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L. reflexum has oval or narrowly oval greyish, felty leaves of 2–5½ cm (0.8–2.2 in) long and ½–1⅓ cm (0.2–0.55 in) wide. The perianth is yellow or scarlet 4–5 cm (1.6–2 in) long, and a style uniquely pointing downwards when the flower is open. Conocarpodendron The three species and one subspecies of the section Conocarpodendron are sometimes called tree pincushions. They are all small trees of up to high with a single trunk. The common base of the flowers in the same head is conical or narrowly conical with a pointy tip. The styles are long that carries a narrowly conical pollen presenter with a pointy tip.
The bracts that subtend the flower heads are pointed and may have a hooked tip. Crassicaudex The four species assigned to the section Crassicaudex are sometimes called cylindric pincushions. These four all have a cylinder-shaped common base of the flowers in the same head. All are upright shrubs with several main stems that rise up from a woody rootstock underground. This makes the species very tolerant to fire. The leaves are wedge-shaped. All three species that occur outside the Cape Floral Region are assigned to this section. Crinitae The four species of the section Crinitae are sometimes called flat pincushions.
They are upright or spreading shrubs. The involucral receptacle is always flat and in diameter with bowl-shaped flower heads. The lobes of the perianth remain erect after flowering and do not curl back as usual in other sections. The styles are thread-like and the flowers change color conspicuously when aging. L. saxatile is a creeper with wide leaves and lime-green flowers. L. gracile is also a prostrate shrub with 2–5 mm wide leaves, but its flowers are yellow. L. oleifolium has leaves 10 – 85 mm wide that are mostly entire but sometimes have up to five teeth, and with flowers that are pale yellow at first but become crimson with age.
L. mundii is an upright shrub with two distinct populations, one with leaves 10 – 85 mm wide that have 7 - 17 teeth at their tip, flowers pale yellow aging to orange. Diastelloidea The species of the section Diastelloidea are sometimes called louse pincushions. They may be upright, spreading or creeping shrubs, that usually have sharply pointed leaves without teeth at the tip. The flowerheads are small and globe-shaped, mostly with two to six together very close to the tip of the branches, in diameter. The involucral receptacle is never flat. The style is 1–2½ cm (0.4–1.0 in) long, topped by a club-shaped, cylindric or rounded conical pollen presenter.
The colour of the flower changes when ageing, from cream to pink or from yellow to orange. All four perianth lobes curl back individually to form four small rolls surrounding the style, and these rolled lobes are said to resemble lice. Hamatum The species of the section Hamatum are sometimes called hook pincushions. Both species are trailing, mat-forming species with stiff, narrow, erect leaves and have small heads with between four and twelve flowers in one whorl. The perianth tubes are inflated towards the upper end and the styles are beset by very small teeth facing towards the base, strongly curved towards the center of the head, making the head reminiscent of a grappling hook.
L. hamatum has linear leaves mostly with three teeth near the tip, a poorly developed or absent involucre, but four or five very large bracts forming a pseudo-involucre subtending the four to seven flowers per head. The perianth is hairless. L. harpagonatum has entire (narrowly) linear leaves, a well-developed involucre consisting of 25–35 bracts (subtending the flower head as a whole), eight to rarely twelve flowers per head, the perianth tubes densely wooly in the upper part. Leucospermum The species assigned to the section Leucospermum are sometimes called sandveld pincushions. Among it are both upright, spreading and creeping shrubs, and leaf-shapes vary from line- to egg- and wedge-shaped, but they all have felty hairy leaves, even when aged.
The bud is usually straight, always with a sweet scent and colored brightly yellow. In the open flower, the three perianth lobes at the side of the center of the flower head remain attached, while the remaining lobe is free. The pollen presenter at the tip of the style is cylindrical or club-shaped. Tumiditubus The species assigned to the section Tumiditubus are sometimes called wide-tubed pincushions. All eight of them are erect or spreading shrubs with one main stem. All of them have a conical or wide-conical common base of the flowers within one head. The base of lowest, fully fused part of the flower (called tube) is narrow and gets wider towards the upper end.
Taxonomy The earliest known description from a species we now include in the genus Leucospermum was by Paul Hermann in Paradisus Batavus, a book describing the plants of the Hortus Botanicus Leiden (botanical garden of the Leyden University), that was published in 1689, three years after his death. He called it Salix conophora Africana (African cone-bearing willow), based on his observation of Leucospermum conocarpodendron on the lower slopes of the Table Mountain. In the following six decades, several other descriptions were published, such as by Leonard Plukenet, James Petiver, John Ray and Herman Boerhaave. Names published before 1753, the year that was chosen as a starting point for the binominal nomenclature proposed by Carl Linnaeus, are not valid however.
The first valid names were already created that very year with the publication of the first edition of Species Plantarum, with the description of two species, Leucadendron conocarpodendron and Leucadendron hypophyllocarpodendron (now Leucospermum conocarpodendron and L. hypophyllocarpodendron) by Linnaeus. In 1763, Michel Adanson also described several Proteaceae species, and did so under the generic names Lepidocarpus and Conocarpus. Four more species were described by Linnaeus (Protea pubera and P. totta in 1771, now L. calligerum and L. tottum), Peter Jonas Bergius (Leucadendron oleaefolium 1766, now Leucospermum oleifolium) and Nicolaas Laurens Burman (Leucadendron cuneiforme, now Leucospermum cuneiforme), before Carl Peter Thunberg in 1781 published a revision containing nine species now included in Leucospermum, including Protea heterophylla and P. tomentosa (now L. heterophyllum and L. tomentosum).
Further species were added by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: Protea vestita 1792 (now L. vestitum), Thunberg: P. prostrata in 1794 (now L. prostratum), Henry Charles Andrews: Protea formosa 1798 (now L. formosum), and P. candicans in 1803 (now Leucospermum rodolentum) a later homonym of P. candicans Thunb. 1800 (now Paranomus candicans), and The Paradisus Londinensis by botanical illustrator William Hooker and botanist Richard Anthony Salisbury: Leucadendrum grandiflorum in 1808 (now Leucospermum grandiflorum). Joseph Knight published a book in 1809 titled On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae, that contained an extensive revision of the Proteaceae attributed to Salisbury.
Salisbury assigned twenty-four species to his new genus Leucadendrum, with newcomers Leucadendrum cordifolium, Leucadendrum gracile, Leucadendrum parile, Leucadendrum royenaefolium, Leucadendrum saxatile and Leucadendrum truncatulum, all of which are now included in Leucospermum with the identical species name. It is assumed that Salisbury had based his review on a draft he had been studying of a paper called On the natural order of plants called Proteaceae that Robert Brown was to publish in 1810. Brown however, called the genus Leucospermum, distinguished eighteen species and made the new combinations Leucospermum lineare and L. spathulatum. Salisbury's names were ignored by botanists in favour of those that Brown had created, and this was formalised in 1900 when Leucospermum was given priority over Leucadendrum.
Johann Friedrich Klotzsch described L. pedunculatum in 1845. Carl Meissner, who contributed a section on the Proteaceae in 1856 to the series Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis by Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle, recognised twenty-three species, including seven new ones: L. gueinzii, L. mundii, L. reflexum, L. oleaefolium var. brownii (now L. bolusii), L. zeyheri var. truncatum (now L. truncatum), L. attenuatum var. praemorsum and var. ‘’ambiguum’’ (now L. praemorsum and ‘’L. erubescens’’). Otto Kuntze revised the genus in 1891 and called it Leucadendron, a homonym of a name that had already been used by Linnaeus in 1753 for another group of Proteaceae, which have separate sexes and very large bracts.
