein.
The health effects of red meat are unclear as of 2019. Contamination Various toxic compounds can contaminate meat, including heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs). Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 108, "sc": 311, "ep": 112, "ec": 348} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 108 | 311 | 112 | 348 | Meat | Contamination & Cancer | veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Often, these compounds can be metabolized in the body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer. Any chemical's toxicity is also dependent on the dose and timing of exposure. Cancer There are concerns about a relationship between the consumption of meat, in particular processed and red meat, and increased cancer risk. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 112, "sc": 348, "ep": 116, "ec": 318} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 112 | 348 | 116 | 318 | Meat | Cancer & Heart disease | (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." IARC also classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect." Heart disease The correlation of consumption to increased risk of heart disease is controversial. Some studies fail to find a link between red meat consumption and heart disease (although the same study found statistically significant correlation between the consumption of processed meat and coronary heart disease). A large cohort |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 116, "sc": 318, "ep": 116, "ec": 934} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 116 | 318 | 116 | 934 | Meat | Heart disease | study of Seventh-Day Adventists in California found that the risk of heart disease is three times greater for 45-64-year-old men who eat meat daily, versus those who did not eat meat. This study compared adventists to the general population and not other Seventh Day Adventists who ate meat and did not specifically distinguish red and processed meat in its assessment.
A major Harvard University study in 2010 involving over one million people who ate meat found that only processed meat had an adverse risk in relation to coronary heart disease. The study suggests that eating 50 g (less than 2 ounces) of |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 116, "sc": 934, "ep": 116, "ec": 1589} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 116 | 934 | 116 | 1,589 | Meat | Heart disease | processed meat per day increases risk of coronary heart disease by 42%, and diabetes by 19%. Equivalent levels of fat, including saturated fats, in unprocessed meat (even when eating twice as much per day) did not show any deleterious effects, leading the researchers to suggest that "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats."
A 2017 meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials found that eating more than 0.5 servings of meat per-day does not increase lipids, blood pressure, lipoproteins, or other heart |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 116, "sc": 1589, "ep": 120, "ec": 645} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 116 | 1,589 | 120 | 645 | Meat | Heart disease & Obesity | disease risk factors. Obesity Prospective analysis suggests that meat consumption is positively associated with weight gain in men and women. The National Cattlemen's Beef Association countered by stating that meat consumption may not be associated with fat gain. In response, the authors of the original study controlled for just abdominal fat across a sample of 91,214 people and found that even when controlling for calories and lifestyle factors, meat consumption is linked with obesity. Additional studies and reviews have confirmed the finding that greater meat consumption is positively linked with greater weight gain even when controlling for calories, and lifestyle |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 120, "sc": 645, "ep": 126, "ec": 8} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 120 | 645 | 126 | 8 | Meat | Obesity & Bacterial contamination & Cooking | factors. Bacterial contamination Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by the Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with S. aureus, with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics. A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and The Guardian found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation also highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus". Cooking |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 128, "sc": 0, "ep": 128, "ec": 657} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 128 | 0 | 128 | 657 | Meat | Cooking | Meat can transmit certain diseases, but complete cooking and avoiding recontamination reduces this possibility.
Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 °F |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 128, "sc": 657, "ep": 132, "ec": 254} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 128 | 657 | 132 | 254 | Meat | Cooking & Meat in society | (100 °C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.
Nitrosamines, present in processed and cooked foods, have been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Also, toxic compounds called PAHs, or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are known to be carcinogenic. Meat in society Meat is part of the human diet in most cultures, where it often has symbolic meaning and important social functions. Many people, however, choose not to eat meat (this is referred to as vegetarianism) or any food made from animals (veganism). The reasons |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 132, "sc": 254, "ep": 136, "ec": 463} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 132 | 254 | 136 | 463 | Meat | Meat in society & Ethics of eating meat | for not eating all or some meat may include ethical objections to killing animals for food, health concerns, environmental concerns or religious dietary laws. Ethics of eating meat Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat include objecting to the act of killing animals or to the agricultural practices used in meat production. Reasons for objecting to killing animals for consumption may include animal rights, environmental ethics, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other sentient creatures. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals (such as cows, pigs, cats, dogs, horses, or rabbits) |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 136, "sc": 463, "ep": 136, "ec": 1095} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 136 | 463 | 136 | 1,095 | Meat | Ethics of eating meat | due to cultural or religious traditions.
Some people eat only the flesh of animals that they believe have not been mistreated, and abstain from the flesh of animals raised in factory farms or else abstain from particular products, such as foie gras and veal.
