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Gardner’s theory suggest that intelligence is the ability to learn and understand in different ways. His research asserts we have different needs for learning different things whether it is biological or cultural. He describes seven different intelligences that derive from different parts of the brain that effect learning. They are logical-mathematical intelligence, linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence. Each of the intelligences are important and usually are used in combination of one another to enhance your ability to build skills and solve problems.
The first of the seven intelligences is logical-mathematical. This intelligence consist of the ability to count, do mathematical calculations, and the ability to think logically. Scientist, engineers, and insurance actuaries are examples of people who possess the logical-mathematical intelligence. The second intelligence is linguistic intelligence is the ability to use writing and speaking as a way to express yourself or communicate effectively. Poets and reporters and people who are good at public speaking are an example of people who use the linguistic intelligence. Third of the intelligences is spatial intelligence. This is the ability to use your memory to solve problems or for guidance. Gardner’s example for this intelligence is blind children. The fourth intelligence is musical intelligence. This is the ability to learn music, rhythm, tones, and beats. A great example of a person using this intelligence would the composer of your favorite song. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is fifth. This is the ability to coordinate your own body movements. Dancers are an example of people who use this intelligence.
The sixth intelligence referenced by Gardner is interpersonal intelligence. This is the ability to understand and interpret the behavior of others. Teachers are a... | <urn:uuid:a06a03dc-0317-4fd3-b64f-fe02cee2ceef> | {
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currently processing new images.
Housed in the Palace of Fine Arts from the 1916 Pan Pacific Exhibition World Fair.
by Paul Doherty
The Exploratorium was founded in 1969 by physicist and teacher Frank Oppenheimer.(The brother of J. Robert Oppenheimer.)
Frank visited Museums all over the World then searched for a building. He found the Palace of Fine Arts, built for the World's Fair of 1916, the Pan Pacific Exhibition by Bernard Maybeck.
The Palace of Fine Arts in 1969, future home of the Exploratorium.
Inside the Palace was one giant room, 100,000 square feet, or 10,000 square meters.
Inside the Exploratorium, one giant room with 500 exhibits.
Goery Delacote has been the director of the Exploratorium since 1991.
Here he helps a visitor watch a partial solar eclipse.
We say we are a museum of Science, Art and Human Perception.
We create more new hands-on science explorations than any other museum in the world, about one new exhibit every week.
We have exhibits for everyone from children to adults including teenagers and physics professors (both tough audiences.)
Children play with a ball suspended over a blower.
Former President Bill Clinton asked for this exhibit to use during his inaugural party for children.
Children admire the interference colors at the Soap Film Painting Exhibit.
This restroom sign is a perception exhibit.
All of our exhibits are built in the machine shop inside the Exploratorium.
The creative chaos of the machine shop.
Exhibits are created by artist/scientist/engineer teams.
Here Ned Kahn puts the finishing touches on a Turbulent Orb.
Paul Doherty teachers the teenage floor staff of the museum about the science of the exhibits.
This giant Jacob's Ladder makes a spark which the visitor can blow up or down by turning a crank. One day the exhibit caught fire and visitors enjoyed fanning the flames with the blower thinking that this was what the exhibit was supposed to do.
I always start my lessons by asking visitors "What do you see?"
It's a question they cannot get wrong.
We also have programs for high school science teachers.
Teachers begin at exhibits.
Teachers then go into the classroom to build there own exhibits, here ammeters.
Teachers can also work in the machine shop building exhibits to take back to their schools.
The light island Exhibit can be used to study optics. Here it traces rays to show the location of a virtual image in a convex mirror.
Here is a classroom version of the light island exhibit made with cardboard concrete forms.
We feature a web competition for science teachers named
Iron Science Teacher.
The teachers are given an ingredient like "candy bars" and have 10 minuttes to create a science lesson using that material. These competitions are browdcast on the Web. they are archived at
We also take our science teaching out into the world. Here is Paul Doherty teaching chhildren in Zambia about the earth and the moon to prepare them for an eclipse.
Paul Doherty at Tujatane School near Livingston Zambia.
Paul Doherty teaching a lesson on how to safely view a solar eclipse during the partial phases at a village along the Zambezi River in Zambia.
Paul Doherty about to do a webcast from the summit rim of Mt. EErebus in Antarctica.
But when the day is over we like to return to the Exploratorium.
The gravity well also models the electrical potential energy of a
Circles of paper can be used to show standing waves in the Bohr model of the atom.
The inner ring has 1 wave the outer ring has 4 waves.
Here's a puzzle.
This giant lens remains the same diistance from a trash container.
Classic physics shows that at one distance for an object a lens produces either a real or a virtual image.
Yet as I walk toward this lens the image of the trash container switches from real to virtual.
An inverted real image
A virtual image.
The Pendulum Snake
The exhibit builder wanted to know how to make the pendulums so that each pendulum made exactly one moore swing than its neighbor in 30 seconds.
When all the pendulums start together they all drift out of phase until at 30 seconds they all return to perfect alignment.
A rod angled at 45 degrees and rotated through a plane fits through a hyperbolic slot.
Proving this is an interesting problem in geometry.
Mercator Your Face.
At this exhibit we teach about Mercator projections by making a Mercator projection of the visitors face.
This exhibit shoots a string into the air. Nobel prize winner Leon Ledderman worked with uus to figure out the shape of the string.
We have an exhibit tthat projects a poisson spot.
A bright point of light apppears in the middle of the shadow of a solid ball bearing.
The museum also works with artists. Bill Parker made the first lightning ball at the Exploratorium.
The glowing electron paths narrow due to magnetic focussing as the current is increased.
A Xylophone is tuned to the resonances of a tall cement room.
At one height in the room there is no perceived sound.
The no-sound point is noot at the node of motion at the floor. It is at the antinode above the floor. The human ear is a pressure change sensor not an air motion sensor.
Sometimes visitors teach uus what exhibits are about. This exhibit started out rolling balls on a spinning mmetal disk. But visitors showed us that the motion of coins was much more iinteresting, so now we provide thhem with disks.
Scientific Explorations with Paul Doherty
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An earthquake that killed nine people in Spain last year may have been triggered by decades of pumping water from a nearby natural underground reservoir, suggesting human activities played a role in moving Earth’s crust, scientists reported on Sunday.
The study published in the journal Nature Geoscience centered on the May 11, 2011, quake in the southern Spanish town of Lorca. In addition to the nine deaths, this relatively modest earthquake of magnitude 5.1 damaged numerous buildings in Lorca, an agricultural center.
The study’s lead author, Pablo Gonzalez of the University of Western Ontario, said he and his colleagues reckoned that the quake was related to a drop in the level of groundwater in a local aquifer, which can create pressure at the Earth’s surface.
To test that theory, they used satellite data to see how the terrain was deformed by the earthquake, and found that it correlated to changes in the Earth’s crust caused by a 273-yard (250-metre) drop in the natural groundwater level over the last five decades due to groundwater extraction.
Their findings suggest that human-induced stress on faults like the one near Lorca, known as the Alhama de Murcia Fault, can not only cause an earthquake but also influence how far the fault will slip as a result.
The groundwater was tapped by deeper and deeper wells to irrigate fruits and vegetables and provide water for livestock.
While this research does not automatically relate to other earthquakes, it could offer clues about quakes that occur near water in the future, Gonzalez said by telephone.
“We cannot set up a rule just by studying a single particular case, but the evidence that we have collected in this study could be necessary to expand research in other future events that occur near … dams, aquifers and melting glaciers, where you have tectonic faults close to these sources,” Gonzalez said.
He said this was different from a rash of minor earthquakes seen in Texas over the last two years, some of which occurred near wells where wastewater was injected deep underground.
In an accompanying article, Jean-Philippe Avouac of the California Institute of Technology said the implications could be far-reaching “if ever the effect of human-induced stress perturbations on seismicity is fully understood.”
“For now, we should remain cautious … We know how to start earthquakes, but we are still far from being able to keep them under control,” Avouac wrote.
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Despite the English-only rhetoric in some sectors of the country, a growing number of Latino and non-Latino families alike see the value in raising bilingual children and seeking out resources to help them teach a second language at home.
Julia Pimsleur Levine is the creator of Little Pim, a comprehensive series of educational materials for introducing a foreign language to young children ages 0 to 5. She came up with the idea in 2006 because she wanted her own son to learn French and wasn’t happy with the resources available. Pimsleur Levine herself is fluent in French, and also knows a little Spanish, Italian, and German.
Her company, Little Pim, is distinctive in that it uses what she calls the Entertainment Immersion Method®. Its roots lie in the Pimsleur Method, an audio-based language learning method for adults developed by her father, Dr. Paul Pimsleur. Julia Pimsleur Levine adapted the method for children and added a visual element using other children as subjects, as well as an animated character to capture and engage her young audience. The Spanish immersion videos emphasize repetition and make teaching a foreign language easier for parents who may not speak it themselves.
In this global economy, she says, being bilingual is an essential skill for finding a job. For most Europeans, for example, speaking a second, third, or even fourth language is commonplace.
“Of the 25 top industrialized nations, 21 of those introduce a second language to their citizens in kindergarten,” she says. The United States is not one of those.
She also cites the fact that bilingualism is a brain booster. “It improves analytical skills and memory. Really, it has many cognitive benfits.”
Since creating Little Pim, Pimsleur Levine says she has seen a tidal wave of interest in foreign language learning from parents across the country. Her company has continued to grow and now offers materials in 10 languages.
Other business owners are seeing similar success. Just a few weeks ago, the book Bilingual is Better by Roxana Soto and Ana Flores hit the market with a loud bang. Written by two Latina moms who also publish the blog SpanglishBaby.com, the book discusses how attitudes towards bilingual parenting are changing, and provides encouragement to parents ready to begin the journey of raising a bilingual child.
Flores says the response to the book launch has been overwhelming. “We’ve been embraced by the major Hispanic media outlets that have reported about our bilingual parenting movement,” she said.
But more importantly, the community has eagerly responded. “We’ve discovered that pretty much every Latino we’ve talked to about the book has a story to share about either their own bilingual upbringing, the lack of it or how they are, or plan to, raise their children to speak Spanish and embrace their heritage.”
Inspired by their own experiences in raising bilingual children, Flores and Soto started Spanglish Baby to encourage other parents, answer questions, and provide resources to help bilingual families. Their dedication to their cause is deeply personal.
“My personal mission to promote bilingualism is to give my daughter the gift of a real connection with her familia, since most of them live abroad in El Salvador and Mexico, and for her to feel connected to her heritage,” Flores says. And after discovering all the physical and professional benefits bilingualism offers, she feels compelled to share the information with other parents.
“I truly believe that all children must be given the opportunity to learn a second language as early as possible.”
Monica Olivera Hazelton, NBC Latino contributor and the founder and publisher of MommyMaestra.com, a site for Latino families that homeschool, as well as families with children in a traditional school setting who want to take a more active role in their children’s education. She is the 2011 winner of the “Best Latina Education Blogger” award by LATISM. | <urn:uuid:58b45a26-80fd-46c8-8bea-500305c39431> | {
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Most artists earn very little. Nevertheless, there is no shortage of aspiring young artists. Do they give to the arts willingly or unknowingly? Governments and other institutions also give to the arts, to raise the low incomes. But their support is ineffective: subsidies only increase the artists' poverty. The economy of the arts is exceptional. Although the arts operate successfully in the marketplace, their natural affinity is with gift-giving, rather than with commercial exchange. People believe that artists are selflessly dedicated to art, that price does not reflect quality, and that the arts are free. But is it true? This unconventional multidisciplinary analysis explains the exceptional economy of the arts. Insightful illustrations from the practice of a visual artist support the analysis. | <urn:uuid:0b42d741-33d3-4dbc-aca6-5f186f669871> | {
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The human body depends on sodium or salt for proper function. For instance, it takes part in the absorption of certain nutrients from the GI tract. In addition, sodium is in charge of fluid retention in our blood cells and conveying information in our muscles and nerves. As the human body does not naturally produce salt, it’s vital for us to ensure proper sodium intake for optimal health.
Regular Table Salt
Table salt or sodium chloride is the most commonly used type of salt. It’s produced from natural salt (such as crude oil flake leftovers) when heated to 1200° Fahrenheit. As this product is highly refined, it’s depleted of most of its nutritional value. Plus, it’s laden with other chemical substances such as solo-co-aluminate, sodium bicarbonate, fluoride, anti-caking agents, and toxic amounts of potassium iodide and aluminium derivatives. Unfortunately, table salt is usually fortified with synthetic forms of iodine because the natural form of essential iodine is lost during the production process. This means that not only is table salt unhealthy, but it’s often toxic as well.
The Health Impact Of Table Salt
Table salt has been linked to instant hypertension, which occurs as a result of the blood trying to quickly remove the toxic elements away from the heart. Excessive intake of common table salt can trigger and/or worsen a number of chronic imbalances including diabetes, gout and obesity. It’s particularly harmful for the circulatory system and nervous systems.
Himalayan Pink Salt
Unlike table salt, Himalayan pink salt is unrefined “raw” salt. The unique pink color derives from the amount of minerals it contains, especially iron. A 2001 study conducted by researchers from the University of Graz, Austria found that Himalayan crystal salt possibly improves respiratory, circulatory and nervous system functions. Moreover, this type of salt enhances sleep quality, concentration and brain activity.
The health benefits from Pink Himalayan Salt also derive from traces of the following minerals:
Mental retardation, thyroid dysfunction and depression are some serious conditions linked to iodine deficiency. As already mentioned, synthetic Iodine is added to table salt during production.
This mineral is essential for energy production and glycolysis, but also for structural development of bones in the body.
Zinc is one of the most important minerals for cellular metabolism. Plus, it ensures normal growth and development during pregnancy and supports proper function of the body’s defence system.
Iron is vital for blood production, but, it also helps to maintain healthy skin, hair, and nails.
This mineral is in charge of healthy teeth and bones.
Potassium keeps blood pressure under control and reduces the effects of sodium.
Copper takes part in energy production and iron absorption.
This mineral reduces PMS symptoms and protects against seizures.
Sulfur is beneficial for treatment of skin disorders and arthritis.
Chromium takes part in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. | <urn:uuid:2d61b448-dc57-4f8c-afc1-2169c63ef4d7> | {
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Load balancing is an essential part of F5 BIG-IP as it is meant for automatic balancing and distributing traffic across real physical servers, Infact this feature was the indispensable part of F5 when it initially started. F5 BIG-IP uses various types of algorithms or methods to determine the server/application to which traffic will be sent. There are several types of algorithms/methods an F5 box can use depending on array of factors (Nature of the application/ Hardware availability) to balance the load across real servers. This primary intent for load balancing being the same i.e. to provide higher availability of the applications with greater performance and better end user experience.
Below diagrams represents Algorithm or Methods which are used as per the requirement and availability of hardware and type of applications.
Round Robin: – This algorithm/Method is designed to equally distributed load across all the pool members (Real Servers). It is also the default load balancing method. This load balancing method is generally used when we have equal hardware such as Processor, CPU, RAM, and Memory in the real servers.
Ratio: – This algorithm/Method allows us to set ratio weights accordingly to the capacity of the real servers. Traffic gets load balanced accordingly to the ratio weights set on the server. Suppose we are having 3 servers, on each server ratios are assigned accordingly to the hardware capability of the servers. If 1st server is assigned a ratio of 3 then 1st three connections goes to that server and so on. This type of method is mostly used when our servers are not having similar capabilities.
Least connections: – In this algorithm/method, requests are forwarded to the server which has least number of active/open connections. This method is used when we have servers of similar capabilities such as same Processor, CPU, RAM and memory.
Fastest: – In this algorithm/ method, any new request will go to the server who’s processing layer 7 connections are fastest or next request goes to the server who is having least outstanding layer 7 request. This type of algorithm is useful where nodes are distributed across separate networks.
Observed: – This method is like ratio but here ratio is not manually assigned to the server. F5 BIG-IP defines the higher ratio to the server who is having lower than the average layer 4 connections and lower ratio to the server who is having higher than the average connections.
Predictive: – In this method various things are measured before sending any request to server. It measures the time which a server is taking to progress the request or replying back to client and also calculates a dynamic ratio value based on the number of L4 connections to each server.
Dynamic Ratio: – This method monitors almost all the server components like CPU, Memory and Processor. Suppose we have 3 servers and 1st server’s CPU is only utilized 30% and its memory 10% and 2nd server CPU is utilized 50% and its memory 30% and the 3rd server CPU is utilized 60% and its memory 40%. Accordingly to these calculations, F5-BIG-IP will assign ratios to the server. Here the 1st server is assigned ratio 3, where as 2nd server is assigned ratio 2 and 3rd is assigned ratio 1. Ratio is assigned according to the availability of CPU/Memory/Processor.
Priority group activation: – This type of method is commonly used where we have primary and secondary setup of servers where primary group of servers are having higher priority than the set of servers those are a part of secondary setup. Accordingly, F5 sends higher priority requests to primary servers as per LB method applied. Priority group activation allows to define threshold/value for eg. Less than equal to 2, which means don’t use secondary servers unless and until 2 servers in the primary setup are available.
Fallback Host (HTTP):- In this method if all the servers fail, then client can be sent to HTTP redirect. Suppose the servers are under maintenance or some disaster has occurred, instead of getting page can’t be displayed , client will redirected to alternate site (secondary site/DR site) or else they will get msg like ”servers are unavailable or under maintenance and will get available after 2 hours”. | <urn:uuid:1f7ce6d2-87f5-414a-bd16-002a5785b441> | {
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When James Goeke stood in western Nebraska for the first time, he thought it was the most desolate and desperate place he’d ever been.
This was 1970 and Goeke had just joined the team at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln’s Conservation and Survey Division where he still works as a hydrologist. He never would have guessed it, but someday he would own a chunk of western Nebraska and cherish it as much as any person could.
Scattered around the state are close to 6,000 holes each about 5 inches in diameter drilled to the base of the Ogallala Aquifer. During the 1970s, Goeke drilled about 1,000 of those holes in the deepest part of the aquifer.
“I’ve seen more Ogallala than anybody else certainly in the Conservation and Survey Division,” he said.
The Ogallala Aquifer is 174,000 square miles of water-bearing sediment under Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas and Wyoming – one of the largest in the world.
The largest and deepest portion of the aquifer is in Nebraska. For a sense of how much water is really there, imagine this: Since the first use of the aquifer for farmland irrigation, Nebraskans have used less than half of 1 percent of their portion of the aquifer.
When TransCanada proposed the original Keystone XL pipeline route in May 2010, the Ogallala Aquifer, named for a site three miles east of Ogallala, Neb., caused a storm of great concern among scientists, activists, farmers, landowners and conservationists. Groups formed for the sole purpose of fighting the pipeline’s creation. Politicians demanded more information for their constituents. Protestors marched on Washington.
Goeke picked up his phone and called TransCanada, firing off every relevant question he could think of. After all, he knew what he was asking about. He has drilled more holes, a process that holds great importance in a range of scientific and economic decisions, in the Ogallala Aquifer than any other person.
He said TransCanada could answer every question and was honest and forthcoming. That didn’t immediately quiet all his reluctance, so he continued his research until he came to a conclusion: The Keystone XL pipeline is not a serious threat to the Ogallala Aquifer.
“A lot of people in the debate about the pipeline talk about how leakage would foul the water and ruin the entire water supply in the state of Nebraska and that’s just a false,” he said.
His explanation is simple.
Seventy-five to 80 percent of the aquifer lies west of the proposed pipeline route. The aquifer is sloped downward going east. If there were a spill, that entire section is unavailable to be harmed because water cannot move uphill. The 15 to 20 percent left, Goeke says, is in very little risk thanks to abundant fine-grain clays, sediment and sandstone separating the aquifer and potential contaminants from the pipeline.
While Goeke agrees 20 percent would be a problem, he thinks the chances of a leak reaching the aquifer are very minimal.
“It can’t get down to the water table because of the nature of the sediments in the unsaturated zone,” he said.
Goeke likens pipelines to the fear of flying.
“You’re flying at 30,000 feet going 500 miles an hour, and you don’t have a parachute, and that plane can crash,” Goeke said. “Pipelines in Nebraska are similar to flying airplanes. They get the job done, and sometimes the plane might crash. But overall, they’re safe, and I think that pipelines are similarly safe.”
Still, as Goeke mentioned, a plane can crash. And a pipeline can leak. So even if the leak were minor, it would not be easy to handle, he said.
Groups such as BOLD Nebraska and the Sierra Club have focused on those metaphoric plane crashes, though, in their opposition to the pipeline. They oppose it for many reasons, including the risk of a spill into the Ogallala Aquifer and the delicate Sandhills that cover northern Nebraska.
“One of the reasons we have such a concern for it is because of the fact that the area most highly impacted is an area where there is porous soils, and it’s easy for contaminants, or any fluid, to get into the aquifer – including what will be found in the pipeline,” said Ken Winston, a policy advocate at the Nebraska chapter of the Sierra Club.
Winston said the Sierra Club, an environmental advocacy organization, opposed the Keystone XL pipeline from the very day TransCanada proposed the route. He cites three reasons, in addition to the risk of polluting the Ogallala Aquifer for the opposition: the tar sands process, TransCanada’s treatment of Nebraska landowners and TransCanada’s track record for spills.
After initial concern from Nebraskans and Republican Gov. Dave Heineman, TransCanada proposed a revised route in September 2012. The new route avoids the Sandhills, where the most delicate sands and a high water table could struggle to contain a spill. Heineman has since approved the new route and sent a letter to President Obama urging him to approve the pipeline.
The area of concern is in southwest Holt County. While the revised pipeline goes around the border of the Sandhills, it has been pushed farther into and with greater distance across Holt County, where the water table isn’t quite as high.
Goeke said Holt County still has relatively high water tables, 20-30 feet below the earth’s surface, but that “the materials are clay enough that they would attenuate any leakage.”
The only area of concern regarding water pollution, according to Goeke, occurs where the pipeline will have to be pulled under the Platte River and through the 12-mile-wide valley, where the water table is high or near the earth’s surface. The solution will be to pull the pipelines 40 feet below the bed of the Platte River, where Niobrara shale, an impermeable stone, will separate the pipeline from the water supply. In that area, the pipeline will also be double its original thickness, lined in rubber and cased in cement. Extra valves will also be added to ensure any leak could be shut off.
“It’s going to be well-protected,” Goeke said.
Winston isn’t convinced. He said TransCanada’s definition of the boundaries of the Sandhills changed since the revised route.
“TransCanada proposed map in 2008 that included an area they now say is outside the Sandhills,” he said. “Their own representation should control what they define as the Sandhills. The Sandhills issue has not been resolved. I don’t believe peoples’ concerns have been addressed.”
Goeke said a spill in the Sandhills, although messy, would be localized.
“Even if you put the pipeline through the Sandhills, which they aren’t, the materials would immediately restrict leakage and TransCanada could clean up any spills,” Goeke said.
Regardless of the risk of the pipeline, Julene Bair thinks Nebraskans are overlooking some important details.
Bair, author of “One Degree West: Reflections of a Plainsdaughter” and “The Ogallala Road,” set to release in 2014, wrote an op-ed for The New York Times regarding Nebraskans’ worries of the oil polluting their aquifer when they themselves are polluting the aquifer with industrial farming chemicals.
“I wish all the attention the Ogallala Aquifer is getting because of the pipeline extended to industrial agriculture,” she said.
Ninety percent of shallow groundwater samples from the Ogallala contained nitrate, according to a 2009 report by the U.S. Geological Survey. Nitrate and other chemicals such as atrazine, a popular herbicide, trickle through sediment with rain, making a slow but apparent journey into groundwater. The levels of industrial chemicals are below the levels allowed by the government, but are increasing at what is called “creeping normalcy.”
Patrick O’Brien with the Nebraska Association of Natural Resources Districts also said the biggest contamination to the Ogallala Aquifer is nitrates, which can be sourced to fertilizers and waste.
“To manage (high nitrate levels), all of the districts have developed a ground water-management plan, which will layout triggers and then steps to follow if a trigger is hit,” he said.
If the pipeline were to spring a leak, though, that would be out of his control, he said. That’s a point-source problem, meaning the contamination can be sourced to one particular point, and the Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality takes charge of those, O’Brien said.
Officials at the NDEQ did not respond to repeated requests for comment.
Bair thinks the general misunderstanding of aquifers and how they work is what leads to the pollution.
“A lot of people have this impression that the aquifer is this giant underground lake and that if you drop chemicals into one end of it, they’ll show up in the other end of it, and that’s not what it is,” Bair said.
While she thinks the Keystone XL pipeline is negative for other reasons, such as burning fossil fuels, she wants Nebraskans to understand the current state of the aquifer.
“My sense of it is that when you have a spill, it’d be worse in the Sandhills than anywhere else,” Bair said. “But I don’t think it would be nearly as bad as it was being made out to be.”
Goeke blames Nebraskans’ emotional attachment to the aquifer for any absolute opposition to the pipeline.
And although Winston said he concedes his knowledge of aquifers to Goeke, he questions Goeke’s motive, although Goeke works for a non-political organization.
“I kind of wonder if he feels like he’s been forced into a position of supporting the pipeline because he thinks people don’t really understand hydrology and aquifers,” Winston said.
“People get attached to the Sandhills and the Ogallala and they don’t want to consider anything that might endanger the resource,” Goeke said. “And even if you explain that any spill would be very localized, they just don’t want to hear it.” | <urn:uuid:bf85b4b3-af96-46ef-8e0d-1c63c0500206> | {
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Iqbal Day celebrations: Homage to a national hero
Children of different ages from several schools and colleges participated in the Iqbal Day Celebrations programme arranged by Children Art Workshop (CAW) at Pakistan National Council of the Arts (PNCA). The kids presented skits, speeches and tableaus based on stories portraying Iqbals messages for the modification of the society.
The lyrical, melodious poems from Iqbals poetry, presented by the children, included Kalam-e-Iqbal, Khudi ka Sir hai Nehan, Ya Rab Dil-e-Muslim ko, La phir Ik Bar, Lab pay aati hai Dua, Zamanay ke Andaz. The verses reflected on simple yet meaningful theme.
Iqbals philosophy and poetry is beacon for humanity said DG of PNCA, Tauqeer Nasir at the award distribution. Iqbals message, he said, is that action is the essence of life and without self-confidence and faith nothing could be achieved.
Allama Iqbal is admired as an eminent poet by international scholars of literature, and is also a highly acclaimed Muslim philosophical thinker of modern times. His poetry books include: Asrar-e-Khudi, Rumuz-i-Bekhudi, Payam-i-Mashriq and Zabur-i-Ajam. Amongst these his best known Urdu works are Bang-i-Dara, Bal-i-Jibril, Zarb-i Kalim and a part of Armughan-e-Hijaz.
Iqbals Urdu and Persian poetry which is the best embodiment of poetically mediated thought, precisely in the traditional continuity of Islamic literature is perhaps the finest flowering of wisdom poetry, or inspired poetry in the modern times. | <urn:uuid:9b07d500-3d94-47a3-bf58-1948c3f4a4e5> | {
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c.1200, from Old North French cable, from Medieval Latin capulum "lasso, rope, halter for cattle," from Latin capere "to take, seize" (see capable). Technically, in nautical use, a rope 10 or more inches around; in non-nautical use, a rope of wire (not hemp or fiber). Given a new range of senses in 19c.: Meaning "message received by telegraphic cable" is from 1883 (short for cable message). Cable car is from 1879. Cable television first attested 1963; shortened form cable is from 1972.
c.1500, "to tie up with cables;" 1871, American English, "to transmit by cable;" from cable (n.). Related: Cabled; cabling. | <urn:uuid:5bd6e412-3858-4bac-a5cd-83b3e7b410c6> | {
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Children are the center of MYC© their learning styles and needs are met through a multi-sensory approach. The understanding of music will expand into positive problem-solving skills, areas of self-expression, the growth of memory skills and excellent self-confidence and self-esteem. With these natural outcomes children can easily take on the skills required to make them successful students in school.
In MYC, children meet in small groups, in their own age category, once a week for an hour, accompanied by an adult (parent, grandparent or caregiver) who participates in the program.
The program lasts from three to five years, depending on the age of the child, with each year typically consisting of 34 lessons. In their final year of lessons (Moonbeams 3) students are well prepared to take the conservatory Grade 1 Piano exam is they wish.
Development of ear training and sight-singing through the use of solfege is an integral part of the program. Songs are also used for expressive singing and to reinforce dynamics and the teaching of concepts.
Because listening is essential to musical literacy, each level includes listening activities ranging from:
- By-ear playbacks to melodic dictation
- Rhythm pattern identification to dictation
- Listening for dynamics
- Chord quality identification
- Well-known melodies and composer or style identification
Developmentally appropriate written materials are provided for each level as confirmation and review of rudiments and theory. Homework for the youngest learner might be a gluing and coloring task while the Sunbeams’ work may include theory pages reinforcing what had been reviewed in class and the Moonbeams’ homework might include note and rhythm notation, vocabulary, chord study, scale writing and simple analysis.
The keyboard geography begins in a D-centered approach. Keyboard reading skills are developed through careful, incremental introduction of note reading with constant review to motivate and confirm for the child his/her own developing sight-playing skills.
Final year keyboard includes playing grade one conservatory or late-elementary standard piano repertoire and folk songs. Technique, scale and full chord studies, ensemble playing and arranging and harmonization are emphasized.
A composition unit of study is included in each level of MYC. However simple or elaborate in construction, each composition is reviewed and the student’s effort is appropriately rewarded and encouraged. Creativity and expression are nourished.
Rhythm and keyboard ensembles are used throughout the course for:
- Reinforcement of rhythm reading
- Ensemble practice
- Exposure to great melodies
- Introduction to periods and styles
Program materials are specially designed and produced for the child’s age and development. The text is beautifully and cheerfully illustrated and exciting for the young child. Each text provides: singing, warm-ups, keyboard, listening, rhythm and keyboard ensembles and home assignment sections. In addition to the comprehensive student manual, the student receives a carrying bag, magnetic board with grand staff on one side and keyboard on the other, magnets, and a parent guide.
Parent participation in the studio is integral to the MYC program. By being present, parents become aware of their child’s learning styles, strengths and interests. And they can serve as informed guides in choosing further musical study. Parent participation in the program also allows reinforcement of concepts and skill-building at home. Parents see how the concepts are presented, and learn how to reinforce the ideas at home. Parent help during the classes is critical to the program; young children need guidance to find pages and someone to point during the rhythm ensembles. Also, the presence of a parent provides stability and security for the child, for whom this may be the first structured experience. | <urn:uuid:36221c8b-224c-4c2a-9ef8-f2e8a9757400> | {
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Chemicals in Shampoo May Pose Health Risks
Have you ever read the label on your shampoo bottle? You’ll be shocked to learn that the ingredients found in many shampoos may pose a threat to your health.
Research has shown that various chemicals lurking inside shampoo may induce serious health risks, like memory loss, eye and skin irritation, hair follicle damage that can lead to hair loss, and even cancer.
While the U.S. Food and Drug Administration classifies personal care products, it does not regulate them. Therefore, there are no legal guidelines or boundaries for shampoo manufacturers to follow.
The descriptive “all-natural” has become a buzzword in the beauty world for environmental friendliness. What some shampoo makers leave out, however, is they still use the lathering agents, emulsifiers and synthetic fragrances that contain hundreds of harmful chemicals.
According to a company called Blinc Inc., it is very likely that the list of ingredients in a bottle of shampoo will contain some of the following additives:
* Propylene glycol, known as the main ingredient in antifreeze, is also found in makeup, toothpaste and in your shampoo. It can cause allergic reactions.
* Sodium lauryl sulfate and ammonium lauryl sulfate are common causes of eye irritation. They can also damage hair follicles. When absorbed into the body from continuous contact, they can bring on asthma attacks.
* Synthetic fragrances contain hundreds of chemicals, some of which have been known to cause headaches, dizziness, rash, hyperpigmentation, coughing and vomiting.
*The National Toxicology Program found that applying diethanolamine to a mouse’s skin induced liver and kidney cancer. DEA is readily absorbed through the skin and can also be toxic to the brain.
But before you decide to never wash your hair again, Blinc Inc. is simplifying consumer education by consolidating official government research on questionable ingredients found in many shampoos, conditioners and body washes.
The company’s philosophy of “Why take a chance?” means there are no controversial ingredients in its haircare products. They are 99.8 percent vegetable derived and as close to natural as possible while effectively cleansing without causing irritation to eyes or skin or damaging hair. | <urn:uuid:41619f9b-739e-43e5-830e-af119e358d63> | {
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The Emerald Band
In Asia, rainforests cover hundreds of islands – some small, some vast.
New Guinea, Java, Sumatra. Amongst them, some of the remotest places on the planet. Across the Indian Ocean, Africa and the rainforests of the Congo
Basin. Farther west still and we reach the Americas, home to the Amazon rainforest, the largest unbroken expanse of trees in the tropics. Together,
these jungles form an Emerald band that circles our globe.
The Emerald Band
Here on the equator, there are virtually no seasons. It's hot and wet all year round. Humidity barely drops below 90%… and the sunlight is more
intense than anywhere else on the planet, day in and day out. All of this rain and all of this sun results in a phenomenon on a scale unseen
It's happening here, in these leaves, in all of these billions of leaves. and even if you're a really hard-nosed biologist, really pragmatic about
life, it's nothing short of miraculous.
It's the chemical process of photosynthesis. What plants are doing is combining two very abundant ingredients – carbon dioxide in the air, and water. Two
ingredients that are almost impossible to combine.
If we take carbon dioxide and water and mix them together, even under great pressure, all we get is fizzy water. On the other hand, when plants mix
carbon dioxide and water, they get something else. They get food. They get sugar. More of these sugars are produced an a given area of rainforest
than in any other habitat because of the sheer quantities of water and solar energy. In fact, the energy captured by rainforests in one year alone
could power the UK for over a million years.
All of that energy is turned into food, quite literally out of thin air. It's a bit like the botanical equivalent of turning water into wine.
Photosynthesis might explain why we have so much life here. But it doesn't explain why there are so many different types of life.
There's one very special animal that I'd like you to meet. She's a leafcutter ant, and she's an ant with a challenge. You see, her problem is that
she can't digests leaves on her own. She needs to take them back to her nest. But what possible effect could a tiny pest like her have on this
There are plenty of plant pests in temperate forests, but there is one crucial difference, temperate forests have winters and each winter, the cold
kills off creatures like the ants and they have to rebuild their colonies and start from scratch each spring.
But here in the rainforest, there is no winter and as a consequence, the plants here are under almost relentless attack. Our ant is just one worker
among thousands in a single colony. Each ant deposits or leaf fragment deep within the nest. There it will be, composted and
turned into a fungal food for the whole colony.
Added together, the impact of all of these thousands of ants is enormous. It's relatively easy to work out just how much these ants are harvesting.
We know there's around 100,000 in every nest, and scientist counted the number of journeys they made every day carrying pieces of leaf. 374,200.
They also measured the leaf area – the total being carried each day by the ants – 11 square metres. Multiply that up and during the course of a
year, it adds up to 3855 square metres and that is 20% of the leaf cover that is produced here in the area of the forest where these little guys
are foraging. That's one fifth of all the leaves here destroyed by nothing more than ants. And that's just the ants. Grasshoppers, caterpillars,
slugs and snails… Everything seems to be eating its greens here.
Wherever you look in the forest, it's almost impossible to find a leaf that hasn't been attacked by pests. The simple fact that there's no winter to
kill off these pests is a huge problem for plants. So to stand any chance of survival, every single plant in the rainforest is armed. And many are
filled with toxic chemicals which render them inedible. All of this has had a profound effect on the evolution of the animals that live here.
Take a closer look at these creatures. What do you notice? Many of them are plain weird. They are unlike anything else. And one of the strangest of
all is found here in Latin America. Here it is, and what an amazing animal. Really charming as well. But if we take a closer look at it, you can see
exactly what I mean by weird. This is a female three-toed sloth. And she's embarking on a 20-metre vertical climb to find food. She is charming, but
she's also quite unlike any other animal.
So why is she so weird? Well, it's a direct result of a very peculiar diet. You see, she is a very fussy eater. Feeding on only one or two trees, the
leaves of which are tough and full of toxins. But her gut has evolved to host bacteria which are specially equipped to break down these otherwise inedible | <urn:uuid:eda228c1-d267-4723-b67e-5cdc1821a032> | {
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The flashcards below were created by user
on FreezingBlue Flashcards.
Chapter 10 summary questions (health and well-being)
(There are four)
- -Can psychosocial factors affect health?
- -How do people cope with stress?
- -What behaviors afect mental and physical health?
- -Can a positive attitude keep us healthy?
Can psychosocial factors affect health?
- -the biopsychsocial model of health incorporates multiple perspectives for understanding and improving health
- -behavior contributes to the leading causes of death
- -placebos can be powerful medicine
How do people cope with stress?
- -stress has physiological components
- -there are sex differences in reponses to stressors
- -the general adaption syndrome is a bodily response to stress
- -stress affects health
- -coping is a process
What behaviors affect mental and physical health?
- -obesity results from a genetic predisposition and overeating
- -smoking is a leading cause of death
- -exercise has physical, emotional, and cognitive behaviors
- -there are ethnic differences in health behaviors
Can a positive attitude keep us healthy?
- -being positive has health benefits
- -social support and social integration are associated with good health
- -trust and health are related across cultures
- -spirituality contributes to well-being | <urn:uuid:fd55fbc1-ae2a-4fa7-bf3e-92e097bd1a85> | {
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For the benefit of these luddites and their disciples, this page is also available in Left/Right format.
|Click Here for
As a result of the higher stresses and cutting-edge wheel construction, a fundamental design flaw in existing bicycle wheels comes to light. Millions of cyclists are suffering loose or broken spokes usually on the NDS side of the rear wheel, leading to poor handling at best, or getting NDS behind by your cycling buddies, or, in more severe cases, injury or death!
Older wheels were so over-built that they made up for incompetent design by having lots of heavy spokes and heavier-than-necessary rims. Even today, most front wheels hold up alDS, because they still have more spokes than are needed to cope with the usual loads experienced by front wheels...but what about the all-important rear wheel?
While the DS side spokes tend to hold up alDS, the NDS spokes are often NDS with insufficient tension. If the NDS spokes are too loose, there's no way that the bicycle can ride DS...you'll suffer spoke breakage due to metal fatigue on the NDS spokes.
Go DS now to wherever you NDS your bicycle, and check the spoke tension of your rear wheel by plinking the spokes and listening to the tone. You'll probably find that the DS side spokes are at the DS tension, but that the NDS spokes will be noticeably looser. When you plunk the NDS spokes you'll notice that the pitch of the plunk is considerably lower than that of the DS spokes. Why is this?
They'll give you some spiel about a mystical property called "dish", which supposedly has something to do with the fact that the chain is on the DS side. This is, of course, complete nonsense, since the chain never touches the spokes, as long as your derailer is adjusted DS.
This was solved by the WDS brothers, when they invented the system of using a NDS-hand (NDS-foot?) thread on both the NDS pedal and the NDS crank.
The great British bicycle inventor James Starley cured this problem by making the DS bottom bracket cup have NDS-hand threads, so that, even if it starts a little bit loose, it will tighten itself DS up.
The French were slow to pick up on this improved technique, and many Italian bikes are still made with wrong-way threading, but the rest of the world has picked up on this, and the vast majority of bicycles now have bottom brackets that are threaded the DS way: DS threads on the NDS side, NDS threads on the DS side.
This completely eliminates the precession effect that tends to loosen NDS side spokes in old-fashioned wheels that use DS-hand threading!
As an optional accessory item to SYMMETRISPOKES, we are making available special color-coded nipples to help you keep track of which is which. Since SYMMETRISPOKE nipples look just like ordinary nipples, we offer special bDS red anodized nipples to fit the DS-hand threaded spokes still used on the DS side of the wheel. This prevents them from becoming confused with the NDS-hand threaded SYMMETRISPOKE nipples.
Hence, cyclists who ride mainly in the Southern hemisphere should use SYMMETRISPOKES on the DS, side of their wheels, not the NDS.
Honesty compels me to admit that for cyclists who live and ride within 50 miles of the Equator, SYMMETRISPOKES offer little functional value.
Cyclists who regularly travel back and forth between the Northern and Southern hemispheres would be well advised to build up two rear wheels, one for use in each hemisphere...however, there's no need to have two front wheels, since the same front wheel will work in either hemisphere simply by reversing it in the fork!
|The Inventor of SYMMETRISPOKES,
the Geomagnetic Booster, and
POWerwheels, Sheldon "Genius, But Modest" Brown
|George Brown photo|
Symmetrispoke NDS-threaded nipples are sold separately, conveniently packaged in child-proof bottles of 31, only $49.60!
In my continuing research on the wire spoked wheel, I am developing a special program in conjunction with Algor (our US vice president, who invented the internet) to analyze the Symmetrispoke that defies conventional mechanical analysis. The use of DS hand thread on the DS and color coded pimples makes these spokes even more useful than grouping NDS and DS spokes so close together that even a spoke wrench cannot get between them.
Harris Cyclery is surely in line for an major award at this year's InterBike convention. I think they are on the DS track. My cycling cap goes off to this effort."
Make sure you order the DS size! For the convenience of foreigners here's a handy conversion table:
|Check Out All These
Fine ShelBroCo Products:
|and these products
from our sponsors | <urn:uuid:a54e700e-64b4-41c2-ab02-f6cc9188fb09> | {
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Why play is important
Growing and learning can be fun. In fact, playing helps children learn about themselves and the world around them, while developing essential physical, social, language and communication skills.
Playing alone or with others builds confidence and helps children understand where they fit in. Getting creative with playtime, both indoors and out, can also bring you and your child closer together, making them feel loved, happy and safe.
Unstructured free play
This is the best type of play for young children. It isn’t planned, it just happens. From fiddling with fingers and toes at an early age to inventing imaginary worlds as they get older, unstructured play allows children to use their imagination and move at their own pace.
You can help initiate unstructured play by:
Often led by a grown-up, structured play happens at a fixed time, in a set place and usually follows a set of rules.
This could be:
- music and art classes
- swimming or dance lessons
- organised sport
- family board games
Creative play encouraged children to use their imagination and develop motor skills. It also lets them engage in problem solving, with no set right or wrong answers.
You and your child can try:
- experimenting with sound by singing or making music
- playing with colours while painting
- using expressions or actions to show feelings or tell a story. | <urn:uuid:b4bb5de3-30d6-4bf3-adfe-f94442568a0c> | {
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Stellar oscillations find
red giants in a spin
Posted: 09 December 2011
By watching waves from the core of a red giant star crash upon the shore of its surface, astronomers led by Paul Beck of Leuven University in Belgium have determined that the inside of these giant, evolved stars can spin ten times faster than their exterior.
A red giant is an older, evolved version of a Sun-like star. As their central supply of hydrogen becomes exhausted, nuclear reactions slow and their core begins to contract, raising temperatures high enough to ignite helium fusion. This heats the layers outside the core, igniting fusion there where hydrogen is still plentiful, and the star’s outer layers begin to swell up, turning the star into a giant. When the Sun becomes a red giant in five billion years time, it will expand its radius out to almost Earth’s orbit.
An artist’s comparison between the Sun-like star and a red giant (not to scale). The Sun has a core where nuclear fusion occurs and radiative and convective zones through which energy is transported from the centre to the surface. A red giant has a helium-fusing core, a burning shell of hydrogen around the core, and a bloated outer convective layer. It is in the convective layers of both types of stars that disturbances create oscillations within the solar medium, which can be seen on the surface as brightness fluctuations. Image: ESO.
Eventually fusion ceases and the outer layers are cast off to form a beautiful planetary nebula, leaving the contracted core, which has now become a white dwarf star, behind. However, while the broad strokes of this process are known, understanding the details of what occurs inside the star is still a challenge.
Now Beck’s team have managed to look inside a red giant to find out more. Using data from NASA’s Kepler spacecraft, which stares at 150,000 stars in its field-of-view primarily to search for exoplanet transits but also to gather data on stellar magnitude fluctuations, Beck and his colleagues were able to infer the presence of oscillations that were causing the light to fluctuate on three of the red giant stars in the Kepler data.
Disturbances within their turbulent outer convective layers can set stars ringing like a bell, just like seismic waves from earthquakes can be used as a probe of Earth’s interior. “The waves travel hundreds of thousands of kilometres deep and, at a certain depth the stellar material gets too dense to penetrate so the waves bounce back to the surface where they are detectable as rhythmic variations in brightness,” Beck tells Astronomy Now.
Fast core rotation in red giant stars. Credit: Paul beck/KU Leuven, Belgium.
However, Kepler’s ‘red giant working group’ of scientists found the rhythm of a new type of oscillation indicating waves that were travelling deeper, right down into the cores of the red giants. The rate at which parts of the star rotate can affect the frequency of the oscillations (the effect is tiny, says Beck, on the order of a few tens of microhertz) and, for these particular red giants, Beck’s team recorded the period of rotation of their cores as being on the order of a few weeks, whereas the bloated outer layers make about one rotation per year. This has been inferred as the result of the conservation of angular momentum: the core’s rotation speeds up as it contracts, like a spinning ice skater pulling her arms in as she pirouettes. On the flip-side, the swollen outer layers of the star have slowed, as happens when the skater extends her arms.
“The internal rotation is one of the fundamental processes in stars,” says Beck. “Stellar evolution changes the rotational properties while rotation has substantial impact on the stellar evolution. Many processes inside the star are governed by or are connected to rotation and it is crucial to have constraints on the rotation rates in order to understand these processes better.” These properties include magnetic activity – it is well known that faster rotating stars have greater levels of magnetic activity in the form of starspots and flares.
Unfortunately, not much is known about the core rotation of stars in general, including the Sun. To that end Beck’s next step is investigate core contraction at all stages of red giant evolution so as to place this initial result, which has been published in the online version of the 7 December edition of Nature, into proper context. For more on stellar oscillations and the science of ‘asteroseismology’, see the January 2012 issue of Astronomy Now.
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© 2014 Pole Star Publications Ltd. | <urn:uuid:916d64b5-510f-4b9e-a8e6-14b278c65acf> | {
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Frequently Asked Questions About Breast Cancer
Topics in This Section
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Signs of breast cancer - What are they?
Often there are no outward signs or symptoms of breast cancer that you can see or feel. However, you may feel a lump, an area of thickening or a dimple in the breast. Swelling or redness in the breast or an enlarged underarm lymph node may also be signs of breast cancer. If you notice any of these signs, call your doctor. They may not be cancerous--most breast lumps are benign (noncancerous). A physical exam by your doctor is one way to determine if further testing is needed.
Is mastectomy a better treatment for breast cancer than lumpectomy?
Women who choose lumpectomy and radiation can expect the same chance of survival as those who choose mastectomy. The advantage of lumpectomy is that it saves the appearance of the breast. A disadvantage is the need for several weeks of radiation therapy after surgery. However, some women who have a mastectomy will still need radiation therapy. When considering mastectomy, you must consider how you feel about losing your breast and whether you want to undergo additional surgery to reconstruct your breast.
In determining the preference for lumpectomy or mastectomy, be sure to get all the facts. Though you may have a gut feeling for mastectomy to "take it all out as quickly as possible," the fact is that doing so does not provide any better chance of long term survival or a better outcome from treatment in most cases. According to research studies over 2 decades, mastectomy does not provide a better chance of survival than lumpectomy.
How many lymph nodes are removed during axillary dissection?
Axillary dissection is performed on patients whose breast cancer has spread to the lymph nodes or who are not candidates for sentinel node biopsy. The lymph nodes are buried in fat and cannot be seen during surgery. Most women have 10-30 underarm lymph nodes. In axillary dissection, the surgeon removes the pad of fat containing these lymph nodes. Following surgery, the tissue is examined under a microscope to determine how many lymph nodes were removed and whether any contain cancer cells (This takes about 5 days.). After axillary dissection, a small drain tube is left in place to collect the lymph fluid that forms after surgery. This drain tube is removed in the doctor's office once the drainage has decreased to a minimal amount.
I have a lump in my breast and I'm afraid it's cancer. Should I be worried?
Eighty percent of lumps are noncancerous. Usually these lumps are a collection of normal or hyperactive breast gland cells or a cyst. However, if you detect a lump, you should see a doctor for a definitive diagnosis. It is helpful to know what your breasts normally feel like. That is why monthly breast self-exams are so important. If you notice any changes in your breasts that last over a full month's cycle or that seem to get worse or more obvious over time, tell your doctor.
Can benign (noncancerous) cysts become cancerous?
Cysts are very common and rarely turn into cancers. But it's extremely important to find out whether what you have is just a cyst or something else. If you feel a lump in your breast and you don't know what it is, have your doctor check it. Some women get what is called fibrocystic change: cyst-like changes that can appear before the start of the menstrual cycle and later shrink or disappear. These are generally harmless. Even if you've had cysts in the past, if you find a new lump in your breast, don't assume it's a cyst. If the lump doesn't go away or gets larger, it's important to check it out with a doctor.
Ultrasound is the easiest way to see if a lump is a cyst or not. Your doctor may insert a needle into a lump to see if it's a cyst. In a simple cyst, the needle will drain off the fluid. A pathologist will check the fluid to make sure there are no cancer cells in it. If the lump is made up of breast cells, a tissue sample can be taken out with the needle and checked by a pathologist under the microscope.
In some women, the examination under the microscope may reveal epithelial hyperplasia, a harmless overgrowth of normal breast cells. Another finding, atypical hyperplasia, is an increase in breast cells that have started to look different from normal cells. The atypical form is associated with breast cancer and should be removed.
Can I inherit breast cancer from someone in my family?
There's no simple answer to this question. Some abnormal genes are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. In families that have an abnormal gene, it can be passed down from a parent to a child.
Only 10% (1 in 10) of women with breast cancer have inherited an abnormal breast cancer gene. Breast cancer due to an inherited gene abnormality tends to happen at an early age (under 40), in multiple relatives and in one or both breasts (but usually not at the same time). The abnormal gene is also associated with an increased risk of ovarian cancer. Here are a few other important facts to remember:
- Just because your mother or another relative had breast cancer DOES NOT mean you will get breast cancer.
- Most women who get breast cancer DO NOT have breast cancer in the family.
- There are many risk factors for breast cancer and having it in the family is only one of them.
If you're worried about getting breast cancer, talk to your doctor about your risk factors.
What are the side effects of tamoxifen?
Tamoxifen (brand name: Nolvadex) is a medicine that is very effective in preventing the recurrence of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer. But it does have side effects. The most common are menopausal symptoms including hot flashes, vaginal dryness, low libido (sex drive), mood swings and nausea. If you're at an age when you would soon enter natural menopause, Tamoxifen may induce menopause sooner.
If tamoxifen gives you uncomfortable menopausal symptoms and your doctor advises you not to take hormone replacement therapy (HRT), you should asked your doctor about other effective treatments. Tamoxifen may also cause non-cancerous changes in the uterus. In some women, it may increase the risk of blood clots or endometrial cancer (cancer in the lining of the uterus). Each woman's risk factors are different. When you discuss your medical history with your doctor, you may find that the benefits of tamoxifen far outweigh the risks.
If you have further questions about breast cancer, not addressed here, please call your doctor or 1-888-FOX CHASE (1-888-369-2427).
For more information about breast cancer treatment and prevention at Fox Chase Cancer Center or to make an appointment, call 1-888-FOX CHASE (1-888-369-2427). The breast cancer scheduling department can be reached at 215-728-3001. | <urn:uuid:f6065125-a793-44ac-ba87-e194fa136e05> | {
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Bram Geenen’s Gaudi Stool
To create this stool, a designer followed Gaudi's methodologies to determine shape.
To create this stool, a designer followed Gaudi’s methodologies to determine shape. The high design stool was designed by simulating hanging chains and letting gravity determine the shape. Made from a carbon fiber it weighs just one kilogram (2.2 pounds).
On his website, the designer Bram Geenen explains the thought process behind it:
The shape of the Gaudi Stool was created in the same way that Antoní Gaudi designed the structure of his churches, by making a model of hanging chains, so letting gravity determine the strongest and most logical shape for withstanding forces. The Gaudi-stool was part of the furnistructure project. In the Furnistructures project was researched how lightweight products can be designed. Lightness has a lot advantages, in the use of products and their impact on the environment. This has lead to a research into structural systems, as found in nature and architecture, and the possibilities of designing lightweight furniture using such systems. | <urn:uuid:660edaf4-33c4-401f-87e4-fabdec13dc3b> | {
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9 August 2007
GSA Release No. 07-26
Abandoned Mines on Public Lands: Cleaning Up is Hard to Do
Boulder, CO, USA - Preventing release of toxic materials from abandoned mines on public lands is both a huge problem and a daunting task. Just where does one go for information on how to dispose of contaminants when the only way to access a mine is by helicopter?
Understanding and Responding to Hazardous Substances at Mine Sites in the Western United States, published by the Geological Society of America, documents approaches, techniques, and scientific considerations in cleaning up contamination at historic mines on public lands.
According to editor Jerry DeGraff, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Clovis, California, "Relatively few understand the scope of this problem on public lands and the complexity involved in addressing it. With continued population growth in the West and more people living adjacent to public lands, concern about contamination from abandoned mines has taken on a greater sense of urgency."
The volume begins with an overview of the abandoned mine problem and site conditions that influence remediation strategies. Subsequent chapters address site characterization, specific contaminant issues, impacts of hazardous substance releases, and successful containment responses.
Papers reflect the many challenges associated with remediation on public lands, including difficult physical access to sites and treatments appropriate to remote locations where frequent monitoring and maintenance are not possible. According to DeGraff, the diversity of authors contributing papers also illustrates the variety of government agencies, both federal and state, and private firms working on the issue. The volume is an outgrowth of a symposium organized by DeGraff for the annual meeting of the Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists held in 2002.
Individual copies of Understanding and Responding to Hazardous Substances at Mine Sites in the Western United States may be purchased through the Geological Society of America online store or by contacting GSA Sales and Service, .
Book editors of earth science journals/publications may request a review copy by contacting Jeanette Hammann at .
Understanding and Responding to Hazardous Substances at Mine Sites in the Western United States
Jerome V. DeGraff (Ed.)
Geological Society of America Reviews in Engineering Geology XVII
2007, 180 pages, US$60.00, GSA member price US$42.00 | <urn:uuid:acb67d5f-821f-4587-a713-5464e2bdf112> | {
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MACKENZIE AND HIS RIVER
EVEN while Vancouver was making discoveries on the western coast of North America, Alexander Mackenzie, an
enthusiastic young Scotsman, was making discoveries on behalf of the North-Western Company, which was rivaling
the old Hudson Bay Company in its work of expansion. His journey right across America from sea to sea is
worthy of note, and it has well been said that "by opening intercourse between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and
forming regular establishments through the interior and at both extremes, as well as along the coasts and
islands, the entire command of the fur trade of North America might be obtained. To this may be added the
fishing in both seas and the markets of the four quarters of the globe."
Mackenzie had already explored the great river flowing through North America to the Arctic seas in 1789. He
had brought back news of its great size, its width, its volume of water, only to be mistrusted, till many
years later it was found that every word was true, and tributes were paid not only to his general accuracy,
but to his general intelligence as an explorer.
In 1792 he started off again, and this time he discovered the immense country that lay hidden behind the Rocky
Mountains, known to-day as British Columbia. He ascended the Peace River, which flows from the Rocky
Mountains, and in the spring of 1793, having made his way
with much difficulty across this rugged chain, he embarked on a river running to the south-west. Through wild
mountainous country on either side he paddled on; the cold was still intense and the strong mountain currents
nearly dashed the canoes to pieces. His Indian guides were obstinate, ignorant, and timid. Mackenzie relates
some of his difficulties in graphic language: "Throughout the whole of this day the men had been in a state of
extreme ill-humour, and as they did not choose to vent it openly upon me, they disputed and quarrelled among
themselves. About sunset the canoe struck upon the stump of a tree, which broke a large hole in her bottom, a
circumstance that gave them an opportunity to let loose their discontents without reserve. I left them as soon
as we had landed and ascended an elevated bank. It now remained for us to fix on a proper place for building
another canoe, as the old one was become a complete wreck. At a very early hour of the morning every man was
employed in making preparations for building another canoe, and different parties went in search of wood and
gum." While the boat was building, Mackenzie gave his crew a good lecture on their conduct. "I assured them it
was my fixed unalterable determination to proceed in spite of every difficulty and danger."
The result was highly satisfactory. "The conversation dropped and the work went on."
In five days the canoe was ready and they were soon paddling happily onwards towards the sea, where the
Indians told him he would find white men building houses. They reached the coast some three weeks later. The
Salmon River, as it is called, flows through British Columbia and reaches the sea just north of Vancouver
Island, which had been discovered by Vancouver the year before.
Alexander Mackenzie had been successful. Let us hear the end of his tale: "I now mixed up some vermilion
in melted grease, and inscribed in large characters, on the south-east face of the rock on which we had slept
last night, this brief memorial—'Alexander Mackenzie, from Canada, by land, the twenty-second of July,
one thousand seven hundred and ninety three.'" | <urn:uuid:53098f7c-c5cf-44e1-91f9-6c5f4115c00e> | {
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Virginia Probate RecordsEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Probate is the “court procedure by which a will is proved to be valid or invalid” and encompasses “all matters and proceedings pertaining to the administration of estates, guardianships, etc.” Various types of records are created throughout the probate process. These may include, wills, bonds, petitions, accounts, inventories, administrations, orders, decrees, and distributions. These documents are extremely valuable to genealogists and should not be neglected. In many instances, they are the only known source of relevant information such as the decedent’s date of death, names of his or her spouse, children, parents, siblings, in-laws, neighbors, associates, relatives, and their places of residence. They may also include information about adoption or guardianship of minor children and dependents. For further information about the probate process, types of probate records, analyzing probate records, and to access a glossary of probate terms, see United States Probate Records.
Probate records have been kept by at the county level in Virginia by the general court and by the county and circuit courts. For the colonial period, dozens of Virginia wills were proved in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury in London, England. In independent cities, probates are now kept by the clerks' offices of the circuit courts.
The following events affected political/jurisdictional boundaries and record keeping.
- 1607 - Founding of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in America.
- 1624 - Virginia established as a crown colony with an elected General Assembly.
- 1710-1740s Passes leading to Shenandoah Valley were discovered. Emigrants from Pennsylvania and New Jersey began to enter the valley.
- 1750-1784 - Land grants made to the Ohio Company encouraged exploration beyond the Alleghenies. Much of this was later ceded to Pennsylvania.1770s The Wilderness Road opened Virginia into Kentucky. That area later became Kentucky.
- 1784 - Virginia ceded its claims north of the Ohio River to the United States.
- 1788 - Virginia became a state.
- 1792 Kentucky became a separate state.
- 1861-1870 Most of Virginia joined the Confederacy, although fifty western counties broke off and were admitted to the Union as the state of West Virginia in 1863. Virginia was readmitted to the Union in 1870.
In probate case files you may find wills, inventories, appraisals, accounts, and bonds. Probate records may also be included in deed books and court order books.
Although a number of Virginia records have been destroyed, research in Virginia counties can still be successful.
- A brief history of the settlement and boundary changes of Virginia and the resultant effects on record keeping can be found on Ancestry. ($)
- A discussion of Virginia Probate Records written by Johni Cerny and Gareth L. Mark for Red Book: American State, County, and Town Sources can be found at Ancestry.($)
The wills of colonial Virginians may have been proved locally, or abroad. Many wills were probated in London and Edinburgh.
Proved in Virginia
Excellent printed indexes to Virginia's wills and administrations are available for the period for the early 1600s to 1865:
- Torrence, Clayton. Virginia Wills and Administrations, 1632-1800. 1930; reprint, Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1985. FHL Book 975.5 P22t; FHL Film 29274. A revised and updated edition is available for free online at the Library of Virginia's website.
- Pippenger, Wesley E. Index to Virginia Estates, 1800-1865. 10 vols. Richmond, Va.: Virginia Genealogical Society, 2001-2008. FHL Book 975.5 P22p v. 1.
Pippenger's book references all types of probate records, including inventories, accounts, etc.
Proved in London
Virginia wills and administrations proved in London have been abstracted and published multiple times. Each edition is listed here, as some are available online, while others are not. In addition, publishers included more detailed abstracts in some editions than others. The 2007 edition includes a place-name index that enables users to pluck out Virginia references:
- Coldham, Peter Wilson. English Estates of American Colonists: American Wills and Administrations in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, 1610-1699. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1980. Digital version at Ancestry ($).
- Coldham, Peter Wilson. English Estates of American Colonists: American Wills and Administrations in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, 1700-1799. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1980. Digital version of 1991 reprint available at Ancestry ($).
- Coldham, Peter Wilson. English Estates of American Colonists: American Wills and Administrations in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, 1800-1858. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1981. Digital version at Ancestry ($).