Edwin Percy Phillips newly described L. glabrum and L. muirii in 1910, Spencer Le Marchant Moore portrayed L. saxosum in 1911, while Otto Stapf added L. gerrardii in 1912. In 1912, Phillips and Otto Stapf revised Leucospermum and recognised thirty-one species. Afterwards, Phillips described L. cordatum (1923) and L. patersonii (1928). Robert Harold Compton added L. wittebergense in 1931 and L. catherinae in 1933. This was followed by L. arenarium by Hedley Brian Rycroft in 1959. John Patrick Rourke in 1970 distinguished forty-seven species, eight of which new to science: L. erubescens, L. fulgens, L. innovans, L. pluridens, L. praecox, L. profugum, L. secundifolium and L. utriculosum.
He later added the newly discovered L. winteri in 1978, L. hamatum in 1983, and L. harpagonatum in 1994. Rourke erected several sections in 1970, among which Xericola, to which he assigned L. alpinum including a subspecies amoenum, L. obtusum including a subspecies albomontanum, as well as L. secundiflorum. In 1984, he erected a new genus Vexatorella to which he moved these taxa, with the exception of L. secundiflorum, that he included in the section Diastelloidea. The name of the genus Leucospermum is compounded from the Greek words λευκός (leukos) meaning white, and σπέρμα (sperma) meaning seed, so "white seed", which is a reference to the pale elaiosome surrounding the seeds.
Species within the genus are commonly known as pincushions. Phylogeny Comparison of homologous DNA has increased the insight in the phylogenetic relationships between the Proteaceae. Leucospermum belongs to a group that further only consists of genera endemic to the Cape Floristic Region, that together constitute the subtribe Leucadendrinae. Leucospermum is most related to Mimetes, which however is only monophyletic if both Diastella and Orothamnus would be included in it. A subgroup of Paranomus, Vexatorella, Sorocephalus and Spatalla is the sister group to the Leucospermum-Mimetes subgroup. The following trees together represent those insights. Subdivision The genus Leucospermum is divided into nine groups called sections.
These are Brevifilamentum, Cardinistyle, Conocarpodendron, Crassicaudex, Crinitae (synonym Diastella Meisn. non (Salisb.) Endl. ), Diastelloidea, Hamatum, Leucospermum (synonym Hypophylloidea) and Timiditubus. The following taxa are assigned to the respective sections.
Brevifilamentum: L. vestitum (type), L. cordatum, L. cordifolium, L. lineare, L. patersonii, L. tottum Cardinistyle: L. formosum (type), L. catherinae, L. grandiflorum, L. gueinzii, L. praemorsum, L. reflexum Conocarpodendron: L. conocarpodendron (type), L. glabrum, L. pluridens Crassicaudex: L. cuneiforme (type), L. gerrardii, L. innovans, L. saxosum Crinitae: L. oleifolium (type), L. gracile, L. mundii, L. saxatile Diastelloidea: L. calligerum (type), L. bolusii, L. heterophyllum, L. pedunculatum, L. prostratum, L. royenifolium, L. secundifolium, L. truncatulum, L. winteri, L. wittebergense Hamatum: L. hamatum (type), L. harpagonatum Leucospermum: L. hypophyllocarpodendron (type), L. arenarium, L. parile, L. rodolentum, L. tomentosum Tumiditubus: L. praecox (type), L. erubescens, L. fulgens, L. muirii, L. profugum, L. spathulatum, L. truncatum, L. utriculosum Reassigned species The species that were originally described as, or moved to Leucospermum or one of its synonyms, which since have been reassigned include the following: L. alpinum subsp.
alpinum = Vexatorella alpina L. alpinum subsp. amoenum = Vexatorella amoena L. glaberrimum = Leucadendron glaberrimum L. involucratum = Leucadendron salignum L. marginatum = Leucadendron spissifolium L. obtusatum = Vexatorella obtusata L. ovatum = Protea longiflora L. rochetianum = Faurea rochetiana L. zwartbergense = Leucadendron dregei Names that cannot be assigned For Leucadendron filiamentosum, L. polifolium and L. bellidifolium, no type specimens could be found, and their descriptions are too general to determine which Leucospermum species they are synonymous with. For L. obovatum, no description has been provided, so it is a nomen nudum. Distribution Pincushions can only be found in a narrow zone from the southwestern Cape, along the Great Escarpment to eastern Transvaal and Swaziland, and two isolated areas, one in the Chimanimani Mountain range on the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border, and the other in Namaqualand.
Only L. gerrardii, L. innovans and L. saxosum occur outside the Cape Floristic District. A remarkable concentration of 30% of the species occurs in a narrow strip of about long on the south coast between Hermanus and Witsand. Most of the individual species have restricted distributions, some as small as a few square km. Habitat In the Cape, most Leucospermum species grow on acids soils that result from the weathering of Table Mountain Sandstone. More to the east a few species occur on eroded Witteberg quatzite, which is also very poor in nutrients. L. arenarium, L. fulgens, L. hypophyllocarpodendron, L. muirii, L. parile, L. praecox, L. rodolentum and L. tomentosum can only be encountered on deep white sands.
A few other species like L. grandiflorum, L. guenzii and L. lineare can be found on the heavy clay that develops from Cape Granite. L. calligerum and L. heterophyllum sometimes grow on Malmsbury Gravel. On the other hand, L. patersonii and L. truncatum are specialists that only can be found on a ridge of limestone of the Alexandria Formation, parallel to the southern coast between Stilbaai and Danger Point. Ecology Pollination During flowering, the extended styles protrude far beyond the perianth tube. Initially, the tip of the style carries pollen at the thickened tip, that is called pollen-presenter. The pollen is brushed on the heads and bodies of the birds, mammals and large insects that try to reach the copious and thick nectar that fills the perianth tube.
In older flower heads of Leucospermum most of the pollen will have been transferred to the bodies of earlier pollinators, and a small groove at the very tip of the style opens. In most Leucospermum species, plants are entirely infertile to their own pollen. Even a small amount of pollen of other specimens of the same species results in the development of the seed. The flowerheads are also visited by many small insects that are unlikely to pollinate Leucospermum, but the birds eat insects in addition to nectar. The birds' nesting season coincides with the flowering season of Leucospermum and both for egg-laying and growing chicks, a large quantity of proteine is needed, where nectar provides hardly any.
The Cape sugarbird seems to be present in all stands of non-creeping Leucospermum species, but the malachite sunbird Nectarinia famosa, southern double-collared sunbird Cinnyris chalybeus and orange-breasted sunbird Anthobaphes violacea are locally also important pollinators. Red-winged starling Onychognathus morio and Cape weaver Ploceus capensis are occasional visitors that damage the perianth tube to extract the nectar, and are probably much less effective pollinators. Large monkey beetles, like Trichostetha fascicularis, T. capensis, T. albopicta, and Anisonyx ursus can for a time be feeding on Leucospermum nectar in large numbers, and do transport pollen on their long hairs. These are however only present during a few weeks each year, and likely less important pollinators than the birds.
Several rodents may be responsible for the pollination of species that produce their flower heads at ground level. Hairy-footed gerbils Gerbillurus paeba, and striped field mice Rhabdomys pumilio were observed to visit the flowers of L. arenarium, and both carried its pollen on forehead and breast. L. arenarium nectar is thick and is present at the tips of the perianth lobes. Here, mice can lick it off without having to damage the flowers. The nectar is produced by the scales subtending the ovary as in other Leucospermum species, but is transported by capillary ducts to the tips of the perianth.
