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In 1811, Joseph Fourier, the 43-year-old prefect of the French district of Isere, entered a competition in heat research sponsored by the French Academy of Sciences. The paper he submitted described a novel analytical technique that we today call the Fourier transform, and it won the competition; but the prize jury declined to publish it, criticizing the sloppiness of Fourier's reasoning. According to Jean-Pierre Kahane, a French mathematician and current member of the academy, as late as the early 1970s, Fourier's name still didn't turn up in the major French encyclopedia the Encyclopdia Universalis.
Now, however, his name is everywhere. The Fourier transform is a way to decompose a signal into its constituent frequencies, and versions of it are used to generate and filter cell-phone and Wi-Fi transmissions, to compress audio, image, and video files so that they take up less bandwidth, and to solve differential equations, among other things. It's so ubiquitous that "you don't really study the Fourier transform for what it is," says Laurent Demanet, an assistant professor of applied mathematics at MIT. "You take a class in signal processing, and there it is. You don't have any choice."
The Fourier transform comes in three varieties: the plain old Fourier transform, the Fourier series, and the discrete Fourier transform. But it's the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) that accounts for the Fourier revival. In 1965, the computer scientists James Cooley and John Tukey described an algorithm called the fast Fourier transform, which made it much easier to calculate DFTs on a computer. All of a sudden, the DFT became a practical way to process digital signals.
To get a sense of what the DFT does, consider an MP3 player plugged into a loudspeaker. The MP3 player sends the speaker audio information as fluctuations in the voltage of an electrical signal. Those fluctuations cause the speaker drum to vibrate, which in turn causes air particles to move, producing sound.
An audio signal's fluctuations over time can be depicted as a graph: the x-axis is time, and the y-axis is the voltage of the electrical signal, or perhaps the movement of the speaker drum or air particles. Either way, the signal ends up looking like an erratic wavelike squiggle. But when you listen to the sound produced from that squiggle, you can clearly distinguish all the instruments in a symphony orchestra, playing discrete notes at the same time.
That's because the erratic squiggle is, effectively, the sum of a number of much more regular squiggles, which represent different frequencies of sound. "Frequency" just means the rate at which air molecules go back and forth, or a voltage fluctuates, and it can be represented as the rate at which a regular squiggle goes up and down. When you add two frequencies together, the resulting squiggle goes up where both the component frequencies go up, goes down where they both go down, and does something in between where they're going in different directions.
The DFT does mathematically what the human ear does physically: decompose a signal into its component frequencies. Unlike the analog signal from, say, a record player, the digital signal from an MP3 player is just a series of numbers, representing very short samples of a real-world sound: CD-quality digital audio recording, for instance, collects 44,100 samples a second. If you extract some number of consecutive values from a digital signal -- 8, or 128, or 1,000 -- the DFT represents them as the weighted sum of an equivalent number of frequencies. ("Weighted" just means that some of the frequencies count more than others toward the total.)
The application of the DFT to wireless technologies is fairly straightforward: the ability to break a signal into its constituent frequencies lets cell-phone towers, for instance, disentangle transmissions from different users, allowing more of them to share the air.
The application to data compression is less intuitive. But if you extract an 8x8 block of pixels from an image, each row or column is simply a sequence of eight numbers -- like a digital signal with eight samples. The whole block can thus be represented as the weighted sum of 64 frequencies. If there's little variation in color across the block, the weights of most of those frequencies will be zero or near zero. Throwing out the frequencies with low weights allows the block to be represented with fewer bits but little loss of fidelity.
Demanet points out that the DFT has plenty of other applications, in areas like spectroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging, and quantum computing. But ultimately, he says, "It's hard to explain what sort of impact Fourier's had," because the Fourier transform is such a fundamental concept that by now, "it's part of the language." | <urn:uuid:0b27cdae-7df5-46b7-81b6-0cd8f59a6b4d> | {
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How to Turn Your Garden into a Wildlife Habitat
Part of green living is creating a balance between human civilization and the animal world. By turning your garden into a place where wildlife can make homes, feed, and breed safely without danger from pesticides and other chemicals, you help undo the damage to the many species of garden birds, insects, mammals, and amphibians that were once very common in your area but are now thinned out due to changes in farming methods and disappearing natural habitat.
You may think all insects are unwanted visitors to your garden, but that’s not the case at all. A bug is your friend if it helps pollinate your plants or controls the population of bad bugs. For example, honey bees are nature’s great pollinators; dragonflies eat mosquitoes; and ground beetles feed on root maggots, caterpillars, and slugs.
Make your garden as varied as possible to attract as many species as possible:
Plants like roses, honeysuckle, and lavender each attract different insects like bees and butterflies. Fuchsia and geraniums encourage hummingbirds to visit. Find more information about which native plants from your area attract helpful critters by talking to your local garden store expert or by combing the Internet.
A woodpile encourages another set of garden dwellers. You may find frogs in the woodpile if it’s damp. And if it’s big enough to offer a safe place, a rabbit may move in.
A wildflower patch can encourage native insects (including butterflies) and birds to linger in your garden. Growing a wildflower patch can be as simple as planting a wildflower mix seed packet that’s available at garden stores.
A pond created from an old bath or basin draws everything from dragonflies and frogs to birds and snails.
Change the water in your pond regularly to prevent it from becoming a mosquito breeding ground, or use a mosquito dunk — a small tablet you drop into the water to kill mosquito larvae. The biological control versions of the dunks contain bacteria that destroy the larvae and are much better for the environment than chemical versions.
Hedges are great for attracting birds and insects and providing protected space for small animals to make their homes. Grow as many different hedge plants as possible together in your hedge because each different plant attracts different species.
Trees and shrubs that produce fruit, berries, and seeds are sources of food for your furry and feathered friends.
Boxes and feeders attract birds, bats, and bugs galore and provide cheap entertainment.
After you spend the time and money to make your yard welcoming to wildlife, don’t sabotage your efforts by using pesticides to control weeds. You may want to target weeds, but toxic weed killers can harm other species in the ecosystem. | <urn:uuid:72340958-bf77-4dc0-bb54-27844f3c9c4e> | {
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We recognise that early childhood is key to young children’s development. By the age of 3 years 80% of their brain is developed and so it is important that the foundations of mathematical thinking, language and skills are supported from birth. So, how can we as practitioners (and parents) help children become confident in using and thinking about numbers and maths.
Follow and build on children’s interest – notice their interests and extend them. An example of this is seen in the Learning Story The Yoghurt Tubs which started when a bag of yoghurt tubs was brought into pre-school. Look at the story and see where the practitioner and children brought the activity.
Make sure that language and activities are integrated and embedded within the curriculum – in other words make the experience real and relevant for children. Remember, they learn best when they can connect or identify with ideas. In one of the Learning Stories a child asked ‘Can I bring Rainbow(a Teddy) on a trip?’ This started the children thinking about travel, distance, countries and led them on to making flags.
Equip and prepare the environment – Think about materials that engage or fascinate children, that stimulate their thinking and provide some element of challenge. Remember, mathematical thinking, language and activities happen in every area of the service
Tea sets, pots, pans and cooking containers – a great opportunity to match up cups and saucers (have enough for a group) to put lids on pots, to use baking implements such as measuring jugs and spoons, timers,pastry shape cutters
Dressing-up clothes and jewellery
Pencils and paper (making lists, taking orders)
Cash register and money
Empty boxes / packages of different sizes (organising the stock by size)
Large hollow blocks, ramps, boards
Lego , stickle bricks, interlocking train tracks
Tape measure, spirit level
Plastic plumbing pipes and connectors
Pictures of different buildings
Table Top Toy Area
Deck of card, jig-saws, floor puzzles, board games, games with dice,
Peg board, threading, sorting sets, sequencing games (dominos), mosaics,magnetic shapes and tiles
Creative Art Area:
Paint and a variety of brushes (chubby to fine)
Markers, crayons, chalk, pencils, charcoal, pastels
Paper – a variety of sizes, shapes, textures, colours (sugar, crepe, tissue, card, paper plates)
Used cards and magazines
Sellotape, glue, insulating tape
Different fabrics, buttons,sequins, collage materials
A water tray that allows 3 or 4 children play together
A sand tray that allows a number of children play together
Jugs, funnels, water wheels, water pump,
Sieve, moulds, spades, bucket/container
Items that float and sink
Assortment of items that are the same but different (stones of different shapes, weights and sizes)
Swings, slides (learn about movement, speed, force, push-pull), bikes and trikes (direction and speed), sand and water area (volume, displacement
Kites (wind, velocity), Skittles (number,force)
Taking and making opportunities to help children think logically and solve problems
Equipping the setting both indoors and outdoors with interesting open ended materials that offer possibilities for the children
Introducing mathematical language in very real contexts so that children have plenty of experience in understanding concepts of up and down; in and out; over and under; more and less and so on
Allowing time and space for children to think, process and ask questions
Encouraging thinking skills by asking real and relevant questions, in constructing, the question can be asked ‘how many wheels do you need to build the truck?’
For Maths Week 2012 we have been sharing ideas on promoting the following maths concepts in your service –
number, pattern, shape and space, and measuring and comparisons. We hope you find these find these useful in supporting positive attitudes and confidence in maths for the children in your care.
A very big THANK YOU to the children and staff at The ABC Club in Meath, and all the Learning Story participants, for the use of their photo’s, video’s and wonderful stories.
When early years educators have a sound knowledge of mathematics and the benefits of play, and the connections between them, there is great potential for early childhood experiences that extend young children’s mathematical understandings and attitudes.
Last but not least, an important part of mathematical play is that it should be fun! “We can influence young children’s keenness to learn mathematics by making the tasks we do of interest to them … by showing that we really think maths is important and fun”1
1Montague-Smith,Ann.Mathematics in Nursery Education.London:David Fulton Publishers, 2nd ed.2003 | <urn:uuid:846c8561-96f6-4633-b2bf-446b5139429a> | {
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The original intent of this month’s column was to discuss fiber use in the smart grid, but I have found it is hard to define the smart grid. Some organizations involved in it are even dropping that name for “intelligent grid” or something similar.