Some techniques of intensive agriculture may be cruel to animals: foie gras is a food product made from the liver of ducks or geese that have been force fed corn to fatten the organ; veal is criticised because the veal calves may be highly restricted in movement, have unsuitable flooring, spend their entire lives indoors, experience prolonged deprivation |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 136, "sc": 1095, "ep": 140, "ec": 531} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 136 | 1,095 | 140 | 531 | Meat | Ethics of eating meat & Religious traditions | (sensory, social, and exploratory), and be more susceptible to high amounts of stress and disease. Religious traditions The religion of Jainism has always opposed eating meat, and there are also schools of Buddhism and Hinduism that condemn the eating of meat. Jewish dietary rules (Kashrut) allow certain (kosher) meat and forbid other (treif). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals (such as pork, shellfish including mollusca and crustacea, and most insects), and mixtures of meat and milk. Similar rules apply in Islamic dietary laws: The Quran explicitly forbids meat from animals that die naturally, blood, the meat |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 140, "sc": 531, "ep": 144, "ec": 364} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 140 | 531 | 144 | 364 | Meat | Religious traditions & Psychology | of swine (porcine animals, pigs), and animals dedicated to other than Allah (either undedicated or dedicated to idols) which are haram as opposed to halal. Sikhism forbids meat of slowly slaughtered animals ("kutha") and prescribes killing animals with a single strike ("jhatka"), but some Sikh groups oppose eating any meat. Psychology Research in applied psychology has investigated practices of meat eating in relation to morality, emotions, cognition, and personality characteristics. Psychological research suggests meat eating is correlated with masculinity, support for social hierarchy, and reduced openness to experience. Research into the consumer psychology of meat is relevant both to meat |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 144, "sc": 364, "ep": 148, "ec": 558} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 144 | 364 | 148 | 558 | Meat | Psychology & Meat and gender | industry marketing and to advocates of reduced meat consumption. Meat and gender Unlike most other food, meat is not perceived as gender-neutral, and is particularly associated with men and masculinity. Sociological research, ranging from African tribal societies to contemporary barbecues, indicates that men are much more likely to participate in preparing meat than other food. This has been attributed to the influence of traditional male gender roles, in view of a "male familiarity with killing" or roasting being more violent as opposed to boiling. By and large, at least in modern societies, men also tend to consume more meat than |
{"datasets_id": 161857, "wiki_id": "Q10990", "sp": 148, "sc": 558, "ep": 148, "ec": 642} | 161,857 | Q10990 | 148 | 558 | 148 | 642 | Meat | Meat and gender | women, and men often prefer red meat whereas women tend to prefer chicken and fish. |
{"datasets_id": 161858, "wiki_id": "Q6813166", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 4, "ec": 161} | 161,858 | Q6813166 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 161 | Mellon Tytell | Mellon Tytell Mellon Tytell (born 1945) is an American photographer. She has been published in National Geographic, Time, Life, People, Stern, GEO, Fortune, Playboy and Photo. |
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{"datasets_id": 161859, "wiki_id": "Q28089008", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 4, "ec": 616} | 161,859 | Q28089008 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 616 | Merrill E. Noble | Merrill E. Noble Merrill Emmett Noble (December 5, 1896 – November 13, 1969) was a Justice of the New Mexico Supreme Court from August 1, 1960 until his death on November 13, 1969.
Born in Savoy, Illinois to James Houston and Harriett (Baird) Noble, Noble received an LL.B. from the University of Illinois in 1920.
In 1960, Governor John Burroughs appointed Noble to succeed the retiring James B. McGhee. Noble, who was then practicing law in Las Vegas, "received the support of the legal community in Santa Fe and the north", and was confirmed without controversy.
Noble immediately had to run for reelection |
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{"datasets_id": 161859, "wiki_id": "Q28089008", "sp": 4, "sc": 616, "ep": 4, "ec": 1046} | 161,859 | Q28089008 | 4 | 616 | 4 | 1,046 | Merrill E. Noble | to the seat, despite an initial determination by the attorney general that he would not have to run until 1962, the Supreme Court ruled that Noble's name should appear on the ballot for the election in that year. Noble won the election to the remaining two years of the previous term, and was subsequently re-elected in 1962, where he "proved to be an active campaigner", visiting by his own assessment "every town in the state". |
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{"datasets_id": 161860, "wiki_id": "Q1357412", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 523} | 161,860 | Q1357412 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 523 | Mike Tully | Early career | Mike Tully Early career Born in Long Beach, California, he went to college at UCLA and was the NCAA champion in the pole vault in 1978 with a height of 5.53 metres. He won three national titles in 1977, 1979 and 1986. He also took the AAA Championships in 1976 and 1979 and the French championship in 1977.
