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The longer barrel allows ammunition to attain higher velocities; for example, with new kinetic energy penetrators ammunition can reach velocities of around . The new barrel weighs . The longer tank gun has been retrofitted into the Leopard 2, creating a model known as the Leopard 2A6. Both the Spanish Leopard 2E and the Greek Leopard 2HEL, as derivatives of the Leopard 2A6, use the 55 caliber-long tank gun. Rheinmetall Rh-130 L/51 Rheinmetall introduced a larger Rh-130 130 mm L/51 tank gun at Eurosatory 2016 in June 2016. Development commenced in 2015, financed entirely using internal funding, as a response to the Russian introduction of new generation armored vehicles like the T-14 Armata tank, and the first technical demonstrator (TD) was completed in May 2016.
The new 130 mm gun has an L/51 chrome-lined smoothbore barrel with a vertical sliding breech mechanism, increased chamber volume, no muzzle brake, a thermal sleeve, and a muzzle reference system (MRS) enabling it to be boresighted on a more regular basis without the crew needing to leave the platform. Compared to the 2700 kg 120 mm gun, the 130 mm has a barrel and an all-up weight of 3000 kg including the recoil system. Rheinmetall is developing a new generation APFSDS round featuring a semi-combustible cartridge case, new propellant, and new advanced long rod tungsten penetrator as well as a high-explosive air-bursting munition (HE ABM) based on the 120 mm DM11 HE ABM in parallel with the gun; the cartridges are and long with, according to the company, the increase of 8% in caliber resulting in 50% more kinetic energy over the 120 mm gun.
Engineers believe the weapon can only be used with an automatic loader and new turret design. The gun commenced static firing trials at Rheinmetall's proving ground following Eurosatory, while engineers hope to receive a new NATO standard by the end of 2016, although development of the gun and ammunition will likely take 8–10 years. The 130 mm is designed to equip the Main Ground Combat System (MGCS), a joint effort between Germany and France to produce a successor to the Leopard 2 and Leclerc, possibly to be launched between 2025–2030. Ammunition A variety of rounds have been developed for Rheinmetall's tank gun.
For example, a long line of armor-piercing discarding sabot (APDS) rounds was developed by Rheinmetall. Originally, the Leopard 2 was outfitted with the DM23 kinetic energy penetrator, based on the Israeli 105 mm M111 Hetz which itself was a licensed copy of the American M735 round. The DM23 was eventually replaced by the DM33, which was also adopted by Japan, Italy, Netherlands and Switzerland. The DM33 has a three-part aluminum sabot and a two-part tungsten penetrator, and is said to be able to penetrate of steel armor at a range of . The DM43 is a further development of this round, co-developed between Germany and France.
The introduction of the longer barrel came hand in hand with the introduction of a new kinetic energy penetrator, the DM53. With the projectile including sabot weighing in at 8.35 kilograms with a 38:1 length to diameter ratio and with a muzzle velocity of , the DM53 has an effective engagement range of up to . A further development, called the DM63, improved upon the round by introducing a new temperature-independent propellant, which allows the propellant to have a constant pattern of expansion between ambient temperatures inside the gun barrel from to . The new propellant powders, known as surface-coated double-base (SCDB) propellants, allow the DM63 to be used in many climates with consistent results.
The new ammunition has been accepted into service with the Dutch and Swiss, as well as German, armies. The United States developed its own kinetic energy penetrator (KEP) tank round in the form of an Armor-Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding-Sabot (APFSDS) round, using a depleted uranium (DU) alloy long-rod penetrator (LRP), designated as the M829, followed by improved versions. An immediate improvement, known as the M829A1, was called the "Silver Bullet" after its good combat performance during the Gulf War against Iraqi T-55s, T-62s and T-72 tanks. The M829 series centers around the depleted uranium penetrator, designed to penetrate enemy armor through kinetic energy and to shatter inside the turret, doing much damage within the tank.
In 1998, the United States military introduced the M829A2, which has an improved depleted uranium penetrator and composite sabot petals. In 2002, production began of the ($10,000 per round) M829A3 using a more efficient propellant (RPD-380 stick), a lighter injection-molded sabot, and a longer (800mm) and heavier (10 kg / 22 lb) DU penetrator, which is said to be able to defeat the latest versions of Russian Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armor (ERA). This variant is unofficially referred to by Abrams tank crews as the "super sabot". In response to the M829A3, the Russian army designed Relikt, the most modern Russian ERA, which is claimed to be twice as effective as Kontakt-5.
A further improved M829E4 round with a segmented penetrator to defeat Relikt has been under development since 2011 and was to be fielded as the M829A4 in 2015. Both Germany and the United States have developed several other rounds. These include the German DM12 multi-purpose anti-tank projectile (MPAT), based on the technology in a high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead. However, it has been found that the DM12's armor-killing abilities are limited by the lack of blast and fragmentation effects, and that the round is less valuable against lightly armored targets. The United States also has a MPAT type projectile, known as the M830.
This was later developed into the M830A1, which allows the M1 Abrams to use the round against helicopters. The M1 Abrams can use the M1028 canister round, which is an anti-personnel/anti-helicopter munition, packed with over 1,000 tungsten balls. The United States Armed Forces accepted a new demolition round, called the M908 Obstacle Defeating Round, based on the M830A1 MPAT, but with the proximity fuse replaced by a hardened nose cap. The cap allows the round to impact and embed itself in concrete, then exploding inside the target and causing more damage. The Israeli Army introduced a new round known as the Laser Homing Anti-Tank (LAHAT) projectile.
Using a semi-active laser homing guidance method, the LAHAT can be guided by the tank's crew or by teams on the ground, while the missile's trajectory can be selected to either attack from the top (to defeat enemy armor) or direct attack (to engage enemy helicopters). Furthermore, the missile can be fired by both and 120 mm tank guns. The LAHAT has been offered as an option for the Leopard 2, and has been marketed by both Israel Military Industries and Rheinmetall to Leopard 2 users. Israeli Merkavas make use of a round known as the APAM, which is an anti-personnel munition designed to release fragmentation at controlled intervals to limit the extent of damage.
Fragments are shaped to have enough kinetic energy to penetrate body armor. Poland has introduced a series of projectiles for Rheinmetall's tank gun, including an armor-piercing penetrator target practice round (APFSDS-T-TP), a high-explosive round, and a high-explosive target practice (HE-TP) projectile. The ammunition is manufactured by Zakłady Produkcji Specjalnej Sp. z o.o. Ammunition table Kinetic energy projectiles Operators Due to tank sales, Rheinmetall's L/44 tank gun has been manufactured for other nations. For example, the Leopard 2 armed with the 44 caliber long gun, has been sold to the Netherlands, Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, Austria, Denmark, Finland, and other countries. Egypt had manufactured 700–800 M1A1 Abrams by 2005, and in 2008 requested permission to build another 125 tanks; their M256 main guns (the US version of the L/44) were manufactured by Watervliet Arsenal.
The M1A1 has also been exported to Australia, while the M1A2 Abrams has been exported to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. The American license-built M256 has also been offered by General Dynamics Land Systems as part of the M60-2000 Main Battle Tank which would upgrade older M60 Patton tanks to have capabilities of their M1A1 Abrams at a reduced cost, though the company has not yet found a buyer. The Leopard 2A6 and its longer L/55 main gun have been exported for use by the Canadian Army, and the Netherlands upgraded part of its original fleet of Leopard 2s with the more powerful armament.