Seed dispersal The fruits of Leucadendron have but one seed cavity, that does not open, and contains only one seed, a fruit type called nut. The fruits consist partly of a whitish, fleshy or gelatinous pericarp, a so-called elaiosome, that attracts ants because they contain chemicals that mimic pheromones. After the achenes fall from the plant, mostly Anoplolepis ants gather the seeds, and carry them to their nest by sinking their jaws in the fleshy elaiosome. Ones in the underground nests, the elaiosome is consumed. The smooth and hard seeds that remain do not fit the ants' small jaws, and are abandoned, protected from fire and seed eaters.
The survival of the seeds is further enhanced by fungicidal and anti-bacterial substances that the ants excrete to keep their nests in a healthy condition. In the fynbos, this so-called myrmecochory is a strategy used by many plant species to survive the fire. Invasive ants species, like in South Africa Linepithema humile (Argentine ant), destroy the nests of the indigenous ants, and eat the elaiosomes where ever the seed has fallen, so that it is not protected against fire and can easily be found and eaten by mice and birds. Fire Periodic wildfires are an important factor in south and west South Africa.
The occurrence of these fires among other things determines the extent of fynbos. All species that naturally occur in the fynbos have adaptations that ensure these species can survive the natural fire regime, but different species have different strategies. This is also true for the species of Leucospermum, even the few that occur outside the fynbos. A large majority of Leucospermum species is killed by fire because these have a single stem that only branches higher up, and are covered by a rather thin bark. One year after the fire however, many seedlings have occurred. All specimens within the area covered by the most recent fire, are therefore of the same age.
After three to four years, these plants begin to flower and produce seeds, that do not yet germinate, but remain in the soil seed bank, until they get activated during the aftermath of a fire. Specimens belonging to these species are subject to biological aging (or senescence), and loose their vitality. The maximum life expectancy differs between twenty-five to thirty years in smaller species like L. truncatulum and L. oleifolia, to fifty to eighty years in L. praemorsum. For this group of species, fire is a prerequisite to rejuvenate and so maintain the population. If the fires occur as frequent as every two or three year however, the soil seed bank gets depleted because no new seeds are added, and the species may locally disappear.
A number of large species (L. conocarpodendron, L. heterophyllum, L. patersonii, L. pedunculatum, L. profugum and L. royenifolium) have thick bark, which allows them to survive fires if these are not too intense, and so stretch their lifespan regularly beyond the interval between successive incidents. The fire survival rate in this group was estimated at 30–50 %. Since the fire destroys lower branches, regrowth only takes place from the higher branches, and the plants attain an umbrella-shape. A smaller group of Leucospermum species has a more effective method to survive fire. Above ground parts of these species die, but new shoots appear directly from the ground from woody tubers.
This mechanism is best developed in the species of the section Crassicaudex (L. cuneiforme, L. gerrardii, L. innovans and L. saxosum) that mostly occur outside the fynbos, in areas with dominant summer rainfall where fires may be more frequent, but is also present in L. hypophyllocarpodendron, L. prostratum and L. tomentosum. The survival rate in this group is estimated at 95% or more. The young plants of these species can be distinguished because of the profuse development of side branches very low on the primary stem. Conservation There are forty-eight species, two of which having two subspecies each. Two others have two varieties each.
The survival of eight is considered to be of least concern: L. calligerum, L. cuneiforme, L. oleifolium, L. pedunculatum, L. royenifolium, L. truncatum, L. utriculosum and L. wittebergensis. Twelve taxa are regarded as not threatened: L. bolusii, L. conocarpodendron subsp. viridum, L. cordifolium, L. gerrardii, L. gracile, L. pluridens, L. reflexum (its two varieties have not been evaluated), L. spathulatum, L. tottum var. tottum, L. truncatulum, L. vestitum and L. winteri. Three species are rare: L. erubescens, L. mundii and L. secundifolium. Nine taxa are regarded as vulnerable: both subspecies of L. hypophyllocarpodendron, L. lineare, L. patersonii, L. praecox, L. praemorsum, L. prostratum, L. rodolentum and L. tomentosum.
Fifteen have been categorised as endangered species: L. catharinae, L. conocarpodendron subsp. conocarpodendron, L. cordatum, L. formosum, L. glabrum, L. grandiflorum, L. gueinzii, L. hamatum, L. heterophyllum, L. innovans, L. muirii, L. parile, L. profugum, L. saxatile and L. saxosum. Finally, four taxa are thought to be critically endangered: L. arenarium, L. fulgens, L. harpagonatum and L. tottum var. glabrum. Cultivation The breeding of pincushions provides an important export product in South Africa and a few other countries. L. conocarpodendron, L. cordifolia, L. lineare, L. patersonii and L. vestitum and a range of hybrids supply cut flowers. References Category:Proteaceae genera
Just Married is a 2003 American romantic comedy film directed by Shawn Levy, written by Sam Harper, and stars Ashton Kutcher and Brittany Murphy. Produced by Robert Simonds, the film was successful at the box office despite generally negative critical reviews. Plot The film opens with Tom and Sarah in the airport, then flashes back from the moment they met up to the present. Working-class Tom Leezak and upper-class Sarah McNerney meet up when Tom accidentally hits Sarah with a football. A few months later, despite opposition from Sarah's rich family, they get married. They have kept a secret from each other: Tom doesn't tell Sarah that he accidentally killed her dog and Sarah doesn't tell Tom that she slept with Peter Prentiss, a childhood friend and her family's friend, after she and Tom started dating.
Flying to Europe for their honeymoon, they attempt to consummate their marriage by joining the mile high club, but fail rather publicly. They arrive at their classy hotel at the foot of the Alps to find that Peter has sent them a bottle of cognac "with love", while Tom's friend Kyle has sent them a Thunderstick A-200 sex toy. Tom tries to force the toy's American plug into the European outlet and he shuts down the entire village's electricity. The newlyweds leave the hotel after Tom has a heated argument with the hotel owner and pays a large bill to repair the power.
While trying to find another hotel they crash their undersized car into a snowbank, stuck until daylight and once again unable to consummate their marriage. They make their way to Venice, staying at a pensione recommended by Tom's father. The pensione turns out to be a wreck, and they soon check out after a cockroach crawls over Tom when they tried to have sex. The couple secure a nice Venetian hotel with the grudging financial help of Sarah's father. They go sightseeing, but Tom quickly gets bored and abandons Sarah so he can watch sports in a bar. Sarah runs into Peter, who is staying at their hotel on business.
This prompts her to initiate a conversation with Tom in which he reveals that he accidentally killed her dog and she reveals she slept with Peter. The couple storm out of the hotel and each go their separate ways: Tom going back to the bar, where he meets American tourist Wendy, and Sarah going sightseeing, where Peter follows her. Wendy flirts and dances with Tom, who escapes through a bathroom window when he realizes she wants to have sex with him. He returns to the hotel, only to learn from the maître d' that Sarah has gone out with Peter for the evening.
Tom returns to the bar, only to be accosted by Wendy again. Tom tries to think of a clever way to get out of his situation, and finds himself tricked into walking her to his hotel room, where the girl rips off her top before Tom blurts out that he's on his honeymoon, upon which the girl finally leaves. Sarah gets drunk so Peter takes her back to the hotel. When he kisses her at the entrance, she slaps him and reminds him that she's on her honeymoon. Tom sees the kiss from the balcony but not the slap. When Tom confronts her in their room, Sarah finds Wendy's bra.