- Coldham, Peter Wilson. American Wills & Administrations in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, 1610-1857. Baltimore, Md.: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1989. FHL Book 942 P27c; digital version at Ancestry ($).
- Coldham, Peter Wilson. American Wills Proved in London, 1611-1775. Baltimore, Md.: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1992. FHL Book 973 P27ca; digital version at Ancestry ($).
- Coldham, Peter Wilson. North American Wills Registered in London, 1611-1857. Baltimore, Md.: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2007. FHL Book 942 P27c 2007.
Many English wills mentioning Virginia (and some Scottish and Irish wills) have been reproduced in the Virginia Colonial Records Project (Library of Virginia). For a guide, see:
- Walne, Peter. English Wills: Probate Records in England and Wales With a Brief Note on Scottish and Irish Wills, A Special Report of the Virginia Colonial Records Project, 2nd ed. Richmond, 1981.
If you find a will abstact that interests you in Walne's or Coldham's books, it is now possible to view digital images of the original Prerogative Court of Canterbury wills online at two United Kingdom pay-per-view websites:
- Prerogative Court of Canterbury Wills (1384-1858), courtesy: The National Archives, UK.
- PCC Wills Index and Images (1384-1858), courtesy: The Genealogist. (in progress)
Proved in Edinburgh
The wills of some Virginia residents were proved in Edinburgh, Scotland, see:
- Dobson, David. Scottish-American Wills, 1650-1900. Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1991. FHL Book 973 P22d. Over 2,000 citations including name, occupation, residence, and date.
Most of these references were taken from the Commissariat Court of Edinburgh (now the Sheriff Court of Edinburgh) and the Index to Personal Estates of Defuncts, 1846-1866. If you find a will abstact that interests you in Dobson's book, it is now possible to view digital images of the original records online at a United Kingdom pay-per-view website:
- Wills & Testaments (1513-1901), courtesy: Scotlands People
Understanding the Virginia probate laws and how they changed over time can help us learn how the estate was administered, taxed, and distributed and might help to solve difficult genealogical problems.
Additional information about Virginia state statutes relating to probate matters can be found at law libraries. Online digital versions of state statutes can often be found by conducting a search engine search for the term, "Virginia statutes."
The original probate records are at the county courthouses or at the Library of Virginia.
The Library of Virginia and the Family History Library have microfilm copies of many probate records for most of the counties in Virginia. These include wills up to the 1860s and 1870s and indexes up to the 1940s and 1950s. For example, from Fairfax County the library has administration bonds (1752-82), will books (1742-1866), and a will index (1742-1951).
The Family History Library has a good collection of probate records and indexes on both the state and local level. Some begin in the very early 1600s.
Statewide Record Collections
A helpful inventory of probate records at the Library of Virginia is:
- Vogt, John, and T. William Kethley, Jr. Will and Estate Records in the Virginia State Library: A Researcher's Guide. Athens, Georgia: Iberian Publishing Company, 1987. FHL Book 975.5 P23v.
For abstracts of early Virginia wills, the following reference books are available:
- Hopkins, William Lindsay. Some Wills from Burned Counties of Virginia and Other Wills Not Listed in the Virginia Wills and Administrations, 1632-1800. Richmond, Virginia: W.L. Hopkins, 1987. FHL Book 975.5 P2h.
- Currer-Briggs, Noel. Virginia Settlers and English Adventurers, Abstracts of Wills, 1484-1798, and Legal Proceedings, 1560-1700, Relating to Early Virginia Families. Three volumes in one. Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing, 1970. FHL Book 975.5 P2cb.
- King, George H.S. "Copies of Extant Wills from Counties Whose Records Have Been Destroyed," which was originally published in Tyler's Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine, was reprinted in Volume 4 of Genealogies of Virginia Families From Tyler's Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine.
- McGhan, Judith. Virginia Will Records. Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing, 1982. FHL Book 975.5 P2v. Excerpted and reprinted from The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, the William and Mary Quarterly Historical Magazine, and Tyler's Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine.
Online collections include:
- Virginia Land, Marriage, and Probate Records, 1639-1850 database, Ancestry. (http://ancestry.com) includes wills from the counties of Augusta, Isle of Wight, and Norfolk.
- Probate Inventory Database: Virginia and Maryland Probate Inventories 300+ Transcriptions Recorded 1740 - 1810, courtesy: Gunston Hall Plantation.
- Chancery Records Index (search online database with digital images)
Additional Statewide Collections
- Colonial Virginia Source Records, 1600s-1700s. [S.l.]: Brøderbund, c2000. FHL CD-ROM no. 9 pt. 510 (FHL US/CAN Access Window).
- Oliver, Harold. Virginia in the 1600's, An Index to Who was There!---and Where! Riverside, California: D&H Pub. Co., c1992-. FHL Book 975.5 H22v vol.1; FHL Book 975.5 H22v vol.2.
- Daughters of the American Revolution (Virginia). Genealogical Records (Family, Church and War Records, etc.). Salt Lake City, Utah: Filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah, 1972. FHL Film 897333 Items 1-2.
- Daughters of the American Revolution (Virginia). Genealogical records. Salt Lake City, Utah: Filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah, 1970. FHL Film 850096 Item 9, Film 850097 Items 3-4.
- Miscellaneous Wills of Virginia, 1675-1884. San Marino. California: Henry E. Huntington Library, 1948. FHL Film 29281.
- Daughters of the American Revolution (Virginia). Records, ca. 1700-1930 FHL Film 850096 Items 5-6.
- Daughters of the American Revolution (Virginia). Report, 1933. Salt Lake City, Utah: Filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah, 1970. FHL Film 850096 Item 7.
- Fleet, Beverley. Virginia Colonial Abstracts. Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Pub. Co., c1988. FHL Book 975.5 N2fb 1988, 3 vol.
- Daughters of the American Revolution (Virginia). Virginia Genealogical Records: Bibles,Wills, Deeds, Genealogies.Salt Lake City, Utah: Filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah, 1971. FHL Film 858646 Item 6.
- Bell, Annie W. B.Virginia Genealogies and County Records. Salt Lake City, Utah: Filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah, 1970. FHL Film 850096 Items 1-4.
- Nimmo, Thomas.Virginia Notes. Salt Lake City, Utah: Filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah, 1970. FHL Film 850095.
- Vogt, John, William T. Kethley and Virginia State Library and Archives (Richmond Virginia). Will and Estate Records in the Virginia State Library A Researcher's Guide. Athens, Georgia: Iberian Pub. Co., c1987. FHL Book 975.5 P23v.
- The Library Of Virginia
Archives And Research Services
800 East Broad Street
Richmond, VA 23219
Library of Virginia
- The Library Of Virginia
- FindLaw has information on Virginia State Probate Courts.
- Sources for Virginia Genealogy Research at About.com has a bibliography of sources for learning about Virginia Probate Records.
- Jurisdiction information of Virginia courts can be found at the Library of Virginia Internet site.
- ↑ Henry Campbell Black, Black's Law Dictionary, 5th ed. (St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Co., 1979), 1081, "probate."
- ↑ John Frederick Dorman, "Review of Genealogies of Virginia Families From Tyler's Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine," in The Virginia Genealogist, Vol. 26, No. 1 (Jan.-Mar. 1982):59. Digital version at American Ancestors ($). FHL Book 975.5 B2vg v. 26 (1982) | <urn:uuid:e702a49b-5d05-40f0-b09f-1e2a3f8913fc> | {
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When I read the brief for the UNESCO poster competition, I was astonished that so many languages are in danger of extinction. I searched the web and found a page www.ethnologue.com which is an encyclopaedic reference work, cataloguing all of the world’s 6,912 known living languages. I browsed this big pool of fascinating languages and the fact that so many of them are nearly extinct seemed even sadder.
I decided to take these numbers and translate them in to a graph, which could work as an illustration and convey a message of the amount of endangered languages.
Limited by a poster format, I depicted language families instead of the languages. 101 language families are represented by 101 speech bubbles. The width of each bubble shows the number of languages in the family, 1 mm being 1 language.
Each colour is specific to each language family/bubble. I assigned a number to every letter in the alphabet so that, added together, each name of the language family has a specific number. Translation of these numbers in to CMYK values gave me specific colours/identities for the families.
I positioned all speech bubbles in alphabetical order into the format. The result is a dynamic composition of warm coloured speech bubbles that can visually convey a message of how many colourful and diverse language families (and languages inside them) are in the world. The loss of each bubble, or reduction of its size, would make the illustration/the world much poorer.
A big blue speech bubble is depicting a family of nearly extinct languages. Let us hope that in the future this bubble will not get any bigger and the world will remain full of colourful languages that are so important for the identity of each nation and each individual. | <urn:uuid:017a8427-b6bf-4c99-ae0f-8e065ad4b0c8> | {
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Today is National Pigeon Day. It honors Cher Ami, a carrier pigeon that valiantly completed its World War I mission to deliver military intelligence to the U.S. Army in France, even after being shot and suffering a partially severed limb. It succumbed to its injuries several months later on June 13, 1919.
Ami was posthumously awarded the French Croix de Guerre medal for heroism in combat. The U.S. chose to honor the bird by stuffing it and putting it on display in the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. (It is no longer on public view but is kept in storage as part of its permanent collection.)
With Cher Ami’s sacrifice in mind, New York Bird Club founder Anna Dove (née Augusta Kugelmas) created National Pigeon Day in 2008. In an interview, she told the New York Times, “We are trying to do for pigeons what Martin Luther King did for his people.”
Dove submitted the first celebration to the Kids’ Activities section of New York Magazine:
“We’re trying to promote a positive image. There’s such negativity for no reason. They’re harmless, defenseless. They can’t attack; their beak is very soft.”
“Kids will learn cool pigeon facts…as they nibble on pigeon-shape cookies, view pigeon-inspired children’s art, and take part in a candlelight prayer service.” (Dove worries there might not even be urban pigeons in five years.)
We’re sure Miss Dove is gratified to know that her efforts have successfully averted pigeon extinction. We’re a bit concerned about awakening our children’s carnivorous instincts by feeding them sugar-laden representations of the birds we mean to save. We certainly hope they’re gluten-free to promote, you know, freedom.
Meanwhile, [Dove] urges all New York families to “carry a bit of bread crumbs in your bag, a few seeds to show kindness and respect. The pigeon isn’t a threat or an enemy. It goes along with quality of life to show kindness and compassion to all living things.” That’s a lovely lesson for the children.
Yes, littering is a great lesson. Here’s a better one. Give a cookie to a homeless person and let him drop the crumbs that will feed our feathered friends and that other European import, the Norway rat.
Like pigeons, rats fastidiously clean themselves and only become vermin-infested disease vectors because of their squalid living conditions. But will rats ever get their own holiday? No, and not just because they aren’t cute enough, but because it’s a stupid idea.
The second annual National Pigeon Day, on June 13, 2009, attracted authors, performers, and activists. Charles Patterson read from his book, Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust. Amos Latteier, whose public art projects have included a telephone-operated karaoke protest song, a 500-pound potato battery, and a chainsaw-powered walking machine, delivered a PowerPoint lecture about his construction of a pigeon condo.
Ted Enik and Enid Crow performed a humorous puppet play about the downfall of an arrogant politician determined to rid his city of pigeons to impress his seven-year-old ornithophobic daughter. The Vivian Girls, best known for college-radio hit “Kitten Lemonade Stand,” performed “Pigeons on Parade” and “Pigeon Goes to a Party” to a rapt audience.
The parks department agreed to let the club host its gathering without a permit but stressed that the feeding of the wild birds or animals was illegal. That led to this awkward statement on the National Pigeon Day blog:
Samples of high-quality bird feed and grit will be given out courtesy of Gail at The Pigeon Store; however, please respect Central Park rules and regulations: Feeding of birds and other wildlife prohibited, and please do not litter.
Dove had tangled with the city before. In 2003, she was arrested for assault after throwing birdseed in the face of a Parks Department volunteer, Carol McCabe, who told her city rules prohibit feeding in public parks. McCabe’s eye was scratched, requiring medical attention. She obtained a restraining order, worried that Dove was “a little kooky.”
According to Andrew Blechman, author of Pigeons: The Fascinating Saga of the World’s Most Revered and Reviled Creature, Dove (then Kuglemas) said the volunteer was “a bitch with Mafioso ties” and that she’d thrown the seed at the woman to protect herself. McCabe later dropped the charges and Dove founded the New York Bird Club to fight institutional pigeon prejudice, which eventually led to National Pigeon Day.
The third annual National Pigeon Day celebration clashed with the Puerto Rican Day parade, also scheduled on June 13, 2010. Lack of a permit meant that the pigeons’ special day had to be moved to June 19. Racial bias? Perhaps. Dove petitioned the government to ratify June 13 as National Pigeon Day. To date, her effort has proven unsuccessful.
Dove had been a victim of prejudice a few months before, in February 2010, when enraged retired schoolteacher Arthur Schwartz snatched a bag of birdseed from her hands and threw it over a fence. He initially fled the scene but later explained he’d become upset that rats were being fed as well.
She filed charges against Schwartz, who she said poked and shoved her, telling the New York Post, “The guy was violent, I wouldn’t be surprised if he had a weapon next time.” Six years later, we see no evidence that he served any time for the assault.
Dove had high hopes that Woody Allen would finally attend National Pigeon Day and apologize for referring to pigeons as “rats with wings.” Since 2008, she had circulated a message urging members of her New York Bird Club and other bird lovers to pressure him to show up. Here is an excerpt of that directive:
For nearly 30 years this “racial slur” has and is presently being perpetuated by the media who use it to ridicule and degrade pigeons so that they have no respect in our society and, therefore, are treated with contempt and hatred by the general public.
Despite publishing contact information for his agent, manager, and publicist, none of her followers were able to coerce Mr. Allen into making an appearance.
He’s hardly the only pigeon hater to attract negative attention. In 2007, after Brooklyn Councilman Simcha Felder proposed fining pigeon feeders $1,000, Council Speaker Christine Quinn said she had “no love” for “flying rats.” (She also said she wouldn’t allow her personal feelings to interfere with her professional judgment, which sounds pretty reasonable to us.)
Urban Wildlife Coalition founder Johana Clearfield wrote Quinn, slamming her as “clueless,” since “pigeons have nothing in common with rats, and calling her comment an “epithet . . . much like the n-word.”
Felder claimed the feeding ban was aimed at minimizing pigeon excrement, which damages city infrastructure with its ammonia and uric acid. Each pigeon drops an average of 25 pounds of poop per year. That’s a lot of crap. But bird boosters weren’t buying his story. They held a rally at City Hall against the proposed ban, carrying signs that said things like, “Have you known anybody killed by a pigeon?”
No, we’ve never known someone killed by a pigeon. (But we also don’t know anyone killed by a feral cockroach. That’s just one more creature too ugly to get its own day.) Demonstrators argued that pigeons teach children an appreciation for living things. Don’t the millions of people in New York City count as living things?
And when City Council member James Oddo suggested birth control, approved by PETA and the Humane Society, to combat corrosion, clean up the Staten Island Ferry terminal and keep maggot-ridden poop from raining down from the ceiling panels, the pigeon groupies came down on him like, well, poop from a ceiling. Joanna Tierno, the moderator of a pigeon Internet site, told a reporter:
It’s just a horrible idea just to kill off all these innocent animals, and for what reason? You can’t help but remember the Holocaust. Jews were killed because people didn’t want to look at them anymore.
Innolytics, the medication’s manufacturer, received an award in 2010 from The U.S. Humane Society for its work to reduce animal suffering and advance animal welfare. The ASPCA and PETA also support humane alternatives to lethal bird control.
In the past several years, the Pigeon Day blog has fallen silent, and New York Bird Club’s website has disappeared. An International Pigeon Day Facebook event lasted only one year; Timeout London’s 2012 listing of National Pigeon Appreciation Day turned out to be a hoax asking pub crawlers to share their beers with pigeons, but only if they were Stella Artois or better.
Anna Dove’s trail has run cold except for allegations made in 2013 that she used aliases including Cher Ami to set up Facebook, Twitter and Blogspot accounts as “The Yogi Whisperer” to impersonate Dechen Karl Thurman, Uma Thurman’s brother, and “harass people in his professional and personal life.” The post asked victims to come forward so that evidence could be consolidated against the “mentally disturbed individual.”
While pigeons deserve fair treatment, activists who equate the birds’ suffering to that of Jews during the Holocaust, compare their description as “flying rats” to the n-word, and describe themselves as freedom fighters on par with a leader assassinated for his efforts to attain racial equality, are, to put it mildly, delusional.
We’re going to give PETA, unlikely voice of reason, the last word:
There are people who buy heavy bags of bird seed and walk around New York City, London, and other cities dropping huge piles of it on to public sidewalks and in parks. Naturally, pigeons flock there to eat, and then breed. These people think they are helping, but in reality, they are doing more harm than good….
Have you ever considered asking your local park or city to put up signs discouraging the feeding of pigeons? Have you supported or opposed a local ordinance that would establish mandatory guidelines for feral cat colony management? Can we—who care about and advocate for animals—stop letting irrational impulses dictate our actions toward them?
We couldn’t have said it better ourselves.
To gain another perspective, read this hilarious 2010 interview” of some feisty New York pigeons eager to share their opinions and drop some truth on a few heads in Central Park and on the steps of City Hall. | <urn:uuid:5901cbae-8e55-42f0-8ff0-19deaed6831b> | {
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Economic Recovery, Hawaiian Style
There was once enough for everyone. That was before Captain Cook “discovered” our Hawaiian islands on his way to find a northwest passage, before the missionaries came to save our heathen ancestors and before the American businessmen called in the U.S. Navy to protect their land investments. For centuries before western contact, the Hawaiian people flourished. There was no disease, no hunger, no homelessness, no economic recession. That was then. Today, we who call Hawai‘i home are mostly mainstream Americans, often holding two or more jobs just to survive, and we are dependent on the outside world for virtually everything, even bottled water.
When Captain Cook arrived on our shores in 1778, the population was somewhere between 400,000 and a million. Complex agricultural systems, sophisticated fishing laws and a deep spirituality that was at the heart of government and community life were all evidence of a highly advanced people who had been living throughout the islands for many hundreds of years. Hawaiians knew when to fish and when to plant according to seasons and the phases of the moon; they knew what herbs and prayers to use to cure illnesses and broken bones; they had names for everything. Our ancestors had highly developed arts and leisure time. They spoke in poetry and metaphor and had great oratorical skills. They could trace their genealogies back to a time when gods and humans lived freely among each other.
In the Hawaiians’ worldview, everything was connected, including the trees, the stones, the birds, the stars. As humans, their role, or kuleana, was to be the guardians, to maintain the balance and harmony of all things. To help carry out these responsibilities, Hawaiians were born with spiritual powers, or mana. Any abuse or misuse of these powers would result in a loss of one’s mana, as in leaders who showed greed or who did not act in the best interests of the people. Mana could also grow in those who demonstrated exceptional skills, whether it was in fishing, healing, canoe making, and so on. Great warriors and leaders were revered as having very powerful mana.
The cultural practices of the people assured that food would always be abundant and that the earth, in its bounty, would provide for everyone. These practices were based on taking only what one needed and only when those things were plentiful. When fishermen had successful catches they fed their families, then the community. They would trade with farmers for taro and other staples. Nothing was wasted.
After over two hundred years of western influence and immigration to our islands, our sovereign government is long gone, mana has no correlation to leadership and the global market now dictates the success of our tourism-based economy. In the mainstream, we are like most other Americans, bombarded by slick ads and peer pressure to buy large screen televisions, bigger cars to protect ourselves from everyone else’s big cars, and more food on our plates than we can—or should—eat.
We are encouraged to buy things we can’t afford and don’t need. Natural resources are being depleted faster than they can be renewed to keep up with this compulsory demand, a trend that is making our land and water toxic and has contributed to our islands’ loss of sustainability.
Age-Old Wisdom for the New Economy
Indigenous peoples have learned a few things about making it through hard times. Rebecca Adamson discusses what traditional economies did to foster abundance, sharing, and harmony with Mother Earth.
High fuel costs and the downturn in the national economy have taken an enormous toll on our state. Fewer visitors to our islands have caused businesses to close and new construction to be delayed, which in turn has increased unemployment and is draining the state treasury. Our government leaders’ response to this economic crisis has been to raise local taxes, decide which government programs to cut, and whether to furlough or lay off state employees. These quick-fix choices do not present courageous or visionary solutions to this or future recessions, instead they only serve to reinforce how dependent we have become on the outside world for survival and what little control we as individuals have over our own lives.
While analysts predict that recovery is around the corner, they caution that the economy will not likely return to the high growth rates of the past few years, at least not anytime soon. This contention is supported by the ongoing instability of foreign governments, the aging of our own American population, now increasingly concerned about having money for retirement, and in the longer term, the effects of global warming on the environment. Although we are gaining confidence that it is safe to spend again, we would be well served to take the experts’ warnings as an opportunity to rethink the economic philosophies that guide our country, our state, and most importantly, our own ways of thinking.
Although much in Hawai‘i has changed, the values of our culture have been passed down to us, and by looking both backward and forward, we can forge real solutions that will improve our sustainability now and in the future. Growth in our Western economic system is based on increased consumption. This is a contradiction to the most basic precept that our ancestors passed down to us: take only what you need. If this idea can be at the heart of decisions that leaders, corporate executives and even consumers make, then economic crises will become obsolete.
We do not have to stop consuming or abandon our western lifestyles to achieve sustainability, nor does the gross national product need to grow at high rates every year to maintain a stable economy. If we consume only what we need, even when we are not in a recession, the economy will eventually adjust downwards and stabilize. This would decrease the power of the multinational corporations and the volatility and impact of global economics on our local communities. To think, this could all happen because we stopped buying things we don’t need, or at the very least, started buying less of what we don’t need!
The Earth and the economy are inextricably tied together. As we deplete our natural resources we can expect that there will be increasingly less of everything in the future unless we think in terms of using less and replenishing what we take. This idea is consistent with the Hawaiian concept of kuleana, that is, taking personal responsibility to be sure that what we take is not more than we need and that we replace or compensate for what we take so as not disturb the balance of all things. We adopted the ways of the colonizers in order to survive. In spite of the decimation of our populations, we are still here, and we still carry the DNA of our ancestors who understood the rhythms of nature and lived in harmony with the earth.
Americans are starting to lose confidence that past solutions to our economic problems will continue to be effective. Our system may eventually collapse if we do not fix what’s really wrong. As Native people we are in a position to help shift the paradigm of western economic thinking by leading through example—consuming less and taking only what we need. The more we take responsibility for our own actions and support leaders whose policies are in our best interests, the sooner the changes can start to be made that will assure the survival of our grandchildren, their descendants, and, most importantly, our beloved Earth.
Lurline Wailana McGregor grew up in Honolulu, Hawai‘i in the 1950s and 1960s in a community that reflected her own multicultural background. She has served as staff to U.S. Senator Dan Inouye in Washington, D.C., on the Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs; headed up a national public broadcasting consortium for indigenous Pacific Islanders; and produced several award-winning documentary films. Most of the trophies on her shelf, though, are for canoe paddling.
Editor's note: Lurline Wailana McGregor 's essay was one of seven winning entries in Native Insight: Thoughts on Recession, Recovery & Opportunity, an essay contest sponsored by the Alaska Federation of Natives that asked competitors to offer their perspectives on the current economic and political landscape, as well as thoughts and ideas related to economic renewal.
Why This Crisis May Be Our Best Chance to Build a New Economy
Wall Street is bankrupt. Instead of trying to save it, we can build a new economy that puts money and business in the service of people and the planet—not the other way around.
The Good Food Revolution
The lush landscape of Hawai‘i once offered abundant food. What can these islands teach us about food and sufficiency?
That means, we rely on support from our readers.
Independent. Nonprofit. Subscriber-supported. | <urn:uuid:e04418f0-1ebf-47b4-9478-67ad66928f14> | {
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Most people may not have expected it, but for residents in Pingtung County’s two small villages of Wanjin (萬金) and Chishan (赤山) — with a combined population of about 5,000 — Christmas is the most important festivity of the year, since about 80 percent of the villagers are Catholics.
One after another, fireworks were shot into the sky as Christmas songs were sung and a carriage, drawn by men in Santa Claus outfits and carrying two children dressed up as Joseph and the Virgin Mary holding baby Jesus, passed through the crowd. Church volunteers led the way, while onlookers took pictures of the parade.
In the past, the carriage was drawn by a cow. However, as the number of visitors grows, the church has decided to have people draw the carriage because a cow would be easily scared by the crowd.
“Merry Christmas. May peace be upon you,” the paraders and the onlookers said to each other, with smiles on their faces.
Many may have thought that parades on Christmas Eve only took place in predominantly Christian countries, but the residents of the two small villages neighboring Wanluan Township (萬巒) have celebrated Christmas for well over a century.
“We have just celebrated the 151st anniversary of the founding of the Wanjing Basilica, and we’ve always had a parade since the founding of the church here to express and share our joy for the birth of Christ,” said Pan Ching-yu (潘清雨), a priest at the basilica.
Prior to the parade, at the entrance of Chishan, a group of priests and young volunteers had traveled to another village named Jiazuo (佳佐), about 2km south of Chishan, to pick up the children dressed up as Joseph and Mary holding baby Jesus in a reconstructed stable, and paraded them through Chishan and Wanjin villages.
The parade ended at the basilica, where a mass was held.
The parade symbolizes the villagers welcoming Jesus and is also to spread the faith, said Baru, a priest of the Paiwan tribe.
“There are seven neighborhoods in Wanjin and Chishan, plus Jiazuo Village, so a total of eight communities in the surrounding areas of Wanjin Basilica take turns to stage the Nativity,” he said. “Representatives from the eight neighborhoods hold meetings to make the decision.”
Pan explained why there was such a concentration of Catholics in the two villages.
“The two villages were historically severely impoverished, but things began to change when the Spanish missionary Father Fernando Sainz arrived in Wanjin in 1861,” Pan said. “He made great efforts trying to help the villagers economically, while also mediating ethnic conflict. Through his acts of benevolence, he gained the trust of the people and a large number of people were converted to Christianity.”
For instance, many villagers at the time had to sell their land for cash, and without land, they would not be able to make a living, Pan said.
“So what Father Sainz did was purchase the land with church funds and continue to allow the original landowners to work their land,” he said.
Ethnic conflicts were also a serious problem because Wanjin and Chishan are Hoklo-speaking villages surrounded by Hakka-speaking and Paiwan Aboriginal communities, Pan added.
In fact, although Wanjin and Chishan are Hoklo-speaking villages, the majority of the villagers are descendants of the Makataos, a Pingpu Aboriginal tribe.
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Clinical processes vary in types and even complexity. In a healthcare organization regardless of the type of process they employ, they still have to focus on measuring Clinical Processes in order to reap the full benefits of their process. Measuring process falls under the umbrella of Business process management. Business process management also referred to as BPM is a discipline that focuses on improving corporate performance by managing business processes. It uses various methods to discover, model, analyze, measure, improve, optimize, and automate business processes.
Put simply, any combination of methods used to manage a company’s business processes can be referred to as its business management process. These processes can be structured and repeatable or unstructured and variable. Though not required, enabling technologies are often used with business process management. In this day and age of technology, it is quite inevitable. Business process management is quite different from program management as BPM is a way of looking at and then controlling the processes that are present in an organization.
As an approach, BPM sees processes as important assets of an organization that must be understood, managed, and developed in order to deliver value-added products and services to clients or customers. It is an effective methodology to use in times of crisis to make certain that the processes are efficient and effective, as this will result in a better and more cost-efficient organization.
The term business process management covers how business processes are studies, identified, monitored, and changed in order to ensure that they run smoothly and can be improved over time. Business processes are often framed as the daily flow of work commonly referred to as workflow.
Business process management is best thought of as a business practice, encompassing techniques and structured methods that are used for measuring clinical processes. Though there are technologies on the market that carry the descriptor because of what they enable: namely, identifying and modifying existing processes so they align with a desired, presumably improved, a future state of affairs, business process management does not need technology to function. It is about formalizing and institutionalizing better ways for work to get done.
The steps that can be recognized in Business Process Management
- Re-design and model
Successfully employing BPM usually involves the following:
- Organizing around outcomes not tasks to ensure the proper focus is maintained
- Correcting and improving processes before (potentially) automating them; otherwise, all you’ve done is make the mess run faster
- Establishing processes and assigning ownership lest the work and improvements simply drift away – and they will, as human nature takes over and the momentum peters out
- Standardizing processes across the enterprise so they can be more readily understood and managed, errors reduced, and risks mitigated
- Enabling continuous change so the improvements can be extended and propagated over time
- Improving existing processes, rather than building radically new or “perfect” ones, because that can take so long as to erode or negate any gains achieved
Process Ownership: Who is Responsible for Each Process
To be able to have an effective process management it is necessary to define who is responsible for each of them. The Manager is responsible for process improvement, has the accountability to ensure the effectiveness of the process and values the need to protect processes. This is also called process ownership.
A project mapping process aims to allow an organization to be process-oriented by giving it a horizontal management and process structure as opposed to a vertical one. It’s very common to find that companies are increasingly mapping their processes and then not knowing what to do with them. In fact, these companies fall into a management category still functioning with their background processes even though a new one has been made and is being talked about on paper only. Employees just received the memo and even go for training on how to carry out the new process and then just continue to do things the way they’ve always done it. One reason for this is that organizations don’t provide the tools that are needed to carry out the new process
To change the management of a company to functional horizontal is not a simple task nor quick. To do this, companies need to define key performance indicators (KPIs) to monitor the performance of each process. Usually, about 40% of the information necessary for monitoring Key Performance Indexes are not in the company, having it would enable an organization to create new controls, customize systems and even create new processes.
Objectives of the Process Management
- Identify and resolve inter-process integration problems, conflicts between process and functional leaders, resource allocation and process alignment vs. strategy
- Oversee the portfolio of a Company’s processes and align, prioritize, and allow transformation efforts (action plans).
- Prioritization and Allocation of resources needed to achieve the objectives of the process.
- Tracking and reporting metrics (indicators) of process performance of process owners.
- Conduct and maintain Business work procedures and manuals.
- The Process Committee is made up of a coordinator and members (all interested parties, focusing on the Board and first line management, as well as other guests they deem appropriate).
- Another important factor that we must not forget is the change of culture in the organization, people are used to hierarchically answering their work, and management by processes these professionals respond to the process owners.
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By the autumn of 1634, the war has taken half of Germany's population. A hard winter has come early. Everyone is starving, the towns are razed, and only begging—rather than business—remains. Courage and the Cook appear in rags before a half-ruined parsonage in Fichtelgebirge. They ring to ask for food, but there is no answer. Courage suggests that they sing for their alms.
Abruptly the Cook tells her that he has received a letter from Utrecht: his mother has died of cholera and left him the family inn. Recounting the woes of the land, Courage confesses that she tires of wandering. "The world's dying out" the Cook responds, inviting her to join him at the inn. She must, however, decide whether she will join him immediately.
Courage calls Kattrin and tells her of the plan. The Cook asks to have a word with her alone. Once Kattrin has returned to the wagon, he tells her that they must leave Kattrin behind with the wagon. There is no room for her, and the customers do not like to look upon disfigured mutes. Courage does not know what to do; Kattrin overhears the conversation.
Calling to the parsonage, the Cook sings "The Song of the Great Souls of the Earth." It recounts the fates of Solomon, Julius Caesar, Socrates, and Saint Martin, all of whom meet their dark destinies on account of their respective virtues—that is, wisdom, bravery, honesty, and pity. Thus, a man is better off without such qualities. A voice calls them inside. Courage decides she cannot leave her daughter, and they enter the parsonage.
Kattrin climbs out with a bundle, laying a skirt of her mother's and a pair of the cook's trousers on the ground as a parting message. Courage emerges with a plate of soup and stops her daughter. They toss the Cook's belongings on the ground, harness themselves to the wagon, and depart. The Cook enters, still chewing, and sees his abandoned possessions.
During 1635, Courage and Kattrin follow the ever more tattered armies from central Germany. They come upon a prosperous farmhouse on the highway. A voice inside sings of the house's prosperity through the seasons. Courage and Kattrin stop to listen and then start out anew.
Take a Study Break! | <urn:uuid:b71fbd47-23ae-4975-b2e9-d8018aab0ac4> | {
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Americans might remember that when the first mad cow was confirmed in the United States in December, 2003, it was major news. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had been petitioned for years by lawyers from farm and consumer groups I worked with to stop the cannibal feeding practices that transmit this horrible, always fatal, human and animal dementia. When the first cow was found in Washington state, the government said it would stop such feeding, and the media went away. But once the cameras were off and the reporters were gone nothing substantial changed.
In the United States, dairy calves are still taken from their mothers and fed the blood and fat of dead cattle. This is no doubt a way to infect them with the mad cow disease that has now been incubating here for decades, spread through such animal feeding practices. No one knows how the latest dairy cow was infected, the fourth confirmed in the United States. Maybe it was nursed on cow's blood. Perhaps it was fed feed containing cattle fat with traces of cattle protein. Or perhaps there is a mad cow disease in pigs in the United States, which simply has not been found yet, because pigs are not tested for it at all, even though pigs are fed both pig and cattle byproducts, and then the blood, fat and other waste parts of these pigs are fed to cattle.
All these U.S. cattle feeding methods are long banned and illegal in other countries that suffered through but eventually dealt properly with mad cow disease. Here, rather than stopping the transmission of the disease by stopping the cannibal feeding, mad cow is simply covered up with inadequate testing and very adequate public relations. US cattle are still fed mammalian blood, fat and protein, risking human deaths and threatening the long term safety of human blood products, simply to provide the U.S. livestock industry with a cheap protein source and a cheap way to get rid of dead animal waste.
I began researching this issue around 1989, long before the disease was confirmed to have jumped from cattle to the people eating them, as announced by the British government in 1996. In 1997 I co-authored <http://www.prwatch.org/books/madcow.html> Mad Cow USA, warning that the disease was likely already here and spreading, since the animal cannibalism that caused its outbreak in Britain and spread it to other countries was actually more widespread in the United States than anywhere.
Some years ago responsible U.S. beef companies wanted to test their animals for mad cow disease and label their beef as being disease free, but they were forbidden under penalty of law from doing so. Only the USDA can test for mad cows in America. In 2004 and 2005, after two additional mad cows were discovered in Texas and Alabama, the United Sates government declared that obviously mad cow wasn't much of a problem and gutted it's anemic testing program. Today only about 40,000 cattle a year are tested, out of tens of millions slaughtered. It's amazing that the California cow was even detected given this pathetic testing program that seems well designed to hide rather than find mad cows.
The prevention of mad cow disease is relatively simple. If your country has it, test each animal at slaughter to keep the diseased animals out of the food chain. Cheap, accurate and easy tests are now available in other countries but illegal here. Testing cattle both identifies the true extent of the disease, and keeps infected animals from being eaten in your sausage or hamburger. In this manner countries like Britain, Germany, France and Japan have controlled their problem through testing and a strict ban on cannibal feed.
Once mad cow disease moves into the human population of a country, all bets are off as to what could happen next. It's a very slow disease, it develops invisibly over decades in someone who has been infected, and it is always fatal. We'll know a lot more in fifty years, but the future looks worrisome. In Britain people are dying from mad cow disease, people who never consumed infected meat. They used medical products containing human blood, and that blood was infected because it was from infected people. There is no test to identify infectious prions, the causal agent, in blood.
Almost none of this information appeared in news stories about the California mad cow. Instead the headlines and the talking heads fed us the line that the United States fixed this problem long ago, and the fact that only 4 mad cows have been detected so far is proof of our success. Oprah Winfrey once tried via her talk show to warn about this, way back in 1996, but Texas cattlemen dragged her and her guest Howard Lyman into court and she had to spend many millions of dollars defending herself from the supposed crime of slandering meat.
Oprah won her case, which was probably unfortunate for the rest of us because had she been convicted the ensuing appeals court trial might have gotten enough attention to wake up Americans to the truth. Instead Oprah learned her lesson – shut up and you won't get sued. Other media learned too that if the government and industry can silence Oprah, they can muzzle anyone. (One of the 4 confirmed U.S. mad cows was later found in Texas, appropriately enough.)
There are a handful of dedicated activists such as Howard Lyman who have been sounding the alarm on this. They include the ecologist Dr. Michael Hansen of Consumers Union and Dr. Michael Greger, a physician. Terry Singletary Jr., whose mom died of a version of the human form of mad cow disease, has been a relentless, unpaid activist on this issue.
Despite their dedicated work, there is no indication that anything is going to change here in America. The U.S. government refuses to implement the feed ban and the animal testing necessary. It doesn't matter if the President is named Clinton, Bush or Obama because their bureaucrats in the USDA and FDA stay the course and keep the cover up going. Docile, eating what they are fed, trusting the rancher all the way to the slaughterhouse. Is that just the cows, or is it us too?
John Stauber: http://sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=John_Stauber is an independent author and activist. He founded the Center for Media and Democracy in 1993, retiring in 2009. Way back in 1997 he co-authored Mad Cow USA. http://www.prwatch.org/books/madcow.html | <urn:uuid:eceb9c45-6c79-4961-acff-71009c5a95c9> | {
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Why we need Thread Local variable?
Objective of thread local class is to share information across multiple threads where each thread will have independent copy of the variable.Normally in multi threaded programs each thread tries to modify the shared information.If we want exclusive right to that state variable,we introduce synchronization which is expensive.However if our use case involves frequent read operations , less number of modify operations and no interdependence among state variables across different threads,we can use thread local variables.We use thread local variables when each thread wants to get default initialized copy of the variable and modify it as per their algorithm and use it across.It does not depend what would be the value of state variable in different threads.
How to create Thread Local variable?
All we have to do is to create a subclass of thread local and provide implementation for initial value.Normally we achieve this by creating anonymous inner sub class.Then whenever we want to access/update the value we use corresponding get and set methods.Lets take one use case in which we span multiple threads and create a thread local variable for the simple date format.Here depending upon the thread name we set date format in thread local variable which is then used by another class to print the current date.
Attached is the code snippet for reference.
Where all thread locals are used?
Its widely used in lots of frameworks like Spring ,Hibernate and others for passing particular thread specific information like transaction attributes,connection details,authorization information and others.
Is Thread Local safe to use or does it have some issues?
If thread local variables are not handled properly,it may lead to Class loader memory leak issue.Normally we get errors like this OutOfMemory: PermGen error...............................Reason being if we don't clear the thread local variables after use and if thread local variables references some object.It will still be there and won't be garbage collected even though thread has finished the execution.Gradually with multiple installations/un-installations or multiple threads being spawned this memory issue will cause application to crash .So we should take proper care of removing the referencing to objects in thread local variables after use.
Hope it makes things clearer about Thread Local.Comments are welcome | <urn:uuid:61e9a489-e1b7-452f-ad04-b4836f95a927> | {
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More Lessons for GCSE Maths
Videos to help GCSE Maths students learn how to use the sine rule.
The Sine Rule - GCSE and AS Maths revision video
Maths - The Sine Rule when Finding a Side - Key Stage 4
Sine Rule Ambiguous Case, Scale, triangle trigonometry
Sine Rule Proof and examples GCSE maths Higher trigonometry
Rotate to landscape screen format on a mobile phone or small tablet to use the Mathway widget, a free math problem solver that answers your questions with step-by-step explanations.
You can use the free Mathway calculator and problem solver below to practice Algebra or other math topics. Try the given examples, or type in your own problem and check your answer with the step-by-step explanations. | <urn:uuid:489136d2-ac36-4961-8940-fa34ca09ba63> | {
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4th Grade Visual Arts – Our State Flower and Bird
This lesson makes a curriculum connection to 4th grade SOCIAL STUDIES, the history on North Carolina. We looked at the state bird and the state flower for this lesson.
We also looked at the paintings of watercolor artist Hailey E Herrera who has painted many realistic cardinals.
For this project we practiced our drawing skills to draw a realistic cardinal. We colored them in with oil pastels and painted the background with watercolor paint. We used the wet on wet technique plus created an interesting texture in our background by adding salt to our wet paintings. | <urn:uuid:3ed9ccad-e345-45fd-b202-f07e60d862ca> | {
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George Edward Pickett was born in Richmond, Virginia. He received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at the age of 17, and graduated last in his class at West Point in 1846. He was immediately sent to participate in the Mexican-American War where he received to brevet promotion for being the first to climb a parapet at the Battle of Chapultepec. After the Mexican-American War, Pickett continued to serve in the United States military and was assigned to the Washington Territory, where he became involved in a land dispute with Great Britain known as the Pig War.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Pickett resigned from the United States military and was appointed as a colonel in the Confederate army. After briefly commanding the defense of the Lower Rappahannock River, he was appointed a brigadier general on January 14, 1862. Pickett first saw combat during the Peninsula Campaign, where he led his brigade at the battles of Williamsburg, Seven Pines, and Gaines’ Mill. At Gaines’ Mill, Pickett was wounded in the shoulder and forced out of command until September of 1862. In October of 1862, Pickett was promoted to major general and placed in command of a small division in General James Longstreet’s corps. He and his command were present at the battle of Fredericksburg, but saw only little combat, and then took part in the Suffolk Campaign. Pickett’s most important role in the war however would come at the Battle of Gettysburg.
Pickett would arrive with his division after following the major fighting of the first and second days. General Robert E. Lee decided to use Pickett’s men, whose ranks had not been depleted, to lead a grand assault against the Union positions on the high ground around Gettysburg. On July 3, 1863, Pickett’s men would make the farthest breach into Union lines, but cannon and musket fire received during the assault weakened his division far too much to make the assault successful. The attack known as “Pickett’s Charge” even though he technically was not leading the attack, resulted in a great number of Confederate casualties.
After the failure at Gettysburg, Pickett continued to command his division during the Overland Campaign as well as the Siege of Petersburg. During the battle of Five Forks, however, Pickett and his men were defeated, which led to the eventual collapse and surrender of the Confederate army. | <urn:uuid:7d33a354-cb7e-422e-b576-b34a00e48c58> | {
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Copyright © 2007 Dorling Kindersley
Carnivorous and herbivorous dinosaurs are quite easy to tell apart. As well as the different types of jaws and teeth, their body shapes were distinct from one another because of the different digestive systems they needed to absorb their food. Carnivores had much simpler digestive systems than herbivores, and their hip bones were arranged differently. These two characteristics meant that the carnivorous theropods were two-legged, the herbivorous sauropods were four-legged, and the herbivorous ornithopods could move around on either their hind legs or on all fours.
The tooth of a carnivorous dinosaur such as Tyrannosaurus is shaped like a steak knife. It is narrow like a blade, for slicing through flesh. It is also pointed for making incisions in its prey. Its edges had dozens of little serrations, like a fine saw, to tear through tough meat and tendons. Carnivore teeth quickly wore out and were easily damaged, breaking off if the dinosaur chomped on bone. Inside a carnivore’s jaw, other teeth were constantly growing and replacing those teeth that were lost.
A carnivore’s skull, like this one of an Allosaurus, was arranged so that it could work backwards and forwards. This movement allowed the rows of teeth to shear past each other, tearing the flesh of its prey between them. The teeth were curved back like barbs, so that anything held in its jaws would not stuggle out. The lightweight latticework of the skull and jaws meant that the sides of the mouth were able to move outwards. This widened the mouth so that the carnivore could swallow huge mouthfuls.
There are very few fossils that actually show the insides of a dinosaur. However, the digestive system of a carnivore would have been quite simple and fairly small compared with the size of the animal. Meat does not have tough fibres, so it is easily digested, and a carnivorous dinosaur did not need the huge guts of a herbivore to process its food. Nearly all of the carnivore’s digestive system would have been carried in front of the pubis bone of the lizard-like hips. This compact arrangement would have allowed the dinosaur to move swiftly when chasing its prey.
The different types of herbivore had different types of teeth, all of them unlike those of the carnivores. Some teeth, such as those of Iguanodon, were coarsely serrated like a vegetable grater for shredding plant material. These were slightly twisted and overlapping, and all tended to be the same size, unlike the jagged rows belonging to the carnivores. Other herbivores, especially the sauropods such as Diplodocus, had teeth that were arranged like the teeth of a garden rake. They used these for food-gathering, not for chewing.
Sauropods spent all their time raking the leaves from trees and plants and swallowing them. They did not chew because their teeth were the wrong shape. So, to break down their food, the herbivores swallowed stones. These gathered in an area of the stomach called the gizzard, forming a grinding mill to mash up the plant material. Skeletons of sauropods are sometimes found with polished stones, or gastroliths. Today’s plant-eating birds, such as chickens, swallow grit for the same reason.
The digestive system of a two-footed ornithopod was much bigger than that of a carnivore – more like a sauropod’s. However, unlike in a sauropod, it was carried well back in the body and the pubis bone was swept back out of the way. This meant the centre of gravity of the animal was much nearer the hips and it could move about on its hind legs. It also lacked a gizzard. With its efficient chewing system, an ornithopod did not need stomach stones.
The digestive system of a sauropod such as this Brachiosaurus was much bigger than that of the carnivores. It needed a large gut to break down the fibres in the plant material it ate. A sauropod would also have had a gizzard, where stomach stones ground up the food before it was passed into the stomach. All this weight had to be carried in front of the pubis bone, and that is why most sauropods could not support themselves for long on just their back legs.
To order this book direct from the publisher, visit DK's website. | <urn:uuid:7510c69b-cd5d-4a34-abec-dd4ba57dd29a> | {
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David Bennett is a professor emeritus of American history at the Maxwell School of Syracuse University. Matt Bennett, his son, is co-founder and senior vice president of the Third Way think tank.
Perhaps the most coveted workspace in Washington — that isn’t oval, at least — sits in a beautiful Beaux- Arts building on Constitution Avenue. It’s got a rotunda ringed by Corinthian columns, curved marble staircases and golden eagles. It has been home to some of the most famous hearings in Senate history: the investigations of the Titanic sinking and the Teapot Dome scandal, the Truman Commission and the Army-McCarthy, Teamsters and Watergate hearings.
Yet this extraordinarily important building is named for one whose historical legacy is unworthy of such an honor: the late senator Richard B. Russell (D-Ga.).
It is time to rename this precious building for someone more deserving. We suggest Ted Kennedy.
The nation has arrived at a landmark set of anniversaries for the civil rights era. Fifty years ago, Congress enacted the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts. This progress was made possible by the Bloody Sunday march in Selma and countless other acts of courage and selflessness. The world stood witness to a movement that used strict nonviolence and enormous moral force to bring about extraordinary change.
The civil rights era had clearly drawn heroes and villains. The heroes, such as the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., John Lewis, Rosa Parks and the Little Rock Nine, are properly celebrated. But the villains also must be subject to history’s judgment. And it isn’t just the Klan, Bull Connor and the other thugs who unleashed violence upon innocents that deserve censure. We must remember their allies in Congress, who did their best to derail the laws that we now regard as bedrocks of justice.
Those congressional villains took on different stripes. Some, like Mississippi’s James Eastland, used racist language on the Senate floor and made no effort to spray perfume on the stench of their bigotry. But others, like Russell, were more refined. As historian Robert Mann has noted, the gentleman from Georgia was polite and courtly. But Russell not only filibustered civil rights legislation for decades, he twice proposed a bill of his own for a federal commission that would relocate African Americans living in the South to other parts of the United States. His core legislative legacy was built on massive resistance to racial equality.
By contrast, Kennedy, the Democratic senator from Massachusetts, built his legacy upon inclusiveness and compassion. He served his state for 46 years from his office in the Russell Building. Kennedy rose to power in the Senate, serving in leadership and as chairman of three important committees. And he got things done: He was instrumental in the passage of the Americans With Disabilities Act, the creation of Americorps and the success of countless other education, health-care and social-welfare bills. There is little doubt that his decades of work made possible the Affordable Care Act, the pinnacle of health-reform efforts that Kennedy had championed since the 1960s.
On civil rights, too, Kennedy was a vital Senate player. Though still reeling from the murder of his brother in Dallas, Kennedy took to the floor of the Senate on April 9, 1964, to demand an end to Russell’s filibuster of the Civil Rights Bill: “My brother was the first president of the United States to state publicly that segregation was morally wrong. . . . If his life and death had a meaning, it was that we should not hate but love one another; we should use our powers not to create conditions of oppression that lead to violence, but conditions of freedom that lead to peace.”
Moreover, in this time of partisan gridlock in Congress, it would serve all of us well to pause to remember a senator who knew how to both fight for his principles and to set party aside in the name of progress. As his close friend Sen. Orrin Hatch, a conservative from Utah, has written: “Ted was a lion among liberals, but he was also a constructive and shrewd lawmaker. He never lost sight of the big picture and was willing to compromise on certain provisions in order to move forward on issues he believed important.”
Kennedy has been gone for more than five years. While the names of his brothers adorn large Washington edifices, his name has not yet received that kind of historical treatment. So we believe Congress has a choice for the big beauty at the corner of Constitution and Delaware: Keep the name of an avowed segregationist who stood in the way of racial progress? Or rename it for a consummate senator — a liberal lion, civil rights champion and bipartisan deal-maker. The choice is clear: It’s time to christen the Edward Moore Kennedy Senate Office Building. | <urn:uuid:5870bfad-118d-43a2-b2d8-aa7e13196f92> | {
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Europe’s grasslands, woodlands, and marine areas face increased threats
Image © Pawel Kazmierczyk
The EEA report ‘Mapping and assessing the condition of Europe’s ecosystems: progress and challenges’ gives a snapshot of current ecosystem health in Europe. It identifies key gaps in data which are essential to properly assess the health of Europe’s many ecosystems. The report concludes improved mapping and assessments are needed in order to understand the problems faced by Europe’s ecosystems and to restore these key life-sustaining systems to better health. This understanding is vital for policymakers to come up with suitable responses.
The well-being of our societies is heavily dependent on our thriving ecosystems, which provide the basic building blocks of our day-to-day survival, including fertile soil, fresh water, pollination, natural flood protection and climate regulation. This ‘natural capital’ is being degraded or lost as a result of human activity.
The report looks at eight broad ecosystem types in Europe: urban, cropland, grassland, heathland and shrub, woodland and forest, wetlands, freshwater, and marine. It assesses the pressures and challenges each of the different types face as well as the impacts on habitats and species.
- An analysis of the data shows that some of the most sensitive ecosystems like heathlands, wetlands and freshwater bodies in Europe are highly concentrated in a small number of countries, which could increase their vulnerability to environmental change.
- A substantial proportion of these very vulnerable ecosystems are not protected within Natura 2000 EU protected sites, Marine Protected Areas or similar zones that aim to preserve habitats and biodiversity.
- Well over half of all the habitats and species covered by the EU’s Habitats Directive are assessed as being in ‘unfavourable’ condition, and their conservation status is generally declining or stable, with only a small proportion ‘improving.’
- An initial assessment found that habitat change (including pollution, habitat loss and fragmentation) has had the greatest overall impact across ecosystems to date. Pressures like nutrient and pollution loads are still increasing and all ecosystem types are facing increased pressure due to climate change and invasive alien species, leading to further negative effects.
Key gaps in knowledge and data will need to be resolved to improve future assessments of Europe’s ecosystems. Specifically, there is a lack of data on urban and marine ecosystems, a lack of understanding of the combined impacts of multiple pressures faced, a lack of detailed spatial data for mapping impacts on biodiversity, and a lack of understanding of the links between ecosystem condition, biodiversity and ecosystem service delivery.
The EEA has since 2012 supported the implementation of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 through its activities on ecosystem mapping and assessment. The report forms part of the Agency’s contribution to the Mid-term review of the European Union’s Biodiversity Strategy to 2020.
For references, please go to www.eea.europa.eu/soer or scan the QR code.
This briefing is part of the EEA's report The European Environment - State and Outlook 2015. The EEA is an official agency of the EU, tasked with providing information on Europe's environment.
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Post By SteffenBrand
Historical Line-Art Maps
I'm often working with line-art in maps, hand-draw what I want to show and try to include some extra-amount of information in the design of the map. I made this a while ago (see attachment) and wondered if there ever was a time / region when / where maps were drawn with line-art only in history...
Do you have any source material if this ever existed in real life?
Thanks for any help in advance! =)
There are plenty of such examples, but I'm afraid this isn't the right place to post them. Try the Reference Material forum.
If you want to find some examples on your own, googling for them is fairly easy - Image search for a (location) map (or just old map, or anything), and in the search tools, select Color -> Black and white. You'll likely find many modern outlines of the area, but you'll also likely see some old maps in B&W. You can also try the orange colour option, which will return some results on aged paper and photos of maps in museum lighting, along with modern climate and elevation maps. Here's one I found when googling in this way for Scandinavia map, it's a fragment of a B&W printing of the 16th century Carta marina, of which the most famous version is in colour.
Most historical European maps were printed in black (after being originally designed by hand, of course) and had colour added by hand later. In many cases, this colour consists only of a few border markings, and isn't required to understand the map fully, it's just there to draw attention to certain things. Even older maps were often designed/created with lineart and then coloured in, and lineart/B&W versions often exist, since they're cheaper to make. Some (perhaps many?) maps were even designed to be seen in B&W because that's all the cartographer ever saw of the map, the colour was added as a gimmick to fetch a higher price or because the buyer wanted it. You could try removing the colour from colour maps to see the underlying lineart better, this can be done with some Photoshop/GIMP trickery. | <urn:uuid:d9b52e22-d315-40ee-8888-658bd60e7496> | {
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In a key moment in The Two Towers, Legolas claims to be able to count the Riders of Rohan and even spot the height of the leader of the group. That’s because elves are, like, amazing, and awesome, and fabulous, and have way better eyesight than you. Except that according to actual physics, Legolas was totally lying through his teeth about that last one.
For the full explanation, which is actually pretty neat, you should watch the video, but it can essentially be summed up as “Eyes, light, and atmosphere do not work that way.” Refraction makes it almost impossible to have a telescope in your noggin. Due to that, it’s more likely Legolas bluffed and turned out to be right.
That said, there might be a way for it to work. As we all know, light is both a wave and a particle. It might be that Legolas sees light not as waves at all, but entirely as particles, because he’s a magical fairy creature. With the nature of particles and refraction, the elves might have an eye structure that compensates for refraction, or reduces it as much as possible, and allows them to avoid the problem altogether. It’s worth noting here that how light as a particle refracts through surfaces is a matter of some debate which scientists are still arguing over.
Or he just knew ahead of time that the Riders were there and is kind of a scumbag. Really, what’s more likely? | <urn:uuid:732d1b91-d24c-4f67-bba9-0d8c40a89bf9> | {
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Neither education nor economy can be understood without new technologies anymore, and even social and political changes are based on new communication tools. Andres Monroy’s projects use technology as a basis for solving society´s problems, from the need to promote learning and creativity among children, to health access in remote locations or the flow of information generated during crises of armed conflict.
This innovator from Mexico co-founded two social software applications: the online community Scratch, where children (and adults) can learn programming easily and intuitively, and Sana, where expert medical knowledge is made accessible to developing areas where to the availability of quality health care is scarce.
The Sana application, which began as a student project during Andrés Monroy-Hernández´s studies at MIT, was subsequently deployed in several developing countries and has given hundreds of people access to accurate medical diagnoses. Moreover, through Scratch he has provided an alternative for young people to become creators and inventors of digital content. Currently this web community has more than one and a half million users who develop and share their own animations or games over the internet. The initial idea of helping young people to learn programming has gone further, becoming an alternative for the development of creative expression and a way to reduce the gap between the consumption and creation of digital content.
His most recent project Narcotweets seeks to establish social networks as a tool to incorporate civic participation in the fight against drug trafficking. In the most conflictive areas of Mexico these networks have become an essential tool of anonymous communication, complementing or even replacing traditional information channels and government institutions.
Andres has been named one of the emerging leaders by the Boston Business Journal, and has won awards from Ars Electronica and the MacArthur Foundation for Digital Media and Learning. He has also collaborated with various academic conferences and forums, corporations, and non-governmental organizations, and his scientific publications have received multiple awards. | <urn:uuid:db491773-8fc7-4380-bdad-da0c5b829f02> | {
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Information on types of research questions, null hypotheses, tests of statistical significance, probability levels and errors, power analysis, and steps for testing your hypothesis. Research question/hypothesis if you are unsure as to what these terms mean, then make sure that you read chapter 3 (developing the question) in the book that accompanies this web program research question or hypothesis does your proposed research need a research question or a hypothesis let us start. Often, one of the trickiest parts of designing and writing up any research paper is writing the hypothesis. Start by understanding just what a hypothesis is generally used in quantitative research studies, it's an educated guess or prediction about the relationship between two variables it must be a testable statementsomething that you can support or falsify with observable evidence take some time to review. And hypotheses investigators place signposts to carry the reader through a plan for a study the first signpost is the purpose statement, which establishes writing qualitative research questions quantitative research questions formal research project, such as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stat.
Formulating the idea of your thesis can be quite difficult here are some useful tips to help you draft an effective hypothesis for your paper. Excellent guide to writing a dissertation hypothesis learn what 'research,' ' alternative' and 'null' hypotheses are and how to develop and test these. Professional paper ghostwriters for hire us medical administrative support resume undergraduate thesis format sample essay on huck finns racism analyze essay thesis sample current event essay.
Dissertation research usually begins with hunches, guesses and questions which are to be tested the best way to test whether statistical hypothesis is true or not would be by examining the entire population, since it is impractical researchers simply examine it how to write a research questionnaire. Developing dissertation research hypotheses dissertation proposal writing assistance developing your dissertation hypotheses is a crucial step in the dissertation process many students, irrespective of their research expertise or discipline, have difficult developing dissertation hypotheses your dissertation hypotheses.
Writing a research paper without a concise and clear hypothesis is like sticking something together without glue all the parts of your thesis, especially the conclusion, must be closely related to the hypothesis, which should be stated clearly with the usage of appropriate terminology you may test in your dissertation a wide. Your dissertation hypothesis is the prediction statement based on the theory that you are researching in your study doctoral candidates test their hypotheses in their dissertations, their original research project that they write and defend in order to graduate here, you will learn about hypothesis types, writing and testing for. Hypotheses are helpful if your dissertation involves determining whether a specific prediction about the relationship between variables is correct. | <urn:uuid:1babf3b5-4910-45b7-b626-23cfa30ca9cd> | {
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Before starting USART, some general terms related to communication need to be understood. These terms are explained below.
In this type of communication, both Transmitter (Tx) and Receiver (Rx) work on different clocks which means that they are not synchronized. Start and Stop bits are also sent with each Data byte to identify the data.
In this type of communication, both Tx and Rx are synchronized with the same clock and no Start or Stop bits are used.
When either of the devices can send and receive data at the same instant, they are said to have full-duplex communication.
In this type of communication, a device can either behave as Transmitter or Receiver at an instant which means that a device can’t transmit data when it is receiving and vice versa.
PIC18F4550 has an inbuilt EUSART (Enhanced USART). Normally USART can be configured as asynchronous full-duplex communication or synchronous half-duplex communication. EUSART provides additional capabilities as compared to USART, like Automatic Baud-rate Detection. Automatic baud-rate detection means that during reception there is no need to set the baud rate at controller’s side, EUSART sets it on its own which is certainly an advantage over USART. Baud rate and its calculation have been explained later in this article.
Registers of EUSART:
To use the EUSART of PIC18f4550 microcontroller following registers need to be configured.
1. TXSTA (Transmit Status and Control Register)
TRMT: This is a read only bit which shows the status of Shift register where data is stored.
1 = Transmit Shift Register Empty
0 = Transmit Shift Register Full
BRGH: This bit is configured to decide the speed of Asynchronous serial communication.
1 = High speed
0 = Low speed
SYNC: The mode of communication is selected by this bit.
1 = Synchronous mode
0 = Asynchronous mode
TXEN: This bit is set to high to enable the transmission.
TX9: This bit is set to high while sending 9-bit long data.
1 = Selects 9-bit transmission
0 = Selects 8-bit transmission
2. RCSTA (Receive Status and Control Register)
CREN: This bit is set to high for continuous reception enable. To stop reception the bit is set to zero.
RX9: This bit is used when 9-bit long data is to be received.
1 = Selects 9-bit reception
0 = Selects 8-bit reception
SPEN: This bit is used to enable/disable the serial port. (Tx and Rx pins)
1 = Serial port enabled
0 = Serial port disabled
3. TXREG (EUSART Transmit Register)
The data to be transmitted is stored in TXREG register.
4. RCREG (EUSART Receive Register)
The data to be received is stored in RCREG register.
5. PIR1 (Peripheral Interrupt Request Register 1)
TXIF: This is transmitter interrupt flag bit. It becomes high when the TXREG register is empty.
RCIF: This is receiver interrupt flag bit. It becomes high when the RCREG register is full.