The British Army has tested Rheinmetall's longer gun, possibly looking to replace the current L30A1 120 mm L/55 rifled main gun on the Challenger 2. Two Challenger 2s were modified to undergo firing trials. Although South Korean K2 Black Panther is equipped with a L/55 main gun and shows similar characteristics as its German counterpart, it is indigenously developed by Agency for Defense Development and World Industries Ace Corporation (WIA), a Korea-based powertrain company affiliated with Hyundai Kia Motors Group. See also Weapons of comparable role, performance and era Royal Ordnance L30: British rifled equivalent EXP-28M1 120mm rifled tank gun: Experimental British weapon of the late 1970s/early 1980s.
Was to have equipped the MBT-80. GIAT CN120-26/52: French equivalent IMI 120 mm gun: Israeli equivalent WIA 120 mm gun: South Korean equivalent 2A46 125 mm gun: Russian 125-mm equivalent 2A82 125 mm gun: new Russian 125-mm equivalent JSW 120mm gun: Japanese equivalent Notes Sources External links Website of Rheinmetall Defence Category:120 mm artillery Category:Tank guns of Germany Category:Cold War artillery of Germany 120 mm gun Category:Tank guns
A geminal diol (or gem-diol for short) is any organic compound having two hydroxyl functional groups (-OH) bound to the same carbon atom. Geminal diols are a subclass of the diols, which in turn are a special class of alcohols. Most of the geminal diols are considered unstable. The simplest geminal diol is methanediol or . Other examples are: dihydroxymalonic acid decahydroxycyclopentane chloral hydrate . Reactions Hydration equilibrium Geminal diols can be viewed as ketone (or aldehyde) hydrates. The two hydroxyls in a geminal diol are easily converted to a carbonyl or keto group C=O by loss of one water molecule.
Conversely, a keto group can combine with water to form the geminal hydroxyls. The equilibrium in water solution may be shifted towards either compound. For example, the equilibrium constant for the conversion of acetone =O to propane-2,2-diol is about 10−3, while that of formaldehyde =O to methanediol is 10+3. For conversion of hexafluoroacetone =O to the diol , the constant is about 10+6, due to the electron withdrawing effect of the trifluoromethyl groups. Similarly, the conversion of chloral =O to chloral hydrate is strongly favored by influence of the trichloromethyl group. In some cases, such as decahydroxycyclopentane and dodecahydroxycyclohexane, the geminal diol is stable while the corresponding ketone is not.
Geminal diols can also be viewed as extreme cases of hemiacetals, formed by reaction of carbonyl compounds with water, instead of with an alcohol. See also Hemiacetal Geminal Vicinal (chemistry) References
The Club Foot Orchestra is a multi-faceted musical ensemble whose live performances of modern scores for silent film sparked a revival in the genre that continues today. Their innovative style creates a musical atmosphere that brings silent film into the modern era, synthesizing sounds of Eastern European music, Impressionism, and Jazz Fusion. The New Yorker said "This is music that bubbles up from the intersection of aesthetics and the id," They have performed at Lincoln Center, Symphony Space, The Smithsonian, World Financial Center, SF Jazz, and their home at the Castro Theater in San Francisco, among many other venues in the US, Mexico, and Canada.
History Founded by Beth Custer and Richard Marriott, the ensemble got its name from a performance art nightclub called the Club Foot which flourished during the 1980s in the Bayview district of San Francisco. Marriott, who lived upstairs, formed a house band that came to be called the "Club Foot Orchestra." Two albums released on Ralph Records document the music of this period: Wild Beasts and Kidnapped. Richard Marriott still serves as the group's creative and artistic director. The Club Foot Orchestra performs live with a variety of feature-length and short-subject silent films ranging from German Expressionist to Comedy Their unique compositions often rely on a collaborative writing process that makes their scores both varied and cohesive.
This collaborative process is a fundamental element in their unique musical style. They also perform music in other genres, such as Custer's score for choreographer Joe Goode's Maverick Strain performance installation and Marriott's scores for Della Davidson's Ten PM Dream and Eva Luna. Current members Beth Custer, clarinets, keyboard Sheldon Brown, woodwinds Chris Grady, trumpet Richard Marriott, brass, woodwinds Gino Robair, percussion Will Bernard, guitar Kymry Esainko, piano Alisa Rose, violin Sascha Jacobson, double bass Deirdre McClure, conductor Silent Film Scoring Marriott explained how they started writing for movies: I became interested in doing something visually that further expressed the ideas behind the music; something that would help put the music in context.
I considered projecting slides of experimental art on a screen behind us. Then a friend suggested, after catching our show: "The music is so cinematic, why don't you take outtakes of 1950s sitcoms and score them." I put it under my hat. Later that night I saw a Lily Tomlin skit on Saturday Night Live. She was reading the Dow Jones averages of various art trends. She reported, "Pop art up 10... Op art up 20... Expressionism down 30." I turned the channel. And there was The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. The distorted sets and dreamlike atmosphere in the film were the qualities that I always envisioned accompanying our music.
The subversive plot was drenched in the unconscious. I was obsessed to write for that film. Marriott's score premiered at the 1987 Mill Valley Film Festival. After touring with Caligari, Marriott wrote a score for the 1922 F. W. Murnau horror classic Nosferatu, with sections contributed by Gino Robair, introducing the period of collaborative composition. Nosferatu is a powerful and evocative score and proved equally successful with audiences, and led to an appearance at New Music America in New York City in 1989. Over the next 10 years, new scores for the films Metropolis, Sherlock Jr., Pandora's Box and The Hands of Orlac were composed by the group and performed throughout the US, following their premieres at the Castro Theater.
Many short subject films were also composed during this time. Francis Lederer, who played Alwa Schön in Pandora's Box, attended a screening of that film in 1995 at the Nuart Theater in Los Angeles. Buster Keaton's wife Eleanor attended a screening of Sherlock Jr. in 1993, and exclaimed, "Bravo Club Foot Orchestra! Buster would have loved your music." In 1999 a smaller version of the orchestra, along with Gamelan Sekar Jaya, performed with the film Legong: Dance of the Virgins, co-written by Marriott and Indonesian composer Made Subandi. More recently, the group has performed new scores for Battleship Potemkin, Phantom of the Opera, and Go West, in addition to Marriott's reworking of Metropolis to match the newly restored and much longer print.
Three new Buster Keaton short-subject films (The Blacksmith, One Week, Cops) were showcased in a Club Foot Orchestra retrospective hosted by the San Francisco Silent Film Festival at the Castro Theater in September 2018. The Club Foot Gamelan premiered a score for the silent Indonesian film Goona Goona at the 2019 San Francisco Silent Film Festival, featuring the Balinese virtuosos Nyoman Windha and Dewa Barata. In 2019 - 2020, the Club Foot Modern Machines has been performing yet another new score for Metropolis, this time featuring kinetic sound-producing sculptures created by Matt Heckert, Kal Spelletich, and Obtainium Works. Twisted Tales of Felix the Cat In 1995, The Club Foot Orchestra scored and recorded 39 episodes of the CBS cartoon series The Twisted Tales of Felix the Cat, produced by FIlm Roman.
Gino Robair produced the cartoon's soundtrack, which was recorded at Hyde Street Studios in San Francisco and later at Guerilla Euphonics in Oakland. All members of the group, which at the time included Myles Boisen, Matt Brubeck, Catherine Clune, Steve Kirk, Nik Phelps, and Elliot Kavee, wrote music for these episodes.
