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The Bundeswehr (, Federal Defence Forces) is the unified armed forces of Germany and their civil administration and procurement authorities. The states of Germany are not allowed to maintain armed forces of their own, since the German Constitution states that matters of defense fall into the sole responsibility of the federal government. The Bundeswehr is divided into a military part (armed forces or Streitkräfte) and a civil part with the armed forces administration (Wehrverwaltung). The military part of the federal defense force consists of the German Army, the German Navy, the German Air Force, the Joint Support Service, the Joint Medical Service, and the Cyber and Information Space Command.
, the Bundeswehr has a strength of 184,167 active soldiers and 80,696 civilians, placing it among the 30 largest military forces in the world and making it the second largest in the European Union behind France in terms of personnel. In addition the Bundeswehr has approximately 29,200 reserve personnel (2019). With German military expenditures at €47.878 billion, the Bundeswehr is the eighth or ninth best-funded military in the world, even if in terms of share of German GDP, military expenditures remain average at 1.38% and below the NATO target of 2%. Germany aims to expand the Bundeswehr to around 203,000 soldiers by 2025 to better cope with increasing responsibilities.
History Founding principles The name Bundeswehr was first proposed by former Wehrmacht general and Liberal politician Hasso von Manteuffel. The Iron Cross (Eisernes Kreuz) is its official emblem. It is a symbol that has a long association with the military of Germany. The Schwarzes Kreuz is derived from the black cross insignia of the medieval Teutonic knights; since 1813 the symbol has been used to denote a military decoration for all ranks. When the Bundeswehr was established in 1955, its founding principles were based on developing a completely new military force for the defence of West Germany. In this respect the Bundeswehr did not consider itself to be a successor to either the Reichswehr (1921–1935) of the Weimar Republic or Hitler's Wehrmacht (1935–1946).
Neither does it adhere to the traditions of any former German military organization. Its official ethos is based on three major themes: the aims of the military reformers at the beginning of the 19th century such as Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Clausewitz the conduct displayed by members of the military resistance against Adolf Hitler, especially the attempt of Claus von Stauffenberg and Henning von Tresckow to assassinate him. its own tradition since 1955. One of the most visible traditions of the modern Bundeswehr is the Großer Zapfenstreich; this is a form of military tattoo that has its origins in the landsknecht era.
The FRG reinstated this formal military ceremony in 1952, three years before the foundation of the Bundeswehr. Today it is performed by a military band with 4 fanfare trumpeters and timpani, a corps of drums, up to two escort companies of the Bundeswehrs Wachbataillon (or another deputized unit) and Torchbearers. The Zapfenstreich is only performed during national celebrations or solemn public commemorations. It can honour distinguished persons present such as the German federal president or provide the conclusion to large military exercises. Another important tradition in the modern German armed forces is the Gelöbnis; the solemn oath made by conscripts (until 2011) now recruits during basic training and serving professional soldiers.
There are two kinds of oath: for conscripts/recruits it is a pledge but it's a solemn vow for full-time personnel. The pledge is made annually on 20 July, the date on which a group of Wehrmacht officers attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler in 1944. Recruits from the Bundeswehr'''s Wachbataillon make their vow (Gelöbnis) at the Bendlerblock in Berlin. This was the headquarters of the resistance but also where the officers were summarily executed following its failure. National commemorations are held nearby within the grounds of the Reichstag. Similar events also take place across the German Republic. Since 2011 (when conscription was suspended), the wording of the ceremonial vow for full-time recruits and volunteer personnel is:"Ich gelobe, der Bundesrepublik Deutschland treu zu dienen und das Recht und die Freiheit des deutschen Volkes tapfer zu verteidigen.
"Serving Bundeswehr personnel replace "Ich gelobe, ..." with "Ich schwöre, ..." ("I vow to..."). Cold War 1955–1990 After World War II the responsibility for the security of Germany as a whole rested with the four Allied Powers: the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union. Germany had been without armed forces since the Wehrmacht was dissolved following World War II. When the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in 1949, it was without a military. Germany remained completely demilitarized and any plans for a German military were forbidden by Allied regulations. Some naval mine-sweeping units continued to exist, but they remained unarmed and under Allied control and did not serve as a national defence force.
The Federal Border Protection Force, a mobile, lightly armed police force of 10,000 men, was formed on 14 March 1951 and expanded to 20,000 men on 19 June 1953. A proposal to integrate West German troops with soldiers of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Italy in a European Defence Community was proposed but never implemented. There was a discussion among the United States, the United Kingdom and France over the issue of a revived (West) German military. In particular, France was reluctant to allow Germany to rearm in light of recent history (Germany had invaded France twice in living memory, in World War I and World War II, and also defeated France in the Franco-German War of 1870/71; (see also French–German enmity).
However, after the project for a European Defence Community failed in the French National Assembly in 1954, France agreed to West German accession to NATO and rearmament. With growing tensions between the Soviet Union and the West, especially after the Korean War, this policy was to be revised. While the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was already secretly rearming, the seeds of a new West German force started in 1950 when former high-ranking German officers were tasked by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer to discuss the options for West German rearmament. The results of a meeting in the monastery of Himmerod formed the conceptual base to build the new armed forces in West Germany.
The Amt Blank (Blank Agency, named after its director Theodor Blank), the predecessor of the later Federal Ministry of Defence, was formed the same year to prepare the establishment of the future forces. Hasso von Manteuffel, a former general of the Wehrmacht and liberal politician, submitted the name Bundeswehr for the new forces. This name was later confirmed by the West German Bundestag. The Bundeswehr was officially established on the 200th birthday of Scharnhorst on 12 November 1955. In personnel and education terms, the most important initial feature of the new German armed forces was to be their orientation as citizen defenders of a democratic state, fully subordinate to the political leadership of the country.
A personnel screening committee was created to make sure that the future colonels and generals of the armed forces were those whose political attitude and experience would be acceptable to the new democratic state. There were a few key reformers, such as General Ulrich de Maiziere, General Graf von Kielmansegg, and Graf von Baudissin, who reemphasised some of the more democratic parts of Germany's armed forces history in order to establish a solid civil-military basis to build upon. After an amendment of the Basic Law in 1955, West Germany became a member of NATO. The first public military review took place at Andernach, in January 1956.
A US Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) helped with the introduction of the Bundeswehrs initial equipment and war material, predominantly of American origin. In 1956, conscription for all men between the ages of 18 and 45 was reintroduced, later augmented by a civil alternative with longer duration (see Conscription in Germany). In response, East Germany formed its own military force, the Nationale Volksarmee (NVA), in 1956, with conscription being established only in 1962. The Nationale Volksarmee was eventually dissolved with the reunification of Germany in 1990. Compulsory conscription was suspended – but not completely abolished as an alternative – in January 2011.
During the Cold War the Bundeswehr was the backbone of NATO's conventional defence in Central Europe. It had a strength of 495,000 military and 170,000 civilian personnel. Although Germany had smaller armed forces than France and the United States, Cold War Historian John Lewis Gaddis assesses the Bundeswehr as "perhaps world's best army". The Army consisted of three corps with 12 divisions, most of them heavily armed with tanks and APCs. The Luftwaffe owned significant numbers of tactical combat aircraft and took part in NATO's integrated air defence (NATINAD). The Navy was tasked and equipped to defend the Baltic Approaches, to provide escort reinforcement and resupply shipping in the North Sea and to contain the Soviet Baltic Fleet.