He enjoyed great success at the Mt. SAC Relays, winning four pole vault titles, each at a meet record height. His last victory came at a height exactly one foot higher than the first. He also holds the distinction of being the first |
{"datasets_id": 161860, "wiki_id": "Q1357412", "sp": 6, "sc": 523, "ep": 10, "ec": 418} | 161,860 | Q1357412 | 6 | 523 | 10 | 418 | Mike Tully | Early career & International career | vaulter to clear 18 feet in the competition. His efforts earned him the honor of induction into the Mt. SAC relays hall of fame in 1994. International career Tully won the first two World Cup competitions, the 1977 and 1979 IAAF World Cup. He qualified for the 1980 U.S. Olympic team but was unable to compete due to the 1980 Summer Olympics boycott. Tully did however receive one of 461 Congressional Gold Medals created especially for the spurned athletes. He competed at the 1983 World Championships without registering a valid mark. In a one-month period in 1984 he raised |
{"datasets_id": 161860, "wiki_id": "Q1357412", "sp": 10, "sc": 418, "ep": 10, "ec": 866} | 161,860 | Q1357412 | 10 | 418 | 10 | 866 | Mike Tully | International career | the American record three times by a total of almost three inches. He concluded the season with a silver medal at the 1984 Olympic Games. He took the American record from Jeff Buckingham, but his national record was broken in 1985.
At the Pan American Games he won gold medals in 1983 and 1987 Pan American Games, both times with championship records, first 5.45 metres then 5.71 metres. He also finished fourth at the 1986 Goodwill Games. |
{"datasets_id": 161861, "wiki_id": "Q6860229", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 14, "ec": 39} | 161,861 | Q6860229 | 2 | 0 | 14 | 39 | Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve | Location & History & Management | Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve Location The Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve, formerly also known as Royal Ascot Conservation Area, is situated in Royal Ascot, Cape Town, South Africa. It consists of the land inside the tracks of the former Milnerton Racecourse and is now managed by the City of Cape Town's Environmental Resource Management Department. History The land inside the track of the Milnerton Racecourse has remained relatively untouched by development as well as free of invasive alien plants due to the removal of tall alien trees that would obstruct views of the running horses. Management The Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve |
{"datasets_id": 161861, "wiki_id": "Q6860229", "sp": 14, "sc": 39, "ep": 18, "ec": 155} | 161,861 | Q6860229 | 14 | 39 | 18 | 155 | Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve | Management & Environmental Management Committee | comprises two non-contiguous natural areas separated and surrounded by the up-market residential development of Royal Ascot. The management of these two areas resides with the City of Cape Town as the landowner. This is accomplished through the Environmental Management Committee which comprises several stakeholders including the Royal Ascot Master Property Owners Association and Gold Circle (owners of the Milnerton Racecourse). The Environmental Management Committee is responsible for the implementation of the Environmental Management System. Environmental Management Committee The Environmental Management Committee was established as a condition of the approval of the application for rezoning of the Milnerton Racecourse land (Erf |
{"datasets_id": 161861, "wiki_id": "Q6860229", "sp": 18, "sc": 155, "ep": 22, "ec": 220} | 161,861 | Q6860229 | 18 | 155 | 22 | 220 | Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve | Environmental Management Committee & Access | 25939) from Private Open Space to Sub-divisional Area, by the local authority, City of Cape Town: Blaauwberg Administration in terms of the Land Use Planning Ordinance No 15 of 1985 and by the Department of Environmental and Cultural Affairs and Sport in terms of the Environmental Conservation Act No 73 of 1989. The subdivided erf 25939 is now known as the Royal Ascot Development. Access Because of the botanical importance of this conservation area, botanists recommended that the southern portion of the racetrack not be opened to the public. The northern portion is accessible to the public where there is |
{"datasets_id": 161861, "wiki_id": "Q6860229", "sp": 22, "sc": 220, "ep": 26, "ec": 475} | 161,861 | Q6860229 | 22 | 220 | 26 | 475 | Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve | Access & Geology and vegetation | a footpath. Access to take dogs on a leash through this area was allowed in the past, but now dogs are no longer allowed there. Geology and vegetation The Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve has an unusual geology consisting of neutral to slightly acidic sand on ferricrete. It is one of the last natural habitats situated on ferricretes, from where the name Ysterplaat is derived. The vegetation comprises Cape Flats Sand Fynbos, although some elements of Cape Flats Dune Strandveld also occur here. There are 232 recorded plant species of which 12 have “Red Data” status including Cliffortia ericifolia, Hermannia procumbens |
{"datasets_id": 161861, "wiki_id": "Q6860229", "sp": 26, "sc": 475, "ep": 26, "ec": 559} | 161,861 | Q6860229 | 26 | 475 | 26 | 559 | Milnerton Racecourse Nature Reserve | Geology and vegetation | ssp. procumbens, Leucadendron levisanus, Acrolophia bolusii and Lampranthus stenus. |