Film Scores (Features) The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1987, Composer: Marriott) Nosferatu (1989, Composers: Marriott, Robair) Metropolis (Moroder edit) (1991, Composers: Marriott, Kirk, Brown, Phelps, Boisen, Custer) Sherlock Jr. (1992, Composers: Marriott, Boisen, Kirk, Brown, Custer, Phelps) Pandora's Box (1995, Composers: Marriott, Brown, Boisen, Brubeck, Kirk, Custer, Phelps, Kavee) Hands of Orlac (1997, Composers: Marriott, Brown, Robair) Legong Dance of the Virgins (1999, Composers: Marriott, Subandi) Battleship Potemkin (2005, Composer: Marriott) Phantom of the Opera (2005, Composer: Marriott) Metropolis (Complete) (2013, Composer: Marriott) Go West (2015, Composers: Marriott, Custer, Brown) Film Scores (Shorts and Smaller Ensembles) Entr'acte (1989, Composer: Satie; Arrangers: Cowart, McClure) Pool of Thanatos (1991, Composer: Custer) Felix the Cat Woos Whoopie (1992, Composer: Club Foot Orchestra) Koko Convict (1992, Composer: Kirk) How a Mosquito Operates (1992, Composer: Boisen) Cops (1993, Composers: Kirk, Brown, Boisen) The Idea (1993, Composer: Phelps) Steamboat Bill (2011, Composer: Marriott) The Golem (2011, Composers: Brown, Rose, Marriott) The Godless Girl (2011, Composer: Marriott) One Week (2018, Composer: Marriott) The Blacksmith (2018, Composer: Custer) Cops (new score) (2018, Composer: Brown) Goona Goona (2019, Composer: Marriott) Discography Wild Beasts, 1986 (Vinyl), Ralph Records, San Francisco Kidnapped, 1987 (Vinyl), Ralph Records, San Francisco The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, 1988 (Cassette/VHS), Ralph Records, San Francisco Nosferatu, 1989 (Cassette/VHS), Ralph Records, San Francisco Metropolis (live recording), 1991 (CD), Heyday Records, San Francisco Kidnapped, Wild Beasts & More, reissue 1995 (compilation CD), Rastascan Sherlock Jr. & Felix 1995 (CD), Rastascan Plays Nino Rota: Selections From la Dolce Vita, Amarcord, Nights of Cabiria, 8½, Rastascan Nosferatu Live at the World Financial Center January 25, 2001 (CD), Conceptual Noise, San Francisco Legong: Dance of the Virgins, 2004 (DVD), Milestone, New York Legong: Dance of the Virgins, Live Recording, 2013 (CD), Conceptual Noise, San Francisco References Category:American orchestras Category:Musical groups established in 1983 Category:Orchestras based in California
Kosher foods are those that conform to the Jewish dietary regulations of kashrut (dietary law), primarily derived from Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Food that may be consumed according to halakha (law) is termed kosher () in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér (), meaning "fit" (in this context, fit for consumption). Food that is not in accordance with law is called treif (; , derived from trāfáh) meaning "torn." Permitted and forbidden animals The Torah permits eating only those land animals that chew their cud and have cloven hooves. Four animals, the hare, hyrax, camel, and pig, are specifically identified as being forbidden because they possess only one of the above characteristics: the hare, hyrax and camel are hindgut fermenters and chew their cud but do not have cloven hooves, while the pig has a cloven hoof but does not chew its cud.
The Torah lists winged creatures that may not be consumed, mainly birds of prey, fish-eating water-birds, and bats. Certain domesticated fowl can be eaten, such as chicken, geese, quail, dove, and turkey. The Torah permits fish residing in "the waters" (seas and rivers) only having both fins and scales. However, monkfish is not considered kosher, and other seafood considered non-kosher includes shellfish like clams, oysters, crabs and shrimps. There is also a risk of products like seaweed and kelp being contaminated by microscopic, non-kosher crustaceans. The Torah forbids two types of sherets (creeping things): Earth crawlers, e.g. mouse, lizard Flying creeping things, with four exceptions: Two types of locust, the beetle/cricket, and the grasshopper.
Animal products In addition to meat, products of forbidden species and from unhealthy animals were banned by the Talmudic writers. This included eggs (including fish roe) and milk, as well as derived products such as cheese and jelly, but did not include materials merely "manufactured" or "gathered" by animals, such as honey (although, in the case of honey from animals other than bees, there was a difference of opinion among the ancient writers). According to the rabbinical writers, eggs from ritually pure animals would always be prolate ("pointy") at one end and oblate ("rounded") at the other, helping to reduce uncertainty about whether consumption was permitted or not.
Dairy products The classic rabbinical writers imply that milk from an animal whose meat is kosher is also kosher. As animals are considered non-kosher if they are discovered to have been diseased after being slaughtered, this could make their milk retroactively non-kosher. However, by adhering to the principle that the majority case overrules the exception, Jewish tradition continues to regard such milk as kosher, since statistically it is true that most animals producing such milk are kosher; the same principle is not applied to the possibility of consuming meat from an animal that has not been checked for disease. Rabbi Hershel Schachter, a prominent rosh yeshiva at Yeshiva University, made the claim that with modern dairy farm equipment, milk from the minority of nonkosher cows is invariably mixed with that of the majority of kosher cows, thus invalidating the permissibility of consuming milk from a large dairy operation.
Some rabbis, however, rule milk permissible. Human breast milk Breast milk from a human female is permitted. However, authorities assert breast milk may be consumed directly from the breasts only by children younger than four (five if the child is ill), and children older than two were only permitted to continue to suckle if they had not stopped doing so for more than three consecutive days. Cheese The situation of cheese is complicated as hard cheese usually involves rennet, an enzyme that splits milk into curds and whey. Most forms of rennet were formerly derived from the stomach linings of animals, but currently rennet is most often made recombinantly in microbes.
Because the rennet could be derived from animals, it could potentially be nonkosher. Only rennet made recombinantly, or from the stomachs of kosher animals, if they have been slaughtered according to the laws of kashrut, is kosher. If a kosher animal is not slaughtered according to the halakha, the rennet is not kosher. Rennet is not considered a meat product and does not violate the prohibition of mixing meat and dairy. Jacob ben Meir, one of the most prominent medieval rabbis, championed the viewpoint that all cheese was kosher, a standpoint that was practiced in communities in Narbonne and Italy.
Contemporary Orthodox authorities do not follow this ruling, and hold that cheese requires formal kashrut certification to be kosher; some even argue this is necessary for cheese made with nonanimal rennet. In practice, Orthodox Jews, and some Conservative Jews who observe the kashrut laws, eat cheese only if they are certain the rennet itself was kosher. However, Isaac Klein's tshuva authorized the use of cheese made from non-kosher rennet, and this is widely practised by observant Conservative Jews and Conservative institutions. Eggs Eggs are considered pareve despite being an animal product. The Yoreh De'ah argues that if there is blood in the egg yolk, then hatching must have begun, and therefore consumption of the egg would be forbidden.
Modern Orthodox Jews adhere to these requirements; however, the Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews treat an egg as nonkosher if blood is found anywhere within it. Sephardi Orthodox Jews consider only blood in the yolk to be a problem, and treat eggs with blood in the albumen as legitimate food if the blood is removed before use. Today, when battery eggs form the majority of available produce, many permit the egg with a blood spot following the removal of any actual blood; battery eggs are unlikely to be able to form a viable embryo. Gelatin Gelatin is hydrolysed collagen, the main protein in animal connective tissue, and therefore could potentially come from a nonkosher source, such as pig skin.