During this time the Bundeswehr did not take part in combat operations. However, there were a number of large-scale training and operational casualties. The first such incident was in June 1957, when 15 paratroop recruits were drowned in the Iller river, Bavaria. German Reunification 1990 At the time of reunification, the German military boasted a manpower of some 585,000 soldiers. As part of the German reunification process, under the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (Two-Plus Four Treaty), which paved the way for reunification, the Bundeswehr was to be reduced to 370,000 personnel, of whom no more than 345,000 were to be in the Army and Air Force.
This would be Germany's contribution to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, and the restrictions would enter into force at the time the CFE treaty would. As a result, the Bundeswehr was significantly reduced, and the former East German Nationale Volksarmee (NVA) was disbanded, with a portion of its personnel and material being absorbed into the Bundeswehr. About 50,000 Volksarmee personnel were integrated into the Bundeswehr on 2 October 1990. This figure was rapidly reduced as conscripts and short-term volunteers completed their service. A number of senior officers (but no generals or admirals) received limited contracts for up to two years to continue daily operations.
Personnel remaining in the Bundeswehr were awarded new contracts and new ranks, dependent on their individual qualification and experience. Many were granted and accepted a lower rank than previously held in the Volksarmee. In general, the unification process of the two militaries – under the slogan "Armee der Einheit" (or "Army of Unity") – has been seen publicly as a major success and an example for other parts of the society. With the reduction, a large amount of the military hardware of the Bundeswehr, as well as of the Volksarmee, had to be disposed of. Most of the armoured vehicles and fighter jet aircraft (the Bundesluftwaffe – due to reunification – was the only air force in the world that flew both Phantoms and MIGs) were dismantled under international disarmament procedures.
Many ships were scrapped or sold, often to the Baltic states or Indonesia (the latter received 39 former Volksmarine vessels of various types). With reunification, all restrictions on the manufacture and possession of conventional arms that had been imposed on the Bundeswehr as a condition for West German rearmament were lifted. Since 1996, Germany also has its own special forces, the Kommando Spezialkräfte (Special Forces Command). It was formed after German citizens had to be rescued in Rwanda by Belgian Para-Commandos as the Special Commands of the Federal Police were not capable of operating in a war zone. Reorientation A major event for the German military was the suspension of the compulsory conscription for men in 2011.
In 2011/12, a major reform of the Bundeswehr was announced, further limiting the number of military bases and soldiers. The last reform set a required strength of 185,000 soldiers. , the number of active military personnel in the Bundeswehr was down to 184,167, corresponding to a ratio of 2.2 active soldiers per 1,000 inhabitants. Military expenditure in Germany was at €47.878 billion in 2019. German military expenditures are lower than comparable countries of the European Union such as France and the United Kingdom, especially when taking into account Germany's larger population and economy. This discrepancy is often criticized by Germany's military allies, especially the United States.
In September 2014, the Bundeswehr acknowledged chronic equipment problems that rendered its armed forces "unable to deliver its defensive NATO promises". Among the problems cited were dysfunctional weapons systems, armored vehicles, aircraft, and naval vessels unfit for immediate service due to a neglect of maintenance, and serious equipment and spare parts shortages. The situation was so dire that it was acknowledged that most of Germany's fighter aircraft and combat helicopters were not in deployable condition. In 2015, as a result of serious NATO-Russian tensions in Europe, Germany announced a major increase in defense spending. In May 2015, the German government approved an increase in defense spending, at the time 1.3% of GDP, by 6.2% over the following five years, allowing the Ministry of Defense to fully modernize the army.
Plans were also announced to significantly expand the tank fleet to a potential number of 328, order 131 more Boxer armored personnel carriers, increase the submarine fleet, and to develop a new fighter jet to replace the Tornado. Germany considered increasing the size of the army, and in May 2016 it announced it would spend €130 billion on new equipment by 2030 and add nearly 7,000 soldiers by 2023 in the first German military expansion since the end of the Cold War. In February 2017, the German government announced another expansion, which would increase the number of its professional soldiers by 20,000 by 2024.
Coordination with European Partners The Bundeswehr is to play a greater role as "anchor army" for smaller NATO states, by improving coordination between its divisions and smaller members' Brigades. A further proposal, by Minister of Defence von der Leyen, to allow non-German EU nationals to join the Bundeswehr, has been met by strong opposition, even from her own party. As a consequence of improved Dutch-German cooperation, 2 of 3 Royal Netherlands Army Brigades are now under German Command. In 2014, the 11th Airmobile Brigade was integrated into the German Division of fast forces (DSK). The Dutch 43rd Mechanized Brigade will be assigned to the 1st Panzer Division of the German army, with the integration starting at the beginning of 2016, and the unit becoming operational at the end of 2019.
Also, the Seebatallion of the German Navy will start operating under Royal Dutch Navy command until 2018. The Dutch-German military cooperation is seen as an example for setting up a European defense union. Also the Czech Republic's 4th Rapid Deployment Brigade, and Romania's 81st Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into Germany's 10 Armoured Division and Rapid Response Forces Division. Command organisation With the growing number of missions abroad it was recognized that the Bundeswehr required a new command structure. A reform commission under the chairmanship of the former President Richard von Weizsäcker presented its recommendations in spring 2000. In October 2000 the Joint Support Service, the Streitkräftebasis, was established to concentrate logistics and other supporting functions such as military police, supply and communications under one command.
Medical support was reorganised with the establishment of the Joint Medical Service. In 2016, the Bundeswehr created its youngest branch the Cyber and Information Space Command. The combat forces of the Army are organised into three combat divisions and participate in multi-national command structures at the corps level. The Air Force maintains three divisions and the Navy is structured into two flotillas. The Joint Support Service and the Joint Medical Service are both organized in four regional commands of identical structure. All of these services also have general commands for training, procurement, and other general issues. The minister of defence or the chancellor is supported by the Chief of Defense (CHOD, Generalinspekteur) and the service chiefs (Inspekteure: Inspector of the Army, Inspector of the Air Force, Inspector of the Navy) and their respective staffs in his or her function as commander-in-chief.
The CHOD and the service chiefs form the Military Command Council (Militärischer Führungsrat) with functions similar to those of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in the United States. Subordinate to the CHOD is the Armed Forces Operational Command (Einsatzführungskommando). For smaller missions one of the service HQs (e.g. the Fleet Command) may exercise command and control of forces in missions abroad. The Bundestag must approve any foreign deployment by a simple majority. This has led to some discontent with Germany's allies about troop deployments e.g. in Afghanistan since parliamentary consent over such issues is relatively hard to achieve in Germany.
Mission The role of the Bundeswehr is described in the Constitution of Germany (Art. 87a) as absolutely defensive only. Its only active role before 1990 was the Katastropheneinsatz (disaster control). Within the Bundeswehr, it helped after natural disasters both in Germany and abroad. After 1990, the international situation changed from East-West confrontation to one of general uncertainty and instability. Today, after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994 the term "defence" has been defined to not only include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world.
According to the definition given by former Defence Minister Struck, it may be necessary to defend Germany even at the Hindu Kush. This requires the Bundeswehr to take part in operations outside of the borders of Germany, as part of NATO or the European Union and mandated by the UN. Operations Since the early 1990s the Bundeswehr has become more and more engaged in international operations in and around the former Yugoslavia, and also in other parts of the world like Cambodia or Somalia. After the 11 September 2001 attacks, German forces were employed in most related theaters except Iraq.