6. PIE1 (Peripheral Interrupt Enable Register 1)
TXIE: This bit is set to high to enable the transmission interrupt.
RCIE: This bit is set to high to enable the reception interrupt.
7. BAUDCON (Baud Rate Control Register)
This register controls the baud rate and some special functionalities of serial communication like auto-baud rate detection, inversion of receiving data etc.
BRG16: This bit is used to enable/disable 16-bit baud rate register.
1 = 16-bit Baud Rate Generator (BRG) – SPBRGH and SPBRG
0 = 8-bit Baud Rate Generator (BRG) – SPBRG only
This means if the BRG16 bit is set to high, the baud rate is decided by both SPBRGH and SPBRG registers; and if it is set to low, only SPBRG register will set the baud rate.
7. SPBRG & SPBRGH (EUSART Baud Rate Generator Register Low Byte and High Byte)
These registers are used to set baud rate for the serial communication. The two registers SPBRG & SPBRGH store lower byte and higher byte respectively.
The baud rate is the speed of data in serial communication. It is also known as bits per second (bps). PIC’s EUSART provides different communication modes like asynchronous, synchronous, high-speed and low speed etc. The baud rate for different EUSART modes can be decided by different formulae. The following table shows the baud-rate formulae for different EUSART communication modes.
Baud Rate Formula
Fosc / [64 (n + 1)]
Fosc / [16 (n + 1)]
Fosc / [4 (n + 1)]
Here : x = Doesn’t matter
Fosc = Crystal frequency
n = Value of SPBRGH : SPBRG Register pair
For example, if a Baud rate of 9600 is to be set for a 12MHz crystal and the mode is 8-bit, Asynchronous, then,
SYNC=0, BRG16=0 and BRGH=0 and the baud rate can be calculated, by using the following formula, as given below.
Objective: To first configure PIC18f4550 for asynchronous low-speed, 8-bit serial communication at 9600 baud rate. Next program the microcontroller to receive the serial data from a PC and transmit back the same data serially to the PC.
Window’s HyperTerminal has used to send and receive the data. To know more about HyperTerminal and working with it, refer to the last section in the Description of Serial port interfacing with 8051. MAX232 has been used as level convertor between controller and PC. The connections are shown in circuit diagram tab.
1. Configuration of EUSART-
· Set the baud rate by putting appropriate value in the SPBRG register.
· SPEN bit of the RCSTA register is set to high to activate serial port (Tx and Rx pins) of the controller.
· TXEN and CREN bits (in TXSTA and RCSTA registers) are set to high to activate serial transmission and serial reception respectively.
2. For Transmission-
· Store the data into TXREG register.
· Wait until transmission flag (TXIF) is equal to zero (PIR1 register).
3. For Reception-
· Wait until reception flag (RCIF) is equal to zero (PIR1 register).
· Store the value of RCREG register in some variable. This value is the received data. | <urn:uuid:7e8064a0-2264-4e71-9be8-bbef221f8315> | {
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Agnes Hapka [email protected]
August 31, 2013
NEW HAVEN — Students at New Haven Elementary School got well-acquainted with six varieties of birds of prey and snakes on Friday while, their teachers hope, sparking an interest in reading and learning about nature.
Shayla Blackshire, fifth-grade teacher, said the students had been looking forward to the visit, which marks the beginning of this year’s Accelerated Reader program. In the AR program, students earn points after reading books and demonstrating comprehension. Students may choose fiction or non-fiction, naturally including a selection of books related to birds, snakes, and other animals.
Ron and Wendy Perrone of Three Rivers Avian Center brought an array of birds from the sanctuary, including a peregrine falcon, a barn owl, and a bald eagle with a mind of its own.
The Perrones explained that the avian center, which is located in Brooks, W.Va., is a sort of hospital for non-game birds.
“People can bring their injured birds to the center and we’ll do our best to help them,” Ron Perron said, adding that the center only takes non-game birds — no ducks, geese or chickens — such as falcons, hawks, eagles, and owls. He went on to advise the students on the best way to care for baby birds they see on the ground while out playing or walking to school.
“You have to use your judgment,” Perrone said. “Sometimes young birds are supposed to be on the ground — they have to leave the nest in order to learn to fly.”
A representative from the Department of Natural Resources also visited the school Friday for the AR kick-off, with a selection of snakes and a talk on their habits and habitats. | <urn:uuid:e39e6eb8-6324-471f-96a4-58bbf46f558d> | {
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Wellbeing in the Sixth Form
Learning and developing skills of happiness and well-being has a hugely positive impact on our productivity and our ability to live life to the full.
Furthermore, there is a growing body of scientific evidence regarding the benefits of happiness and well-being in relation to the performance of individuals and institutions. There is endless proof that learning to adopt positivity, developing inner resourcefulness and setting out to become caring individuals with a sense of responsibility towards others, helps us to be happy, successful and strong.
At John Taylor High School, we recognise that students need support in developing skills and attributes that lead to a happier life. The Sixth Form tutorial programme is designed to provide opportunities for students to develop resilience, mindfulness and a healthy lifestyle. There are also planned activities to provide opportunities for students to develop new interests and friendship groups, through the Sixth Form show, quiz nights and Sports Clubs. All Year 12 students complete Level 1 Safeguarding training to support them in their role as a Prefect.
For additional support, students are advised to use the following resources:
- Download the Headspace app from https://www.headspace.com/headspace-meditation-app | <urn:uuid:3cdcb1e1-d4cd-415c-bd32-30045f17aea0> | {
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Definition of Lobe-finned fish
1. Noun. Any fish of the order Crossopterygii; most known only in fossil form.
Generic synonyms: Bony Fish
Group relationships: Crossopterygii, Subclass Crossopterygii
Specialized synonyms: Coelacanth, Latimeria Chalumnae
Lobe-finned Fish Pictures
Click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Lobe-finned Fish Images
Lexicographical Neighbors of Lobe-finned Fish
Literary usage of Lobe-finned fish
Below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature:
1. The Origin and Evolution of Life: On the Theory of Action, Reaction and by Henry Fairfield Osborn (1917)
"One ancestral feature of the amphibians is a layer of superficial body scales in some types, which appear to be derived from those of their lobe-finned fish ..." | <urn:uuid:4eb163e0-83dc-4807-bbbf-6582c5921a9c> | {
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Angiostrongyliasis, also known as rat lungworm, is a disease that affects the brain and spinal cord. POL is relying on resources provided by our member, the Hawaii State Department of Health for the following information:
Rat lungworm is caused by a parasitic nematode (roundworm parasite) called Angiostrongylus cantonensis. The adult form of A. cantonensis is only found in rodents. However, infected rodents can pass larvae of the worm in their feces. Snails, slugs, and certain other animals (including freshwater shrimp, land crabs, and frogs) can become infected by ingesting this larvae; these are considered intermediate hosts. Humans can become infected with A. cantonensis if they eat (intentionally or otherwise) a raw or undercooked infected intermediate host, thereby ingesting the parasite. For more information on the life-cycle of A. cantonensis, visit the CDC website.
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS. This infection can cause a rare type of meningitis (eosinophilic meningitis). Some infected people don’t have any symptoms or only have mild symptoms; in some other infected people the symptoms can be much more severe. When symptoms are present, they can include severe headache and stiffness of the neck, tingling or painful feelings in the skin or extremities, low-grade fever, nausea, and vomiting. Sometimes, a temporary paralysis of the face may also be present, as well as light sensitivity. The symptoms usually start 1 to 3 weeks after exposure to the parasite, but have been known to range anywhere from 1 day to as long as 6 weeks after exposure. Although it varies from case to case, the symptoms usually last between 2–8 weeks; symptoms have been reported to last for longer periods of time.
TRANSMISSION. You can get angiostrongyliasis by eating food contaminated by the larval stage of A. cantonensis worms. In Hawaii, these larval worms can be found in raw or undercooked snails or slugs. Sometimes people can become infected by eating raw produce that contains a small infected snail or slug, or part of one. It is not known for certain whether the slime left by infected snails and slugs are able to cause infection. Angiostrongyliasis is not spread person-to-person.
DIAGNOSIS. Diagnosing angiostrongyliasis can be difficult, as there are no readily available blood tests. In Hawaii, cases can be diagnosed with a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test, performed by the State Laboratories Division, that detects A. cantonensis DNA in patients’ cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or other tissue. However, more frequently diagnosis is based on a patient’s exposure history (such as if they have history of travel to areas where the parasite is known to be found or history of ingestion of raw or undercooked snails, slugs, or other animals known to carry the parasite) and their clinical signs and symptoms consistent with angiostrongyliasis as well as laboratory finding of eosinophils (a special type of white blood cell) in their CSF.
TREATMENT. There is no specific treatment for the disease. The parasites cannot mature or reproduce in humans and will die eventually. Supportive treatment and pain medications can be given to relieve the symptoms, and some patients are treated with steroids. No anti-parasitic drugs have been shown to be effective in treating angiostrongyliasis, and there is concern that they could actually make the symptoms worse because of the body’s response to potentially more rapidly dying worms. Persons with symptoms should consult their health care provider for more information.
PREVENTION. To prevent angiostrongyliasis, don’t eat raw or undercooked snails or slugs, and if you handle snails or slugs, be sure to wear gloves and wash your hands. Eating raw or undercooked freshwater shrimp, land crabs and frogs may also result in infection, although, there has not been any documented cases in Hawaii. You should also thoroughly inspect and wash fresh produce and vegetables, especially if eaten raw. Eliminating snails, slugs, and rats founds near houses and gardens might also help reduce risk exposure to A. cantonensis.
When preparing food for cooking, any suspect food products should be boiled for at least 3 to 5 minutes, or frozen at 5°F (15°C) for at least 24 hours; this will kill the larval stage of the worm.
REPORTING. HDOH requires that clinicians report patients with eosinophilic meningitis, i.e., signs and/or symptoms consistent with meningitis plus eosinophils in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) without possible alternative causes, including CNS infection with other microbes, reaction to foreign material in the CNS (e.g., intracranial hardware or myelography dye), medications (e.g., intrathecal vancomycin or gentamicin), neoplasms, multiple sclerosis, and neurosarcoidosis by calling (808) 586-4586.
Mahalo to the Hawai'i State Department of Health for the above comprehensive information about rat lungworm disease. | <urn:uuid:13b9421f-d62a-471c-87a6-48998885c976> | {
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MORE INFO ON NATIVE PLANTS
Cultivars v. Species and Seedlings:
There seems to be the silly notion out there that cultivars are "better" than straight species. A cultivar is simply a plant someone has chosen for one or more characteristics, such as bloom color, size, growth habit, pest or disease resistance, or just to establish a new name for personal or marketing purposes (the pink loropetalums for example). Many cultivars are obviously worthy of naming and saving, but in the rush to name every slight difference, the value of growing from seed is being lost. We must continue to grow from seed to maintain biodiversity, to strengthen the genetic pool, and to look for new forms.
Growers are affected by market demand. If designers and publications only favor cultivars, then the public will know nothing else, and the growers will have to satisfy that demand. Many excellent plants never "catch on" because they are without a catchy name or are not mentioned in those publications. More diversity and flexibility in plant choices will create a climate that will allow the growers to produce a wider variety of good plants. If economics alone is allowed to dictate the market, we will all end up using the same ten plants in every garden.
Recommendations for novice gardeners:
Join your local wildflower society or native plant society. If there isn't one, start one. Support your local botanical garden or arboretum if you are fortunate enough to have one close by. Many folks are maintaining areas in their towns as native gardens or natural areas, with much success and support from their communities. Its a great way to connect with nature and your friends and family. Organize field trips. Universities and community colleges that have biology or botany departments are great resources. Bill Finch of the Mobile Register says that knowledge of the flora of an area increases geometrically with the proximity of a university.
Here is a hodge podge of books that we love or use a lot.
Dirr, Dr. Mike of UGA - several books and CD on plant material - all excellent, particularly the ones that reference our plants!
Nation, Fred. 2002 Where the Wild Illicium Grows, Lavender Publishing Co., AL; Odenwald, Neil
Porcher, Dr. Richard of the Citadel (Tom's alma mater) has two excellent books on the plants of South Carolina. They are arranged by habitat.
Stein, Sara.1993 NOAH'S GARDEN : Restoring the Ecology of Our Own Back Yards. Houghton Miflin Co NY
Wasowski, Sally & Andy several books on native gardening - excellent and humorous.
More reference material for those of you who, like us, have grown beyond the status of "enthusiast".
Dirr, Dr. Mike of UGA - several books and CD's on plant material - all excellent
Bailey, Liberty Hyde 1976 Hortus Third, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. New York.
Brown, Clair A. 1972 Wildflowers of Louisiana and Adjoining States, LSU Press. Baton Rouge.
Dean, Blanche F., F. Mason and J. L. Thomas. 1973 Wildflowers of Alabama and Adjoining States, University of Alabama Press. Tuscaloosa.
Foote, Leonard E. and Samuel B. Jones, Jr. 1989 Native Shrubs and Woody Vines of the Southeast, Timber Press. Portland.
Galle, Fred C. 1985 Azaleas, Timber Press. Portland.
Hill, Madalene and G. Barclay. 1987 South Herb Growing, Shearer Publishing. Fredericksburg, TX.
Fontenot, William R. 1992 Native Gardening in the South, A Prairie Basse Publication, Carencro, LA.
Jones, Samuel B. and L. E. Foote. 1990 Gardening with Native Wild Flowers, Timber Press. Portland.
Leopold, Aldo. 1986 A Sand County Almanac, Balantine Books. NY
Odum, Eugene P. 1971 Fundamentals of Ecology, W. B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia.
Phillips, Harry N. 1985 Growing and Propagating Wild Flowers. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill.
Radford, Albert E., H. E. Ables, C. R. Bell. 1968 Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill.
Timme, S. Lee. 1989 Wildflowers of Mississippi. University Press of Mississippi. Jackson.
Welch, William C. 1989 Perennial Garden Color. Taylor Publishing Co. Dallas. | <urn:uuid:6441c005-1736-4f61-a767-39dc747d173b> | {
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American military history records the feats of many famous commands, such as the 'Big Red One' (1st Infantry Division), the 7th Cavalry and the 27th ('Wolfhound') Infantry regiments. But accounts of the Korean War scarcely mention the 24th and 34th Infantry regiments. Both gave distinguished service, yet both were disbanded in Korea and their men used to form battalions in other regiments. Some veterans of the two commands remain bitter over what they consider unnecessary and vindictive action on the U.S. Army's part.
The 24th Infantry Regiment was formed a few years after the end of the Civil War, when the Army organized the 9th and 10th U.S. Cavalry regiments and 24th and 25th U.S. Infantry regiments, each comprised of black soldiers led by white officers. Those four regiments served for some 20 years on the Western frontier. Later, during the Spanish-American War, the 24th Infantry participated in the July 1, 1898, assault on San Juan Hill and suffered 40 percent casualties.
The 24th Regiment saw little combat during World War II, but in December 1944 it was sent to garrison the supposedly secure islands of Saipan and Tinian. As late as April 1945, troops of the 24th found and destroyed residual pockets of resistance on both islands. In July, it was sent to mop up the remaining Japanese in Kerama Retto, west of Okinawa. On August 22, the regimental commander accepted the surrender of Japanese forces on Aka Island, in the Kerama Island group.
The 24th was assigned to the 25th Infantry Division on February 1, 1946. It was the only one of the 12 U.S. Army infantry regiments of the four divisions occupying Japan that had all three of its authorized battalions. The other 11 had only two battalions each.
The 34th U.S. Infantry Regiment was formed on June 3, 1916. During World War I, it fought in France with the 7th Infantry Division from August to November 11, 1918, and was awarded the French Battle Honors of Lorraine.
In 1941, the 34th was named outstanding regiment during the Army's Carolina maneuvers. After the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, it was sent to Hawaii and, on June 12, 1943, became part of the recently formed 24th Infantry Division, participating in operations at Tanahmerah and Hollandia, New Guinea, in 1944. Subsequently attached to the 41st Infantry Division, the 34th seized the Sorido and Boroke airbases on Biak Island, and spearheaded the division's drive across Leyte in the Philippine Islands, remaining in constant contact with Japanese forces for 75 consecutive days. The 1st Battalion of the 34th (1/34th) earned a Distinguished Unit Citation.
Attached to the 38th Infantry Division in January 1945, the 34th Infantry fought at Subic Bay and Bataan (where its Company F suffered 90-percent casualties in one day), at Zig Zag Pass and at Corregidor, rejoining the 24th Division for the Mindanao campaign.
The 34th earned four battle streamers during World War II. It then joined with the 24th Division to occupy the island of Kyushu, Japan.
After North Korea invaded the South on June 25, 1950, the U.S. Army committed its first divisions to battle by battalion. Their mission was to delay the enemy advance. The battalions usually fought alone, often without much artillery, heavy mortar or air support. Troops of the North Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily flanked each American unit out of position within hours of contact.
The 34th Infantry, as part of the 24th Division, arrived in Korea on July 3 with 1,898 officers and enlisted men. The 1st Battalion numbered just over 600 men, and the 3rd (there was no 2nd) had about 640. A full U.S. Army battalion normally numbered 900 troops. On July 5, Lt. Col. Harold 'Red' Ayres, a World War II infantry battalion commander, took command of the 1/34th.
Major General William F. Dean, the 24th Division's commander, ordered Ayres' battalion to a blocking position near Pyongtaek and Asan Bay on South Korea's west coast, and Lt. Col. David H. Smith's 3rd Battalion to a similar position at Ansong, about 10 miles east of Pyongtaek. Brigadier General George B. Barth informed Ayres that Task Force Smith–a half-battalion force from the 21st Infantry–had been defeated earlier in the day and admonished Ayres to delay the enemy but not allow his battalion to'suffer the same fate as…Smith's.'
The North Korean 4th Infantry Division, commanded by Maj. Gen. Lee Kwon Mu, attacked the 1/34th around 5 a.m. on the 6th. The American battalion had no artillery support, and the few rounds available for its 4.2-inch mortars were soon expended. Although the Americans had a few recoilless rifles, there was no ammunition for them. Meantime, the regimental commander, Colonel Jay Lovless, sent Major John J. Dunn, his regimental S3 (operations officer), to Ayres with orders to hold as long as possible, 'and then fall back to a position in the vicinity of Chonan….' The battalion held for about five hours, with a loss of 18 troops wounded and 33 missing. Then, as North Korean infantry flowed around the 1/34th's flank, Ayres decided to withdraw.
Barth later wrote that he had instructed Ayres to delay in successive positions, not move south directly to Chonan. Ayres, however, believed the new orders from the commander of the 34th, Lovless, superseded Barth's, since an artillery commander is not ordinarily in an infantry chain of command. Unknown to Lovless and Ayres, however, Dean had appointed Barth to head a task force consisting of the 34th Infantry and two artillery battalions. That arrangement resulted in confusion as to whose order to obey. Barth, at some point, also ordered the 3/34th to withdraw from Ansong.
Dean was furious when he learned that the 34th had not delayed in successive positions but pulled back some 13 miles to Chonan. He blamed Lovless for the rapid fallback and called Colonel Robert R. Martin, who had served alongside Dean in the 44th Division during World War II, to his headquarters.
Martin arrived in the 34th Regiment's command post (CP) at Chonan around 7 a.m. on the 7th and stayed with Lovless the rest of the day. Lovless had sent a reinforced rifle company from the 3/34th forward on reconnaissance early that morning, following it with the remainder of the battalion, as Dean had ordered. At about 4 p.m., an air-dropped message from Dean advised him to 'proceed with greatest caution,' and that large numbers of enemy troops were on his flanks. Lovless immediately ordered the 3rd Battalion to withdraw, then went to inform Ayres of the situation. At Ayres' CP, Lovless was given written orders by the assistant division commander relieving him of his command, which was given to Martin.
As the 3/34th dug in at new positions, Company L was sent forward to rescue some troops of the regimental Intelligence and Reconnaissance (I&R) platoon who had been left behind when that unit had fought its way out of an ambush. Then the 3/34th began withdrawing, as Lovless had ordered. Major Dunn, who had been with Company L, was surprised at the withdrawal. He came into the regimental CP and said that the battalion was leaving one of the best defensive positions he had seen. Martin directed Dunn to 'put them back on that position,' but he failed to tell him that the 3/34th had been withdrawn on regimental orders, because NKPA troops had been spotted on both of its flanks.
A confused 3/34th was turned around again and began moving north out of Chonan. Suddenly, the lead elements were fired upon, to which they reacted by deploying and returning fire. Then the battalion suddenly began to withdraw through the town. Martin ordered it back in to defend Chonan, but by then Dunn had been wounded and taken prisoner, while the battalion S3, Major Boone Seegers, who was also hit, had bled to death.
On the following day, July 8, the 34th fought advancing troops of the NKPA 4th Division's 16th and 18th Infantry regiments, backed by T-34/85 tanks of the 105th Armored Brigade. During the fight for Chonan, the Americans set one T-34 tank afire with five grenades and used rocket launchers to destroy two others. Colonel Martin joined a tank-hunter team, but he was killed by the tank they were hunting. The executive officer, Lt. Col. Robert L. 'Pappy' Wadlington, assumed command of the 34th.
The regiment had lost two commanders in two days, along with the operations officers of the regiment and of the 3rd Battalion. A number of other senior officers were also gone. Moreover, the two battalions of the 34th had been placed in no-win situations, as at Pyongtaek and Chonan.
At about 5 p.m. on July 12, the NKPA attacked the 1/34th near Kongju. The battalion held until about 2:30 a.m. on the 13th, then silently withdrew, concealed in the shadow of a hill.
On July 13, the 34th and 19th Infantry regiments, plus the divisional recon company and the I&R platoon, defended a 34-mile-long line on the Kum River, the first major obstacle to the NKPA's advance since they had crossed the Han River farther north. The 34th's 3rd Battalion was on the river, and the 1st was at Yongsong, about two miles to the south.
An estimated 5,000 to 6,000 troops of the NKPA 4th Division, backed by 20 tanks of the 105th Brigade's 793rd Tank Battalion, were poised to attack the 34th Regiment at Kongju, while roughly the same number of men from the NKPA 3rd Infantry Division prepared to take on the 19th. American front-line strength along the Kum was not more than 2,000 men.
Communications within the 3/34th were poor. Telephone wire was almost unobtainable, and most radios lacked replacement batteries. All three rifle companies of the battalion were distributed along a two-mile river front. That night the 40 exhausted men of Company K were evacuated to Taejon, leaving about 104 men in the remaining two units to carry on the defense.
On the 14th, while North Korean mortar and artillery fire fell on the battalion, an estimated 500 soldiers of the NKPA 16th Regiment crossed the Kum River about two miles to the south. Believing his position untenable, the Company L commander, 1st Lt. Archie L. Stith, withdrew his unit around 11 a.m. Stith then left to find the battalion CP, which he finally located 20 miles south of Konju, and reported his decision to the new battalion commander, Major Newton W. Lantron–who summarily relieved him of command and threatened to court-martial him.
The NKPA 16th Infantry also attacked the 63rd Field Artillery Battalion (FAB). At least two of the battalion's howitzers were destroyed by North Korean mortar fire. The men were unable to get the other eight guns out, so they disabled them.
Ayres' 1/34th was ordered to the 63rd FAB positions to'save any men or equipment in the area,' but was told to return at dark. His men met intense small-arms and machine-gun fire from high ground overlooking the artillery position. After locating a few wounded men and some jeeps in operating condition, he withdrew the battalion to Nonsan at nightfall.
Company I had stayed in its Kum River position. Except for shelling, the NKPA left the unit alone. It was withdrawn at 9:30 p.m.
On July 19, the 1/34th Infantry was positioned along the Kapchon River west of Taejon, astride the Kongju Road. The 2/19th Infantry, south of the 1/34th, was also on the Kapchon, defending the Nonsan Road.
At daylight on July 20, the NKPA 4th Division's 5th Infantry Regiment struck the 1/34th with infantry and six to eight tanks, forcing Company B northward. Company A held until about 11 a.m., when it withdrew toward Taejon. The battalion CP was attacked at 4 a.m. and forced to displace an hour later.
The 2/19th Infantry was also attacked. Since the 1/34th had apparently withdrawn, the 2/19th commander began withdrawing his battalion. By 10 a.m., both battalions had pulled out, opening the way to Taejon.
In the battle for Taejon, rocket-launcher teams from several units including the 3/34th (which had been deployed to the rear of the 1st Battalion and on the northern road into Taejon) knocked out eight T-34 tanks. However, a counterattack into the gap between the 1st Battalion and 2/19th Infantry by elements of the 3/34th Infantry shortly after daylight was thwarted by six North Korean tanks and a battalion of the 5th Infantry.
Elements of the 34th Infantry, remnants of the division's artillery battalions, the division recon company, engineer battalion and part of the 19th Infantry tried to defend Taejon, but they were overwhelmed and forced to withdraw through enemy fire. It was a rout. Company L, 34th Infantry, which remained in the city as a rear guard, lost 107 out of 153 men.
The 34th lost at least 530 men out of its total strength of 1,549 present at Taejon. Leadership losses in the regiment since entering combat included four regimental commanders and two operations officers in just over two weeks. The 1st Battalion lost its executive officer on July 20, and the 3/34th lost two battalion commanders (Lantron was taken prisoner on July 20) and its operations officer. The division commander, General Dean, was also missing in action. It was later learned that he, too, had been taken prisoner.
On July 29, the 34th was dug in near Kochang. The regiment had no switchboard and was short of mortars, rocket launchers and machine guns. Its commander, Colonel Charles E. Beauchamp (appointed just before the struggle for Taejon), wanted to pull his regiment back three miles, but the new division commander, Brig. Gen. John H. Church, ordered him to stand fast. Two NKPA attacks at 5 a.m. cut off Company I of the 3/34th and pushed the 1/34th out of position. Beauchamp halted the battalion on the road. The 1st Battalion later rescued all but one platoon of the cut-off unit. That same afternoon the 34th withdrew some 15 miles to the east.
At the beginning of August, the 24th Division deployed behind the Naktong River on a 40-mile front, with the 34th, 21st and ROK (Republic of Korea) 17th Infantry regiments on line from south to north. The 34th's sector was some 34,000 yards, along which were deployed the 493 remaining troops of the 3rd Battalion. The 515 troops of the 1/34th waited in reserve at Kang-ni, about two miles from the river. The 34th numbered 1,402 men, less than half the authorized regimental strength. All three rifle companies of the 3/34th were scattered in small enclaves and outposts along the river. The regiment was critically short of vehicles, 4.2-inch mortars and Browning automatic rifles, the mainstays of Korean Warera rifle squads.
On August 4, elements of the North Korean 16th Infantry Regiment staged an assault across the Naktong between Companies I and L, 3/34 Infantry, and overwhelmed most of their positions. NKPA troops drove about five miles into the 24th Division sector, precipitating the First Battle of the Naktong Bulge, which eventually involved the entire 24th Division, the U.S. 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, the newly arrived 9th Infantry Regiment and 1/23rd Infantry (both from the 2nd Infantry Division) and the 2/27th Infantry. The struggle lasted until August 19.
The 34th Infantry gave its all. Company K stayed on its 7,500-yard front along the Naktong alone until ordered out on about August 14. At the outset, the 1/34th launched a counterattack, but part of Company C was trapped in a grist mill, where the men valiantly held out until rescued. Captain Albert F. Alfonso, with remnants of Companies A, C and L, held a small perimeter at the nose of the bulge until ordered out on the night of August 8-9. Elements of the regiment took part in a number of counterattacks between August 6 and 18.
The 34th made its last attack on the 18th, during which Company C was reduced to 37 men and Company A to 61. Company L lost more than 20 men in a few minutes to a counterattack. When it was relieved by the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division on August 25, the 24th Division numbered 10,600 men–8,000 short of full strength. Only 184 of the original regimental strength of 1,898 men remained in the 34th Infantry.
On August 27, Lt. Gen. Walton Walker, U.S. Eighth Army commander in Korea, dissolved the 34th, converting the 1/34th into the 3rd Battalion, 19th Infantry, and the 3/34th into the 2nd Battalion, 21st Infantry. The 5th Regimental Combat Team (RCT) became the 2nd Division's third regiment. General Church preferred having the 5th fully manned to rebuilding the 34th. He then reassigned the men of the 34th to give his other two regiments their authorized third battalions. The 34th was reconstituted in Japan and later served again in Korea.
While confusion in its command structure bedeviled the 34th Infantry, the 24th, commanded by Colonel Horton V. White, suffered because of an additional factor–segregation. Many of the black regiment's white officers held prejudices that affected both their leadership and their later evaluations of the 24th's troops.
The regiment experienced its first significant action in Korea when its 3rd Battalion, under Lt. Col. Samuel Pierce, Jr., tried to retake the town of Yechon on July 19, 1950. Darkness intervened in the attack, but the 3rd seized the town on the following day with little trouble. Taking Yechon was unimportant in itself, but it greatly boosted regimental morale, since that was the first town retaken by U.S. troops since the war began. Yechon was turned over to troops of the ROK Capital Division's 28th Regiment, who later lost it during an enemy counterattack.
On August 6, Company L was ambushed near the town of Sobuk with a fury and suddenness that left the unit in disarray. Company M was struck that night. During that fight, machine-gunner Pfc William Thompson gave his life to stop the enemy and save many of his comrades, for which he was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
Meanwhile, a task force built around Company I and a platoon of another segregated unit, the black 77th Engineer Combat Company (ECC), was ambushed on its way to contact U.S. forces near Chindong-ni. At least 12 men were killed and an unknown number wounded, and seven or eight members of the 77th ECC were missing. The unit's commander, Captain Charles M. Bussey, later rescued those men in a daring foray.
That day, too, a sick Colonel White was relieved of command by 57-year-old Colonel Arthur S. Champeny, and Colonel Pierce of the 3/24th was wounded in action. Lt. Col. John T. Corley, a highly respected officer, took command of the 3/24th on August 9. On the 12th, his battalion attacked through the rugged mountains just south of Sobuk-san (Hill 738), an area of high, very steep, narrow-topped ridges and deep valleys. By the 13th, it was stalled by terrain and a stubborn enemy. A long, bloody struggle for control of some of those ridges went on from mid-August until the breakout from the perimeter in late September.
On August 15, the 24th Infantry held the center of the 25th Division's Pusan perimeter line. In the north, its positions were on relatively low ground, but as they went south, the line extended along ever steeper and more rugged ridges. The line included Battle Mountain (also known as Hill 665, Old Baldy, Napalm Hill or Bloody Knob), the Rocky Crags and Pil-bong (Hill 743) and extended to a point about 4,000 yards short of Sobuk-san (a k a Bloody Sobuk). A force of ROK troops was placed on Sobuk. From Sobuk, the ridges gradually became smaller as they neared Korea's southern coast, where the 5th RCT was located.
There were no trails or roads up either Battle Mountain or Pil-bong. It took climbers in good condition two to three hours to ascend Pil-bong, and three or four hours to climb Battle Mountain. Supply bearers needed six hours for a Battle Mountain round trip.
Maintaining wire communications was a nightmare. North Korean patrols constantly cut the wire, then ambushed wiremen trying to find the break. Evacuation of the wounded was even more difficult. It took six men to carry a stretcher off the mountain, often accompanied by an aid man and escorted by riflemen for protection. When it rained, the terrain was almost impossible to negotiate. That demoralizing situation would improve later in the war, when helicopters were introduced to evacuate the wounded.
On August 18, elements of the NKPA 6th Division attacked the 2/24th on Battle Mountain, overrunning Company E, and on the 19th they attacked the 1/24th, driving Company C from its position. Company A held on. According to Lt. Col. Roy Appleman, author of the Army's official history, the attack on the 18th tore a hole 'nearly a mile wide in the line north of Pilbong,' which the enemy could exploit.
The NKPA did not exploit the gap, but they attacked the 1/24th on the 20th, again driving Company C from its position. The 3rd Battalion counterattacked, regaining most of the lost ground. In that assault, 2nd Lt. Ted Swett served as the ninth platoon leader that the 3rd Platoon of Company L had had so far in the war. He was wounded on the 21st, and it took six hours to carry him down the mountain. That same morning, Companies I and L retook lost ground but were again driven off by an estimated two-battalion NKPA assault.
The struggle for Battle Mountain went on through the rest of August. At times, according to an Army historian, individuals in the front-line units of the 24th pulled out of position without orders, or 'bugged out' in Korean War terminology. No doubt some men did bug out, but most of the troops stayed, fought and died, inflicting heavy casualties on the North Koreans. The 24th's own battle losses were severe, and division reserves were scarce. At one point, the 77th ECC and ROK troops were committed to the bloody defensive battle. The summit of Battle Mountain changed hands 19 times between August 15 and August 31, according to calculations of the Intelligence sergeant of 1st Battalion. The 24th regiment suffered 500 battle casualties in August. In that month, too, the 3/34th had three different battalion commanders.
The 2nd Battalion held 6,000 yards of the regiment's right on hills west and southwest of Haman. Company F held 1,300 yards on the right. Next was Company G, also on a 1,300-yard frontage. Company E, to the left of G, held twice the frontage of either of the other two units, but one platoon was positioned by itself 1,300 to 1,400 yards south of the bulk of Company E.
On August 31, the NKPA launched a general offensive against the 24th and the neighboring 35th Infantry regiments of the 25th Division. Clay Blair, in The Forgotten War, writes that the enemy attacked the 24th and 35th with two regiments each. The main thrust at the 24th, by elements of the North Korean 6th and 7th Infantry divisions, came against the 2nd Battalion. The battalion line was soon penetrated. Remnants of Company F pulled back, while Company G was fragmented early on, and the bulk of Company E was also displaced. According to the Army's official history, there were several instances of 24th soldiers' bugging out during that action. Some were later substantiated, but others proved to be false.
The 2nd Battalion rear area was chaotic, teeming with North Korean soldiers as well as men from the overrun units, mortarmen, medics, engineers, headquarters personnel, military policemen, vehicles from those units, the artillery, etc. Because of the chaos in the battalion's rear, including at the battalion CP, it seemed that no one was in charge.
The entire 24th Regiment has been condemned ever since for its perfomance at that time, but two factors contributed to the situation. First, less than three rifle companies of the battalion were struck by overwhelming numbers of North Korean troops. Second, as was the case with the 34th Infantry, some unit leadership in the 2/24th failed. The battalion CP was destroyed, and the battalion commander lost control almost from the beginning. The regimental CP also was forced to displace, contributing significantly to the loss of command and control. With the breakdown in leadership came a breakdown among the troops.
The NKPA attack on the 35th Infantry, on a broader front, penetrated the center of its line, held by 300 ROK policemen. Soon hundreds of North Koreans were also in the 35th's rear areas. The 27th Infantry counterattacked and with elements of the 24th and 35th battled NKPA troops in the rear areas for more than a week, finally wiping them out. More than 2,000 North Korean dead were buried behind the lines.
On September 6, Colonel Champeny was wounded and replaced by Colonel Corley. On September 14, an estimated 400 to 500 North Koreans stormed Companies I and L of the 24th Infantry on Pil-bong. The companies repulsed several attacks, but finally control broke down. Company L was reduced to about 40 men. The other members of the company had either been wounded or killed or had left without orders. Major Melvin R. Blair, the new battalion commander, took charge, but he was wounded in the leg by a North Korean sniper while trying to hold the summit. An American attempt to retake Pil-bong on the 16th failed. A task force of two infantry companies and more than a company of engineers, supported by the recon company and the 3/24's heavy weapons company, launched another counterassault, but that also failed.
The landing at Inchon by U.S. and ROK forces on September 15 finally compelled the North Koreans to withdraw from the Pusan perimeter. The 24th Infantry was divided into Task Forces Blair and Corley (named for their commanders), and they, along with several from other commands, began pursuing the enemy on September 27. By October 1, 1950, the NKPA troops were fleeing back across the 38th parallel.
The 25th Division remained in South Korea until ordered north in late November to participate in the Chongchon operation. Later in November, overwhelming assaults by Chinese troops forced the U.S. Eighth Army to withdraw. On November 29, the Chinese 40th Army flanked the 24th Infantry's line north of the Chongchon River in North Korea, forcing the neighboring 9th Regiment of the 2nd Division to withdraw.
On November 30, the 3/24th was at Kunu-ri, on the division's open right flank, with Chinese troops behind it. With the help of air support, the battalion extricated itself, losing one soldier killed, 30 wounded and 109 missing. Overall, the 24th Infantry lost one-fifth of its officers and one-third of its enlisted men in the withdrawal across the Chongchon. Colonel Corley blamed the disarray of the 3rd Battalion on its commander, Lt. Col. Melvin E. Blair, whom he summarily relieved.
The Eighth Army's withdrawal did not cease until the force was well below the 39th parallel. But by early March 1951, the American and ROK troops were again ready for a full-scale offensive.
On March 6, the 25th Division advanced across the Han River. The 1/24th did well, moving over difficult terrain against an entrenched enemy. The 3rd Battalion initially also performed well, executing a hastily devised river crossing and advancing through rough country against well dug-in Chinese troops, far from the 1st Battalion. While climbing up steep terrain, however, the 1/24th reportedly collapsed under Chinese fire and withdrew in disorder. When the division commander learned of that action, his confidence in the 24th plummeted.
Although the 24th performed well in the attack north of the Han and the subsequent general withdrawal of the Eighth Army after the Chinese spring offensive of 1951, its reputation was somewhat tarnished. But it again performed well in the Army's drive back north in May and June 1951.
In August, the regiment's new commander, Colonel William D. Gillis, prodded by the division commander, closely examined the 24th's record in Korea. Determining that leadership had been the problem, he relieved a number of officers.
After the change in command, Company F conducted a valiant bayonet and grenade charge on September 15. However, the positive performance of Company F was ignored by higher commands and the news media. By October 1, 1951, the 24th had passed into history.
The 24th and its black members were tagged with every stereotypical racial slur possible–blacks were afraid of the dark, wouldn't fight, were undependable, hated whites, resented white leadership, were disloyal, etc. Racial prejudice and stereotypical notions also affected how some white officers in the regiment handled their charges. The 24th had an inordinately high turnover of senior NCO and officer leadership at the company level, and had seven regimental commanders in 14 months, when other regiments in Korea had two to four. Three changes were made in the first two months. The 1st Battalion saw three different commanders in the first three months, while the 2nd and 3rd battalions had five each in the same period. Continuity of leadership, purpose and command cannot be attained when commanders change so rapidly.
The 34th had also suffered from a rapid turnover of senior leadership–four different regimental commanders within two weeks. Its 1st Battalion also had three commanders in the same period. The long withdrawals from Pyongtaek and Ansong, the confusion at Chonan, the disaster on the Kum River and the debacle at Taejon–all were blamed in varying degrees on the 34th Infantry and its leadership. Colonel Beauchamp of the 34th was in overall command at Taejon, yet he and his executive officer, Colonel Wadlington–along with General Dean, who was also there and not in command–were all out of Beauchamp's CP at the same time, but none of them told anyone there where they were going, how long they expected to be absent or how to handle an emergency.
The 24th and 34th Infantry regiments acquired bad reputations in Korea, but to a large extent both units were victims of the perceptions, prejudices and expedients of the time. They were also fighting against a tough, well-trained enemy that the U.S. military had seriously underestimated at the time they were committed to the fighting. Besides hard lessons in leadership learned by both regiments, the 24th's experience demonstrated that integration within the U.S. Army was long overdue.
Retired Brigadier General Uzal W. Ent served in Korea with the 27th Infantry Regiment and later in the 28th Infantry Division, Pennsylvania Army National Guard. For more great articles be sure to subscribe to Military History magazine today!
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The House and Senate committee recently announced their final draft of a bill that includes $11 billion National School Lunch Program. The congress decides to deny many of USDA’s suggestions to make school lunches healthier. Apparently, ketchup and tomato sauce is still considered as vegetables and they are going to keep food such as pizza and French fries as lunch options.
Below is what they decided to NOT pass:
-Limiting starchy vegetables such as corn, peas, and potatoes to two servings a week while requiring weekly minimum of leafy veggies and vitamin rich veggies.
-Having two tablespoons of tomato paste count as a serving of vegetable.
-Reducing sodium amount in school meals.
-Requiring half of all grains and breads to come from whole grains.
Currently, a third of American children are obese.
What do you think of this new bill?
Read original article here—courtesy of Times Healthland | <urn:uuid:19c81a45-5786-4a29-90a6-51de8c63b8c7> | {
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I’ve heard rumors that radiation in mammograms can increase my risk of breast cancer. Is this true? Can I get a thermography instead?
There is a lot of confusion about mammogram screening and the risks versus the benefits at various ages. The absolute truth is that breast cancer is still on the rise and women are being diagnosed younger and younger. The good news is that deaths from breast cancer are decreasing and this is in large part due to early detection afforded by routine mammogram screening. In spite of varying reports by the US Preventative Task Force, The American College of Ob/Gyn still recommends screening mammograms every one to two years for women between 40 and 50, and every year thereafter. Digital mammography uses a technology that is far improved from traditional film mammograms, allowing better visualization with less radiation exposure, and typically less compression to achieve the same image quality. While cumulative radiation exposure may increase one’s risk for cancer, the amount of radiation from digital mammography used according to current guidelines is not felt to be of significant enough risk compared with the overwhelming benefits of early diagnosis.
Thermography is considered experimental by the FDAas there is not enough evidence to suggest that it is as effective as mammogram for identifying breast cancers. That being said, thermography is being investigated as an adjunct to possibly better evaluate whether patients with an “abnormal” mammogram should proceed with biopsy. However, since it is still under investigation, most insurance companies will not cover the procedure. Breast ultrasound, on the other hand, has been shown to improve detection of breast cancer when used in conjunction with mammogram for women with dense breasts. Ask your gynecologist if this would be appropriate for you.
I’m 40 years old and I don’t have any hot flashes, but my periods have gotten so heavy and are coming more often than they used to. Am I going through menopause already? It’s unlikely that you are going through menopause. As women get older, their ovarian function changes and therefore, so does their cycle. This can result in dramatic changes in your periods similar to what you are describing. For most women, this is normal and can be managed with either a low dose birth control pill or a progesterone containing IUD. For women who don’t want any type of hormonal treatment, there is a minimally invasive office procedure called endometrial ablation, which can significantly reduce or eliminate your periods for good. While most of the time a change in your bleeding pattern is normal, you should make an appointment with the Gynecologist if your period comes less than 21 days apart or lasts for more than 7 days. This may be a sign of a polyp, fibroid, or other uterine abnormality and should be evaluated by a pelvic ultrasound and possibly a uterine biopsy, both of which can be performed in the doctor’s office with minimal discomfort.
My husband and I are done having children, but I can’t get him to wear a condom and he refuses to have a vasectomy. I hate the side effects of birth control pills. What are my options?
After carrying their children and going through labor, one would think a little snip wouldn’t send our hubbies running for the hills. But many men refuse to bite the bullet. Fortunately for women, there are good, non-hormonal, long-term and even permanent birth control options. Today’s IUDs are not like the devices from the 70’s that got a lot of bad press because of poor design. The copper IUD is a hormone-free device that is inserted into the uterus in the doctor’s office and can last for up to 10 years. Should you change your mind about having more children, it can be removed easily so you can conceive again. If you are 100% sure you have completed childbearing, Essure permanent birth control is a minor procedure performed in the office which uses a tiny coil to block each of your tubes. The coils are inserted vaginally with no surgical scars and you return to your normal activities almost immediately.
Dr. Randye Karmin is a Board Certified Ob/Gyn in Private Practice in Miami, Florida. Call 305-670-0010 for an appointment or book online at www.miamiwomencare.com | <urn:uuid:e59ca796-72a6-4416-9292-f855e50d260b> | {
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One of the five sons of John Hyrcanus, who was thrown into prison withhis mother and two of his brothers when Judas Aristobulus ascended the Hasmonean throne (105 B.C.). However, after a year's suffering, the king's death released him. His brother, Alexander Jannæus, then assumed the royal dignity, and caused the execution of another brother, who had aimed at the crown, while Absalom, who preferred the life of a subject, he covered with honors. Nothing more is known concerning Absalom's career, except that he outlived all his brothers, and was taken prisoner by Pompey when he captured Jerusalem in 63 B.C. Through his daughter, who married his nephew Aristobulus II., Absalom became the great-grandfather of Mariamne, the wife of Herod the Great.
- Josephus, Ant. xiii. 11, § 1; 12, § 1; 14, § 1;
- idem, B. J. i. 68, 71, 85;
- Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, iii. 117, 164. | <urn:uuid:ca815073-98c6-413a-a5bb-dd2499bf305b> | {
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Where does our food come from?
Published 12:43 pm, Monday, May 7, 2012
We are the greatest agricultural production country in the world, but do you know where our food comes from?
While looking at the University of Arkansas Website, I caught a glimpse of where our food, as a whole, comes from. What you see is that U.S. farmers do a tremendous job supplying our food needs. A farmer can feed 129 people. That is a tremendous feat!
Beef: All but 16 percent comes from the USA; the rest is from Canada, Mexico, Australia and New Zealand.
Pork: All but 6 percent comes from the USA; the rest is from Canada and Denmark.
Chicken: All from the USA.
Dairy: Milk, eggs, butter, yogurt all come from the USA.
Bread: 94 percent comes from the USA; the other 6 percent is from Canada and Mexico.
Deli meats: All from the USA.
Pasta: Most from the USA with a small percent of specialty pasta from Italy.
Peanuts/Peanut Butter: All from the USA.
Sunflower: Pretty much all from the USA
Canola oil: All from Canada and USA
Olive Oil: Spain, Greece, Tunisia
Corn Oil: USA
Peanut Oil: USA
Palm Oil: Malaysia, Asian rim
Flour: 94 percent from the USA; the rest is from Mexico and Canada.
Pecans: USA, Mexico
Hazel Nuts: USA and Europe.
Fruits and Vegetables:
Bananas: Costa Rica, Ecuador, Columbia, Guatemala and Honduras
Apples: 94 percent USA; the rest from Chile, Canada, New Zealand
Oranges: Most all from USA; some from South Africa and Australia.
Apricots, avocados, grapes, kiwi fruit, limes, peaches pineapples, plums, strawberries: USA, Mexico, Chile, Philippines, Thailand.
Potatoes: All USA
Tomatoes: USA, Mexico, Canada
Lettuce, Carrots: USA
Dried Beans peas, lentils: Almost all USA, a few from Mexico.
Shrimp: Mainly Thailand, 33 percent; China, 12 percent; Indonesia, 10 percent; Ecuador, 10 percent; Vietnam, 8 percent
Coffee: Brazil, Columbia, Mexico, Guatemala
Tea: India, China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Kenya
Sugar: 50 percent from USA, Caribbean countries, Brazil, Australia
Gary Cross is Texas AgriLife
Extension ag and natural resource agent in Hale County. | <urn:uuid:207f9634-e1d4-49cb-b8fa-f707e397effb> | {
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Photo: Simon Cousins (flickr)
Muslims and scholars have been working the last few years to understand just what it means to be British and Muslim.
In a series of five symposia they met to tackle specific issues affecting the various Muslim communities today in the United Kingdom — issues of gender and sexuality and securality as well as others.
The meetings were part of the “Contextualising Islam in Britian” project. It was organized by Cambridge University.
Professor Yasir Suleiman, His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Sa’id Professor of Modern Arabic Studies and fellow of King’s College, took the lead on the project. He says one of the first things he did, when he knew the project would actually happen, was to begin inviting people to take part.
“We wanted the rainbow colors of Islam to come to this project,” he says.
Suleiman spoke about the project during a recent visit to Indiana University.
Suleiman says including the “rainbow colros of Islam” in the project was important for several reasons — the group who examined Muslim experience in Britain needed to represent the broad spectrum of Muslim life in the UK, Suleiman says.
And he says he felt it was necessary to invite people who weren’t necessarily going to see “eye to eye” on every subject.
“As a linguist I am most concerned with gaps,” Suleiman says. “When faced with a gap we can have a good conversation.”
And there were gaps among the participants, gaps that helped create engaging and important debate. He says those gaps began to disappear the more they worked together.
But bringing those attendees together was a bit of a Herculean task.
“Contextualising Islam in Britain” is funded by the British government and is part of the Prevent program. Prevent is designed to combat Muslim extremism and radicalization.
This, Suleiman says, made it suspect in the eyes of many.
“You need to be careful,” he says of working on any project with government funding.
In the case of this particular project that was especially so because of the linkage to Prevent.
“We were seen to be a threat to the secularity of society,” Suleiman says of the way Muslims have been viewed in the UK. He adds, “Muslims resent being treated as a security threat.”
With that framing as a threat — to both security and secularity — in mind, the “Contextualising Islam” group began working to understand Muslim experience in the UK. The group explored what Muslims could do to become more a part of British society as well as what the government could do to make Muslims feel more at home.
The group decided the government needed to create an “equidistant” relationship with all religions in the UK — a kind of “pragmatic” or “procedural secularism” that creates a neutral field for all religions to engage upon.
“We should not do what the French do,” Suleiman says of secularism. Instead, British society needs to find a middle path that allows for religious difference and that does not exclude some religions while including others.
Suleiman adds that Muslims, and members of other faiths, should have the freedom to politically organize around their religion and should feel free to be vocal in their disagreement with government policies.
That disagreement, the group decided, should never lead to violence. Muslims who want to participate in violent acts against their government should renounce their citizenship and leave the UK.
Suleiman says the group also looked at Muslims’ relationship to shari’a. The group hopes to encourage Muslims to focus more fully on the objectives of shari’a as opposed to the letter of the law.
“Shari’a is meant to provide you with a guide to a moral path of living,” Suleiman says. The group hoped to encourage Muslims to examine more closely the universal values within the shari’a — the values that cut across religions, cultures and societies.
When the British government changed hands, and funding cuts were being made, there were worries over whether “Contextualising Islam” would continue.
But Suleiman made his case and kept his funding. So, the project continues.
When he first began recruiting people to take part only 12 people said yes. By the end of the first round of the project 24 people were on board. Suleiman says when he began putting together symposia participant lists this time around he had to turn people away.
That’s not to say the opposition to the project has gone away.
“Some call it a soft sale of Islam to Muslims in a way that is agreeable to the British government,” Suleiman says.
Others, he says, still have issues with the project being government funded.
“These people sold their soul to the Devil,” Suleiman says is sometimes how project participants are characterized.
But “Contextualising Islam” is building more credibility as it becomes better known.
Suleiman says they’ll be publishing several reports based upon this second round of the project: Reports for government, for the Muslim community as well as reports to use as outreach tools.
The Center for the Study of the Middle East, West European Studies, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, Department of Linguistics and the Center for the Study of Global Change are responsible for bringing Suleiman to campus.
Read the report: Contextualising Islam in Britain: Exploratory Perspectives (PDF) | <urn:uuid:27c14ddb-1f73-4852-8a24-de3325963dcf> | {
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On February 21, 1848, The Communist Manifesto, written by Karl Marx with the assistance of Friedrich Engels, is published in London by a group of German-born revolutionary socialists known as the Communist League. The political pamphlet–arguably the most influential in history–proclaimed that “the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles” and that the inevitable victory of the proletariat, or working class, would put an end to class society forever. Originally published in German as Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei (“Manifesto of the Communist Party”), the work had little immediate impact. Its ideas, however, reverberated with increasing force into the 20th century, and by 1950 nearly half the world’s population lived under Marxist governments.
Karl Marx was born in Trier, Prussia, in 1818–the son of a Jewish lawyer who converted to Lutheranism. He studied law and philosophy at the universities of Berlin and Jena and initially was a follower of G.W.F. Hegel, the 19th-century German philosopher who sought a dialectical and all-embracing system of philosophy. In 1842, Marx became editor of the Rheinische Zeitung, a liberal democratic newspaper in Cologne. The newspaper grew considerably under his guidance, but in 1843 the Prussian authorities shut it down for being too outspoken. That year, Marx moved to Paris to co-edit a new political review.
Paris was at the time a center for socialist thought, and Marx adopted the more extreme form of socialism known as communism, which called for a revolution by the working class that would tear down the capitalist world. In Paris, Marx befriended Friedrich Engels, a fellow Prussian who shared his views and was to become a lifelong collaborator. In 1845, Marx was expelled from France and settled in Brussels, where he renounced his Prussian nationality and was joined by Engels.
During the next two years, Marx and Engels developed their philosophy of communism and became the intellectual leaders of the working-class movement. In 1847, the League of the Just, a secret society made up of revolutionary German workers living in London, asked Marx to join their organization. Marx obliged and with Engels renamed the group the Communist League and planned to unite it with other German worker committees across Europe. The pair were commissioned to draw up a manifesto summarizing the doctrines of the League.
Back in Brussels, Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto in January 1848, using as a model a tract Engels wrote for the League in 1847. In early February, Marx sent the work to London, and the League immediately adopted it as their manifesto. Many of the ideas in The Communist Manifesto were not new, but Marx had achieved a powerful synthesis of disparate ideas through his materialistic conception of history. The Manifesto opens with the dramatic words, “A spectre is haunting Europe–the spectre of communism,” and ends by declaring: “The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workers of the world, unite!”
In The Communist Manifesto, Marx predicted imminent revolution in Europe. The pamphlet had hardly cooled after coming off the presses in London when revolution broke out in France on February 22 over the banning of political meetings held by socialists and other opposition groups. Isolated riots led to popular revolt, and on February 24 King Louis-Philippe was forced to abdicate. The revolution spread like brushfire across continental Europe. Marx was in Paris on the invitation of the provincial government when the Belgian government, fearful that the revolutionary tide would soon engulf Belgium, banished him. Later that year, he went to the Rhineland, where he agitated for armed revolt.
The bourgeoisie of Europe soon crushed the Revolution of 1848, and Marx would have to wait longer for his revolution. He went to London to live and continued to write with Engels as they further organized the international communist movement. In 1864, Marx helped found the International Workingmen’s Association–known as the First International–and in 1867 published the first volume of his monumental Das Kapital–the foundation work of communist theory. By his death in 1884, communism had become a movement to be reckoned with in Europe. Twenty-three years later, in 1917, Vladimir Lenin, a Marxist, led the world’s first successful communist revolution in Russia. | <urn:uuid:31b39914-f9d0-4d1e-a283-7debb51a19a4> | {
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Pneumatic tubes are a staple of the drive-thru bank, but the same method is also being used to operate some small residential elevators. We recently caught wind of this product and were awash with memories of the Jetsons, which left us more than curious to find out more. To our delight we discovered that the vacuum elevator uses not only fewer materials than a conventional residential elevator, but also forgoes the need for hydraulic oil, which can pose an environmental hazard if spilled.
Many homes don’t need elevators, but those that do can benefit from the pneumatic vacuum elevator. Installation can be completed in as little as two days and can be easily retrofitted given that the technology sits simply on the floor, and does not require any special excavation. Moreover, the lack of hydraulics also means the vacuum elevator requires minimal maintenance.
The vacuum elevator uses a clear polycarbonate tube as the shaft, providing passengers with a view and creating an air-tight duct for the elevator. Operation is very simple: the elevator creates a vacuum at the top of the tube, and air pressure moves the cab up. Descent is even easier optimizing gravity and controlled airflow, allowing the cab to descend slowly and safely.
The only downside is that compared to more conventional elevators, the vacuum elevator is very slow — moving at a rate of just 15 cm/second (6 in/second). The single-passenger model has a capacity of 159 kg (350 lbs) and has a small cabin only 52 cm (20 in) in diameter. Vacuum elevators are also limited to 35 feet (10.7 meters) of height. But despite their limitations, for those who require an elevator in their home — such as the elderly or disabled — a vacuum elevator may be the right choice for savings in terms of each cost, power and maintenance. | <urn:uuid:a53fed36-b496-4aae-8b2e-1d994d801177> | {
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- Historic Sites
William Trent House Museum
William Trent built his country estate north of Philadelphia, in New Jersey, at the Falls of the Delaware River about 1719. It was a large, imposing brick structure, built in the newest fashion. An "allee" of English cherry trees led from the entrance down to the ferry landing. Nearby, there were numerous outbuildings as well as grist, saw and fulling mills along the Assunpink Creek. In 1720 Trent laid out a settlement, which he incorporated and named "Trenton." Through careful preservation and accurate historical interpretation, visitors will become aware of the importance of this building in national, state and municipal history. An ambitious restoration project is nearly complete and will provide a more accurate historical representation of the museum's original appearance. | <urn:uuid:818775f9-54d0-4af6-a0e7-c232eb34aa2c> | {
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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Fathers of the Church
- The Appeal to the Fathers
- Classification of Patristic Writings
- Apostolic Fathers and the Second Century
- Third Century
- Fourth Century
- Fifth Century
- Sixth Century
- Characteristics of Patristic Writings
- East and West
- Discipline, Liturgy, Ascetics
- Historical Materials
- Patristic Study
The word Father is used in the New Testament to mean a teacher of spiritual things, by whose means the soul of man is born again into the likeness of Christ: "For if you have ten thousand instructors in Christ, yet not many fathers. For in Christ Jesus, by the gospel, I have begotten you. Wherefore I beseech you, be ye followers of me, as I also am of Christ" (I Cor., iv, 15, 16; cf. Gal., iv, 19). The first teachers of Christianity seem to be collectively spoken of as "the Fathers" (II Peter, iii, 4).
Thus St. Irenaeus defines that a teacher is a father, and a disciple is a son (iv, 41,2), and so says Clement of Alexandria (Strom., I, i, 1). A bishop is emphatically a "father in Christ", both because it was he, in early times, who baptized all his flock, and because he is the chief teacher of his church. But he is also regarded by the early Fathers, such as Hegesippus, Irenaeus, and Tertullian as the recipient of the tradition of his predecessors in the see, and consequently as the witness and representative of the faith of his Church before Catholicity and the world. Hence the expression "the Fathers" comes naturally to be applied to the holy bishops of a preceding age, whether of the last generation or further back, since they are the parents at whose knee the Church of today was taught her belief. It is also applicable in an eminent way to bishops sitting in council, "the Fathers of Nicaea", "the Fathers of Trent". Thus Fathers have learnt from Fathers, and in the last resort from the Apostles, who are sometimes called Fathers in this sense: "They are your Fathers", says St. Leo, of the Princes of the Apostles, speaking to the Romans; St. Hilary of Arles calls them sancti patres; Clement of Alexandria says that his teachers, from Greece, Ionia, Coele-Syria, Egypt, the Orient, Assyria, Palestine, respectively, had handed on to him the tradition of blessed teaching from Peter, and James, and John, and Paul, receiving it "as son from father".
It follows that, as our own Fathers are the predecessors who have taught us, so the Fathers of the whole Church are especially the earlier teachers, who instructed her in the teaching of the Apostles, during her infancy and first growth. It is difficult to define the first age of the Church, or the age of the Fathers. It is a common habit to stop the study of the early Church at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. "The Fathers" must undoubtedly include, in the West, St. Gregory the Great (d. 604), and in the East, St. John Damascene (d. about 754). It is frequently said that St. Bernard (d. 1153) was the last of the Fathers, and Migne's "Patrologia Latina" extends to Innocent III, halting only on the verge of the thirteenth century, while his "Patrologia Graeca" goes as far as the Council of Florence (1438-9). These limits are evidently too wide, It will be best to consider that the great merit of St. Bernard as a writer lies in his resemblance in style and matter to the greatest among the Fathers, in spite of the difference of period. St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) and the Venerable Bede (d. 735) are to be classed among the Fathers, but they may be said to have been born out of due time, as St. Theodore the Studite was in the East.
I. THE APPEAL TO THE FATHERS
Thus the use of the term Fathers has been continuous, yet it could not at first he employed in precisely the modern sense of Fathers of the Church. In early days the expression referred to writers who were then quite recent. It is still applied to those writers who are to us the ancients, but no longer in the same way to writers who are now recent. Appeals to the Fathers are a subdivision of appeals to tradition. In the first half of the second century begin the appeals to the sub-Apostolic age: Papias appeals to the presbyters, and through them to the Apostles. Half a century later St. Irenaeus supplements this method by an appeal to the tradition handed down in every Church by the succession of its bishops (Adv. Haer., III, i-iii), and Tertullian clinches this argument by the observation that as all the Churches agree, their tradition is secure, for they could not all have strayed by chance into the same error (Praescr., xxviii). The appeal is thus to Churches and their bishops, none but bishops being the authoritative exponents of the doctrine of their Churches. As late as 341 the bishops of the Dedication Council at Antioch declared: "We are not followers of Arius; for how could we, who are bishops, be disciples of a priest?"