Gelatin has historically been a prominent source of glue, finding uses from musical instruments to embroidery, one of the main historic emulsions used in cosmetics and in photographic film, the main coating given to medical capsule pills, and a form of food including jelly, trifle, and marshmallows; the status of gelatin in kashrut is consequently fairly controversial. Due to the ambiguity over the source of individual items derived from gelatin, many Orthodox rabbis regard it as generally being nonkosher. However, Conservative rabbis and several prominent Orthodox rabbis, including Chaim Ozer Grodzinski and Ovadia Yosefthe former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israelargue that gelatin has undergone such total chemical change and processing that it should not count as meat, and therefore would be kosher.
Technically, gelatin is produced by separating the three strands in each collagen fiber's triple helix by boiling collagen in water. Rabbi Dr. David Sheinkopf, author of Gelatin in Jewish Law (Bloch 1982) and Issues in Jewish Dietary Laws (Ktav 1998), has published in-depth studies of the kosher uses of gelatin, as well as carmine and kitniyot. One of the main methods of avoiding nonkosher gelatin is to substitute gelatin-like materials in its place; substances with a similar chemical behaviour include food starch from tapioca, chemically modified pectins, and carrageenan combined with certain vegetable gumsguar gum, locust bean gum, xanthan gum, gum acacia, agar, and others.
Although gelatin is used for several purposes by a wide variety of manufacturers, it has started to be replaced with these substitutes in a number of products, due to the use of gelatin also being a significant concern to vegans and vegetarians. Today manufacturers are producing gelatin from the skins of kosher fish, circumventing many of these problems. Ritual slaughter Of the rules appearing, in two groups, in Exodus, most do not express dietary laws, but one of the few dietary rules it does list is a ban on eating the meat from animals that have been "torn by beasts"; a related law appears in Deuteronomy's law code, totally prohibiting the consumption of anything that has died from natural causes, and even giving away or selling such things.
Some have claimed that the Book of Ezekiel implies that the rules about animals that die of natural causes, or are "torn by beasts", were adhered to only by the priests, and were intended only for them; the implication that they did not apply to, and were not upheld by, ordinary Israelites was noticed by the classical rabbis, who declared "the prophet Elijah shall some day explain this problematic passage". Traditional Jewish thought has expressed the view that all meat must come from animals that have been slaughtered according to Jewish law. These strict guidelines require the animal be killed by a single cut across the throat to a precise depth, severing both carotid arteries, both jugular veins, both vagus nerves, the trachea and the esophagus, no higher than the epiglottis and no lower than where cilia begin inside the trachea, causing the animal to bleed to death.
Orthodox Jews explain that this ensures the animal dies instantly without unnecessary suffering, but many animal rights activists view the process as cruel, claiming that the animal may not lose consciousness immediately, and activists have called for it to be banned. To avoid tearing, and to ensure the cut is thorough, such slaughter is usually performed by a trained individual, with a large, razor-sharp knife, which is checked before each slaughter to ensure that it has no irregularities (such as nicks and dents); if irregularities are discovered, or the cut is too shallow, the meat is deemed unkosher. Rabbis usually require the slaughterer, known within Judaism as a shochet, to also be a pious Jew of good character and an observer of the Shabbat.
In smaller communities, the shochet was often the town rabbi, or a rabbi from a local synagogue, but large slaughterhouses usually employ a full-time shochet if they intend to sell kosher meat. The Talmud, and later Jewish authorities, also prohibit the consumption of meat from animals who were slaughtered despite being in the process of dying from disease; but this is not based on concern for the health of the eater, instead being an extension of the rules banning the meat from animals torn by beasts, and animals that die from natural causes. To comply with this Talmudic injunction against eating diseased animals, Orthodox Jews usually require that the corpses of freshly slaughtered animals be thoroughly inspected.
There are 70 different traditional checks for irregularities and growths; for example, there are checks to ensure that the lungs have absolutely no scars, which might have been caused by an inflammation. If these checks are passed, the meat is then termed glatt (), the Yiddish word meaning smooth. Compromises in countries with animal cruelty laws that prohibit such practices involve stunning the animal to lessen the suffering that occurs while the animal bleeds to death. However, the use of electric shocks to daze the animal is often not accepted by some markets as producing meat that is kosher. As forbidden fats, tendons, blood vessels and the gid hanashe (sciatic nerve) must be removed, and this is more difficult in the rearquarters, often only cuts of meat from the forequarters are commonly available.
Foreleg, cheeks and maw The gift of the foreleg, cheeks and maw () of a kosher-slaughtered animal to a Kohen is a positive commandment in the Hebrew Bible. In rabbinical interpretation a continuing application of the commandment is identified. Rabbi Yosef Karo Shulchan Aruch Yoreh Deah 61:1, rules that after the slaughter of animal by a shochet (kosher butcher), the cuts of the foreleg, cheek and maw should be given to a kohen freely, without the kohen paying or performing any service. This giving is required to be free of both monetary and servicial compensation (B.Bechorot 27a). These gifts are entirely mundane ("chullin") and are not associated with all or part of the sacrificial offerings brought on the central altar in the Jerusalem temple (Mishna Hullin Ch.
10:1). Some chazal opinions maintain that consumption of the animal is forbidden before these gifts are given but halacha rules that although one may consume the meat before the gifts are given it is preferred to ensure the gifts are given prior to consumption. Furthermore, the actual foreleg, cheeks and maw of all kosher-slaughtered beef is forbidden to a non-kohen unless the kohen permits Blood One of the main biblical food laws forbids consuming blood on account of "the life [being] in the blood". This ban and reason are listed in the Noahide Laws and twice in Book of Leviticus as well as in Deuteronomy.
The Priestly Code also prohibits the eating of certain types of fat (chelev) from sacrificial land animals (cattle, sheep, and goats), since the fat is the portion of the meat exclusively allocated to God (by burning it on the altar). The classical rabbis argued that, in a number of cases, only if it is impossible to remove every drop of blood, the prohibition against consuming blood was impractical, and there should be rare exceptions: they claimed that consuming the blood that remained on the inside of meat (as opposed to the blood on the surface of it, dripping from it, or housed within the veins) should be permitted and that the blood of fish and locusts could also be consumed.
To comply with this prohibition, a number of preparation techniques became practiced within traditional Judaism. The main technique, known as meliḥah, involves the meat being soaked in water for about half an hour, which opens pores. After this, the meat is placed on a slanted board or in a wicker basket, and is thickly covered with salt on each side, then left for between 20 minutes and one hour. The salt covering draws blood from the meat by osmosis, and the salt must be subsequently removed from the meat (usually by trying to shake most of it off and then washing the meat twice) to complete the extraction of the blood.
The type of salt used in the process is known as kosher salt. Meliḥah is not sufficient to extract blood from the liver, lungs, heart, and certain other internal organs, since they naturally contain a high density of blood, and therefore these organs are usually removed before the rest of the meat is salted. Roasting, on the other hand, discharges blood while cooking, and is the usual treatment given to these organs. It is also an acceptable method for removing blood from all meat. Food preparation by non-Jews The classical rabbis prohibited any item of food that had been consecrated to an idol or had been used in the service of an idol.
Since the Talmud views all non-Jews as potential idolaters, and viewed intermarriage with apprehension, it included within this prohibition any food that has been cooked or prepared completely by non-Jews. (Bread sold by a non-Jewish baker was not included in the prohibition.) Similarly, a number of Jewish writers believed food prepared for Jews by non-Jewish servants would not count as prepared by potential idolaters, although this view was opposed by Jacob ben Asher. Consequently, modern Orthodox Jews generally believe wine, certain cooked foods, and sometimes even dairy products, should be prepared only by Jews. The prohibition against drinking non-Jewish wine, traditionally called yayin nesekh (literally meaning "wine for offering [to a deity]"), is not absolute.