{"datasets_id": 161862, "wiki_id": "Q6878346", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 602} | 161,862 | Q6878346 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 602 | Missing Link (TV series) | Highlight issues | Missing Link (TV series) Highlight issues On episodes on which this was applicable, the National Football League was represented by still photography, while other sports were represented by videotape. There has been no official information explaining the omission, but NFL Network debuted NFL Top 10, a new Wednesday-night countdown-style documentary series, several weeks after this show's first episode, so the network may have demanded exclusivity. The omission is similar to the snub the league gave to ESPN25 in 2004 in the aftermath of the Playmakers series. Similarly, despite the recent return of NASCAR to ESPN, only pre-2001 footage |
{"datasets_id": 161862, "wiki_id": "Q6878346", "sp": 6, "sc": 602, "ep": 10, "ec": 62} | 161,862 | Q6878346 | 6 | 602 | 10 | 62 | Missing Link (TV series) | Highlight issues & Episodes | of Dale Earnhardt, Jr. was shown on the episode on which he was linked to Carl Lewis. 2001 was the year NASCAR began to centralize its TV contracts. Episodes Below is the list of episodes from season one of Missing Link. |
{"datasets_id": 161863, "wiki_id": "Q6886148", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 563} | 161,863 | Q6886148 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 563 | MoPac Trail | History | MoPac Trail History The corridor that is now the MoPac Trail was part of the Missouri Pacific Railroad's Omaha Belt Line until 1984. The 4-mile (6.4 km) portion of the MoPac Trail within the Lincoln city limits was purchased by the city in 1989. Two years later, an additional 22 miles (35 km) of former MP railway corridor was purchased by the Nebraska Trails Foundation and the Great Plains Trail Network; this portion of the trail is commonly referred to as the MoPac East Trail. The deed to this land was then transferred to the Lower Platte South Natural Resources District. The |
{"datasets_id": 161863, "wiki_id": "Q6886148", "sp": 6, "sc": 563, "ep": 6, "ec": 1173} | 161,863 | Q6886148 | 6 | 563 | 6 | 1,173 | MoPac Trail | History | MoPac East section opened in 1994 and is part of the national American Discovery Trail network.
There are planned western and eastern extensions of the MoPac Trail. To the west, an extension to connect it with other trails in the vicinity of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln campus is planned. To the east, the MoPac is planned to be connected with a trail extending south and west of Omaha. This planned extension crosses over the Platte River near South Bend, Nebraska. As of 2010, the portion from Springfield on Nebraska Highway 50 is completed and extends southward towards to the Platte River. |
{"datasets_id": 161863, "wiki_id": "Q6886148", "sp": 6, "sc": 1173, "ep": 6, "ec": 1381} | 161,863 | Q6886148 | 6 | 1,173 | 6 | 1,381 | MoPac Trail | History | The bicycling and pedestrian bridge across the Platte River is complete; however, the trail ends on the west side of the river. Therefore, the current gap in the trail is from near Wabash to near South Bend. |
{"datasets_id": 161864, "wiki_id": "Q1215725", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 49} | 161,864 | Q1215725 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 49 | Moscow-Petushki | Monument & Stage version | Moscow-Petushki Monument There is a monument for the novel in the Borby Square, Moscow, by the artists Valery Kuznetsov and Sergei Mantserev, consisting of two sculptures. One shows a man clinging to the train station sign Moscow and the sentence "You cannot trust an opinion of a person who hasn't yet got some hair of the dog" written on the pedestal. The other one shows a young woman under the train station sign Petushki and the sentence "In Petushki the jasmine never stops blooming and the birds always sing". Stage version In 1994, Moscow Stations was adapted as a one-man |
{"datasets_id": 161864, "wiki_id": "Q1215725", "sp": 10, "sc": 49, "ep": 10, "ec": 358} | 161,864 | Q1215725 | 10 | 49 | 10 | 358 | Moscow-Petushki | Stage version | play (from a translation by Stephen Mulrine) and presented at the Garrick Theatre, London, starring Tom Courtenay in the role of Venya. The production won Critics Circle and Evening Standard awards, and transferred to New York in 1995 where it played at the Union Square Theatre, receiving excellent reviews. |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 4, "ec": 592} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 592 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Moscow gold (Spain) The Moscow Gold (Spanish: Oro de Moscú), or alternatively Gold of the Republic (Spanish: Oro de la República), was 510 tonnes of gold, corresponding to 72.6% of the total gold reserves of the Bank of Spain, that were transferred from their original location in Madrid to the Soviet Union a few months after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. This transfer was made by order of the government of the Second Spanish Republic, presided over by Francisco Largo Caballero, through the initiative of his Minister of Finance, Juan Negrín. The term also encompasses the subsequent issues relating |
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{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 4, "sc": 592, "ep": 4, "ec": 1202} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 4 | 592 | 4 | 1,202 | Moscow gold (Spain) | with the gold's sale to the USSR and the use of the funds obtained. The remaining fourth of the Bank's gold reserves, 193 tonnes, was transported and exchanged into currency in France, an operation which is also known by analogy as the "Paris Gold".