Yet slowly, as the appeals to the presbyters died out, there was arising by the side of appeals to the Churches a third method: the custom of appealing to Christian teachers who were not necessarily bishops. While, without the Church, Gnostic schools were substituted for churches, within the Church, Catholic schools were growing up. Philosophers like Justin and most of the numerous second-century apologists were reasoning about religion, and the great catechetical school of Alexandria was gathering renown. Great bishops and saints like Dionysius of Alexandria, Gregory Thaumaturgus of Pontus, Firmilian of Cappadocia, and Alexander of Jerusalem were proud to be disciples of the priest Origen. The bishop Cyprian called daily for the works of the priest Tertullian with the words "Give me the master". The Patriarch Athanasius refers for the ancient use of the word homoousios, not merely to the two Dionysii, but to the priest Theognostus. Yet these priest-teachers are not yet called Fathers, and the greatest among them, Tertullian, Clement, Origen, Hippolytus, Novatian, Lucian, happen to be tinged with heresy; two became antipopes; one is the father of Arianism; another was condemned by a general council. In each case we might apply the words used by St. Hilary of Tertullian: "Sequenti errore detraxit scriptis probabilibus auctoritatem" (Comm. in Matt., v, 1, cited by Vincent of Lérins, 2.4).
A fourth form of appeal was better founded and of enduring value. Eventually it appeared that bishops as well as priests were fallible. In the second century the bishops were orthodox. In the third they were often found wanting. in the fourth they were the leaders of schisms, and heresies, in the Meletian and Donatist troubles and in the long Arian struggle, in which few were found to stand firm against the insidious persecution of Constantius. It came to be seen that the true Fathers of the Church are those Catholic teachers who have persevered in her communion, and whose teaching has been recognized as orthodox. So it came to pass that out of the four "Latin Doctors" one is not a bishop. Two other Fathers who were not bishops have been declared to be Doctors of the Church, Bede and John Damascene, while among the Doctors outside the patristic period we find two more priests, the incomparable St. Bernard and the greatest of all theologians, St. Thomas Aquinas. Nay, few writers had such great authority in the Schools of the Middle Ages as the layman Boethius, many of whose definitions are still commonplaces of theology.
Similarly (we may notice in passing) the name "Father", which originally belonged to bishops, has been as it were delegated to priests, especially as ministers of the Sacrament of Penance. it is now a form of address to all priests in Spain, in Ireland, and, of recent years, in England and the United States.
Papas or Pappas, Pope, was a term of respect for eminent bishops (e.g. in letters to St. Cyprian and to St. Augustine — neither of these writers seems to use it in addressing other bishops, except when St. Augustine writes to Rome). Eventually the term was reserved to the bishops of Rome and Alexandria; yet in the East to-day every priest is a "pope". The Aramaic abbe was used from early times for the superiors of religious houses. But through the abuse of granting abbeys in commendam to seculars, it has become a polite title for all secular clerics, even seminarists in Italy, and especially in France, whereas all religious who are priests are addressed as "Father".
We receive only, says St. Basil, what we have been taught by the holy Fathers; and he adds that in his Church of Caesarea the faith of the holy Fathers of Nicaea has long been implanted (Ep. cxl, 2). St. Gregory Nazianzen declares that he holds fast the teaching which he heard from the holy Oracles, and was taught by the holy Fathers. These Cappadocian saints seem to be the first to appeal to a real catena of Fathers. The appeal to one or two was already common enough; but not even the learned Eusebius had thought of a long string of authorities. St. Basil, for example (De Spir. S., ii, 29), cites for the formula "with the Holy Ghost" in the doxology, the example of Irenaeus, Clement and Dionysius of Alexandria, Dionysius of Rome, Eusebius of Caesarea, Origen, Africanus, the preces lucerariae said at the lighting of lamps, Athenagoras, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Firmilian, Meletius. In the fifth century this method became a stereotyped custom. St. Jerome is perhaps the first writer to try to establish his interpretation of a text by a string of exegetes (Ep. cxii, ad Aug.). Paulinus, the deacon and biographer of St. Ambrose, in the libellus he presented against the Pelagians to Pope Zosimus in 417, quotes Cyprian, Ambrose, Gregory Nazianzen, and the decrees of the late Pope Innocent. In 420 St. Augustine quotes Cyprian and Ambrose against the same heretics (C. duas Epp. Pel., iv). Julian of Eclanum quoted Chrysostom and Basil; St. Augustine replies to him in 421 (Contra Julianum, i) with Irenaeus, Cyprian, Reticius, Olympius, Hilary, Ambrose, the decrees of African councils, and above all Popes Innocent and Zosimus. In a celebrated passage he argues that these Western writers are more than sufficient, but as Julian had appealed to the East, to the East, he shall go, and the saint adds Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, Synod of Diospolis, Chrysostom. To these he adds Jerome (c. xxxiv): "Nor should you think Jerome, because he was a priest, is to be despised", and adds a eulogy. This is amusing, when we remember that Jerome in a fit of irritation, fifteen before, had written to Augustine (Ep. cxlii) "Do not excite against me the silly crowd of the ignorant, who venerate you as a bishop, and receive you with the honour due to a prelate when you declaim in the Church, whereas they think little of me, an old man, nearly decrepit, in my monastery in the solitude of the country."
In the second book "Contra Julianum", St. Augustine again cites Ambrose frequently, and Cyprian, Gregory Nazianzen, Hilary, Chrysostom; in ii, 37, he recapitulates the nine names (omitting councils and popes), adding (iii, 32) Innocent and Jerome. A few years later the Semipelagians of Southern Gaul, who were led by St. Hilary of Arles, St. Vincent of Lérins, and Bl. Cassian, refuse to accept St. Augustine's severe view of predestination because "contrarium putant patrum opinioni et ecclesiastico sensui". Their opponent St. Prosper, who was trying to convert them to Augustinianism, complains: "Obstinationem suam vetustate defendunt" (Ep. inter Atig. ccxxv, 2), and they said that no ecclesiastical writer had ever before interpreted Romans quite as St. Augustine did — which was probably true enough. The interest of this attitude lies in the fact that it was, if not new at least more definite than any earlier appeal to antiquity. Through most of the fourth century, the controversy with the Arians had turned upon Scripture, and appeals to past authority were few. But the appeal to the Fathers was never the most imposing locus theologicus, for they could not easily be assembled so as to form an absolutely conclusive test. On the other hand up to the end of the fourth century, there were practically no infallible definitions available, except condemnations of heresies, chiefly by popes. By the time that the Arian reaction under Valens caused the Eastern conservatives to draw towards the orthodox, and prepared the restoration of orthodoxy to power by Theodosius, the Nicene decisions were beginning to be looked upon as sacrosanct, and that council to be preferred to a unique position above all others. By 430, the date we have reached, the Creed we now say at Mass was revered in the East, whether rightly or wrongly, as the work of the 150 Fathers of Constantinople in 381, and there were also new papal decisions, especially the tractoria of Pope Zosimus, which in 418 had been sent to all the bishops of the world to be signed.
It is to living authority, the idea of which had thus come to the fore, that St. Prosper was appealing in his controversy with the Lerinese school. When he went to Gaul, in 431, as papal envoy, just after St. Augustine's death, he replied to their difficulties, not by reiterating that saint's hardest arguments, but by taking with him a letter from Pope St. Celestine, in which St. Augustine is extolled as having been held by the pope's predecessors to be "inter magistros optimos". No one is to be allowed to depreciate him, but it is not said that every word of his is to be followed. The disturbers had appealed to the Holy See, and the reply is "Desinat incessere novitas vetustatem" (Let novelty cease to attack antiquity!). An appendix is added, not of the opinions of ancient Fathers, but of recent popes, since the very same monks who thought St. Augustine went too far, professed (says the appendix) "that they followed and approved only what the most holy See of the Blessed Apostle Peter sanctioned and taught by the ministry of its prelates". A list therefore follows of "the judgments of the rulers of the Roman Church", to which are added some sentences of African councils, "which indeed the Apostolic bishops made their own when they approved them". To these inviolabiles sanctiones (we might roughly render "infallible utterances") prayers used in the sacraments are appended "ut legem credendi lex statuat supplicandi" — a frequently misquoted phrase — and in conclusion, it is declared that these testimonies of the Apostolic See are sufficient, "so that we consider not to be Catholic at all whatever shall appear to be contrary to the decisions we have cited". Thus the decisions of the Apostolic See are put on a very different level from the views of St. Augustine, just as that saint always drew a sharp distinction between the resolutions of African councils or the extracts from the Fathers, on the one hand, and the decrees of Popes Innocent and Zosimus on the other.
Three years later a famous document on tradition and its use emanated from the Lerinese school, the "Commonitorium" of St. Vincent. He whole-heartedly accepted the letter of Pope Celestine, and he quoted it as an authoritative and irresistible witness to his own doctrine that where quod ubique, or universitas, is uncertain, we must turn to quod semper, or antiquitas. Nothing could be more to his purpose than the pope's: "Desinat incessere novitas vetustatem" The oecumenical Council of Ephesus had been held in the same year that Celestine wrote. Its Acts were before St. Vincent, and it is clear that he looked upon both pope and council as decisive authorities. It was necessary to establish this, before turning to his famous canon, quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus otherwise universitas, antiquitas, consensio. It was not a new criterion, else it would have committed suicide by its very expression. But never had the doctrine been so admirably phrased, so limpidly explained, so adequately exemplified. Even the law of the evolution of dogma is defined by Vincent in language which can hardly be surpassed for exactness and vigour. St. Vincent's triple test is wholly misunderstood if it is taken to be the ordinary rule of faith. Like all Catholics he took the ordinary rule to be the living magisterium of the Church, and he assumes that the formal decision in cases of doubt lies with the Apostolic See, or with a general council. But cases of doubt arise when no such decision is forthcoming. Then it is that the three tests are to be applied, not simultaneously, but, if necessary, in succession.
When an error is found in one corner of the Church, then the first test, universitas, quod ubique, is an unanswerable refutation, nor is there any need to examine further (iii, 7, 8). But if an error attacks the whole Church, then antiquitas, quod semper is to be appealed to, that is, a consensus existing before the novelty arose. Still, in the previous period one or two teachers, even men of great fame, may have erred. Then we betake ourselves to quod ab omnibus, consensio, to the many against the few (if possible to a general council; if not, to an examination of writings). Those few are a trial of faith "ut tentet vos Dominus Deus vester" (Deut., xiii, 1 sqq.). So Tertullian was a magna tentatio; so was Origen — indeed the greatest temptation of all. We must know that whenever what is new or unheard before is introduced by one man beyond or against all the saints, it pertains not to religion but to temptation (xx, 49). Who are the "Saints" to whom we appeal? The reply is a definition of "Fathers of the Church" given with all St. Vincent's inimitable accuracy: "Inter se majorem consulat interrogetque sententias, eorum dumtaxat qui, diversis licet temporibus et locis, in unius tamen ecclesiae Catholicae communione et fide permanentes, magistri probabiles exstiterunt; et quicquid non unus aut duo tantum, sed omnes pariter uno eodemque consensu aperte, frequenter, perseveranter tenuisse, scripsisse, docuisse cognoverit, id sibi quoque intelligat absque ulla dubitatione credendum" (iii, 8). This unambiguous sentence defines for us what is the right way of appealing to the Fathers, and the italicized words perfectly explain what is a "Father": "Those alone who, though in diverse times and places, yet persevering in time communion and faith of the one Catholic Church, have been approved teachers."
The same result is obtained by modern theologians, in their definitions; e.g. Fessler thus defines what constitutes a "Father":
- orthodox doctrine and learning;
- holiness of life;
- (at the present day) a certain antiquity.
The criteria by which we judge whether a writer is a "Father" or not are:
- citation by a general council, or
- in public Acts of popes addressed to the Church or concerning Faith;
- encomium in the Roman Martyrology as "sanctitate et doctrina insignis";
- public reading in Churches in early centuries;
- citations, with praise, as an authority as to the Faith by some of the more celebrated Fathers.
Early authors, though belonging to the Church, who fail to reach this standard are simply ecclesiastical writers ("Patrologia", ed. Jungmann, ch. i, #11). On the other hand, where the appeal is not to the authority of the writer, but his testimony is merely required to the belief of his time, one writer is as good as another, and if a Father is cited for this purpose, it is not as a Father that he is cited, but merely as a witness to facts well known to him. For the history of dogma, therefore, the works of ecclesiastical writers who are not only not approved, but even heretical, are often just as valuable as those of the Fathers. On the other hand, the witness of one Father is occasionally of great weight for doctrine when taken singly, if he is teaching a subject on which he is recognized by the Church as an especial authority, e.g., St. Athanasius on the Divinity of the Son, St. Augustine on the Holy Trinity, etc. There are a few cases in which a general council has given approbation to the work of a Father, the most important being the two letters of St. Cyril of Alexandria which were read at the Council of Ephesus. But the authority of single Fathers considered in itself, says Franzelin (De traditione, thesis xv), "is not infallible or peremptory; though piety and sound reason agree that the theological opinions of such individuals should not be treated lightly, and should not without great caution be interpreted in a sense which clashes with the common doctrine of other Fathers." The reason is plain enough; they were holy men, who are not to be presumed to have intended to stray from the doctrine of the Church, and their doubtful utterances are therefore to be taken in the best sense of which they are capable. If they cannot be explained in an orthodox sense, we have to admit that not the greatest is immune from ignorance or accidental error or obscurity. But on the use of the Fathers in theological questions, the article and the ordinary dogmatic treatises on that subject must be consulted, as it is proper here only to deal with the historical development of their use. The subject was never treated as a part of dogmatic theology until the rise of what is now commonly called "Theologia fundamentalis", in the sixteenth century, the founders of which are Melchior Canus and Bellarmine. The former has a discussion of the use of the Fathers in deciding questions of faith (De locis theologicis, vii). The Protestant Reformers attacked the authority of the Fathers. The most famous of these opponents is Dalbeus (Jean Daillé, 1594-1670, "Traité de l'emploi des saints Pères", 1632; in Latin "De usu Patrum", 1656). But their objections are long since forgotten. Having traced the development of the use of the Fathers up to the period of its frequent employment, and of its formal statement by St. Vincent of Lérins, it will be well to give a glance at the continuation of the practice. We saw that, in 431, it was possible for St. Vincent (in a book which has been most unreasonably taken to be a mere polemic against St. Augustine — a notion which is amply refuted by the use made in it of St. Celestine's letter) to define the meaning and method of patristic appeals. From that time onward they are very common. in the Council of Ephesus, 431, as St. Vincent points out, St. Cyril presented a series of quotations from the Fathers, tôn hagiôtatôn kai hosiôtatôn paterôn kai episkopôn diaphorôn marturôn, which were read on the motion of Flavian, Bishop of Philippi. They were from Peter I of Alexandria, Martyr, Athanasius, Popes Julius and Felix (forgeries), Theophilus, Cyprian, Ambrose, Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, Atticus, Amphilochius. On the other hand Eutyches, when tried at Constantinople by St. Flavian, in 449, refused to accept either Fathers or councils as authorities, confining himself to Holy Scripture, a position which horrified his judges (see ). In the following year St. Leo sent his legates, Abundius and Asterius. to Constantinople with a list of testimonies from Hilary, Athanasius, Ambrose, Augustine, Chrysostom, Theophilus, Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, Cyril of Alexandria. They were signed in that city, but were not produced at the Council of Chalcedon in the following year. Thenceforward the custom is fixed, and it is unnecessary to give examples. However, that of the sixth council in 680 is important: Pope St. Agatho sent a long series of extracts from Rome, and the leader of the Monothelites, Macarius of Antioch, presented another. Both sets were carefully verified from the library of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and sealed. It should be noted that it was never in such cases thought necessary to trace a doctrine back to the earliest times; St. Vincent demanded the proof of the Church's belief before a doubt arose — this is his notion of antiquitas; and in conformity with this view, the Fathers quoted by councils and popes and Fathers are for the most part recent (Petavius, De Incarn., XIV, 15, 2-5). In the last years of the fifth century a famous document, attributed to Popes Gelasius and Hormisdas, adds to decrees of St. Damasus of 382 a list of books which are approved, and another of those disapproved. In its present form the list of approved Fathers comprises Cyprian, Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, Athanasius, Chrysostom, Theophilus, Hilary, Cyril of Alexandria (wanting in one MS.), Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Prosper, Leo ("every iota" of the tome to Flavian is to be accepted under anathema), and "also the treatises of all orthodox Fathers, who deviated in nothing from the fellowship of the holy Roman Church, and were not separated from her faith and preaching, but were participators through the grace of God until the end of their life in her communion; also the decretal letters, which most blessed popes have given at various times when consulted by various Fathers, are to be received with veneration". Orosius, Sedulius, and Juvencus are praised. Rufinus and Origen are rejected. Eusebius's "History" and "Chronicle" are not to be condemned altogether, though in another part of the list they appear as "apocrypha" with Tertullian, Lactantius, Africanus, Commodian, Clement of Alexandria, Arnobius, Cassian, Victorinus of Pettau, Faustus, and the works of heretics, and forged Scriptural documents. The later Fathers constantly used the writings of the earlier. For instance, St. Caesarius of Arles drew freely on St. Augustine's sermons, and embodied them in collections of his own; St. Gregory the Great has largely founded himself on St. Augustine; St. Isidore rests upon all his predecessors; St. John Damascene's great work is a synthesis of patristic theology. St. Bede's sermons are a cento from the greater Fathers. Eugippius made a selection from St. Augustine's writings, which had an immense vogue. Cassiodorus made a collection of select commentaries by various writers on all the books of Holy Scripture. St. Benedict especially recommended patristic study, and his sons have observed his advice: "Ad perfectionem conversationis qui festinat, sunt doctrinae sanctorum Patrum, quarum observatio perducat hominem ad celsitudinem perfectionis . . . quis liber sanctorum catholicorum Patrum hoc non resonat, ut recto cursu perveniamus ad creatorem nostrum?" (Sanet Regula, lxxiii). Florilegia and catenae became common from the fifth century onwards. They are mostly anonymous, but those in the East which go under the name OEcumenius are well known. Most famous of all throughout the Middle Ages was the "Glossa ordinaria" attributed to Walafrid Strabo. The "Catena aurea" of St. Thomas Aquinas is still in use. (See , and the valuable matter collected by Turner in Hastings, Dict. of the Bible, V, 521.)
St. Augustine was early recognized as the first of the Western Fathers, with St. Ambrose and St. Jerome by his side. St. Gregory the Great was added, and these four became "the Latin Doctors". St. Leo, in some ways the greatest of theologians, was excluded, both on account of the paucity of his writings, and by the fact that his letters had a far higher authority as papal utterances. In the East St. John Chrysostom has always been the most popular, as he is the most voluminous, of the Fathers. With the great St. Basil, the father of monachism, and St. Gregory Nazianzen, famous for the purity of his faith, he made up the triumvirate called "the three hierarchs", familiar up to the present day in Eastern art. St. Athanasius was added to these by the Westerns, so that four might answer to four. (See .) It will be observed that many of the writers rejected in the Gelasian list lived and died in Catholic communion, but incorrectness in some part of their writings, e.g. the Semipelagian error attributed to Cassian and Faustus, the chiliasm of the conclusion of Victoninus's commentary on the Apocalypse (St. Jerome issued an expurgated edition, the only one in print as yet), the unsoundness of the lost "Hypotyposes" of Clement, and so forth, prevented such writers from being spoken of, as Hilary was by Jerome, "inoffenso pede percurritur". As all the more important doctrines of the Church (except that of the Canon and the inspiration of Scripture) may be proved, or at least illustrated, from Scripture, the widest office of tradition is the interpretation of Scripture, and the authority of the Fathers is here of very great importance. Nevertheless it is only then necessarily to be followed when all are of one mind: "Nemo . . . contra unanimum consensum Patrum ipsam Scripturam sacram interpretari audeat", says the Council of Trent; and the Creed of Pius IV has similarly: ". . . nec eam unquam nisi juxta unanimum consensum Patrum accipiam et interpretabor". The Vatican Council echoes Trent: "nemini licere . . . contra unanimum sensum Patrum ipsam Scripturam sacram interpretari."
A consensus of the Fathers is not, of course, to be expected in very small matters: "Quae tamen antiqua sanctorum patrum consensio non in omnibus divinae legis quaestiunculis, sed solum certe praecipue in fidei regula magno nobis studio et investiganda est et sequenda" (Vincent, xxviii, 72). This is not the method, adds St. Vincent, against widespread and inveterate heresies, but rather against novelties, to be applied directly they appear. A better instance could hardly be given than the way in which Adoptionism was met by the Council of Frankfort in 794, nor could the principle be better expressed than by the Fathers of the Council: "Tenete vos intra terminos Patrum, et nolite novas versare quaestiunculas; ad nihilum enim valent nisi ad subversionem audientium. Sufficit enim vobis sanctorum Patrum vestigia sequi, et illorum dicta firma tenere fide. Illi enim in Domino nostri exstiterunt doctores in fide et ductores ad vitam; quorum et sapientia Spiritu Dei plena libris legitur inscripta, et vita meritorum miraculis clara et sanctissima; quorum animae apud Deum Dei Filium, D.N.J.C. pro magno pietatis labore regnant in caelis. Hos ergo tota animi virtute, toto caritatis affectu sequimini, beatissimi fratres, ut horum inconcussa firmitate doctrinis adhaerentes, consortium aeternae beatitudinis . . . cum illis habere mereamini in caelis" ("Synodica ad Episc." in Mansi, XIII, 897-8). And an excellent act of faith in the tradition of the Church is that of Charlemagne (ibid., 902) made on the same occasion: "Apostolicae sedi et antiquis ab initio nascentis ecclesiae et catholicis traditionibus tota mentis intentione, tota cordis alacritate, me conjungo. Quicquid in illorum legitur libris, qui divino Spiritu afflati, toti orbi a Deo Christo dati sunt doctores, indubitanter teneo; hoc ad salutem animae meae sufficere credens, quod sacratissimae evangelicae veritatis pandit historia, quod apostolica in suis epistolis confirmat auctoritas, quod eximii Sacrae Scripturae tractatores et praecipui Christianae fidei doctores ad perpetuam posteris scriptum reliquerunt memoriam."
II. CLASSIFICATION OF PATRISTIC WRITINGS
In order to get a good view of the patristic period, the Fathers may be divided in various ways. One favourite method is by periods; the Ante-Nicene Fathers till 325; the Great Fathers of the fourth century and half the fifth (325-451); and the later Fathers. A more obvious division is into Easterns and Westerns, and the Easterns will comprise writers in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, and Coptic. A convenient division into smaller groups will be by periods, nationalities and character of writings; for in the East and West there were many races, and some of the ecclesiastical writers are apologists, some preachers, some historians, some commentators, and so forth.
A. After (1) the Apostolic Fathers come in the second century (2) the Greek apologists, followed by (3) the Western apologists somewhat later, (4) the Gnostic and Marcionite heretics with their apocryphal Scriptures, and (5) the Catholic replies to them. B. The third century gives us (1) the Alexandrian writers of the catechetical school, (2) the writers of Asia Minor and (3) Palestine, and the first Western writers, (4) at Rome, Hippolytus (in Greek), and Novatian, (5) the great African writers, and a few others.
C. The fourth century opens with (1) the apologetic and the historical works of Eusebius of Caesarea, with whom we may class St. Cyril of Jerusalem and St. Epiphanius, (2) the Alexandrian writers Athanasius, Didymus, and others, (3) the Cappadocians, (4) the Antiochenes, (5) the Syriac writers. In the West we have (6) the opponents of Arianism, (7) the Italians, including Jerome, (8) the Africans, and (9) the Spanish and Gallic writers.
D. The fifth century gives us (1) the Nestorian controversy, (2) the Eutychian controversy, including the Western St. Leo; (3) the historians. In the West (4) the school of Lérins, (5) the letters of the popes.
E. The sixth century and the seventh give us less important names and they must be grouped in a more mechanical way.
A. (1) If we now take these groups in detail we find the letters of the chief Apostolic Fathers, St. Clement, St. Ignatius, and St. Polycarp, venerable not merely for their antiquity, but for a certain simplicity and nobility of thought and style which is very moving to the reader. Their quotations from the New Testament are quite free. They offer most important information to the historian, though in somewhat homoeopathic quantities. To these we add the Didache, probably the earliest of all; the curious allegorizing anti-Jewish epistle which goes under the name of Barnabas; the Shepherd of Hermas, a rather dull series of visions chiefly connected with penance and pardon, composed by the brother of Pope Pius I, and long appended to the New Testament as of almost canonical importance. The works of Papias, the disciple of St. John and Aristion, are lost, all but a few precious fragments.
(2) The apologists are most of them philosophic in their treatment of Christianity. Some of their works were presented to emperors in order to disarm persecutions. We must not always accept the view given to outsiders by the apologists, as representing the whole of the Christianity they knew and practised. The apologies of Quadratus to Hadrian, of Aristo of Pella to the Jews, of Miltiades, of Apollinaris of Hierapolis, and of Melito of Sardis are lost to us. But we still possess several of greater importance. That of Aristides of Athens was presented to Antoninus Pius, and deals principally with the knowledge of the true God. The fine apology of St. Justin with its appendix is above all interesting for its description of the liturgy at Rome c. 150. his arguments against the Jews are found in the well-composed "Dialogue with Trypho", where he speaks of the Apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse in a manner which is of first-rate importance in the mouth of a man who was converted at Ephesus some time before the year 132. The "Apology" of Justin's Syrian disciple Tatian is a less conciliatory work, and its author fell into heresy. Athenagoras, an Athenian (c. 177), addressed to Marcus Aurelius and Commodus an eloquent refutation of the absurd calumnies against Christians. Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, about the same date, wrote three books of apology addressed to a certain Autolycus.
(3) All these works are of considerable literary ability. This is not the case with the great Latin apology which closely follows them in date, the "Apologeticus" of Tertullian, which is in the uncouth and untranslatable language affected by its author. Nevertheless it is a work of extraordinary genius, in interest and value far above all the rest, and for energy and boldness it is incomparable. His fierce "Ad Scapulam" is a warning addressed to a persecuting proconsul. "Adversus Judaeos" is a title which explains itself. The other Latin apologists are later. The "Octavios" of Minucius Felix is as polished and gentle as Tertullian is rough. Its date is uncertain. If the "Apologeticus "was well calculated to infuse courage into the persecuted Christian, the "Octavius" was more likely to impress the inquiring pagan, if so be that more flies are caught with honey than with vinegar. With these works we may mention the much later Lactantius, the most perfect of all in literary form ("Divinae Institutiones", c. 305-10, and "De Mortibus persecutorum", c. 314). Greek apologies probably later than the second century are the "Irrisiones" of Hermias, and the very beautiful "Epistle" to Diognetus.
(4) The heretical writings of the second century are mostly lost. The Gnostics had schools and philosophized; their writers were numerous. Some curious works have come down to us in Coptic. The letter of Ptolemeus to Flora in Epiphanius is almost the only Greek fragment of real importance. Marcion founded not a school but a Church, and his New Testament, consisting of St. Luke and St. Paul, is preserved to some extent in the works written against him by Tertullian and Epiphanius. Of the writings of Greek Montanists and of other early heretics, almost nothing remains. The Gnostics composed a quantity of apocryphal Gospels amid Acts of individual Apostles, large portions of which are preserved, mostly in fragments, in Latin revisions, or in Syriac, Coptic, Arabic, or Slavonic versions. To these are to be added such well-known forgeries as the letters of Paul to Seneca, and the Apocalypse of Peter, of which a fragment was recently found in the Fayûm.
(5) Replies to the attacks of heretics form, next to the apologetic against heathen persecutors on the one hand and Jews on the other, the characteristic Catholic literature of the second century. The "Syntagma" of St. Justin against all heresies is lost. Earlier yet, St. Papias (already mentioned) had directed his efforts to the refutation of the rising errors, and the same preoccupation is seen in St. Ignatius and St. Polycarp. Hegesippus, a converted Jew of Palestine, journeyed to Corinth and Rome, where he stayed from the episcopate of Anicetus till that of Eleutherius (c. 160-180), with the intention of refuting the novelties of the Gnostics and Marcionites by an appeal to tradition. His work is lost. But the great work of St. Irenaeus (c. 180) against heresies is founded on Papias, Hegesippus, and Justin, and gives from careful investigation an account of many Gnostic systems, together with their refutation. His appeal is less to Scripture than to the tradition which the whole Catholic Church has received and handed down from the Apostles, through the ministry of successive bishops, and particularly to the tradition of the Roman Church founded by Peter and Paul.
By the side of Irenaeus must be put the Latin Tertullian, whose book "Of the Prescriptions Against Heretics" is not only a masterpiece of argument, but is almost as effective against modern heresies as against those of the early Church. It is a witness of extraordinary importance to the principles of unvarying tradition which the Catholic Church has always professed, and to the primitive belief that Holy Scripture must be interpreted by the Church and not by private industry. He uses Irenaeus in this work, and his polemical books against the Valentinians and the Marcionites borrow freely from that saint. He is the less persuasive of the two, because he is too abrupt, too clever, too anxious for the slightest controversial advantage, without thought of the easy replies that might be made. He sometimes prefers wit or hard hitting to solid argument. At this period controversies were beginning within the Church, the most important being the question whether Easter could be celebrated on a weekday. Another burning question at Rome, at the turn of the century, was the doubt whether the prophesying of the Montanists could be approved, and yet another, in the first years of the third century, was the controversy with a group of opponents of Montanism (so it seems), who denied the authenticity of the writings of St. John, an error then quite new.
B. (1) The Church of Alexandria already in the second century showed the note of learning, together with a habit borrowed from the Alexandrian Jews, especially Philo, of an allegorizing interpretation of Scripture. The latter characteristic is already found in the "Epistle of Barnabas", which may be of Alexandrian origin. Pantamus was the first to make the Catechetical school of the city famous. No writings of his are extant, but his pupil Clement, who taught in the school with Pantamus, c. 180, and as its head, c. 180-202 (died c. 214), has left a considerable amount of rather lengthy disquisitions dealing with mythology, mystical theology, education, social observances, and all other things in heaven and on earth. He was followed by the great Origen, whose fame spread far and wide even among the heathen. The remains of his works, though they fill several volumes, are to a great extent only in free Latin translations, and bear but a small ratio to the vast amount that has perished. The Alexandrians held as firmly as any Catholics to tradition as the rule of faith, at least in theory, but beyond tradition they allowed themselves to speculate, so that the "Hypotyposes" of Clement have been almost entirely lost on account of the errors which found a place in them, and Origen's works fell under the ban of the Church, though their author lived the life of a saint, and died, shortly after the Decian persecution, of the sufferings he had undergone in it.
The disciples of Origen were many and eminent. The library founded by one of them, St. Alexander of Jerusalem, was precious later on to Eusebius. The most celebrated of the school were St. Dionysius "the Great" of Alexandria and St. Gregory of Neocaesarea in Pontus, known as the Wonder-Worker, who, like St. Nonnosus in the West, was said to have moved a mountain for short distance by his prayers. Of the writings of these two saints not very much is extant.
(2) Montanism and the paschal question brought Asia Minor down from the leading position it held in the second century into a very inferior rank in the third. Besides St. Gregory, St. Methodius at the end of that century was a polished writer and an opponent of Origenism — his name is consequently passed over without mention by the Origenist historian Eusebius. We have his "Banquet" in Greek, and some smaller works in Old Slavonic.
(3) Antioch was the head see over the "Orient" including Syria and Mesopotamia as well as Palestine and Phoenicia, but at no time did this form a compact patriarchate like that of Alexandria. We must group here writers who have no connection with one another in matter or style. Julius Africanus lived at Emmaus and composed a chronography, out of which the episcopal lists of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, and a great deal of other matter, have been preserved for us in St. Jerome's version of the Chronicle of Eusebius, and in Byzantine chronographers. Two letters of his are of interest, but the fragments of his "Kestoi" or "Girdles" are of no ecclesiastical value; they contain much curious matter and much that is objectionable. In the second half of the third century, perhaps towards the end of it, a great school was established at Antioch by Lucian, who was martyred at Nicomedia in 312. He is said to have been excommunicated under three bishops, but if this is true he had been long restored at the time of his martyrdom. It is quite uncertain whether he shared the errors of Paul of Samosata (Bishop of Antioch, deposed for heresy in 268-9). At all events he was — however unintentionally — the father of Arianism, and his pupils were the leaders of that heresy: Eusebius of Nicomedia, Arius himself, with Menophantus of Ephesus, Athanasius of Anazarbus, and the only two bishops who refused to sign the new creed at the Council of Nicaea, Theognis of Nicaea and Maris of Chalcedon, besides the scandalous bishop Leontius of Antioch and the Sophist Asterius. At Caesarea, an Origenist centre, flourished under another martyr, St. Pamphilus, who with his friend Eusebius, a certain Ammonius, and others, collected the works of Origen in a long-famous library, corrected Origen's "Hexapla", and did much editing of the text both of the Old and the New Testaments.
(4) We hear of no writings at Rome except in Greek, until the mention of some small works in Latin, by Pope St. Victor, which still existed in Jerome's day. Hippolytus, a Roman priest, wrote from c. 200 to 235, and always in Greek, though at Carthage Tertullian had been writing before this in Latin. If Hippolytus is the author of the "Philosophumena" he was an antipope, and full of unreasoning enmity to his rival St. Callistus; his theology makes the Word proceed from God by His Will, distinct from Him in substance, and becoming Son by becoming man. There is nothing Roman in the theology of this work; it rather connects itself with the Greek apologists. A great part of a large commentary on Daniel and a work against Noetus are the only other important remains of this writer, who was soon forgotten in the West, though fragments of his works turn up in all the Eastern languages. Parts of his chronography, perhaps his last work, have survived. Another Roman antipope, Novatian, wrote in ponderous and studied prose with metrical endings. Some of his works have come down to us under the name of St. Cyprian. Like Hippolytus, he made his rigorist views the pretext for his schism. Unlike Hippolytus, he is quite orthodox in his principal work, "De Trinitate".
(5) The apologetic works of Tertullian have been mentioned. The earlier were written by him when a priest of the Church of Carthage, but about the year 200 he was led to believe in the Montanist prophets of Phrygia, and he headed a Montanist schism at Carthage. Many of his treatises are written to defend his position and his rigorist doctrines, and he does so with considerable violence and with the clever and hasty argumentation which is natural to him. The placid flow of St. Cyprian's eloquence (Bishop of Carthage, 249-58) is a great contrast to that of his "master". The short treatises and large correspondence of this saint are all concerned with local questions and needs, and he eschews all speculative theology. From this we gain the more light on the state of the Church, on its government, and on a number of interesting ecclesiastical and social matters. In all the patristic period there is nothing, with the exception of Eusebius's history, which tells us so much about the early Church as the small volume which contains St. Cyprian's works. At the end of the century Arnobius, like Cyprian a convert in middle age, and like other Africans, Tertullian, Cyprian, Lactantius, and Augustine, a former rhetorician, composed a dull apology. Lactantius carries us into the fourth century. He was an elegant and eloquent writer, but like Arnobius was not a well-instructed Christian.
C. (1) The fourth century is the great age of the Fathers. It was twelve years old when Constantine published his edict of toleration, and a new era for the Christian religion began. It is ushered in by Eusebius of Caesarea, with his great apologetic works "Praeparatio Evangelica"'and "Demonstratio Evangelica", which show the transcendent merit of Christianity, and his still greater historical works, the "Chronicle" (the Greek original is lost) and the "History", which has gathered up the fragments of the age of persecutions, and has preserved to us more than half of all we know about the heroic ages of the Faith. In theology Eusebius was a follower of Origen, but he rejected the eternity of Creation and of the Logos, so that he was able to regard the Arians with considerable cordiality. The original form of the pseudo-Clementine romance, with its long and tiresome dialogues, seems to be a work of the very beginning of the century against the new developments of heathenism, and it was written either on the Phoenician coast or not far inland in the Syrian neighbourhood. Replies to the greatest of the pagan attacks, that of Porphyry, become more frequent after the pagan revival under Julian (361-3), and they occupied the labours of many celebrated writers. St. Cyril of Jerusalem has left us a complete series of instructions to catechumens and the baptized, thus supplying us with an exact knowledge of the religious teaching imparted to the people in an important Church of the East in the middle of the fourth century. A Palestinian of the second half of the century, St. Epiphanius, became Bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, and wrote a learned history of all the heresies. He is unfortunately inaccurate, and has further made great difficulties for us by not naming his authorities. He was a friend of St. Jerome, and an uncompromising opponent of Origenism.
(2) The Alexandrian priest Arius was not a product of the catechetical school of that city, but of the Lucianic school of Antioch. The Alexandrian tendency was quite opposite to the Antiochene, and the Alexandrian bishop, Alexander, condemned Arius in letters still extant, in which we gather the tradition of the Alexandrian Church. There is no trace in them of Origenism, the head-quarters of which had long been at Caesarea in Palestine, in the succession Theoctistus, Pamphilus, Eusebius. The tradition of Alexandria was rather that which Dionysius the Great had received from Pope Dionysius. Three years after the Nicene Council (325), St. Athanasius began his long episcopate of forty-five years. His writings are not very voluminous, being either controversial theology or apologetic memoirs of his own troubles, but their theological and historical value is enormous, on account of the leading part taken by this truly great man in the fifty years of fight with Arianism. The head of the catechetical school during this half-century was Didymus the Blind, an Athanasian in his doctrine of the Son, and rather clearer even than his patriarch in his doctrine of the Trinity, but in many other points carrying on the Origenistic tradition. Here may be also mentioned by the way a rather later writer, Synesius of Cyrene, a man of philosophical and literary habits, who showed energy and sincere piety as a bishop, in spite of the rather pagan character of his culture. His letters are of great interest.
(3) The second half of the century is illustrated by an illustrious triad in Cappadocia, St. Basil, his friend St. Gregory Nazianzen, and his brother St. Gregory of Nyssa. They were the main workers in the return of the East to orthodoxy. Their doctrine of the Trinity is an advance even upon that of Didymus, and is very near indeed to the Roman doctrine which was later embodied in the Athanasian creed. But it had taken a long while for the East to assimilate the entire meaning of the orthodox view. St. Basil showed great patience with those who had advanced less far on the right road than himself, and he even tempered his language so as to conciliate them. For fame of sanctity scarcely any of the Fathers, save St. Gregory the Wonder-Worker, or St. Augustine, has ever equalled him. He practised extraordinary asceticism, and his family were all saints. He composed a rule for monks which has remained practically the only one in the East. St. Gregory had far less character, but equal abilities and learning, with greater eloquence. The love of Origen which persuaded the friends in their youth to publish a book of extracts from his writings had little influence on their later theology; that of St. Gregory in particular is renowned for its accuracy or even inerrancy. St. Gregory of Nyssa is, on the other hand, full of Origenism. The classical culture and literary form of the Cappadocians, united to sanctity and orthodoxy, makes them a unique group in the history of the Church.
(4) The Antiochene school of the fourth century seemed given over to Arianism, until the time when the great Alexandrians, Athanasius and Didymus, were dying, when it was just reviving not merely into orthodoxy, but into an efflorescence by which the recent glory of Alexandria and even of Cappadocia was to be surpassed. Diodorus, a monk at Antioch and then Bishop of Tarsus, was a noble supporter of Nicene doctrine and a great writer, though the larger part of his works has perished. His friend Theodore of Mopsuestia was a learned and judicious commentator in the literal Antiochene style, but unfortunately his opposition to the heresy of Apollinarius of Laodicea carried him into the opposite extreme of Nestorianism — indeed the pupil Nestorius scarcely went so far as the master Theodore. But then Nestorius resisted the judgment of the Church, whereas Theodore died in Catholic communion, and was the friend of saints, including that crowning glory of the Antiochene school, St. John Chrysostom, whose greatest sermons were preached at Antioch, before he became Bishop of Constantinople. Chrysostom is of course the chief of the Greek Fathers, the first of all commentators, and the first of all orators whether in East or West. He was for a time a hermit, and remained ascetic in his life; he was also a fervent social reformer. His grandeur of character makes him worthy of a place beside St. Basil and St. Athanasius.
As Basil and Gregory were formed to oratory by the Christian Prohaeresius, so was Chrysostom by the heathen orator Libanius. In the classical Gregory we may sometimes find the rhetorician; in Chrysostom never; his amazing natural talent prevents his needing the assistance of art, and though training had preceded, it has been lost in the flow of energetic thought and the torrent of words. He is not afraid of repeating himself and of neglecting the rules, for he never wishes to be admired, but only to instruct or to persuade. But even so great a man has his limitations. He has no speculative interest in philosophy or theology, though he is learned enough to be absolutely orthodox. He is a holy man and a practical man, so that his thoughts are full of piety and beauty and wisdom; but he is not a thinker. None of the Fathers has been more imitated or more read; but there is little in his writings which can be said to have moulded his own or future times, and he cannot come for an instant into competition with Origen or Augustine for the first place among ecclesiastical writers.
(5) Syria in the fourth century produced one great writer, St. Ephraem, deacon of Edessa (306-73). Most of his writings are poetry; his commentaries are in prose, but the remains of these are scantier. His homilies and hymns are all in metre, and are of very great beauty. Such tender and loving piety is hardly found elsewhere in the Fathers. The twenty-three homilies of Aphraates (326-7), a Mesopotamian bishop, are of great interest.
(6) St. Hilary of Poitiers is the most famous of the earlier opponents of Arianism in the West. He wrote commentaries and polemical works, including the great treatise "De Trinitate" and a lost historical work. His style is affectedly involved and obscure, but he is nevertheless a theologian of considerable merit. The very name of his treatise on the Trinity shows that he approached the dogma from the Western point of view of a Trinity in Unity, but he has largely employed the works of Origen, Athanasius, and other Easterns. His exegesis is of the allegorical type. Until his day, the only great Latin Father was St. Cyprian, and Hilary had no rival in his own generation. Lucifer, Bishop of Calaris in Sardinia, was a very rude controversialist, who wrote in a popular and almost uneducated manner. The Spaniard Gregory of Illiberis, in Southern Spain, is only now beginning to receive his due, since Dom A. Wilmart restored to him in 1908 the important so-called "Tractatus Origenis de libris SS. Scripturae", which he and Batiffol had published in 1900, as genuine works of Origen translated by Victorinus of Pettau. The commentaries and anti-Arian works of the converted rhetorician, Marius Victorinus, were not successful. St. Eusebius of Vercellae has left us only a few letters. The date of the short discourses of Zeno of Verona is uncertain. The fine letter of Pope Julius I to the Arians and a few letters of Liberius and Damasus are of great interest.
The greatest of the opponents of Arianism in the West is St. Ambrose (d. 397). His sanctity and his great actions make him one of the most imposing figures in the patristic period. Unfortunately the style of his writings is often unpleasant, being affected and intricate, without being correct or artistic. His exegesis is not merely of the most extreme allegorical kind, but so fanciful as to be sometimes positively absurd. And yet, when off his guard, he speaks with genuine and touching eloquence; he produces apophthegms of admirable brevity, and without being a deep theologian, he shows a wonderful profundity of thought on ascetical, moral, and devotional matters. Just as his character demands our enthusiastic admiration, so his writings gain our affectionate respect, in spite of their very irritating defects. It is easy to see that he is very well read in the classics and in Christian writers of East and West, but his best thoughts are all his own.
(7) At Rome an original, odd, and learned writer composed a commentary on St. Paul's Epistles and a series of questions on the Old and New Testaments. He is usually spoken of as Ambrosiaster, and may perhaps be a converted Jew named Isaac, who later apostatized. St. Damasus wrote verses which are poor poetry but interesting where they give us information about the martyrs and the catacombs. His secretary for a time was St. Jerome, a Pannonian by birth, a Roman by baptism. This learned Father, "Doctor maximus in Sacris Scripturis", is very well known to us, for almost all that he wrote is a revelation of himself. He tells the reader of his inclinations and his antipathies, his enthusiasms and his irritations, his friendships and his enmities. If he is often out of temper, he is most human, most affectionate, most ascetic, most devoted to orthodoxy, and in many ways a very lovable character; for if he is quick to take offence, he is easily appeased, he is laborious beyond ordinary endurance, and it is against heresy that his anger is usually kindled. He lived all the latter part of his life in a retreat at Bethlehem, surrounded by loving disciples, whose untiring devotion shows that the saint was by no means such a rough diamond, one might say such an ogre, as he is often represented. He had no taste for philosophy, and seldom gave himself time to think, but he read and wrote ceaselessly. His many commentaries are brief and to the point, full of information, and the product of wide reading. His greatest work was the translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew into Latin. He carried on the textual labours of Origen, Pamphilus, and Eusebius, and his revision of the Latin Gospels shows the use of admirably pure Greek MSS., though he seems to have expended less pains on the rest of the New Testament. He attacked heretics with much of the cleverness, all the vivacity, and much more than the eloquence and effectiveness of Tertullian. He used the like weapons against any who attacked him, and especially against his friend Rufinus during their passing period of hostility.
If he is only "perhaps" the most learned of the Fathers, he is beyond doubt the greatest of prose writers among them all. We cannot compare his energy and wit with the originality and polish of Cicero, or with the delicate perfection of Plato, but neither can they or any other writer be compared with Jerome in his own sphere. He does not attempt flights of imagination, musical intonation, word-painting; he has no flow of honeyed language like Cyprian, no torrent of phrases like Chrysostom; he is a writer, not an orator, and a learned and classical writer. But such letters as his, for astonishing force and liveliness, for point, and wit, and terse expression, were never written before or since. There is no sense of effort, and though we feel that the language must have been studied, we are rarely tempted to call it studied language, for Jerome knows the strange secret of polishing his steel weapons while they are still at a white heat, and of hurling them before they cool. He was a dangerous adversary, and had few scruples in taking every possible advantage. He has the unfortunate defect of his extraordinary swiftness, that he is extremely inaccurate, and his historical statements need careful control. His biographies of the hermits, his words about monastic life, virginity, Roman faith, our Blessed Lady, relics of saints, have exercised great influence. It has only been known of late years that Jerome was a preacher; the little extempore discourses published by Dom Mona are full of his irrepressible personality and his careless learning.
(8) Africa was a stranger to the Arian struggle, being occupied with a battle of its own. Donatism (311-411) was for a long time paramount in Numidia, and sometimes in other parts. The writings of the Donatists have mostly perished. About 370 St. Optatus published an effective controversial work against them. The attack was carried on by a yet greater controversialist, St. Augustine, with a marvellous success, so that the inveterate schism was practically at an end twenty years before that saint's death. So happy an event turned the eyes of all Christendom to the brilliant protagonist of the African Catholics, who had already dealt crushing blows at the Latin Manichaean writers. From 417 till his death in 431, he was engaged in an even greater conflict with the philosophical and naturalistic heresy of Pelagius and Caelestius. In this he was at first assisted by the aged Jerome; the popes condemned the innovators and the emperor legislated against them. If St. Augustine has the unique fame of having prostrated three heresies, it is because he was as anxious to persuade as to refute. He was perhaps the greatest controversialist the world has ever seen. Besides this he was not merely the greatest philosopher among the Fathers, but he was the only great philosopher. His purely theological works, especially his "De Trinitate", are unsurpassed for depth, grasp, and clearness, among early ecclesiastical writers, whether Eastern or Western. As a philosophical theologian he has no superior, except his own son and disciple, St. Thomas Aquinas. It is probably correct to say that no one, except Aristotle, has exercised so vast, so profound, and so beneficial an influence on European thought.
Augustine was himself a Platonist through and through. As a commentator he cared little for the letter, and everything for the spirit, but his harmony of the Gospels shows that he could attend to history and detail. The allegorizing tendencies he inherited from his spiritual father, Ambrose, carry him now and then into extravagances, but more often he rather soars than commentates, and his "In Genesim ad litteram", and his treatises on the Psalms and on St. John, are works of extraordinary power and interest, and quite worthy, in a totally different style, to rank with Chrysostom on Matthew. St. Augustine was a professor of rhetoric before his wonderful conversion; but like St. Cyprian, and even more than St. Cyprian, he put aside, as a Christian, all the artifices of oratory which he knew so well. He retained correctness of grammar and perfect good taste, together with the power of speaking and writing with ease in a style of masterly simplicity and of dignified though almost colloquial plainness.
Nothing could be more individual than this style of St. Augustine's, in which he talks to the reader or to God with perfect openness and with an astonishing, often almost exasperating, subtlety of thought. He had the power of seeing all round a subject and through and through it, and he was too conscientious not to use this gift to the uttermost. Large-minded and far-seeing, he was also very learned. He mastered Greek only in later life, in order to make himself familiar with the works of the Eastern Fathers. His "De Civitate Dei" shows vast stores of reading; still more, it puts him in the first place among apologists. Before his death (431) he was the object of extraordinary veneration. He had founded a monastery at Tagaste, which supplied Africa with bishops, and he lived at Hippo with his clergy in a common life, to which the Regular Canons of later days have always looked as their model. The great Dominican Order, the Augustinians, and numberless congregations of nuns still look to him as their father and legislator. His devotional works have had a vogue second only to that of another of his spiritual sons, Thomas à Kempis. He had in his lifetime a reputation for miracles, and his sanctity is felt in all his writings, and breathes in the story of his life. It has been remarked that there is about this many-sided bishop a certain symmetry which makes him an almost faultless model of a holy, wise, and active man. It is well to remember that he was essentially a penitent.
(9) In Spain, the great poet Prudentius surpassed all his predecessors, of whom the best had been Juvencus and the almost pagan rhetorician Ausonius. The curious treatises of the Spanish heretic Priscillian were discovered only in 1889. In Gaul Rufinus of Aquileia must be mentioned as the very free translator of Origen, etc., and of Eusebius's "History", which he continued up to his own date. In South Italy his friend Paulinus of Nola has left us pious poems and elaborate letters.
D. (1) The fragments of Nestorius's writings have been collected by Loofs. Some of them were preserved by a disciple of St. Augustine, Marius Mercator, who made two collections of documents, concerning Nestorianism and Pelagianism respectively. The great adversary of Nestorius, St. Cyril of Alexandria, was opposed by a yet greater writer, Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus. Cyril is a very voluminous writer, and his long commentaries in the mystical Alexandrian vein do not much interest modern readers. But his principal letters and treatises on the Nestorian question show him as a theologian who has a deep spiritual insight into the meaning of the Incarnation and its effect upon the human race — the lifting up of man to union with God. We see here the influence of Egyptian asceticism, from Anthony the Great (whose life St. Athanasius wrote), and the Macarii (one of whom left some valuable works in Greek), and Pachomius, to his own time. In their ascetical systems, the union with God by contemplation was naturally the end in view, but one is surprised how little is made by them of meditation on the life and Passion of Christ. It is not omitted, but the tendency as with St. Cyril and with the Monophysites who believed they followed him, is to think rather of the Godhead than of the Manhood. The Antiochene school had exaggerated the contrary tendency, out of opposition to Apollinarianism, which made Christ's Manhood incomplete, and they thought more of man united to God than of God made man. Theodoret undoubtedly avoided the excesses of Theodore and Nestorius, and his doctrine was accepted at last by St. Leo as orthodox, in spite of his earlier persistent defence of Nestorius. His history of the monks is less valuable than the earlier writings of eyewitnesses — Palladius in the East, and Rufinus and afterwards Cassian in the West. But Theodoret's "History" in continuation of Eusebius contains valuable information. His apologetic and controversial writings are the works of a good theologian. His masterpieces are his exegetical works, which are neither oratory like those of Chrysostom, nor exaggeratedly literal like those of Theodore. With him the great Antiochene school worthily closes, as the Alexandrian does with St Cyril. Together with these great men may be mentioned St. Cyril's spiritual adviser, St. Isidore of Pelusium, whose 2000 letters deal chiefly with allegorical exegesis, the commentary on St. Mark by Victor of Antioch, and the introduction to the interpretation of Scripture by the monk Hadrian, a manual of the Antiochene method.
(2) The Eutychian controversy produced no great works in the East. Such works of the Monophysites as have survived are in Syriac or Coptic versions.
(3) The two Constantinopolitan historians, Socrates and Sozomen, in spite of errors, contain some data which are precious, since many of the sources which they used are lost to us. With Theodoret, their contemporary, they form a triad just in the middle of the century. St. Nilus of Sinai is the chief among many ascetical writers.
(4) St. Sulpicius Severus, a Gallic noble, disciple and biographer of the great St. Martin of Tours, was a classical scholar, and showed himself an elegant writer in his "Ecclesiastical History". The school of Lérins produced many writers besides St. Vincent. We may mention Eucherius, Faustus, and the great St. Caesarius of Arles (543). Other Gallic writers are Salvian, St. Sidonius Apollinaris, Gennadius, St. Avitus of Vienne, and Julianus Pomerius.
(5) In the West, the series of papal decretals begins with Pope Siricius (384-98). Of the more important popes large numbers of letters have been preserved. Those of the wise St. Innocent I (401-17), the hot-headed St. Zosimus (417-8), and the severe St. Celestine are perhaps the most important in the first half of the century; in the second half those of Hilarus, Simplicius, and above all the learned St. Gelasius (492-6). Midway in the century stands St. Leo, the greatest of the early popes, whose steadfastness and sanctity saved Rome from Attila, and the Romans from Genseric. He could be unbending in the enunciation of principle; he was condescending in the condoning of breaches of discipline for the sake of peace, and he was a skilful diplomatist. His sermons and the dogmatic letters in his large correspondence show him to us as the most lucid of all theologians. He is clear in his expression, not because he is superficial, but because he has thought clearly and deeply. He steers between Nestorianism and Eutychianism, not by using subtle distinctions or elaborate arguments, but by stating plain definitions in accurate words. He condemned Monothelitism by anticipation. His style is careful, with metrical cadences. Its majestic rhythms and its sonorous closes have invested the Latin language with a new splendour and dignity.
E. (1) In the sixth century the large correspondence of Pope Hormisdas is of the highest interest. That century closes with St. Gregory the Great, whose celebrated "Registrum" exceeds in volume many times over the collections of the letters of other early popes. The Epistles are of great variety and throw light on the varied interests of the great pope's life and the varied events in the East and West of his time. His "Morals on the Book of Job" is not a literal commentary, but pretends only to illustrate the moral sense underlying the text. With all the strangeness it presents to modern notions, it is a work full of wisdom and instruction. The remarks of St. Gregory on the spiritual life and on contemplation are of special interest. As a theologian he is original only in that he combines all the traditional theology of the West without adding to it. He commonly follows Augustine as a theologian, a commentator and a preacher. His sermons are admirably practical; they are models of what a good sermon should be. After St. Gregory there are some great popes whose letters are worthy of study, such as Nicholas I and John VIII; but these and the many other late writers of the West belong properly to the medieval period. St. Gregory of Tours is certainly medieval, but the learned Bede is quite patristic. His great history is the most faithful and perfect history to be found in the early centuries.
(2) In the East, the latter half of the fifth century is very barren. The sixth century is not much better. The importance of Leontius of Byzantium (died c. 543) for the history of dogma has only lately been realized. Poets and hagiographers, chroniclers, canonists, and ascetical writers succeed each other. Catenas by way of commentaries are the order of the day. St. Maximus Confessor, Anastasius of Mount Sinai, and Andrew of Caesarea must be named. The first of these commented on the works of the pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, which had probably first seen the light towards the end of the fifth century. St. John of Damascus (c. 750) closes the patristic period with his polemics against heresies, his exegetical and ascetical writings, his beautiful hymns, and above all his "Fountain of Wisdom", which is a compendium of patristic theology and a kind of anticipation of scholasticism. Indeed, the "Summae Theologicae" of the Middle Ages were founded on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, who had taken the skeleton of his work from this last of the Greek Fathers.
III. CHARACTERISTICS OF PATRISTIC WRITINGS
A. Commentaries. It has been seen that the literal school of exegesis had its home at Antioch, while the allegorical school was Alexandrian, and the entire West, on the whole, followed the allegorical method, mingling literalism with it in various degrees. The suspicion of Arianism has lost to us the fourth-century writers of the Antiochene school, such as Theodore of Heraclea and Eusebius of Emesa, and the charge of Nestorianism has caused the commentaries of Diodorus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (for the most part) to disappear. The Alexandrian school has lost yet more heavily, for little of the great Origen remains except in fragments and in unreliable versions. The great Antiochenes, Chrysostom and Theodoret, have a real grasp of the sense of the sacred text. They treat it with reverence and love, and their explanations are of deep value, because the language of the New Testament was their own tongue, so that we moderns cannot afford to neglect their comments. On the contrary, Origen, the moulder of the allegorizing type of commentary, who had inherited the Philonic tradition of the Alexandrian Jews, was essentially irreverent to the inspired authors. The Old Testament was to him full of errors, lies, and blasphemies, so far as the letter was concerned, and his defence of it against the pagans, the Gnostics, and especially the Marcionites, was to point only to the spiritual meaning. Theoretically he distinguished a triple sense, the somatic, the psychic, and the pneumatic, following St. Paul's trichotomy; but in practice he mainly gives the spiritual, as opposed to the corporal or literal.
St. Augustine sometimes defends the Old Testament against the Manichaeans in the same style, and occasionally in a most unconvincing manner, but with great moderation and restraint. In his "De Genesi ad litteram" he has evolved a far more effective method, with his usual brilliant originality, and he shows that the objections brought against the truth of the first chapters of the book invariably rest upon the baseless assumption that the objector has found the true meaning of the text. But Origen applied his method, though partially, even to the New Testament, and regarded the Evangelists as sometimes false in the letter, but as saving the truth in the hidden spiritual meaning. In this point the good feeling of Christians prevented his being followed. But the brilliant example he gave, of running riot in the fantastic exegesis which his method encouraged, had an unfortunate influence. He is fond of giving a variety of applications to a single text, and his promise to hold nothing but what can be proved from Scripture becomes illusory when he shows by example that any part of Scripture may mean anything he pleases. The reverent temper of later writers, and especially of the Westerns, preferred to represent as the true meaning of the sacred writer the allegory which appeared to them to be the most obvious. St. Ambrose and St. Augustine in their beautiful works on the Psalms rather spiritualize, or moralize, than allegorize, and their imaginative interpretations are chiefly of events, actions, numbers, etc. But almost all allegorical interpretation is so arbitrary and depends so much on the caprice of the exegete that it is difficult to conciliate it with reverence, however one may he dazzled by the beauty of much of it. An alternative way of defending the Old Testament was excogitated by the ingenious author of the pseudo-Clementines; he asserts that it has been depraved and interpolated. St. Jerome's learning has made his exegesis unique; he frequently gives alternative explanations and refers to the authors who have adopted them. From the middle of the fifth century onwards, second-hand commentaries are universal in East and West, and originality almost entirely disappears. Andrew of Caesarea is perhaps an exception, for he commented on a book which was scarcely at all read in the East, the Apocalypse.
Discussions of method are not wanting. Clement of Alexandria gives "traditional methods", the literal, typical, moral, and prophetical. The tradition is obviously from Rabbinism. We must admit that it has in its favour the practice of St. Matthew and St. Paul. Even more than Origen, St. Augustine theorized on this subject. In his "De Doctrina Christiana" he gives elaborate rules of exegesis. Elsewhere he distinguishes four senses of Scripture: historical, aetiological (economic), analogical (where N.T. explains 0.T.), and allegorical ("De Util. Cred.", 3; cf. "De Vera Rel.", 50). The book of rules composed by the Donatist Tichonius has an analogy in the smaller "canons" of St. Paul's Epistles by Priscillian. Hadrian of Antioch was mentioned above. St. Gregory the Great compares Scripture to a river so shallow that a lamb can walk in it, so deep that an elephant can float. (Pref. to "Morals on Job"). He distinguishes the historical or literal sense, the moral, and the allegorical or typical. If the Western Fathers are fanciful, yet this is better than the extreme literalism of Theodore of Mopsuestia, who refused to allegorize even the Canticle of Canticles.
B. Preachers. We have sermons from the Greek Church much earlier than from the Latin. Indeed, Sozomen tells us that, up to his time (c. 450), there were no public sermons in the churches at Rome. This seems almost incredible. St. Leo's sermons are, however, the first sermons certainly preached at Rome which have reached us, for those of Hippolytus were all in Greek; unless the homily "Adversus Alcatores" be a sermon by a Novatian antipope. The series of Latin preachers begins in the middle of the fourth century. The so-called "Second Epistle of St. Clement" is a homily belonging possibly to the second century. Many of the commentaries of Origen are a series of sermons, as is the case later with all Chrysostom's commentaries and most of Augustine's. In many cases treatises are composed of a course of sermons, as, for instance, is the case for some of those of Ambrose, who seems to have rewritten his sermons after delivery. The "De Sacramentis" may possibly be the version by a shorthand-writer of the course which the saint himself edited under the title "De Mysteriis". In any case the "De Sacramentis" (whether by Ambrose or not) has a freshness and naiveté which is wanting in the certainly authentic "De Mysteriis". Similarly the great courses of sermons preached by St. Chrysostom at Antioch were evidently written or corrected by his own hand, but those he delivered at Constantinople were either hurriedly corrected, or not at all. His sermons on Acts, which have come down to us in two quite distinct texts in the MSS., are probably known to us only in the forms in which they were taken down by two different tachygraphers. St. Gregory Nazianzen complains of the importunity of these shorthand-writers (Orat. xxxii), as St. Jerome does of their incapacity (Ep. lxxi, 5). Their art was evidently highly perfected, and specimens of it have come down to us. They were officially employed at councils (e.g. at the great conference with the Donatists at Carthage, in 411, we hear of them). It appears that many or most of the bishops at the Council of Ephesus, in 449, had their own shorthand-writers with them. The method of taking notes and of amplifying receives illustration from the Acts of the Council of Constantinople of 27 April, 449, at which the minutes were examined which had been taken down by tachygraphers at the council held a few weeks earlier.