One of The Fiber Optics Association directors has been working with a major utility on a training program, and one-third of the program will be about fiber optics. The rest encompasses all the electrical issues involved in generating and delivering reliable electrical power to users and how they actually consume electrical power.
Fiber optics are not new to utilities. When I was in the fiber optic test equipment business in the 1980s, my first utility customer was Nashville Electric Service. The utility was using multimode fiber to connect sensors and control equipment in substations over fiber to avoid the electrical interference and potential shock risk encountered with copper cables.
I don’t spend much time talking about sensors, but fiber optics have been used in sensors for high-voltage and large current circuits since the mid-1980s. The sensors are perfect for utilities as they operate by simply clamping them around the transmission wires and running fibers to monitoring equipment in the substation. The sensors also are capable of measuring large voltages and currents and have fast response time, all important for monitoring and controlling the utility grid.
A few years later, utilities and long-distance telephone companies (telcos) began cooperating on long-distance fiber optic links. Utilities had a valuable asset: rights-of-way, which telcos coveted. But the utilities needed communications between their facilities for voice communications and signals to control their power grid. On the other hand, telcos needed fiber optic links for their long-distance networks. By working together, the utility and the telcos both got their communications links and profited from the cooperation.
A major part of the growth of utility usage of fiber optics was optical power ground wire (OPGW), a high-voltage transmission cable with optical fiber in the center of it. It is, indeed, the perfect example of one of the advantages of optical fiber, its immunity to electrical interference. In one cable installation, power transmission and communications were both covered. Today, practically every large power transmission system uses OPGW. For example, the Sunrise PowerLink—San Diego Gas & Electric’s (SDG&E) 117-mile system under construction in Southern California—is using OPGW with 96 fibers inside the wire.
The installation of OPGW requires the skills of an electrical lineman capable of splicing high-voltage wires and the skills of an outside plant fiber optic installer to splice the fibers. Most splices are done on the ground, and splice closures are suspended from towers unless they are terminated inside regeneration huts or vaults along the right-of-way.
Besides sensing, substation controls and long-distance communications, a utility needs to monitor and control the power directly to the customer. And today, at least here in Southern California where I live, that involves not only delivering power to the customer but feeding the output of many customers’ photovoltaic solar-power systems (like my 2,500-watt systems on the roof) back into the grid. That means conversions to smart meters are another important piece of the power grid puzzle.
Some utilities, such as SDG&E, are using wireless meters that can be read by a truck driving by. Others have decided to connect customers with fiber, creating their own fiber to the home networks and either offering broadband services or using their network to deliver services for others. In some areas, this entails cooperation with telcos and CATV system operators and, in others, outright warfare.
Chattanooga, Tenn., is perhaps the best example of a utility broadband network. There you can get broadband at gigabit speeds, a first in the United States, beating out Google’s Kansas City network. The broadband network helped Chattanooga convince Volkswagen to locate a new plant there, creating thousands of new jobs.
When it comes to the smart grid, it’s impossible to generalize about the applications—or sometimes even define it. However, we can say it is a big field in the United States alone, with more than 2,000 electrical utilities combining their power into the national grid, and practically every communications technology is involved. Virtually every aspect of fiber optic technology is involved also-—sensing, communications and control, using all types of fiber in almost every application you can imagine.
For either the fiber tech or the electrical lineman interested in the smart grid, it is likely that there are areas where your expertise is required and many others where you need to learn more.
HAYES is a VDV writer and educator and the president of The Fiber Optic Association. Find him at www.jimhayes.com. | <urn:uuid:a65b79ca-8203-45a5-851b-6c394c546972> | {
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Capital Chips (Part 2)
This lesson printed from:
Posted July 30, 2002
Author: Council for Economic Education Technology Staff
Posted: July 30, 2002
Updated: June 10, 2009
Through the use of a historical timeline of the capital investments made by the company the resulting benefits will be examined. The benefits from the capital investments of Herr Foods, Inc. will be related to their effect on the standard of living. Then students will visit one of three websites, select an innovation/invention of their choice to analyze in terms of its impact on productivity and the standard of living. Finally, the teacher will select one invention/innovation from a designated website and have students analyze it in the same economic terms as the focus of this lesson and write an essay summarizing the innovation/invention.
Productivity is a measurement of output resulting from the use of productive resources or inputs. It refers to the amount of output per unit of input over a period of time. An increase in productivity may mean producing the same amount with fewer inputs, producing more output with the same inputs, or a combination of the two. Companies look for ways to maintain and increase the level of productivity in order to remain competitive while maintaining profits. One way of accomplishing this is through investing in capital goods such as machines, tools, and new ideas used in the production process. Technological improvements in capital goods are a leading cause of increase in productivity.
After completing the following activities, your students will develop a better understanding of the economics associated with productivity. In the first activity your students will explore the concepts that are connected to productivity. In the second activity your students will investigate the Herr's Potato Chips, a company that is constantly working at incorporating new techniques to satisfy the customer. Finally, in the third activity your students will use the Internet to search for inventors and inventions. Their task is to find an invention they would like to learn more about and learn how that invention improves its environment. After your students complete all three parts to this lesson they will find a series of questions that will explore what they have learned from Capital Chips about productivity.
Part 2 Introduction:
The students are going to take a tour of the Herr's Foods Inc in this lesson. Herr's Potato Chips have been on the market for the past 50 years. The company is constantly working at incorporating new techniques to satisfy the customer. The students' job will be to see how these new techniques improve the company and benefits the customer.
- Point out to the students that they will learn about some actual investments in capital resources that have increased productivity for one company in particular. They will learn how Herr's Foods, Inc. increased its productivity over the years through a variety of investments in capital resources.
- Divide the students into 10 groups. Assign each group a year (or point on the Herr's Foods timeline).
- Direct all groups to click on the first entry of the timeline and read it so that each group understands the beginnings of the Herr's Potato Chip factory business.
- Direct the students to click on the point on the Herr's timeline that corresponds to the date(s) that they were assigned.
- Tell the students to answer the following questions using the information they obtain from the timeline for the year assigned.
- What was the capital investment, new idea, or innovation that occurred during this time frame on the Herr's timeline?
- How did this change increase the productivity of the Herr's potato chip business?
- What was the impact of this change on the consumer, producer, and worker?
- Direct all groups to click on the last entry of the Herr's Foods timeline and explore it so that each group has an understanding of the progress Herr's Foods, Inc. has made.
- At the end of this part of the lesson involving Herr's Foods lesson (or at the end of the entire lesson), plan to have a variety of Herr's products for the students to enjoy.
The students have now applied the concepts from the previous activity to a real-life business. Next the students will get a closer look at an innovation or invention, to see how they can be used in a business. | <urn:uuid:d14c9d0a-83e8-460a-aff1-62972ca1c865> | {
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Ed Geary speaks to the Historical Society about the Mountain Meadow Massacre.
The Emery County Historical Society recently presented the Mysteries of the Mountain Meadows Massacre at the Museum of the San Rafael.
"You cannot understand the Mountain Meadows Massacre without understanding the events that occurred in a time of intense invasion, anxiety," said Edward Geary, speaker at the historical society meeting.
Geary said, "The Army was on the plains before any announcement was made to the people of Utah. Mormon missionaries went past the Army and hurried on, bringing the news to Brigham Young on July 24. This was 10 years after the Mormons first arrived in the Salt Lake Valley. To commemorate that particular anniversary the people held a big party up in big Cottonwood Canyon and in the middle of the festivities riders came in with the announcement that an Army was on its way to Utah.
"Brigham Young and church leaders immediately adopted defensive postures. They sent parties out into eastern Wyoming to attack and burn supply trains. They were determined to keep the Army from arriving at a faster pace than was necessary. They succeeded in keeping them there until after the winter had closed the pass.
"Utah war is a complex topic. I am not going to try to go into that, except to say that it dominated peoples' lives. The LDS the church leaders were trying to marshal forces. They wanted people to be ready to go up and be willing to give their lives in the defense of their homes.
"There were a lot of hellfire sermons. Mormons today are probably about as patriotic as anybody. But if you'd been in Utah in 1857 you would've heard all kinds of sermons condemning the United States of America and the United States government. The sermons talked about how God was going to use the Mormons and to convert the Indians into the battle axes of the Lord to bring down that government so that the people of God could be established. These were some very intense sermons.
"If you lived in Cedar City at that time or other communities in southern Utah, you were in a community that is about six or seven years old. Very poor, people are still living in dugouts or willow shanties, barely subsisting, very isolated, when you have problems, you have to solve the problem yourself, because there is no one you can bring in within many days of driving a wagon or riding a horse.
"Now they hear that an army is coming to Utah. When we look back now and know how hard it was to move an army of 2,500 men across the plains a huge supply operation was necessary to keep them going and to move them along. But you did not know that if you lived in Cedar City in 1857. You just knew the soldiers were coming. They actually were sending people out into the passes east of Cedar City to watch out in case an army would come through those passes. They were also concerned that an army would be coming from California eastward as well as those coming West. So it was a time of intense tension.
"In the very midst of that tension in comes this long train of immigration that summer. There came in a party or a group of parties who had started in the spring from Arkansas. They were composed largely of people who were related to each other or were neighbors to each other.
"One group had as its leader a man by the name of Jack Baker who was a very dynamic man, a very successful land and slave owner in Arkansas. He was a man who had some violence in his history. Earlier in his life when he lived in Alabama he had a dispute with some neighbors in which he killed three men. As a result he had to move out of Alabama and moved to Arkansas. It was reported that he was staunch friend and a bitter enemy. He was not a man you wanted to cross. He was going to California to establish himself there, to buy ranch land. He had a large herd of Texas long horns. He had a well equipped party and probably had a substantial amount of gold, that he was taking to buy land with.