Currently (20 April 2020) there are 3,112 Bundeswehr soldiers deployed in: Resolute Support Mission 1,103 personnel KFOR 69 personnel UNMISS 12 personnel UNAMID 3 personnel UNIFIL 126 personnel EUTM Mali 115 personnel MINUSMA 886 personnel Horn of Africa / Indian Ocean Operation Atalanta 77 personnel Mediterranean Sea Operation Sea Guardian 375 personnel / Operation Counter Daesh 294 personnel Western Sahara Minurso 3 personnel UNMHA 1 personnel In addition to the numbers above, 48 soldiers are on permanent stand-by for medical evacuation operations around the world in assistance of ongoing German or coalition operations (STRATAIRMEDEVAC). In support of Allied stabilization efforts in Iraq, the Bundeswehr is also training the new Iraqi forces in locations outside Iraq, such as the United Arab Emirates and Germany.
Since 1994, the Bundeswehr has lost about 100 troops in foreign deployments. See also: German Armed Forces casualties in Afghanistan. Equipment According to the new threat scenario facing Germany and its NATO allies, the Bundeswehr is currently reorganising itself. To realise growth in mobility and the enlargement of the air force's capabilities, the Bundeswehr is going to buy 53 Airbus A400M transports as well as 136 Eurofighter Typhoon fighters and also several unmanned aerial vehicle models. 57 Eurocopter Tiger, 100 NH90 (18 of them in the naval version) and 15 special forces helicopters are being delivered. For the ground forces it plans to produce 350 Puma infantry fighting vehicle, at least 400 Boxer MRAV, started to introduce a novel land soldier system and a new generation of transportation vehicles and light vehicles, such as the Fennek, and KMW Grizzly.
Further, the German Navy is going to build 4 new F125 class frigates, 6 new multi-role combat ships (dubbed ) and 6 Type 212 submarines. Appearance Uniforms The service uniform is theoretically the standard type of Bundeswehr uniform for general duty and off-post activity, but is most associated, however, with ceremonial occasions. The army's service uniform consists of a light gray, single-breasted coat and darker grey trousers, worn with a light blue shirt, black tie, and black shoes. The peaked, visored cap has been replaced by the beret as the most common form of headgear. Dress uniforms featuring dinner jackets or double-breasted coats are worn by officers for various social occasions.
The battle and work uniform consists of Flecktarn camouflage fatigues, which are also worn on field duty. In practice, they are also used for general duty and off-post at least at barracks where there is also field duty even by others, and for the way home or to the post, and generally regarded as the Heer uniform. In all three services, light sand-coloured uniforms are available for duty in warmer climates. In 2016 a new Multitarn pattern was launched, similar to the MultiCam uniforms of the British Army or US Army. A different, traditional variety of the service uniform is worn by the Gebirgsjäger (mountain infantry), consisting of ski jacket, stretch trousers, and ski boots.
Instead of the beret, they wear the grey "mountain cap". (see here for details.) The field uniform is the same, except for the (optional) metal Edelweiss worn on the forage cap. The traditional arm-of-service colours appear as lapel facings and as piping on shoulder straps. Generals wear an inner piping of gold braid; other officers wear silver piping. Lapel facings and piping are maroon for general staff, green for infantry, red for artillery, pink for armour, black for engineers, yellow for communications, dark yellow for reconnaissance and various other colors for the remaining branches. Combat troops wear green (infantry), black (armour), or maroon (airborne) berets.
Logistics troops and combat support troops, such as artillery or engineers, wear red berets. A gold or silver badge on the beret denotes the individual branch of service. The naval forces wear the traditional navy blue, double-breasted coat and trousers; enlisted personnel wear either a white shirt or a navy blue shirt with the traditional navy collar. White uniforms provide an alternative for summer. The officer's dress cap is mounted with a gold anchor surrounded by a wreath. The visor of the admiral's cap bears a double row of oak leaves. The air force service uniform consists of a blue jacket and trousers with a light blue shirt, dark blue tie, and black shoes.
Olive battle dress similar to the army fatigue uniform is worn in basic training and during other field duty. Flying personnel wear wings on their right breast. Other air force personnel wear a modified wing device with a symbol in its centre denoting service specialisation. These Tätigkeitsabzeichen come in bronze, silver, or gold, depending on one's length of service in the specialty. Wings, superimposed over a wreath, in gold, silver, or bronze, depending on rank, are also worn on the service or field cap. Ranks In general, officer ranks are those used in the Prussian and pre-1945 German armies. Officer rank insignia are worn on shoulder straps or shoulder boards.
Army (Heer) and air force (Luftwaffe) junior officers' insignia are four pointed silver stars while field grade officers wear silver (black or white on camouflage uniforms) stars and an oak wreath around the lowest star. The stars and wreath are gold for general officers. In the case of naval (Marine) officers, rank is indicated by gold stripes on the lower sleeve of the blue service jacket and on shoulder boards of the white uniform. Soldier and NCO ranks are similar to those of the Prussian and pre-1945 German armies. In the army and air force, a Gefreiter corresponds to the NATO rank OR-2 and Obergefreiter as well as Hauptgefreiter to OR-3, while OR-4 stands for Stabsgefreiter and Oberstabsgefreiter.
An Unteroffizier is the lowest-ranking sergeant (OR-5), followed by Stabsunteroffizier (also OR-5), Feldwebel and Oberfeldwebel (OR-6), Hauptfeldwebel (OR-7/8), Stabsfeldwebel (OR-8) and Oberstabsfeldwebel (OR-9). Ranks of army and air force enlisted personnel are designated by stripes, chevrons, and "sword knots" worn on rank slides. Naval enlisted rank designations are worn on the upper (OR 1–5) or lower (OR-6 and above) sleeve along with a symbol based on an anchor for the service specialization (rating). Army and air force officer candidates hold the separate ranks of Fahnenjunker (OR-5), Fähnrich (OR-6) and Oberfähnrich (OR-7/8), and wear the appropriate rank insignia plus a silver cord bound around it.
Officers candidates in the navy Seekadett (sea cadet; equivalent to OR-5) and Fähnrich zur See (midshipman second class; OR-6) wear the rank insignia of the respective enlisted ranks but with a gold star instead of the rating symbol, while an Oberfähnrich zur See (midshipman first class; OR-7/8) wears an officer type thin rank stripe. Medical personnel of all three services wear a version of the traditional caduceus (staff with entwined serpents) on their shoulder straps or sleeve. The officers' ranks have own designations differing from the line officers, the rank insignias however are basically the same. Women Women have served in the medical service since 1975.
From 1993 they were also allowed to serve as enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers in the medical service and the army bands. In 2000, in a lawsuit brought up by Tanja Kreil, the European Court of Justice issued a ruling allowing women to serve in more roles than previously allowed. Since 2001 they can serve in all functions of service without restriction, but they are not subject to conscription. There are presently around 19,064 women on active duty and a number of female reservists who take part in all duties including peacekeeping missions and other operations. In 1994, Verena von Weymarn became Generalarzt der Luftwaffe (Surgeon General of the Air Force), the first woman ever to reach the rank of general in the armed forces of Germany.
For women, lower physical performance requirements are required in the basic fitness test, which must be completed at the time of recruitment and later on annually. The sex surcharge for the sprint test and the 1,000m run is 15%, for chin-up 40%.