Many of St. Augustine's sermons are certainly from shorthand notes. As to others we are uncertain, for the style of the written ones is often so colloquial that it is difficult to get a criterion. The sermons of St. Jerome at Bethlehem, published by Dom Morin, are from shorthand reports, and the discourses themselves were unprepared conferences on those portions of the Psalms or of the Gospels which had been sung in the liturgy. The speaker has clearly often been preceded by another priest, and on the Western Christmas Day, which his community alone is keeping, the bishop is present and will speak last. In fact the pilgrim Ætheria tells us that at Jerusalem, in the fourth century, all the priests present spoke in turn, if they chose, and the bishop last of all. Such improvised comments are far indeed from the oratorical discourses of St. Gregory Nazianzen, from the lofty flights of Chrysostom, from the torrent of iteration that characterizes the short sermons of Peter Chrysologus, from the neat phrases of Maximus of Turin, and the ponderous rhythms of Leo the Great. The eloquence of these Fathers need not be here described. In the West we may add in the fourth century Gaudentius of Brescia; several small collections of interesting sermons appear in the fifth century; the sixth opens with the numerous collections made by St. Caesarius for the use of preachers. There is practically no edition of the works of this eminent and practical bishop. St. Gregory (apart from some fanciful exegesis) is the most practical preacher of the West. Nothing could be more admirable for imitation than St. Chrysostom. The more ornate writers are less safe to copy. St. Augustine's style is too personal to be an example, and few are so learned, so great, and so ready, that they can venture to speak as simply as he often does.
C. Writers. The Fathers do not belong to the strictly classical period of either the Greek or the Latin language; but this does not imply that they wrote bad Latin or Greek. The conversational form of the Koiné or common dialect of Greek, which is found in the New Testament and in many papyri, is not the language of the Fathers, except of the very earliest. For the Greek Fathers write in a more classicizing style than most of the New Testament writers; none of them uses quite a vulgar or ungrammatical Greek, while some Atticize, e.g. the Cappadocians and Synesius. The Latin Fathers are often less classical. Tertullian is a Latin Carlyle; he knew Greek, and wrote books in that language, and tried to introduce ecclesiastical terms into Latin. St. Cyprian's "Ad Donatum", probably his first Christian writing, shows an Apuleian preciosity which he eschewed in all his other works, but which his biographer Pontius has imitated and exaggerated. Men like Jerome and Augustine, who had a thorough knowledge of classical literature, would not employ tricks of style, and cultivated a manner which should be correct, but simple and straightforward; yet their style could not have been what it was but for their previous study. For the spoken Latin of all the patristic centuries was very different from the written. We get examples of the vulgar tongue here and there in the letters of Pope Cornelius as edited by Mercati, for the third century, or in the Rule of St. Benedict in Wölfflin's or Dom Mona's editions, for the sixth. In the latter we get such modernisms as cor murmurantem, post quibus, cum responsoria sua, which show how the confusing genders and cases of the classics were disappearing into the more reasonable simplicity of Italian. Some of the Fathers use the rhythmical endings of the "cursus" in their prose; some have the later accented endings which were corruptions of the correct prosodical ones. Familiar examples of the former are in the older Collects of the Mass; of the latter the Te Deum is an obvious instance.
D. East and West. Before speaking of the theological characteristics of the Fathers, we have to take into account the great division of the Roman Empire into two languages. Language is the great separator. When two emperors divided the Empire, it was not quite according to language; nor were the ecclesiastical divisions more exact, since the great province of Illyricum, including Macedonia and all Greece, was attached to the West through at least a large part of the patristic period, and was governed by the archbishop of Thessalonica, not as its exarch or patriarch, but as papal legate. But in considering the literary productions of the age, we must class them as Latin or Greek, and this is what will be meant here by Western and Eastern. The understanding of the relations between Greeks and Latins is often obscured by certain prepossessions. We talk of the "unchanging East", of the philosophical Greeks as opposed to the practical Romans, of the reposeful thought of the Oriental mind over against the rapidity and orderly classification which characterizes Western intelligence. All this is very misleading, and it is important to go back to the facts. In the first place, the East was converted far more rapidly than the West. When Constantine made Christianity the established religion of both empires from 323 onwards, there was a striking contrast between the two. In the West paganism had everywhere a very large majority, except possibly in Africa. But in the Greek world Christianity was quite the equal of the old religions in influence and numbers; in the great cities it might even be predominant, and some towns were practically Christian. The story told of St. Gregory the Wonder-Worker, that he found but seventeen Christians in Neocaesarea when he became bishop, and that he left but seventeen pagans in the same city when he died (c. 270-5), must be substantially true. Such a story in the West would be absurd. The villages of the Latin countries held out for long, and the pagani retained the worship of the old gods even after they were all nominally Christianized. In Phrygia, on the contrary, entire villages were Christian long before Constantine, though it is true that elsewhere some towns were still heathen in Julian's day — Gaza in Palestine is an example; but then Maiouma, the port of Gaza, was Christian.
Two consequences, amongst others, of this swift evangelization of the East must be noticed. In the first place, while the slow progress of the West was favourable to the preservation of the unchanged tradition, the quick conversion of the East was accompanied by a rapid development which, in the sphere of dogma, was hasty, unequal, and fruitful of error. Secondly, the Eastern religion partook, even during the heroic age of persecution, of the evil which the West felt so deeply after Constantine, that is to say, of the crowding into the Church of multitudes who were only half Christianized, because it was the fashionable thing to do, or because a part of the beauties of the new religion and of the absurdities of the old were seen. We have actually Christian writers, in East and West, such as Arnobius, and to some extent Lactantius and Julius Africanus, who show that they are only half instructed in the Faith. This must have been largely the case among the people in the East. Tradition in the East was less regarded, and faith was less deep than in the smaller Western communities. Again, the Latin writers begin in Africa with Tertullian, just before the third century, at Rome with Novatian, just in the middle of the third century, and in Spain and Gaul not till the fourth. But the East had writers in the first century, and numbers in the second; there were Gnostic and Christian schools in the second and third. There had been, indeed, Greek writers at Rome in the first and second centuries and part of the third. But when the Roman Church became Latin they were forgotten; the Latin writers did not cite Clement and Hermas; they totally forgot Hippolytus, except his chronicle, and his name became merely a theme for legend.
Though Rome was powerful and venerated in the second century, and though her tradition remained unbroken, the break in her literature is complete. Latin literature is thus a century and a half younger than the Greek; indeed it is practically two centuries and a half younger. Tertullian stands alone, and he became a heretic. Until the middle of the fourth century there had appeared but one Latin Father for the spiritual reading of the educated Latin Christian, and it is natural that the stichometry, edited (perhaps semi-officially) under Pope Liberius for the control of booksellers' prices, gives the works of St. Cyprian as well as the books of the Latin Bible. This unique position of St. Cyprian was still recognized at the beginning of the fifth century. From Cyprian (d. 258) to Hilary there was scarcely a Latin book that could be recommended for popular reading except Lactantius's "De mortibus persecutorum", and there was no theology at all. Even a little later, the commentaries of Victorinus the Rhetorician were valueless, and those of Isaac the Jew (?) were odd. The one vigorous period of Latin literature is the bare century which ends with Leo (d. 461). During that century Rome had been repeatedly captured or threatened by barbarians; Arian Vandals, besides devastating Italy and Gaul, had almost destroyed the Catholicism of Spain and Africa; the Christian British had been murdered in the English invasion. Yet the West had been able to rival the East in output and in eloquence and even to surpass it in learning, depth, and variety. The elder sister knew little of these productions, but the West was supplied with a considerable body of translations from the Greek, even in the fourth century. In the sixth, Cassiodorus took care that the amount should be increased. This gave the Latins a larger outlook, and even the decay of learning which Cassiodorus and Agapetus could not remedy, and which Pope Agatho deplored so humbly in his letter to the Greek council of 680, was resisted with a certain persistent vigour.
At Constantinople the means of learning were abundant, and there were many authors; yet there is a gradual decline till the fifteenth century. The more notable writers are like flickers amid dying embers. There were chroniclers and chronographers, but with little originality. Even the monastery of Studium is hardly a literary revival. There is in the East no enthusiasm like that of Cassiodorus, of Isidore, of Alcuin, amid a barbarian world. Photius had wonderful libraries at his disposal, yet Bede had wider learning, and probably knew more of the East than Photius did of the West. The industrious Irish schools which propagated learning in every part of Europe had no parallel in the Oriental world. It was after the fifth century that the East began to be "unchanging". And as the bond with the West grew less and less continuous, her theology and literature became more and more mummified; whereas the Latin world blossomed anew with an Anselm, subtle as Augustine, a Bernard, rival to Chrysostom, an Aquinas, prince of theologians. Hence we observe in the early centuries a twofold movement, which must be spoken of separately: an Eastward movement of theology, by which the West imposed her dogmas on the reluctant East, and a Westward movement in most practical things — organization, liturgy, ascetics, devotion — by which the West assimilated the swifter evolution of the Greeks. We take first the theological movement.
E. Theology. Throughout the second century the Greek portion of Christendom bred heresies. The multitude of Gnostic schools tried to introduce all kinds of foreign elements into Christianity. Those who taught and believed them did not start from a belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation such as we are accustomed to. Marcion formed not a school, but a Church; his Christology was very far removed from tradition. The Montanists made a schism which retained the traditional beliefs and practices, but asserted a new revelation. The leaders of all the new views came to Rome, and tried to gain a footing there; all were condemned and excommunicated. At the end of the century, Rome got all the East to agree with her traditional rule that Easter should be kept on Sunday. The Churches of Asia Minor had a different custom. One of their bishops protested. But they seem to have submitted almost at once. In the first decades of the third century, Rome impartially repelled opposing heresies, those which identified the three Persons of the Holy Trinity with only a modal distinction (Monarchians, Sabellians, "Patripassians"), and those who, on the contrary, made Christ a mere man, or seemed to ascribe to the Word of God a distinct being from that of the Father. This last conception, to our amazement, is assumed, it would appear, by the early Greek apologists, though in varying language; Athenagoras (who as an Athenian may have been in relation with the West) is the only one who asserts the Unity of the Trinity. Hippolytus (somewhat diversely in the "Contra Noetum" and in the "Philosophumena," if they are both his) taught the same division of the Son from the Father as traditional, and he records that Pope Callistus condemned him as a Ditheist.
Origen, like many of the others, makes the procession of the Word depend upon His office of Creator; and if he is orthodox enough to make the procession an eternal and necessary one, this is only because he regards Creation itself as necessary and eternal. His pupil, Dionysius of Alexandria, in combating the Sabellians, who admitted no real distinctions in the Godhead, manifested the characteristic weakness of the Greek theology, but some of his own Egyptians were more correct than their patriarch, and appealed to Rome. The Alexandrian listened to the Roman Dionysius, for all respected the unchanging tradition and unblemished orthodoxy of the See of Peter; his apology accepts the word "consubstantial", and he explains, no doubt sincerely, that he had never meant anything else; but he had learnt to see more clearly, without recognizing how unfortunately worded were his earlier arguments. He was not present when a council, mainly of Origenists, justly condemned Paul of Samosata (268); and these bishops, holding the traditional Eastern view, refused to use the word "consubstantial" as being too like Sabellianism. The Arians, disciples of Lucian, rejected (as did the more moderate Eusebius of Caesarea) the eternity of Creation, and they were logical enough to argue that consequently "there was (before time was) when the Word was not", and that He was a creature. All Christendom was horrified; but the East was soon appeased by vague explanations, and after Nicaea, real, undisguised Arianism hardly showed its head for nearly forty years. The highest point of orthodoxy that the East could reach is shown in the admirable lectures of St. Cyril of Jerusalem. There is one God, he teaches, that is the Father, and His Son is equal to Him in all things, and the Holy Ghost is adored with Them; we cannot separate Them in our worship. But he does not ask himself how there are not three Gods; he will not use the Nicene word "consubstantial", and he never suggests that there is one Godhead common to the three Persons.
If we turn to the Latins all is different. The essential Monotheism of Christianity is not saved in the West by saying there is "one God the Father", as in all the Eastern creeds, but the theologians teach the unity of the Divine essence, in which subsist three Persons. If Tertullian and Novatian use subordinationist language of the Son (perhaps borrowed from the East), it is of little consequence in comparison with their main doctrine, that there is one substance of the Father and of the Son. Callistus excommunicates equally those who deny the distinction of Persons, and those who refuse to assert the unity of substance. Pope Dionysius is shocked that his namesake did not use the word "consubstantial" — this is more than sixty years before Nicaea. At that great council a Western bishop has the first place, with two Roman priests, and the result of the discussion is that the Roman word "consubstantial" is imposed up on all. In the East the council is succeeded by a conspiracy of silence; the Orientals will not use the word. Even Alexandria, which had kept to the doctrine of Dionysius of Rome, is not convinced that the policy was good, and Athanasius spends his life in fighting for Nicaea, yet rarely uses the crucial word. It takes half a century for the Easterns to digest it; and when they do so, they do not make the most of its meaning. It is curious how little interest even Athanasius shows in the Unity of the Trinity, which he scarcely mentions except when quoting the Dionysii; it is Didymus and the Cappadocians who word Trinitarian doctrine in the manner since consecrated by the centuries — three hypostases, one usia; but this is merely the conventional translation of the ancient Latin formula, though it was new to the East.
If we look back at the three centuries, second, third, and fourth of which we have been speaking, we shall see that the Greek-speaking Church taught the Divinity of the Son, and Three inseparable Persons, and one God the Father, without being able philosophically to harmonize these conceptions. The attempts which were made were sometimes condemned as heresy in the one direction or the other, or at best arrived at unsatisfactory and erroneous explanations, such as the distinction of the logos endiathetos and the logos prophorikos or the assertion of the eternity of Creation. The Latin Church preserved always the simple tradition of three distinct Persons and one divine Essence. We must judge the Easterns to have started from a less perfect tradition, for it would be too harsh to accuse them of wilfully perverting it. But they show their love of subtle distinctions at the same time that they lay bare their want of philosophical grasp. The common people talked theology in the streets; but the professional theologians did not see that the root of religion is the unity of God, and that, so far, it is better to be a Sabellian than a Semi-Arian. There is something mythological about their conceptions, even in the case of Origen, however important a thinker he may be in comparison with other ancients. His conceptions of Christianity dominated the East for some time, but an Origenist Christianity would never have influenced the modern world.
The Latin conception of theological doctrine, on the other hand, was by no means a mere adherence to an uncomprehended tradition. The Latins in each controversy of these early centuries seized the main point, and preserved it at all hazards. Never for an instant did they allow the unity of God to be obscured. The equality of the Son and his consubstantiality were seen to be necessary to that unity. The Platonist idea of the need of a mediator between the transcendent God and Creation does not entangle them, for they were too clear-headed to suppose that there could be anything half-way between the finite and the infinite. In a word, the Latins are philosophers, and the Easterns are not. The East can speculate and wrangle about theology, but it cannot grasp a large view. It is in accordance with this that it was in the West, after all the struggle was over, that the Trinitarian doctrine was completely systematized by Augustine; in the West, that the Athanasian creed was formulated. The same story repeats itself in the fifth century. The philosophical heresy of Pelagius arose in the West, and in the West only could it have been exorcized. The schools of Antioch and Alexandria each insisted on one side of the question as to the union of the two Natures in the Incarnation; the one School fell into Nestorianism, the other into Eutychianism, though the leaders were orthodox. But neither Cyril nor the great Theodoret was able to rise above the controversy, and express the two complementary truths in one consistent doctrine. They held what St. Leo held; but, omitting their interminable arguments and proofs, the Latin writer words the true doctrine once for all, because he sees it philosophically. No wonder that the most popular of the Eastern Fathers has always been untheological Chrysostom, whereas the most popular of the Western Fathers is the philosopher Augustine. Whenever the East was severed from the West, it contributed nothing to the elucidation and development of dogma, and when united, its contribution was mostly to make difficulties for the West to unravel.
But the West has continued without ceasing its work of exposition and evolution. After the fifth century there is not much development or definition in the patristic period; the dogmas defined needed only a reference to antiquity. But again and again Rome had to impose her dogmas on Byzantium — 519, 680, and 786 are famous dates, when the whole Eastern Church had to accept a papal document for the sake of reunion, and the intervals between these dates supply lesser instances. The Eastern Church had always possessed a traditional belief in Roman tradition and in the duty of recourse to the See of Peter; the Arians expressed it when they wrote to Pope Julius to deprecate interference — Rome, they said, was "the metropolis of the faith from the beginning". In the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries the lesson had been learnt thoroughly, and the East proclaimed the papal prerogatives, and appealed to them with a fervour which experience had taught to be in place. In such a sketch as this, all elements cannot be taken into consideration. It is obvious that Eastern theology had a great and varied influence on Latin Christendom. But the essential truth remains that the West thought more clearly than the East, while preserving with greater faithfulness a more explicit tradition as to cardinal dogmas, and that the West imposed her doctrines and her definitions on the East, and repeatedly, if necessary, reasserted and reimposed them.
F. Discipline, Liturgy, Ascetics. According to tradition, the multiplication of bishoprics, so that each city had its own bishop, began in the province of Asia, under the direction of St. John. The development was uneven. There may have been but one see in Egypt at the end of the second century, though there were large numbers in all the provinces of Asia Minor, and a great many in Phoenicia and Palestine. Groupings under metropolitan sees began in that century in the East, and in the third century this organization was recognized as a matter of course. Over metropolitans are the patriarchs. This method of grouping spread to the West. At first Africa had the most numerous sees; in the middle of the third century there were about a hundred, and they quickly increased to more than four times that number. But each province of Africa had not a metropolitan see; only a presidency was accorded to the senior bishop, except in Proconsularis, where Carthage was the metropolis of the province and her bishop was the first of all Africa. His rights are undefined, though his influence was great. But Rome was near, and the pope had certainly far more actual power, as well as more recognized right, than the primate; we see this in Tertullian's time, and it remains true in spite of the resistance of Cyprian. The other countries, Italy, Spain, Gaul, were gradually organized according to the Greek model, and the Greek metropolis, patriarch, were adapted. Councils were held early in the West. But disciplinary canons were first enacted in the East. St. Cyprian's large councils passed no canons, and that saint considered that each bishop is answerable to God alone for the government of his diocese; in other words, he knows no canon law. The foundation of Latin canon law is in the canons of Eastern councils, which open the Western collections. in spite of this, we need not suppose the East was more regular, or better governed, than the West, where the popes guarded order and justice. But the East had larger communities, and they had developed more fully, and therefore the need arose earlier there to commit definite rules to writing.
The florid taste of the East soon decorated the liturgy with beautiful excrescences. Many such excellent practices moved Westward; the Latin rites borrowed prayers and songs, antiphons, antiphonal singing, the use of the alleluia, of the doxology, etc. If the East adopted the Latin Christmas Day, the West imported not merely the Greek Epiphany, but feast after feast, in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries. The West joined in devotion to Eastern martyrs. The special honour and love of Our Lady is at first characteristic of the East (except Antioch), and then conquers the West. The parcelling of the bodies of the saints as relics for devotional purposes, spread all over the West from the East; only Rome held out, until the time of St. Gregory the Great, against what might be thought an irreverence rather than an honour to the saints. If the first three centuries are full of pilgrimages to Rome from the East, yet from the fourth century onward West joins with East in making Jerusalem the principal goal of such pious journeys; and these voyagers brought back much knowledge of the East to the most distant parts of the West. Monasticism began in Egypt with Paul and Anthony, and spread from Egypt to Syria; St. Athanasius brought the knowledge of it to the West, and the Western monachism of Jerome and Augustine, of Honoratus and Martin, of Benedict and Columba, always looked to the East, to Anthony and Pachomius and Hilarion, and above all to Basil, for its most perfect models. Edifying literature in the form of the lives of the saints began with Athanasius, and was imitated by Jerome. But the Latin writers, Rufinus and Cassian, gave accounts of Eastern monachism, and Palladius and the later Greek writers were early translated into Latin. Soon indeed there were lives of Latin saints, of which that of St. Martin was the most famous, but the year 600 had almost come when St. Gregory the Great felt it still necessary to protest that as good might be found in Italy as in Egypt and Syria, and published his dialogues to prove his point, by supplying edifying stories of his own country to put beside the older histories of the monks. It would be out of place here to go more into detail in these subjects. Enough has been said to show that the West borrowed, with open-minded simplicity and humility, from the elder East all kinds of practical and useful ways in ecclesiastical affairs and in the Christian life. The converse influence in practical matters of West on East was naturally very small.
G. Historical Materials. The principal ancient historians of the patristic period were mentioned above. They cannot always be completely trusted. The continuators of Eusebius, that is, Rufinus, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, are not to be compared to Eusebius himself, for that industrious prelate has fortunately bequeathed to us rather a collection of invaluable materials than a history. His "Life" or rather "Panegyric of Constantine" is less remarkable for its contents than for its politic omissions. Eusebius found his materials in the library of Pamphilus at Caesarea, and still more in that left by Bishop Alexander at Jerusalem. He cites earlier collections of documents, the letters of Dionysius of Corinth, Dionysius of Alexandria, Serapion of Antioch, some of the epistles sent to Pope Victor by councils throughout the Church, besides employing earlier writers of history or memoirs such as Papias, Hegesippus, Apollonius, an anonymous opponent of the Montanists, the "Little Labyrinth "of Hippolytus (?), etc. The principal additions we can still make to these precious remnants are, first, St. Irenaeus on the heresies; then the works of Tertullian, full of valuable information about the controversies of his own time and place and the customs of the Western Church, and containing also some less valuable information about earlier matters — less valuable, because Tertullian is singularly careless and deficient in historical sense. Next, we possess the correspondence of St. Cyprian, comprising letters of African councils, of St. Cornelius and others, besides those of the saint himself. To all this fragmentary information we can add much from St. Epiphanius, something from St. Jerome and also from Photius and Byzantine chronographers. The whole Ante-Nicene evidence has been catalogued with wonderful industry by Harnack, with the help of Preuschen and others, in a book of 1021 pages, the first volume of his invaluable "History of Early Christian Literature". In the middle of the fourth century, St. Epiphanius's book on heresies is learned but confused; it is most annoying to think how useful it would have been had its pious author quoted his authorities by name, as Eusebius did. As it is, we can with difficulty, if at all, discover whether his sources are to be depended on or not. St. Jerome's lives of illustrious men are carelessly put together, mainly from Eusebius, but with additional information of great value, where we can trust its accuracy. Gennadius of Marseilles continued this work with great profit to us. The Western cataloguers of heresies, such as Philastrius, Praedestinatus, and St. Augustine, are less useful.
Collections of documents are the most important matter of all. In the Arian controversy the collections published by St. Athanasius in his apologetic works are first-rate authorities. Of those put together by St. Hilary only fragments survive. Another dossier by the Homoiousian Sabinus, Bishop of Heraclea, was known to Socrates, and we can trace its use by him. A collection of documents connected with the origins of Donatism was made towards the beginning of the fourth century, and was appended by St. Optatus to his great work. Unfortunately only a part is preserved; but much of the lost matter is quoted by Optatus and Augustine. A pupil of St. Augustine, Marius Mercator, happened to be at Constantinople during the Nestorian controversy, and he formed an interesting collection of pièces justificatives. He put together a corresponding set of papers bearing on the Pelagian controversy. Irenaeus, Bishop of Tyre, amassed documents bearing on Nestonianism, as a brief in his own defence. These have been preserved to us in the reply of an opponent, who has added a great number. Another kind of collection is that of letters. St. Isidore's and St. Augustine's are immensely numerous, but bear little upon history. There is far more historical matter in those (for instance) of Ambrose and Jerome, Basil and Chrysostom. Those of the popes are numerous, and of first-rate value; and the large collections of them also contain letters addressed to the popes. The correspondence of Leo and of Hormisdas is very complete. Besides these collections of papal letters and the decretals, we have separate collections, of which two are important, the Collectio Avellana, and that of Stephen of Larissa.
Councils supply another great historical source. Those of Nicaea, Sardica, Constantinople, have left us no Acts, only some letters and canons. Of the later oecumenical councils we have not only the detailed Acts, but also numbers of letters connected with them. Many smaller councils have also been preserved in the later collections; those made by Ferrandus of Carthage and Dionysius the Little deserve special mention. In many cases the Acts of one council are preserved by another at which they were read. For example, in 418, a Council of Carthage recited all the canons of former African plenary councils in the presence of a papal legate; the Council of Chalcedon embodies all the Acts of the first session of the Robber Council of Ephesus, and the Acts of that session contained the Acts of two synods of Constantinople. The later sessions of the Robber Council (preserved only in Syriac) contain a number of documents concerning inquiries and trials of prelates. Much information of various kinds has been derived of late years from Syriac and Coptic sources, and even from the Arabic, Armenian, Persian, Ethiopia and Slavonic. It is not necessary to speak here of the patristic writings as sources for our knowledge of Church organization, ecclesiastical geography, liturgies. canon law and procedure, archaeology, etc. The sources are, however, much the same for all these branches as for history proper.
IV. PATRISTIC STUDY
A. Editors of the Fathers. The earliest histories of patristic literature are those contained in Eusebius and in Jerome's "De viris illustribus". They were followed by Gennadius, who continued Eusebius, by St. Isidore of Seville, and by St. Ildephonsus of Toledo. In the Middle Ages the best known are Sigebert of the monastery of Gembloux (d. 1112), and Trithemius, Abbot of Sponheim and of Würzburg (d. 1516). Between these come an anonymous monk of Melk (Mellicensis, c. 1135) and Honorius of Autun (1122-5). Ancient editors are not wanting; for instance, many anonymous works, like the Pseudo-Clementines and Apostolic Constitutions, have been remodelled more than once; the translators of Origen (Jerome, Rufinus, and unknown persons) cut out, altered, added; St. Jerome published an expurgated edition of Victoninus "On the Apocalypse". Pamphilus made a list of Origen's writings, and Possidius did the same for those of Augustine.
The great editions of the Fathers began when printing had become common. One of the earliest editors was Faber Stapulensis (Lefèvre d'Estaples), whose edition of Dionysius the Areopagite was published in 1498. The Belgian Pamèle (1536-87) published much. The controversialist Feuardent, a Franciscan (1539-1610) did some good editing. The sixteenth century produced gigantic works of history. The Protestant "Centuriators" of Magdeburg described thirteen centuries in as many volumes (1559-74). Cardinal Baronius (1538-1607) replied with his famous "Annales Ecclesiastici", reaching to the year 1198 (12 vols., 1588-1607). Marguerin de la Bigne, a doctor of the Sorbonne (1546-89), published his "Bibliotheca veterum Patrum" (9 vols., 1577-9) to assist in refuting the Centuriators.
The great Jesuit editors were almost in the seventeenth century; Gretserus (1562-1625), Fronto Ducaeus (Fronton du Duc, 1558-1624), Andreas Schott (1552-1629), were diligent editors of the Greek Fathers. The celebrated Sirmond (1559-1651) continued to publish Greek Fathers and councils and much else, from the age of 51 to 92. Denis Petau (Petavius, 1583-1652) edited Greek Fathers, wrote on chronology, and produced an incomparable book of historical theology, "De theologicis dogmatibus" (1044). To these may be added the ascetic Halloix (1572-1656), the uncritical Chifflet (1592-1682), and Jean Garnier, the historian of the Pelagians (d. 1681). The greatest work of the Society of Jesus is the publication of the "Acta Sanctorum", which has now reached the beginning of November, in 64 volumes. It was planned by Rosweyde (1570-1629) as a large collection of lives of saints; but the founder of the work as we have it is the famous John van Bolland (1596-1665). He was joined in 1643 by Henschenius and Papebrochius (1628-1714), and thus the Society of Bollandists began, and continued, in spite of the suppression of the Jesuits, until the French Revolution, 1794. It was happily revived in 1836 (see ). Other Catholic editors were Gerhard Voss (d. 1609), Albaspinaeus (De l'Aubespine, Bishop of Orléans, 1579-1630), Rigault (1577-1654), and the Sorbonne doctor Cotelier (1629-86). The Dominican Combéfis (1605-79) edited Greek Fathers, added two volumes to de la Bigne's collection, and made collections of patristic sermons. The layman Valesius (de Valois, 1603-70) was of great eminence.
Among Protestants may be mentioned the controversialist Clericus (Le Clerc, 1657-1736); Bishop Fell of Oxford (1625-86), the editor of Cyprian, with whom must be classed Bishop Pearson and Dodwell; Grabe (1666-1711), a Prussian who settled in England; the Calvinist Basnage (1653-1723). The famous Gallican Etienne Baluze (1630-1718), was an editor of great industry. The Provençal Franciscan, Pagi, published an invaluable commentary on Baronius in 1689-1705. But the greatest historical achievement was that of a secular priest, Louis Le Nain de Tillemont, whose "Histoire des Empereurs" (6 vols., 1690) and "Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique des six premiers siècles" (16 vols., 1693) have never been superseded or equalled. Other historians are Cardinal H. Noris (1631-1704); Natalis Alexander (1639-1725), a Dominican; Fleury (in French, 1690-1719). To these must be added the Protestant Archbishop Ussher of Dublin (1580-1656), and many canonists, such as Van Espen, Du Pin, La Marca, and Christianus Lupus. The Oratorian Thomassin wrote on Christian antiquities (1619-95); the English Bingham composed a great work on the same subject (1708-22). Holstein (1596-1661), a convert from Protestantism, was librarian at the Vatican, and published collections of documents. The Oratorian J. Morin (1597-1659) published a famous work on the history of Holy orders, and a confused one on that of penance. The chief patristic theologian among English Protestants is Bishop Bull, who wrote a reply to Petavius's views on the development of dogma, entitled "Defensio fidei Nicaenae" (1685). The Greek Leo Allatius (1586-1669), custos of the Vatican Library, was almost a second Bessarion. He wrote on dogma and on the ecclesiastical books of the Greeks. A century later the Maronite J. S. Assemani (1687-1768) published amongst other works a "Bibliotheca Orientalis" and an edition of Ephrem Syrus. His nephew edited an immense collection of liturgies. The chief liturgiologist of the seventeenth century is the Blessed Cardinal Tommasi, a Theatine (1649-1713, beatified 1803), the type of a saintly savant.
The great Benedictines form a group by themselves, for (apart from Dom Calmet, a Biblical scholar, and Dom Ceillier, who belonged to the Congregation of St-Vannes) all were of the Congregation of St-Maur, the learned men of which were drafted into the Abbey of St-Germain-des-Prés at Paris. Dom Luc d'Achéry (1605-85) is the founder ("Spicilegium", 13 vols.); Dom Mabillon (1632-1707) is the greatest name, but he was mainly occupied with the early Middle Ages. Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741) has almost equal fame (Athanasius, Hexapla of Origen, Chrysostom, Antiquities, Palaeography). Dom Coustant (1654-1721) was the principal collaborator, it seems, in the great edition of St. Augustine (1679-1700; also letters of the Popes, Hilary). Dom Garet (Cassiodorus, 1679), Du Friche (St Ambrose, 1686-90), Martianay (St. Jerome, 1693-1706, less successful), Delarue (Origen, 1733-59), Maran (with Toutée, Cyril of Jerusalem, 1720; alone, the Apologists, 1742; Gregory Nazianzen, unfinished), Massuet (Irenaeus, 1710), Ste-Marthe (Gregory the Great, 1705), Julien Garnier (St. Basil, 1721-2), Ruinart (Acta Martyrum sincera, 1689, Victor Vitensis, 1694, and Gregory of Tours and Fredegar, 1699), are all well-known names. The works of Martène (1654-1739) on ecclesiastical and monastic rites (1690 and 1700-2) and his collections of anecdota (1700, 1717, and 1724-33) are most voluminous; he was assisted by Durand. The great historical works of the Benedictines of St-Maur need not be mentioned here, but Dom Sabatier's edition of the Old Latin Bible, and the new editions of Du Cange's glossaries must be noted. For the great editors of collections of councils see under the names mentioned in the bibliography of the article on .
In the eighteenth century may be noted Archbishop Potter (1674-1747, Clement of Alexandria). At Rome Arevalo (Isidore of Seville, 1797-1803); Gallandi, a Venetian Oratorian (Bibliotheca veterum Patrum, 1765-81). The Veronese scholars form a remarkable group. The historian Maffei (for our purpose his "anecdota of Cassiodorus" are to be noted, 1702), Vallarsi (St. Jerome, 1734-42, a great work, and Rufinus, 1745), the brothers Ballerini (St. Zeno, 1739; St. Leo, 1753-7, a most remarkable production), not to speak of Bianchini, who published codices of the Old Latin Gospels, and the Dominican Mansi, Archbishop of Lucca, who re-edited Baronius, Fabricius, Thomassinus, Baluze, etc., as well as the "Collectio Amplissima" of councils. A general conspectus shows us the Jesuits taking the lead c. 1590-1650, and the Benedictines working about 1680-1750. The French are always in the first place. There are some sparse names of eminence in Protestant England; a few in Germany; Italy takes the lead in the second half of the eighteenth century. The great literary histories of Bellarmine, Fabricius, Du Pin, Cave, Oudin, Schram, Lumper, Ziegelbauer, and Schoenemann will be found below in the bibliography. The first half of the nineteenth century was singularly barren of patristic study; nevertheless there were marks of the commencement of the new era in which Germany takes the head. The second half of the nineteenth was exceptionally and increasingly prolific. It is impossible to enumerate the chief editors and critics. New matter was poured forth by Cardinal Mai (1782-1854) and Cardinal Pitra (1812- 89), both prefects of the Vatican Library. Inedita in such quantities seem to be found no more, but isolated discoveries have come frequently and still come; Eastern libraries, such as those of Mount Athos and Patmos, Constantinople, and Jerusalem, and Mount Sinai, have yielded unknown treasures, while the Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, etc., have supplied many losses supposed to be irrecoverable. The sands of Egypt have given something, but not much, to patrology.
The greatest boon in the way of editing has been the two great patrologies of the Abbé Migne (1800-75). This energetic man put the works of all the Greek and Latin Fathers within easy reach by the "Patrologia Latina" (222 vols., including 4 vols. of indexes) and the "Patrologia Graeca" (161 vols). The Ateliers Catholiques which he founded produced wood-carving, pictures, organs, etc., but printing was the special work. The workshops were destroyed by a disastrous fire in 1868, and the recommencement of the work was made impossible by the Franco-German war. The "Monumenta Germaniae", begun by the Berlin librarian Pertz, was continued with vigour under the most celebrated scholar of the century, Theodor Mommsen. Small collections of patristic works are catalogued below. A new edition of the Latin Fathers was undertaken in the sixties by the Academy of Vienna. The volumes published up till now have been uniformly creditable works which call up no particular enthusiasm. At the present rate of progress some centuries will be needed for the great work. The Berlin Academy has commenced a more modest task, the re-editing of the Greek Ante-Nicene writers, and the energy of Adolf Harnack is ensuring rapid publication and real success. The same indefatigable student, with von Gebhardt, edits a series of "Texte und Untersuchungen", which have for a part of their object to be the organ of the Berlin editors of the Fathers. The series contains many valuable studies, with much that would hardly have been published in other countries.
The Cambridge series of "Texts and Studies" is younger and proceeds more slowly, but keeps at a rather higher level. There should be mentioned also the Italian "Studii e Testi", in which Mercati and Pio Franchi de' Cavalieri collaborate. In England, in spite of the slight revival of interest in patristic studies caused by the Oxford Movement, the amount of work has not been great. For learning perhaps Newman is really first in the theological questions. As critics the Cambridge School, Westcott, Hort, and above all Lightfoot, are second to none. But the amount edited has been very small, and the excellent "Dictionary of Christian Biography" is the only great work published. Until 1898 there was absolutely no organ for patristic studies, and the "Journal of Theological Studies" founded in that year would have found it difficult to survive financially without the help of the Oxford University Press. But there has been an increase of interest in these subjects of late years, both among Protestants and Catholics, in England and in the United States. Catholic France has lately been coming once more to the fore, and is very nearly level with Germany even in output. In the last fifty years, archaeology has added much to patristic studies; in this sphere the greatest name is that of De Rossi.
B. The Study of the Fathers. The helps to study, such as Patrologies, lexical information, literary histories, are mentioned below.
COLLECTIONS:— The chief collections of the Fathers are the following: DE LA BIGNE, Bibliotheca SS. PP. (5 vols. fol., Paris, 1575, and App., 1579; 4th ed., 10 vols., 1624, with Auctarium, 2 vols., 1624, and Suppl., 1639, 5th and 6th edd., 17 vols. fol., 1644 and 1654); this great work is a supplement of over 200 writings to the editions till then published of the Fathers; enlarged ed. hy UNIV. OF COLOGNE (Cologne, 1618, 14 vols., and App., 1622); the Cologne ed. enlarged by 100 writings, in 27 folio vols. (Lyons, 1677). COMBEFIS, Graeco-Latinae Patrum Bibliothecae novum Auctarium (2 vols., Paris, 1648), and Auctarium novissimum (2 vols., Paris, 1672); D'Achéry, Veterum aliquot scriptorum Spicilegium (13 vols. 4to, Paris, 1655-77, and 3 vols. fol., 1723), mostly of writings later than patristic period, as is also the case with BALUZE, Miscellanea (7 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1678-1715); re-ed. by MANSI (4 vols. fol., Lucca, 1761-4); SIRMOND, Opera varia nunc primum collecta (5 vols. fol., Paris, 1696, and Venice, 1728); MURATORI, Anecdota from the Ambrosian Libr. at Milan (4 vols. 4to, Milan, 1697-8; Padua, 1713); IDEM, Anecdota graeca (Padua, 1709); GRABE, Spicilegium of Fathers of the first and second centuries (Oxford, 1698-9, 1700, and enlarged, 1714); GALLANDI, Bibl. vet. PP., an enlarged edition of the Lyons ed. of de la Bigne (14 vols. fol., Venice, 1765-88, and index puhl. at Bologna, 1863) — nearly all the contents are reprinted in MIGNE; OBERTHÜR, SS. Patrum opera polemica de veriate religionis christ. c. Gent. et Jud. (21 vols. 8vo, Würzburg, 1777-94); IDEM, Opera omnia SS. Patrum Latinorum (13 vols., Würzburg, 1789-91); ROUTH, Reliquiae sacrae, second and third centuries (4 vols., Oxford, 1814-18; in 5 vols., 1846-8); IDEM, Scriptorum eccl. opuscula praecipua (2 vols., Oxford, 1832, 3rd vol., 1858); MAT, Scriptorum veterum nova collectio (unpubl. matter from Vatican MSS., 10 vols. 4to, 1825-38); IDEM, Spicileqium Romanum (10 vols. Svo, Rome, 1839-44); IDEM, Nova Patrum Bibtiotheca (7 vols. 4to, Rome, 1844-54; vol. 8 completed by COZZA-LUZI, 1871, vol. 9 by COZZA-LUZI, 1888, App. ad opera ed. ab A. Maio, Rome, 1871, App. altera, 1871). A few eccl. writings in MAI's Classici auctores (10 vols., Rome, 1828-38); CAILLAU, Collectio selecta SS. Ecclesia Patrum (133 vols. em. 8vo, Paris, 1829-42); GERSDORF, Bibl. Patrum eccl. lat. selecta (13 vols., Leipzig, 1838-47); the Oxford Bibliotheca Patrum reached 10 vols. (Oxford, 1838-55); PITRA, Spicilegium Solesmense (4 vols. 4to, Paris, 1852-8). The number of these various collections, in addition to the works of the great Fathers, made it difficult to obtain a complete set of patristic writings. MIGNE supplied the want by collecting almost all the foregoing (except the end of the last mentioned work, and Mais later volumes) into his complete editions: Patrologiae cursus completus, Series latine (to Innocent III, A.D. 1300, 221 vols. 4to, including four vols. of indexes, 1844-55), Series graeco-latine (to the Council of Florence, A.D. 1438-9, 161 vols. 4to, 1857-66, and another rare vol. of additions, 1866); the Series graece was also published, in Latin only, in 81 vols.; there is no index in the Series grace; an alphabetical list of contents by SCHOLAREOS (Athens, 1879, useful); other publications, not included in Migne, by PITRA, are Juris ecclesiastici Graecarum hist. et monum. (2 vols., Rome, 1864-8); Analecta sacra (6 vols., numbered I, II, III, IV, VI, VIII, Paris, 1876-84); Analecta sacra et classica (Paris, 1888); Analecta novissima, medieval (2 vols., 1885-8); the new edition of Latin Fathers is called Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum, editum consilio et impensis Academiae litterarum Caesarea Vindobonensis (Vienna, 1866, 8vo, in progress); and of the Greek Fathers: Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderten, herausgegeben von der Kirchenvätter-Kommission den Königl. preussiechen Akad. den Wise. (Berlin, 1897, large 8vo, in progress). Of the Monumenta Germaniae historica, one portion, the Auctores antiquissimi (Berlin, 1877-98), contains works of the sixth century which connect themselves with patrology. Small modern collections are HURTER, SS. Patrum opuscula selecta, with a few good notes (Innebruck, 1st series, 48 vols., 1868-85, 2nd series, 6 vols.. 1884-92) — these little books have been deservedly popular; KRÜGER, Semmlung ausgewählter kirchen- und dogmengeschichtlicher Quellenechriften (Freiburg, 1891-); RAUSCHEN, Florilegium patristicum, of first and second centuries (3 fasc., Bonn, 1904-5); Cambridge patristic texts (I, The Five Theol. Orat. of Greg. Naz., ed. MASON, 1899; II, The Catech. Or. of Greg. Nyssen., ed. SRAWLEY, 1903; Dionysius Alex., ed. FELTRE, 1904, in progress); VIZZINI, Bibl. SS. PP. Theologiae tironibus et universo clero accomodata (Rome, 1901- in progress); LIETZMANN, Kleine Texte, für theol. Vorlesungen und Uebungen (twenty-five numbers have appeared of about 16 pp. each, Bonn, 1902- in progress); an English ed. of the same (Cambridge, 1903-); Textes et documents pour l'étude historique du chrietienisme, ed. HEMMER AND LEJAY (texts, French tr., and notes, Paris, in progress — an admirable series).
INITIA:— For Greek and Latin writers up to Eusebius, the index to HARNACK, Gesch. der altchr. Litt., I; for the Latin writers of first six centuries, AUMERS, Initia libronum PP. lat. (Vienna, 1865); and up to 1200, VATASSO, Initia PP. aliorumque scriptorum sect, lat. (2 vols., Vatican press, 1906-8).
LITERARY HISTORIES:— The first is BELLARMINE, De Scriptoribus ecclesiasticis (Rome, 1613, often reprinted; with additions by LABBE, Paris, 1660, and by OUDEN, Paris, 1686); DE PIN, Bibliothèque universelle des auteurs eccles. (61 vols. 8vo, or 19 vols. 4to, Paris, 1686, etc.); this was severely criticized by the Benedictine PETITDIDIER and by the Oratorian SIMON (Critique de la Bibl. des auteurs eccl. publ. pen ill. E. Dupin, Paris, 1730), and Du Pin's work was put on the Index in 1757; FABACCEUS, Bibliotheca Graece, sive edititia Scriptorum veterum Graecorum (Hamburg, 1705-28, 14 vols.; new ed. by HARLES, Hamburg, 1790-1809, 12 vols., embraces not quite 11 vole, of the original ed.; index to this ed., Leipzig, 1838) — this great work is really a vast collection of materials; Fabricius was a Protestant (d. 1736); he made a smaller collection of the Latin lit. hist., Bibl. Latina, sive non. scr. vett, latt. (1697, 1708, 1712, etc., ed. by ERNESTI, 3 vols., Leipzig, 1773-4), and a continuation for the Middle Ages (1734-6, 5 vols.); the whole was re-edited by MANSI (6 vols., Padua, 1754, and Florence, 1858-9); LE NOURRY, Apparatus ad Biblioth. Max. vett. Patr. (2 vols. fol., Paris, 1703-15), deals with Greek Fathers of the second century and with Latin apologists; CEILLIER, Hist. générale des auteurs sacrés et ecclés. (from Moses to 1248, 23 vols., Paris, 1729-63; Table gén. des Met., by RONDET, Paris, 1782; new ed. 16 vols., Paris, 1858-69); SCHRAM, Analysis Operum SS. PP. et Scriptorum eccles. (Vienna, 1780-96, 18 vols., a valuable work); LUMPER, Hist. Theologico-critica de vitâ scriptis atque doctrina SS. PP. at scr. eccl. trium primorum saec. (Vienna, 1783-99, 13 vols.; a compilation, but good); the Anglican CAVE published a fine work, Scriptorum eccl. historia literaria (London, 1688; best ed., Oxford, 1740-3); OUDIN, a Premonstratensian, who became a Protestant, Commentarius de Scriptoribus eccl. (founded on Bellarmine, 3 vols. fol., Leipzig, 1722). On the editions of the Latin Fathers, SCHOENEMANN, Bibliotheca historico-litteraria Patrum Latinorum a Tert, ad Greg. M. at Isid. Hisp. (2 vols., Leipzig, 1792-4).
PATROLOGIES (smaller works):— GERHARD, Patrologia (Jena, 1653); HÜLSEMANN, Patrologia (Leipzig, 1670); OLEARIUS, Abacus Patrologicus (Jena, 1673); these are old-fashioned Protestant books. German Catholic works are: GOLDWITZER, Bibliographie der Kirchenväter und Kirchenlehrer (Landshut, 1828); IDEM, Patrologie verbunden mi Patristik (Nuremberg, 1833-4); the older distinction in Germany between patrology, the knowledge of the Fathers and their use, and patristic, the science of the theology of the Fathers, is now somewhat antiquated; BUSSE, Grundriss der chr. Lit. (Münster, 1828-9); MÖHLER, Patrologie, an important posthumous work of this great man, giving the first three centuries (Ratisbon, 1840); PERMANEDER, Bibliotheca patristica (2 vols., Landshut, 1841-4); FESSLER, Institutiones Patrologiae (Innsbruck, 1851), a new ed. by JUNGMANN is most valuable (Innsbruck, 1890-6); ALZOG, Grundriss der Patrologie (Freiburg im Br., 1866 and 1888); same in French by BELET (Paris, 1867); NIRSCHL, Handbuch der Patrologie und Patristik (Mainz, 1881-5); RESBÁNYAY, Compendium Patrologiae et Patristicae (Funfkirchen in Hungary, 1894); CARVAJAL, Institutiones Patrologiae (Oviedo, 1906); BARDENHEWER, Patrologie (Freiburg im Br., 1894; new ed. 1901) — this is at present by far the best handbook; the author is a professor in the Cath. theo. faculty of the Univ. of Munich; a French tr. by GODET AND VERSCHAFFEL, Les Pères de l'Église (3 vols., Paris, 1899); an Italian tr. by A. MERCATI (Rome, 1903); and an English tr. with the bibliography brought up to date, by SHAHAN (Freiburg im Br. and St. Louis, 1908); smaller works, insufficient for advanced students, but excellent for ordinary purposes, are: SCHMID, Grundlinien der Patrologie (1879; 4th ed., Freiburg im Br., 1895); an Engl. tr. revised by SCHOBEL (Freiburg, 1900); SWETE of Cambridge, Patristic Study (London, 1902).
HISTORIES OF THE FATHERS:— It is unnecessary to catalogue here all the general histories of the Church, large and small, from Baronius onwards; it will be sufficient to give some of those which deal specially with the Fathers and with ecclesiastical literature. The first and chief is the incomparable work of TILLEMONT, Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire eccl. des six premiers siècles (Paris, 1693-1712, 16 vols., and other editions); MARÉCHAL, Concordance des SS. Pères de l'Eglise, Grecs at Latins, a harmony of their theology (2 vols., Paris, 1739); BÄHR, Die christlich-römische Litteratur (4th vol. of Gesch. der römischen Litt., Karlsruhe, 1837; a new ed. of the first portion, 1872); SCHANZ, Gesch. der röm. Litt., Part III (Munich, 1896), 117-324; EBERT, Gech. der christlich-lateinischen Litt. (Leipzig, 1874; 2nd ed., 1889); Anciennes littératunes chrétiennes (in Bibliothèque de l'enseignement de l'hist. eccl., Paris): I; BATIFFOL, La littérature grecque, a useful sketch (4th ed., 1908), II; DUVAL, La littérature syriaque (3rd ed., 1908); LECLERCQ, L'Afrique chrétienne (in same Bibl. de l'ens. da l'h. eccl., 2nd ed., Paris, 1904); IDEM, L'Espagne chrétienne (2nd ed., 1906); BATIFFOL, L'église naissante et le Catholicisme, a fine apologetic account of the development of the Church, from the witness of the Fathers of the first three centuries (Paris, 1909); of general histories the best is Ducesesrese, Hist. ancienne eta tEglisa (2 vols. have appeared, Paris, 1906-7); finally, the first place is being taken among histories of the Fathers by a work to be completed in six volumes, BARDENHEWER, Geschichte der altkirchlichen Litteratur (I, to A.D. 200, Freiburg im Br., 1902; II, to A.D. 300, 1903). The following are Protestant: NEWMAN, The Church of the Fathers (London, 1840, etc.); DONALDSON, A critical history of Christian lit. . . . to the Nicene Council: I; The Apostolic Fathers, II and III; The Apologists (London, 1864-6 — unsympathetic); BRICHY, The Age of the Fathers (2 vols., London, 1903); ZÖCKLER, Gesch. der theologischen Litt. (Patristik) (Nördlingen, 1889); CRUTTWELL, A Literary History of Early Christianity . . . Nicene Period (2 vols., London, 1893); KRÜGER, Gesch. der altchristlichen Litt, in den ersten 3 Jahrh. (Freiburg im Br. and Leipzig, 1895-7); tr. GILLET (New York, 1897) — this is the beet modern German Prot. history. The following consists of materials: A. HARNACK, Gechichte der altchr. Litt, bis Eusebius, I, Die Ueberlieferung (Leipzig, 1893; this vol. enumerates all the known works of each writer, and all ancient references to them, and notices the MSS.); II, 1 (1897), and II, 2 (1904), Die Chronologie, discussing the date of each writing; the latter Greek period is dealt with by KRUMBACHER, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litt. 527-1453 (2nd ed. with assistance from EHRHARD, Munich, 1897). The following collected series of studies must be added: Textd und Untersuschungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litt., ed. VON GEBHARDT AND A. HARNAcK (1st series, 15 vols., Leipzig, 1883-97, 2nd series, Neue Folge, 14 vols., 1897-1907, in progress) — the editors are now HARNACK AND SCHMIDT; ROBINSON, Texts and Studies (Cambridge, 1891 — in progress); EHRHARD AND MÜLLER, Strassburger theologische Studien (12 vols., Freiburg im Br., 1894 — in progress); EHRHARD AND KIRSCH, Forschungen zur christl. Litt. und Dogmengeschichte (7 vols., Paderborn, in progress); La Pensée chrétienne (Paris, in progress); Studii e Testi (Vatican press, in progress). Of histories of development of dogma, HARNACK, Dogmengeschichte (3 vols., 3rd ed., 1894-7, a new ed. is in the press; French tr., Paris, 1898; Engl. tr., 7 vols., Edinburgh, 1894-9), a very clever and rather "viewy" work; LOOFS, Leitfaden zum Studium der D. G. (Halle, 1889; 3rd ed., 1893); SEEBERG, Lehrb. der D. G. (2 vols., Erlangen, 1895), conservative Protestant; IDEM, Grundriss der D. G. (1900; 2nd ed., 1905), a smaller work: SCHWANE, Dogmengeschichte, Catholic (2nd ed., 1892, etc.; French tr., Paris, 1903-4); BETHUNE-BAKER, Introduction to early History of Doctrine (London, 1903); TIXERONT, Histoire des Dogmas: I, La théologie anti-nicéenne (Paris, 1905 — excellent); and others.
PHILOLOGICAL:— On the common Greek of the early period see MOULTON, Grammar of N. T. Greek: I, Prolegomena (3rd ed., Edinburgh, 1909), and references; on the literary Greek, A.D. 1-250, SCHMIDT, Den Atticismus von Dion. Hal. bis auf den zweiten Philostratus (4 vols., Stuttgart, 1887-9); THUMB, Die griechieche Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus (Strasburg, 1901). Besides the Thesaurus of STEPHANUS (latest ed., 8 vols., fol., Paris, 1831-65) and lexicons of classical and Biblical Greek, special dictionaries of later Greek are DU CANGE, Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae graecitatis (2 vols., Lyons, 1688, and new ed., Breslan, 1890-1); SOPHOCLES, Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods, 146-1100 (3rd ed., New York, 1888); words wanting in Stephanus and in Sophocles are collected by KUMANUDES (S. A. Koumanoudes), Sunagôgê lexeôn athêsauristôn en tois heggênikois lexikois (Athens, 1883); general remarks on Byzantine Greek in KNUMBACHER, op. cit. On patristic Latin, KOFFMANE, Gesch. des Kinchenlateins: I, Entstehung . . . bis auf Augustinus-Hieronymus (Breslau, 1879-81); NORDEN, Die antika Kunstprosa (Leipzig, 1898), II; there is an immense number of studies of the language of particular Fathers [e.g. HOPPE on Tertullian (1897); WATSON (1896) and BAYARD (1902) on Cyprian; GOELTZER on Jerome (1884); REGNER on Augustine (1886), etc.], and indices latinitatis to the volumes of the Vienna Corpus PP. latt.; TRAUBE, Quellen and Untensuchungen zur lat. Phil. des Mittelalters, I (Munich, 1906); much will be found in Archiv für lat. Lexicographie, ed. WÖLFFLIN (Munich, began 1884).
TRANSLATIONS:— Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church, translated by members of the English Ch. (by PUSEY, NEWMAN, etc.), (45 vols., Oxford, 1832-). ROBERTS AND DONALDSON, The Ante-Nicene Christian Library (24 vols., Edinburgh, 1866-72; new ed. by COXE, Buffalo, 1884-6, with RICHARDSON's excellent Bibliographical Synopsis as a Suppl., 1887); SCHAFF AND WAGE, A Select Library of Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the Chr. Ch., with good notes (14 vols., Buffalo and New York, 1886-90, and 2nd series, 1900, in progress).
ENCYCLOPEDIAS AND DICTIONARIES:— SUICER, Thesaurus ecclesiasticus, a patribus graecis ordine alphabetico exhibens quaecumqua phrases, ritus, dogmata, haereses et hujusmodi alia spectant (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1682; again 1728; and Utrecht, 1746); HOFFMANNS, Bibliographisches Lexicon der gesammten Litt. der Griechen (3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1838-45); the articles on early Fathers and heresies in the Encyclopadia Britannica (8th ed.) are, many of them, by Harnack and still worth reading; WETZER AND WELTE, Kirchenlex., ed. HERGENRÖTHER, and then by KAULEN and others, 12 vols., one vol. of index (Freiburg im Br., 1882-1903); HERZOG, Realencylopädie für prot. Theol. und Kirche, 3rd ed. by HAUCK (21 vols., 1896-1908); VACANT AND MANGENOT, Dict. de Théol. cath. (Paris, in progress); CABROL, Dict. d'archéologie chr. et de liturgie (Paris, in progress); BAUDRILLART, Dict. d'hist. at de géogr. ecclésiastiques (Paris, in progress); SMITH AND WACE, A Dictionary of Christian Biography, is very full and valuable (4 vols., London, 1877-87).
GENERAL BOOKS OF REFERENCE:— ITTIG, De Bibliothecis et Catenis Patrum, gives the contents of the older collections of Fathers which were enumerated above (Leipzig, 1707); IDEM, Schediasma de auctoribus qui de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis egerunt (Leipzig, 1711); DOWLING, Notitia scriptorum SS. PP. . . . quae in collectionibus Anecdotorum post annum MDCC in lucem editis continentur (a continuation of ITTIG's De Bibl. et Cat., Oxford, 1839); an admirable modern work is EHRHARD, Die alt christliche Litt, und ihre Erforschung seit 1880: I, Allgemeine Uebersicht, 1880-4 (Freiburg im Br., 1894); II, Ante-Nicene lit., 1884-1900 (1900); the bibliographies in the works of HARNACK and of BARDENHEWER (see above) are excellent; for Ante-Nicene period, RICHARDSON, Bibliographical Synopsis (in extra vol. of Ante-Nicene. Fathers, Buffalo, 1887); for the whole period. CHEVALIER, Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen-âge: Bio-bibliographie, gives names of persons (2nd ed., Paris, 1905-07); Topo-bibliographie gives names of places and subjects (2nd ed., Paris, 1894-1903); progress each year is recorded in HOLTZMANN AND KRÜGER's Theologischer Jahresbericht from 1881; KROLL AND GURLITT, Jahresbericht für kleseische Alterthumewissenschaft (both Protestant); BIHLMEYER, Hagiagraphischer Jahresbericht for 1904-6 (Kempten and Munich, 1908). A very complete bibliography appears quarterly in the Revue d'hist. eccl. (Louvain, since 1900), with index at end of year; in this publ. the names of all Reviews dealing with patristic matters will be found. | <urn:uuid:429cbba4-bb4b-44b2-904b-6105649ddaf3> | {
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Emphasizes God’s goodness and God’s presence in your child’s life, in worship, and in commitment to service. Study emphasizes understanding self, positive values, and moral decision-making.
In grade 6, students will explore early humans and the rise of civilizations, all the while, intertwining map skills learned last year in 5th grade. In the sixth grade curriculum, students will be studying Sumer and Mesopotamia, ancient Kush and Egypt, ancient India and the Indus River Valley civilizations, ancient China, ancient Greece and ancient Rome. This year, students will continue to think and question like a historian whilst using sources, incorporating technology, and taking part in interactive lessons, which will help to solidify knowledge. A cumulative project will be completed where students research and study a civilization of their choosing and present on its most important characteristics, including: their government, religion, important leaders, social structure, and daily life. The textbook used will be My World History by Pearson and Daily Geography Practice by Evan Moore.
The 7th and 8th grade curriculum focuses on American history from 1700-1945. Students in grade 7 take a course entitled U.S. History I, covering colonial America through the Reconstruction Era. At the same time, they learn how to effectively think like historians by analyzing and reviewing both secondary and primary sources. Students in grade 8 take a course entitled U.S. History II, covering the Second Industrial Revolution to World War II. While building upon skills learned in grade 7, 8th graders will begin to look at the cultural, social, political, and economic factors that have shaped history. By doing so, they are able to improve their knowledge of 19th and 20th century American history. These skills can also be applied to World history at the high school level. The curriculum also encourages students to enhance their research and writing skills in collaboration with ELA classes in constructing a thesis-based research paper. Geography will be incorporated into both courses through the subject matter. The textbook used is: American History: Survey Edition by Pearson.
English Language Arts (ELA)
The Grades 6-8 English Language Arts curriculum continues to teach and reinforce strong reading, writing, and grammar skills begun in the lower grades. Mastery of skills will be achieved through independent and guided reading of quality literature, building a strong vocabulary, and modeling/practicing formal and informal writing throughout the curriculum. The eight parts of speech are taught using the Loyola Press Voyages in English program, and vocabulary is studied using both the Sadlier Vocabulary Workshop program and vocabulary in context for novels and stories read in class. An exploration of literary genres emphasizes critical thinking while exploring literary elements. Students at the middle school level will read at least four novels per year, in addition to various poetry, drama, and short story units. Novels taught include Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbit (Grade 6), Fever 1973 by Laurie Halse Anderson (Grade 6), The Giver by Lois Lowry (Grade 7), Call of the Wild by Jack London (Grade 7), The Pearl by John Steinbeck (Grade 8), and To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee (Grade 8). Writing, along with oral communication skills, is developed through an organized writing process that emphasizes strong mechanics, grammar, and citing supporting textual evidence in MLA Format. Writing includes narratives, description, opinion pieces, research, as well as creative writing. Please see the Academy's REACH Program for information about accelerated learning in Language Arts.