Cooked wine (Hebrew: , yayin mevushal), meaning wine that has been heated, is regarded as drinkable on the basis that heated wine was not historically used as a religious libation; thus kosher wine will often be prepared by Jews and then pasteurised, after which it can be handled by a non-Jew. Orthodox Judaism regards wine as kosher only if prepared by a Jew. Some Jews refer to these prohibited foods as akum, an acronym of Ovde Kokhavim U Mazzaloth (), meaning "worshippers of stars and planets (or Zodiac)". Akum is thus a reference to activities that these Jews view as idolatry, and in many significant works of post-classical Jewish literature, such as the Shulchan Aruch, it has been applied to Christians in particular.
However, among the classical rabbis, there were a number who refused to treat Christians as idolaters, and consequently regarded food that had been manufactured by them as being kosher; this detail has been noted and upheld by a number of religious authorities in Conservative Judaism, such as Rabbi Israel Silverman, and Rabbi Elliot N. Dorff. Conservative Judaism is more lenient; in the 1960s, Rabbi Silverman issued a responsum, officially approved by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, in which he argued that wine manufactured by an automated process was not "manufactured by gentiles", and therefore would be kosher. A later responsum of Conservative Judaism was issued by Rabbi Dorff, who argued, based on precedents in 15th-19th century responsa, that many foods, such as wheat and oil products, which had once been forbidden when produced by non-Jews were eventually declared kosher.
On this basis he concluded wine and grape products produced by non-Jews would be permissible. Tainted food For obvious reasons, the Talmud adds to the biblical regulations a prohibition against consuming poisoned animals. Similarly, Yoreh De'ah prohibits the drinking of water, if the water had been left overnight and uncovered in an area where there might be serpents, on the basis that a serpent might have left its venom in the water. In a place where there is no suspicion of snakes, this prohibition does not apply (tosafos, beitzah 6a). Milk and meat Three times the Torah specifically forbids "seething" a young goat "in its mother's milk" (, , and ).
The Talmud interprets this as a general prohibition against cooking meat and dairy products together, and against eating or deriving any benefit from such a mixture. To help prevent accidental violation of these rules, the modern standard Orthodox practice is to classify food into either being meat, dairy, or neither; this third category is more usually referred to as parev from the Yiddish word parev (פארעוו) (also spelled parve and pareve) meaning "neutral". As the biblical prohibition uses the word "Gedi" and not "Gedi Izim", the flesh of all "Behemoth" (domestic mammals) is categorised as "meat", while that of fish and bugs is considered parve; however, rather than being considered parve, the flesh of birds and "chayot" (like deer) has been regarded by halakha (Jewish law) as meat for over 2000 years, by Rabbinic decree.
One of the major dietary laws that observant Jews keep of Kashruth is that dairy and meat may not be eaten at the same meal. Though it is mentioned many times in the Hebrew Bible, Rashi held that it was connected to two major ethical laws in the Jewish heritage from the original Five Books of Moses, which are, first, to respect the mother animal: "You shall not boil a kid in its mother's milk"; and, secondly, "If you come across a bird's nest beside the road, either in a tree or on the ground, and the mother is sitting on the young or on the eggs, do not take the mother with the young."
Some held these relate to the "hurt to living" (tzaar baalei chaim) statute cited throughout Jewish law, against hurting any living thing, the Mishnah Avoth 1:12, "Be a disciple of Aaron... and love all of God's animals" (chaim, living); also, "His compassion is over all of His creatures" () and again the term is chaim, living things. Fish and meat The Talmud and Yoreh Deah suggest that eating meat and fish together may cause tzaraath. Strictly Orthodox Jews thus avoid combining the two, while Conservative Jews may or may not. Pikuach nefesh The laws of kashrut can be broken for pikuach nefesh (preservation of human life).
For example, a patient is allowed to eat non-kosher food if it is essential for recovery, or where the person would otherwise starve. Kosherfest Each year 5,000 food industry vendors, kosher certification agencies, journalists and other professionals gather in New York City to sample kosher fare from 300 event attendees. Among the offerings at the 2018 Kosherfest were plantain croutons from Ecuador. The gluten free croutons won the Kosherfest award for best new snack. There were breaded dessert ravioli stuffed with sweet ricotta and chocolate chips, pareve and vegan "ice cream" cake made from cherry and passion fruit sorbet, butter substitute made from coconut oil, and a gluten free variation of Syrian sambusak dumplings.
See also References Further reading Hasia R. Diner and Simone Cinotto (eds. ), Global Jewish Foodways: A History. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2018. External links Religious Rules: Laws of Judaism Concerning Food Aish.com: ABCs of Kosher Chabad.org: Kosher - Eating Jewishly Kashrut.com: The Premier Kosher Information Source on the Internet Orthodox Union Kosher certification OK Kosher Certification Yeshiva.co: What is Kosher?
Prolidase deficiency (PD) is an extremely uncommon autosomal recessive disorder associated with collagen metabolism that affects connective tissues and thus a diverse array of organ systems more broadly, though it is extremely inconsistent in its expression. Collagen is a structural protein found i.a. in bone, skin and connective tissues that is broken down into iminodipeptides at the end of its lifecycle. Of these dipeptides, those containing C-terminal proline or hydroxyproline would normally be broken down further by the enzyme Prolidase, recovering and thus recycling the constituent amino acids. Due to a genetic defect, prolidase activity in individuals with PD is either knocked out or severely reduced.
Those affected therefore eliminate excessive amounts of iminodipeptides in their urine, wasting this precious resource, with debilitating effects. Symptoms Prolidase deficiency generally becomes evident during infancy, but initial symptoms can first manifest anytime from birth to young adulthood. The condition results in a very diverse set symptoms, the severity of which can vary significantly between patients, depending on the degree to which prolidase activity is hampered by the individual underlying mutation(s) in each case. It is even possible, though rare, for affected individuals to be asymptomatic, in which case the disorder can only be identified through laboratory screening of the prospective patient and/or their extended family.
One of the signature features of PD is the elimination of high quantities of peptides through urine. In addition, most of those affected exhibit persistent skin lesions (starting from a mild rash) or ulcers, primarily on the legs and feet, the formation of which normally begins during childhood. Clinically, these, among other dermatological issues, represent the most distinguishing and most frequent symptoms. These may never recede, potentially leading to severe infections that can, in the worst case, necessitate amputation. PD patients exhibit a weak immune system and markedly elevated vulnerability to infections in general, and particularly those of the respiratory system, leading some who suffer from PD to acquire recurrent lung disease.
They may also have an enlarged spleen (splenomegaly), and on some occasions the spleen and liver may both be enlarged (hepatosplenomegaly). Photosensitivity and hyperkeratosis have been associated with PD. Abnormal facial characteristics, consisting of pronounced eyes which are spaced far apart (hypertelorism), a high forehead, a compressed bridge of the nose or saddle nose, and a small lower jaw and chin (micrognathia), are also observed in the majority of cases. Those affected by PD can also suffer intellectual disabilities (approx. 75% of recorded cases do) ranging from mild to severe – mental development during childhood may therefore progress more slowly.