Rank structure Officers NCOs and enlisted Awards Badge of Honour of the Bundeswehr Combat Action Medal of the Bundeswehr German Armed Forces Badge of Marksmanship German Armed Forces Badge for Military Proficiency German Armed Forces Service Medal German Flood Service Medal (2002) German Flood Service Medal (2013) German Parachutist Badge See also Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Defence Force United Nations Training Center of the Bundeswehr Day X plot, alleged conspiracy of Bundeswehr soldiers to murder left-leaning politicians Controversy over Erwin Rommel as Bundeswehr's role model References Further reading External links Bundeswehr – Official site (in German) Federal Ministry of Defence official site (in German, English and French) Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung official site (in German) Bundesamt für Informationsmanagement und Informationstechnik der Bundeswehr official site (in German) Territoriale Wehrverwaltung official site (in German) Y – Magazine of the Federal Defence Forces (in German) Zeitschrift für Innere Führung (in German) Reader Sicherheitspolitik (in German) Category:Military history of Germany Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Permanent Structured Cooperation
This is a list of reflected sources of light examples in contrast to the List of light sources. The list is oriented towards visible light reflection. Celestial and atmospheric light Moonlight (Moon) Earthshine Planetshine Zodiacal light (Zodiacal dust) Gegenschein Reflection nebula Sunset (mostly refraction) Rainbow Fog bow See also Reflection (physics) Diffuse reflection Category:Mirrors Category:Light
Ferrero Rocher () is a chocolate and hazelnut confectionery produced by the Italian chocolatier Ferrero. History The Ferrero Rocher was introduced in 1982 in Europe. Shortly after release, production was halted due to a problem with label printing. Michele Ferrero, the credited inventor, named the chocolate after a grotto in the Roman Catholic shrine of Lourdes, Rocher de Massabielle. Rocher comes from French and means rock or boulder. Ingredients The chocolate consisted of a whole roasted hazelnut encased in a thin wafer shell filled with hazelnut chocolate and covered in milk chocolate and chopped hazelnuts. Its ingredients are milk chocolate, sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa mass, skim milk powder, butteroil, lecithin as emulsifier (soy), vanillin (artificial flavor), hazelnuts, palm oil, wheat flour, whey (milk), lowfat cocoa powder, sodium bicarbonate (leavening agent), and salt.
Production The production process is secretive, with no smartphones or notebooks allowed inside, and, as of 2015, few journalists have ever been invited to visit. As of 2015, the production in the Alba factory totals 24 million Rochers a day. The sweet is produced by machinery. The process begins with flat sheets of wafer with hemispheres moving down an assembly line. The hemispheres of the wafers are then filled with a chocolate hazelnut cream and part of a hazelnut. Next, two of these wafer sheets, one with a hazelnut and one with hazelnut chocolate cream, are clamped together. The excess wafer is cut away producing wafer balls.
These balls are then coated with a layer of chocolate, a layer of chopped hazelnuts, and a final layer of chocolate before the chocolate is packaged. Distribution Roughly 3.6 billion Ferrero Rochers are sold each year in over 40 countries. These include 28 countries in Europe, 9 countries in the Americas, 9 countries in Asia, 2 countries in the Oceania region, and 2 countries in Africa. Cultural impact Christmas Ferrero Rochers are associated with Christmas and New Year. As of 2015, 61% of Ferrero Rochers were sold during the last three months of the year. United Kingdom advertisement campaign In the United Kingdom in the 1990s, an advertisement series was based upon a party in a European ambassador's official residence and it has been repeatedly parodied in popular culture since.
In 2000, the ambassador’s party commercial was ranked 21st in Channel 4’s poll of the "100 Greatest Adverts". Hong Kong and China Ferrero Rocher chocolates, along with baby formula, are one of the top items smuggled across the border from Hong Kong into mainland China. See also Gianduja (chocolate) Gianduiotto Environmental impact of cocoa production References External links Ferrero UK website Ferrero U.S. website Gianduja (fr.wikibooks) Category:Products introduced in 1982 Category:Ferrero brands
The spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), also known as the laughing hyena, is a hyena species, currently classed as the sole extant member of the genus Crocuta, native to Sub-Saharan Africa. It is listed as being of least concern by the IUCN on account of its widespread range and large numbers estimated between 27,000 and 47,000 individuals. The species is, however, experiencing declines outside of protected areas due to habitat loss and poaching. The species may have originated in Asia, and once ranged throughout Europe for at least one million years until the end of the Late Pleistocene. The spotted hyena is the largest known member of the Hyaenidae, and is further physically distinguished from other species by its vaguely bear-like build, its rounded ears, its less prominent mane, its spotted pelt, its more dual purposed dentition, its fewer nipples and the presence of a pseudo-penis in the female.
It is the only mammalian species to lack an external vaginal opening. The spotted hyena is the most social of the Carnivora in that it has the largest group sizes and most complex social behaviours. Its social organisation is unlike that of any other carnivore, bearing closer resemblance to that of cercopithecine primates (baboons and macaques) with respect to group-size, hierarchical structure, and frequency of social interaction among both kin and unrelated group-mates. However, the social system of the spotted hyena is openly competitive rather than cooperative, with access to kills, mating opportunities and the time of dispersal for males depending on the ability to dominate other clan-members.
Females provide only for their own cubs rather than assist each other, and males display no paternal care. Spotted hyena society is matriarchal; females are larger than males, and dominate them. The spotted hyena is a highly successful animal, being the most common large carnivore in Africa. Its success is due in part to its adaptability and opportunism; it is primarily a hunter but may also scavenge, with the capacity to eat and digest skin, bone and other animal waste. In functional terms, the spotted hyena makes the most efficient use of animal matter of all African carnivores. The spotted hyena displays greater plasticity in its hunting and foraging behaviour than other African carnivores; it hunts alone, in small parties of 2–5 individuals or in large groups.
During a hunt, spotted hyenas often run through ungulate herds in order to select an individual to attack. Once selected, their prey is chased over a long distance, often several kilometres, at speeds of up to 60 km/h. The spotted hyena has a long history of interaction with humanity; depictions of the species exist from the Upper Paleolithic period, with carvings and paintings from the Lascaux and Chauvet Caves. The species has a largely negative reputation in both Western culture and African folklore. In the former, the species is mostly regarded as ugly and cowardly, while in the latter, it is viewed as greedy, gluttonous, stupid, and foolish, yet powerful and potentially dangerous.
The majority of Western perceptions on the species can be found in the writings of Aristotle and Pliny the Elder, though in relatively unjudgemental form. Explicit, negative judgements occur in the Physiologus, where the animal is depicted as a hermaphrodite and grave-robber. The IUCN's hyena specialist group identifies the spotted hyena's negative reputation as detrimental to the species' continued survival, both in captivity and the wild. Etymology, discovery and naming The spotted hyena's scientific name Crocuta, was once widely thought to be derived from the Latin loanword crocutus, which translates as "saffron-coloured one", in reference to the animal's fur colour.
This was proven to be incorrect, as the correct spelling of the loanword would have been Crocāta, and the word was never used in that sense by Graeco-Roman sources. Crocuta actually comes from the Ancient Greek word Κροκόττας (Krokottas), which is derived from the Sanskrit koṭṭhâraka, which in turn originates from kroshṭuka (both of which were originally meant to signify the golden jackal). The earliest recorded mention of Κροκόττας is from Strabo's Geographica, where the animal is described as a mix of wolf and dog native to Ethiopia. From Classical antiquity until the Renaissance, the spotted and striped hyena were either assumed to be the same species, or distinguished purely on geographical, rather than physical grounds.