"Among these parties crossing the plains, there weren't very many better equipped than this one. There were other parties they interchanged with on the plains. Sometimes being together and sometimes splitting up. If you had a large party, you had to divide up from time to time to keep the grazing land available. Especially if you had a large herd of cattle.
"One other group was led by Alexander Fancher. A lot of people talked about Jack Baker as being a hard man to cross. Every report that you get, that I have seen, talking about Alexander Fancher, uses the word gentleman. He was a very well respected man and he was going to California with his family and a herd of cattle. He also had money to buy land. Fancher had made two earlier trips, driving cattle and selling them in California. Now he was moving his family there to become permanent settlers.
"This then is the group that enters the Salt Lake valley, right after July 24, right after this news and anxiety that an army was coming. They came expecting that in the largest last city, before they crossed the desert, on the way to California, that they would be able to resupply, where they would be able to buy grain for their horses and mules, that they would be able to restock themselves with ammunition and other things. They found that regulations had been put in place that made all of that impossible. No guns or ammunition were to be sold to anyone. More people were trying to buy guns from travelers that came through to build up their supply. Utah people were permitted to sell grain for people to eat but not for animals.
"Remember the two parties together had about 1,000 of cattle. They had not quite that many when they arrived in the valley, because there were some losses crossing the plains. This was a large herd of cattle. So imagine yourself here at this time. Most people used the ground outside the community for their milk cows and other domestic stock. At this late summer time you are saving your winter herd ground to get you through the winter. When along came these people with this great herd of about a 1,000 head of cattle and they turn them into your herd ground.
"Conflict was bound to happen and some did. The wagon train expected to spend two weeks or more in the Salt Lake valley resupplying themselves, waiting for the weather to get cooler on the desert before they went on. They found themselves obligated to move on after only two days. They were clearly not welcome. As the wagon train went down the state, at Provo they ran into conflict over the herd ground. The constable came out and threatened to arrest them for turning their animals into the community herding ground. That happened again when they came to Nephi and all along the way. It is human nature, when you find hostility, you tend to respond with some hostility and that is what happened.
"After the massacre the stories multiplied about how bad these immigrants were, the terrible things they said and things they did. They named their oxen after church leaders and would swear at them as they went through the towns. One man showed a gun and said this is the gun that killed Joe Smith.
"If you look closely at these immigrants, it is obvious that they probably had similar values to those of Utah, the majority of the party was made up of women and children. A third of the party was young children. Even some of the men, people who were keeping journals as the party passed through their community recorded going out and visiting with members of the party, they were gentlemen.
I have talked about Jack Baker and Alexander Fancher. There apparently had been a man in the party, if you look at the main participants among the immigrants, a man who is never named and is called the Dutchey. This probably means that he had a German accent. The story is that he joined the Baker and Fancher party at Ft. Bridger and wanted to go to California with them. He apparently was a very big man, very strong. He rode a big gray horse. He was extremely aggressive. He embarrassed the rest of the party by his readiness to contend and insult people.
"As a matter of fact, part of the people that come from Arkansas with the Baker party left the party and went to California through southern Idaho.
"Most California immigrants took the California trail that goes through southern Idaho, past the City Of Rocks and then down into Nevada and crossed the Humbolts to the west. They would deviate from that trail to come to Salt Lake for supplies and then go back north to the California trail.
"But when you get later in the season you are not sure you are going to get through the Sierras before the snow falls. Then it became more advantageous to take the southern route, which essentially follows the present route of Interstate Highway 15, through southern Utah and across the Mojave Desert. The Fancher/Baker party was the first party that year to take the southern route instead of the northern route. But the people that had come from Arkansas with that party decided to take the northern route from Salt Lake, because there had been so much contention in the Fancher Baker party.
"They also had a large number of young boys with the party for herding the cattle. These were boys in their late teens and early 20s who were away from home. Even today such boys are not on their best behavior, when they are traveling. It may well be that the problem was caused by a relatively small group.
"The first really serious problem came when they reached Corn Creek. This is the present site of the community of Kanosh in Millard County. At that time it was the headquarters of the Kanosh band of Indians. There the party camped on one bank of Corn Creek and a party came in from the south and camped on the other side. That second party included George A. Smith, who had just come back from a tour of southern Utah preaching hellfire and damnation to arouse people up against the invading army. Jacob Hamblin was also in that group, going to meet with Brigham Young in Salt Lake.
"The two parties met each other and had some exchanges and as the Baker/Fancher party left they had some conflicts with the Indians. The story is that they poisoned the springs and poisoned dead cattle, knowing that the Indians would come and salvage the dead cattle and eat them several Indians died as a result.
"It would be hard to poison a spring effectively with the toxins available at that period of time so that is dubious. The cattle, Walker, Turley and Weber purposed that the problem may have been anthrax. Because it was known that sometimes Texas Longhorns carried anthrax spores with them. The information about the illnesses and deaths in the Corn Creek area, fit the symptoms of anthrax. So it is possible.
"In any case the Indians are angry and follow the party for a considerable distance. The Kanosh Indians did not follow them as far as Mountain Meadows.
"When the Fancher/Baker party got into southern Utah a very isolated region, they already had a bad reputation. When they got to Parowan, a rural town, a fortified community, the party was not allowed to drive through town and had to make a new road around. For all practical purposes the town refused to deal with the immigrants. They went on to Cedar City where they were able to get some supplies. They bought 50 bushels of grain, they then took it to the grist mill to have it ground and they were accommodated, but not very charitably. The miller insisted that they trade a cow for grinding 50 bushels of wheat, which was an exorbitant price. They paid the price but were very bitter about it.
"Some young men, while the grist was grinding, discovered a distillery in town where a beverage known as sage brush whiskey was made. They sampled the beverage and then began behaving badly. So there was a lot of conflict between the party and the residents. One man lopped off the heads of two chickens, belonging to a widow in town, and threw them into his wagon. That did not increase their popularity.
"Eventually at the general store in town they could not get the supplies, (the store keeper later said we did not have the provisions they asked for), but they apparently believed the store had the provisions and just would not sell to the party. So they rode over to the home of Stake President Isaac C. Haight who was the manager of the store. There they called out questions. They then told him that they were going to California and as soon as they got there, they were going to send the soldiers there back to take care of these Mormons and that they would clean up this town. Haight took these threats very seriously.
"The party left Cedar City and within two days were in Mountain Meadows where they planned to stay as most parties taking that route did. This was the last place where you could feed your animals well before the difficult desert crossing.
"When you look at the time line, a series of events got out of hand. We have all had the experience of un-anticipated and unintended consequences. We make a decision, we do something, without realizing what is going to follow from that decision. That is human nature.
"But here we have that kind of a chain in a particularly disastrous form. Haight, as I said, was the most powerful man in town. He was the stake president. He was also the Major of the Militia and felt that he had been personally threatened and his community had been threatened. He decided that you cannot just let these people go Scott free. We have to chastise them in some way and that was the thing the church leaders had been preaching that summer. Mormons had to make alliances with the Indians. When the army came they wanted the Indians to be able to make a distinction between the Mormons and the Americans. The Mormons were their friends and the Americans were their enemy and be prepared to help. Well, OK, we will call out the Indians. The people in southern Utah lived side by side with the various Paiute bands. There were Paiute's in Cedar City, there were Paiute's in the hills around and in the other small communities.
"The Mormons knew Indians well. They had a lot of dealings with each other. Haight's idea at first was, we won't let these guys get away, we will sic the Indians on them and see what harm they can do. At the very least teach them a lesson.
"He called in John D. Lee who lived in the town of Harmony a few miles south. If you go down I-15 now, you know there is New Harmony over against the mountains on the west. The original Harmony was right in the middle of that valley. They finally moved it because the winds were too bad coming up and down the valley.
"Lee was an Indian Farmer. Indian Farmer was a government job where you were paid to teach the Indians how to farm. Trying to get them to adopt a life of farming. He had a lot of influence with the local people. Haight called Lee into Cedar City and they went out to the old iron works, which were now not operating, and laid on blankets all night and made their plans. The plan was that Lee would go and gather up the Paiute bands and take them to waylay the settlers. The idea was not to waylay them at Mountain Meadows where they were already camped, but farther south in the Santa Clara River Narrows where the wagons would have to go one after another. The Indians could hide in the brush and rocks and attack. That was the plan. I do not think Haight at this time had necessarily thought of wiping them out. Go out there, give them a hard time, if you could get some of their livestock, good. They could use cattle, and send them on their way so they will think twice before they take us on again.
"That was Lee's concept too. We will just go out and harass them. The Indians were gathered together. Lee and other men went out with the Indian tribes in substantial numbers to arrive in the Mountain Meadows area. Some estimates are as high as 600. But you could not have found 600 able bodied men from some of the pioneers. It would have been more like 150-200 men is the best estimate.
"Lee is there trying to manage them. The Indians all came in their war paint and they are all excited about having a raiding party. The Indians do not want to wait. These people get through feeding their stock and go down to where the Indians gathered and say why do we not do it here. Look how many of us there are. Their supposed plan was abandoned," Geary stated. | <urn:uuid:3d28dfe7-6b71-44c1-baaa-f3375305bd09> | {
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"Inexactness" or the "uncertainty" principle, as formulated by physicist Werner Heisenberg, is an end often seen as the beginning. It reflects T.S. Eliot's observation: "what she gives, gives with such supple confusions that the giving famishes the craving".
In 1927, Heisenberg showed that uncertainty is inherent in quantum mechanics. It is impossible to simultaneously measure certain properties—position and momentum. In the quantum world, matter can take the form of either particle or waves. Fundamental elements are neither particles nor waves, but can behave as either and are merely different theoretical ways of picturing the quantum world.