Since the world now was aware of the existence of a large mass of gold in Moscow, the term "Moscow Gold" would eventually be popularized for any Russian funding worldwide.
Since the 1970s the specific episode in Spanish history has been the focus of many essays and works of literature, many relying on information from official documents and |
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{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 4, "sc": 1202, "ep": 8, "ec": 201} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 4 | 1,202 | 8 | 201 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Historical context | records of the time. It has also been the source of strong controversy and historical debate, especially in Spain. Disagreements are centred on the political interpretation of its motivations, on its supposed usage, its effects on the development of the conflict, its subsequent influence on the exiled Government of the Republic and on the diplomatic relations between the Francoist government and the Soviet Union. Historical context The Spanish Civil War began on July 19, 1936, after a half-failed coup d'état against the government of the Second Spanish Republic by certain factions of the Spanish Army left approximately a third of |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 8, "sc": 201, "ep": 8, "ec": 854} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 8 | 201 | 8 | 854 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Historical context | the country under the control of the rebel forces. The rebels (also known as the Nationalists) under the leadership of a junta (Generals Emilio Mola, José Sanjurjo and Francisco Franco) established negotiations with Italy and Germany in order to seek material support for the war effort. The Republic also established similar negotiations for the same purpose with France. These initiatives led to the progressive internationalization of the conflict, as the lack of military equipment on both sides necessary to continue the war effort became apparent.
At the start of the Spanish Civil War, the political climate in France was uncertain, with |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 8, "sc": 854, "ep": 8, "ec": 1497} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 8 | 854 | 8 | 1,497 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Historical context | a government dominated by a Popular Front which included in its majority the centrist Radical Party. Despite French Prime Minister Léon Blum's support for military intervention in favour of the Republic, combined with the support of the French Communist Party, the Radical Party was opposed and threatened to remove their support for Blum's government. The United Kingdom equally subscribed to such a view, warning of the risk of obstructing the policy of appeasement of the Conservative politician Stanley Baldwin. Thus, the French government approved on July 25, 1936, a measure prohibiting the sending of any supplies from France to either |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 8, "sc": 1497, "ep": 8, "ec": 2131} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 8 | 1,497 | 8 | 2,131 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Historical context | of the belligerent sides. On the same day in which the policy of non-intervention of the Western democracies was confirmed, Adolf Hitler gave his consent for the sending of a first shipment of aeroplanes, crew and technical personnel to the Nationalist side in Morocco. Shortly after, Benito Mussolini approved the shipment of a load of cargo aeroplanes and other supplies that would be later used to transport the Nationalist troops stationed in Africa to the Nationalist-controlled city of Seville on July 29.
On August 1, 1936 the French government forwarded a proposal to the international community for the adoption of a |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 8, "sc": 2131, "ep": 8, "ec": 2849} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 8 | 2,131 | 8 | 2,849 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Historical context | "Non-Intervention Agreement in Spain". The British government stated its support for the proposal on August 7. The Soviet Union, Portugal, Italy and the Third Reich also initially subscribed to the agreement, participating in the Non-Intervention Committee, established on September 9. However, the latter three nations maintained their material and logistical support to the Nationalist side. The Republican government also managed to acquire supplies from Mexico and the black market.
During the months of August and September 1936 Nationalist forces gained important military victories, consolidating the Portuguese border after the Battle of Badajoz on August 14 and closing the Basque-French border after |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 8, "sc": 2849, "ep": 8, "ec": 3543} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 8 | 2,849 | 8 | 3,543 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Historical context | taking control of Irun on September 14. These advances coincided with the progressive shift in Soviet policy towards active intervention. The Soviet Union moved to establish diplomatic relations with the Spanish Republic, and appointed its first ambassador to Spain, Marcel Rosenberg (former Soviet representative to the League of Nations), on August 21.