Hiob Ludolf, in his Historia aethiopica, was the first to clearly distinguish the Crocuta from Hyaena on account of physical, as well as geographical grounds, though he never had any first hand experience of the species, having gotten his accounts from an Ethiopian intermediary. Confusion still persisted over the exact taxonomic nature of the hyena family in general, with most European travelers in Ethiopia referring to hyenas as "wolves". This partly stems from the Amharic word for hyena, (jɨbb), which is linked to the Arabic word (dhiʾb) "wolf". The first detailed first-hand descriptions of the spotted hyena by Europeans come from Willem Bosman and Peter Kolbe.
Bosman, a Dutch tradesman who worked for the Dutch West India Company at the Gold Coast (modern day Ghana) from 1688–1701, wrote of "Jakhals, of Boshond" (jackals or woodland dogs) whose physical descriptions match the spotted hyena. Kolben, a German mathematician and astronomer who worked for the Dutch East India Company in the Cape of Good Hope from 1705–1713, described the spotted hyena in great detail, but referred to it as a "tigerwolf", because the settlers in southern Africa did not know of hyenas, and thus labelled them as "wolves". Bosman and Kolben's descriptions went largely unnoticed until 1771, when the Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant, in his Synopsis of Quadrupeds, used the descriptions, as well as his personal experience with a captive specimen, as a basis for consistently differentiating the spotted hyena from the striped.
The description given by Pennant was precise enough to be included by Johann Erxleben in his Systema regni animalis by simply translating Pennant's text into Latin. Crocuta was finally recognised as a separate genus from Hyaena in 1828. Local and indigenous names Several languages of Africa lack species specific names for hyenas: for example, the spotted and striped species have identical names in Dyula, Swahili, Mandinka, Mossi, Ngambaye, Wolof and Fulani. In other languages, other species may simply be termed "small spotted hyena", such as in Swahili, where the spotted hyena is termed fisi and the aardwolf fisi ndogo. Taxonomy, origins and evolution Unlike the striped hyena, for which a number of subspecies were proposed in light of its extensive modern range, the spotted hyena is a genuinely variable species, both temporally and spatially.
Its range once encompassed almost all of Africa and Eurasia, and displayed a large degree of morphological geographic variation, which led to an equally extensive set of specific and subspecific epithets. It was gradually realised that all of this variation could be applied to individual differences in a single subspecies. In 1939, biologist L. Harrison Matthews demonstrated through comparisons between a large selection of spotted hyena skulls from Tanzania that all the variation seen in the then recognised subspecies could also be found in a single population, with the only set of characters standing out being pelage (which is subject to a high degree of individual variation) and size (which is subject to Bergmann's Rule).
When fossils are taken into consideration, the species displayed even greater variation than it does in modern times, and a number of these named fossil species have since been classed as synonymous with Crocuta crocuta, with firm evidence of there being more than one species within the genus Crocuta still lacking. Both Björn Kurtén and Camille Arambourg promoted an Asiatic origin for the species; Kurtén focussed his arguments on the Plio-Pleistocene taxon Crocuta sivalensis from the Siwaliks, a view defended by Arambourg, who nonetheless allowed the possibility of an Indo-Ethiopian origin. This stance was contested by Ficarelli and Torre, who referred to evidence of the spotted hyena's presence from African deposists dating from the early Pleistocene, a similar age to the Asian C. sivalensis.
A similar myth occurs in Mansôa, Guinea-Bissau. These "werehyenas" are executed when discovered, but do not revert to their human form when killed. In Khoikhoi mythology, the spotted hyena is often the butt of the jackal's tricks. Gogo folklore links the spotted hyena to the origin of death; in one tale, the hyena prevents humanity from achieving immortality, thus ensuring it can continue to eat corpses. A similar tale is present among the Meru. In their narrative, the supreme god Murungu sent a mole to inform humanity that they would be reborn after death. Fearing this would deprive it of corpses to eat, the hyena prevents the mole from ever delivering the message.
Madi and Nuer mythology links the spotted hyena to the separation between heaven and earth; at one time, humanity kept in contact with the Creator in the sky via a cowhide rope, which was subsequently severed by a hungry hyena. The spotted hyena is a sacred totem animal for some Pedi tribes, with the skin often being used as robes by chieftains and their bones as divining instruments. According to the doctrine of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, hyenas are unclean animals which represent sexual deviancy and lawlessness. The Egyptian Saint abba (Father) Matewos of Asfoni was associated with hyenas; one fable tells of how he rescued a cub trapped in a pit, and had his feet licked in gratitude by its mother.
In Ethiopian folklore, an albino hyena called the "King of Hyenas" is ascribed great power. Some ethnic groups in Ethiopia associate themselves with hyenas; the Gurage traditionally believe that their ancestors migrated from Arabia to Ethiopia using hyenas as mounts. In Dorze tradition, the highest Demuṣa-priests have the ability to control hyenas, and will send them to punish defaulting debtors. Spotted hyenas feature prominently in the rituals of certain African cultures. In the Gelede cult of the Yoruba people of Benin and Southwest Nigeria, a spotted hyena mask is used at dawn to signal the end of the èfè ceremony.
As the spotted hyena usually finishes the meals of other carnivores, the animal is associated with the conclusion of all things. Among the Korè cult of the Bambara people in Mali, the belief that spotted hyenas are hermaphrodites appears as an ideal in-between in the ritual domain. The role of the spotted hyena mask in their rituals is often to turn the neophyte into a complete moral being by integrating his male principles with femininity. The Beng people believe that upon finding a freshly killed hyena with its anus inverted, one must plug it back in, for fear of being struck down with perpetual laughter.
They also view spotted hyena faeces as contaminating, and will evacuate a village if a hyena relieves itself within village boundaries. In Harar, Ethiopia, spotted hyenas are regularly fed by the city's inhabitants, who believe the hyenas' presence keeps devils at bay, and associate mystical properties such as fortune telling to them. In Western culture Traditional Western beliefs about the spotted hyena can be traced back to Aristotle's Historia Animalium, which described the species as a necrophagous, cowardly and potentially dangerous animal. He further described how the hyena uses retching noises to attract dogs. In On the Generation of Animals, Aristotle criticised the erroneous belief that the spotted hyena is a hermaphrodite (which likely originated from the confusion caused by the masculinised genitalia of the female), though his physical descriptions are more consistent with the striped hyena.
Pliny the Elder supported Aristotle's depiction, though he further elaborated that the hyena can imitate human voices. Additionally, he wrote how the hyena was held in high regard among the Magi, and that hyena body parts could cure different diseases, give protection and stimulate sexual desire in people. The author of the Physiologus, who infused pagan tales with the spirit of Christian moral and mystical teaching, reactivated the myth that the hyena is a hermaphrodite. The author compared the species to "double-minded men" who are neither "man nor woman, that is, neither faithful nor unfaithful". He further states that "The sons of Israel are like this animal since in the beginning they served the living God but later, given over to pleasure and lust, they adored idols."