Causes and Genetics Prolidase deficiency is the result of mutations on the PEPD gene, located on chromosome 19 and coding for the prolidase enzmye, also known as peptidase-D. At least 19 different mutations in the PEPD gene have been identified in individuals affected by the disorder. Prolidase is involved in the degradation of certain iminodipeptides (those containing C-terminal proline or hydroxyproline) formed during the breakdown of collagen, recycling the constituent amino acids (proline and hydroxyproline) and making them available for the cell to reuse – not least in the synthesis of new collagen. This recycling by prolidase, seen in the image above, is essential for maintaining proline-based systems in the cell, such as the collagen-rich extracellular matrix (ECM), which serves to physically support the structure of internal organs and connective tissues.
Inadequate recycling due to a dysfunctional prolidase enzyme, caused by an appropriate mutation in the pertinent gene, leads to the deterioration of that support structure and therefore the connective tissue of the skin, capillaries, and the lymphatic tissue, as is the case in PD. In particular, it has been proposed that the buildup of non-degraded dipeptides might induce programmed cell-death (apoptosis), whereafter the cell's contents would be expelled into the neighbouring tissue potentially resulting in inflammation and giving rise to the dermatological problems seen in PD. Similarly, a dysfunctional collagen metabolism will likely interfere with physiological remodelling processes of the extracellular matrix (which require collagen to be dynamically degraded and rebuilt), which might cause problems with the skin, as well.
The mental impairment observed in those with PD might reasonably arise from complications involving neuropeptides, proteins that have an abundance of proline and are involved with communication in the brain. The condition is inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion, meaning that both copies of the gene contained in every cell (both alleles) are mutated. Each of the parents of the person who suffers from an autosomal recessive disorder possesses one copy of the mutant gene, but they usually do not exhibit the signs and symptoms of the disorder, as their other copy is functional and can compensate for any deleterious effects.
Diagnosis PD diagnosis is based primarily on the presence and position of ulcers on the skin, as well as identifying particular protein markers in urine. To confirm the diagnosis, a blood test is required to measure prolidase activity. Treatment No curative treatment is available for prolidase deficiency at this time, although palliative treatment is possible to some extent. The latter mainly focuses on treating the skin lesions through standard methods and stalling collagen degradation (or boosting prolidase performance, where possible), so as to keep the intracellular dipeptide levels low and give the cells time to resynthesise or absorb what proline they cannot recycle so as to be able to rebuild what collagen does degrade.
Patients can be treated orally with ascorbate (a.k.a. vitamin C, a cofactor of prolyl hydroxylase, an enzyme that hydroxylates proline, increasing collagen stability), manganese (a cofactor of prolidase), suppression of collagenase (a collagen degrading enzyme), and local applications of ointments that contain L-glycine and L-proline. The response to the treatment is inconsistent between affected individuals. A therapeutic approach based on enzyme replacement (administering functional prolidase) is under consideration. Due to the weakened immune response in PD cases, it is also of paramount importance to keep any infections under control, often with heavy antibiotics. References External links Prolidase deficiency on OrphaNet Category:Amino acid metabolism disorders Category:Autosomal recessive disorders Category:Rare diseases Category:Skin conditions resulting from errors in metabolism
BusPlus is the payment method for the GSP Belgrade, Belgrade tram system, Lasta Beograd (only in public transport in Belgrade) and BG TRAIN. It is a thin, plastic card on which the customer electronically loads fares. The BusPlus is managed by company Apex Technology Solutions. Public authorities state that BusPlus was implemented to increase the revenue of the public transit authority and to improve the public transport system by getting better information on usage. Reports from September 2012 have indicated that the overall revenue has increased, but some aspects of integration have been criticized by public. System is installed by Kentkart, an automatic fare collection system integrator company.
History 29. August 2011 - Began issuing BusPlus card 31 January 2012 - Open Control Center "Bus Plus" 1. February 2012 - BusPlus started operating 1. February 2012 - Commissioner for Information of Public Importance and Personal Data Protection bans data processing in BusPlus system 25. September 2012 - A new ban of the Commissioner for Information of Public Importance and Personal Data Protection prohibits processing of some data from scholars in BusPlus system Fares and BusPlus types Personalized smart card Personalized cards are limited in time Pre-paid (monthly and semimonthly). All customers paying monthly or semimonthly driving, are entitled to unlimited rides on all lines in the ITS 1 and / or ITS 2 in selected areas in the daily traffic (from 04:00 to 24:00 hours).
The personalized card data stored on the cards subspecies (zone, ...), and tariffs are on the card's personal information and photo's for visual control. Personalized cards are not transferable to another user. Personalized card must be validated when entering the vehicle (check in). Non-personalized smart card - electronic wallet Non-personalized smart card is the type electronic wallet for a ride on public transport. The user card complements the desired amount of money, each achieved a run-off card with the amount that represents the price of the ride. These cards are not time limited and may subsequently be amended at all locations for sale.
Non-personalized card must be validated when entering the vehicle (check in). Non-personalized smart card can be registered in the name of the user, but it can also be used by multiple users. By registering a non-personalized card one gets the opportunity to recharge the card through the web portal. Paper contactless cards Contactless paper tickets are sold and complement at all locations for sale. This type of card must be authenticated (validated) at the beginning of the trip (check in). 4025060068040408 Paper tickets from the driver This is an individual ticket for one ride. Sold by the driver. BusPlus application BusPlus Application is a free app developed by "Apex Solution Technology" which allows its user to: Search for the nearest station, search for the station by number and search for the station by its name.
When the station is selected a buble will pop up with the list of all buses that go to that station (distance if using "Search for the nearest stations" option) as well as the location of those buses presented on a map. By clicking on a bus on the map you are able to see if the bus is articulated or if the bus has wheelchair support. BusPlus Customer Service Center BusPlus call center (customer service) is an information service for users and their complaints. Customer Service works in close coordination and synchronization with the relevant departments of the city.
The main activities of customer service are as follows: Informing users about the types of cards Informing users about procedures and locations of issuance / extension / additions to cards Resolving user complaints Coordination of procedures of notification and sharing of information regarding the system and its use of the appropriate services BusPlus Benefit Programs(rewards program) BusPlus card owners will be able to obtain discounts, special offers and benefits within BusPlus benefit programs. Security problem Personalized smart cards store personal data and therefore, there is a justified risk that data can be used for the purpose of which their owners did not consent or they are not aware of.
Controversy Since its introduction in 2011, media often reports violence used by BusPlus controllers during ticket inspection. References External links BusPlus Secretariat for Transport Official Android app for real-time GPS bus tracking and bus-stop locating Unofficial Android app for USSD/SMS query Category:Public transport in Serbia Category:Transport in Belgrade Category:Contactless smart cards Category:Fare collection systems
Cadherin-3, also known as P-Cadherin, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CDH3 gene. Function This gene is a classical cadherin from the cadherin superfamily. The encoded protein is a calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion glycoprotein composed of five extracellular cadherin repeats, a transmembrane region and a highly conserved cytoplasmic tail. This gene is located in a six-cadherin cluster in a region on the long arm of chromosome 16 that is involved in loss of heterozygosity events in breast and prostate cancer. In addition, aberrant expression of this protein is observed in cervical adenocarcinomas. Clinical significance Mutations in this gene have been associated with congenital hypotrichosis with juvenile macular dystrophy.