Towards the end of September 1936, communist parties of different countries received instructions from the Comintern and from Moscow for the recruitment and organization of the International Brigades, which would enter active combat during the month of November. Meanwhile, the successful conclusion of the Siege of the Alcázar on |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 8, "sc": 3543, "ep": 10, "ec": 7} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 8 | 3,543 | 10 | 7 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Historical context & Status of the gold reserves and the Bank | September 27 in favour of the Nationalist side allowed the forces of General José Enrique Varela to concentrate their efforts on the Siege of Madrid.
Throughout the month of October 1936, the Soviet Union shipped material aid to the new Popular Front Republican government led by Prime Minister Francisco Largo Caballero, which included two communist ministers. These actions were then defended by the Soviet ambassador to the United Kingdom, Ivan Maisky, before the Non-Intervention Committee on October 23, by denouncing the aid previously sent by Italy and Germany to Nationalist forces, which also constituted a violation of the Non-Intervention Agreement. Status |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 10, "sc": 6, "ep": 12, "ec": 539} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 10 | 6 | 12 | 539 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Status of the gold reserves and the Bank | of the gold reserves and the Bank On May 1936, shortly before the start of the Civil War, the Spanish gold reserves had been recorded as being the fourth largest in the world. They had been accumulated primarily during World War I, in which Spain had remained neutral. It is known, thanks to the records and historical documentation of the Bank of Spain, that the reserves in question were, since 1931, located mainly in the central headquarters of the Bank of Spain in Madrid, though some parts were located in various provincial delegations of the Bank of Spain and other |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 12, "sc": 539, "ep": 12, "ec": 1145} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 12 | 539 | 12 | 1,145 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Status of the gold reserves and the Bank | minor deposits in Paris. The reserves constituted mostly of Spanish and foreign coins; the fraction of antique gold was less than 0.01% of the total reserves. The amount of gold bullion was insignificant, as the reserves included only 64 ingots.
The value of the reserves was known at the time by various official publications. The New York Times reported on August 7, 1936, that the Spanish gold reserves in Madrid were worth 718 million U.S. dollars at the time. Such figures corresponded to 635 tonnes of fine gold, or 20.42 million troy ounces. According to the statistics of the Bank of Spain |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 12, "sc": 1145, "ep": 12, "ec": 1778} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 12 | 1,145 | 12 | 1,778 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Status of the gold reserves and the Bank | as published in the official Spanish government newspaper on July 1, the existent gold reserves on June 30, 1936, three weeks before the start of the conflict, reached a value of 5,240 million Spanish pesetas. Viñas calculated that the US$718 million of 1936 were equivalent, adjusted for inflation indexes, to US$9,725 million in 2005. In comparison, the Spanish gold reserves available in September of the same year were worth US$7,509 million.
In 1782, the Bank of Spain was established as a joint stock company (as its French and English counterparts) with a capital of 177 million Spanish pesetas, which was distributed |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 12, "sc": 1778, "ep": 12, "ec": 2408} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 12 | 1,778 | 12 | 2,408 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Status of the gold reserves and the Bank | among 354,000 nominative shares of 500 pesetas each. Despite not being a state-owned bank, the institution was subject to the control of both the government, which had the power to appoint the Bank's governor, and the Ministry of Finance, which appointed various members of the Bank's General Council.
The Law of Banking Ordination (Spanish: Ley de Ordenación Bancaria) of December 29, 1921, alternatively called Cambó Law (Spanish: Ley Cambó, named after Minister of Finance Francesc Cambó), attempted for the first time to organize the relations within the Bank of Spain as a central bank and as a private bank. The law |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 12, "sc": 2408, "ep": 12, "ec": 3035} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 12 | 2,408 | 12 | 3,035 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Status of the gold reserves and the Bank | also regulated the conditions under which the gold reserves could be mobilized by the Bank, which required the preceptive approval of the Council of Ministers. The Cambó Law stipulated that the Government had the power to approach the entity and solicit the selling of the Bank's gold reserves exclusively to influence the exchange rate of the Spanish peseta and to "exercise an interventionist action in the international exchange and in the regularity of the monetary market", in which case the Bank of Spain would participate in such action with a quantity of gold equal to that dictated by the Treasury.