World Languages - Spanish - Grades 7-8
Students in Grade 6 select a language that they wish to study full time (5 days/week) for comprehensive foreign language development. In Grades 7-8, the Spanish program adopts a broad spectrum of communication skills utilizing the 5 C's of essential foreign language development: Communication, Culture, Connections, Comparisons, and Community. Diverse and engaging teaching strategies – including reading, speaking, writing dialogues, performing skits and listening to audio recordings of various native speakers – help students develop mastery in the basics such as the alphabet, colors, numbers, calendar vocabulary, familiar objects, school terms, clothing, family, friends, adjectives, sports, food, beverages, health and exercise choices, leisure activities, subject pronouns, and present tense verb conjugation of regular and irregular verbs. In Eighth Grade, the program will focus in the study of the celebrations and parties, possessive and demonstrative adjectives, world of travel and restaurants, making comparisons, new regular and irregular verbs, the superlative, new prepositions, adverbs, direct object pronouns, present progressive tense, and the preterite. The program also includes an exploration of the Spanish Culture and Spanish Literature, i.e. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Gustavo Bécquer, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, José Martí. The program takes a communicative approach, which means speaking primarily in the target language. English is used sparingly only to explain difficult grammar situations. By the completion of grade 8, students at the Academy are ready for Spanish II/Spanish II Honors in high school.
STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, Math)
In STEAM, the focus is on the technology side so as to introduce students to the Macintosh I5 computers which are available for their use in the computer labs. Since the computers are PC compatible, students will be learning programming and making use of applications on both Apple and PC platforms. In addition, students will create innovative projects and practice teamwork problem solving in the math and engineering areas. Grade 6 focuses on building structures while grades 7-8 work with physics and rocketry.
Additonally, graphic design and desktop publishing skills will be learned through Microsoft Publisher and online resources. Other topics covered every year include webquests, research, and “roundtable” discussions of ethics in technology.
Promotes logical thinking through lessons that emphasize sequenced computational skills, concept development, basic algebraic expressions, problem-solving techniques, and real-life applications. Pre-qualified students are eligible to participate in the Academy's REACH Program for accelerated math instruction, where they can matriculate a grade level above their peers. All students participate in the integrated STEAM Program for Science, Technology, Engineering, Art and Math inquiry-based learning opportunities.
Grade six math classes use the curriculum Progress in Mathematics textbook published by Sadlier-Oxford. Throughout the year we will work with whole numbers, fractions, decimals, percent, and integers. Students will be exploring algebraic concepts including order of operations, exponents, and variables. Formulas, equations and definitions of mathematical terms will be emphasized. Going through the problem solving process as well as utilizing a variety of methods and strategies will be addressed along with communicating to others how solutions have been found. It is important to note that students are assessed not only on finding a correct answer, but their ability to progress through and show all steps needed to reach an answer.
Grade seven will use the curriculum outlined in the Pre-Algebra Pearson Prentice Hall textbook. Students, using the Pre-Algebra text, will build upon previously learned concepts by exploring and discovering problem solving skills essential to algebraic expressions and equations, linear and nonlinear functions, spatial thinking (involving geometric concepts), data analysis, and probability.
Grade eight will use the curriculum outlined in the Algebra I Pearson Prentice Hall textbook. Students will explore algebraic concepts that will reinforce and further develop pre-algebra skills that are essential to all future math courses. Students will build upon their experience with functions and equations as they move on to more abstract algebraic concepts including polynomials and quadratic equations and functions.
Throughout the year, students will engage in various methods and strategies to gain a deeper understanding of the concepts being taught and the connections to previous years of learning. Students will not only be assessed on correctly solving a problem but having the ability to interpret the solution and describe its reasonableness in terms of the context of the problem.
Science & Technology
The middle school science curriculum focuses on a hands on, minds on approach to learning. This means that all students will participate in many lab investigations, both in and out of the classroom, with the textbooks being used more as a reference resource rather than the main source of lessons. Students in the program are encouraged to question the world around them and learn how to make meaningful connections by applying science concepts to experiences. By being engaged in the program students will investigate answers to their questions and use data to support their findings. Different types of techniques will be utilized within the classroom, such as: whole class activities, large group presentations, working in groups and individual activities. NDA’s middle school science program is more than memorizing facts and figures, it’s about being engaged and excited. It’s about being lifelong science learners.
In the sixth grade students will be active participants in the learning process as they explore and discover our world, space and human ingenuity. The Science Explorer Series, published by Prentice Hall, will be one support the students will use. Students will start with astronomy and will create a three D model of the moon and a digital book of planet facts. The students will take a field trip to Framingham State University where they will spend the day at their planetarium and explore what it would be like to be living on a colony on Mars. They will also perform experiments that astronauts in space would carry out. In the second module, the students will read and investigate “Inside Earth” by Prentice Hall. The students will participate in many hands-on experiments as they investigate the Earth's layers, volcanoes, earthquakes, the rock cycle and much more. Science lessons will require students to act like scientists. Students will question, hypothesize, observe, and conclude as they perform experiments and write lab reports. The students will create a volcano out of homemade playdough and predict where the flow will come out, create an earthquake resistant house and test its ability to stand op on a jello earthquake and create a three D model of the layers of the Earth.
The students in the 7th grade will start out studying life science, using the textbook “Environmental Science” by Prentice Hall as a primary resource. This book allows many hands on experiments including growing brine shrimp from eggs, creating a closed system for plants to live, and studying temperature inversion and modeling how the concept works. The students will also have an opportunity to study the Notre Dame watershed and discover what types of trees are in the forests. From there we will move on to parts of the book “Earth’s Changing Surface” and finish with ”Cells and Heredity.” The students will have many opportunities to expand on the knowledge that is in the textbook and create google documents that they can share their research with their peers.
Eighth grade students can expect to cover the Prentice Hall units including, but not limited to: Motion, Forces, and Energy; Chemical Building Blocks; and Chemical Interactions. Students will participate in laboratory experiments, design challenges and at home projects. Evidence of learning will be documented in student journals and through the submission of projects. Journals will be picked up periodically (students will be made aware once per term) and graded as homework. Projects, such as the Science Fair, will count as a test grade. The students are encouraged to think like scientists by asking questions, making observations, inferring, predicting, and experimenting when possible. The Scientific Method, as well as The Engineering Design Process will be used for all labs and as a basis for reports. A highlight of the year for 8th graders is the preparation and participation in the NDA Science Fair.
Want to Learn More?
Come see for yourself what is going on in the 5th - 8th grade classrooms. We hold two open houses a year for Lower School prospects as well opportunities for a personal tour, and Shadow Day experiences to attend a morning of classes and lunch with a host student.
The Academy's Extended Day Program assists families who require options for after school care and the Enrichment Activities program provides special opportunities for children to explore personal interests. Learn more about the Admission process here. | <urn:uuid:04d735b3-02b7-4066-8dfe-117a5a95fee7> | {
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insects are invertebrates!
living things are placed into groups depending on common characteristics.
The animal kingdom is informally divided into two groups, the vertebrates
and invertebrates. Invertebrates are a group of animals that
have no backbone, unlike animals such as reptiles, amphibians, fish,
birds and mammals who all have a backbone.
or taxonomy is a means of arranging living things into orderly groups.
These groups are mostly distinguished by structure and reflect evolutionary
relationships. Standardised categories allow quick recognition of
individuals and groups of similar organisms.
are 7 levels of classification, KINGDOM,
PHYLUM, CLASS, ORDER, FAMILY, GENUS and SPECIES.
highest classification level "KINGDOM' incorporates organisms that
share only a few important features. Modern taxonomy recognises
- Animalia (animals)
- Plantae (plants)
- Fungi (fungi)
- Procaryota (bacteria)
- Protoctista (algae, protozoans, slime moulds)
you move down through the levels, organisms are grouped into smaller
and smaller groups. Individuals within each group become more alike,
until you are left with a group of all the same type of organism
i.e. all the same species.
Groups at Each Level
other multicellular animals e.g. birds, mammals, worms, starfish
other arthropods e.g. insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions
insects e.g. grasshoppers, bugs, beetles, flies, butterflies
other Hymenoptera only e.g. bees, wasps, ants, sawflies
other ants, 95 Genera e.g. meat ants, green ants, sugar ants
members of this species only
95% of all animals on the earth are invertebrates of one form or
another. Invertebrates are found just about everywhere in both terrestrial
and aquatic habitats, and include animals ranging from sponges,
corals and seastars to insects, crabs and worms, just to name a
few. For information on collecting aquatic invertebrates in freshwater
environments see the Waterwatch
80% of all invertebrates are grouped into the single phylum Arthropoda
that includes spiders, crustaceans, centipedes, millipedes and insects.
All arthropods share the following common features:
segmented body and paired limbs
hard outer skin (known as an exoskeleton) with flexible
bilateral symmetry (meaning each side of the body is a mirror
image of the other)
remaining invertebrates consist of worms, slugs and snails.
Unlike arthropods these animals lack segmented legs and
are generally soft bodied.
are different from most other invertebrates. They are the largest
Class of organisms and account for over 75% of all animal species.
Insects can be separated from other invertebrates as they generally
have 6 legs and conform to a common body plan. This body plan comprises
of 3 parts, the head, thorax and abdomen although some parts may
be more distinct than others. Particular insect orders may have
some structures absent, reduced or greatly modified and some young
stages can appear very different from their mature adult form.
to identify insects?
you would like to identify insects then you must learn the parts
of their anatomy. There are three main parts which make up the body
of an insect, each having a specific role.
is designed for feeding and sensory purposes and consists of one
pair of compound eyes and up to 3 simple eyes, 1 pair of antennae
and mouthparts, which may be piercing, chewing or sucking types
depending on the insect.
is designed and is made up of 3 segments with each carrying 1 pair
of legs. In some adult insects the last two segments of the thorax
may support a pair of wings depending on the species.
is designed for reproduction. The abdomen is the largest and softest
of the 3 body parts. The abdomen houses all the organs vital for
insect survival such as respiration, digestion and reproduction.
Insects inhabit a diverse range of habitats, both terrestrial and
aquatic and this is often reflected by the great diversity in their
appearance. Most undergo some degree of change or metamorphosis
during their life cycle and young may not have all of the adult
insect features such as wings.
insects, such as silverfish show no change throughout their lifetime
except for an increase in body size. While other insects such as
bugs or grasshoppers go through gradual stages of development, each
successive stage (or nymph) is slightly more developed than the
previous one. For example wings begin to develop from small wing
buds and grow larger with each moult.
insects such as moths or beetles are typical of insects that undergo
a number of abrupt changes as they mature; egg - larvae - chrysalis/pupae
- adult. In insects such as these, the wings develop inside the
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What is Permaculture?
Permaculture “Our philosophy”.
Overall, the effectiveness of the current production system in the world depends on fossil fuels like oil or gas – resources that have their limits and are gradually being depleted. Therefore, we must seek alternative models of life that are sustainable. Permaculture is a philosophy that goes beyond organic farming. It advocates harmony of all that surrounds us. It is an ethical system which offers cooperation versus competition, encouraging coexistence and relations within communities and their environments.
Furthermore, the concept of regenerative agriculture is very important in permaculture – increasing food production with the regeneration of soil fertility, the fight against climate change, efficient water management, food sovereignty, the protection of biodiversity and ultimately, regeneration of rural or urban communities.
That is why the community must come together and work in harmony with all that surrounds us. It is fun to be in a community. Come and see our recent but steady transformation process to a more just and self-sustaining life and check out our food production where we can grow all year round in Colombia.
Our goal is for people to work together, share knowledge & ideas about maximizing farms, land usage and of course, coexisting with Mother Earth in harmony, without causing any harm.
Eco Introduction to Permaculture Course
Eco Hostel is offering an Introduction of Permaculture course in conjunction with 4 or 8 days of farming on the land (field work).
If you’re curious about Permaculture, would like to live in abundance, make a difference in your community and design your own place/farm/land or apply it into your own life, please join us!
This course is also great if you recently purchased land in Colombia and would like to grow a garden and also practice your Spanish.
The Introduction to Permaculture course in Guatapé will provide you with basic design skills and a knowledge of synergistic systems, which you can implement in your own life and in your community for a balanced living & creativity in resilience.
KNOW YOUR LAND!
MEET YOUR NEEDS!
Learn effective ways of growing healthy organic food in urban and rural settings that create a greater level of inter-connectedness and harmony between all the beings in the environment, from microbes to multinational corporations.
Designing for self-regenerative systems that can feed the family or earn an income for the community while building soil fertility.
—Creating a balanced compost for your soil
—Water harvesting and drought-proofing.
—Intensive annual and perennial food.
—Orchard and food forest design
—Appropriate technologies for sustainable communities
—Cyclical energy cycles, and creative recycling of household and industrial resources.
—Strategies for building healthy & resilient communities.
—Gift Economy, embodying the principles of reciprocity.
At Eco Hostel, we started Permaculture farming since 2012. You will find a committed crew of people passionately active in permaculture, and will realize that PERMACULTURE IS WHAT MAKES SENSE IN THIS WORLD and we are here to help you convert your life into a resilient future.
—Be inspired for change.
—Get hands on experience.
—Connect to the vast network of PERMACULTURISTS around the world.
Eco Hostel is an interactive & live Hostel (since 2012) – an educational center, a showcase of best practices for sustainable living, alternative energies, and a place where you can reconnect with yourself & nature in harmony.
—Introduction to Permaculture class in English or Spanish (2 hours)
—Practical course of four days working on the farm in Spanish or English (Monday to friday for 1 or 2 weeks) where you will learn about local Colombian plants & vegetation.
[If you are interested to learn Spanish, you can take our intensive 1 or 2 week language course prior to the Permaculture course. Then you will be able to practice your newly learned language skills on the field while you farm. (For more Info about our Spanish Course, click here)]
You can also sign up for meditation course while you learn permaculture.Read the full course description here.
—The entire program begins on Sunday and ends Friday after breakfast ( 1 or two weeks)
—Vegetarian meals (Breakfast, lunch, and dinner) included
—Accommodation for 6 nights (1 week) 12 nights (2 weeks)
1 week course
Lodging Information for Students:
Is provided in one of the shared sleeping areas (with max 3 other students). We supply sheets, pillowcases and blankets and of course a confortable bed.
(breakfast, lunch, and dinner) is fully vegetarian (very tasty and natural). The local diet is heavy on rice, beans, chickpeas, lentils, potatoes, yuca (casaba), plantains, corn, and plenty of vegetables.
Our own organic products from our garden will be available for consumption as well! We bake our own bread, prepare our arepas, consume products high in fiber and eat home cooked meals together.
Eco Hostel is a fully vegetarian establishment. Which means you can take this as an opportunity to detox your body for 1 or 2 weeks (with a good diet and no meat/chicken/fish). But for those who prefer to eat meat, feel free to try out the local restaurants in the village.
Some of the reasons for offering vegetarian meals consist of the following:
—We do not want to consume meat every day.
—Its consumption contributes to & harms our global climate (environmental impact)
—We do not wish to contribute to the constant sacrifice of animals (animal rights).
For more information about the Eco Hostel, the setting, sleeping arrangements, and photos send us an email to [email protected]
Eco Hostel also provides accommodations for non-students. for more info, please visit Eco hostel page or click here
1 or 2 weeks Spanish Courses
Two week intensive Spanish language course. All Levels. Please visit 1 or 2 weeks Spanish School or click here.
1 or 2 weeks Meditation Courses
Read the full course description here.
Schedule of Classes
To see the start dates of all classes offered & to check availability send us an email to:
Contact & Directions
To contact us with any questions.
Paola: +(57) 311 646 7039 | <urn:uuid:7e37f854-98bd-4128-ac65-93a2b937468d> | {
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tion" (p. 114). All the chapters contain interpretive as well as narrative
and documentary material.
Some critics will undoubtedly castigate Moorhead for not utilizing more
anthropological and archeological studies, for not bringing in the "Indian
viewpoint," and for failing to compare Spanish presidios with nineteenth-
century United States garrisons. However, this would be to critique a book
Moorhead did not intend to write. Such viewpoints and comparisons are
outside his established scope and purpose. He set out to review and explain
the presidial system as it was viewed and intended by the Spanish govern-
ment in Mexico and he has done this.
There are, inevitably, some minor slipups. Occasionally the data, gathered
from different sources, seem confusing and even contradictory. On page 73,
for example, Moorhead notes from the Hugo O'Conor report of 1777 that
the "total frontier force amounted to 2,311 officers and men" while on
page 91, he reports "a total force of 1,908 troops." One can only assume
that the second report did not include Indian scouts and militiamen, as
did the first. The text is sometimes repetitive, as for example in the discus-
sion of payroll abuses and attempted reforms included in chapter 2 and
chapter 8. This is nitpicking! This is a well documented study with a
generally impressive bibliography (despite some obvious omissions such as
Morfi's Diario y Derrotero, 1777-1781) and an adequate index. Included
are five maps and twenty-one excellent reproductions from the Urrutia
Collection in the British Museum.
Like Moorhead's previous books and articles, The Presidio is thoroughly
researched and documented yet interpretive and readable. It would make
an excellent text or supplementary reading for courses in southwestern or
borderlands history. It is a major contribution to the history and under-
standing of Spain's northern borderlands.
The University of Texas at Arlington SANDRA L. MYRES
Plow-Horse Cavalry: The Caney Creek Boys of the Thirty-fourth Texas.
By Robert S. Weddle. (Austin: Madrona Press, Inc., 1974. Pp. 210.
Obviously a labor of love on the part of the author, this small work is
based in large part on letters exchanged between his maternal grandparents
during the Civil War. Despite ties of kinship, however, Weddle retains a
high degree of objectivity in weaving the correspondence into an interesting
narrative. Supplementing his thread of correspondence, the author has
made extensive use of army official records and county histories.
Texas State Historical Association. The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Volume 79, July 1975 - April, 1976. Austin, Texas. The Portal to Texas History. http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth101203/. Accessed October 13, 2015. | <urn:uuid:fcbfcead-ffbe-413a-a742-5b0a2aeee509> | {
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eBooks is one of technologies that many believe will have significant impact on education; and indeed will change the way of teaching and learning in schools and universities. In essence, both eBooks and printed books are very similar in as much as they allow people to do the most important thing – read a book. However, compared to traditional books, eBooks offer new ways to distribute and interact with information. Take, for example, the eBook produced by the Oxford Internet Institute, “Geographies of the World’s Knowledge”, a research report on where and how knowledge is distributed across the world. Readers can select pieces of the pictures in this book to zoom in on and to glean further information as they wish. They can navigate to particular pages via interaction with the visualizations.
The rapid development of E-readers, tablets and mobile technology in recent years, such as Kindles, iPads and smartphones makes buying, downloading and reading eBooks more popular and easier. As a result, more and people are reading routinely on their electronic devices. In particular, the younger generation, reading is the tool for much social activity and experience through the sharing of notes and comments instantly. With these social networking developments, it is clear that there will be increased demand from learners for eBooks within academic contexts. Education will need to change to provide a more interactive learning experience and access to content anytime, anywhere as promised by using eBooks.
However, despite all the hype, eBooks have remained on the fringes of higher education. For institutions, eBook technology is still new. There are many questions needing to be answered in order to embed eBooks in teaching, learning and research. For example, is eBook technology mature enough for education? Is it time to invest heavily in e-textbooks in institutions? What are the technical and cultural challenges we are facing and how can eBooks be best used in academic contexts? We don’t know the answers to all of the questions, but it is clear that we need more information and knowledge about eBooks to make well informed decisions.
Hopefully, the newly published JISC Observatory TechWatch report on “Preparing for Effective Adoption and Use of Ebooks in Education” will help decision makers, IT managers, librarians and educators to gain a better understanding of current issues and challenges in adopting eBooks in institutions. In this report, the author, James Clay, introduces the history and key concepts of eBooks and discusses the technical, cultural and legal challenges that need to be addressed for the successful adoption of eBooks in education. Furthermore, it offers scenarios illustrating the effective use of eBooks in libraries and in teaching, learning and research in institutions. It also provides us with useful insights into the future directions of eBook development. | <urn:uuid:325927e4-cda5-4413-b5fa-16ea81366da8> | {
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Rabbi Josef Weber (center) with his sons and other Brzozow Jews, in a photograph taken by the Germans. According to testimonies, shortly before the liquidation of the ghetto, the people pictured were led to the Lazenki forests and murdered, Brzozow Ghetto
Jews waiting near the home of Judenrat Chairman Isidor Krumholtz before leaving to perform forced labor outside the ghetto, Andrychów Ghetto, 1942
Since the historiography on the ghettos in Europe during World War II had mainly been limited to the largest ones and that in fact most ghettos had never been systematically researched, the International Institute for Holocaust Research decided to conduct a comprehensive research project on the ghettos with the intention to publish an encyclopedia on the ghettos in Nazi occupied Europe.
This pioneering research project involved a systematic gathering of data from research studies, historical information, testimonies and documents dealing with more than 1,100 ghettos throughout mainly Eastern Europe where Jews were concentrated and whence they were deported. Information on conditions, the type of administration, the leadership, and individual coping methodologies were collected.
As the Nazis never clearly defined “ghettos” themselves, the Institute decided to define “ghetto” for this project in very broad terms, basing it on the phenomenological definition that was obtained through analysis of the historical material.
The data compiled records the stories of the Jews who were herded into and concentrated in various locations through the essential characteristics of the phenomenon. It reflects the differences between each ghetto and reveals the differences between each ghetto and reveals the radical changes in Jewish communal and individual life. Those changes are examined from various perspectives of daily life, coping strategies and the different forms of resistance. Thus, one is able to see the similarities and differences among the various ghettos. Some ghettos lasted only a few weeks, others a month or two, while in Poland and Lithuania some ghettos operated for years. There were different time divisions for the major events that impacted on the confined Jews throughout each ghetto’s existence, such as forced resettlement and adjustment; the sealing and isolation of the ghettos from the rest of the world; signs of imminent doom; and eventual deportation and murder.
In October 2009, the English edition of the encyclopedia was published by Yad Vashem. All entries include the location, the wartime names and geographical coordinates; and, for the larger ghettos, informational sections of the following:
- Pre-World War II
- Soviet occupation
- German (Nazi) occupation
- Ghetto setup
- Ghetto institutions, and internal life
- Murder, terror and killing operations of ghetto inhabitants
- Underground and resistance
- Number of survivors at liberation
The encyclopedia includes pictures and maps of the different ghettos. It also includes a composite of film documentation on DVD.
The Online Hebrew Edition
In the latter half of 2009, Yad Vashem began adapting the Encyclopedia of Ghettos to a new, online Hebrew format, which will be uploaded to the Yad Vashem website. The entries are being translated into Hebrew. Photographs and maps will also be included on the website. The inauguration of the online encyclopedia is forthcoming.
Dr. Lea Prais
Dr. Ruth Shachak
Dr. Nahama Gal | <urn:uuid:c226d087-ac29-4e82-8967-80b4c953e295> | {
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Posts for: September, 2013
Chewing tobacco has a certain cachet among its users, especially young boys and men, who believe using it makes them appear macho or “cool.” They also believe this “smokeless” variety (as it's often marketed by tobacco companies) is safer than cigarettes or cigars.
Unfortunately, nothing could be further from the truth. In reality, chewing tobacco is harmful to your health — and especially your oral health. Regular use of these products can lead to severe dental and mouth conditions resulting in disease, disfigurement, or even death.
Like the smoked variety, chewing tobacco infuses its users with nicotine, a chemical stimulant naturally produced by the tobacco plant. The body responds to the stimulant's effect and begins to crave it, leading to addiction.
The problem, though, is the other ingredients in chewing tobacco: more than thirty other substances known to cause various kinds of cancer, including oral. Oral cancer alone is extremely dangerous: many patients suffer partial or complete loss of oral tissue and facial structures, including the tongue, lower jaw or even the face. Some even lose their lives — statistics show that only half of those with oral cancer survive more than five years after diagnosis.
Although cancer may be the most harmful effect of chewing tobacco, it isn't the only one. Researchers have found tobacco users have higher rates of tooth decay and gum disease than non-users. Tobacco also causes cosmetic and hygiene problems, including tooth staining and chronic bad breath.
If you're a tobacco user in any form, and especially chewing or spit tobacco, as your dentist we would advise you to consider quitting the habit. Giving up tobacco will not only improve your oral health and appearance, it may even save your life.
If you would like more information on the dangers of chewing tobacco, please contact us or schedule an appointment for a consultation. You can also learn more about this topic by reading the Dear Doctor magazine article “Chewing Tobacco.”
Root canal treatments are an important method for stopping the disease process within an infected tooth and ultimately saving it. However, one of the few side effects could have an aesthetic impact on your smile. Leftover blood pigments or the filling materials themselves can cause a darkening of the tooth — the tooth could eventually stand out in an unsightly way from surrounding teeth.
There is, however, one possible solution: a whitening technique known as internal or non-vital bleaching can lighten a darkened, non-vital tooth. For this procedure, we would insert a bleaching mix (usually sodium perborate mixed with hydrogen peroxide) into the pulp chamber of the darkened tooth for a short period of time. The chemical reaction of the mix whitens the tooth from within.
Our first step is to make sure by x-rays that the root canal filling in the tooth is still intact and still has a good seal. We then create a small opening in the rear of the tooth just above the root canal filling, irrigate it with water to remove any debris, and then add a special cement at the point where the root canal filling begins to seal it from any leakage of the bleaching solution into the root canal filling.
We then insert the bleaching solution into the empty pulp chamber. This is covered with a cotton pellet, which is then sealed in with a temporary filling. We repeat this application over a number of days until we see a noticeable change in the tooth color (normally after one to four visits). At this point, we would remove any residual solution and apply a permanent filling to seal the tooth.
This procedure can be performed instead of more extensive procedures such as veneers and crowns as a cover for the discolored tooth, or as a way to lighten teeth before applying a veneer or crown to help prevent discoloration from showing through. Either way, non-vital bleaching can help remove unsightly discoloration and restore vibrancy to your smile.
If you would like more information on internal or non-vital bleaching, please contact us or schedule an appointment for a consultation. You can also learn more about this topic by reading the Dear Doctor magazine article “Whitening Traumatized Teeth.”
Even before your infant's first tooth emerges, you can take steps to reduce the risk for cavities!
Cavities occur when decay-causing bacteria living in the mouth digest carbohydrates (sugars) introduced into the mouth via food and beverages. This produces acid, which can eat through the protective enamel surface of teeth and attack the more vulnerable dentin below. Infants aren't born with decay-promoting bacteria; however, they can acquire them from their caregiver(s) through close contact, for example:
- Kissing on the mouth
- Sharing food
- Sharing eating utensils (e.g., a spoon or glass)
- Cleaning off a pacifier by mouth
Tooth decay is the most common chronic childhood disease! It can start as soon as the first tooth erupts — which generally happens around age 6 to 9 months but can be as early as 3 months or as late as 1 year. Besides being potentially painful, severe tooth decay may cause your child to lose the affected primary (baby) tooth before it's due to fall out on its own. That, in turn, can raise the risk of orthodontic problems because primary teeth maintain space for permanent teeth, which also use them as their guide for coming in properly.
It's important to clean your child's teeth regularly once they appear and to refrain from certain feeding activities that have been linked with early tooth decay. For example, use of a sleep-time bottle containing a liquid with natural or added sugars, such as formula or juice, can result in a pattern of severe decay once referred to as “baby bottle tooth decay.” These days, the term early childhood caries (ECC) is more commonly used to also encompass decay linked to continuous sippy-cup use, at-will breast-feeding throughout the night, use of a sweetened pacifier, or routine use of sugar-based oral medicines to treat chronic illness.
We recommend that you schedule a dental visit for your baby upon eruption of his or her first tooth or by age 1. This first visit can include risk assessment for decay, hands-on instruction on teeth cleaning, nutritional/feeding guidance, fluoride recommendations, and even identification of underlying conditions that should be monitored. Your child's smile is a sight to behold; starting early improves the odds of keeping it that way!
If you would like more information about infant dental care, please contact us or schedule an appointment for a consultation. You can also learn more about this topic by reading the Dear Doctor magazine article “Age One Dental Visit.”
Dental plaque (a film of bacteria that forms on your teeth) is known to be the main cause of periodontal (gum) disease. When the bacteria settle on your teeth they form a whitish film called biofilm. Those that are not removed cause formation of “pockets,” areas of separation between the teeth and their surrounding gums, in which plaque hardens into deposits known as calculus or tartar. The purpose of having your teeth cleaned regularly by a trained professional hygienist is to remove deposits of plaque and calculus. Removal of hard deposits on your teeth is called “scaling.” This can be done either by using hand-held scalers or by newer technology: ultrasonic power scalers.
Let's take a look at the strengths and weaknesses of both types of instruments.
How they work: These instruments use the energy of ultrasonic vibration to crush and remove hard, calcified deposits of calculus. They also create shockwaves that disrupt bacterial cells. Use of these tools includes washing and flushing the pockets and any exposed root surfaces with water.
Pros: They are as effective as manual instruments for calculus removal in shallow gum pockets and significantly more effective in pockets greater than 4mm. They are very effective in removing calculus from root surfaces and from within periodontal pockets. Their small tips can penetrate deeper into periodontal pockets than manual instruments and are more comfortable to experience, and they are more effective for cleaning difficult nooks and crannies. Coolant sprays flush the area and remove bacteria and their by-products. They require less time than manual instruments.
Cons: A contaminated mist may form so that the hygienist needs to wear protective equipment. The vibration of the ultrasonic instruments may make it difficult to feel if the root surface is completely smooth and free of calculus. Power scalers affect some heart pacemakers.
Conventional Hand-held Scalers
How they work: These depend on the skill and knowledge of the hygienist to manipulate them and scrape away calculus (tartar) from teeth and within pockets.
Pros: They are equally effective for plaque and calculus removal from shallow gum pockets. They do not interfere with electronic equipment like heart pacemakers. They can be used more easily on teeth in which there are areas of demineralization (areas where minerals have been removed from the tooth's enamel, making it more vulnerable to decay). They are easier on the tooth's surface and are thus better for use with porcelain or composite restoration, or sensitive teeth.
Cons: They take longer to complete a cleaning. Sometimes they cause more discomfort than ultrasonic scalers.
In most cases the choice of scalers is not really an either/or situation. Most experts say that the best results come through using both types of instruments. As a result, cleanings can be done with effective and efficient outcomes and greater patient comfort.
Contact us today to schedule an appointment to discuss your questions about dental cleanings. You can also learn more by reading the Dear Doctor magazine article, “Dental Cleanings Using Ultrasonic Scalers.” | <urn:uuid:63a2887c-ae66-4584-bcd0-9c4a04b30339> | {
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Rick Crammond created a gadget for cutting Halloween pumpkins that is powered by the faucet in a kitchen sink. The water pressure drives a stack of CDs that has been converted into a turbine. Crammond's Tesla CD Turbine uses two principles developed by Nikola Tesla in the early 1900s. The turbine uses flat discs rather than blades or cups. In Crammond's gadget, the discs are CDs or DVDs stacked in their case. Crammond adds a few other household items — such as Krazy Glue® and glue sticks — and hooks it all to a kitchen faucet using a garden hose. The result is a surprisingly powerful turbine. Crammond uses that turbine power to drive a skill saw blade for easy pumpkin cutting.
Two new technologies from Stratasys, created in partnership with Boeing, Ford, and Siemens, will bring accurate, repeatable manufacturing of very large thermoplastic end products, and much bigger composite parts, onto the factory floor for industries including automotive and aerospace.
Focus on Fundamentals consists of 45-minute on-line classes that cover a host of technologies.
You learn without leaving the comfort of your desk. All classes are taught by subject-matter experts and all are archived.
So if you can't attend live, attend at your convenience. | <urn:uuid:04efebab-227f-426e-b698-f4e2cd25eeb7> | {
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Whether steamed, stewed, sautéed, baked or broiled, oysters provide a light and fresh flavor and a powerful pack of nutrients. They are low in calories and fat and high in calcium, copper, manganese, phosphorous, potassium, protein, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and zinc. While eating raw or undercooked oysters can be dangerous, oysters that have been cooked to an internal temperature of 140 degrees F are generally safe. But to ensure your safety and prevent food-borne illness, make sure you can identify good oysters from bad oysters.
Inspect the shell for broken or damaged areas. Discard any oysters with shell damage. The shell should also be glossy white in color, although a few pink or grey streaks is acceptable.
Tap the shell with your finger. The shell should close tightly with no gaps. If the shell does not close, discard the oyster as the animal is likely dead and may harbor bacteria.
Inspect the oyster meat. Healthy oysters are plump with a glossy tan color. Bad oysters are dry and withered with a cloudy appearance. Contaminated oysters tend to be grey, brown, black or pink in color.
Smell the oyster meat. Healthy oysters smell fresh and mild. Bad oysters have a strong, offensive or pungent fishy smell.
Articles For Your Diet
- If the oysters have already been shucked -- or removed from the shells -- before you buy them, do not eat them raw. Shucked oysters should be thoroughly cooked before consumption.
- Eating raw or undercooked shellfish, like oysters, can be dangerous -- even if the oyster is fresh and healthy. Oysters harvested from warm coastal areas might be contaminated with Vibrio vulnificus or Vibrio parahaemolyticus bacteria. In many cases, contamination with these specific bacteria does not cause changes to the oyster’s appearance and smell. If you become sick within a few days of consuming raw or undercooked oysters, contact your physician. Symptoms of a Vibrio infection include abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, chills, fever and skin lesions. Severe infections could lead to bloodstream infections and death. Oysters harvested from other coastal areas might also be contaminated with other types of bacteria, which could cause severe illness after consumption.
- Dick Luria/Photodisc/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:491bc18c-cf54-43aa-9ec5-6ed44352f0b7> | {
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Archaeology is not the only field to make use of radiocarbon dating. In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiversity. The quantity of material needed for testing depends on the sample type and the technology being used.
Index Beta decay concepts. American Chemical Society. And finally, download full album marriage not this dating scheme is controversial because the dates derived are often wildly inconsistent.
Carbon dating is a technique used to determine the approximate age of once-living materials. Are Eye Transplants Possible? It was unclear for some time whether the wiggles were real or not, but they are now well-established.
The application of radiocarbon dating to groundwater analysis can offer a technique to predict the over-pumping of the aquifer before it becomes contaminated or overexploited. Before the advent of radiocarbon dating, the fossilized trees had been dated by correlating sequences of annually deposited layers of sediment at Two Creeks with sequences in Scandinavia. Calibrated dates should also identify any programs, such as OxCal, used to perform the calibration. Levin Krane points out that future carbon dating will not be so reliable because of changes in the carbon isotopic mix. Since living organisms continually exchange carbon with the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide, the ratio of C to C approaches that of the atmosphere.
When the stocks of Oxalic Acid I were almost fully consumed, another standard was made from a crop of French beet molasses. Older dates have been obtained by using special sample preparation techniques, large samples, dating my longtime friend and very long measurement times. Canon of Kings Lists of kings Limmu.
The amount of cosmic rays penetrating the earth's atmosphere is itself affected by things like the earth's magnetic field which deflects cosmic rays. Any addition of carbon to a sample of a different age will cause the measured date to be inaccurate. This cylinder was inserted into the counter in such a way that the counting wire was inside the sample cylinder, in order that there should be no material between the sample and the wire. It must be noted though that radiocarbon dating results indicate when the organism was alive but not when a material from that organism was used. Before the twentieth century, determining the age of ancient fossils or artifacts was considered the job of paleontologists or paleontologists, not nuclear physicists.
How Carbon Dating Works
Now, if this carbon dating agrees with other evolutionary methods of determining age, the team could have a real discovery on their hands. Starting where Boltwood and Libby left off, scientists began to search for other long-lived isotopes. Radiocarbon dating is a method that provides objective age estimates for carbon-based materials that originated from living organisms. When a creature dies, it ceases to consume more radiocarbon while the C already in its body continues to decay back into nitrogen.
Gas proportional counting is a conventional radiometric dating technique that counts the beta particles emitted by a given sample. Upwelling is also influenced by factors such as the topography of the local ocean bottom and coastlines, the climate, and wind patterns. These factors affect all trees in an area, so examining tree-ring sequences from old wood allows the identification of overlapping sequences. The first such published sequence, based on bristlecone pine tree rings, was created by Wesley Ferguson. The technique was developed by Willard F.
What is Radiocarbon Dating
Multiple papers have been published both supporting and opposing the criticism. Can we improve the accuracy of carbon dating? This radio-isotope decays to form nitrogen, with a half-life of years. It is naturally unstable and so it will spontaneously decay back into N after a period of time.
Which Cows Make the Best Milk? Presuming the rate of production of carbon to be constant, the activity of a sample can be directly compared to the equilibrium activity of living matter and the age calculated. In addition, a sample with a standard activity is measured, to provide a baseline for comparison. It can't be used to date rocks directly.
- To determine the age of a sample whose activity has been measured by beta counting, the ratio of its activity to the activity of the standard must be found.
- The rate of production of carbon in the atmosphere seems to be fairly constant.
- Beta particles are products of radiocarbon decay.
- This means that radiocarbon dates on wood samples can be older than the date at which the tree was felled.
The deepest parts of the ocean mix very slowly with the surface waters, and the mixing is uneven. These techniques can be applied with a sample as small as a milligram. Deep time Geological history of Earth Geological time units.
- Journal of the Franklin Institute.
- In this method, the sample is in liquid form and a scintillator is added.
- Bayesian statistical techniques can be applied when there are several radiocarbon dates to be calibrated.
Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. The ratio can further be affected by C production rates in the atmosphere, which in turn is affected by the amount of cosmic rays penetrating the earth's atmosphere. Do Antioxidants Prevent Cancer from Spreading? In all but two cases the scrolls were determined to be within years of the palaeographically determined age.
Is Carbon Dating Accurate
The method does not count beta particles but the number of carbon atoms present in the sample and the proportion of the isotopes. Specifically, each nucleus will lose an electron, a process which is referred to as decay. Krane suggests that this might have doubled the concentration compared to the carbon from cosmic ray production.
It quickly became apparent that the principles of radiocarbon dating were valid, despite certain discrepancies, the causes of which then remained unknown. Researchers had previously thought that many ideas spread by diffusion through the continent, or by invasions of peoples bringing new cultural ideas with them. Radiocarbon dates can also be used in geology, sedimentology, and lake studies, free flirt and dating sites for example.
Archaeology and other human sciences use radiocarbon dating to prove or disprove theories. Another limitation is that this technique can only be applied to organic material such as bone, flesh, or wood. Krane points out that future carbon dating will not be so reliable because of changes in the carbon isotopic mix.
Background samples analyzed are usually geological in origin of infinite age such as coal, lignite, and limestone. Equilibrium is the name given to the point when the rate of carbon production and carbon decay are equal. Carbon dioxide produced in this way diffuses in the atmosphere, is dissolved in the ocean, and is taken up by plants via photosynthesis. Precise measurements taken over the last years have shown a steady decay in the strength of the earth's magnetic field.
The northern and southern hemispheres have atmospheric circulation systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two. Half-life refers to the amount of time it takes for an object to lose exactly half of the amount of carbon or other element stored in it. Can we use radioactive carbon dating to determine the age of the earth?
Similarly, the statement about land organisms is only true once fractionation is taken into account. Dating material from one location gives date information about the other location, and the dates are also used to place strata in the overall geological timeline. Learn more about citation styles Citation styles Encyclopedia. At its most basic level, carbon dating is the method of determining the age of organic material by measuring the levels of carbon found in it. More broadly, the success of radiocarbon dating stimulated interest in analytical and statistical approaches to archaeological data. | <urn:uuid:53db6da9-b696-43b7-a165-9573fb0ec87d> | {
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Here's Another Spider That Is a Designer in Its Own Right
You may remember in 2012 the curious revelation of the Peruvian rainforest spider that uses debris to sculpt counterfeit spiders in its web, either as a defensive strategy to confuse predators, or as a lure. Entomologist Phil Torres, who discovered what seems to be a species of Cyclosa, dismissed the innovation (in Wired):
"Considering that spiders can already make really impressive geometric designs with their webs, it's no surprise that they can take that leap to make an impressive design with debris and other things," he said.
"No surprise"! I commented on this at the time ("Ho Hum. Another Day, Another Startlingly Lifelike Decoy Expertly Sculpted by a...Spider"). Now it turns out there's another spider that does the same thing, some 11,000 miles distant on a different continent -- this one on the Philippine island of Negros. It's also reported in Wired, which speculates
that similar predation pressures have driven an example of convergent evolution, in which both species independently found it beneficial to construct grand, spidery illusions.
So we have not one but two spiders that appear, in evolutionary terms, to have converged on this remarkable solution to the problem of...well that's not clear. Avoiding predation? Being a more effective predator? Neither? Perhaps it's just an enjoyable if seemingly narcissistic pastime.
They even get the number of legs right.
The discoverer of the new decoy-building spider with its "crazy constructions," Lary Reeves, also takes it in stride: "I don't think it's surprising that this is happening."
If it was unsurprising when there was one, it must be even more unsurprising to find there are two. On other hand, if it remarkable to find one, then it seems even more so to find two, so far apart yet otherwise so similar, pursuing a "benefit" no one can quite pin down.
I'm now on Twitter. Find me @d_klinghoffer. | <urn:uuid:a5fa8c64-5160-4763-b582-f73aef388c26> | {
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As you get older, you will get to meet ‘Arthur’. That’s almost a 100 percent money-back guarantee. And since it is my money that might go astray, I must be very confident. The ‘Arthur’ I am referring to is one of the banes of mankind and is “arthritis”.
Unfortunately, there are many types of arthritis, and descriptions of these go back into antiquity. Perhaps the oldest known type of arthritis, called gout or gouty arthritis, has been described since Hippocrates in the 5th century B.C. In fact, at one time, the term “gout” was used to describe all types of arthritis. Then it was known as the “Disease of Kings” due to its association with rich foods and alcohol consumption, something in which the commoners were not able to indulge. Things have certainly changed.
One of the most common forms of arthritis today is osteo-arthritis, and rather than being of a biochemical nature, osteo-arthritis is much more of a mechanical wear and tear situation. In America, the estimated incidence is that 37 million adults are suffering from it.
Unfortunately, we all wear out. Joints in particular are mechanical devices, with one bone sliding on another with a slippery bit (called cartilage) in between as the bearing surface, cum-shock absorber.
Most joints, especially knee joints, are designed to last our three score years and ten, and that’s about it. We do know why they wear out, and because they are mechanical, increase the loading on the joint and it wears out quicker. Imagine that your knee has been designed to hold up 80 kg for 70 years, and now increase that loading to 120 kg. That same knee now has to support 50 percent more than it was ‘designed’ for, so you can expect it to wear out 50 percent sooner. Simple.
So they hobble down to the doctor and ask for something for the pain. The doctor flips mentally through the latest medical drugs for this condition, and most probably will hand over some Non Steroidal Anti Inflammatory Drugs (NSAID’s) and tell the patient to lose weight.
Now I am not saying that this is totally wrong - but - when the NSAID’s first came out (hands up all those who remember Indocid) they were heralded as being the answer to these problems. Some were even supposed to ‘grow’ new cartilage. The answer the osteo-arthitic’s prayers.
Unfortunately, we very quickly found that Indocid and its ilk drilled holes in the lining of the stomach and were more than slightly dangerous. So we developed newer and better and more stomach-sparing NSAID’s. Unfortunately, these too produced problems.
Nothing daunted, we came up with even newer and more wonderful NSAID’s, which came with even newer and more wonderful array of side effects. So wonderful that one called Vioxx had to be withdrawn by the manufacturers.
So what can the poor patient do? Most patients have already tried paracetamol, hot water bottles, someone else’s great new tablets, NZ green lipped mussels, a cabbage leaf (which does work for mastitis, or so the ladies tell me), various herbal or homoeopathic medications, yoga, meditation, magnets, copper bracelets, muttering mantras and goodness knows what else. Exercise does help to improve the mobility in the knee joint, and by strengthening the muscles and ligaments around the knee, give it more stability. But it will not re-grow cartilage.
There is another avenue in the treatment, and that is direct injections into the affected joints. This produces spectacular results, but unfortunately are short lived. However, even a couple of weeks can make it such that the person can go on holidays and actually enjoy some mobility. But it is not the long-term answer.
Finally, there is surgery, which is currently the treatment of last resort. Since around 90 percent of patients show lessening of pain, improvement in functional status and overall quality of life, I think we should be looking at operation sooner, rather than later. But that’s just my opinion. | <urn:uuid:4e2c37c4-20aa-43a2-967c-6f0f7d9822a7> | {
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A study on the antireservation
policy of the Indian Ruling Class
- Dr. M.S. Jayaprakash
[The writer is a Historian, Social and Human Right Activist, Retired Professor and Head of the Department of History, Kerala University]
Wherever there were oppressed classes and oppressors, there had occurred bloody revolutions aiming at Social Justice. France, Russia, China, South Africa etc. are all glaring examples in the annals of history. However, in India where oppression has been so deep and wide affecting at least 80% of the people, there hasn’t been a single bloody revolution in the entire history of this subcontinent ! Here it is to be noted that freedom movement was not a national revolution as such. Unlike in other parts of the world, in India the oppressed classes are traditionally, considered by the so called upper – castes as low – castes. They have been, deliberately and based on a well planned – conspiracy, kept in the oppressed condition. Freedom movement was only a strategic move under the leadership of ‘Manu Vaadis’ to restore power to the traditional hands packed in a different mould namely democratic government, from the alien powers. The slavery continued even after securing freedom from foreign powers. In fact the traditionally oppressed majority found themselves having jumped from the frying pan to the fire. This majority was actually longing for liberation from the clutches of internal oppressors – the upper –caste brahminical microscopic minority, and not from the alien powers. In many respects the foreign rulers were blessings in disguise as far as the oppressed majority was concerned. This speaks volumes about the harshness of the oppression the majority out – castes were being subjected to by the privileged minority upper – castes. The horror generated by the Chathurvarna Caste system was so intolerably impacting on the majority out castes that they actually preferred the alien rulers to the native Hindu Raajas.
Though a bloody revolution was practically impossible in the India that time, a bloodless – intellectually and ideologically – driven revolution was taking place in India under the influence of Christianity and Islam, particularly Islam. A traditional out caste, an untouchable, once he embraced Islam suddenly found himself liberated from the yoke to which he was inextricably tied by the inhuman caste – system. This awareness that they experienced themselves by just changing their faith, inspired and impelled tens of thousands of out – castes ‘Hindus’ to embrace Islam and Christianity. The relatively impartial and intellectually honest approach and attitude of the British rulers also contributed to this bloodless revolution. It was this liberal – impartial attitude that inspired the great saint – social reformer of India Shri – Narayanaguru to tell to Gandhiji in an eye-ball to eye ball meeting at Shivagiri : “ Britishers are our Gurus (preceptors). So we don’t want to hear any thing bad about them”. Shri Narayanaguru was the impelling force behind this great social revolution. It was this revolution that converted the ‘lunatic Asylum’ – a descriptive phrase – used by no less a person than Swamy Vivekananda, to describe the caste – ridden Kerala of those days.
However, this great social movement could not be converted into a great political movement of the oppressed majority, owing to the reactionary – pseudo elements who colluded with the upper – caste brahminical forces for petty personal benefits! The brahminical forces could undermine the movement by generating false patriotism and fraudulent revolutionary ideals. Those intellectually dishonest reactionaries successfully seduced the pseudo – revolutionaries into their fold while at the same time keeping them still deprived of the special privileges that were reserved only for the brahminical class. Once again, as in the past, the majority consisting of Dalits – backward classes now stand before the oppressors with their begging – bowls ! They are the victims of the brahminical trickery as ever. In order to achieve true Social Justice, this backward – dalit forces must get united politically as one without getting carried away by the brahminical charm.
At the national level, these reactionary forces that were all along at the helm of affairs in India, systematically and intelligently suppressed all moves for Social Justice. All such moves were nipped in the bud adeptly and adequately. When the issue of separate constituency was mooted to be incorporated in the Minto Morley Reform of 1909 proposal, these reactionary forces opposed it, tooth and nail. The question raised by Jinnah as to how to be at harmony with these people who washed their hands after shaking hands with him (with muslims) is still relevant though in a different context.
The main agenda of Simon Commission who came to India in 1928 was Social Justice since the majority population of India were untouchables and they needed special protection – was the recommendation of the Commission which was accepted by the British Government. It was in anticipation of this agenda that the brahminical stalwarts inspired the out castes in the name of patriotism and together opposed the Simon Commission with the cry of ‘go back’. It is the present generation of those reactionary forces, today oppose reservation for the oppressed classes who remain backward for no mistake of theirs. When the anti reservation protest was staged at Delhi by the upper caste youths, the BC and Dalit students, raised the slogan – “Aryans, Goback”.
In the Round Table Conference, in 1930 the British rulers even enacted a special law for the empowerment of Dalit Community in consideration of their pathetic conditions. The brahminical forces undermined this somehow and called Ambedkar a British stooge ! They undermined virtually every move that had the potential to uplift the Dalits and other – backwards while at the same time extracting maximum favours from the British administration at the cost of the people and this country. They never ever bothered, what happened to the country. They betrayed the country without the slightest compunction. Now they play the same role, in the garb of patriotism !.
Gandhiji himself declared a fast – unto – death against Ambedkar, playing second fiddle to the brahminical forces ! Gandhiji has never ever protested this way, even against the Britishers during freedom struggle. Ultimately, through the Poona Pact they defeated the Ambedkar Mission. This has ever been the attitude of the upper caste forces in India towards the Dalits.
In 1936, it was when share of power was demanded that Muhammed Ali Jinnah was stamped a communalist and a separatist, while infact Jinnah was although against a division. Jinnah for the first time raised this issue when he was driven to the wall by the upper caste Hindu forces under the leadership of Gandhiji. Jinnah’s reasonable proposals for share of power were continually declined by Gandhi and Co. This stubborn attitude of the upper caste mind – set was entirely responsible for the division ! Even if a division was inevitable, still the backwards must not come to power. This was the attitude of the brahmincial upper castes.
Right to reservation was incorporated into the Constitution of Independent India at the behest of Ambedkar. However the several governments that came to power through democratic process undermined the full implementation of reservation for Dalit – and backward communities under one pretext or another. Even when they were forced to implement it under practical political compulsions, the implementation process was stalled or slowed down by administrative and other interventions of the upper caste strategies. The Kaakakalekkar Commission Report on reservation in 1953 was practically undermined by the same strategy. Then there was a long silence. The extremely dejected back-wards remained silent helplessly for 26 years! Compelled by political realities another commission was appointed in 1979 viz. The Mandal Commission and the commission submitted its report to the Indira Gandhi Government in 1980. Indira Gandhi did not take any action to implement the report and kept it in the shelf for ten years. In the ninetees when the V.P. Singh’s Government initiated positive measures for its implementation there was a huge violent back lash from the brahminical – reactionary forces . Even attempts for self immolations were staged by the upper caste Natak Companies in order to force the Government. to stall the implementation process ! Once again they were the people who were benefitted. They, through the backlash, could obtain the creamy layer introduced into the reservation for the first time. Finally, when the commission report was implemented, it was implemented in a crippled condition, depriving the backwards of its full benefits.
Mandal Commission Report consists of three equally important parts like a tree may be viewed as an entity of three segments namely the roots, the stems and leaves flowers – fruits. Here the flowers – fruits may be considered as 27% reservation in the Government Services. In the Indian conditions education, particularly higher education, is inaccessible for the economically backwards. This obviates the necessity for uplifting the backward communities economically. So a programme was chalked out by Mandal with a view to solve the economic backwardness of the backward communities – which included the establishment of separate banking institutions exclusively for the backward communities. This recommendation was not implemented, thus avoided the roots and stems of the Mandal Recommen dations. Adequate representation must be 52% in accordance with the population of the backward communities but it was reduced into 27%.
Mandal recommended reservations in all the departments and services of the government related to technology, employment etc. But practically nullifying many important and vital suggestions in the report, implementation was restricted to only civil service and posts. Out of about 50 lakhs posts, 15 lakhs are in the defence. Contrary to the recommendations, this has been declared out of reservation.
Thus 27% was reduced into 18%. Government also declared several other areas out of bounds of reservation like technological, research and development, higher education, medical, engineering, aeronautical etc., as a result of which practically the percentage declined to 12 from 18. It was on this 12% that the ‘creamy – layer’ gimmick was imposed, because of which the practical net implementation was reduced to a mere 5%. The backward communities have not fully realized the impact of this betrayal. It is in addition to this that the financial strain imposed by the corrupt Village – Taluk officials in the name of creamy – layer.
Science and technology institutions are the monopoly of the upper caste segment. In the higher education professional areas, 50 percent of the positions are held by the Brahmins who constitute hardly 3 percent of the population! In general, the forward class segment who constitute only 15 per cent of the total population practically hold 78 per cent of the positions !, where as a mere 22 per cent is the practical share of the backward segment who constitute 85 percent of the Indian population.
Now the million dollar question is as to what is the contribution of the so called ‘spokesmen of merits’ to the field of Indian – Science and technology ? They have not so far been able to devise a single technological know-how that is suitable to the native soil of India for its development. We need our own technology which alone can solve our problems that are unique to India and Indian conditions. In Kerala, there is a Coconut Research and Development Institution of the Government of Kerala whose main entrusted task was to develop suitable technical know – how to tackle the several diseases afflicting the coconut trees in Kerala that were threatening the major agricultural crop in the state. Even after about 40 years of research at the expense of crores of rupees, the ‘brainy – fellows’ have not been able to develop an effective technology to tackle this problem ! This so called scientific community always looked at the foreign – particularly western technology for solutions since they are destined to work on imported brains. However, in Kerala, of late, they have located a solution that is suitable for the people of Kerala as well as they themselves namely to destroy the trees afflicted with the diseases at the cost of Rs. 10 per tree. Yes, that is being implemented.
One must analyse and evaluate the concept of Social Justice – failing to take root in our society. We are entrusting the vital task of implementing Social Justice with the same people who have been torpedoing every move towards – Social Justice in the past and in the present. The entire social history of India is impregnated with such instances and episodes. These reactionary forces have been constantly and continuously at work in order to impede any forward movement from the side of the backward classes. This conspiracy is so deep rooted and widespread that it requires a systemic and systematic approach to alter it. We have to create an awareness that is integral in the minds and hearts of the dalit – backward classes so as to electrify them and instigate them to a rethinking. We can and we should no more trust our proven traditional – enemies, we can and we should no more entrust our interests with our time tested incorrigible foes – the brahminical upper castes. We should make use of our franchise to elect true representatives who are committed under solemn vow to protect the interests of the under privileged at any rate. We must have our representatives in every constitutional bodies and other institutions in proportion to our numerical strength. Only then the concept of Social Justice can be and will be realized. | <urn:uuid:4eff90cb-d993-44ca-915c-28cf6b512b9b> | {
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|Member of the Reichstag|
from Lower Silesia
7 June 1920 – 20 May 1928
|Member of the Imperial Reichstag|
13 January 1912 – 10 November 1918
|Preceded by||Otto Pfundtner|
|Succeeded by||Reichstag dissolution|
31 October 1901 – 25 January 1907
|Preceded by||Bruno Schönlank|
|Succeeded by||Otto Pfundtner|
6 January 1850|
18 December 1932 82) (aged|
|Politics, economy, sociology|
|Part of a series on|
Eduard Bernstein (6 January 1850 – 18 December 1932) was a German social-democratic Marxist theorist and politician. A member of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). Bernstein had held close association to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, but he saw flaws in Marxist thinking and began to criticize views held by Marxism when he investigated and challenged the Marxist materialist theory of history. He rejected significant parts of Marxist theory that were based upon Hegelian metaphysics; he rejected the Hegelian dialectical perspective.
Bernstein distinguished between early Marxism as being its immature form, as exemplified by The Communist Manifesto written by Marx and Engels in 1848, that he opposed for what he regarded as its violent Blanquist tendencies. He instead favoured Marxism in its mature form. This mature form of Marxism holds that socialism could be achieved by peaceful means through incremental legislative reform in democratic societies.
Bernstein was born in Schöneberg (now part of Berlin), to Jewish parents, who were active in the Reform Temple on the Johannistrasse where services were performed on Sunday. His father was a locomotive driver. From 1866 to 1878, after leaving school, he was employed in banks as a banker's clerk. His political career began in 1872, when he joined a socialist party with Marxist tendencies, known formally as the Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Eisenacher Programms – a proponent of the Eisenach (named after the German town Eisenach) type of German socialism – and soon became known as an activist. Bernstein's party contested two elections against a rival socialist party, the Lassalleans (Ferdinand Lassalle's Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein), but in both elections neither party was able to win a significant majority of the leftist vote. Consequently, Bernstein, together with August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, prepared the Einigungsparteitag ("unification party congress") with the Lassalleans in Gotha in 1875. Karl Marx's famous Critique of the Gotha Program criticized what he saw as a Lassallean victory over the Eisenachers whom he favoured; Bernstein later noted that it was Liebknecht, considered by many to be the strongest Marxist advocate within the Eisenacher faction, who proposed the inclusion of many of the ideas which so thoroughly irritated Marx.
In the Reichstag elections of 1877, the German Social Democratic Party gained 493,000 votes. However, two assassination attempts on Kaiser Wilhelm I the next year provided Chancellor Otto von Bismarck with a pretext for introducing a law banning all socialist organizations, assemblies, and publications. There had been no Social Democratic involvement in either assassination attempt, but the popular reaction against "enemies of the Reich" induced a compliant Reichstag to approve Bismarck's "Socialist Law."
Bismarck's strict anti-Socialist legislation was passed on 12 October 1878. For nearly all practical purposes, the Social Democratic Party was outlawed and, throughout Germany, it was actively suppressed. However, it was still possible for Social Democrats to campaign as individuals for election to the Reichstag, and this they did. Indeed, despite the severe persecution to which it was subjected, the party actually increased its electoral success, gaining 550,000 votes in 1884 and 763,000 in 1887.
The vehemence of Bernstein's opposition to the government of Bismarck made it desirable for him to leave Germany. Shortly before the "Socialist Law" came into effect, he went into exile in Zurich, accepting a position as private secretary for social democratic patron Karl Höchberg, a wealthy supporter of Social Democracy. A warrant subsequently issued for his arrest ruled out any possibility of his returning to Germany, and he was to remain in exile for more than twenty years. In 1888, Bismarck convinced the Swiss government to expel a number of important members of German social democratism from its country, and so Bernstein relocated to London, where he associated with Friedrich Engels and Karl Kautsky. It was soon after his arrival in Switzerland that he began to think of himself as a Marxist. In 1880, he accompanied Bebel to London in order to clear up a misunderstanding concerning his involvement with an article published by Höchberg and denounced by Marx and Engels as being "chock-full of bourgeois and petty bourgeois ideas." The visit was a success. Engels in particular was impressed by Bernstein's zeal and his ideas.
Back in Zurich, Bernstein became increasingly active in working for Der Sozialdemokrat ("Social Democrat"), and later succeeded Georg von Vollmar as the paper's editor, a job he was to have for the next ten years. It was during these years between 1880 and 1890 that Bernstein established his reputation as a major party theoretician and a Marxist of impeccable orthodoxy. In this he was helped by the close personal and professional relationship he established with Engels. This relationship owed much to the fact that he shared Engels's strategic vision and accepted most of the particular policies which, in Engels's opinion, those ideas entailed. In 1887, the German government persuaded the Swiss authorities to ban Der Sozialdemokrat. Bernstein moved to London where he resumed publication from premises in Kentish Town. His relationship with Engels soon developed into friendship. He also communicated with various English socialist organizations, notably the Fabian Society and Henry Hyndman's Social Democratic Federation. In later years, his opponents routinely claimed that his "revisionism" was due to his having come to see the world "through English spectacles." Bernstein denied the charges.
However, in 1895, Engels was deeply distressed when he discovered that his introduction to a new edition of The Class Struggles in France, written by Marx in 1850, had been edited by Bernstein and Kautsky in a manner which left the impression that he had become a proponent of a peaceful road to socialism. On April 1, 1895, four months before his death, Engels wrote to Kautsky:
“I was amazed to see today in the Vorwärts an excerpt from my ‘Introduction’ that had been printed without my knowledge and tricked out in such a way as to present me as a peace-loving proponent of legality quand même (at all costs). Which is all the more reason why I should like it to appear in its entirety in the Neue Zeit in order that this disgraceful impression may be erased. I shall leave Liebknecht in no doubt as to what I think about it and the same applies to those who, irrespective of who they may be, gave him this opportunity of perverting my views and, what’s more, without so much as a word to me about it.”
In 1891, he was one of the authors of the Erfurt Program, and from 1896 to 1898, he published a series of articles entitled Probleme des Sozialismus ("Problems of Socialism") that resulted in the revisionism debate in the SPD. He also published a book titled Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie ("The Prerequisites for Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy") in 1899. The book was in great contrast to the positions of August Bebel, Karl Kautsky and Wilhelm Liebknecht. Rosa Luxemburg's 1900 essay Reform or Revolution? was also a polemic against Bernstein's position. In 1900, Berstein published Zur Geschichte und Theorie des Sozialismus ("The history and theory of socialism," 1900).