Peter bursts in to ask Sarah to run away with him to Seattle, leading to a fight that lands Tom and Sarah in jail – still without consummating their marriage. Peter bails them out and the couple angrily decide to go home to Los Angeles, returning to the opening moments of the film. Sarah has moved out and Tom wants to get back with her. Upon receiving advice from his father, Tom attempts to see Sarah at her family's estate, but gives up after unsuccessfully trying to ram the gate. However, Sarah opens the gate herself after seeing Tom make a romantic speech to the camera and the two rush out to proclaim their love for each other.
Sarah's family finally accepts Tom and Sarah's relationship. Cast Ashton Kutcher as Tom Leezak Brittany Murphy as Sarah McNerney Christian Kane as Peter Prentiss David Moscow as Kyle Monet Mazur as Lauren David Rasche as Mr. McNerney Veronica Cartwright as Mrs. McNerney/Pussy Thad Luckinbill as Willie McNerney Taran Killam as Dickie McNerney Raymond J. Barry as Mr. Leezak George Gaynes as Father Robert Alex Thomas as Fred Valeria Andrews as Wendy Reception Box office Just Married was successful at the box office. On a modest budget of $18 million, the film went on to gross $56,127,162 domestically and earned an additional $45,437,773 in foreign box office receipts, giving it a total worldwide gross of $101,564,935.
Critical response Just Married was released to generally negative critical reviews. At Rotten Tomatoes it has score of 20% based on 110 reviews, and the website's consensus states: "Just Married's plot is predictable, and the overdone pratfalls get tiresome." At Metacritic the film has a score of 28 out of 100 based on reviews from 27 critics indicating "Generally unfavorable reviews".Two out of five stars from MSN. Roger Ebert gave the film stars out of 4 stars, and called it a dumb sitcom. The film earned three Razzie Award nominations including Worst Actor (Ashton Kutcher), Worst Supporting Actress (Brittany Murphy) and Worst Screen Couple (Kutcher and Murphy), but failed to win in each of these categories.
References External links Category:20th Century Fox films Category:2000s romantic comedy films Category:American films Category:American romantic comedy films Category:English-language films Category:Films about vacationing Category:Films about weddings Category:Films directed by Shawn Levy Category:Films scored by Christophe Beck Category:Films set in the 1990s Category:Films set in Los Angeles Category:Films set in Venice Category:Films shot in Austria Category:Films shot in Los Angeles Category:Films shot in Venice Category:French-language films Category:German-language films Category:Italian-language films
The M47 bomb was a chemical bomb designed during World War II for use by the U.S. Army Air Forces. Design The bomb was designed for aerial bombardment and maximum efficiency after being dropped. Therefore, the bomb had a very thin metal sheet as its only cover, as little as . The bomb is approximately in diameter, with a nose the shape of a hemisphere. The M107 bomb fuse at the nose of the bomb detonated the weapon, allowing for the release of the contents inside. The bomb is designed to carry either white phosphorus (WP) or a mustard agent (H).
However, the H bomb filler was found to leak from the bomb when loaded, and the M47 and its variant M47A1 were not allowed to be loaded. This was due to the thin steel walls on the weapon. In storage and handling, both corrosion and rough handling were found to cause the bomb to leak. When the bomb is loaded with the chemical filler H, it weighs approximately , of which are from H. The M47 bomb can also be used as an incendiary device as well. A mixture of rubber and gasoline can be used in the field to produce a crude incendiary bomb.
A mixture of white phosphorus and jelled gasoline also produces a flammable mixture. Other mixtures include: LA-60 in which crude latex is combined with caustic soda, coconut oil, and water, crepe rubber (CR) in which crude latex reduced to a solid by precipitation and kneading, LA-100 in which crude latex is dried until it is 100% solid, smoked rubber sheets (SR) in which crude latex that has been dried over a fire until it is 100% solid. When used with these fillers, the bomb uses a black powder charge to ignite and scatter the incendiary materials. The bomb typically weighs about when the incendiary fillers are used.
Variants The M47A1 was designed to replace the M47. It has a thicker steel cover that is about thick and an acid resistant corrosion cover inside. The M47A2 was designed to fix the leaking problems of the M47 when the agent H was carried. On the inside it was coated with a special oil that protected against corrosion from the agent H. See also Air raid on Bari References Category:Chemical weapon delivery systems Category:World War II aerial bombs of the United States Category:Cold War aerial bombs of the United States Category:Chemical weapons of the United States
Julliberrie's Grave, also known as The Giant's Grave or The Grave, is an unchambered long barrow located near to the village of Chilham in the south-eastern English county of Kent. Probably constructed in the fourth millennium BCE, during Britain's Early Neolithic period, today it survives only in a state of ruin. Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe, Julliberrie's Grave belongs to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the River Stour.
Of these, it lies on the eastern side of the river, alongside the Shrub's Wood Long Barrow, while the third known example in this barrow group, Jacket's Field Long Barrow, is located on the western side. Julliberrie's Grave is long, high, and at its widest. It was originally larger, with the northern end having been destroyed. Unlike many other long barrows, no evidence for any Early Neolithic human remains have been found at the site; it is possible that its builders never placed human remains within it, or that such burials were included in the barrow's (since lost) northern end.
A broken polished stone axe was included in the centre of the monument, which archaeologists believe was likely placed there as part of a ritual act of deposition. A rectangular pit was dug into the western side of the barrow shortly after its completion, likely containing a ritual deposit of organic material, before being refilled. In the Iron Age, a hearth was established in the ditch circling the barrow; in the Romano-British period, human remains and a coin hoard were buried around its perimeter. Ensuing millennia witnessed local folklore grow up around the site, associating it with the burial of either a giant or an army and their horses.
The ruin attracted the interest of antiquarians in the 17th century, although was heavily damaged by chalk quarrying around the 18th. During the 18th and 19th century, antiquarians dug into the barrow at least twice, while cautious archaeological excavation took place in the 1930s. A Scheduled Ancient Monument, it is accessible to visitors all year around. Location and status Julliberrie's Grave is located on a shoulder of downland that flanks the eastern side of the River Stour. It is located just over half-a-mile southeast of St Mary's Church, Chilham, and can be inspected from an adjacent public path. It is recognised as a Scheduled Ancient Monument under British law.
Context The Early Neolithic was a revolutionary period of British history. Between 4500 and 3800 BCE, it saw a widespread change in lifestyle as the communities living in the British Isles adopted agriculture as their primary form of subsistence, abandoning the hunter-gatherer lifestyle that had characterised the preceding Mesolithic period. This came about through contact with continental societies, although it is unclear to what extent this can be attributed to an influx of migrants or to indigenous Mesolithic Britons adopting agricultural technologies from the continent. The region of modern Kent would have been a key area for the arrival of continental European settlers and visitors, because of its position on the estuary of the River Thames and its proximity to the continent.
Britain was largely forested in this period; widespread forest clearance did not occur in Kent until the Late Bronze Age (c.1000 to 700 BCE). Throughout most of Britain, there is little evidence of cereal or permanent dwellings from this period, leading archaeologists to believe that the Early Neolithic economy on the island was largely pastoral, relying on herding cattle, with people living a nomadic or semi-nomadic life. It is apparent that although a common material culture was shared throughout most of the British Isles in this period, there was great regional variation regarding the nature and distribution of settlement, architectural styles, and the use of natural resources.