The profound beauty of Inexactness transects science, mathematics, method, philosophy, linguistics and faith.
Inexactness marks an end to certainty. In seeking to measure one property more precisely and accurately, the ability to measure the other property is undermined. The act of measurement negates elements of our knowledge of the system.
It undermines scientific determinism, implying that human knowledge about the world is always incomplete, uncertain and highly contingent.
Inexactness challenges causality. As Heisenberg observed: "'If we know the present, then we can predict the future', it is not the consequences, but the premise that is false. As a matter of principle we cannot know all determining elements of the present".
Inexactness questions methodology. Experiments can only prove what they are designed to prove. Inexactness is a theory based on the practical constraints of measurement.
Inexactness and quantum mechanics challenge faith as well as concepts of truth and order. They imply a probabilistic world of matter, where we cannot know anything with certainty but only as a possibility. It removes the Newtonian elements of space and time from any underlying reality. In the quantum world, mechanics are understood as a probability without any causal explanation.
Albert Einstein refused to accept that positions in space-time could never be completely known and quantum probabilities did not reflect any underlying causes. He did not reject the theory but the lack of reason for an event. Writing to Max Born, he famously stated: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." But as Stephen Hawking later remarked in terms that Heisenberg would have recognised: "Not only does God play dice, but…he sometimes throws them where they cannot be seen."
Allusive and subtle, the power of Inexactness draws on its metaphorical property which has allowed it to penetrate diverse fields such as art theory, financial economics and even popular culture.
At one level, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is taken to mean the act of measuring something changes what is observed. But at another level, intentional or unintentionally, Werner Heisenberg is saying something about the nature of the entire system—the absence of absolute truths, the lack of certainty and the limits to our knowledge.
Inexactness is linked with different philosophical constructs. Nineteenth-century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard differentiated between objective truths and subjective truths. Objective truths are filtered and altered by our subjective truths, recalling the interaction between observer and event central to Heisenberg's theorem.
Inexactness is related to linguistic philosophies. In the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Ludwig Wittgenstein anticipates Inexactness arguing that the structure of language provides the limits of thought and what can be said meaningfully.
The deep ambiguity of Inexactness manifests itself in other ways: the controversy over the term itself and Heisenberg's personal history.
Heisenberg's principle is various referred to as Ungenauigkeit (meaning inexactness), Unschärfe (blurred or lacking clarity) or Unbestimmtheit (indeterminate). In translation, the ambiguity and differences in meaning are accentuated. Playwright Michael Franyn suggested: indeterminability. It was not until the publication of the 1930 English-language version of Heisenberg's textbook, The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory that the term uncertainty (Unsicherheit) was used and widely adopted.
In 1941, during the Second World War, Werner Heisenberg and Niels Bohr, the Danish Physicist and his former teacher, met in occupied Denmark. In Michael Franyn's 1998 play Copenhagen, Margrethe, Bohr's wife, poses the essential question, which is debated in the play: "Why did he [Heisenberg] come to Copenhagen?"
The play repeats their meeting three times, each with different outcomes. As Heisenberg, the character, states: "No one understands my trip to Copenhagen. Time and time again I've explained it. To Bohr himself, and Margrethe. To interrogators and intelligence officers, to journalists and historians. The more I've explained, the deeper the uncertainty has become."
In his 1930 text The Principles of Quantum Mechanic. Paul Dirac, a colleague of Heisenberg, contrasted the Newtonian world and the Quantum one: "It has become increasingly evident… that nature works on a different plan. Her fundamental laws do not govern the world as it appears in our mental picture in any direct way, but instead they control a substratum of which we cannot form a mental picture without introducing irrelevancies."
There was a world before Heisenberg and his Inexactness principle. There is a world after Heisenberg. They are the same world but they are different. | <urn:uuid:ed736ee9-2a75-4454-81c7-081d914289c1> | {
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+47 67 57 21 00
+46 21 470 35 50
CFD TUTORIAL – RIGID BODY MODELING
If you want to get started with the rigid body modeling you should be aware of that the modeling setup, mesh displacement and rigid body motions are depended on the complexity of your system. Maybe a mesh displacement can be restricted to one domain, or a subdomain with sliding mesh is sufficient to model the rigid body? We will help you with these questions and will further recommend that you make a sketch of your system to decide which parts are needed to be moved, this will make the modeling of domains and interfaces in DesignModeler easier.
This tutorial will briefly show three different ways of how to use the Rigid Body 6DOF solver in CFX v.13. We hope this will be a good start if you want to begin using the final release of the CFX Rigid Body solver.
A rigid body is a solid object that moves through a fluid without itself deforming. Its motion is dictated by the fluid forces and torques acting upon it, plus any external forces as gravity and external torque. A rigid body is defined by a collection of 2D regions that form its faces. The rigid body itself does not need to be meshed. Mesh motion is used to move the mesh on the rigid body faces in accordance with the solution of the rigid body equations of motion.
3 examples of the Rigid Body solver will be presented in the following tutorial. The tutorial is not described in detail and will only work as a guidance of how to set up a simulation that includes a Rigid Body.
- Introduction to CFD with CFX
RIGID BODY EXAMPLE 1
The first example shows a free drop of a thin plate or hatch. The hatch is fixed at one axis and will have a rotational motion. We have modeled a simple plate and generated a surrounding fluid domain. The hatch is enclosed in a cylindrical domain to allow rotational motion of model. See illustration of the domains in Figure 1.The 2D wall boundaries which constitute the hatch surface define the rigid body.
See close view in Figure 2.
Figure 1. The computational domain consists of a box and a cylinder. The cylindrical domain encloses the Rigid Body, i.e. the hatch which is fixed at the x-axis. The walls, which constitute the hatch is visualized in green. A rotation of the modeled hatch will consequently rotate the cylinder.
Figure 2. The walls will define the Rigid Body. The hatch itself is not a domain.
The first thing we will do is to insert a Rigid Body dialog box
. To model the Rigid Body you need to specify the mass and the absolute values of the mass momentum of inertia for the rigid body with respect to a corresponding coordinate system - see Figure 3. Furthermore, you will need to define external force, torque or gravity if it is present. This can be set under the Dynamic setting tab. Mark of for the correct translational and rotational degree of freedom. A typical setup for a thin plate is shown in Figure 3 and 4. You can read about the Rigid Body User interface and the definition of these settings in the ANSYS v.13 Help Guide.
Figure 3. You need to set the total mass of the Rigid Body, and the location, in this case the plate walls named Body. In addition you need to calculate the Mass Moment Of Inertia of the Rigid Body object.
Figure 4. Define external forces. Gravity force is always present in drop cases. For this case the thin plate will only have one degree of freedom, which is a rotational degree about the x-axis.
When you have created your Rigid Body you can go on and define the Fluid Domain. In Basic settings shown in Figure 5 you will need to set Mesh Deformation to Region of Motion Specified. This is needed only in domains where the motion of the Rigid Body will have an influence on the mesh boundaries.
Figure 5. In the Basic Settings tab of the rotating domain, Region of Motion Specified needs to be activated.
For this case we have divided the computational domain into two parts. The inner cylindrical domain will undergo Mesh Deformation when the Rigid Body moves, while the outer rectangular domain will remain steady, the cylindrical domain will therefore be defined as a subdomain, see Figure 6 and Figure 7. The remaining now is to define how the 2D boundaries shall act.
Figure 6. Define the cylindrical domain as a Subdomain. The interface between the rotating and stationary domain will be handled by the sliding mesh feature.
Figure 7. The Subdomain will follow the Rigid Body motion.
The modeling of Mesh Deformation is an important component for solving problems with moving boundaries or moving subdomains. The motion might be imposed, or might be an implicit part of a coupled fluid-structure simulation.
For our case with a falling plate we want the mesh interface of the subdomain to slide on the interface to the rectangular and steady domain. To prevent the nodes on the subdomain interface to move relative to the local boundary frame we need to set the Mesh Motion of the Interface to Stationary. See Figure 8.
Figure 8. The interface nodes will move relative to the local boundary frame.
The Mesh Motion of the 2D wall boundaries which form the hatch surface, i.e. the Rigid Body, will follow the Rigid Body Solution. The same setting will be applied to the Subdomain as well, refer to Figure 7.
No special action is needed to set up the stationary domain, i.e. the rectangular domain. This domain can be modeled as usual. No consideration to Mesh Motion or the Rigid Body solver is necessary.
Set a proper time step for the transient analysis and you can start solving a Rigid Body motion. A movie of the falling hatch is shown below.
RIGID BODY EXAMPLE 2
In the previous example we presented a very simple case to describe the Rigid Body solver; one degree of freedom and Mesh Displacement with stationary nodes. The problem was solved by sliding mesh and GGI at the interfaces. In the next example we will model a buoy at the water surface by use of the Rigid Body solver. The modeling concept is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Waves that are introduced in the domain will further influence the displacement of the buoy.
As for the hatch you’ll need to insert a Rigid Body and define its dynamics. See example in Figure 10. The buoy will have tree degrees of freedom, translation in x- and y direction and rotational about z-axis – see the Dynamics definition in Figure 11.
Figure 10. The Mass and Moment Of Inertia of the buoy needs to be defined.
Figure 11. Definition of Degrees of Freedom of the Buoy.
For this case we have two distinct mesh domains, however, we will introduce only one fluid domain. In the Domain Basic setting tab the multiphase of water and air is created and Mesh Deformation is activated. The free surface multiphase is modeled as usual.
The buoy will be moved in several directions which mean that the mesh nodes will be displaced. To allow mesh deformation you need to define the Mesh Motion on each boundary. The modeled domain is shown in Figure12.
Figure 12. Mesh domains.