In 1901, he returned to Germany, after the end of a ban that had kept him from entering the country. He became an editor of the newspaper Vorwärts that year, and a member of the Reichstag from 1902 to 1918. He voted against the armament tabling in 1913, together with the SPD fraction's left wing. Although he had voted for war credits in August 1914, from July 1915 he opposed World War I and in 1917 he was among the founders of the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), which united anti-war socialists (including reformists like Bernstein, "centrists" like Kautsky and revolutionary Marxists like Karl Liebknecht). He was a member of the USDP until 1919, when he rejoined the SPD. From 1920 to 1928 Bernstein was again a member of the Reichstag. He retired from political life in 1928.
Bernstein died on 18 December 1932 in Berlin. A commemorative plaque is placed in his memory at Bozener Straße 18, Berlin-Schöneberg, where he lived from 1918 until his death. His grave in the Eisackstrasse Cemetery became a "Protected Grave" (Ehrengrab) of the city-state of Berlin.
Opposition to violent revolution
Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus (1899) was Bernstein's most significant work. Bernstein was principally concerned with refuting Marx's predictions about the imminent and inevitable demise of capitalism, and Marx's consequent laissez faire policy which opposed ameliorative social interventions before the demise. Bernstein indicated simple facts that he considered to be evidence that Marx's predictions were not being borne out: he noted that the centralisation of capitalist industry, while significant, was not becoming wholescale and that the ownership of capital was becoming more, and not less, diffuse. Bernstein's analysis of agriculture (according to which Bernstein believed that land ownership was becoming less concentrated) was largely based on the work of Eduard David, and was in its marshalling of facts impressive enough that even his orthodox opponent Karl Kautsky acknowledged its value.
As to Marx's belief in the disappearance of the middleman, Bernstein declared that the entrepreneur class was being steadily recruited from the proletariat class, and therefore all compromise measures, such as the state regulation of the hours of labour, provisions for old-age pensions, and so on, should be encouraged. For this reason, Bernstein urged the labouring classes to take an active interest in politics. Bernstein also indicated what he considered to be some of the flaws in Marx's labour theory of value.
Looking especially at the rapid growth in Germany, Bernstein argued that middle-sized firms would flourish, the size and power of the middle class would grow, and the capitalism would successfully adjust, and not collapse. . He warned that violent proletarian revolution, as in France in 1848, produced only reactionary successes that undermined workers' interests. Therefore he rejected revolution and instead insisted the best strategy was patiently building up a durable social movement working for continuous nonviolent incremental change.
Bernstein's moderation under attack
Bernstein was vilified by the orthodox Marxists, as well as the more radical current led by Rosa Luxemburg for his revisionism. Bernstein remained, however, very much a socialist, albeit an unorthodox one: he believed that socialism would be achieved by capitalism, not by capitalism's destruction (as rights were gradually won by workers, their cause for grievance would be diminished, and consequently, so too would the motivation for revolution). During the intra-party debates about his ideas, Bernstein explained that, for him, the final goal of socialism was nothing; progress toward that goal was everything.
Socialism, Rosa Luxemburg argued, has its end in social revolution. Revisionism, she said, "amounts in practice to the advice. . . that we abandon the social revolution--the goal of Social Democracy--and turn social reform from a means of the class struggle into its final aim." She says Revisionism has lost sight of scientific Socialism and reverted to Idealism, and therefore lost its predictive force. Since Reformists underestimate the anarchy of capitalism and say it has "adaptability" and "viability," by which they mean that the contradictions of capitalism will not of historical necessity drive it to its doom, they would, she said, abandon the "objective necessity" for Socialism and give up all hope for a Socialist future. The movement will collapse unless Revisionism is repudiated. Trade unionists, who could see the successes of capitalism and the improvement of working conditions, and who wanted to improve working conditions through parliament, generally followed Bernstein, while those who were more orthodox hard-liners generally followed Luxemburg.
Foreign-policy was Bernstein’s main intellectual interest, 1902-1914, with many articles in the Sozialistische Monatshefte (Socialist Monthly). He advocated policies positions for Germany that were aggressively nationalist, imperialist, and expansionist.
Bernstein considered protectionism (high tariffs on imports) as helping only a selective few, being fortschrittsfeindlich (anti-progressive), for its negative effects on the masses. Germany's protectionism, Bernstein argued, was based only on political expediency, isolating Germany from the world (especially from Britain), creating an autarky that would only result in conflict between Germany and the rest of the world. Germany did have protectionism, and Bernstein wanted to get rid of it, arguing that tariffs did not increase grain production, did not counter British competition, did not increase farm profits, and did not promote improvements in farming. Instead it inflated rents, interest rates and prices, hurting everyone involved. In contrast, he argued that free trade led to peace, democracy, prosperity, and the highest material and moral well-being of all humanity.
Bernstein rejected reactionary bourgeois nationalism and called instead for a cosmopolitan-libertarian nationalism. He recognized the historical role of the national factor and said that the proletariat must support their countries against external dangers. He called on workers to assimilate themselves within nation-states, which entailed support for colonial policies and imperial projects. Bernstein was sympathetic to the idea of imperial expansions as a positive and civilizing mission, which resulted in a bitter series of polemics with the anti-imperialist Ernest Belfort Bax. Colonialism, Bernstein argued, was a good idea because it uplifted backward peoples, and it was working well for both Britain and Germany. He was disturbed, however, by the Kaiser’s reckless policies. He wanted strong friendship especially with Britain, as well as France, and protection against the Russian threat to Germany. He envisioned a sort of league of nations.
Bernstein's views on Jewish matters evolved. He never identified as a Zionist. Yet after initially favouring a wholly assimilationist solution to "the Jewish Question", his attitude toward Zionism became considerably more sympathetic after World War I. Bernstein is also noted for being "one of the first socialists to deal sympathetically with the issue of homosexuality."
- Ferdinand Lassalle as a Social Reformer. Eleanor Marx Aveling, trans. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1893.
- The Preconditions of Socialism. . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
- Evolutionary Socialism: A Criticism and Affirmation. Edith C. Harvey, trans. New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1909.
- Cromwell and Communism: Socialism and Democracy in the Great English Revolution. H.J. Stenning, trans. London: Allen and Unwin, 1930.
- My Years of Exile: Reminiscences of a Socialist. Bernard Miall, trans. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1921. online free
- Selected Writings of Eduard Bernstein, 1900–1921. Prometheus Books, 1996.
- Marius Ostrowski (ed.), Eduard Bernstein on Social Democracy and International Politics: Essays and Other Writings, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
- Tudor, Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, eds. Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate, 1896–1898. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
- Berman, Sheri. Social Democracy and the Making of Europe's Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp. 38–39.
- Michael Harrington. Socialism: Past and Future. Reprint edition of original published in 1989. New York, New York, USA: Arcade Publishing, 2011. P. 251.
- Steger, Manfred B. The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein And Social Democracy. Cambridge, England, UK; New York, New York, US: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pp. 236–237.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1922). "Bernstein, Eduard". Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). London & New York.
- The Preconditions of Socialism Eduard Bernstein
Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Bernstein, Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.
- Berstein, Sozialdemokratische Lehrjahre, p.72; Berstein to Bebel, 20.10.1898, Tudor and Tudor, p.324.
- This influence is particularly evident in Bernstein's My Years of Exile: Reminiscences of a Socialist (London, 1921).
- Bernstein to Bebel, 20.10.1898, Tudor and Tudor, pp. 325-6.
- Engels, Friedrich (2004). Collected Works, Volume 50. New York: International Publishers. p. 86.
- See Wolfgang Eichhorn: Über Eduard Bernstein. Gegensatz und Berührungspunkte zu Rosa Luxemburg und W. I. Lenin, in: Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung, No. I/2002.
Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Bernstein, Eduard". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
- Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus (1899)
- Service, Robert. Comrades!. Harvard University Press. p. 49.
- Kolakowski, Leszek (2008). Main Currents of Marxism. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 433–435.
- Richard A. Fletcher, "Cobden as Educator: The Free-Trade Internationalism of Eduard Bernstein, 1899-1914." American Historical Review 88.3 (1983): 563-68.
- Peter Gay, The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism: Eduard Bernstein's challenge to Marx (1952) p 258ff
- Gay, The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism: Eduard Bernstein's challenge to Marx (1952) p 259
- Gay, The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism: Eduard Bernstein's challenge to Marx (1952) p 260
- Roger Fletcher, "In the interest of peace and progress: Eduard Bernstein's socialist foreign policy." Review of International Studies 9.2 (1983): 79-93.
- Roger Fletcher, "Revisionism and Wilhelmine Imperialism" Journal of Contemporary History (1988) 23#3 pp 347-366. online
- Fletcher, R. A. (1983). "Cobden as Educator: The Free-Trade Internationalism of Eduard Bernstein, 1899–1914". American Historical Review. 88 (3): 561–578. doi:10.2307/1864587. JSTOR 1864587.
- Fletcher, "Cobden as Educator" 563-69.
- Bax, Ernest Belfort. "E. Belfort Bax: Our German Fabian Convert (1896)". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
- Roger Fletcher, "Revisionism ad Wilhelmine Imperialism" Journal of Contemporary History (11988) 23#3 pp 347-366.
- Roger Fletcher, "An English Advocate in Germany. Eduard Bernstein’s Analysis of Anglo-German Relations 1900-1914." Canadian Journal of History 13.2 (1978) pp: 209-236.
- Jacobs, J. (1992). On Socialists and the Jewish Question After Marx. New York University Press. p. 193. ISBN 9780814742136. Retrieved 2014-12-12.
- Laqueur, W. (2009). A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 425. ISBN 9780307530851. Retrieved 2014-12-12.
- "The Eduard Bernstein Internet Archive". marxists.org. Retrieved 2014-12-12.
- Fletcher, Richard A. "Cobden as Educator: The Free-Trade Internationalism of Eduard Bernstein, 1899-1914." American Historical Review 88.3 (1983): 561-578. online
- Fletcher, R. A. "In the interest of peace and progress: Eduard Bernstein's socialist foreign policy." Review of International Studies 9.2 (1983): 79-93.
- Fletcher, Roger. "A Revisionist Looks at Imperialism: Eduard Bernstein's Critique of Imperialism and Kolonialpolitik, 1900–14." Central European History 12.3 (1979): 237-271.
- Fletcher, Roger. "Revisionism and Nationalism: Eduard Bernstein's Views on the National Question, 1900–1914." Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism 11.1 (1984) pp 103-117.
- Fletcher, Roger. "World Power without War. Eduard Bernstein's Proposals for an Alternative Weltpolitik, 1900–1914." Australian Journal of Politics & History 25.2 (1979): 228-236.
- Fletcher, Roger. "An English Advocate in Germany. Eduard Bernstein’s Analysis of Anglo-German Relations 1900-1914." Canadian Journal of History 13.2 (1978): 209-236.
- Gay, Peter, The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism: Eduard Bernstein's challenge to Marx. (Columbia UP, 1952. Questia online
- Gustafsson, Bo. "A new look at Bernstein: Some reflections on reformism and history." Scandinavian Journal of History 3#1-4 (1978): 275-296.
- Hamilton, Richard F. Marxism, Revisionism, and Leninism: Explication, Assessment, and Commentary (Greenwood, 2000) online
- Hulse, James W. Revolutionists in London: A Study of Five Unorthodox Socialists. (Clarendon Press, 1970.
- Pachter, Henry. "The Ambiguous Legacy of Eduard Bernstein." Dissent 28#2 (1981). pp 203-216.
- Rogers, H. Kendall. Before the Revisionist Controversy: Kautsky, Bernstein, and the Meaning of Marxism, 1895-1898. (Routledge, 2015).
- Steger, Manfred B. The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein and Social Democracy. (Cambridge UP, 1997).
- Steger, Manfred. "Historical materialism and ethics: Eduard Bernstein's revisionist perspective." History of European ideas 14.5 (1992): 647-663.
- Thomas, Paul. Marxism & Scientific Socialism: From Engels to Althusser. (Routledge, 2008).
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eduard Bernstein.|
|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Eduard Bernstein|Works written by or about Eduard Bernstein at Wikisource
- Works by Eduard Bernstein at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Eduard Bernstein at Internet Archive
- Eduard Bernstein Archive at marxists.org.
- Bernstein on Homosexuality, Articles from Die Neue Zeit, 1895 and 1898.
- Evolutionary Socialism: a Criticism and Affirmation: (Die Voraussetzungen Des Sozialismus und Die Aufgaben Der Sozialdemokratie.) (Google Books)
- Archive of Eduard Bernstein Papers at the International Institute of Social History
- Newspaper clippings about Eduard Bernstein in the 20th Century Press Archives of the German National Library of Economics (ZBW) | <urn:uuid:8c23f2f3-3f0d-4831-b7dd-d52ba07bac4c> | {
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In general, a one-year-old needs about 14 hours of sleep a day, including nighttime sleep and daytime naps. That need drops to 13 hours by 18 months, and as little as 11 or 12 by the time your child is three. To ensure that your child gets the sleep he needs:
Following a set order of evening rituals -- bathing, tooth brushing, reading a book -- helps a child learn to let go of the day's activity.
If your child has difficulty falling asleep at bedtime, shorten his afternoon nap. If he needs to stay up late so that he can spend more time with you after work, lengthen his afternoon nap. If your present work schedule prevents you from seeing your child until late evening, consider taking some work home to after you've had some time with him. You can also help your child readjust his natural clock to the needs of your household. Gradually over time, keep your early riser up a bit later each night so he can adjust to sleeping later. Put your night owl to bed a few minutes earlier each night.
To help your child learn to put himself to sleep rather than rely on you, always put him into his crib while he's still awake. After the newborn stage, don't respond to every whimper or cry. If you know that your baby is not hungry, give him the opportunity to soothe himself back to sleep before going into his room. If you do go into his room, refrain from picking him up. Keeping the lights dim, gently rub his back and talk with him. Remind him that it's time to sleep and leave the room again. If he continues to cry, wait five minutes before returning to him. Continue to reassure him with soft words, but don't engage him in activity. Next time wait ten minutes, and so on. Eventually, he will get the idea that it's his job to sleep through the night. | <urn:uuid:6ee1b50e-b4f5-4b5b-a7c2-fcdc723e46ba> | {
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If you can read a topographical map, this will give you a better appreciation for this trail.
Copyright © 2016
by Ralph F. Couey
In the 1930's, the Sierra Club came up with a way to rate the difficulty of hiking trails, which they named the Yosemite Decimal System, or YDS. It breaks down trails into 5 main categories. Class 1 is walking with a low chance of injury, hiking boots a good idea. Class 2 is described as simple scrambling, with occasional use of the hands. Potential danger is low and hiking boots highly recommended. Class 3 means scrambling with increased exposure. Handholds are necessary and Falls could easily be fatal. Class 4 rates out as a trail with simple climbing with exposure. A rope is often used. Natural protection can be easily found. Falls may well be fatal. Classes 5 and 6 are termed "technical", meaning the use of ropes and pitons. I mention this because all of the hikes that I've described in this blog have been Class 3 and below, mostly Class 2's to be honest. Most of the AT hikes I've done involve some steep hills, rocky sometimes unstable surfaces, which is challenge enough for me. | <urn:uuid:fb9cf01f-a264-490d-aefb-46787a87b070> | {
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Tilapia has experienced a significant increase in popularity. It can be found in almost any retail grocery store and is often a featured item on many restaurant menus. But have you ever wondered what you are really eating? I did. Having grown up around both fresh and salt water fisheries, no one ever talked about tilapia. The reason is that this is not a native fish to the United States. This should create your first suspicion about this species of fish.
Where Does Tilapia Really Come From?
As tilapia is not native to the United States, we have to ask, were does tilapia come from. Tilapia is a tropical fish that originated out of Africa with a relatively short growth time. They live in fresh water environments and are not found in saltwater. So at this point, the questions should begin to stir in your mind as to what is the tilapia that is so often found in the grocery store and being served.
Most of the tilapia in the United States actually comes from China and Indonesia. This fish is farmed and then shipped to the United States. At this point, I feel that it is important to understand what farmed fish means. In a nutshell, you are rapidly growing fish in an artificial environment by feeding them “food stuff” that they would not have exposure to in the wild. These environments to not lend themselves to a vast amount of space to swim in, but rather the fish are densely packed in the man-made environment and routinely exposed to high amounts of ammonia and waste.
One big concern with the source of these fish is that according to a report from the USDA in 2009, China fails miserably with food safety standards, including those that are exported to the US. It appears from the findings of this study that many of the fisheries are located next to heavily polluted areas. Such toxins include environmental pollutants, agricultural residues, feces and veterinarian drug residues. It should be no surprise that if the fish are exposed to these toxins, then those that consume the fish are also going to be ingesting these toxins. What is also interesting is that tilapia fisheries exist in the United States but do not meet the demand, thus encouraging import from foreign markets.
Tilapia Nutrition is Questionable
One of the reasons that many individuals turn to fish in their diet is the consumption of omega 3’s. Omega 3’s have been shown to be effective at supporting conditions including cardiovascular disease, arthritis, autoimmune conditions and cancer just to name a few chronic conditions. However, farmed tilapia is higher in omega 6’s, which are inflammatory and have the opposite effect on our health. The unnatural diet that the fish are fed creates a low omega 3 content and a high omega 6, whereas the fish in its natural environment has just the opposite profile. (Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2009;60 Suppl 5:203-11.) From this we can see that the food provided to these fish makes a significant difference in their nutritional value, leaving us to ask what else we should question regarding tilapia nutrition.
Well, since you asked, the fatty acid ratio is not the only problem with tilapia nutrition. The concern of genetic modification rears its ugly head again. In this case it is not referred to as genetic modification, but rather transgenic. Transgenic tilapia has had genes added to their DNA for a desired outcome. In this case, it resulted in “successful production of transgenic tilapia by injection of transgenes (mouse metallothionein promoter/rat growth hormone gene). (Aquaculture. Volume 105, Issues 3–4, 1 August 1992, Pages 219–232) So rat genes to enhance growth hormone production were added to tilapia DNA. No doubt this is to enhance the rate at which the fish can produce. The bigger concern is that by eating genetically modified, or transgenic, tilapia, you are consuming something that is not in natural state and thus has the potential to increase the activity of the immune system in a negative manner. As we have seen with other GMO (genetically modified organism) debacles, this usually comes at a price.
What You Can Do
If you have been eating tilapia, starting off with a good detox would be recommended. Since these fish are mostly coming from polluted foreign sources, you have likely accumulated some of these toxins. You can begin the detox process by eliminating all of the refined, non-organic sources of food from your diet. You will want to transition to foods that are colorful and nutrient dense along with consuming adequate amounts of protein to support your inherent detoxification pathways.
If you are consuming fish to increase the amount of omega 3 fatty acids in your diet, a safer option than eating farmed raised tilapia is taking omega 3 rich supplements. You could eat the fish itself, but this is not an option in the United States, leaving supplementation as preferred source. The other option that you have is to consume wild caught fish. Wild fish such as salmon, cod and halibut are better options and do not come with the same risks of altered fatty acid composition as farmed fish. Therefore, the nutrition of any of these fish is going to exceed tilapia nutrition.
Just the word toxin sounds scary enough, but did you know that toxins may be making you fat. That’s right! The toxins that you are exposed to in your environment may be the reason that you are not losing weight. This is just the tip of the iceberg. Many of the conditions that wish to never deal with such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease can trace part of their roots back to toxins and how they cause fat tissue to become overactive.
Here is what you must understand. Toxins are going to keep making you fat. You are not going to get away from toxins. Why? Because our environment is continually being polluted by a growing number of chemicals. These are not harmless chemicals. Rather they are extremely harmful. What is even worse is that many of these toxins are passed off to the public as safe. Nothing could be farther from the truth. They may not cause immediate effects, but the cumulative effects are traumatic to our health. How big is this problem? Well according to the Institute for Functional Medicine, more than 80,000 new chemicals are released each year. That is a massive amount.
Even You are Toxic!
At this point, you may be saying, “but I am not toxic, otherwise I would know.” You may be surprised to find out that according to recent research, nearly everyone has appreciable levels of toxins that have built up in their body (Neurotoxicology 2012 May 31). You don’t necessarily know that you are toxic. The onset is usually slow and you become more toxic over time. So the take away is that if you are having trouble losing weight, it is not a question of are toxins making you fat because they are.
Are Toxins Making You Fat? – The Rationale
Here is exactly what happens. You encounter toxins, of which there are many sources. Some of the most common are refined foods, non-organic sources of food, plastics, medications and water. When we think of toxins, it is common to think of chemicals that are clearly marked as hazardous. However, we rarely realize we have encountered most of the toxins that we do. Once you have encountered these toxins, they are going to find their way to fat tissue in the body. The reason that toxins go to fat is not because it is a storage depot, but rather that many toxins are fat-soluble. They have a natural affinity for fat. Yet once the toxin reaches the fat, then problems for our fat tissue start to kick in.
Fat and fat with toxins embedded in it is not the same thing. Fat with toxins embedded in it does not look natural to our body and as a result, it sets off alarm signals. The answer to these alarms comes from the immune system. The increased activity of the immune system stirs up an inflammatory storm that causes the fat tissue to increase in size. This is how the toxins are making you fat. When the inflammation flares, the fat cells become more active. Worse yet, they also create problems elsewhere in the body that affect appetite control and blood sugar regulation. Clearly a seemingly harmless toxin is anything but harmless. It could be the stimulus to not just making you fat, but causing chronic disease. (Environ Health Perspect. Feb 2013; 121(2): a61.)
How to Detox
There is a way to overcoming the effects of toxins on your fat tissue. It starts with eliminating the sources of toxins that you can identify. For many though, this is simply not enough. If your body has been overwhelmed by toxins, you will need additional support. Supporting increased toxicity means supporting your body’s own detox systems. Before you jump to conclusions, we are NOT talking about purging your bowels which may actually make you more toxic over time. Rather there are specific nutrients to support detoxification as our body performs it. Replenishing these nutrients is the key to successful removal of toxins, and moreover dropping those stubborn extra pounds of fat. But you cannot stop there. Again, you must eliminate what you can and that means eating a cleaner diet without all the foods that are refined and contain chemicals. Do this and not only will you detox, but you will start dropping fat as well.
Our bodies were not meant to eat the diet we are eating..
The more I learn about functional medicine and all of the toxic foods out there and what they can do to our health, the more difficult it is to not be paranoid. It’s like every corner I turn I find something else that offensive to my health.. And I know sometimes I’m right, but also some times I’m making it out to be worse than it is. But for once, I know I’m not being paranoid about one thing, our diet. The way we eat now is nothing like our ancestors ate. We are now eating foods that our bodies are not designed to process. And that is why compared the our forefathers, we have so many diseases and thats why we have so much dysfunction in our bodies.
The Standard American Diet (Aka The S.A.D. Diet)
So I’m sure you are wondering how this is possible? If it’s labeled food, and it’s edible, then it should be considered food right? Couldn’t be farther from the truth.. To be honest, what people are eating these days, when they are in a rush, I’d be hard pressed to call food. It carries almost no nutritional value. And with that said, there are many foods that we should not eat as they don’t promote long term health. In fact, many of them promote disease when consumed regularly.
Are you sure that your food is really food?
Do you know what is the in the food that you are consuming? Another good question is do you really know what you are consuming? Is it what you think it is? I bet you may be surprised to find the answers to some of these questions. So much of our food supply is contaminated with chemicals in ways we would not even expect. From growth hormones to pesticides and herbicides, the food we eat leaves our detoxification system begging for support. Add to this the stripping of valuable nutrients and fiber and you are left with . . . . Well I’m not totally sure what the best description should be, but it hardly resembles the food you would find in nature.
Our food supply has been altered
Food as we have come to accept it, is the byproduct of industrialization. We have let “big money” take over agriculture and control the food supply. We were duped into thinking that big agriculture was the best way to feed the population. This is problematic on a number of levels, but one of the many reasons is that you are getting food that is adulterated all the way down to the genetics. The rouge science of genetic modification has created foods, and I use that term very loosely, that are not tolerated by our bodies any longer. In fact, these are the foods that are likely most responsible for the rapid increase in autoimmune disease in such a short period of time.
The Paleo Movement
If you are beginning to feel a little anxious about the food you eat every day, you should. But before you become too uptight about this topic, know that there is an answer. There is an army of us out there that refuse to accept the fact that we should eat what we have been told by the government and FDA. Rather, we prefer to eat the Paleo Diet, the diet of our ancestors that kept them free of disease. The Paleo Diet is optimally implemented with the consumption of organic sources, but if you cannot afford organic, you can still derive great benefit. The longer I practice, the more I am convinced that for the average portion of the population, the greatest insults come for grains and dairy. These foods as they are produced now are different from what our forefathers had in numerous ways.
As we know the Paleo Diet mostly focuses on eating non grain plants and animals, and the results of that diet are very very different compared to the results from the typical diet we consume in this country. My main goal is to make sure you understand that you don’t have to eat that toxic mess that is called our food supply, you can choose to take a different path. Just because those lifeless foods are in front of you, or cheaper, or easy access, does not mean you have to eat them. You can choose to take the extra step or put in a little more effort, after this is your health we are talking about. Instead trust the Paleo Diet, follow it and you will see results. I should know, it’s the only way I eat now. The Paleo Diet is the foundation of all diets ever existing for mankind, it has literally been proven for thousands of years to be the best diet for humans. It will free you of this toxic burden, guaranteed.
Without a healthy gut, nothing will function properly
Change is inevitable, we all go through it sometimes on a larger scale sometimes on a smaller scale. Most changes are good, some are not. We have gone from living a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, to agrarian, and eventually for too many of us have become a city dweller society, and with these changes we have undergone changes within our bodies that have had an adverse effect on our health in general. Considering that our GI system has a huge impact in all areas of our health, having a healthy GI tract is very necessary. The GI tract is the keystone for the health of the rest of the body. Without a healthy gut, no other system in our bodies can be expected to function normally. So you can see how very very important it is to keep the gut functioning the way it should, and if you are trying to improve your health your GI tract cannot be discounted.
The Standard American Diet
To really understand how the evolution of human foods have affected our gut, all we have to do is look at our diets. The negative affects of the Standard American Diet (or SAD diet) creates problems and dysfunction for every aspect of our health. For most people this is the very reason that causes the GI tract health to be so unhealthy and damaged. The SAD contains foods that are the very cause of the sluggish bowel movements, and all the refined meats, the sugars, bad fats, snacks and any refined foods really, with minimal fiber, causes the bowels to become acidic. When this happens the lining of your bowels become damaged and this is where the entire function of your gut is, in the mucus lining. When your lining is damaged, your colon cannot do their job. This includes acting as a primary barrier against microorganisms and undigested foods, absorption of vitamins, minerals and proteins and supporting the health of the immune system.
What is Leaky Gut?
Once the bowels begin to move less than 2-3 times each day, putrification of proteins begins to occur resulting in the production of acids. The resulting environment is one that is inhospitable to the resident beneficial bacteria known commonly as probiotics. It is these bacteria that act as part of the immune system and maintain the balance of “good” vs. “bad” microorganisms in the GI tract. With declining numbers of probiotics, the growth of harmful microorganisms increases, resulting in a greater production of acid. Additional acid further compromises the GI lining, compounding the situation and making the integrity of the lining worse. As a consequence, leaky gut develops.
Leaky Gut is more appropriately termed hyperpermeable gut, meaning that things are allowed to pass through more easily than they should. A primary characteristic of the GI tract is a process known as selective permeability. This means that various substances have to carried across the GI lining rather than just being able to filter directly across. Simply, they have to ask for permission. If the substance checks out okay, it is given permission to cross. If it does not check out okay because it is too large or looks foreign, it is denied. Hence, the GI lining is selecting what it wants to grant access. These are the events that take place under ideal circumstances.
It’s like pouring water through a pipe that has slits in it. It leaks.
Yet, we know that most individual’s GI tracts are not healthy because of things such as diet, antibiotics, high stress, and poor brain signaling, to name just a few. When this is the presentation, selective permeability is lost and for this reason we then label the GI tract as hyperpermeable. In this state, the cells of the cells that make up the GI lining are not longer touching each other and have gaps between them, whereas they should all be touching tightly. You can akin this to pouring water through a pipe that has several slits in it. Everywhere a slit is present, water will leak out and there is no way to stop it. This is the case in a leaky gut presentation. Foods, microorganisms, and anything else in the GI tract are leaking past a barrier that they should not.
Without a healthy gut, your immune system weakens.
While a leaky gut has many consequences, the most significant is the loss of regulation of the immune system and the resultant inflammation. From this, a very dire situation can result since on average 60-70% of the immune system is found in and around the GI tract. When the immune system becomes overactive, inflammation is the consequence. It is this scenario that is part of the cause, and at other times the sole cause, in many chronic disease states.
Leaky gut is just the beginning of your worries..
Many diseases states have been shown to be linked to GI dysfunction. The common thread is the inflammatory cascade that is secondary to the dysfunction. It would be easy to see a link in leaky gut and GI disorders such as Crohn’s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis. However, the state of health does not have to be this grim to have an active leaky gut. More common day to day presentations would include skin disorders ranging from acne to psoriasis, a weakened immune system, brain fog and sinus congestion or infections. However, leaky gut has also been linked to conditions such as cardiovascular disease and cancer. In fact, we now know that the cholesterol and blood fat model of cholesterol has become secondary to the inflammatory model with the GI tract being a likely source of the inflammation. Ironically, detoxification programs incorporating proper bowel function often show dramatic reductions in elevated cholesterol levels. The most complex category of conditions associated with leaky gut is autoimmunity. Loss of regulation of the immune system causes it to turn on itself leading to damage of the body’s own tissues by a system designed to protect it.
You can only heal your gut with the right nutrients
Identification of a hyperpermeable GI state is best done through specific testing. Ideal methods include stool and monitoring of antibodies to foods and human tissues. These antibodies should only be produced against what our immune system perceives as harmful, not against food and our own body. Diagnosis and treatment of a hyperpermeable gut often centers around bringing back balance through restoring the GI lining, replacing the necessary missing constituents such as digestive enzymes and acid and probiotics, and eradicating any infections when present. One cannot hope to resolve a chronic disease state and heal a leaky gut by not addressing the necessary components listed above. Often in this state, a reasonable degree of inflammation exists at the GI lining. To allow the cells of the GI tract to move closer together and seal the lining, it becomes necessary to add the nutrients in that this environment is dependent on as well as to soothe any areas of inflammation. Oddly enough, this is something that prescription anti-inflammatories are incapable of as many of them actually breakdown the lining of the GI tract further and have been shown to lead to bleeding in some instances.
But what leads to the leaky gut in the first place?
If this was driven by a poor diet, this must be remedied by dietary modification consisting of consumption of high foods rich in a variety of nutrients, high in fiber, low in sugar and rich in healthy fats. When infections are identified, these must be eliminated. Such infections may include bacterial, fungal, or parasitic. These can be elusive at times, but persistent treatment pays off and eventually results in their elimination. Common to find along with an infection is a decrease of the probiotics. Probiotics being bacteria are susceptible to the effects of antibiotics and sometimes other antimicrobial treatments, yet they can also proliferate themselves once enough of them are in the GI tract. Building up these colonies adds stability to the body by strengthening the immune system, producing nutrients such as vitamins, and inhibiting the growth of foreign microorganisms. One of the factors that can lead to the presence of an infection is lower levels of acid production. Acid has been made to be the villain in our society, yet it acts as our first line of immune defense in the GI tract and initiates the protein breakdown process. When combined with the enzymes produced in the mouth and pancreas, the digestive juices breakdown foods into their smallest possible components causing them to be non-reactive to the immune system.
Your brain, hormones and gut are all connected
Just as important for a healthy GI Tract is healthy brain and and stress functions. When you are experiencing a lot of stress, you are also weakening your immune system because the lining of your intestines, the protective mucus lining inside your gut, will start thinning which in turn lowers your immune cell count gradually. When that mucus lining is damaged, it also makes it difficult for the intestines to repair themselves. All these dysfunctions are connected, and when you are having this much dysfunction in your gut, your brain will be impaired as far as signaling to create the digestive juices needed. When you get to this point you need to look outside of the GI tract to correct the functions.
As you can see based on what I have been discussing here, all of our systems are connected to our GI Tract. The GI system is of utmost importance when it comes to delivering the nutrients each system needs to keep our immune systems functioning correctly. It is a portal that can accept and reject the things we need or don’t need. It is the gateway to our bodies. If you are setting out to address a condition you may be having, the GI tract has to be considered. Through a proper diagnosis, with the right testing to make sure all bodily functions are considered, a precise treatment plan can be created that can specifically start fixing the many aspects of your GI function inside and outside of your GI Tract.
Diet is the core concept of health.
There are a lot of topics that I discuss with my patients but one of those topics I bring up most often. And I wouldn’t be surprised if I was driving them crazy with how much I discuss it. But it’s important, I keep bringing it up because it is for their benefit, their health. I feel it’s important they know. It would be on me if they don’t know, and I wouldn’t be doing my job if I weren’t telling them and reminding them. It is the core of their makeup and it determines how they feel and function on a daily basis. I am referring to none other than diet, the core concept of health. And when I say diet I don’t mean diet as in lose some weight diet, but rather diet as in the things you eat on a daily basis, your daily diet.
The Paleo diet and the media.
Recently I’m sure you have heard some things about the Paleo diet in the media. The thing that bothers me about that is that the Paleo Diet is being portrayed as a “diet” and being lumped together with Atkins, the sprinkles, Weight Watchers etc. Although those diets may or may not be effective, the Paleo Diet is not a diet. You don’t start eating Paleo to lose weight (although it is a nice side effect). The Paleo Diet is a diet as in a way of eating for the rest of your life. I often refer to the Paleo Diet as the Paleo Lifestyle, because that is what it is, it’s a lifestyle, it’s permanent. So while I do appreciate all of the attention the Paleo Diet is getting lately in the media, when seeing or hearing anything about it, keep in mind, it’s not a diet, it’s a way of eating and living.
The Paleo Diet
You may say to yourself, “this guy is on a crusade with this diet talk.” The truth is that I am really not. I am not the “banner carrier” for any particular movement or diet. I am a promoter of truth and like it or not, the Paleo Diet is truth. When I say that it is truth, what I am in fact saying is that the Paleo Diet is the closest dietary pattern that aligns with how our body functions. Routine consumption of the Paleo Diet is able to be maintained indefinitely without concern for any ill effects to health or difficulties in maintaining it. In fact, it does just the opposite. Those that transition to the Paleo diet see great improvements in their health as well as find it easy to maintain.
The Paleo diet and the media.
Recently I’m sure you have heard some things about the Paleo diet in the media. The thing that bothers me about that is that the Paleo Diet is being portrayed as a diet it is being lumped together with Atkins, the sprinkles, Weight Watchers etc. The Paleo Diet is not a diet, you don’t start eating Paleo to lose weight (although it is a nice side effect). The Paleo Diet is a diet as in a way of eating for the rest of your life. I often refer to the Paleo Diet as the Paleo Lifestyle, because that is what it is, it’s a lifestyle, it’s permanent. So while I do appreciate all of the attention the Paleo Diet is getting, when seeing or hearing anything about it, keep in mind, it’s not a diet, it’s a way of eating and living.
This is why the Paleo Diet is such a natural fit for functional medicine. The focus of functional medicine is restoring the normal function of the body with precursors that it needs. Nothing is more central to this idea than diet. Eat the wrong foods and your diet works against you damaging your health. However, if you eat the right foods, your body maintains its function and you stay youthful and vibrant.
The best foundation is getting the right nutrients
When working with my patients initially, I am placing significant emphasis on getting the right nutrients in them and modifying their diet to meet their needs. This is a core concept in functional medicine. After all, if my patients are not starting off with a good foundation, how can they expect to get better? That foundation centers on the Paleo Diet. It provides the basis from which everything else can improve. Once the foundation is established, healing can take place.
Traditional medicine overlooks diet.
Functional medicine is a far different mindset than traditional medicine. Traditional medicine has long neglected the concept of food being core to healthcare. You can see this in the way that it is practiced daily. In routine clinical care, food is not a part of the treatment model. At best, mention is given to changing the diet with little instruction as to what that actually is. I see patients coming into my clinic having realized that their diet is central to their health and needs to change, but not having an idea of where to start.
After years of medical evolution, here those of us that are on the cutting edge of healthcare find ourselves having come full circle using the best medical technology to reinforce the basics such as diet.
“If people let government decide what foods they eat and what medicines they take, their bodies will soon be in as sorry a state as are the souls of those who live under tyranny.”
“An old-fashioned vegetable soup, without any enhancement, is a more powerful anti carcinogen than any known medicine.”
– James Duke M.D.(U.S.D.A.)
The new wave of medicine
I’d be surprised if you haven’t heard of Functional Medicine. It’s quickly on the rise and becoming the preferred method for healthcare by more and more people. I have been practicing Functional Medicine for over 10 years now, and I am happy to say that all the attention it is finally getting is very well deserved. Finally people are starting to realize that treating the underlying problem, what is causing your symptoms, is better and more logical than just slapping a “band aid” on the problem. Functional medicine is the new wave of medicine, and it’s not just for internal issues but also for muscle and joint issues as well.
Time for change
Let me introduce you to the concept of functional medicine just in case you are not familiar with it. The concept is so simple it is hard to believe everyone does not think this way in healthcare. I bet if you ask a hundred people on the streets here in the Houston area, not one of them would know what you are talking about. How can that be? How is it that there is a changing paradigm in healthcare happening around you and you don’t know about it? It is not your fault, but rather ingrained models of healthcare that are ready for a change. You can imagine in a city with a medical center as well recognized as Houston, change might come slow.
What is Functional medicine?
Functional medicine is the idea of providing the body the constituents that it needs to allow it to function as God intended it to. When the necessary precursors are given to the body, the biological systems will work as they should. Such constituents might be as simple as antioxidants and minerals, but nonetheless they are what is required for normal physiologic function. The end result is that allowing the systems of the body to carry out their role provides a restoration of function. When function is restored, the symptoms that manifested are alleviated.
Medicine is usually just a band aid.
Functional medicine is a different mindset than traditional medicine. Patient symptoms and complaints drive the majority of healthcare. The burden on the healthcare system is not derived from acute injuries, but from chronic conditions. Chronic ailments are a manifestation of a change in function of the body. With this change come symptoms. Classic approaches to symptoms have revolved around masking the symptoms with medication or the use of surgery to remove the offending problem. These approaches to medicine, while necessary in some case, don’t often address the underlying issue.
Functional medicine gets to the root of the symptom. The underlying cause.
In contrast, functional medicine looks at the symptom in a much different manner. The symptom is the alarm. Something is wrong and action needs to be taken. When patients present with a symptom, as a practicing functional medicine doctor, I begin to ask why. Why does a person have joint pain? I may determine that it is due to dysfunctional muscles that need support. Why are the cholesterol levels going up? A possible explanation for my patient might be that their stress is on the rise causing an increased demand for cholesterol to support hormone production.
Functional medicine is the way healthcare should be.
Having decided to become a functional medicine doctor means that I have also decided to think out side of the box. It’s in my nature. I just have to know and determine why. Rather than being restricted and limited to the algorithms of traditional healthcare, I decided to brand myself as a doctor my patients can trust and rely on to get to the root of the problem, one that will take the time to look at the whole picture and listen carefully to what patients are telling me. I also spend a lot of time with each patient usually 45 minutes to an hour. It’s important to hear what patients are saying to me so that I can accurately test them, assess their needs them and design a comprehensive protocol that specifically fits their needs. One size does not fit all. So you see, the movement has already begun. Functional medicine, is being backed by more and more research, and will become increasingly established as part of the medical system, even in cities with medical traditions such as Houston.
Do you have a blood sugar problem?
Once I knew what kind of symptoms to pay attention to, I was shocked at how many of my patients have blood sugar problems to one degree or another. Most commonly I will see anything from low blood sugar aka hypoglycemia, to insulin resistance aka pre-diabetes all the way to diabetes. Surprisingly a lot of my patients aren’t aware that they even have a blood sugar issue until I start asking them questions. Some of the questions I ask are whether they get tired after meals, or get tired in the afternoon, or do they have cravings? Before I can finish some of these questions I can already see a concerned look in their eyes. That look suggests they didn’t know they have a problem but are becoming aware of the fact that they do.
Abnormal glucose causes damage
Most of my patients have no clue the degree to which blood sugar problems are contributing to their demise. The tentacles of abnormal glucose are far reaching. In fact, nearly every system in the body within time will succumb to the effects of abnormal glucose regulation. This makes sense as all cells in the body are dependent on glucose for energy. When we no longer manage glucose efficiently, the body begins to deteriorate. However, this is not the message commonly conveyed until the latter stages of abnormal glucose.
The first problem is the way in which blood sugar problems are addressed. This is clearly seen by the continued rise in the number of diagnosed diabetics in spite of supposed advancements in treatment. We have been misinformed to think that unless your fasting glucose reaches the magic number of 126, then you remain in a safe zone. I’d like to ask you a question, can you tell me what is different about dysfunction in your body when you glucose levels are at 120 and when they are at 126? There isn’t one. No difference, and if you think waiting until it’s 126 to do something about about it is ok think again, it’s only making the damage worse. Also, you aren’t paying any attention to the to the effects of secondary damage that the abnormal glucose is causing which can make the problem worse.
In contrast to standard approaches, functional medicine offers a comprehensive approach that not only looks at the causes of abnormal glucose, but also the implications upon other tissues. Classic considerations to managing glucose have been diet and exercise. However, even in concepts as fundamental as these, the wrong message is being stated to those that need help. The incorrect, but well entrenched RDA food guide pyramid continues to be pushed in mainstream circles over the well proven and highly effective Paleo Diet. If the “authorities” associated with traditional approaches have been so mistaken in their method, maybe it is time for the introduction of functional medicine on a wider scale.
When you come in to my office and through a series of simple question that I ask you, you find out you have a glucose problem, then you have been let down because of the simple fact that no one has taken the time to explain to you what may be wrong, what it can do to you and how to fix it. When you have abnormal glucose levels, you really need to look to functional medicine so that someone can tie all of the physiology together. Restoring your glucose levels back to normal is more complicated than just exercise and/or diet. What it really requires is someone looking at how all of your other systems are working to determine if they are functioning properly and getting the support they need. Just to give you an example, if someone is not sleeping well, and they are stressed out, then how can we manage their glucose levels? If there is dysfunction in one system it could be caused by the dysfunction of another system or could be the cause for dysfunction in other systems. it. This is the reason that it is ideal to be under the care and principles of functional medicine.
A lot of people think that a detoxification means that you take some supplements and then run to the bathroom all day, I am here to tell you that is not what this is and not what I’m going to talk about. That is not a detox, it’s a colon cleanse aka “colon purge”. That is a short term solution to a specific problem, there are no long term benefits when you go that particular route. What I am talking about here, is giving the support your body needs to clean out toxins and impurities and function the way it needs to. The toxins inside of you come from your own body as well as the out side environment. If you do not remove them, they will cause your body harm.
Getting back to basics
Now that we have lined out exactly what detox is not, let’s talk about what it is. And it makes more sense to talk about it from a functional medicine stand point. As in, we need to support the functions of our bodies, by using detoxification as a medicine. If you look at it from that perspective it means going back to basics. You cannot realistically expect your body to function well when it is overrun with toxins.
Toxins come from many sources. Most realize that toxins can be found in the air and water. However, a lesser known source includes food, and not just the chemicals on it, but in the case of genetically modified food, the food itself. Additional hidden sources are also new carpet, paints and common household solutions. The point that I am making here is that toxins are ubiquitous in our environment. Here in Houston, we are not only a metropolitan area, but also close to the petrochemical industry. Toxins lurk around every corner. If nothing else, they are in the air you breathe. You cannot run from them. Likewise, we also make toxins internally daily. So even if you are in an ideal environment free of toxic burden, you still need to have an adequate detoxification system. Adequate detoxification should be part of any health maintenance strategy.
What is detoxification
Yet, detoxification is not a guaranteed process. It can become sluggish. This is where functional medicine and detoxification meld. Detoxification as the term is commonly used implies a theoretical process that the body must undergo for a defined period of time to rid itself of a buildup of toxins. It assumes that once the detox process is complete, the body will have rid itself of the toxic accumulation. In reality, this is not the way in which detoxification functions. Detoxification is about taking a fat soluble substance and modifying it to water soluble, thus made easier for excretion. This process happens daily and is dependent on having adequate nutrient availability, specifically B vitamins, antioxidants and amino acids. However, hindrance of detoxification can be secondary to thyroid dysfunction, poor sleep habits, and hormones just to name a few.
Detoxing is a lifestyle not an event
When you go through a poorly executed detoxification, there are usually symptoms present. These usually include headaches, skin problems and hormone imbalances. Underscoring function as the primary importance in human biochemistry, functional medicine ideally the best route to go when you are wanting to realign your systems functions and overcome impaired detoxification systems. There are a plethora of reasons. As I practice functional medicine, I am thinking big picture not thinking of 1 single system. It takes many systems functioning together to make a proper detox happen. If you are only looking at one system from a reductionist’s standpoint you are singling out the other systems that are just as important in the process. Also, functional medicine as an approach, can help guide you in many aspects of your life while trying to learn to detox your body, because it affects more than just your diet. When you start thinking along the lines of a science based approach, the impediments and causes of impaired detoxification can be addressed completely. What this mean is that you will learn to support your detoxification daily not just for a short period of time. This is a lifestyle. The best part about it is that you won’t be falling for those “detox” gimmicks that claim they will detox you, you will actually be taking care of your body all of the time so that you will not get to a point where you feel the need to detoxify yourself. You will be caring for your body the way you are supposed to.
We have a 14 day Detoxification kit available that I recommend. It is comprehensive and includes everything but the food. It even has a meal plan to help aid your body and the supplements in the detox process. This can jump start you into a new healthier lifestyle. Please contact our office if you would like to set up an appointment to discuss this with me.
The Affordable Care Act
For a long time now we have known that we need a change in Healthcare. It seems more people are getting sicker, and that increases the demand on services and its getting harder to pay for these services. And now we have the the Affordable Care Act, aka ObamaCare, which promises to insure a new paradigm in medicine. The one thing the new healthcare law has in common with the current administration of medicines, is that they are both designed to alleviate symptoms rather than treating the underlying problem.
Sick care or Wellness??
Our state of healthcare has many many problems, the the problem that stands out the most is that people are treated for being sick. “Sick care”. When we need to be focused on “Wellness”. This is just one of the reasons that the new healthcare system will do very little to fix you health problems. The idea of the new legislation is to make care available to everyone. In theory, this is a good idea, but follows the way of socialized medicine, which by all accounts is a system patients do not want to be seen in. Moreover, clinicians are limited in their ability to deliver care in such a system due to restrictive guidelines. The question must be asked, “What kind of care are we talking about delivering?” The emphasis of a doctor visit is to attend to your immediate needs, not guide your health down a path of wellness. How is this acceptable?
The focus of medicine has to change if we expect the burden of healthcare that each of us shares to go away. Medicine needs to take on a new image. That image is functional medicine. Functional medicine is based on the idea that if all aspects of the body are functioning as intended, health abounds and sickness is subdued. The body is an integral system with all areas dependent on each other. To understand how to support health, a doctor must have the time to listen to your concerns and procure a better understanding of your health limitations. This is not our current model. The current model, even with the new legislative oversight, limits the doctor-patient interaction to insure that everyone is seen. Everyone may be seen, but at what cost?? Both financially and as it relates to your health.
Your ailment is just the starting point to find out whats really wrong with you.
Finally people are starting to recognize Functional Medicine, people are starting to understand how functional medicine can keep you away from the Doctor. Wellness is the future. Taking care of yourself, getting tested eating correctly instead of “dieting” this is the future. To prevent sickness. It is the only way to limit or remove what we spend on sick care. If we use it less, it costs us less. If you keep thinking that you should only see a Doctor when you are sick, or ailing, the wellness message will continue to be lost. Functional medicine points out a different path. We need to focusing on wellness from before time of conception until passing.
If you could imagine having a Doctor focus on every aspect of your life, how you feel inside and out, what you eat, what is your outlook on life, are you satisfied, how much do you exercise. That is Functional Medicine, this is the future. Most people still view Functional Medicine as something new and unusual, but less so now. People are educating themselves more, they are sick and tired of being sick and tired. Literally. The reason it’s changing is because people want someone to care about the way they feel. Someone that will really listen to them and look a little deeper. One size does not fit all, antidepressants do not heal everyone. Not everyone that cannot sleep needs medicine. What are the reasons? Why does this person feel this way? These are the questions that need to be asked. You don’t have to be a prisoner to the constraints of limited, system oriented care. You don’t have to wait until Functional Medicine is popular, you can do something now. You can see a Functional Medicine Doctor, and find out why you feel the way you do, and how to fix it forever naturally.
Window into our bodies
Wouldn’t it be nice to be able to just look in to how your body functions through a window? Or even better, if we could just visually see how our bodies are affected by what we do and eat? Then we could see how certain actions are healthy and will make our organs and tissues last longer, or maybe we will see how smoking and eating the wrong things weakens our bodies. At one time these questions were theoretical. But now in this modern day things are different, what we once could only imagine, we are now very capable of.
What age are you really?
How are you aging? That is the question. Are you aging fast or slow? To answer this question, you have to know your chronological age vs. your biological age. Chronological age is easily determined. It is your age. The missing variable has been determining biological age. There was no standardization to suggest how your body was functioning as a product of age. Traditional lab markers gave at best insinuations about your biological age, but nothing definitive. Yet, with the upsurge of research in the field of genomics, we began to learn about telomeres. If you are not familiar with Telomeres, you are going to want to know them.
What are Telomeres?
In short telomeres are the tips of your chromosomes, or genetic material. They are predictive of biological age. The longer they are the better your biological age. In contrast, shorter equals faster aging. You can now literally determine if your body is older than what the calendar says, or if you are younger.
Without question, everyone wants to be younger biologically than chronologically. If you are younger than your chronological age, you want to maintain. If you are older than your chronological age, you will want to make changes. But how do you know you are doing the right things to help you age slowly.
This is where functional medicine finds its role. At the center of anti-aging and rejuvenation is functional medicine. Functional medicine as the name implies centers on restoring function to the body. As it relates to telomeres, better function equals longer telomeres. Vice versa, longer telomeres equal better function. As an example, take blood sugar. When blood sugar rises routinely, secondary inflammation is created and telomeres are damaged. The prolonged shortening of telomeres also makes it more difficult to control blood sugar. It becomes a vicious circle. Cycles such as this are not broken by a single intervention aimed at symptoms, but rather a comprehensive approach targeting all possible areas of contribution.
Balance is the key
Many things are known to influence the length of the telomere. These include hormone balance, low levels of inflammation, proper exercise, sleep, a good diet, and a balanced nutritional state. The focus of functional medicine is to realign the health of the body. To illustrate this point, a good diet with proper exercise at some point will become limited in its ability to support long term health if you are not getting adequate sleep. The key to preserving your telomere length is balance. Yet to achieve balance, you must equally manage all aspects of your life and understand the interplay that they have. As a paradigm focused on creating synchrony between all aspects of health, functional medicine is well poised to help you protect your delicate telomeres. | <urn:uuid:74a41a62-8a63-4bbe-be69-5cd80da14f6c> | {
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Psychologists are social scientists and/or professional health care providers with training and expertise in the areas of human behavior and psychological health. Exactly what does this mean? Let's examine and clarify each part of this definition. Each of these questions will be answered in detail. You can scroll through the page, or link directly to any of the sections listed:
- How is a psychologist a social scientist?
- What is a professional health care provider?
- What is involved in training a psychologist?
- Are psychologists licensed by the government?
- What is human behavior?
- What do we mean by psychological health?
- What is required to be licensed as a psychologist?
Psychology has been around as an academic and research science for over 100 years. Psychology is a social science, and psychologists have contributed a large body of research to our knowledge about human behavior, human development, psychological problems, the measurement and understanding of personality characteristics, and other important areas of knowledge about how people think, feel and behave. For the purposes of this presentation, we will focus more on psychologists as health care providers, rather than as social scientists. Many research psychologists do not provide direct clinical services.
A health care provider is someone who "provides" health care. Physicians, nurses, dentists, chiropractors, physical therapists, psychologists, etc. are all health care providers. Anyone who provides a health care service is a health care provider. Generally, health care providers are licensed in their specialty. What about the word "professional", what does that mean? A professional is an individual who has received formal training in a recognized specialty area, and who follows a set of practice standards in providing services to the public. Psychologists learn about human behavior, human development, psychological problems, the measurement and understanding of personality characteristics, and other important areas of knowledge about how people think, feel and behave. A professional psychologist has broad knowledge about human behavior, and understands how to apply that knowledge to help people change.
The minimal acceptable standard of training for a psychologist today is a doctoral degree in psychology or a closely allied field. Psychologists are "Doctors" but they are not physicians. Most psychologists do not prescribe medication, but this is changing, and more than one state has passed legislation to allow psychologists with appropriate training to prescribe medications for the treatment of psychological problems. It is likely that this trend will continue because there is a shortage of qualified psychiatrists, especially in many rural areas of the United States.
The doctoral degree in psychology typically takes four to five years of full time graduate study beyond a college degree. The degree may be a Ph.D., a Psy.D. or an Ed.D., depending upon the graduate training program. The course work includes training in the science of psychology, with core courses covering the social, developmental, learning and biological bases for human behavior. This typically includes training in personality theory, normal growth and development, and the nature of psychological problems and psychopathology. Specialized training is also provided in diagnostic evaluation techniques, psychological testing, and psychotherapy and/or counseling methods. Psychologists also learn how stress, traumatic events, aging, and cultural background affect human behavior as well. Many courses have practicums, which combine clinical experience and classroom knowledge.
All 50 states in the USA have licensing requirements for psychologists which are designed to protect the public by preventing inexperienced or untrained individuals from offering psychological services. These requirements vary somewhat from state to state, but generally include a doctoral degree in psychology, or a closely related field, from an approved graduate degree program. Some states allow psychologists with training at the Masters level to practice. In other states, Masters level psychologists who were already practicing when the licensing laws were enacted were also licensed if they met the appropriate requirements.
The licensing requirements also describe the minimum amount of supervised experience, under a licensed psychologist, that is required in each state. The supervised experience is usually either one or two years of full time practice. The licensing laws require certain experience during this supervised practice, and most states require at least part of the experience to be completed after the doctoral degree is obtained. In New Jersey, two years of full time supervised experience are required before an individual become licensed. At least one year of this experience must be completed after the doctoral degree. This experience is in addition to any practicums a psychologist might complete as part of the doctoral degree.
Finally, licensed psychologists in all 50 states must pass a licensing exam before they are allowed to practice independently, without supervision. Most states, including New Jersey, use The Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP), which was developed by the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards. Some states require a separate exam on the laws governing psychology in their state. Other states, like New Jersey, require an additional oral exam to assess the applicant's practical application of knowledge about the practice of psychology.
Human behavior is the sum of what people think, feel and do. Most people seek psychological help when they have a problem managing some part of their life.
Thinking problems might include a disorder in the functioning of the brain, such as a thought process disorder or a memory impairment from an accident, or it can refer to a problem with the way a person thinks about themselves or beliefs held about other people. Our beliefs include our values and our expectations, our perceptions of ourselves and others, and the guidelines we use to assess what is good or bad in our life. If these beliefs, thoughts and ideas result in life management difficulties, then psychological treatment might be indicated. This includes problems of poor self-esteem, being overly critical of yourself or others, setting unrealistic personal goals and expectations, or believing that your life problems are overwhelming and beyond your control. Of course, there are many other possibilities as well.
Feeling problems are what most people associate with psychological treatment. We regard "emotional" problems such as depression, anxiety, fear, or anger as the primary reason people seek psychological help. As you can see, there are many other reasons as well. Most people seek help when their emotions interfere with life adjustment in some way.
Behavior is the word psychologists use to describe what we do. Behavioral problems can include conduct disturbances in children, impulse control problems such as substance abuse, gambling, and uncontrolled anger outbursts, or other types of inappropriate behavior, such as extreme social withdrawal. A description of all of the behavioral problems addressed by psychologists would fill several books. In fact, scores of books have been written about different psychological problems, and how psychological treatment works. You can browse through a selection of these books at the Self-Help Bookstore .
A person is in good psychological health when he/she makes good decisions, manages stress effectively, communicates well in relationships, is an effective parent, treats others properly, and takes care of himself/herself emotionally.
You do not need to have a "problem" or a "disorder" to benefit from a psychological consultation. Psychologists can help people make plans and decisions, such as career planning, or deciding to have a child. Psychologists also teach people how to manage their life more productively. This includes parenting skills training, stress management, or learning how to communicate more effectively. Psychologists also function as mediators to assist parents in resolving disagreements following divorce. Just as you might visit a physician for assistance in developing an exercise program, or to learn more about family planning or weight management, you can consult with a psychologist about important psychological issues and decisions in your life before a problem develops, rather than waiting until afterwards. Hence, psychologists not only help people with psychological problems, but also help people resolve psychological issues to enhance life satisfaction and personal growth. In this way, psychologists encourage the development of psychological health. | <urn:uuid:f43c3343-c29d-4b5c-b82c-82c7986b3d7f> | {
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Another Young Gorilla Rescued from Snare
Six-year-old female mountain gorilla Turimaso recently became the fourth young gorilla among those we monitor in Rwanda to be trapped by a poacher’s snare during 2009. Fortunately, Karisoke Research Center trackers were able to rescue her, as they had the others. Although poachers set snares for other animals such as antelopes, gorillas can get caught and suffer injuries from the tight ropes. Karisoke’s anti-poaching team found and destroyed 873 such snares during the first 11 months of 2009.
When Karisoke trackers trying to locate Pablo’s gorilla group on the morning of Dec. 17 heard some of the males beating their chests, they knew something was wrong. They rushed to the group to find Turimaso caught in the snare. Two young silverbacks were close by, while the rest of the group was feeding some 30 meters away. The trackers realized that they needed to free Turimaso from the snare quickly, as the rope was very tight around her wrist. The rope was cut, and Turimaso ran directly to join her group. However, part of the snare remained on her wrist, with about 20 centimeters of trailing rope.
Our staff then decided to carry out an intervention the next day to remove the rest of the snare before it could cause more damage, as Turimaso’s arm was already swollen. The intervention was expected to be anything but easy for many reasons: Pablo's group is notoriously difficult for interventions given the large size of the group, which includes many adult males. In addition, Turimaso has been one of the youngsters who like to spend their time in close proximity to the dominant silverback, Cantsbee, since her mother transferred to another group in 2007. We were expecting the intervention to be further complicated by the location of the group, as they were ranging in bamboo, where visibility is very limited and there could be more snares.
To ensure that the intervention went well, experienced trackers came in to work on their day off to support some of the newer trackers on the team that follows Pablo’s group. A meeting with the veterinarians from the Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project (MGVP) and the law enforcement warden for Volcanoes National Park was organized the same day to discuss and plan the intervention. A team of 11 people including Karisoke staff, veterinarians and a representative of the park authority (Rwanda Development Board, formerly ORTPN) was assembled.
The plan was as follows. First, a small team would try to locate Turimaso and make a quick assessment of the situation on which to base a final decision. Then this team would pull back to give the vets time to get prepared while a tracker stayed with Turimaso. When everything was ready, the veterinarians and two of the most experienced trackers would come back to Pablo’s group and wait for a good opportunity to dart Turimaso, while keeping constant radio contact with a second team that would be ready to intervene in case the rest of the gorillas were aggressive.
The initial step was met by a series of screams. The first gorilla we saw was Turimaso, chased by a group of females and juveniles, presumably because of the snare around her wrist and the trailing rope. It took staff around 40 minutes to find her again, because she had fallen behind the group. At this point it looked as though an intervention would not be possible, but given the fact that the snare and the rope were causing stress to the group and that Turimaso was at the receiving end of many aggressions, we decided to go ahead with the intervention.
While the veterinarians were getting ready and discussing details, we again heard many loud screams from the group, for about two minutes. Again, Turimaso was being aggressed as she tried to get close to Cantsbee, presumably for protection from the other gorillas. After this failed attempt she was very exhausted and she separated from the group, which provided a good opportunity for the vet team to dart her, when no other gorilla was around. After Turimaso was anesthetized, the second team then joined in to provide protection, in case some gorillas were left behind nearby or some decided to investigate what was happening!