The Stour Long Barrows Across Western Europe, the Early Neolithic marked the first period in which humans built monumental structures in the landscape. These were tombs that held the physical remains of the dead, and though sometimes constructed out of timber, many were built using large stones, now known as "megaliths". Individuals were rarely buried alone in the Early Neolithic, instead being interned in collective burials with other members of their community. The construction of these collective burial monumental tombs, both wooden and megalithic, began in continental Europe before being adopted in Britain in the first half of the fourth millennium BCE.
The Early Neolithic people of Britain placed far greater emphasis on the ritualised burial of the dead than their Mesolithic forebears had done. Many archaeologists have suggested that this is because Early Neolithic people adhered to an ancestor cult that venerated the spirits of the dead, believing that they could intercede with the forces of nature for the benefit of their living descendants. Given that other rites may have taken place around these monuments, historian Ronald Hutton termed them "tomb-shrines" to reflect their dual purpose. In Britain, these tombs were typically located on prominent hills and slopes overlooking the surrounding landscape, perhaps at the junction between different territories.
Archaeologist Caroline Malone noted that the tombs would have served as one of a variety of markers in the landscape that conveyed information on "territory, political allegiance, ownership, and ancestors." Many archaeologists have subscribed to the idea that these tomb-shrines served as territorial markers between different tribal groups, although others have argued that such markers would be of little use to a nomadic herding society. Instead it has been suggested that they represent markers along herding pathways. Many archaeologists have suggested that the construction of such monuments reflects an attempt to stamp control and ownership over the land, thus representing a change in mindset brought about by Neolithicisation.
Others have suggested that these monuments were built on sites already deemed sacred by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Archaeologists have differentiated these Early Neolithic tombs into a variety of different architectural styles, each typically associated with a different region within the British Isles. Passage graves, characterised by their narrow passage made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers covered in earth or stone, were predominantly located in northern Britain and southern and central Ireland. Alternately, across northern Ireland and central Britain long chambered mounds predominated, while in the east and south-east of Britain, earthen long barrows represented the dominant architectural trend.
These earthen long barrows were typically constructed of timber because building stone was scarce in southern Britain; archaeologist Aubrey Burl argued that these timber tombs might have been "even more eye-catching" than their stone counterparts, perhaps consisting of "towering carved poles, flamboyantly painted", but that evidence of such sculptures has not survived. Archaeologists are aware of around twelve Neolithic long barrows that are located in Kent. The best known of these are the Medway Megaliths, all of which are found in the vicinity of the River Medway and each of which contains a stone burial chamber. This use of stone as a building material sets these Medway Megaliths apart from Julliberrie's Grave and the Stour long barrows.
The decision by the builders of the Stour long barrows to not use stone was likely deliberate, for sarsens are naturally present in the local area and could have been obtained had they wanted them. Archaeologists recognise the Stour long barrows as a distinct regional grouping of this form of monument. The archaeologist Paul Ashbee thought that there was a typological link between Julliberrie's Grave and the long barrows on the chalk downlands of Sussex, despite the fact that they are over fifty miles apart from each other. The three tumuli are located within eight kilometres of each other, high up on the North Downs between Canterbury and Ashford.
As of 1998, Julliberrie's Grave is the only one of the trio to have been archaeologically excavated. Design and construction Trapezoidal in shape, Julliberrie's Grave is oriented on a north-northwest to south-southeast orientation. As of the mid-1930s, the barrow measured 43.9 metres (144 feet) in length, with a width of 14.6 metres (48 feet) at its northern end and 12.8 metres (42 feet) at its southern end. The tumulus measured 2.1 metres (7 feet) at its highest point. The long barrow was once larger than this; a letter written by an antiquarian in 1703 reported that the barrow was over 54.8 metres (180 feet) in length and over 12.1 metres (40 feet) in width at its widest section.
A ditch encircled the southern end and sides of the tumulus and was not broken by any causeways. Whether this ditch also encircled the barrow's northern end is unknown due to the damage to that end of the monument. The inclusion of an encircling ditch without breaks in it is also seen in some of the long barrows found along Britain's southern coast, in Hampshire and Dorset. No primary burials of human remains have been found in the barrow. This tumulus might therefore have been an example of a long barrow that did not contain a burial; several other empty examples are known.
Conversely, it could have been that human remains were located in the northern end of the mound, which was later destroyed — likely by chalk quarrying — prior to any archaeological excavation. It is possible that the barrow's purpose was not funerary, perhaps instead serving as a territorial marker. Julliberrie's Grave has not been firmly dated, and an understanding of its age relies upon circumstantial evidence. However, both its U-shaped plan and its lack of burials are representative of a later form in the European long barrow tradition. On the typological basis of a polished axe-head found within the barrow, the archaeologist Stuart Piggott suggested that the monument had been constructed at a late date within the Early Neolithic.
Deposits Located well into the original turf-core of the southern end of the barrow was a broken polished stone-axe, discovered during the 1937 excavation of the site. Given both the high status prestige of such an item and its location deep inside the barrow, various archaeologists have deemed it likely that it had been deliberately deposited into the barrow as part of a ritual act. The inclusion of an axe within the monument is not unique to Julliberrie's Grave; elsewhere in Britain, axes have been found deposited inside other Early Neolithic monuments, including both long barrows and causewayed enclosures.
Piggott highlighted that such polished axes have also been found in the long barrows of the Netherlands, furthermore highlighting that the style of the axe found within Julliberrie's Grave was akin to that found in the Netherlands, northern Germany, and Scandinavia, thereby suggesting a link between this part of Kent and those regions during the Early Neolithic. Ashbee suggested that the location of this axe reflects the existence of an axe cult that was present in both Kent and elsewhere during this period. On the western side of the barrow, a rectangular pit had been dug which measured 4.7 metres (15.5 feet) from east to west and 2.3 metres (7.75) feet from north to south, as well as to a depth of at least 1.5 metres (5 feet) below the mound's surface.
Its appearance suggested that care had been taken when both digging and filling it in; at its bottom was a deposit of lumpy chalk along with organic material that archaeologists in the 1930s could not identify, but which likely represented the item originally placed within the pit. Although no datable material was found within this pit, analysis of land mollusc shells recovered from both the top and the bottom of the pit suggested that it was broadly contemporary in date with the construction of the barrow itself. The archaeologist responsible for excavating this pit, Ronald Jessup, therefore suggested that the "burial pit" was "likely to postdate the mound only by a short period".
He thought that it may have contained "a ritual offering made at the completion of the barrow". Meaning and purpose Britain's Early Neolithic communities placed greater emphasis on the ritual burial of the dead than their Mesolithic forebears. Archaeologists have suggested that this is because Early Neolithic Britons adhered to an ancestor cult that venerated the spirits of the dead, believing that they could intercede with the forces of nature for the benefit of their living descendants. The archaeologist Robin Holgate stressed that rather than simply being tombs, the Medway Megaliths were "communal monuments fulfilling a social function for the communities who built and used them".
Thus, it has been suggested that Early Neolithic people entered into the tombs—which doubled as temples or shrines—to perform rituals honouring the dead and requesting their assistance. For this reason, the historian Ronald Hutton termed these monuments "tomb-shrines" to reflect their dual purpose. In Britain, these tombs were typically located on prominent hills and slopes overlooking the landscape, perhaps at the junction between different territories. The archaeologist Caroline Malone noted that the tombs would have served as one of various landscape markers that conveyed information on "territory, political allegiance, ownership, and ancestors". Many archaeologists have subscribed to the idea that these tomb-shrines were territorial markers between different tribes; others have argued that such markers would be of little use to a nomadic herding society.