Historians |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 12, "sc": 3035, "ep": 12, "ec": 3624} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 12 | 3,035 | 12 | 3,624 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Status of the gold reserves and the Bank | have questioned the legality of the gold's movement. While authors such as Pío Moa considered that the transfer of gold from the Bank of Spain clearly violated the Law, in the view of Ángel Viñas the implementation of the Cambó Law was strictly followed, based on the testimonies of the last pre-1931 Minister of Finance, Juan Ventosa y Calvell, who before the outbreak of the Civil War judged the application of the current law to be too orthodox, and viewed it as limiting the possibilities of economic growth of the country. According to Viñas, the exceptional situation created by the |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 12, "sc": 3624, "ep": 12, "ec": 4236} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 12 | 3,624 | 12 | 4,236 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Status of the gold reserves and the Bank | Civil War caused the change in attitude by the Government with respect to the Cambó Law, which moved on to exercise the necessary measures to carry out a "partial undercover nationalization" of the Bank of Spain.
The intentions of the Republican Government to place in the Bank's management individuals loyal to the Republic were solidified through the Decree of August 4, 1936, which removed Pedro Pan Gómez from the office of First Deputy Governor in favour of Julio Carabias, a move which 10 days later was followed by the removal from office of various council members and high executives. After the |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 12, "sc": 4236, "ep": 16, "ec": 426} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 12 | 4,236 | 16 | 426 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Status of the gold reserves and the Bank & Paris gold | transfer of gold to the Soviet Union on November 21, the modification of the General Council was decreed. The Council underwent new modifications until December 24, 1937, when nine council members were substituted for institutional representatives. Paris gold With the beginning of the Civil War, the Nationalists began to organize their own government machinery, considering those institutions that remained under the control of the Republican government in Madrid as illegitimate and illegal. As such, a parallel central bank, headquartered in Burgos, was formed. Both Republican and Nationalist banks claimed to be the legitimate Bank of Spain, both domestically and internationally. |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 16, "sc": 426, "ep": 16, "ec": 1092} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 16 | 426 | 16 | 1,092 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Paris gold | The central headquarters of the Bank of Spain in Madrid, and thus its gold reserves, as well as its most important provincial delegations, were kept under the control of the Republican government, while the Nationalists gained control of the provincial delegations within their territory, including Burgos.
On July 26, the newly formed Government of Prime Minister José Giral announced the sending of part of the gold reserves to France. Nationalist authorities, informed by their contacts in France and in Republican territory of the Republican government's intentions, affirmed that such usage of the gold was in violation of the aforementioned Cambó Law, |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 16, "sc": 1092, "ep": 16, "ec": 1765} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 16 | 1,092 | 16 | 1,765 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Paris gold | and therefore considered such actions illegal. Nationalist authorities emitted a decree on August 25 declaring the credit operations of the Republican government null and void:
Vincent Auriol, French Minister of Finance, and Émile Labeyrie, Governor of the Bank of France, agreed to allow these operations to continue, both because of their antifascist convictions and to strengthen France's own gold reserves and promote the stability of the French franc. The creation of the Non-Intervention Committee did not obstruct the sending of gold to France, and the government of Prime Minister Largo Caballero, formed in September of the same year, continued the former |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 16, "sc": 1765, "ep": 16, "ec": 2446} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 16 | 1,765 | 16 | 2,446 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Paris gold | Government's policy. French and British governments disregarded the complaints of Nationalist authorities about the allegedly unlawful use of the gold.
By March 1937, 174 tonnes of fine gold (193 tonnes of crude gold) had been sent to the Bank of France, an amount equivalent to 27.4% of the total Spanish reserves. In exchange, the Republican Ministry of Finance received 3,922 million francs (approximately US$196 million), which were used to purchase military materials and provisions. It is known that additional gold, silver and jewellery were smuggled into French territory. These transactions were justified by the Republican government on August 30, in view of the |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 16, "sc": 2446, "ep": 20, "ec": 104} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 16 | 2,446 | 20 | 104 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Paris gold & Appropriation of the gold and its transport to Cartagena | gravity of the situation following the military insurrection, in order to "be able to respond in the extent and intensity necessary to crush the despicable rebellion".
During the last year of the Civil War, 40.2 tonnes of gold deposited in Mont de Marsan were judicially retained, and finally handed over to the Francoist government at the conclusion of the war. This became the only successful claim on the Bank of Spain's gold reserves. Appropriation of the gold and its transport to Cartagena Less than 24 hours after the signing of the decree, on the morning of September 14, 1936, members of the |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 20, "sc": 104, "ep": 20, "ec": 757} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 20 | 104 | 20 | 757 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Appropriation of the gold and its transport to Cartagena | Spanish Carabineers and various militiamen, sent by the Ministry of Finance, walked into the Bank of Spain. The appropriation operation was led by the Treasury Director-General and future Minister of Finance under the government of Juan Negrín, Francisco Méndez Aspe. He was accompanied by Captain Julio López Masegosa and 50 or 60 metallurgists and locksmiths.