Interactions CDH3 (gene) has been shown to interact with: Beta-catenin, CDH1, Catenin (cadherin-associated protein), alpha 1, Nephrin and Plakoglobin. See also EEM syndrome References Further reading External links
WE ACT for Environmental Justice (formerly known as West Harlem Environmental Action) is a nonprofit environmental justice organization based in Harlem, New York City. The organization was founded in March 1988 to mobilize community opposition to the city's operation of the North River Sewage Treatment Plant, and the siting of the sixth bus depot in Northern Manhattan. WE ACT is dedicated to fighting environmental justice issues in the Northern Manhattan community. The organization focuses on urban quality of life issues such as climate justice, clean air, access to good jobs, public health, pollution, and sustainable and equitable land use. It works through citizen empowerment, lobbying, litigation, education, and community outreach to accomplish its goals.
Currently, WE ACT is one of several groups engaged in negotiations for a Community Benefits Agreement with Columbia University as part of the school's Manhattanville expansion plan. It is also renovating an abandoned brownstone for conversion into the WE ACT Environmental Justice Center, which will house office and program space as well as serve as a demonstration of various green building technologies. History and organization In April 1986, the North River Sewage Treatment Plant began its operations on eight blocks of riverside property in West Harlem, New York. Soon after its opening, local residents from the predominantly African American and Latino neighborhood complained of noxious odors emitting from the plant and increased exposures to health hazards.
Peggy Shepard, a local resident, who was elected as a political district leader in 1985, pressured local and state authorities to perform a study on the health effects of exposure to the treatment plant's emissions. The study found that the fumes may cause respiratory problems at high levels of exposure, triggering public backlash from West Harlem residents, demanding repairs be made on the facility. In 1988 the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) attempted to construct a second bus depot in West Harlem, adjacent to an intermediary school. The MTA was met with strong community opposition, in the form of protests, lawsuits, and scientific research.
During this period, the attention and discontent surrounding the operation of the North River Sewage Treatment Plant and the construction of a second bus depot in West Harlem, presented the need for a unified movement to address the unequal impact of environmental hazards on the minority community. Therefore, in March 1988 Peggy Shepard, Vernice Miller-Travis, and Chuck Sutton launched WE ACT to "institutionalize resources in the community" to build and educate a community dedicated to fighting environmental injustice and improving environmental health. WE ACT emphasizes the importance of citizen involvement in its campaigns and partnerships. It utilizes community-based participatory research to address environmental justice issues and improve the environmental health and quality of life of the Northern Manhattan community.
WE ACT strives to educate community members and raise public awareness on issues effecting the health and quality of life of the community. Early work North River Sewage Treatment Plant The construction of the North River Sewage Treatment Plant, was initially proposed for a site along the Hudson River at 72nd Street, a primarily white and affluent community; however, the site was rejected due to community opposition and logistical problems. Thus, the site relocated to 137th Street in West Harlem, a predominantly Latino and African-American neighborhood. Local residents were outraged by the new sitting of the sewage plant in their community, concerned it would worsen preexisting pollution problems.
Despite community resistance, construction of the plant started in 1972 and was completed in 1985. When the plant began its operations in 1986, community members further voiced their concerns over noxious odors emanating from the plant effecting an area of almost two miles. Local residents remained indoors to escape the fumes, partly due to their fear of developing adverse health effects resulting from exposure to the fumes. A study by the New York Department of Energy Conservation (DEC), found the plant's emissions contained hydrogen sulfide levels 28% higher than the standard. Community discontent shifted into activism and in 1988 on Martin Luther King Day, WE ACT co-founders Peggy Shepard and Chuck Sutton, along with several others were arrested for blocking traffic around the treatment facility, as an act of protest against the poor operation and management of the plant.
Due to lawsuits filed by community organizations, resistance from West Harlem residents, and pressure from WE ACT, city officials addressed the plant's operating issues in 1991 and located a design flaw that was causing the excess air pollution. After a prolonged court battle with the city and the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), WE ACT came to a settlement regarding the operations of the sewage plant in December 1993. As a result, $1.1 million was set aside in a fund for communal environmental initiatives in West Harlem and WE ACT was made "a monitor of the city's $55 million consent agreement to fix the plant".
In an act of appeasement to the West Harlem community for the faulty operating of the sewage plant and occupation of limited open space, the state constructed a 28-acre state park known as the Riverbank State Park on top of the sewage plant in 1993. However, fumes and odors continued to seep out of the plant affecting local neighborhoods. Today the North River Sewage Treatment Plant is continuing to improve their facility and upgrade to meet higher air quality standards. In their most recent endeavors the facility has installed new duct work and fans to optimize odor control and reported air issues.
Dirty Diesel Northern Manhattan is home to one-third of "the largest diesel bus fleet (4,000 vehicles) in the country" operated by the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). WE ACT deemed the high concentration of bus depots had negative impacts on air quality and the subsequent health of Northern Manhattan community members. The organization associated the high rates of asthma in Northern Manhattan with concentrated levels of particulate matter (PM), an air pollutant released during diesel fuel combustion, emanating from the bus depots, major transportation routes, and heavy traffic throughout West Harlem. WE ACT also organized a media campaign, The Clean Fuel--Clean Air--Good Health Diesel Bus Campaign, to raise public awareness on the risks associated with diesel exhaust and its ability to trigger asthma attacks.
While it failed to influence New York's MTA to change its policies in favor of cleaner fuel alternatives, the campaign garnered a large amount of public support and attention, demonstrating the power of public media and community outreach. In November 2000, WE ACT, filed a complaint with the U.S. Department of Transportation claiming that bus depots were disproportionately located in minority communities in Northern Manhattan, which houses six of the eight total bus depots in Manhattan, thus elevating the health risks associated with high exposure to harmful diesel exhaust. The Department of Transportation found that the MTA violated Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and failed to meet the federal environmental impact analysis involving the construction, rehabilitation, and operation of bus depots and other facilities.
This campaign led to the MTA's modification of bus depots and investment in clean-fuel buses, as well as increased public awareness pertaining to the dangers of fuel fumes and poor air quality. Mission WE ACT states its mission is "to build healthy communities by ensuring that people of color and/or low income residents participate meaningfully in the creation of sound and fair environmental health and protection policies and practices." The organization serves as an "educational resource" to galvanize citizen participation and activism on matters of "environmental health and quality of life issues". Environmental justice Asthma In the United States the number of people suffering from Asthma has grown steadily every year.
Healthcare professionals have referred to the alarming rise in asthma cases as "a new epidemic". The respiratory disease is characterized by chronic lung inflammation and episodes of airway constriction. While there is uncertainty on the exact cause of the disease, it is believed that "genetic and environmental factors interact to cause asthma, most often early in life". Recently, the focus has turned to the impact of environmental conditions, most notably the exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollutants or allergens. WE ACT states that a racial divide exists in air pollution, resulting in the disproportionate exposure of minority or low income communities to high levels of air pollutants.
WE ACT works to improve the air quality of Northern Manhattan communities and reduce the incidence of asthma and other respiratory problems by addressing the sources and environmental risks producing harmful air pollutants. WE ACT focuses on asthma or clean air as one of its primary areas of concern, because of exceptionally high rates of asthma found in Northern Manhattan. The organization highlights the connection between environmental risks in the predominantly Latino and African-American neighborhoods, such as the disproportionate exposure to diesel exhaust and the ubiquitous odors from municipal facilities, and the highest asthma mortality and morbidity rates in New York.
WE ACT the challenges the city and state to recognize and address air quality problems. Currently WE ACT, is collaborating with several community-based environmental organizations, such as the Deep South Center for Environmental Justice (DSCEJ), Green Door Initiative (GDI), and Jesus People Against Pollution (JPAP), on the National Asthma Disparities Project. The project aims to study the disparities in asthma treatment across four different communities in the United States, by assessing the effectiveness of the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Coordinated Federal Action Plan to Reduce Racial and Ethnic Asthma Disparities (Action Plan). The Action Plan was introduced in May 2012, to review federal efforts addressing asthma issues and develop a more effective collaboration among federal programs.