The bestiaries of the Middle Ages embraced the Physiologus'''s descriptions, but further elaborated on the animal's necrophagous habits. These bestiaries almost invariably depict hyenas feeding on human corpses. These illustrations were largely based on the descriptions given by Aristotle and Pliny, though the animals have no spots or other bodily markings, thus making it unlikely that the authors had ever seen hyenas first-hand. During the 15th and 16th centuries, travellers to Africa provided further descriptions of the species. Leo Africanus repeated some of the old concepts on the hyena, with the addition of describing its legs and feet as similar to those of men.
In 1551, Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner rejected the belief of the hyena's hermaphroditism, and theorised that it originated from confusion over an androgynous fish bearing the same name. He adds three other animals within the category of hyenas, including an Ethiopian quadruped named "Crocotta", which was thought to be a hybrid between a hyena and a lioness. Sir Thomas Browne also argued against the hyena's supposed hermaphroditism, stating that all animals follow their own "Law of Coition", and that a hermaphrodite would transgress this. Sir Walter Raleigh, in an attempt to rationalise how Noah's Ark could have fitted all extant species of animal, wrote that hyenas were hybrids between foxes and wolves which originated after the Great Flood.
References to the spotted hyena's vocalisations are referenced in numerous contemporary examples of English literature, including Shakespeare's As You Like It and George Chapman's Eastward Ho. John Milton, in his Samson Agonistes, compares the species to Delila. Natural historians of the 18th and 19th centuries rejected stories of hermaphroditism in hyenas, and recognised the differences between the spotted and striped hyena. However, they continued to focus on the species' scavenging habits, their potential to rob graves and their perceived cowardice. During the 20th century, Western and African stereotypes of the spotted hyena converged; in both Ernest Hemingway's Green Hills of Africa and Disney's The Lion King, the traits of gluttony and comical stupidity, common in African depictions of hyenas, are added to the Western perception of hyenas being cowardly and ugly.
After the release of The Lion King, hyena biologists protested against the animal's portrayal: one hyena researcher sued Disney studios for defamation of character, and another who had organized the animators' visit to the University of California's Field Station for Behavioural Research, where they would observe and sketch captive hyenas suggested boycotting the film. Livestock predation When targeting livestock, the spotted hyena primarily preys upon cattle, sheep and goats, though hyenas in the southern parts of Ethiopia's Tigray region preferentially target donkeys. Reports of livestock damage are often not substantiated, and hyenas observed scavenging on a carcass may be mistaken for having killed the animal.
The rate at which the species targets livestock may depend on a number of factors, including stock keeping practices, the availability of wild prey and human-associated sources of organic material, such as rubbish. Surplus killing has been recorded in South Africa's eastern Cape Province. Attacks on stock tend to be fewer in areas where livestock is corralled by thorn fences and where domestic dogs are present. One study in northern Kenya revealed that 90% of all cases of livestock predation by hyenas occurred in areas outside the protection of thorn fences. Attacks on humans and grave desecration Like most mammalian predators, the spotted hyena is typically shy in the presence of humans, and has the highest flight distance (up to 300 metres) among African carnivores.
However, this distance is reduced during the night, when hyenas are known to follow people closely. Although spotted hyenas do prey on humans in modern times, such incidents are rare. However, attacks on humans by spotted hyenas are likely to be underreported. Man-eating spotted hyenas tend to be very large specimens; a pair of man-eating hyenas, responsible for killing 27 people in Mlanje, Malawi, in 1962, were weighed at after being shot. Victims of spotted hyenas tend to be women, children and sick or infirm men, and there are numerous cases of biologists in Africa being forced up trees in order to escape them.
Attacks occur most commonly in September, when many people sleep outdoors, and bush fires make the hunting of wild game difficult for hyenas. In 1903, Hector Duff wrote of how spotted hyenas in the Mzimba district of Angoniland would wait at dawn outside people's huts and attack them when they opened their doors. In 1908–09 in Uganda, spotted hyenas regularly killed sufferers of African sleeping sickness as they slept outside in camps. Spotted hyenas are widely feared in Malawi, where they have been known to occasionally attack people at night, particularly during the hot season when people sleep outside. Hyena attacks were widely reported in Malawi's Phalombe plain, to the north of Michesi Mountain.
Five deaths were recorded in 1956, five in 1957 and six in 1958. This pattern continued until 1961 when eight people were killed. During the 1960s, Flying Doctors received over two dozen cases of hyena attacks on humans in Kenya. An anecdotal 2004 news report from the World Wide Fund for Nature indicates that 35 people were killed by spotted hyenas during a 12-month period in Mozambique along a 20 km stretch of road near the Tanzanian border. Although attacks against living humans are rare, the spotted hyena readily feeds on human corpses. In the tradition of the Maasai and the Hadza, corpses are left in the open for spotted hyenas to eat.
A corpse rejected by hyenas is seen as having something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace, therefore it is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered ox. In Ethiopia, hyenas were reported to feed extensively on the corpses of victims of the 1960 attempted coup and the Red Terror. Hyenas habituated to scavenging on human corpses may develop bold behaviours towards living people; hyena attacks on people in southern Sudan increased during the Second Sudanese Civil War, when human corpses were readily available to them. Urban hyenas In some parts of Africa, spotted hyenas have begun to frequent metropolitan areas, where groups or "clans" of the animals have become a menace.
The Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is estimated to have up to a thousand resident hyenas which survive by scavenging rubbish tips and preying on feral dogs and cats. There have also been attacks on humans who are homeless. In 2013, a baby boy was killed by hyenas after being snatched from his mother as she camped near the Hilton Hotel. Some 40 of the animals were reportedly seen alongside a fence bordering the British Embassy compound. In December 2013, a cull was organised and marksmen killed ten hyenas which had occupied wasteland near the city centre. Hunting and use in traditional medicine The spotted hyena has been hunted for its body parts for use in traditional medicine, for amusement, and for sport, though this is rare, as the species is generally not considered attractive.
There is fossil evidence of humans in Middle Pleistocene Europe butchering and presumably consuming spotted hyenas. Such incidences are rare in modern Africa, where most tribes, even those known to eat unusual kinds of meat, generally despise hyena flesh. Several authors during the Scramble for Africa attested that, despite its physical strength, the spotted hyena poses no danger to hunters when captured or cornered. It was often the case that native skinners refused to even touch hyena carcasses, though this was not usually a problem, as hyena skins were not considered attractive.Tjader, Richard (1910) The big game of Africa: with many illustrations from photographs by the author, D. Appleton and company in New York and, London In Burkina Faso, the hyena's tail is used for medicinal and magical purposes.
In Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal, the animals' whole body is harvested for bushmeat and medicine. In Malawi and Tanzania, the genitalia, nose tips and tails are used for traditional medicine. In Mozambique, traditional healers use various spotted hyena body parts, particularly the paws. Oromo hunters typically go through ritual purification after killing hyenas. Kujamaat hunters traditionally treat the spotted hyenas they kill with the same respect due to deceased tribal elders, in order to avoid retribution from hyena spirits acting on behalf of the dead animal. During the early years of Dutch colonisation in southern Africa, hyenas (referred to as "wolves" by the colonists) were especially susceptible to trapping, as their predilection for eating carrion, and lack of caution about enclosed spaces, worked against them.