Instead it has been suggested that they represent markers along herding pathways. The archaeologist Richard Bradley suggested that the construction of these monuments reflects an attempt to mark control and ownership over the land, thus reflecting a change in mindset brought about by the transition from the hunter-gatherer Mesolithic to the pastoralist Early Neolithic. Others have suggested that these monuments were built on sites already deemed sacred by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Subsequent history Iron Age and Romano-British history Archaeologists found evidence for activity at the site during the British Iron Age. In this period, a hearth was established in the barrow's western ditch.
The remains of two pots were found alongside this hearth; one was made from "friable reddish-brown ware with large flint grits" and the other from "sandy, brown fabric, smoothed on the inside and with a fine flint tempering". Romano-British finds are commonly located in and around Early Neolithic monuments, and at Julliberries' Grave there is evidence for what the archaeologist Paul Ashbee called "more than [a] casual Romano-British interest". Archaeologists found several Romano-British burials—both inhumations and cremations—just to the south of the long barrow. "Roman Burial I" was an inhumation of a child aged between 5 and 7, lain on its back with its feet to the northeast.
It had been buried with a bronze brooch used to pin a shroud, as well as a bronze bracelet on its right arm and both a pottery dish and a cup by its head, all artefacts dated to the middle of the first century CE. "Roman Burial II" contained a female skeleton aged around 17 at the time of death. She was positioned on her back with her feet facing westward. Interned with the grave were a dish and a cup, both also dated to the middle of the first century CE. Between Burial I and II was an area of "greasy yellow chalk", which the excavators believed represented evidence for the burial of an infant.
"Roman Burial III" contained six pottery vessels: a flagon, a butt-shaped beaker, two small cups, a dish, and a wide-mouthed bowl containing the cremated remains of a human cranium, as well as parts of the thorax and the long bones of a young adult. The bowl was placed atop six contiguous cervical vertebrae and a severed hand. The excavators believed that this was an early example of inhumation burial in Roman Britain, a practice that only became widespread in the third century CE. A pot containing a hoard of Roman coins dating to the era of the Emperor Constantine was buried in the vicinity of the barrow; it was rediscovered in the nineteenth century.
During the 1930s excavations, eight Roman coins of late fourth-century date were found below the turf at the southern end of the barrow – perhaps having been dropped from the hoard when it was discovered – while a Roman coin dating from the reign of the Emperor Magnus Maximus was found in ploughsoil. On the monument's south-eastern side had been a Romano-British hearth, which subsequently was used to deposit animal bones, oyster shells, a fragment of a glass cup, and pieces of pottery—including a piece of Samian ware—most of which dated to the first century CE. This had been topped by several large chalk flints.
Excavators interpreted this as "a rubbish dump", with the stones perhaps having come from a collapsed memorial cairn associated with the nearby burials. Excavation on the site's northwest corner also revealed worn sherds of Romano-British pottery, including a piece from a second-century Samian ware cup, located 15.2 cm (six inches) below the surface of the turf. Romano-British pottery sherds were also found in the upper level of the ditch around the barrow. The Romano-British burial of individuals around prehistoric barrows is not unique to Julliberrie's Grave and can be seen at other sites; for example, broadly contemporary with these burials were the cremation interments placed around a round barrow near Pakenham in Suffolk, Eastern England.
The archaeologist Howard Williams noted that the Romano-British use of such prehistoric monuments could have been because, at the time, they were regarded "as the embodiment of local deities, ancestors and group identity". He added that they "could have provided an important role in the construction and negotiation of social identities and power relations in Romano-British society, alternative to those resources and ideologies provided by the Roman state." Damage and dilapidation Jessup believed that at some point in the barrow's history, an encroaching chalk pit destroyed its northern end; by the mid-1930s, it was reported that this pit has "not been worked for the past century" and had been stabilised by the growth of vegetation, which was preventing any further erosion.
Conversely, Ashbee suggested that this damage might have been caused by a river meander gradually eroding that end. The northern end of the tumulus has also faced some damage from wastage, a result of rain water repeatedly dripping onto it from overhanging trees. Along part of the barrow's western side, ploughing has damaged the tumulus. Etymology, folklore, and literature By the early decades of the twentieth century, the archaeological site had come to be known as "Julliberrie's", "The Grave", and "The Giant's Grave" among residents of the local area. The -berrie element of the site's name may have derived from the Old English word beorg or beorge, meaning artificial mound or hill.
The Julli- element might have derived from an individual's name or might be a reference to jewels, items which locals could have thought were present inside the barrow. In his study of Kentish place names, the etymologist J. K. Wallenberg suggested that the name "Julliberrie's Grave" may have emerged from antiquarian speculation. During the 1930s, the idea that the barrow marked the grave of a giant was still present among the local population. Another tale recorded at the time was that the tumulus marked the burial place of one hundred horses and one hundred men who had been killed in battle but who could not be fitted into the graveyard of Chilham Church.
Also in this period, a local man named Mr Read, who lived in the neighbouring mill, said that his father had forbidden him from climbing the mound, because it would be disrespectful to stand upon a grave. Julliberrie's Grave also appears in R. Austin Freeman's 1936 novel The Penrose Mystery. Antiquarian and archaeological investigation Antiquarian descriptions and investigations Unlike the other two Stour long barrows, the existence of Julliberrie's Grave has been known for many centuries. In the writings of the antiquarian William Camden, Julliberrie's Grave is presented as the burial place of Julius Laberius, one of the tribunes of the Roman general Julius Caesar, who Camden alleged died fighting the Iron Age Britons in 54 BCE during the second of Caesar's invasions of Britain.
According to Camden: Below this town [Chilham], is a green barrow, said to be the burying-place of one Jul-Laber many ages since; who, some will tell you, was a Giant, others a Witch. For my own part, imagining all along that there might be something of real Antiquity couch'd under that name, I am almost perswaded [sic] that Laberius Durus the Tribune, slain by the Britains [sic]... was buried here; and that from him the Barrow was call'd Jul-Laber. Camden's ideas were largely accepted by later antiquarian commentators on the site, among them William Lambarde in his 1576 Perambulation of Kent, Richard Kilburne in his 1650 A Topographie of Kent, and Thomas Philipott in this 1659 Villare Cantianum.
The account would also influence William Gostling, who in various editions of his Walk in and About the City of Canterbury—published between 1774 and 1825—included the long barrow on a map, where he labelled it "Jullaber or Tomb of Laberius". Other prominent antiquarians also made visits to the site. The antiquarian John Aubrey visited in about 1671 when staying at Hothfield with his friend and patron, Nicholas Tufton, 3rd Earl of Thanet. Aubrey then made reference to the site in his unpublished document on British archaeology, Monumenta Britannica. In October 1722, the site was visited by the antiquarian William Stukeley, who made a drawing of the landscape around the long barrow; in October 1724, he returned to the site and produced a second sketch.
In May 1725 he again visited Chilham and on this occasion produced Prospect of Julaber's Grave from Chilham, a drawing from the vantage point of the Woolpack Inn. This and other drawings were converted into engravings by Elisha Kirkall and featured in Stukeley's publications. An excavation of the barrow was carried out by Lord Weymouth and Heneage Finch—later the 5th Earl of Winchelsea—in 1702 at the instigation of Thomas Thynne, 1st Viscount Weymouth, both of whom had antiquarian interests. Finch dug a shaft 1.5 metres (5 feet) in diameter through the middle of the mound and then expanded it into a 4.8 metre (16 foot) trench along the barrow's length.