The buoy surface is set to follow the Rigid Body motion, which means that the nodes will not be locally displaced. The Mesh Motion on the Fluid Fluid Interfaces between the two mesh domains are set to Conservative Interface Flux - by using this condition there is no constraint that attempts to keep the meshes on either side of the interface together. The motion of nodes in all domains adjacent to the interface influence, and are influenced by, the motion of the nodes on the interface. The definitions are shown in Figure 13 and Figure 14.
Figure 13. The 6DOF solver will predict the buoy behavior. The nodes will not be locally displaced.
Figure 14. The nodes on the domain interface will be displaced, this will in term skew the elements.
The Mesh Motion on the wall, symmetry and pressure outlets can be set to Unspecified – no constraints on mesh motion are applied to nodes. Their motion is determined by the motion set on other regions of the mesh. *
A transient simulation is prescribed and the motion of the Rigid Body and the resulting Mesh Displacement is visualized in in the following movie.
*A wave is introduced in the simulation – for this case the wave is induced by a specified displacement of walls. A description of how to model this displacement can be found in CFX v130 Tutorial 32.
RIGID BODY EXAMPLE 3
A third example is to put constrain on the Rigid Body and Mesh motion. As for the first example you may also here create a subdomain, see Figure 15. The subdomain will in this case follow the Rigid Body motion.
Figure 15. The buoy domain is defined as a subdomain in this Rigid Body example.
Furthermore, we will have to change the setting of the Fluid Fluid Interface to oppose sliding mesh between the interfaces. The Mesh Motion of the Fluid Interfaces are set as Rigid Body Motion, thus the mesh nodes of the subdomain will not move relative to the rectangular domain. The motion constrains of the interfaces are defined in Figure 16 and 17.
Figure 16. The motion constrains of the interface in the rectangular domain.
Figure 17. Mesh motion and Motion Constraints of the Interface of the Subdomain.
The resulting buoy motion with sliding mesh is shown in the movie below. | <urn:uuid:63a5bcac-e9d0-4895-bf37-c8b6a33cc582> | {
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This story comes to us from NBC Latino.
Latino children are currently not enrolled in preschool programs in sufficient numbers, yet a new study finds that equalizing access to center-based preschool could close the Hispanic-white school readiness gap by 26 percent, according to findings in the current issue of The Future of Children, a joint Princeton/Brookings journal. The new issue focuses on “Literacy Challenges for the Twenty-First Century.”
As society becomes more information-based, argue the authors, successful “reading skills” go beyond being able to read technically. ”Almost all U.S. students can ‘read’ by third grade, if reading is defined as being proficient in basic procedural word-reading skills,” say the authors of a chapter on literacy patterns in U.S. children. But when assessing reading comprehension, “only about a third of U.S. students in middle school possess the knowledge-based competencies to ‘read’ in this sense,” the report says.
The Latino-white achievement gap has narrowed in the last few decades, say the researchers. The promising news is that while Latino children with limited English and less access to preschool start out with a Latino-white gap, the gaps narrow or stabilize after a few years. Moreover, in the Latino community, the size of the Hispanic-white gap varies. Reading scores are typically lower for Hispanics of Mexican or Central American origin and for first- or second-generation immigrant students or those who speak Spanish at home than for Cuban or Puerto Rican children or those who speak English at home.
What worries the researchers is that the socioeconomic literacy gap has widened. Students from low-income families enter high school with average literacy skills five years behind those of high-income students, says a chapter on literacy patterns. In fact a Brookings analysis found that if the “academic success rates of lower- and higher-income children were roughly equal at the end of elementary school, the lifetime incomes of children from lower-income families could grow about 8 percent, or roughly $83,000, over their careers.”
Correcting gaps and providing a strong basis for Latino students’ success in literacy and reading comprehension — regardless of socio-economic status — has to start at the lower grades, say the authors. One of the ways to narrow this gap, especially among Latino children, say the authors, is for children from non-English-speaking or low-income households to have access to high-quality pre-schools which provide parental education, home-visiting services, and high-quality center-based education and care.
Columbia University’s Jane Waldfogel and Katherine Magnuson found “equalizing access to center-based preschool, in which Hispanic children are significantly underenrolled, could close as much as 26 percent of the Hispanic-white gaps, with improvements in Head Start closing another 4–8 percent,” saying the role of early childhood education and care was very important in explaining Hispanic-white gaps in school readiness.
Other policy recommendations include improving the content of the reading in the primary grades, so students can learn about current events and start learning comprehension and analyses, teaching subject-specific literacy skills, as well as school reform initiatives, better educational ‘infrastructure’ (more data and curriculum and professional development for teachers), perhaps Common Core State Standards to insure learning goals, and most importantly, programs to attract the top college graduates to become teachers.
“Unless the United States can markedly improve the literacy skills of today’s minority children the labor force of the future will have lower literacy skills than the labor force of today,” say The Future of Children editors and authors.
Sandra Lilley is a reporter with NBC Latino.
All statements and opinions expressed on this blog are those of the individual contributors, and not of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation or NBC News. | <urn:uuid:0f4f0932-ff68-456e-befa-27f3d6401f86> | {
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One way to save Moore's Law from an unpleasant and industry-disrupting demise is for manufacturing process technology developers to make a series of changes at a given node – say 20-nm – but label each successive change with a smaller number.
In that way double patterning of deep immersion lithography can continue to produce chips that are in processes technologies that are labeled 16-nm, 14-nm, 10-nm and so on, thereby keeping Moore's law moving forward.
And as long as some feature on the chip can be measured at the
appropriate dimension it should be possible to find a way to justify the
label.[Get a 10% discount on ARM TechCon 2012 conference passes by using promo code EDIT. Click here to learn about the show and register.]
Of course, the IC die-area savings and cost advantages that we have become used to from previous process node transitions would not accrue with these forthcoming node transitions. However, as chip designers at the leading edge are becoming more interested in power savings than area savings as long as the successive process nodes produce ICs with lower power consumption all may be well. | <urn:uuid:d1ada271-7e96-48d0-91ee-918954e7123a> | {
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July 25, 2012
| by Steven Castle
Much of the United States is mired in drought conditions, which is not only uncomfortable but is having an effect on food prices as crops in the Midwest remain parched. But how are drought and water shortages related to energy efficiency?
A New York Times article explains:
Our energy system depends on water. About half of the nation’s water withdrawals every day are just for cooling power plants. In addition, the oil and gas industries use tens of millions of gallons a day, injecting water into aging oil fields to improve production, and to free natural gas in shale formations through hydraulic fracturing. Those numbers are not large from a national perspective, but they can be significant locally.
All told, we withdraw more water for the energy sector than for agriculture. Unfortunately, this relationship means that water problems become energy problems that are serious enough to warrant high-level attention.
Woa! Half our water withdrawals cool power plants? Holy smoke! Or maybe a lot less smoke. Conventional coal plants are very thirsty, the Times reports, and coal still produces about 40 percent of our electricity.
What Can We Do?
You can do things to save water around your house, such as:
1. Use Energy Star-rated clothes and dishwashers. They use less electricity and less water, saving on electricity, water, and the fuel to heat water.
2. Use WaterSense-labeled showerheads and bathroom faucets that use less water (2 gallons per minute for showerheads and 1.5 gpm or less for faucets) Or buy an WaterSense-labeled aerator that fits on the end of the faucet. Some faucets even have motion sensors and are self-powered for hands-free use.
3. Use low-flow or dual-flush toilets, which flush different amounts of water for liquid and solid waste.
3. Invest in rainwater harvesting barrels or cisterns (for when it does rain).
4. Use hot water recirculators that send cool water in you home’s hot water pipes back to the water heater and replace it with warm water, so you don’t waste gallons of precious H2O waiting for the hot stuff.
5. Use an automated irrigation system, preferably using rain or moisture sensors or info from local weather services, so you don’t water when it’s raining.
Try not to use as much electricity! Adjusting the thermostat 1 or 2 degrees can result in 1 percent to 3 percent in energy savings. It doesn’t seem like much, but it can add up. Dim lights and invest in energy-saving and long-lasting LED lamps. Plug electronics into switchable surge suppressors or smart surge strips and switch them off when you’re not using them. This will save on vampire or phantom power, which electronics use when not on. (Most homes have 40 or power vampires.) Invest in lighting control, home control, smart and programmable thermostats (many can be remote-controlled by smartphones). Get an energy monitoring or management system to track your usage and see where you’re wasting electricity. There are many, many ways to save energy in your home. And they more you save, the less water a power plant must use to cool itself.
The water you save could be your own.
Steven Castle is Electronic House's managing editor. he has been writing about consumer electronics, homes and energy efficiency topics for two decades. He is also the co-founder of GreenTech Advocates | <urn:uuid:81f3067e-d8ea-49fa-bd94-093ee15de68d> | {
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Nearly 100 years later, a group of British and Australian adventurers have discovered why. They re-enacted Ernest Shackleton's journey to save his crew when their ship got stuck in Antarctica's icy waters.
Tim Jarvis and Barry Gray on Monday reached an old whaling station on the remote island of South Georgia, 19 days after leaving Elephant Island. Just as Shackleton did in 1917, Jarvis and his team sailed 800 nautical miles across the Southern Ocean in a small lifeboat and then climbed over crevasse-filled mountains in South Georgia.
The modern-day team of six used similar equipment and clothes. But the harsh conditions forced several of them to abandon their attempt along the way. | <urn:uuid:153c3126-b222-4fdf-a40e-18dde59c5fa4> | {
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Coughs, Age 11 and Younger
Coughing is the body's way of removing foreign material or mucus from the lungs and upper airway passages or of reacting to an irritated airway. Coughs have distinctive traits you can learn to recognize. A cough is only a symptom, not a disease, and often the importance of a cough can be determined only when other symptoms are evaluated.
For information about coughs in teens and adults, see the topic Coughs, Age 12 and Older.