A feature of many frontier farms was the wolwehok (hyena trap), which was roughly constructed from stone or wood and baited with meat. The trap featured a trap-door, which was designed to shut once the bait was disturbed. In the Cape Colony, spotted hyenas were often hunted by tracking them to their dens and shooting them as they escaped. Another hunting method was to trap them in their dens and dazzle them with torchlight, before stabbing them in the heart with a long knife. When chased by hunting dogs, spotted hyenas often attack back, unless the dogs are of exceptionally large, powerful breeds.
James Stevenson-Hamilton wrote that wounded spotted hyenas could be dangerous adversaries for hunting dogs, recording an incident in which a hyena managed to kill a dog with a single bite to the neck without breaking the skin. Further difficulties in killing spotted hyenas with dogs include the species' thick skin, which prevents dogs from inflicting serious damage to the animal's muscles. Spotted hyenas in captivity and as pets From a husbandry point of view, hyenas are easily kept, as they have few disease problems and it is not uncommon for captive hyenas to reach 15–20 years of age. Nevertheless, the spotted hyena was historically scantily represented in zoos, and was typically obtained in order to fill empty cages until a more prestigious species could be obtained.
In subsequent years, animals considered to be more charismatic were allocated larger and better quality facilities, while hyenas were often relegated to inferior exhibits. In modern times, the species faces spatial competition from more popular animals, especially large canids. Also, many captive individuals have not been closely examined to confirm their sexes, thus resulting in non-breeding pairs often turning out to be same-sexed individuals. As a result, many captive hyena populations are facing extinction. During the 19th century, the species was frequently displayed in travelling circuses as oddities. Alfred Brehm wrote that the spotted hyena is harder to tame than the striped hyena, and that performing specimens in circuses were not up to standard.
Sir John Barrow described how spotted hyenas in Sneeuberge were trained to hunt game, writing that they were "as faithful and diligent as any of the common domestic dogs". In Tanzania, spotted hyena cubs may be taken from a communal den by witchdoctors, in order to increase their social status. An April 2004 BBC article described how a shepherd living in the small town of Qabri Bayah about 50 kilometres from Jigjiga, Ethiopia managed to use a male spotted hyena as a livestock guardian dog, suppressing its urge to leave and find a mate by feeding it special herbs. If not raised with adult members of their kind, captive spotted hyenas will exhibit scent marking behaviours much later in life than wild specimens.
Although easily tamed, spotted hyenas are exceedingly difficult to house train, and can be very destructive; a captive, otherwise perfectly tame, specimen in the Tower of London managed to tear an long plank nailed to its recently repaired enclosure floor with no apparent effort. During the research leading to the composition of his monograph The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behavior, Hans Kruuk kept a tame hyena he named Solomon. Kruuk found Solomon's company so congenial, he would have kept him, but Solomon had an insatiable taste for "cheese in the bar of the tourist lounge and bacon off the Chief Park Warden's breakfast table", and no door could hold him back, so Solomon was obliged to live out his days in the Edinburgh Zoo.
See also Spotted hyenas in Harar PachycrocutaReferences Notes Bibliography Further reading Hugo Van Lawick and Jane Goodall. Innocent Killers. Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, 1971 Mills, M.G.L. Kalahari Hyenas: Comparative Behavioral Ecology of Two Species. The Blackburn Press, 2003 External links The IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group page on spotted hyena Davis, Delbert Dwight & Story, Harriette Elizabeth (1949), The Female External Genitalia of the Spotted Hyena, Fieldiana: Zoology, vol. 31, no. 33, Chicago Natural History Museum McPherson, Jamie The Good, the Bad and the Hyena, BBC Wildlife'', Summer 2008. Spotted Hyena – Female Genitalia | Video, Check123 Video Encyclopedia spotted hyena Category:Carnivorans of Africa Category:Mammals of Sub-Saharan Africa Category:Matriarchism among animals spotted hyena Category:Extant Piacenzian first appearances Category:Man-eating species
The International Light Line pickups (also called the International D-Series (1000–1500)) replaced the C-Series as International's Light Line range of pickup trucks in early 1969, for a shortened model year. The name started out as a simple continuation of the previous A-, B-, and C-series trucks. It was largely a rebodied version of its predecessors, with a square-rigged look very similar to the period Scout utility vehicle. The Travelall underwent parallel changes to the Light Line trucks. The light line of trucks was marked by a larger range of transmission and wheelbase options than any of its competitors, and in general the lineup aimed to maximize adaptability.
The Light Line was also available as a bare chassis, for special purpose applications. Production ended without replacement in late April 1975, as a hard-pressed International chose to focus on the Scout and on heavier machinery. 1000D-Series Sold as the 1000 through 1500 D-series, the Light Line pickup was originally offered with four of International Harvester's own V8s, with displacements of 266, 304, 345 or 392 cubic inches. AMC's 232 ci inline-six engine had also been available, since the 1968 C-Series. Several different wheelbases (115, 119, 131, 132, 149, 156, or 164 inches) were also offered. The 119 inch version (as used for the Travelall) was only available as a bare chassis.
In addition to the regular cab pickup, station wagon "Travelall" bodywork was also available, as was a four-door panel van version of the wagon and a four-door pickup called the "Travelette" (only on the 149 or 164 inch wheelbase). The standard transmission was a three-speed manual with a column shift, but there were also four- and five-speed manuals and a three-speed automatics, with floor-mounted shifters optional. The automatic transmission was not available in heavier duty models such as the 1300D and the rare 1500D. Several models were also available as a cab on a bare frame for construction of stake-bed or other applications, some with an optional dual-wheel rear end, with available load ratings up to seven tons.
These larger models were not popular, with most buyers opting instead for the Loadstar models. 1010-Series For 1971 the Light Line underwent a slight styling change, now with a plastic grille. The naming system also changed, with the "D" being dropped and with a "10" being added in the series number. Thus, the new trucks were labelled 1010 through 1510, depending on weight ratings. The engine range was the same as for the earlier pickups, although AMC's 258 six was added later in 1971. The smaller 232 was dropped for 1972, as was the 266 V8 which had still been available in early 1971.
From that year on a metal grille with five horizontal bars and a slim central vertical opening was installed instead of the previous plastic unit. As IH's own engines were temporarily in short supply due to the success of the Loadstar medium-duty truck, some 1973 and 1974 pickup trucks received AMC's 401 ci V8 engine instead (called the V-400 on International's option list). The crew cab Travelette was only available on the 1210 series. The 1010 and 1110 have the same weight rating, the difference being in the front suspension: independent, by torsion-bars, for the 1010, and of a solid I-beam construction for the 1110 (and all heavier versions).
A first for the segment was the option of a Bendix anti-lock brake system called Adaptive Braking System by International. Operating only on the rear wheels, it was made available the pickups (and Travelalls) in late 1971. Due to the expense of this novel system, it was a rarely selected option. 100-series For 1974 the naming changed yet again: the trucks were now called 100, 150, 200, or 500 depending on the weight rating. External changes were minimal, consisting mainly of a new five-bar metal grille without the vertical dividers, nicknamed the "electric razor grille". The two wheel drive chassis received a revised double wishbone independent front suspension and disc brakes replacing the previous torsion bar front end.
The engine and transmission was also repositioned lower and further behind the front axle centerline (in preparation for the new MV-series gas and diesel V8 engines that never actually made it into series production). The heavy duty one-ton 500 was only available as a single-cab chassis, and the ¾ ton 150 was only available with IHC's own line of V8 engines. The program was gradually whittled away. The Travelette crew cab was no longer available with four-wheel drive. Only the 150, 200, and 500-Series remained by the time the 1975s were introduced. By then, only IHC's own V8s were still available, with the claimed outputs down to SAE net.