He found a few bones he regarded as non-human and described a chalk cap covering core of dark earth within the barrow. In a letter Finch wrote to John Battely, the Archdeacon of Canterbury, shortly after the excavation, he noted that: "that it has been a burial-place is manifest, but of what people or time I find no marks." It was later noted that this was one of the earliest organised "barrow openings" to take place in England. Later excavation in the 1930s found surface-evidence of a cross-trench in the heart of a barrow; this may be evidence for another, un-documented excavation that had taken place, perhaps conducted by a member of the Wildman family who owned the Chilham Castle estate between 1792 and 1861.
In the early nineteenth century, the site's owner set up a fence around the barrow to prevent trespassers walking onto it; this was gone by the mid-1930s. It was during the digging of a post hole for the fence that the hoard of Roman coins was discovered. Although the site had long been recognised as a tumulus, it was only in 1868 that it was first recognised as a long barrow, by the archaeologist John Thurnam. In 1880, the archaeologist Flinders Petrie recorded the site among a list of Kentish earthworks, referring to it as "Julaber's Grave". It was then examined and recorded by the archaeologist O. G. S. Crawford in his 1924 Ordnance Survey, Professional Papers.
Jessup's excavation In July 1936, an excavation of the barrow was carried out under the directorship of the archaeologist Ronald Jessup. The excavation was both instigated and funded by the landowner who owned the barrow, Edmund Davis. After conducting this excavation, Jessup's team engaged in some conservation by filling in rabbit holes and removing thorn bushes that were damaging the barrow. In 1937, Davis paid for Jessup to run a second excavation at the site. This time lasting for eight weeks, the "primary object" of this excavation was to gain good dating evidence for the creation of the tumulus, something that had not been obtained in the 1936 excavation.
The lithics discovered at the site were analysed by the archaeologist Grahame Clark, while the pottery was examined by his colleague, Stuart Piggott. Jessup's investigation confirmed Thurnam's view that the tumulus was a Neolithic long barrow, ascertained that the northern end had been destroyed, and revealed both the polished stone axe and the Romano-British burials. Characterising Jessup's excavation as "careful, [and] comprehensive", Ashbee later related that it was one of "a small series of long barrow excavations carried out" during the 1930s which "were the valued precedents" of those carried out after the Second World War.
References Footnotes Bibliography Further reading External links Julliberrie's Grave at Historic England Julliberrie's Grave at The Megalithic Portal Julliberrie's Grave at The Modern Antiquarian Julliberrie's Grave at the Kent County Council website Category:Archaeological sites in Kent Category:Borough of Ashford Category:Barrows in the United Kingdom Category:Buildings and structures in Kent Category:Stone Age sites in Kent Category:Megalithic monuments in England
Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the Russian SFSR located on the Crimean Peninsula. History It was created on October 18, 1921, as the Crimean Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic of the Russian SFSR. It was renamed the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on December 5, 1936 by the VIII Extraordinary Congress of Soviets of the USSR. Crimea was under de facto control of Nazi Germany from September 1942 to October 1943, administratively incorporated into as . Alfred Frauenfeld was appointed as General Commissar (although it seems that Frauenfeld spent most of his time in Crimea researching the peninsula's Gothic heritage and the actual government was in the hands of Erich von Manstein).
In 1944, under the pretext of alleged collaboration of the Crimean Tatars with the Nazi occupation regime, the Soviet government on orders of Joseph Stalin and Lavrentiy Beria deported the Crimean Tatar people from Crimea. Actual collaboration in the military sense had been rather limited, with a recorded 9,225 Crimean Tatars serving in anti-Soviet Tatar Legions and other German formed battalions, but there was in fact a surprisingly high degree of co-operation between the occupation government and the local administration; this has been significantly due to Frauenfeld's unwillingness to implement the policy of brutality towards the local population pursued by Erich Koch, which led to a series of public conflict between the two men.
The constitutional rights of the forcibly-resettled Tatars were restored with a decree dated September 5, 1967, but they were not allowed to return until the last days of the Soviet Union. The Crimean ASSR was converted into the Crimean Oblast of the RSFSR on June 30, 1945 by the decree of the both presidia of the Supreme Soviet of USSR and the Supreme Soviet of RSFSR (published on May 26, 1946), and the Crimean Oblast was transferred to the Ukrainian SSR in 1954. The ASSR was re-established on February 12, 1991 by the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR following a referendum held on January 20, 1991, and it became the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, part of the newly independent state of Ukraine, effective May 6, 1992.
Administrative divisions With the establishment of the autonomous republic in 1921, Crimea was divided into seven okrugs, which in turn were divided into 20 raions: Dzhankoy Yevpatoriya Kerch Sevastopol Simferopol Feodosiya Yalta In November 1923, the okrugs were abolished and 15 raions were created instead, but in 1924, five of these were abolished. On 30 October 1930, the remaining ten raions were reorganized into 16 new ones, and four cities under direct republican control. In 1935, 10 new raions were added and one abolished. In 1937, one more raion was established. Some of the raions had national status for Crimean Tatars, Jews, Germans and Ukrainians.
By the beginning of World War II, all of these raions had lost their national status.
Heads of State Russian SFSR Central Executive Committee November 7, 1921 – August 1924 Yuri Gaven (Janis Daumanis) August 1924 – January 28, 1928 Veli Ibraimov January 28, 1928 – February 20, 1931 Memet Kubayev February 20, 1931 – September 9, 1937 Ilyas Tarkhan (arrested on September 8, 1937) September 9, 1937 – July 21, 1938 Abdul-Celil Menbariyev Supreme Soviet July 21, 1938 – May 18, 1944 Abdul-Celil Menbariyev (deported to Middle Asia as part of Stalin's collective punishment for collaboration with the Nazis) May 18, 1944 – June 30, 1945 N.Sachiova (acting) Ukrainian SSR/Ukraine March 22, 1991 – May 9, 1994 Mykola Bahrov Heads of Government Chairmen of Revkom November 16, 1920 – February 20, 1921 Bela Kun February 20, 1921 – November 7, 1921 Mikhail Poliakov (become the one of NKVD troika) Council of People's Commissars November 11, 1921 – May 16, 1924 Sakhib-Garey Said-Galiyev May 16, 1924 – May 1924 I.Goncharov (acting) May 1924 – March 21, 1926 Osman Deren-Ayerly March 21, 1926 – May 1929 Emir Shugu May 1929 – September 16, 1937 Abduraim Samedinov (arrested September 17, 1937) 1937 – April 5, 1942 Memet Ibraimov April 5, 1942 – May 18, 1944 Ismail Seyfullayev (under de facto control of Nazi Germany during September 1, 1942 to October 23, 1943) May 18, 1944 – June 30, 1945 Aleksandr Kabanov Council of Ministers March 22, 1991 – May 20, 1993 Vitaliy Kurashik Principal Chekists Cheka until April 1921 Mikhail Vikhman (later in Chernihiv) April 1921 – June 1921 Smirnov June 20, 1921 – 1921 Fyodor Fomin (transferred to Kiev) November 11, 1921 – February 1922 Aleksandr Rotenberg Crimea GPU February 1922 – September 11, 1922 Aleksandr Rotenberg September 11, 1922 – April 25, 1923 Stanislav Redens Merged GPU April 25, 1923 – June 9, 1924 Stanislav Redens May 20, 1924 – July 29, 1925 Sergei Szwarz (transferred to the Special department of the Black Sea Navy) 1925 Aleksandr Toropkin (transferred to Ural) October 1926 – April 26, 1928 Ivan Apeter (transferred to the Special department of the Black Sea Navy) OGPU April 26, 1928 – December 1929 Grigoriy Rapoport (transferred to Belarus Military District) January 23, 1930 – July 10, 1934 Eduard Salins (Eduards Saliņš) Narkom of State Security February 26, 1941 – July 31, 1941 Major Grigoriy Karanadze October 5, 1943 – July 5, 1945 Commissar of the 3rd rank Pyotr Fokin See also Crimea Regional Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine List of Chairmen of the Executive Committee of Crimea Notes References Category:Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union Category:Early Soviet republics Category:Subdivisions of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic * Category:Former subdivisions of Ukraine Category:Russian-speaking countries and territories Category:States and territories established in 1921 Category:States and territories disestablished in 1945 Category:States and territories established in 1991 Category:States and territories disestablished in 1992 Category:Autonomous republics of Ukraine
Jacques Pills (7 January 1906, Tulle, France – 12 September 1970) was a French singer and actor, born René Jacques Ducos. His impresario was Bruno Coquatrix. In 1959, Pills was the Monegasque entrant at the Eurovision Song Contest 1959 with the song "Mon ami Pierrot". The song ended last, in eleventh place and got only one point. During the 1930s he appeared frequently alongside Georges Tabet. Personal life He married Lucienne Boyer in 1939 and they were divorced in 1951. On 20 September 1952, he married singer Édith Piaf. However, in 1957, this marriage also ended in divorce. He was the father of Jacqueline Boyer, who won the 1960 Eurovision contest the year after her father's participation.