A productive cough produces phlegm or mucus (sputum). The mucus may have drained down the back of the throat from the nose or sinuses or may have come up from the lungs. A productive cough generally should not be suppressed; it clears mucus from the lungs. There are many causes of a productive cough, such as:
A nonproductive cough is dry and does not produce sputum. A dry, hacking cough may develop toward the end of a cold or after exposure to an irritant, such as dust or smoke. There are many causes of a nonproductive cough, such as:
Coughs in children
Children may develop coughs from diseases or causes that usually do not affect adults, such as:
Many coughs are caused by a viral illness. Antibiotics are not used to treat viral illnesses and do not change the course of viral infections. Unnecessary use of an antibiotic exposes your child to the risks of an allergic reaction and antibiotic side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, rashes, and yeast infections. Antibiotics also may kill beneficial bacteria and encourage the development of dangerous antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
A careful evaluation of your child's health may help you identify other symptoms. Remember, a cough is only a symptom, not a disease, and often the importance of a cough can only be determined when other symptoms are evaluated. Coughs occur with bacterial and viral respiratory infections. If your child has other symptoms, such as a sore throat, sinus pressure, or ear pain, see the Related Topics section.
Check your child's symptoms to decide if and when your child should see a doctor.
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Slideshow Pictures: Osteoarthritis -- Active Living From Day to Night
More Slideshows from eMedicineHealth
Watch and learn from these additional pictures slideshows.
Ride a Bike
Biking -- in a group or alone, outside or on a stationary bike -- builds stamina and balance with less impact on knees, hips, and other joints than walking or jogging. Recumbent and comfort bikes can provide relief for people who are uncomfortable on upright bikes. If you have a medical condition, check with your doctor before starting any new fitness program. Depending on your condition and health, some exercises may not be recommended.
Yoga is a gentle way to improve posture, balance, and coordination. Several early studies suggest yoga helps the physical functioning of people with arthritis and promotes relaxation. Look for a beginners' class and explain any physical limitations you have to the teacher. Once you're comfortable with the poses and breathing, you can also practice yoga at home.
Exercise in Water
Swimming, water walking, and other water-based exercises are ideal for relieving the pain and stiffness of arthritis. The resistance provided by water increases strength and range of motion, while its buoyancy supports the body's weight, reducing stress on joints. Water workouts can be as strenuous as swimming laps or as gentle as a game of tag in the shallow end.
Add Short Bursts of Activity
Physical activity in small amounts really adds up. Vacuuming or 10 minutes of pruning may be easier to incorporate into a busy day than an hour of exercise. Always try to use correct posture -- such as standing rather than stooping -- and let your larger joints handle as much of the work as possible. To track your activity, wear a pedometer and record how many steps you take each day.
Set a Goal
Commit to a greater level of training by signing up for a 5K walk, bike ride, or other organized event. Registering for an event increases your commitment and motivation to train. It may give you extra motivation to join events that support causes you may believe in, such as arthritis research. Be sure to give yourself enough time to train. Work backward from the event to set specific, realistic training goals.
Try Tai Chi
Studies suggest that tai chi, a traditional Chinese martial art, reduces pain and stiffness in many arthritis patients. Tai chi combines slow, gentle movements with a mental focus. It can be practiced in groups or alone. Participants in these studies also reported improved balance and lower levels of depression.
Maintain Sexual Intimacy
Pain from arthritis can affect every part of life, including sexuality. But a fulfilling sex life is possible. Plan for sexual activity during times when you feel rested, avoid cold temperatures, use pillows to support painful joints, and relax muscles and joints with massage. Communicate openly with your partner and strive for emotional and physical closeness.
Walk the Dog
Take your four-legged friend when you run errands on foot or head out for a lunchtime stroll. Walking the family pet around the block can deliver a low-impact, inexpensive workout. Walking can reduce stiffness, increase bone mass, increase energy, improve mood, and reduce anxiety. Try to accumulate at least 150 minutes a week. This could include 30 minutes of walking or any other moderate-intensity "lifestyle" activity, three to five days a week.
Take a Hike
At home or on vacation, hiking is an active way to explore the outdoors. Vary the trails you use, from short and strenuous to long and gentle. Activities like hiking are essential to managing the physical symptoms of arthritis, but they have other benefits, too. Exercise improves sleep and helps combat the stress and depression that can accompany arthritis.
Train for Strength
Strength training can protect and stabilize arthritic joints, improve functioning, and lessen pain. If joint movement is limited, isometric exercises that contract muscles without joint movement can be done. Aim for two or three sessions per week and build up repetitions and weight gradually. Check with an exercise specialist to make sure you are performing exercises correctly and safely.
More Reading on Osteoarthritis | <urn:uuid:b10c9020-e658-4d59-8883-735ef1bfe8db> | {
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Family: Scolopacidae, Sandpipers view all from this family
Description ADULT In summer plumage, has beautifully patterned brown, black, and white feather markings on back and upper wings. Head, neck, and breast are streaked with brown, and underparts are mainly white, but with brown spots and barring on flanks. Bill is usually all-dark. In winter, looks more pale with gray-brown overall feathers on back, and upper wings marked with marginal white spots and scallops. Bill is pale at base. JUVENILE Similar to winter adult, but feathers on back have buffy marginal spots and breast has obvious dark streaking. Bill is paler at base.
Dimensions Length: 14" (36 cm)
Habitat Widespread and common breeding species in open, boggy, boreal forests. Long-distance migrant that winters from southern U.S. to South America. Usually found on coast (mudflats and lagoons) outside breeding season but, during migration, sometimes stages on lakes.
Observation Tips Distant birds can sometimes be identified with reasonable certainty because of their frenetic feeding habits. Close views allow separation from Lesser Yellowlegs: concentrate on relative body sizes, and bill size and shape.
Range Western Canada, California, Southeast, Northwest, Alaska, Rocky Mountains, Southwest, Florida, Plains, Eastern Canada, Great Lakes, New England, Mid-Atlantic, Texas
Voice Utters a strident tiu-tiu-tiu in flight. Song is a yodeling twee-ooo.
Discussion Robust, elegant wading bird. Extremely long, orange-yellow legs and long, relatively thick and slightly upturned bill make identification easy. However, confusion is possible with Lesser Yellowlegs, which is smaller and an altogether more dainty bird. Feeds primarily in shallow water, catching aquatic invertebrates and small fish, but equally at home on open mudflats. Often chases wildly, like a thing possessed, after prey. Seen from above in flight, all birds have mainly dark upperparts, with contrasting white rump and pale-barred tail. Typically rather wary and nervous. Sexes are similar. | <urn:uuid:c6502d15-0de1-4061-96d0-4ea19ce840ed> | {
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World emissions increase, renewables mitigate
An estimated cumulative global total of 420 billion tonnes of CO2 were emitted between 2000 and 2011 due to human activities, including deforestation.
The rise in average global temperature to 2 degrees Celcius above pre-industrial levels - the target internationally adopted in UN climate negotiations - is possible only if cumulative CO2 emissions in the period 2000-2050 do not exceed 1,000 to 1,500 billion tonnes.
If the current global trend of increasing CO2 emissions continues, cumulative emissions will surpass this limit within the next two decades.
"Fortunately, this trend is being mitigated by the expansion of renewable energy supplies, especially solar and wind energy and biofuels," says the report released by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) and the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL).
The global share of these so-called modern renewables, which exclude hydropower, is growing at an accelerated speed and quadrupled from 1992 to 2011.
"This potentially represents about 0.8 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions avoided as a result of using renewable energy supplies in 2011, which is close to Germany's total CO2 emissions in 2011," the report 'Trends in global CO2 emissions' says.
Per capita emissions in China reach EU level
In China average emissions of CO2 increased by 9 percent to 7.2 tonnes per capita. China is now within the range of 6 to 19 tonnes per capita emissions of the major industrialized countries. In the European Union, CO2 emissions dropped by 3 percent to 7.5 tonnes per capita.
Economic growth in China led to significant increases in fossil fuel consumption driven by construction and infrastructure expansion. The growth in cement and steel production caused China's domestic coal consumption to increase by 9.7 percent.
The United States remain one of the largest emitters of CO2, with 17.3 tonnes per capita, despite a decline due to the recession in 2008-2009, high oil prices and an increased share of natural gas.
The top emitters contributing to the 34 billion tonnes of CO2 emitted globally in 2011 are in percents: China (29), the United States (16), the European Union (11), India (6), the Russian Federation (5) and Japan (4).
Emissions from OECD countries now account for only one third of global CO2 emissions - the same share as that of China and India combined
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My girlfriend is setting up her own business. It is something she had always wanted to do, but her being laid off in the wake of the current economic downturn – as we have come to call what might very well the new economic normality – kicked her into action. She is hardly the only one in this situation. All over the country there is a flurry of new business creations. In normal times, this would bode well for a country which has indeed coined the word "entrepreneur" but had forgotten it quite a long time ago. We are not in normal times however, and this unprecedented wave of entrepreneurship tells in fact of an deep economic insecurity which can only increase with the coming energy descent. It also announces the end of an economic arrangement which had shaped the western social landscape for nearly a century : the wage system.
Wage labor has become so common, so "normal" in today's society, that we have forgotten how marginal -– and despised -- it was before the Industrial Revolution. In agrarian societies wages were what farmhands, servants and journeymen got –- and for the last category it was considered temporary. All respectable working people were self employed, either owning or renting land or running a small – or even not so small – business. Living on wages was something you did when you had no other choice, and, socially speaking, that put you a mere step above a beggar or a slave. It is particularly revealing that in Latin, the word for wages has the same root as the word for prostitute.
There were, of course exceptions, but they were not seen as such. Journeymen lived on wages but, at least theoretically, it was, for them only a temporary step on the way to mastership and self-sufficiency. Civil servants and officers –- privates were seen, not without reason, as the scum of the society –- also received a salary, but considered themselves as servants of the king in a relationship reminiscent of the old vassalage system. In many countries they bought their offices, which emphasized the fact they could live without it, should the need arise.