There were two wheelbases available for the regular cab (115 or 132 inches), and two for the Travelette (149 or 166 inches). The beds were either a standard unit or the "Bonus Load" bed. In the end, however, Pickup (and Travelall) production ended on 28 April 1975, with only about 6,000 made. The last one built was an all-wheel drive IH 200HD cab and chassis, built in IHC's Springfield factory. The Light Line was unable to compete with the Big Three in the light truck market; IHC's market share in this segment had never been higher than 9.5% and had dropped to 4.1% by 1969.
Corporate infighting and the 1973-1974 oil crisis served to further undermine International's market, meaning that the Light Line had to be discontinued in spite of the marketing efforts of recently added executive Keith Mazurek (previously of Chrysler Canada). The oil crisis particularly affected International's working trucks, which were the heaviest and least fuel efficient in the market. Another issue of concern was the truck-centered nature of International's dealers, while most competing light trucks were beginning to be sold to suburban buyers in more alluring and better located auto show rooms. International Harvester instead chose to focus on heavier trucks and the popular Scout, which continued to be built until 1980.
See also List of International Harvester vehicles References Further reading External links Talk page on marque website Light Line Category:Vehicles introduced in 1969 Category:1960s cars Category:1970s cars
An Intelligent Banknote Neutralisation System (IBNS) is a security system which protects valuables against unauthorised access to its contents by rendering it unusable by marking all the cash as stolen by a degradation agent when an attempted attack on the system is detected. Ink is a popular agent, which functions by staining cash with a permanent dye released from a dye pack. Such marked money is highly conspicuous and cannot be readily used. More recently, a bonding agent (glue) was released as an alternative degradation agent. Well-neutralised banknotes cannot be brought back into circulation easily. They can be linked to the crime scene and restricted procedures are in place to exchange them at the financial institution.
This makes stealing neutralised banknotes uneconomical and impractical. The IBNS removes the anticipated reward of the crime and increases the risk of being caught. This not only foils the theft but acts as a deterrent against further attacks. History In Europe the design of intelligent systems to protect valuables began in 1980. The overall goal was to create a secure system to provide additional security for Cash-in-transit. The very first IBNS prototype using coloured smoke as neutralisation agent was invented by Spinnaker International Ltd in 1982. This made use of very lightweight and simple to use containers. In 1990, the first case of safety ink as a neutralizing agent was accepted to be used in soft-skinned vehicles.
At the same time in Sweden IBNS systems manufactured by Spinnaker, were being used in non-armoured and partially armoured vehicles, demonstrating that this was a viable alternative to cash transportation with armoured trucks. The Swedish market decided to progress with IBNS boxes for cash transport. In 1991 France changed its regulations to allow the use of IBNS in soft-skinned vehicles. The French CIT company VALTIS was the first to implement such a system to service three regional banks. In 2002, Banque de France implemented an international procedure to treat and exchange neutralized banknotes for CIT professionals. In 2003, the European Central Bank made a decision that defined the process and cost of exchanging neutralized Euro Banknotes among all National Central Banks in Europe.
In 2005, Banque de France implemented a special procedure regarding the treatment of stained banknotes deposited by private persons. In 2007, Sweden implemented a national regulation making the use of IBNS by CIT obligatory. The same year, the Belgian government also implemented a national regulation imposing the use of IBNS for Cash-in-transit. In 2010, the European Commission finalized a European regulation to harmonize cross-border cash transportation by road. The use of non-armoured vehicles in combination with IBNS is one of two accepted methods of transportation. Concept The concept of an IBNS is based upon the notion that criminals seek to maximize their reward while minimizing the potential cost of the crime.
Intelligent Banknote Neutralisation Systems remove the anticipated reward of the crime and increase the risk of being caught. Reducing the reward of the crime is done by permanently marking the cash as stolen with an indelible security ink or bonding agent. Tracers and markers added to the ink or bonding agent provide forensic evidence linking the criminal to the crime scene, increasing the risk of being caught. IBNS focuses on using technology to protect people, valuables and equipment whilst minimizing the use of weapons and armoured vehicles. Application IBNS technology is typically found protecting cash inside ATMs; in retail establishments and vending machines and by the cash in transit industry to protect cash in the public space.
Legislation and regulations The use of IBNS is usually regulated by the presence or absence of a legal structure (legislation and regulations) as well as the legal conditions applying to the private security sector. The following countries allow neutralisation of national banknotes by the National Central Bank: Permit the use of IBNS without legal or professional regulation or other restriction: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Bosnia, Slovenia, UK, Austria, Netherlands, Switzerland. Legal regulation permits use of IBNS upon citing the regulation: Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Finland. Legal regulation permit to use IBNS with technical agreement: Croatia, France, Sweden, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, Hungary, Italy Legal regulation forbids unrestricted use of IBNS: Poland, Romania.
These countries forbid neutralising of national banknotes by legal regulation or internal regulation by the National Central Bank: Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Egypt, Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and others. References External links EURICPA - European Intelligent Cash Protection Association Banknote Watch - a crime prevention initiative European Association for Secured Transactions (EAST) ATM Security Association Category:Bank robbery Category:Security technology Category:Non-lethal weapons Category:British inventions
The Primary Health Care and Resource Center (PHCRC) is in the rural village of Chapagaun, Lalitpur in Nepal. Chapagaun is in the wider Kathmandu Valley. The health centre was first established in 1972 as a Maternal and Child Health (MCH) clinic by the United Mission to Nepal. It is notable for its international volunteer programme and its micro-insurance service which reduces the cost of health care for those with the insurance. This is an important service in a country where more than 30% of the population are below the poverty line of US$12 per month and lack basic amenities such as primary health care.
The Primary Health Care and Resource Center was established by the United Mission to Nepal (UMN), a Christian organisation, established in 1954, that aims to encourage "healthy, strong and empowered individuals". In 1984 after 12 years of existence the clinic was upgraded, from an MCH clinic to a Health Post for the local community. And after another five years the health post was upgraded to a Health Teaching Post. 32 years after beginning the project, in 2004, UMN handed control of the institute to the local government's District Development Committee (DDC) of Lalitpur under the branch of the Village Development Committee (VDC).
The centre thereafter has been managed by the local management committee. The organization has been operating the Community Based Health Insurance (CBHI), Community Based School Health Insurance (CBSHI), and Community Based Laborers' Health Insurance (CBLHI) which are the pioneer projects of the organization.
Services In 2005 the health post was renamed Primary Health Care and Resource Center to reflect the fact that it offers more services than a traditional health centre; it provides: General Outpatient department Clinical Laboratory Pharmacy Minor Surgical Procedures In-patient Care X-ray in-patient Care Surgery Community Oral Health Services Community Mental Health Services 24-hour Emergency Services Ambulance Service Community TB DOTS Service MCH and RH Services Birthing Center and Postnatal Observation Antenatal and Postnatal Services Family Planning Services Well Baby Clinic Immunization Services Growth monitoring Nutrition Education, Promotion and Rehabilitation Service Home based Nutrition Follow-up PHCRC Based Nutrition Follow-up Super Flour Production and Promotion Community Nutrition Rehabilitation Center In 2008 the local management committee began managing PHCRC in conjunction with SHANTI NEPAL (INGO).