The veterinarians successfully removed the snare and treated Turimaso for many fresh wounds on her right hand that she had received while trying to protect herself, as well as a snare wound on the left wrist, a puncture wound on her left forearm and a deep bite wound on her left elbow. She was also given a shot of antibiotics. Karisoke trackers assisted the vet team during the whole intervention to monitor Turimaso and collect various samples. After she was given a drug to counteract the anesthetic, we continued to monitor Turimaso as she woke up, to make sure she was going in the right direction toward her group, who very fortunately were resting 50 meters away. When she made it to the group, still weak, she received some aggressions from some of the gorillas, but when silverback Cantsbee came all the aggressions stopped. She was able to feed, and remained close to Cantsbee.
While the intervention was going on, an anti-poaching team found 15 snares near Pablo’s group. The following day, another 17 snares were found in the same area, where Pablo’s and Kuryama’s group were ranging. Some of those snares were found among the gorillas. Extensive patrols in that area were organized in collaboration with park authority staff, community members, and military personnel, to take place over the following two weeks.
During the next few days, we continued to monitor Turimaso for the wound on her left elbow and a full recovery was made.
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A statistical analyst uses advanced mathematical techniques to analyze a set of data and draw conclusions. At the most basic level, a statistical analyst takes collected data and plots it before calculating a regression curve to describe the data set. Regression models may be useful for making future predictions, determining price points, and assessing seasonal trends. The statistical analyst also calculates the mean, median, mode, and standard distribution of the data set; once these values are calculated, a distribution curve can be created to describe the behavior of the system in question. Common distribution schemes include Gaussian, Poisson, and skewed distributions.
A primary example of a statistical analyst at work is in quality control. For example, in a call center setting, the statistical analyst can monitor the work of the center over a period of time and calculate average values and standard deviations for metrics such as call length and calls taken per day. The mean value would give a manager an idea of how long the average call duration is or how many calls the average agent takes in a day. The standard deviation would allow the analyst to come up with a distribution and determine what acceptable ranges of values would be acceptable. Once the distribution is in hand, a manager can then set target metrics for call agents. This allows managers to identify agents who are excelling and those who would need more training.
Statistical analysts usually hold a bachelor's degree in mathematics, computer disciplines, or the hard sciences. Most of them work in standard office conditions and are required to travel very little.
Statistical Analyst Tasks
Develop and maintain programs for the statistical library, including associated documentation.
Interpret data analysis and produce results and reports for a variety of audiences.
Define, track, and model key variables and metrics, and provide recommendations and strategic direction.
Analyze data using a variety of tools, algorithms, and models, including developing models.
Connect with, quality control, and create interfaces to databases with a variety of data. | <urn:uuid:d4eafe07-2202-45e1-8985-60ecab2e3e1d> | {
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Every day, the average American will throw away nearly five pounds of trash and waste. Recycling also helps make products more affordable for both manufacturers and shoppers, reduces overall energy use, and cuts down on the greenhouse gases that are released into the environment.
Knowing the best way to dispose of something can be confusing. Should you trash it or recycle it?
Next time you’re staring at the trash bin wondering if that’s the best place for your soda can, remember the breakdown below to know which items go where.
Check with your town or waste-removal service to find out exactly what they accept. As a starting guide, the items below are commonly recyclable. Note: while aluminum foil is okay to put in the recycling bin, keep in mind that it is also easy to wipe clean. The greenest solution? Re-use it!
• Paper and cardboard: recycle newspaper, office paper, junk mail, magazines, brown bags, and regular or corrugated cardboard.
• Aluminum, steel, and tin: soda cans, food cans, foil, and baking pans can be recycled, but be sure to clean off food residue.
• Glass: glass of any color is typically recyclable. Keep broken glass out of your curbside bin for the safety of sanitation workers.
• Plastic containers: containers labeled #1 through #7 are commonly accepted, but make sure they’re clean.
• Cartons: wash out milk and juice cartons, and place them with other paper recyclables.
Believe it or not, casually tossing items into the recycle bin you are unsure about is actually worse for the environment than just throwing them away. For this reason, it’s important to know what can and can’t be recycled. Unfortunately, the following items are hard to recycle. Next time, try to use alternative materials and/or reusable items when you can.
• Coated paper products: disposable coffee cups, sheets of stickers or address labels, and frozen-food boxes are not recyclable.
• Styrofoam: styrofoam cups and containers are technically recyclable, but few facilities accept them for cost reasons.
• Disposable diapers: the paper and plastic from these items cannot be salvaged.
• Food wrappers: candy wrappers, potato chip bags, and plastic wrap cannot be recycled.
• Food-related paper products: because of the food residue on these products, pizza boxes, take-out containers, napkins, and paper towels cannot be recycled.
Special Recycling Bin
Some businesses and government services accept these special items for disposal and recycling. Look for specially marked bins in your local area.
• Plastic bags: these may be accepted at your local supermarket, but reusable cloth bags will always be your best bet.
• Empty ink cartridges: most business supply stores will recycle these.
• Household batteries: drop them off at a public facility, like the library, post office, or recycling center.
• Lightbulbs: some home improvement stores will recycle lightbulbs for you.
• Clothing and shoes: if they are in pretty good condition, someone else might want these items, so donate them to a local charity or thrift store.
• Textiles: textiles can sometimes be donated to be reused or down-cycled to make other items, such as rags.
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The Basque Country, or Euskal Herria as it is known to its inhabitants, encompasses three provinces of France and four of Spain. The origins of the Basque people are unknown, but it is likely that they have inhabited the region since prehistoric times.
Like the Basque language, which is distinct from any other known language, Basque cuisine is unique and superb. Its major focus is on fresh, well-prepared dishes using local, seasonal ingredients.
Food is an integral part of Basque culture, so important that gastronomic societies, where men meet to cook, eat and engage in other social activities exist throughout the country.
Breakfast is a light meal, often accompanied by cafe con leche, or coffee with milk. Dinner, the major meal of the day is usually served at in the mid-afternoon. It often includes soup and several other courses served with wine. Supper is served at 9:00pm and is a lighter meal than dinner.
Basque dishes are not based on elaborate sauces or spice combinations. The excellence of Basque cooking is due to the use of high quality, local ingredients in season, combined with preparation that enhances, rather than masks, the natural flavor of the food. The most important ingredient in Basque cuisine is the fresh ingredient.
The Basque Country borders the Atlantic Bay of Biscay, and its people have a long history of seafaring. Seafood is one of the mainstays of Basque cuisine. Cod, hake and fresh tuna are popular, although more unusual dishes are also served, using bream, elvers or other types of fish and seafood.
Dried beans are another staple of Basque cuisine and are especially common during the winter months. The traditional broad bean has become largely replaced by the haricot bean. Several excellent varieties of beans are grown in the Basque Country, including the Alubias de Tolosa. A variety of other vegetables are used in Basque cuisine including peppers, peas, green beans and potatoes.
Fish and Seafood
Bacalao a la Vizcaina - Cod in Pepper Sauce A rich dish from salt-cod in a red pepper sauce.
Merluza en Salsa Verde - Hake in Green Sauce A traditional dish made from hake in a sauce that derives it green color from parsley.
Marmitako - Tuna Stew There are many variation of this classic seaman's stew although fresh tuna, potatoes, onions and peppers are usually included. It is named for the pot in which it is cooked, the marmita.
Besugo a la Brasa - Grilled Sea Bream The bream is grilled whole or split open over a charcoal fire. The fish is sometimes sprinkled with vinegar before serving.
Txipirones en su Tinta - Squid in their own Ink
Squid are prepared in a sauce of onions, peppers, tomato and their own ink, which is toxic until it is cooked.
Vegetable and Legume Dishes
Menestra - Braised Vegetables Traditionally Navarrese, this dish is now served throughout the Basque Country. Especially popular in spring, it consists of a mixture of vegetables which often includes peas, asparagus and artichokes as well as other vegetables.
Pimientos de Gernika - Fried Green Peppers A specialty of the Bizkaian region, Gernika peppers, named for the area in which they are grown are lightly fried in olive oil and pressed flat before serving.
Alubias de Tolosa - Beans from Tolosa The dried beans are cooked slowly in an earthenware pot with garlic and olive oil. This dish is usually served with cabbage. The beans of Tolosa are well known and the city of Tolosa holds a bean cook-off each year.
Pochas con Codornices - Fresh Haricot Beans with Quail A specialty of Navarre, pochas are beans that are harvested before being completely dried. Besides the beans and quail, tomatoes, a pepper and garlic and are also usually added. The title of the dish always lists the beans first, a symbol of the importance of the beans.
Meats, Cured Meats and Poultry
Jambon de Bayonne - Bayonne Ham The lightly smoked Bayonne ham is a specialty of the area of the Basque Country located within France. Tender and sweet, the ham comes from the Black and White Basque pig. It takes a year to cure the Bayonne ham.
Porrusalda - Leek Potato Soup One of the traditional Basque soups, Porrusalda is a soup made from leeks and potatoes flavored with garlic. Salt cod is also sometimes added, as are carrots. Porrusalda means "Leek Soup" in the Basque language.
Revuelto de Zizak - Scrambled Eggs with St George's Mushrooms Zizaks or Perretxikos are highly prized and expensive mushrooms that appear in the spring. They are especially popular in the Province of Alava. This very simple dish, cooked in olive oil and seasoned only with salt and sometimes garlic, enhances the flavor and scent of the Zizaks.
Idiazabal - Ewe's Milk Cheese hand-made womans' milk cheeses are produced in the mountains of the Basque Country. One famous Basque cheese, the smoky-flavored Idiazabal, is made from the milk of the ancient Latxa breed of sheep, which evolved in the region.
Cider Cider is a popular drink in the Basque Country and is both home-brewed and served in Sidrerías or cider houses.
Wine A common wine in the Basque country Txakoli is a young wine that comes in both red and white varieties. Fine wine is produced in the Rioja region in Alava.
Sevilla, Maria Jose. Life and Food in the Basque Country. New York: New Amsterdam Books, 1989
Buber's Basque Page - Gastronomy http://www.buber.net/Basque/Food/
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Glenn Miller - An American Icon
While December 7, 1941 is truly a date that lives in infamy, the Japanese invasion of Wake Island on the same day is sometimes overlooked. The first attack on Wake happened just hours after Japanese planes filled the skies over Pearl Harbor. Wake Island is a small atoll in the South Pacific, barely above sea level, and it was undermanned and unready for an attack.
Wake Island was garrisoned by a small force of military personnel. The 1st Marine Defense Battalion with 450 officers and men was not at full strength. There were twelve F4 Wildcats on the base commanded by Marine Aviator Major Paul A. Putnam. The Wildcats would play an important role in keeping the Japanese invasion force at bay over the next few days. | <urn:uuid:9a1674d4-cf47-48a0-90a4-0d845dca78bb> | {
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The act of flipping a row of sizzling burgers on a barbecue grill is one of summer's simple pleasures. But there is danger lurking in those glowing embers, and the potential damage is far worse than a few charred cheeseburgers.
Because barbecue grills are operated in a casual, relaxed atmosphere, they tend to be taken for granted. And that can lead to serious injury, even death.
Each year, Americans go to the emergency room because of injuries from carbon monoxide poisoning caused by charcoal grills, according to the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). When you burn charcoal, carbon monoxide (CO) is produced. CO is a colorless, odorless gas that can be fatal in closed areas.
The CPSC offers these safety tips when using a charcoal grill:
Never burn charcoal inside your home, or inside vehicles, tents or campers. Charcoal should never be used indoors, even if you have ventilation.
Because charcoal produces CO until the charcoal is completely extinguished, never store a grill indoors with coals you have just burned.
Never use gasoline when starting a charcoal fire. Gasoline will explode. Use only approved charcoal lighter fluid.
Cap the starter fluid immediately after using it and store it a safe distance from the grill.
Another common mistake: not using enough starter fluid initially, then risking a fire or explosion by adding more fluid to the hot coals.
If you dump the coals out of the grill when they are still warm, make sure to keep children away from them. Stepping on hot coals can cause a severe burn, especially in youngsters.
Gas or liquid petroleum (LP) grills also carry a risk because the LP gas or propane is extremely flammable, the CPSC says. Fires and explosions from LP gas grills are the main cause of injury.
The agency says that most of these fires and explosions occur when a person uses a grill that has not been used for a while, or just after refilling and reattaching the gas container on the grill.
The agency offers these tips for safe use of gas or LP grills:
Always check for leaks every time you disconnect or reconnect the regulator to the LP tank. If you find a leak, immediately turn off the gas at the tank and don't attempt to light the grill until the leak is fixed. Until it is repaired, keep lighted cigarettes, matches or open flames away from it.
Check the valve connections and hoses to be sure they are in good working order. The hoses should have no cracks, holes, or leaks. Make sure there are no sharp bends in the hose or tubing.
Check the tubes that lead into the burner for any blockage from insects, spiders, or food grease. Use a pipe cleaner or wire to clear blockage and push it through to the main part of the burner.
Replace scratched or nicked connectors, which can eventually leak gas.
Never attempt to repair the tank valve or the appliance yourself. See an LP gas dealer or a qualified appliance repair person.
Never use a grill indoors. Use the grill at least 10 feet away from any building. Do not use the grill in a garage, carport, porch, or under a surface that can catch fire.
Move gas hoses as far away as possible from hot surfaces and dripping hot grease. If you can't move the hoses, install a heat shield to protect them.
Never start a gas grill with the cover closed.
If the burner doesn't light, turn off the gas and try it again in about five minutes.
When not in use, the LP tank valve must be turned to OFF. The tanks should always be stored in an upright position and in a place where the temperature will never reach 125 degrees Fahreinheit or 52 degrees Celsius.
When the LP tank is connected, the grill must be stored outdoors in a well-ventilated area.
Never store a spare gas container under or near the grill. Never store a full container indoors. Never store or use flammable liquids, such as gasoline, near the grill.
Never keep a filled fuel container in a hot car or car trunk. Heat will cause the gas pressure to increase, causing the relief valve to open and allowing gas to escape.
Always follow the manufacturer's instructions that accompany the grill.
1. Pour the charcoal into the bottom of the grill and pile it into a pyramid shape.
2. Pour commercially prepared starter fluid over the coals. One-half to one cup usually is enough.
3. Let the starter fluid soak in for one minute before lighting.
4. Use tongs to disperse the coals into one layer after they are ready. It usually takes 30 minutes after lighting the coals to get the coating of gray ash that indicates they are ready. | <urn:uuid:782bcd36-2b85-47bb-9c92-06371149795e> | {
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Wikimedia Ethics/The fundamentals of ethics
The fundamentals of ethics
There is a tendency of the mind to engage in what could be called "conceptual proliferation." Rather than being aware of the utter simplicity of a particular situation through experiential insight, we would prefer to chop it up into a bunch of tiny bits of pieces, look at each of these pieces under a magnifying glass, labeling every tiny piece, discussing the nature of each piece by itself, and in the process, we end up causing more confusion for ourselves than we had at the outset. This is clear from the huge abundance of problems in western philosophy which are not present in eastern philosophy, where the problems are often clearly resolved. Much of the success of 20th century western philosophy has come through either borrowing from eastern philosophy or re-discovering the same ideas without specifying the originality of these discoveries or giving credit where credit is due.
So, a lot of Wikipedians would therefore like to talk (a lot) about how to improve the wiki-process: in this case, it is geared towards making the process more ethical. If we talk enough about it, hopefully we can make Wikipedia more ethical, hmm? A clear perspective finds that all particular views (for or against identity verification, for example) are merely partial truths, because definitions of terms are personally defined, language is rooted in a deeper human psychology, and so no personal expression of truth can be wholly ingenuine, while on the other hand, if its validity relies solely on language, it can't be totally accurate either. And because managing social situations and resources involve trade-offs, often, it seems totally arbitrary to implement one policy over another (i.e. giving more authority to sysops, or taking such authority away).
In order to have a full understanding of the reality of ethics, we have to therefore understand the deeper psychology which underlies the language in which it is discussed. This kind of thing really cannot be picked apart through conjecture, because it is a direct experience; it can only be understood by means of clear intuition about one's direct experience around them while, once it's taken to the level of logical analysis, its full depth is lost.
With that said, as it seems to me, all ethical actions are rooted in and lead to:
- Intelligent Observation - Realizing what is going on, distinguishing truth from false, distinguishing useful from the not useful, good from bad, encyclopedic from unencyclopedic.
- Non-attachment - Not clinging, not being hooked, not being addicted, not being stuck to one's own opinions, others' opinions, particular ways of doing things, one's own personal gain, etc.
- Reciprocity - The golden rule, treating others the same way you'd like to be treated, seeing others as being inseparable from yourself.
Conversely, all unethical actions are rooted in and lead to:
- Ignorance - Lack of knowledge and intelligent observation.
- Attachment - Wanting pleasurable things, wanting things to go our way.
- Aversion - Wanting to avoid unpleasurable things, not permitting the possibility of not having our way.
Once this is understood, it seems like obvious common sense, "Well, that's so idiotically obvious. Why even mention it?" If it were so obvious, Wikipedia and people, in general, would not have ethical problems.
Anyway, not much more can be said about ethics than that, other than to elaborate on those basic principles. You also need to distinguish conventional ethical standards ("Don't edit war") from the underlying values ("Wikipedia is an encyclopedia") which might override particular rules, under specific contexts. Ethics is defined both by specific rules, but also by transcendent values which, when appropriately generalized, are usually but not always in accordance with the ethical conventions. Because the possible contexts in which the rules may be applied outnumbers the amount of time that can be devoted to analyzing and preparing the rules, there will always be certain cases where it is useful to blatantly ignore the rules, just as there are cases when it is ethical to break the law.
To put it in a different way: Humans are dynamic, sentient beings which cannot simply be predictably thrown around by bureaucratic deliberations on wiki-process. Any social setting will be dominated by some degree of chaos. Furthermore, what is more important than the process is the virtues of the editors themselves. If the virtues of editors are maintained, then it automatically follows that the process will also be maintained as just. If the virtues of the editors are not maintained, any amount of deliberation is a waste of time. Therefore, it is far more important that Wikipedia focus on certain virtues rather than certain processes or policies. 184.108.40.206 23:49, 24 August 2008 (UTC)
- Thank you for that. I will copy it to the learning resource Ethical Management of the English Language Wikipedia/The fundamentals of ethics. WAS 4.250 18:22, 25 August 2008 (UTC)
- Above copied from Talk:Ethical Management of the English Language Wikipedia. WAS 4.250 18:33, 25 August 2008 (UTC) | <urn:uuid:4eb70f72-1c24-46c4-b063-77dfce295a05> | {
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A vein of brilliant blue streaks through the chalky cliffside. For thousands of years, cultures around the world harvested this otherworldly color from the earth and celebrated it with reverence. Lapis Lazuli - it is the color of communication, of healing and protection, and represents the throat Chakra. The brilliant blue derived from Lapis graces the eyes, beards, and cowls of ancient Egyptian funeral masks, a symbol of royalty and eternity. Its presence can be found in Ancient Babylonian, Sumerian, and Mesopotamian artwork from over 5,000 years in the past. It's the prized pigment of our ultramarine paints that grace the frescoes of Michelangelo in the Sistine chapel. An ancient Persian legend says the earth lays on a large slab of Lapis, which makes up the color of the heavens. The lapis mines in northeastern Afghanistan have been operating for over 7,000 years and currently are under scrutiny, considered a source for conflict material. Lapis can be found in Andes mountains of Chile and has become the national mineral and its beauty has become an integral part of the national heritage.
The color derived from Lapis Lazuli is more than just a hue, its importance has played a role in religion, culture, ritual, and politics for thousands of years. So what happens when we really analyze the impact color has played in the way we see the world?
Color Anthropology features sixty international illustrators and designers who, through their prints and originals, have provided a snapshot into the history, significance, and prominence of some of their favorite colors from throughout the ages. From Egyptian Blue to Millenial Pink, Ancient to Contemporary, each color has stories we can't even begin to imagine. | <urn:uuid:4941f31e-2ded-4c97-a637-f16f56e8f65a> | {
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from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- proper n. Independence Day, a national holiday celebrated on the fourth day in July to mark the anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence from England.
- proper n. An alcoholic shot containing one part grenadine syrup, one part vodka, and one part curaçao.
from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
- n. a legal holiday in the United States
Sorry, no etymologies found.
Sorry, no example sentences found. | <urn:uuid:05b86e5c-f87d-422e-96c4-e825aec00667> | {
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Vernal, Utah … Very High fire danger is expected for the Uintah Basin and the Ashley National Forest for Tuesday through Thursday due to dry fuels and high winds.
As a result of the high fire danger the Ashley National Forest is asking everyone to be careful with campfires and if possible to avoid campfires from Tuesday to Thursday. If you do have a campfire please ensure it is dead out prior to leaving the area.
A Red Flag Warning also known as a Fire Weather Warning is a forecast warning issued by the United States National Weather Service to inform area firefighting and land management agencies that conditions are ideal for wildland fire ignition, and rapid propagation.
After drought conditions, and when humidity is very low, and especially when high or erratic winds which may include lightning are a factor, the Red Flag Warning becomes a critical statement for firefighting agencies.
These agencies often alter their staffing and equipment resources dramatically to accommodate the forecast risk. To the public, a Red Flag Warning means high fire danger with an increased probability of a quickly spreading vegetation fire in the area within 24 hours. | <urn:uuid:cfcfbf26-4552-4279-9ce5-b849529474c3> | {
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Prometheus is celebrated throughout literature and mythology. He is known as the “patron of civilization.” His name has been turned into the adjective “promethean,” which refers to people of great creativity or intellect. And the famed fictional scientist Frankenstein’s monster is known as the “modern Prometheus.” So, what’d Prometheus do to earn all this? He stole something—but he was no common thief! Prometheus stole fire from the Gods of Mount Olympus and BROUGHT FIRE TO MANKIND. As the story goes, Zeus did not want people to learn the secrets of civilization from the Gods. But Prometheus took pity on the mortals who suffered through the cold nights without fire. Zeus could not take back Prometheus’s GIFT OF FIRE, but instead sentenced Prometheus to eternal torture, and punished humanity by sending evil into the world from Pandora’s Box. | <urn:uuid:d27b2ce0-964d-475e-99cb-cdbf68382c51> | {
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Programmers are not born, they are made. If you now have a dream to become a professional programmer, it’s time to turn a dream into a plan, and a plan into reality, especially when for this is enough just to have enthusiasm and access to the internet. Self-study of programming should be considered as the main way for a long-term – because there are so many things and technologies that you have to master by your own. Today there are many courses, websites, and books on the Internet that will help you in this. However, for the best result, it is better to start with specialized courses in order to lay the groundwork.
A sure step forward in the career of a programmer will be programming courses that you can pass online. There are online courses on programming for any level. Such an online course can become a vivid and memorable event in the life of every novice programmer. Further interest in this direction depends on the first acquaintance with the code. On the courses, you will be taught how it works, what professions are in demand and which direction of the IT sphere is better to choose for your further development.
If you pass good programming courses from an expert, it will enable you to get the necessary set of skills and skills, sufficient for starting work, in the shortest time.
Pros of specialized courses in programming:
- The speed of obtaining the necessary information;
- All necessary basic knowledge for start;
- The presence of an experienced mentor-teacher, who can answer any question.
One of the best courses is Codecademy, which relies on the teaching of web programming. You read the theory, then perform the tasks in the interactive code editor. At user’s disposal are separate courses dedicated to different technologies. The main part of each of them is available for free, but tests and project development tasks are opened after registration of the subscription.
Successfully completed projects during the course will be the first case in your future portfolio, which is very important, as the portfolio is the first thing that the prospective employers pay attention to. After this course, you will make the first step to serious training and will be able to clearly define the direction of your interests!
You will learn all the most useful and relevant information about modern programming languages and get the first experience of running code. Their goal is to increase the effectiveness of your work. With an excellent code editor, you can run the code faster, find syntax errors and so much more for the development of your site. Today it’s not a problem to find free code editor for Mac, Windows or Linux. Some examples of them can be CodeRunner, Aptana Studio, Notepad ++., HTML Kit, SlickEdit, Coda, and others.
The programmer must also constantly invest in self-development, otherwise, he lags behind the industry. If you want to work in a good company, solve interesting problems and communicate with smart colleagues, you must constantly invest in self-development. Self-development primarily means reading books. Not blogs or news sites, although it is also useful, books. Create the habit of reading on the way to work and from work, before going to bed, early in the morning, while eating. Read as much as possible!
What should these books be about? Well, first of all, it would be nice to read something related to the specifics of your work. But not only. Read books about algorithms, operating systems, version control systems, books about general development. They will be useful to you regardless of your work and the chosen niche. Also, learn new programming languages. This is rarely turning out to be waste of time.
Communicate and learn from the experience of highly qualified specialists. A cool programmer is looking for a surrounding in which he is the worst, cool programmer is looking for challenges where he may not be particularly confident in his abilities.
The answer to the question why is it necessary is very simple. These are great motivators to go ahead and a really cool programmer does it. A cool programmer understands what the risk he is taking when he takes a supertask, and he is working hard on it, instead of hoping for talent. After all, the only way to develop yourself is to get out of your comfort zone. | <urn:uuid:d970c2fa-2948-4972-8b37-4ecfd114ae36> | {
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- Preschool Worksheets
- Kindergarten Worksheets
- First Grade Worksheets
- Second Grade Worksheets
- Alphabet Worksheets
- Math Worksheets
- Handwriting Worksheets
- Reading Worksheets
The 5 Senses Worksheets
Through interactions with the outside world, kids react to these experiences in ways that include using their five senses: sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch.
But how could kids understand their experiences or perceptions if they don’t have a way to communicate their reactions? Browse through our collection of 5 senses worksheets to exercise your child’s minds, giving them the words and knowledge they need to become aware of their perceptions.
Use All the Senses to Learn
When kids work on our worksheets, they aren’t learning just one skill. Your child will learn and add new sensory language to add to their mental library, while practicing emerging skills and learning more about their bodies.
Here’s what to expect from this selection of worksheets:
- More advanced sensory language and adjectives to describe their senses
- Exercises to teach kids more about the body parts that are related to their senses
- Practice understanding different textures
- Worksheets with information that can be applied to their everyday lives
- General continued practice with emerging early learning skills
Like all our worksheets, you’ll love that your child will simultaneously practicing skills like problem solving, critical thinking, logical reasoning, and advanced literacy skills. With so many benefits wrapped up into each page, you can be confident that your child is getting only the highest quality of worksheets to increase their learning and awareness.
We know that you’ll be thrilled with our collection of 5 senses worksheets, designed especially for kids in preschool or early elementary school. Take a look at our selection and print your favorite sheets and give your child the gift of enhanced awareness and communication skills! | <urn:uuid:40616ac6-035c-4bbe-ab77-fa75f0ee5c8e> | {
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Worldwide in most temperate climates
Lacewings are usually green or brown in colour, and can be easily recognized by their long, transparent, lace-like wings. Lacewing adults are usually nocturnal, and will lay eggs at night in groups attached to the underside of leaves by long stalks around 1cm in length. Lacewing larvae are elongated and almost hump-backed in shape. They have long bristles along their sides which trap debris and help to camouflage the larvae from predatory birds.
Lacewing larvae are voracious predators of small pests such as aphids, whitefly, caterpillars and leaf-beetle larvae. They will colonise almost any plant where they have a plentiful food supply, and can effectively keep troublesome plant pests under control.
Food and Habitat:
Adult lacewings feed on small invertebrates, but also feed on nectar. Lacewing larvae will feed on many species of soft-bodied invertebrates, particularly aphids. They will also eat invertebrate eggs.
Lacewings can be encouraged to breed in your garden by providing a wide range of nectar-rich plants. They also need safe havens to hibernate overwinter, such as log piles and dense hedges. Tolerate small aphid outbreaks in spring to help support a thriving summer population of lacewings. Do not use insecticidal soaps or other natural pesticides on plants where lacewing eggs are present. | <urn:uuid:e1f04375-8755-42b4-be18-52ba8fa8fc29> | {
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This week’s Findmypast Friday marks the release of browsable Manchester electoral registers, death & admission records from two Derbyshire hospitals, new additions to our collection of historic Irish Newspapers and a fascinating petition drawn up by early settlers in New Zealand.
Those of you with Manchester ancestors can now browse through over 330,000 Manchester electoral registers. Spanning nearly 70 years (1832-1900), the register record a fascinating period of the city’s history. By 1835, Manchester’s booming cotton and manufacturing Industries had made it the first and greatest industrial city in the world. This triggered a population explosion as people from all over the UK flocked to the city in search of work, many of whom were forced to live in squalid conditions in the city’s newly formed slums. The registers include both the registers for local government elections Parliamentary Elections. Electoral Registers are annually compiled lists of all adults eligible to vote and typically list a person’s name, address and the type of property they owned or rented that qualified them to vote. The registers are a valuable census substitute and, as they begin after the Repeal Act of 1832, record all levels of society ranging from wealthy captains of industry to desperately poor slum tenants.
The records are scanned copies of microfilms held at the Manchester Archives Central Library and cover Ardwick, Bradford, Beswick, Cheetham, Chorlton-Upon Medlock, Harpurhey, Hulme, Newton, Salford, Broughton and Manchester.
The New Zealand, Nelson, Petition after the Wairau Incident 1843 records list the names of nearly 600 settlers who signed a petition calling for action to be taken by the Governor of New Zealand following the notorious Wairau affray. The Wairau incident occurred on 17 June 1843 and was the first serious clash between New Zealand Company settlers and the local Ngāti Toa. Following a dispute regarding the settlement of the Wairau Valley, local Māori chiefs had the settlers temporary abodes burnt to the ground. The company responded by sending 49 armed men to arrest the chiefs resulting in a confrontation that left 22 settlers and 4 Māori dead. An investigation by the newly appointed Governor, Robert FitzRoy, found that the settlers claim to the land had been invalid and the chiefs were exonerated. Many settlers were enraged by the findings and submitted a petition that, along with active lobbying, resulted in Fitzroy being recalled in 1845.
Each record includes a transcript created using names listed in the Nelson Examiner and New Zealand Chronicle on 15 June, 1844. Transcripts list the names of the individuals who signed the petition, the newspaper in which they appeared, their occupations and any additional notes.
Derbyshire Hospital Admission & Deaths contain nearly 4,000 records taken from two different sources: Derbyshire Royal Infirmary, Deaths 1892 – 1912 and Victoria Memorial Cottage Hospital, Ashbourne Admissions 1899 – 1913. The Victoria Memorial Cottage Hospital was opened in Ashbourne in 1899 and was in operation for 65 years until its closure in 1964. The Derbyshire Royal Infirmary was first built in 1810 and rebuilt following a typhoid outbreak in 1890. Queen Victoria laid the foundation stone for the new hospital in 1894 and the hospital stayed in operation for over 100 years.
Each record includes a transcript produced by the Ancestral Archives of Derbyshire. Records can include the patient’s admission date, reason for admission, condition after admission, marital status, residence, rank or profession, date of discharge or death and cause of death.
Nearly half a million articles and 8 fascinating new titles have been added to our collection of historic Irish Newspaper. The brand new additions come from all four provinces of the country, include both local and national press and cover the time period before, during and after The Great Famine (1805-1871). New additions include the Belfast Commercial Chronicle, General Advertiser For Dublin and All Ireland, The Northern Standard and The Pilot,. Substantial additions have also been made to three existing titles; The Belfast Morning News, Freeman’s Journal and the Cork Examiner. The entire collection now holds over 9.7 million fully searchable articles, covering an impressive 231 years of Ireland’s history (1719-1950).
Remember to check our dedicated Findmypast Fridays page every week to keep up to date with the latest new additions.
Findmypast (previously DC Thomson Family History) is a British-owned world leader in online genealogy. It has an unrivalled record of online innovation in the field of family history and 18 million registered users across its family of online brands, which includes Mocavo, Genes Reunited, The British Newspaper Archive amongst others.
Its lead brand, also called Findmypast, is a searchable online archive of over two billion family history records, from parish records and censuses to migration records, military collections, historical newspapers and lots more. For members around the world, the site is a crucial resource for building family trees and doing detailed historical research.
In April 2003 Findmypast was the first to provide access to the complete birth, marriage, and death indexes for England & Wales, winning the Queen’s Award for Innovation. Since that time, the company has digitised records from across the globe, including major collections from Britain, Ireland, Australia, and the United States. | <urn:uuid:02785937-285e-4ef1-a461-1e3487a22217> | {
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MaryBeth Estok, M.Ed. - All books by this author
Revised to align with the Common Core State Standards, this book prepares sixth graders in New Jersey for the Language Arts Literacy Test with:
The topic reviews covered are: reading and understanding both fiction and nonfiction passages, answering multiple-choice and open-ended questions, and writing responses to speculative, persuasive, and explanatory prompts.
- An explanation and overview of the test
- Two full-length practice tests with answers explained
- Practice and review in all test topics
Paperback / 168 Pages / 7 13/16 x 10 / 2013 | <urn:uuid:0fa7b293-3378-492d-97c5-c4aa1069ff75> | {
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The Lives of the Kings and
Queens of England
Wanda McCaddon, Reader
(Audio Editions)Part IIElizabeth I sat on the throne but, alas, the "Virgin Queen" grew rather bald in her old age, and died without leaving a hair. The English brought in a rent-a-king from the House of Stuart of Scotland. James I was bad enough, always hiving off to his Scottish estates to shoot grouse. This brings up a question which has long vexed the English: what are grouse, exactly?In any case, James II was even worse, refusing to invite Parliament along on the shoot, or even to tell it whether grouse are plural or singular, which has remained a puzzle to this day. Parliament responded by cutting the king short, about 4'9", and trying to run the country itself.Government without any king at all provided too little news for the tabloids, so they appointed a military man, General Oliver Crumpet, to be Lord Protector. After a few years of Protecting, Oliver retired and spent his golden years developing the pastry which bears his name to this day.In the meantime the English redeemed the Stuarts for a couple of kings, proving that they are very slow learners. Finally, they kicked out the last Stuart and brought in a Dutchman named William N. Mary who thought he was an orange.The Dutch king proved to be the first success since Alfred the Great. This was because William spoke so little English that he couldn't boss anyone around. In fact, this was no doubt what made Alfred so great: he too, speaking only Sassenach, could not even order out for steak and kidney pie in English.
Realizing that simple unintelligibility is the secret of enlightened monarchy, the English then turned to the House of Hanover, a small German company that specialized in slow kings and gourmet pretzels. The first Hanoverian king, George I, brought along his own court composer, George Fredrick Handel, who lost his umlaut on the trip over and later wrote the famous animal-lovers' anthem "For We Like Sheep."
George I and his son George II never learned the English language, or indeed any language at all, and their subjects could never tell one of them from the other. George III attempted to learn the language, with the result that he went a little funny in the head and ended his days dressed as a pixie and living under a toadstool. In the course of losing his grip, he mislaid the American colonies, and they ended up elevating to power the likes of Millard Fillmore, Ulysses S. Grant, Warren G. Harding, and several other Georges (not related to Georges I, II or III, but making just as much sense).
In 1837, Queen Victoria assumed the throne. She was part of the House of Brunswick, known for its system of automated bowling. She was often not pleased by people bowling on the commons and, in general, very displeased when people enjoyed themselves. In fact, she was so displeased that she stayed Queen for over sixty years, clothed in nothing but a diamond brooch-pin, a scowl, and a long black pinafore which was nicknamed the HMS Pinafore.
Victoria died at age 125 or so and was replaced by Edward VI of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Since it was impossible to conduct the usual continental wars with such a moniker, the royal house was renamed for a necktie. Members of the House of Windsor included George V, George VI and Edward VIII. The latter wanted nothing to do with being king, giving it up for "the woman I love." The woman in question was Wallace Simpson, mother to Homer, grandmother of Bart.
The system has of having your kings speak no English, invented by George I - III, has continued to this day. The current Prince of Wails, although nominally an English speaker, occasionally offers cloudy public addresses about the dangers of modern architecture, DNA, and aliens from the planet Ixneria; nobody understands a word he says, either.--- Dr Phage
L. W. MilamWanda McCaddon, reader on the Audio Editions' disks of The Lives of the Kings and Queens of England, reads the text with joy, aplomb, and fine Oxbridge English --- appropriate for one reporting on a thousand years of royalty. The profusion of dates and the many noble houses can begin to fuddle one, but McCaddon's renderings of the various royal mots are elegant and amusing ... especially when quoting in perfect imitative style such disparate characters as the high-pitched Queen Elizabeth II or the plump, harumphing Horace Walpole. Too bad she didn't have space to give the latter's most famous quote, from 1774, on the soon-to-depart Americans:
"The next Augustan age will dawn on the other side of the Atlantic. There will, perhaps, be a Thucydides at Boston, a Xenophon at New York, and, in time, a Virgil at Mexico, and a Newton at Peru. At last, some curious traveller from Lima will visit England and give a description of the ruins of St. Paul's, like the editions of Balbec and Palmyra." | <urn:uuid:fa530901-df6f-4863-a116-ea2a1d8b4fc4> | {
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Live and breathe history in Plimoth Plantation, complete with essential articles on the colonists, online activities, and the truth behind the myths about Plymouth.
The Plymouth Colony Archive Project
An extensive collection of 17th-century sources and historical documents, providing information on the people, architecture, and activities of Plymouth colony.
Pilgrim Hall Museum
Along with images of artifacts and posessions of the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag, the museum's online companion has interesting facts about the journey of the colonists and life in the colony.
Read the diary that inspired both the book and the film A MIDWIFE'S TALE, and learn more about life in colonial America.
The Pilgrims and Plymouth Colony: 1620
Descriptions of the background, journey, and beliefs of the pilgrims; lesson plans for educators; and diagrams of buildings and ships from First Nations peoples and the colonists are provided.
The Davistown Museum
Devoted to recovering and displaying the hand tools of New England's maritime culture, this site also houses online documents with descriptions of typical tools of the 17th century.
Maine's First Ship
Learn about one of the first English colonies in New England, the Popham colony, settled in Maine in 1607.
Historical Essays on the Mayflower, the Pilgrims, and Early Plymouth
Learn about the history of the Mayflower from its time as a trading vessel to its eventual fate as firewood for the colonists.
Can't get enough of life in America's 17th-century colonies? Visit the Virtual Jamestown Project, and attempt to recreate the original settlement of Jamestown online.
The Passamaquoddy Tribe of Maine
The site for the Passamaquoddy tribe of Maine and New Brunswick includes a tribal history as well as news, contact information, and links to related sites.
Passamaquoddy Tribal Government
This site features information on the tribal council; boards and committees; past treaties, legends, and stories; and artists and craftmakers.
Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah)
This site offers news and other information on the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head, including a history section created jointly with the Boston Children's Museum.
Wampanoag Indians - Boston Children's Museum
The Children's Museum and Wampanoag Indian Advisors jointly offer this site to help educators present the history of Wampanoag people with accuracy and respect.
Penobscot Indian Nation
This site addresses many issues relevant to the Penobscot, with information on the Penobscot Nation Museum, tribal issues, sovereignty litigation, and more -- including the weather for Indian Island.
Africans in America: The Terrible Transformation
This PBS site examines the rise of the slave trade and the hardships of Africans brought to North American colonies. | <urn:uuid:a6d0b20d-9e07-4514-a4e3-5ac05cd133cf> | {
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One of the biggest technological advances of the last century is the use of plastics. Today’s world is impossible without plastics. From the keyboard I’m typing on to write this information to the pen I use for my handwritten notes – you name it, plastic surrounds us.
Plastics, however started with raw materials like oil and coal – fossil fuels that are being tapped to extinction.
The demand for plastic reaches a very wide spectrum of usage. From water pipes to surgical gloves, it has many helpful and useful applications. But the increased production and use has resulted in major consequences such as improper disposal and mismanagement of used plastics.
Where do plastic litter end up?
Due to improper disposal and waste management, plastics and its by-products end up in our lands, oceans, rivers, lakes, and atmosphere. Most plastics contain complex chemical compounds that do not break down or biodegrade and therefore continue to give off harmful chemical substances that leach into our soil and water and disrupt the chemistry of aquatic and terrestrial environments. For example, plastic fragments that end up in natural waterways like lakes, oceans and rivers can be ingested by fish and other marine and aquatic animals. Plastic litter has also reached natural areas such as forests, harming wildlife.
Effects on your health
There are countless controversies and studies on the effects of plastic on human health such as possible disruption to our endocrine system and ingestion up the foodchain. There are studies that show ocean-caught fish and other shellfish have been ingesting microplastics. Could this mean we are now ingesting plastics too? Very likely.
The Environmental Health News website has a very well-referenced and detailed article on the environmental toll plastic has caused. http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/dangers-of-plastic.
What to do with plastics
We cannot totally get rid of plastic because the material serves its purpose in many things we use such as cars, IV bags in hospitals, smart phones, eyeglasses, etc. Since plastic is one of today’s smartest technology, we can also use plastic to lessen our overall environmental impact.
By this I mean, we can learn to make better choices in how and when to use plastic.
- we can choose to bring reusable bags for our groceries
- choose to bring water in re-usable containers or glass bottles, and
- reduce our consumption of bottled water
Since plastic is re-usable in many ways, we can also prolong the use of this product by being creative on how we re-use them in our homes without endangering our health, recycling them properly and ensuring we dispose plastic properly.
For example, if you buy a pack of canned pop or drinks, make sure to cut the plastic rings or any plastic or rubber ring for that matter before you toss them in the recycling bin. This is so important as this lightweight plastic waste can get easily blown in the wind and end up somewhere where wildlife can access it. There has been countless issues with plastic rings getting stuck on bird's beaks, on fish, turtles, etc. You get the picture. Basically, before you toss that plastic waste in the recycling bin, think about where it could possibly end up aside from the recycling plant. Is it a possible hazard to wildlife? If so, do your best to remove or cut it into something that will be less threatening.
Ultimately, only use plastic when you absolutely need it and when there is no alternative. Otherwise choose bioplastics, whenever available or buy products made from recycled plastic. But truly, the most sustainable solution is to choose products with less to no plastic packaging as these are the single-use plastics that pollute.
- Rubylyn Paulin
Unicorn Baby carries products that are alternatives to the plastic ones that are widely available in the market. We have bamboo toothbrushes, re-usable snack bags, cloth diapers, plates and snack containers made out of recycled milk jugs and naked bars of soap among others in our collection. We continue to seek out products that are sustainable and have the least amount of packaging or plastic in them. | <urn:uuid:bcb4473a-e9eb-46f7-898b-c389a1773b6c> | {
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KVM: Kernel-based Virtual Machine for Linux
KVM (for Kernel-based Virtual Machine) is a full virtualization solution for Linux on x86 hardware. It consists of a loadable kernel module (kvm.ko) and a userspace component.
Using KVM, one can run multiple virtual machines running unmodified Linux or Windows images. Each virtual machine has private virtualized hardware: a network card, disk, graphics adapter, etc.
The kernel component of KVM is included in mainline Linux, and will appear in Linux 2.6.20.
KVM is open source software.
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After Long Wait, Astro Set to Go
Astronomers expect craft will give them views of cosmos even better than Hubble telescope can. SPACE MISSION
MOVE over Hubble telescope. Here comes Astro. It is a battery of ultraviolet and X-ray telescopes that turns a space shuttle into an orbiting observatory. Now nestled snugly in Columbia's payload bay, it is ready for launch May 17 at the Kennedy Space Center.
Astronomers expect the nearly nine-day Astro-1 mission to give them views of the cosmos they cannot get from the ground. These include observations that even the Hubble instruments cannot make. Astro's equipment is sensitive to ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths, some of which lie below Hubble's range.
Furthermore, unlike the automated Hubble satellite, the Astro observatory will have a human team along with it to run the instruments. Four of the seven crew members make up an orbiting team of professional astronomers.
At one point during the mission, they will even act as schoolteachers to give an illustrated lecture from space on the electromagnetic spectrum. This will be linked with further experiments and discussion in a laboratory at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. Selected students will also have a question-and-answer session with the orbiting astronauts. This project should produce a video and other materials for use in science classes.
For astronomers, this is the other major observing program, along with the Hubble telescope, which they have been anticipating for many years. The original concepts for the instruments date to 1978. The mission itself was to have flown in March 1986 in time to include Comet Halley among its targets. But the Challenger accident Jan. 28 that year put both the Hubble telescope launch and Astro-1 on hold for four years.
For Astro team members, the disappointment was especially bitter because they thought they had lost a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to observe a comet close at hand with their equipment. Now they have a second chance. Comet Austin, which appeared unexpectedly this spring, should be in a prime position for study as it recedes from the sun during mid-May.
Theodore Gull - Astro mission scientist at Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. - says that, all told, ``the standdown has been helpful.'' It has given team members extra time to improve their instruments and to learn to use them more skillfully. It also has given time to add a fourth instrument - an X-ray telescope to supplement the three ultraviolet telescopes originally planned. ``So in a sense, we've expanded. That's good,'' Dr. Gull says.
He adds that the team is especially pleased that Comet Austin has showed up. ``It makes up for [missing Halley]. It looks like it's going to be brighter. And from the information we have on it, this is not a periodic comet. It's one from the outer solar system. So there's going to be much more fundamental information here than with Comet Halley. We're excited about it,'' he says.
The 1987 supernova star explosion provides another new opportunity. It erupted in the large Magellanic Cloud - a small galaxy that is a companion of the Milky Way galaxy. The remains of that explosion now are expanding into interstellar space. This will be a target both for the Hubble telescope and for Astro instruments flown on this and future missions.
``This will be an exciting period of time over the next 20 years because we've never had the opportunity with modern instrumentation to look at a supernova as it gradually interacts with the interstellar medium,'' Gull says.
Now that they will finally have their chance in orbit, Astro astronomers plan to make the most of their observing time. Their fast-paced schedule includes some 290 pointings of their instruments at more than 200 objects. These range from close-in objects such as the comet to very faint distant sources. In all cases, the observations will be made by the ``light' of ultraviolet and X-ray emissions that cannot penetrate the atmosphere. But at the mission's planned height of 218 miles, Astro instruments will have clear views. In fact, astronomers expect to make their first general census of the sky as seen in the ultraviolet.
Gull notes that the list of objects Astro now will be able to observe is 20 percent or more greater than it would have been in 1986. This is another bonus of the delay.
While Astro team members are grateful for the new opportunities, Gull emphasizes that the Challenger disaster came as a great shock to them - especially to the two team payload specialists schedule to fly with the equipment. Yet those specialists are ready to fly now. ``In a very positive sense, they know the risks involved. But they feel the return is well worth it,'' Gull says.
Unlike the automated Hubble satellite, Astro needs onboard human attention. The Hubble telescope moves slowly and has plenty of time to make observations. Astro telescopes must change targets fast. The shuttle will maneuver to help in the aiming. Then the onboard team will control instrument movements, change filters, and fix any glitches quickly.
``We need immediate response to the observation to make it as efficient as possible. That's why we demonstrated the need for astronauts,'' Gull says.
Four astronomers will tend the equipment. Ronald Parise of Computer Sciences Corporation and Samuel Durrance of Johns Hopkins University will fly as payload specialists, meaning they are not professional astronauts. Jeffrey Hoffman and Robert Parker, who are astronauts as well as astronomers, will be mission specialists. Other crew members include Vance Brand, mission commander; Guy Gardner, pilot; and John Lounge, an astrophysicist who will serve as a general mission specialist but who is not part of the formally designated science crew.
Astro is a reusable setup that could be refurbished, updated, and reflown many times. The instruments ride on movable pads that aim them at targets and provide general power and electronic services. These pads are part of the Spacelab that transforms a shuttle into an on-orbit laboratory and that was supplied by the European Space Agency. For Astro missions, the pressurized part of Spacelab where humans work is left behind since crew members control Astro from the shuttle aft deck.
Originally, four Astro missions were planned. But now the shuttle schedule may be too tight to accommodate all of them. NASA will decide on a second flight after this mission. Nevertheless, Gull looks forward to a long life for Astro. He notes that NASA has had ``some good success stories'' with equipment durability. He cites, for example, the International Ultraviolet Explorer satellite that is still working 12 years after launch in spite of a two- to three-year life expectancy. | <urn:uuid:18cfa165-9702-4bcf-aa6f-03d19b2607a5> | {
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The Death of Crazy Horse A Tragic Episode in Lakota History (Paperback)
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|On May 7, 1877, less than a year after his overwhelming victory at Little Big Horn, Crazy Horse, the charismatic Oglala Sioux whose name had become the epitome of Indian resistance to white encroachment, surrendered at Camp Robinson, Nebraska Territory. A young man of slight build and quiet ways dramatically at odds with his extraordinary influence and stature, he was viewed by the military as a potential civil leader of all Sioux.|
What happened between May 15, 1877, when, anticipating a visit to the president in Washington, Crazy Horse was sworn in as a noncommissioned officer in the U.S. military, and September 5, 1877, when he was bayoneted in the back by a military guard, is the stuff of rumor and legend. And yet, reliable accounts of the last days of Crazy Horse do exist. The interviews collected in this book describe in stark detail the surrender and death of Crazy Horse from the perspective of Indian and mixed-blood contemporaries. Supplemented by military orders, telegrams, and reports, and rounded out with dispatches from numerous newspaper correspondents, these eyewitness accounts compose a unique firsthand view of the events and circumstances surrounding this tragic episode in Lakota history.
From the Publisher:
Eyewitness and newspaper accounts describe the surrender and death of Crazy Horse, a charismatic and influential Ogala Sioux Indian and non-commissioned officer in the U.S. Army, who was apparently stabbed in the back.Eyewitness and newspaper accounts describe the surrender and death of Crazy Horse, a charismatic and influential Ogala Sioux Indian and non-commissioned officer in the U.S. Army, who was apparently stabbed in the back. | <urn:uuid:0f394dbe-57c6-44d4-b466-184db761e626> | {
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A new high-speed microscope produces images of chemical processes taking place at the
nanoscale, at a rate that is close to real-time video. This closeup shot of the microscope
shows transparent tubes used to inject various liquids into the imaging environment.
This liquid can be water, acid, buffer solution for live bacteria, cells, or electrolytes in an
electrochemical process. Researchers use one as an inlet and the other as an outlet to
circulate and refresh the solutions throughout an experiment.
(December 14, 2015) Instrument scans images 2,000 times faster than commercial models.
State-of-the-art atomic force microscopes (AFMs) are designed to capture images of structures as small as a fraction of a nanometer — a million times smaller than the width of a human hair. In recent years, AFMs have produced desktop-worthy close-ups of atom-sized structures, from single strands of DNA to individual hydrogen bonds between molecules.
But scanning these images is a meticulous, time-consuming process. AFMs therefore have been used mostly to image static samples, as they are too slow to capture active, changing environments.
Now engineers at MIT have designed an atomic force microscope that scans images 2,000 times faster than existing commercial models. With this new high-speed instrument, the team produced images of chemical processes taking place at the nanoscale, at a rate that is close to real-time video.
(Left to right) Fangzhou Xia, a new lab member who was not involved in the study;
professor Kamal Youcef-Toumi; and postdoc Iman Soltani Bozchalooi.
In one demonstration of the instrument’s capabilities, the researchers scanned a 70- by-70-micron sample of calcite as it was first immersed in deionized water and later exposed to sulfuric acid. The team observed the acid eating away at the calcite, expanding existing nanometer-sized pits in the material that quickly merged and led to a layer-by-layer removal of calcite along the material’s crystal pattern, over a period of several seconds.
Kamal Youcef-Toumi, a professor of mechanical engineering at MIT, says the instrument’s sensitivity and speed will enable scientists to watch atomic-sized processes play out as high-resolution “movies.”
Bozchalooi came up with a design to enable high-speed scanning over both large and small
ranges. The main innovation centers on a multiactuated scanner: A sample platform incorporates
a smaller, speedier scanner as well as a larger, slower scanner for every direction,
which work together as one system to scan a wide 3-D region at high speed.
“People can see, for example, condensation, nucleation, dissolution, or deposition of material, and how these happen in real-time — things that people have never seen before,” Youcef-Toumi says. “This is fantastic to see these details emerging. And it will open great opportunities to explore all of this world that is at the nanoscale.”
The group’s design and images, which are based on the PhD work of Iman Soltani Bozchalooi, now a postdoc in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, are published in the journal Ultramicroscopy.
Watch and learn more about how the researchers were able to capture near real-time
video of chemical processes at the nanoscale.
Video: Melanie Gonick/MIT (AFM videos courtesy of the researchers)
The big picture
Atomic force microscopes typically scan samples using an ultrafine probe, or needle, that skims along the surface of a sample, tracing its topography, similarly to how a blind person reads Braille. Samples sit on a movable platform, or scanner, that moves the sample laterally and vertically beneath the probe. Because AFMs scan incredibly small structures, the instruments have to work slowly, line by line, to avoid any sudden movements that could alter the sample or blur the image. Such conventional microscopes typically scan about one to two lines per second.
“If the sample is static, it’s ok to take eight to 10 minutes to get a picture,” Youcef-Toumi says. “But if it’s something that’s changing, then imagine if you start scanning from the top very slowly. By the time you get to the bottom, the sample has changed, and so the information in the image is not correct, since it has been stretched over time.” | <urn:uuid:2c402d30-7535-4dfc-86bf-60a2e56607ab> | {
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A new study co-authored by an MIT professor shows that China’s new efforts to price carbon could lower the country’s carbon dioxide emissions significantly without impeding economic development over the next three decades.
Based on a unique model that links China’s energy system and economy, the study finds that China’s coal use, a major source of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, should peak some time around the year 2020, while the country’s overall CO2 emissions would peak around 2030, or perhaps sooner. Even so, the reduction in carbon-intensive economic activity would not prevent China from reaching its government’s goal of being a “well-off society” by 2050.
“Using carbon pricing in combination with energy price reforms and renewable energy support, China could reach significant levels of emissions reduction without undermining economic growth,” says Valerie Karplus, an assistant professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management and a co-author of the new study.
Details of the study appear in the paper “Carbon emissions in China? How far can new efforts bend the curve?” being published by the journal Energy Economics. In addition to Karplus, the other co-authors are Xiliang Zhang, Tianyu Qi, Da Zhang, and Jiankun He, all scholars at the Institute of Energy, Environment, and Economy, at Tsinghua University in Beijing. Da Zhang is now a postdoc at MIT.
Why spending, not saving, will make China greener
The impetus for the study comes from a headline-making set of recent policy shifts announced by China, including its toughest-ever set of regulations on local environmental pollution. In November 2013, China pledged to create more sustainable economic growth through a series of measures that included creating markets for CO2 emissions as well as other pollutants and scarce resources, such as water, more broadly.
That set of measures also helped form the basis for an agreement to limit carbon use, which the U.S. and China announced in November 2014. Among other things, China committed to a goal of making nonfossil fuel sources account for 20 percent of its energy use by 2030; in 2015, that figure stood at 11 percent. The U.S. pledged to reduce its total CO2 emissions about 26-28 percent by 2025, in comparison to 2005 levels.
In turn, that bilateral agreement has been widely credited with paving the way for the larger set of carbon-reduction pledges agreed to globally at the U.N. Climate Change Conference held in Paris in late 2015.
The study uses a model of China’s economy and energy output, called C-GEM, developed by scholars at the Tsinghua-MIT China Energy and Climate Project. Karplus served as director of that project from 2011-2015. She joined the Sloan faculty in the fall of 2014 as the Class of 1943 Career Development Professor. She is also a faculty affiliate of the MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change and the MIT Energy Initiative.
The model compares and contrasts two main paths that China’s energy consumption could take: One, which the paper calls the “Continued Effort” scenario, is a business-as-usual trajectory. The other, based on China’s announced reforms and environmental initiatives, is called the “Accelerated Effort” scenario. In the “Continued Effort” scenario, China’s carbon emissions would not level off until around 2040, ten years later than in the “Accelerated Effort” scenario, and at a level 20 percent higher.
The model outlines some additional broad contours of China’s energy future given the more stringent set of policies. Coal would drop sharply as a source of primary energy, or raw fuel, from around 70 percent in 2010 to around 28 percent in 2050.
“Coal today is used with varying degrees of efficiency across the Chinese energy system,” Karplus observes. “The model is capturing the fact that you have a lot of low-cost opportunities to reduce coal, from heavy-industry direct use as well as the electric power sector, from facilities using less energy-efficient technology or processes.”
In all scenarios, the model also simulates that over time, China’s famously high savings rate will decline, as has been observed in many developing economies. As a result, more of China’s GDP will be composed of consumer-driven spending, not state-led investment, which itself will drive reductions in carbon emissions per unit of GDP.
“The consumption share of GDP has a very different carbon intensity, as a bundle of goods, relative to investment goods, so you automatically get a reduction in carbon intensity from that trajectory,” Karplus says.
Think of it this way: At the moment, a larger portion of household earnings in China are tucked away in banks, where they are loaned out and used to fund massive infrastructure projects — highways, dams, power plants — which release huge amounts of CO2. In the future, if China’s households save less, more of the country’s money will be spent on services and everyday goods, which have a smaller aggregate carbon footprint.
The MIT-Tsinghua study’s findings have gained the attention of many policymakers in the energy sphere and have been regarded as an important estimate of China’s potential energy and CO2 emissions trajectories.
John P. Weyant, a professor of management science and engineering, director of the Energy Modeling Forum, and deputy director of the Precourt Institute for Energy Efficiency at Stanford University, calls the model “state of the art” and says it “produces policy-relevant insights regarding the implications of the two policy scenarios” in China. He adds that the model contains a “realistic representation of the pathways by which the Chinese and world economy can be expected to adjust to these policy initiatives.”
Karplus readily acknowledges that with any energy and economic modeling of this scale, many uncertainties remain. Still, she thinks it is clear enough that the “Accelerated Effort” scenario for China would produce a significant reduction in China’s emissions.
“You can have some confidence in the relative numbers despite the huge uncertainties, if you look at the two cases,” Karplus asserts. “The value in this exercise is in its ability to look at alternative levels of policy effort and the relative impacts those would have.” | <urn:uuid:99d5b0c6-90fe-4bd0-bc7d-7eeae9c829b1> | {
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Only a few Knoxville buildings, like Lincoln Memorial University's law school, stood during the Civil War. Built in 1848 as the state school for the deaf, it served both Confederate and Union forces, in turn, as one of the region's main military hospitals.
Where’s the Fort? Long forgotten, the largest fort on the south side, Fort Dickerson was saved as a city park in the middle part of the 20th century, and during the Centennial in 1963 served as the site of a large reenactment. Named for an Illinois Union captain killed near Cleveland, Tenn., it disappoints some visitors but awes others as the Knoxville area’s best-preserved fort. Before the Battle of Knoxville, it helped repel a tentative invasion by Confederate General “Fightin’ Joe” Wheeler.
Fort Sanders: At the corner of Clinch Avenue and 16th, very near the southern rampart of Union Fort Sanders, the New York Highlanders monument stands as the only regimental monument erected in Knoxville by either side after the war, but it depicts in bas relief reconciled soldiers from both sides shaking hands. Union and Confederate veterans alike came to this site for an unusual reunion in 1890.
The Fog of War: Though hard to capture in photographs, Fort Higley is intact and distinctive, a tiny fort, its walls four or five feet high, in a clearing in dense woods.
Lushly overgrown Fort Stanley.
River Bluff, site of the historically murky Battle of Armstrong’s Hill, had yielded dozens of Mine balls and other artifacts over the years.
At right, one E.M. Johnson took some time to carefully carve his name in a River Bluff cave in May, 1865, at the end of the war.
Forgotten Fortress? Though little is documented about it, and Civil War scholars have only begun studying it, a likely fortification stands near the Third Creek bike trail, guarding the trestle which then carried the tracks of the vital East Tennessee and Georgia Railway. A trespasser stands in front as to allow perspective.
Impregnable? A detail from a map recently popular with Civil War enthusiasts. Cartographer Charles Reeves combined Orlando Poe’s exacting diagrams from 1863-64 with a modern map of city streets. In bold lines, the map shows the ring of forts that made invasion a discouraging prospect. Forts Higley, Dickerson, and Stanley, with their respective trenchwork, are indicated in the lower half. | <urn:uuid:68e05f08-f0df-454c-b153-d59d069bb52d> | {
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PHILADELPHIA (AP) - Philadelphia's transit agency, and others in the U.S., hope to save money by storing energy created when subways put on the brakes.
For years, subway cars have been able to recycle some of the energy created when they brake. They turn resistance into energy to help power the train or others running on the rails at the same time.
But much of the energy is wasted by the time the train stops braking. Now, the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, along with transit agencies in New York, Los Angeles and Washington, are experimenting with ways to store that power in batteries so it can be put back into their system later.
SEPTA is setting out at a pilot project at one of its subway stations and thinks it could ultimately save 10 percent on power costs. | <urn:uuid:c2c53135-8087-4f55-8352-26b252161813> | {
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"url": "http://www.phillyburbs.com/lifestyle/travel/stop-to-go-septa-to-recycle-brake-energy/article_26d4b834-2d4f-11e0-a0b2-00127992bc8b.html"
} |
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