The vaults where the reserves were kept were opened, and during numerous days Government agents extracted all the gold there deposited. The gold was placed in wooden boxes, and transported in trucks to the Atocha railway station, from where it was then transported to Cartagena. The |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 20, "sc": 757, "ep": 20, "ec": 1397} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 20 | 757 | 20 | 1,397 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Appropriation of the gold and its transport to Cartagena | city of Cartagena was chosen because, in the words of historian Angel Viñas, "it was an important naval station, adequately supplied and defended, somewhat distanced from the theatre of military operations and from which the possibility of transporting the reserves through a maritime route somewhere else was available."
The gold was heavily escorted and was transported via railway, according to witnesses of the events. A few days after the extraction of the gold from the Bank of Spain, Bank functionaries retrieved the Bank's silver, valued at a total of 656,708,702.59 Spanish pesetas of the time, which was later sold to the |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 20, "sc": 1397, "ep": 20, "ec": 2021} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 20 | 1,397 | 20 | 2,021 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Appropriation of the gold and its transport to Cartagena | United States and France between June 1938 and July 1939 for a sum slightly more than 20 million U.S. dollars of the time (a portion of the silver was confiscated by French authorities).
With the gold reserves stored hundreds of kilometres away from the fighting fronts, it seemed that the mandate of the confidential decree of September 13 had been fulfilled. The Nationalists, when informed of the movement of the gold, protested against the events. However, on October 15, Negrín and Largo Caballero decided to transfer the gold from Cartagena to Russia.
On October 20, the director of the NKVD in Spain, |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 20, "sc": 2021, "ep": 20, "ec": 2683} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 20 | 2,021 | 20 | 2,683 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Appropriation of the gold and its transport to Cartagena | Alexander Orlov, received a ciphered telegram from Stalin, ordering him to organize the shipment of the gold to the USSR, and he agreed on the preparations with Negrín. Orlov responded that he would carry out the operation with the Soviet tankmen that had just arrived in Spain. In his later statement to a United States Senate Subcommittee, he declared the following:
On October 22, 1936, Francisco Méndez Aspe, Director-General of the Treasury and Negrín's "right hand" man, came to Cartagena and ordered the nocturnal extraction of the majority of gold-containing boxes, of an approximate weight of seventy-five kilograms each, which were transported |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 20, "sc": 2683, "ep": 20, "ec": 3282} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 20 | 2,683 | 20 | 3,282 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Appropriation of the gold and its transport to Cartagena | in trucks and loaded onto the vessels Kine, Kursk, Neva and Volgoles. According to Orlov:
The gold took three nights to be loaded, and on October 25 the four vessels set out en route to Odessa, a Soviet port in the Black Sea. Four Spaniards who were charged with guarding the keys to the security vaults of the Bank of Spain accompanied the expedition. Out of the 10,000 boxes, corresponding to approximately 560 tonnes of gold, only 7,800 were taken to Odessa, corresponding to 510 tonnes. Orlov declared that 7,900 boxes of gold were transported, while Méndez Aspe stated there were only |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 20, "sc": 3282, "ep": 24, "ec": 434} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 20 | 3,282 | 24 | 434 | Moscow gold (Spain) | Appropriation of the gold and its transport to Cartagena & The travel and its reception in Moscow | 7,800. The final receipt showed 7,800, and it is not known whether Orlov's declaration was an error or if the 100 boxes of gold disappeared. The travel and its reception in Moscow The convoy set sail for the USSR, arriving at the port of Odessa on November 2 — the Kursk, however, would arrive several days later because of technical problems. One of Walter Krivitsky's collaborators, General of the State Political Directorate, described the scene at the Soviet port as follows:
The gold, protected by the 173rd regiment of the NKVD, was immediately moved to the State Depository for Valuables (Goskhran), |
{"datasets_id": 161865, "wiki_id": "Q2420547", "sp": 24, "sc": 434, "ep": 24, "ec": 1037} | 161,865 | Q2420547 | 24 | 434 | 24 | 1,037 | Moscow gold (Spain) | The travel and its reception in Moscow | in Moscow, where it was received as a deposit according to a protocol, dated November 5, by which a reception commission was established. The gold arrived at the Soviet capital a day before the 19th anniversary of the October Revolution. According to Orlov, Joseph Stalin celebrated the arrival of the gold with a banquet attended by members of the politburo, in which he was famously quoted as saying, "The Spaniards will never see their gold again, just as they don't see their ears," an expression based on a Russian proverb.
The gold was stored in the Goskhran under military vigilance, and |
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