It was not before the spread of the factory model during the XIXth century that the wage system ceased being marginal, and this evolution was bitterly opposed by large sections of society. As the late Christopher Lasch pointed out in The True and Only Heaven, one of the early labor movement's goals was to stop and reverse the move toward "wage slavery". Karl Marx is often quoted in that matter, but his archenemy, the anarchist Proudhon held similar views, even if he favored a social organization based upon small property and cooperatives. Both in Europe and America, the abolition of the wage system was a major theme in early socialism.
As the artisan model became restricted to a few professionals and farmers became a tiny minority, this theme lost its strength, however. Union's focus shifted to getting higher wages, better career prospects and working conditions. With the sweeping reforms enacted by European governments after WWII, the status of wage laborer became more and more comfortable, since, along with a relatively high income, it offered some security and the ability to plan long term. It had indeed become costly for a company to fire somebody without a very good reasons – the unions were ever watchful – and in France at least lay offs were subject to a prior authorization from the state.
The result was that wage labor became synonymous with job security and the ability to own a house and decently feed one's family.
This system began to unravel after the first oil shock, as companies looked for workarounds, so they could dispose of unneeded workers. Of course they found them –- ironically while in France a so-called socialist held the presidency. They began to resort to fixed term contracts and interim workers. Large firms, such as my home town's shipyard shifted their manpower to contract manufacturers, retaining only core employees. Ironically, but not without reason, this move out of "wage slavery" was, and is, as bitterly resisted by unions and left wing parties as the spread of the wage system had been in the XIXth century.
The ongoing collapse of the world economy has triggered a new step in this process. Many small businesses have gone under and most large companies are struggling. My home town's shipyard, as a contractor for which my girlfriend worked, is starved for work and is down to laying off a significant part of its core employees. The result was that a lot of people found themselves jobless – less than in America since a large part of the French manpower works for the State or one of its subsidiaries and is essentially unfirable, but quite a lot nevertheless.
Those people – the majority of whom with very specialized skills –- turned to business creation out of desperation, because they felt they had no other way to make a living. Many will fail, of course, and slip into permanent poverty – independent workers have no unemployment insurance in France. Others will eke out a living with a few underpaid contracts – something the government has made easier by creating a special "self-entrepreneur" status for small businessmen, which basically means they can dispense with any decent accounting provided they pay a 21% tax and have revenues smaller than 32.000€ a year. A few will thrive – I expect my girlfriend to be among them, of course –- but what will matter is that the wage system will have been dealt another blow.
As we advance further in the energy crisis and economic expansion becomes a thing of the past, we can expect wage labor to become increasingly restricted to a small core elite. Even the administration, the stronghold of job security, is no longer safe. Whole branches have been quietly sold out and while today's civil servants are sure to keep their job for life, barring some dramatic political upheaval, they will eventually retire, and they will be increasingly replaced by temporary workers or independent contractors.
Eventually, the bulk of the population will be self-employed, which, for most people will mean surviving hand-to-mouth by contracting either with whatever business remains or with local authorities ... until, at some point, some crisis will sweep both away, and with them the last remnants of the wage system. | <urn:uuid:c06bad1e-50fd-48eb-90f7-cf737cf372ba> | {
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Artificial Sweeteners May Contaminate Water Downstream Of Sewage Treatment Plants And Even Drinking Water
Sewage treatment plants fail to remove artificial sweeteners completely from waste water. What’s more, these pollutants contaminate waters downstream and may still be present in our drinking water. Thanks to their new robust analytical method, which simultaneously extracts and analyses seven commonly used artificial sweeteners, Marco Scheurer, Heinz-Jürgen Brauch and Frank Thomas Lange from the Water Technology Center in Karlsruhe, Germany, were able to demonstrate the presence of several artificial sweeteners in waste water.
Their findings are published online this week in Springer’s journal Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry.
A range of artificial sweeteners are commonly used in food and drinks, as well as drugs and sanitary products. The potential health risks of artificial sweeteners have been debated for some time. Until now, only sucralose has been detected in aquatic environments. Through the use of a new analytical method, the researchers were able to look for seven different artificial sweeteners (cyclamate, acesulfame, saccharin, aspartame, neotame, neohesperidin dihydrochalcone and sucralose) simultaneously, and show, for the first time, that a number of commonly used artificial sweeteners are present in German waste and surface water. | <urn:uuid:1c53ba54-40ad-4635-90e2-0c7936a0d820> | {
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Point of View
The story is told in third-person omniscient narration, which gives the reader a god-like perspective, unrestricted by time or place, allowing the reader to look into the minds of the characters. The story focuses primarily on Mrs. Drover's perceptions. At times the narration switches to the first-person point of view, or the point of view of a certain character, and then reverts to third-person, to heighten the intensity of Mrs. Drover's feelings. This breaks the flow of the narrative and enables the reader to directly perceive her thoughts.
(The entire page is 526 words.)
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Register of the National Estate - archive
The Register of the National Estate was closed in 2007 and is no longer a statutory list. All references to the Register of the National Estate were removed from the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) on 19 February 2012.
The expiration or repeal of parts of the EPBC Act and the Australian Heritage Council Act 2003 relating to the Register of the National Estate does not diminish protection of Commonwealth heritage places.
These parts have been superseded by stronger ongoing heritage protection provisions under national environment law.
The Register of the National Estate (RNE) is now an archive of information about more than 13,000 places throughout Australia.
The RNE was originally established under the Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975 (repealed). Under that Act, the former Australian Heritage Commission entered more than 13,000 places in the register, including many places of local or state significance.
The Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975 provided a basic level of statutory protection for places in the RNE, limited to actions by the Commonwealth. Commonwealth agencies were required to avoid taking actions that would adversely affect places in the RNE, unless there was no feasible and prudent alternative.
In 1997 the Council of Australian Governments agreed that heritage listing and protection should be the responsibility of the level of government best placed to deliver agreed outcomes. It was agreed that the Commonwealth's involvement in environmental matters should focus on matters of national environmental significance, including World Heritage properties and places of national significance. Each state, territory and local government has a similar responsibility for its own heritage.
This led to the creation of two new heritage lists in 2003. Under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) the National Heritage List includes places of outstanding heritage value to the nation, and the Commonwealth Heritage List includes heritage places owned or controlled by the Commonwealth.
The protection of heritage places for which the Australian Government is responsible continues under the EPBC Act. The EPBC Act not only protects heritage from actions by the Commonwealth, it protects places in the National Heritage List, in the Commonwealth Heritage List, and on Commonwealth land. All proponents, not just the Commonwealth, are required to seek approval for actions that could have a significant impact on the heritage values of these places.
Closure of the Register
Following the 1997 agreement, there was a significant level of overlap between the RNE and heritage lists at the national, state and territory, and local government levels. In line with the 1997 agreement, the Australian Government has phased out the RNE as a statutory list. In 2003 the Australian Parliament passed legislation to repeal the Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975, which established the RNE,and to introduce a new system of heritage protection for nationally significant places under the EPBC Act and the Australian Heritage Council Act 2003. In 2006 the EPBC Act and the Australian Heritage Council Act 2003 were amended to freeze the RNE and to provide for a five-year phasing out of statutory references to the RNE.
As a result of these changes to legislation:
- On 1 January 2004 the responsibility for the RNE was transferred from the former Australian Heritage Commission to the Australian Heritage Council.
- On 19 February 2007 places could no longer be added to, or removed from, the RNE.
- On 19 February 2012 all references to the RNE were removed from the EPBC Act and the Australian Heritage Council Act 2003.
The RNE is maintained on a non-statutory basis as a publicly available archive and educational resource.
Protection of places in the Register
The existence of an entry for a place in the RNE does not in itself create a requirement to protect the place under Commonwealth law. Nevertheless, information in the register may continue to be current and may be relevant to statutory decisions about protection.
RNE places can be protected under the EPBC Act if they are also included in another Commonwealth statutory heritage list or are owned or leased by the Commonwealth. For example, RNE places owned or leased by the Commonwealth are protected from any action likely to have a significant impact on the environment.
In addition, places in the RNE may be protected under appropriate state, territory or local government heritage legislation.
Community Information Unit
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts
Tel: 1800 803 772 (freecall)
- Australian Heritage Week
- Public notices
- Asia-Pacific Focal Point
- Australia's dinosaurs
- Managing Commonwealth heritage places
- Australian Heritage Council
- Australian Heritage Places Inventory (AHPI)
- Australian Heritage Database
- Australian Heritage Information
- Export permits
- Indigenous heritage
- Place managers network
- Historic Shipwrecks Program factsheet
- Patrimonito Storyboard competition
Links to another web site
Opens a pop-up window | <urn:uuid:e7847b2b-7622-4c18-8e21-48eab486ef66> | {
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Sea ice is frozen seawater that floats on the ocean surface. Blanketing millions of square kilometers, sea ice forms and melts with the polar seasons, affecting both human activity and biological habitat. In the Arctic, some sea ice persists year after year, whereas almost all Southern Ocean or Antarctic sea ice is "seasonal ice," meaning it melts away and reforms annually. While both Arctic and Antarctic ice are of vital importance to the marine mammals and birds for which they are habitats, sea ice in the Arctic appears to play a more crucial role in regulating climate.
Because they are composed of ice originating from glaciers, icebergs are not considered sea ice. Most of the icebergs infesting North Atlantic shipping lanes originate from Greenland glaciers.
Global Sea Ice Extent and Concentration: What sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice
Sea ice regulates exchanges of heat, moisture and salinity in the polar oceans. It insulates the relatively warm ocean water from the cold polar atmosphere except where cracks, or leads, in the ice allow exchange of heat and water vapor from ocean to atmosphere in winter. The number of leads determines where and how much heat and water are lost to the atmosphere, which may affect local cloud cover and precipitation.