Selected filmography 1953 – Boum sur Paris 1949 – Une femme par jour 1945 – Alone in the Night 1945 – Marie la Misere 1942 – Pension Jonas 1936 – Toi, c'est moi 1936 – Prends la route 1934 – Princesse Czardas 1933 – Mademoiselle Josette, My Woman 1932 – A Gentleman of the Ring References External links Category:French male singers Category:French male film actors Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Monaco Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1959 Category:1906 births Category:1970 deaths Category:People from Tulle Category:20th-century French male actors Category:20th-century French singers Category:20th-century male singers
Malaise Era is a term describing American cars from roughly 1973 to 1983 during which American cars suffered from very poor performance. Until this time the automotive industry in the United States had relied on powerful but inefficient engines to drive the typically large and heavy vehicles. For example, in 1971 the popular Chevrolet Caprice’s standard engine was a V8, with which it attained a fuel efficiency rating of , and it was even worse with any of the other optional, more powerful engines. The period began with the 1973 oil crisis, by the end of which, in March 1974, the price of oil had nearly quadrupled, from US$3 per barrel to nearly $12 globally; US prices were significantly higher.
The result was a sudden switch in consumer taste from traditional US gas-guzzlers to more efficient compact cars. Since the US manufacturers did not have these products, European and Japanese models increased their market share. The United States Environmental Protection Agency then legislated for fuel efficiency through the vehicle emissions control, and in 1978 the Energy Tax Act legislated to discourange inefficient vehicles. In 1979, oil and gas prices again increased significantly, doubling over a 12-month period, and there was a shift in customer preference to smaller, more efficient vehicles. American automakers began introducing a series of smaller, less powerful models to more directly compete against particularly the Japanese offerings.
The phrase, coined by journalist Murilee Martin, makes reference to US President Jimmy Carter's so-called malaise speech in which he discussed America's failure to deal with the 1979 oil crisis. References Category:Automotive industry in the United States Category:Cars by period Category:Conservation and restoration of vehicles
The Cleveland Show is an American animated sitcom created by Seth MacFarlane, Richard Appel, and Mike Henry for the Fox Broadcasting Company as a spin-off of Family Guy. The series centered on the Browns and Tubbs, two dysfunctional families consisting of parents Cleveland Brown and Donna Tubbs and their children Cleveland Brown Jr., Roberta Tubbs, and Rallo Tubbs. Similar to Family Guy, it exhibited much of its humor in the form of cutaway gags that often lampoon American culture, though it uses significantly fewer than Family Guy. The series was conceived by MacFarlane in 2007 after developing the two animated series Family Guy and American Dad!
for the Fox network. MacFarlane centered the show on Family Guy character Cleveland Brown, his new wife Donna Tubbs, his step-children Rallo and Roberta Tubbs, and his son Cleveland, Jr., who, in the show, is depicted as an obese, soft-spoken teen, as opposed to his depiction as a younger, hyperactive child with average body weight on Family Guy. The series originally aired from September 27, 2009, to May 19, 2013, for a total of four seasons and 88 episodes. The Cleveland Show was nominated for one Annie Award, one Primetime Emmy Award, and two Teen Choice Awards, but received mixed reviews from media critics.
The series was canceled after its fourth season. Cleveland has since returned to Family Guy, accompanied by the rest of the Brown-Tubbs family, as of the twelfth season episode "He's Bla-ack!". In July 2010, the Turner Broadcasting System picked up syndication rights, for their networks TBS and Adult Swim. The series first aired in syndication on Adult Swim on Cartoon Network in the United States on September 29, 2012 and on MuchMusic in Canada on September 2, 2013. Although the series was considered a TBS series, the series was broadcast on Adult Swim and MuchMusic. On October 7, 2018, the series stopped airing on Adult Swim and TBS in the United States.
On August 31, 2017, the series stopped airing on MuchMusic in Canada. On July 14, 2018, Comedy Central picked up the rights to the series and it began airing on Comedy Central in the United States on October 8, 2018 and moved to Teletoon at Night in Canada on September 1, 2018. Production Development Seth MacFarlane initially conceived The Cleveland Show in 2007 while working on his other two animated series, Family Guy and American Dad!. The Cleveland Show first appeared on the development slate at Fox in early 2008, under no official name for the pilot, after a report that Fox had purchased the series from creators.
On May 5, 2008, MacFarlane and 20th Century Fox Television inked a deal. The pilot was named The Cleveland Show in May 2008, when it appeared on the primetime slate for the 2008–09 television season, although it wasn't officially on the network schedule. Shortly after a report that King of the Hill just ended, leaving air time for The Cleveland Show, the show was picked up for a full season after an additional nine episodes of the show were ordered. In May 2009, The Cleveland Show appeared on the primetime slate for the 2009–10 television season, for airing on Sunday nights at 8:30 pm On June 15, 2009, it was announced that The Cleveland Show would premiere on September 27, 2009.
MacFarlane and Henry pitched a 22-minute pilot to Fox which aired on September 27, 2009, but had been leaked on the internet in June 2009. Even before the pilot episode premiered, the show had already been renewed for a 22-episode second season. After the first season of the show aired, it was given the green light to start production. On June 10, 2010, less than three weeks into the first season's summer hiatus, it was announced that Fox was ordering a third season. A fourth season was announced on May 9, 2011, just a few days before the second season concluded.
Executive producers Seth MacFarlane, Mike Henry and Richard Appel served as executive producers on the series since the first season. Voice cast Mike Henry voices two of the show's main characters: Cleveland Brown and Rallo Tubbs. The voice of Cleveland was developed originally for Family Guy by Henry after being influenced by one of his best friends who had a very distinct regional accent. For the voice of Rallo, Henry stated that he originally created the voice over twenty years before; he had used it while making prank phone calls. Sanaa Lathan voices Donna Tubbs, the wife of Cleveland, stepmother of Cleveland Brown Jr., and mother of Roberta and Rallo Tubbs.