Partnerships Community Outreach and Engagement Core (COEC) The Community Outreach and Engagement Core (COEC) is a collaborative program between the NIEHS Center for Environmental Health in Northern Manhattan, WE ACT, and other community stakeholders, working to understand and prevent the environmental aspects of diseases such as Parkinson's, Cancer, Asthma, and ALS through policy and legislation. The operations of the COEC focus on four Northern Manhattan communities: Central Harlem, West Harlem, Washington Heights, and Inwood. Other members of the program include organizations within a close proximity to Northern Manhattan, such as The Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health (CCCEH) of Columbia University, The Harlem Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, and the Harlem Hospital Center.
One of the biggest accomplishments of COEC and WE ACT is the development of an Environmental Health Report Card. The report card assigns a grade to New York City communities based on measurements of indoor/outdoor air quality, recreational water quality, solid waste, open space, and the availability of healthy food. By communicating scientific and health research findings through initiatives such as family events and fairs, conferences, forums, and the Environmental Health Report Card, the COEC members seek to increase community awareness of environmental dangers and establish a consistent local involvement in environmental issues. WE ACT's involvement in Northern Manhattan communities allows COEC members to acquire information about local environmental health concerns.
In turn, WE ACT acts as a bridge for the passing of information between research groups and low-income communities in Northern Manhattan. Faith Leaders for Environmental Justice WE ACT has collaborated with members of diverse Northern Manhattan churches in an effort to raise public awareness of environmental issues. The goal of the partnership is to encourage people of faith to care about environmental issues and to educate religious figures so that they can inspire environmental justice activism throughout diverse communities that, traditionally, have not engaged in environmental justice issues. Faith Leaders for Environmental Justice focuses on three key points: Climate Justice, Food Justice, and Energy Consumption.
The Climate Justice work group seeks to promote awareness surrounding the dangers of climate change and the behavioral alterations that can be made to mitigate the effects. In coordination with the Energy Consumption work group, one of the main points of the Climate Justice group is to teach people how to reduce their energy consumption and carbon emissions. The Food Justice work group aims to educate people about the barriers to healthy eating and the importance of purchasing healthy food, while bringing healthful food initiatives to low-income communities. Some of these initiatives include Community Sponsored Agriculture (CSA) projects, community and rooftop gardens, food drives, and food stamp outreach.
Healthy Home Healthy Child Campaign The Healthy Homes Project is a joint research initiative between the Columbia University Center for Children's Environmental Health (CCCEH). The project targets the unequal exposure of environmental hazards faced by children in minority or low-income communities and works to educate families on a number of known risk factors such as "cigarettes, lead poisoning, drugs and alcohol, air pollution, garbage, pesticides, and poor nutrition". Educating parents on environmental health risks, can protect children from developing asthma or cancer or from experiencing growth or developmental delays, among others. References External links WE ACT for Environmental Justice website Category:Harlem Category:Politics of New York (state) Category:Community organizations Category:Green politics Category:Environmentalism in the United States Category:Politics of New York City Category:Environmental organizations based in New York City Category:Recycling in New York City Category:Environmental justice in New York City
Trial by combat (also wager of battle, trial by battle or judicial duel) was a method of Germanic law to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a confession in which two parties in dispute fought in single combat; the winner of the fight was proclaimed to be right. In essence, it was a judicially sanctioned duel. It remained in use throughout the European Middle Ages, gradually disappearing in the course of the 16th century. Origins Unlike trial by ordeal in general, which is known to many cultures worldwide, trial by combat is known primarily from the customs of the Germanic peoples.
It was in use among the ancient Burgundians, Ripuarian Franks, Alamans, Lombards, and Swedes. It was unknown in Anglo-Saxon law, Roman law and Irish Brehon Law and it does not figure in the traditions of Middle Eastern antiquity such as the code of Hammurabi or the Torah. The practice is regulated in various Germanic legal codes. Being rooted in Germanic tribal law, the various regional laws of the Frankish Empire (and the later Holy Roman Empire) prescribed different particulars, such as equipment and rules of combat. The Lex Alamannorum (recension Lantfridana 81, dated to 712–730 AD) prescribes a trial by combat in the event of two families disputing the boundary between their lands.
A handful of earth taken from the disputed piece of land is put between the contestants and they are required to touch it with their swords, each swearing that their claim is lawful. The losing party besides forfeiting their claim to the land is required to pay a fine. Capitularies governing its use appear from the year 803 onwards. Louis the Pious prescribed combat between witnesses of each side, rather than between the accuser and the accused, and briefly allowed for the Ordeal of the Cross in cases involving clerics. In medieval Scandinavia, the practice survived throughout the Viking Age in the form of the Holmgang.
An unusual variant, the marital duel, involved combat between a husband and wife, with the former physically handicapped in some way. The loser was killed. Holy Roman Empire Otto the Great in 967 expressly sanctioned the practice of Germanic tribal law even if it did not figure in the more "imperial" Roman law. The celebrated case of Gero, Count of Alsleben, is a good example. The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 deprecated judicial duels, and Pope Honorius III in 1216 asked the Teutonic order to cease its imposition of judicial duels on their newly converted subjects in Livonia. For the following three centuries, there was latent tension between the traditional regional laws and Roman law.
The Sachsenspiegel of 1230 recognizes the judicial duel as an important function to establish guilt or innocence in cases of insult, injury or theft. The combatants are armed with sword and shield, and may wear linen and leather clothing, but their head and feet must be bare and their hands only protected by light gloves. The accuser is to await the accused at the designated place of combat. If the accused does not appear after being summoned three times, the accuser may execute two cuts and two stabs against the wind, and his matter will be treated as if he had won the fight.
The Kleines Kaiserrecht, an anonymous legal code of c. 1300, prohibits judicial duels altogether, stating that the emperor had come to this decision on seeing that too many innocent men were convicted by the practice just for being physically weak. Nevertheless, judicial duels continued to be popular throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. Trial by combat plays a significant role in the German schools of fencing in the 15th century. Notably, Hans Talhoffer depicts techniques to be applied in such duels, separately for the Swabian (sword and shield) and Franconian (mace and shield) variants, although other Fechtbücher such as that of Paulus Kal and the Codex Wallerstein show similar material.
While commoners were required to present their case to a judge before duelling, members of the nobility did have the right to challenge each other for duels without the involvement of the judiciary, so that duels of this kind were separate from the judicial duel already in the Middle Ages and were not affected by the latter's abolition in the early 16th century by Emperor Maximilian I, evolving into the gentlemanly duel of modern times which was outlawed only as late as in the 19th century. Hans Talhoffer in his 1459 Thott codex names seven offences that in the absence of witnesses were considered grave enough to warrant a judicial duel, viz.
murder, treason, heresy, desertion of one's lord, "imprisonment" (possibly in the sense of abduction), perjury/fraud and rape. Great Britain and Ireland Wager of battle, as the trial by combat was called in English, appears to have been introduced into the common law of the Kingdom of England following the Norman Conquest and remained in use for the duration of the High and Late Middle Ages. The last certain trial by battle in England occurred in 1446: a servant accused his master of treason, and the master drank too much wine before the battle and was slain by the servant. In Scotland and Ireland, the practice was continued into the sixteenth century.