The seasonal sea ice cycle affects both human activities and biological habitats. For example, companies shipping raw materials such as oil or coal out of the Arctic must work quickly during periods of low ice concentration, navigating their ships towards openings in the ice and away from treacherous multi-year ice that has accumulated over several years. Many arctic mammals, such as polar bears, seals, and walruses, depend on the sea ice for their habitat. These species hunt, feed, and breed on the ice. Studies of polar bear populations indicate that declining sea ice is likely to decrease polar bear numbers, perhaps substantially (Stirling and Parkinson 2006).
Ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Sea ice typically covers about 14 to 16 million square kilometers in late winter in the Arctic and 17 to 20 million square kilometers in the Antarctic Southern Ocean. The seasonal decrease is much larger in the Antarctic, with only about three to four million square kilometers remaining at summer's end, compared to approximately seven to nine million square kilometers in the Arctic. These maps provide examples of late winter and late summer ice cover in the two hemispheres.
Monitoring sea ice
Passive microwave satellite data represent the best method to monitor sea ice because of the ability to show data through most clouds and during darkness. Passive microwave data allow scientists to monitor the inter-annual variations and trends in sea ice cover. Observations of polar oceans derived from these instruments are essential for tracking the ice edge, estimating sea ice concentrations, and classifying sea ice types. In addition to the practical use of this information for shipping and transport, these data add to the meteorological knowledge base required for better understanding climate.
Decline in Arctic sea ice extent
Passive microwave satellite data reveal that, since 1979, winter Arctic ice extent has decreased about 3.6 percent per decade (Meier et al. 2006). Antarctic ice extent is increasing (Cavalieri et al. 2003), but the trend is small.
Satellite data from the SMMR and SSM/I instruments have been combined with earlier observations from ice charts and other sources to yield a time series of Arctic ice extent from the early 1900s onward. While the pre-satellite records are not as reliable, their trends are in good general agreement with the satellite record and indicate that Arctic sea ice extent has been declining since at least the early 1950s.
In recent years, satellite data have indicated an even more dramatic reduction in regional ice cover. In September 2002, sea ice in the Arctic reached a record minimum (Serreze et al. 2003), 4 percent lower than any previous September since 1978, and 14 percent lower than the 1979-2000 mean. In the past, a low ice year would be followed by a rebound to near-normal conditions, but 2002 was followed by two more low-ice years, both of which almost matched the 2002 record. Taking these three years into account, the September ice extent trend for 1979-2004 declined by 7.7 percent per decade (Stroeve et al. 2005). The year 2005 set a new record, dropping the estimated decline in end-of-summer Arctic sea ice to approximately 8 percent per decade. Although sea ice did not set a new record low in 2006, it did fall below normal for the fifth consecutive year. In 2007, sea ice broke all prior satellite records, reaching a record low a month before the end of melt season. Through 2007, the September decline trend is now over 10 percent per decade. (For current sea ice trends, visit NSIDC's Sea Ice Index Cryospheric Climate Indicators.)
Combined with record low summertime extent, Arctic sea ice exhibited a new pattern of poor winter recovery. In the past, a low-ice year would be followed by a rebound to near-normal conditions, but 2002 was followed by two more low-ice years, both of which almost matched the 2002 record (see Arctic Sea Ice Decline Continues). Although wintertime recovery of Arctic sea ice improved somewhat after 2006, wintertime extents have remained well below the long-term average.
Decline in Arctic Sea Ice Thickness
Sea ice thickness has likewise shown substantial decline in recent decades (Rothrock et al. 1999). Using data from submarine cruises, Rothrock and collaborators determined that the mean ice draft at the end of the melt season in the Arctic has decreased by about 1.3 meters between the 1950s and the 1990s.
Estimates based on measurements taken by NASA's ICESat laser altimeter, first-year ice that formed after the autumn of 2007 had a mean thickness of 1.6 meters. The ice formed relatively late in the autumn of 2007, and NSIDC researchers had actually anticipated this first-year ice to be thinner, but it nearly equaled the thickness of 2006 and 2007. Snow accumulation on sea ice helps insulate the ice from frigid air overhead, so sparse snowfall during the winter of 2007-2008 might have actually accelerated the sea ice's growth.
Greenhouse gases emitted through human activities and the resulting increase in global mean temperatures are the most likely underlying cause of the sea ice decline, but the direct cause is a complicated combination of factors resulting from the warming, and from climate variability. The Arctic Oscillation (AO) is a see-saw pattern of alternating atmospheric pressure at polar and mid-latitudes. The positive phase produces a strong polar vortex, with the mid-latitude jet stream shifted northward. The negative phase produces the opposite conditions. From the 1950s to the 1980s, the AO flipped between positive and negative phases, but it entered a strong positive pattern between 1989 and 1995. So the acceleration in the sea ice decline since the mid 1990s may have been partly triggered by the strongly positive AO mode during the preceding years (Rigor et al. 2002 and Rigor and Wallace 2004) that flushed older, thicker ice out of the Arctic, but other factors also played a role.
Since the mid-1990s, the AO has largely been a neutral or negative phase, and the late 1990s and early 2000s brought a weakening of the Beaufort Gyre. However, the longevity of ice in the gyre began to change as a result of warming along the Alaskan and Siberian coasts. In the past, sea ice in this gyre could remain in the Arctic for many years, thickening over time. Beginning in the late 1990s, sea ice began melting in the southern arm of the gyre, thanks to warmer air temperatures and more extensive summer melt north of Alaska and Siberia. Moreover, ice movement out of the Arctic through Fram Strait continued at a high rate despite the change in the AO. Thus warming conditions and wind patterns have been the main drivers of the steeper decline since the late 1990s. Sea ice may not be able to recover under the current persistently warm conditions, and a tipping point may have been passed where the Arctic will eventually be ice-free during at least part of the summer (Lindsay and Zhang 2005).
Examination of the long-term satellite record dating back to 1979 and earlier records dating back to the 1950s indicate that spring melt seasons have started earlier and continued for a longer period throughout the year (Serreze et al. 2007). Even more disquieting, comparison of actual Arctic sea ice decline to IPCC AR4 projections show that observed ice loss is faster than any of the IPCC AR4 models have predicted (Stroeve et al. 2007).
Disclaimer: This article is taken wholly from, or contains information that was originally published by, the National Snow and Ice Data Center. Topic editors and authors for the Encyclopedia of Earth may have edited its content or added new information. The use of information from the National Snow and Ice Data Center should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content. | <urn:uuid:b5246854-fe77-4d8a-96ae-2c3df064ab3d> | {
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The first 2-3 years of life are so formative that the most fundamental and elementary ways that someone experiences and interacts with the world are set. Personality changes throughout life, but less and less so. How the child deals with separation from the mother and his or her own sense of self lays a foundation for all later development.
What qualities of being are required to move through the stages of development for the first 2-3 years of life? And what happens when some of these qualities are not fully present?
Basically, according to depth psychology the infant starts on a ‘merged with the mother state’ for the first 6 months or so. From there the baby begins a process of separating and individuating from the mother until 2-3 years old.
The merged state that the child starts with is like a childhood enlightenment. There is little sense of difference or separation. It has a blissful quality that is sometimes interrupted by physical and emotional needs. How these needs are dealt with sets an initial and immediate sense of how the world is basically or bodily. Safe, nourishing or not, at a very basic or bodily level.
The dominant quality and the quality required in this early stage is a type of blended merged love, where the mother’s psyche and body are shared with the infant. This makes entry into the world of conditions safe, gradual and generally pleasant.
If this merged love is not present or infrequently present or somehow dimmed then the baby will experience and begin to perceive the world in a less safe and positive way at the deep level of the body.
Next the child begins to differentiate themselves from the mother. The quality of strength is key here because he/she is separating themselves from the merged mother. Strength slowly begins to take over as the primary quality of experience, instead of the merged type of love. Ideally this is not strength in a contracted form, rather it is a bright uplifting yet relaxed feeling of capability.
If the merged state did not go well (needs were not met) then it is likely that ego has already taken on a more rigid and defensive structure. This naturally blocks out the natural feelings of goodness of reality because the child is more self focused toward a false self. It also sets the stage for the strength, which is needed to differentiate, to arise in an ‘egoic condition’. Additionally, trauma at this differentiation stage can cause the more rigid, being-blocking form of ego. Trauma at these early periods is particularly damaging for obvious reasons. Fundamental issues (around separation, survival, etc.) can centralize themselves in the blueprint for living which is being formed!
But let’s assume things go ideally in the merged state and differentiation happens ideally; the baby feels strong, able and happy. The next stage involves experiencing limitation, the limitations of his/her little body in the conditional world. If the mother, and to a lesser degree the father (most commonly) deals with the child’s attempt to remerge in a healthy supportive way, that both loves the child but encourages them to venture out strongly, then a quality of strength and ability will be added to a quality of merged safe love at the deep level of body.
If the attempt to remerge is not dealt with well the child will end up too merged with the parent or too separate and independent. If the parent clings to the child the child will stay more merged. If the parent rejects the child, then the child will be more separate. In either case the love quality of being or the strength quality of being is diminished to a type of enmeshment or separateness. In a typical “softy” or “meany” personality style.
Next the child individualizes and develops their own sense of individuality and personality. The primary quality here is individuality. This individuality is not based on egoic separateness ideally, but instead forms a unique personality that is fully connected to being. Any number of things can happen in this stage and cause the personality to become more contracted and further away from being. The contracted form of the individuality quality is something like the personality of ego (often called the false self).
Around four years old the child enters an Oedipal phase where each child develops a sense of their ‘boyness’ or ‘girlness’ and what this means. The child develops the ability to polarize love, and years later to romanticize love. This is furthered by the biological development. Freud was absolutely correct that a sexual self sense begins to form when a child realizes their gender and begins to integrate it into their personality. This sexual self sense, unless addressed, will underlie all romantic connections to follow. Of course, it will change and further events will influence one’s romantic ability, but one’s basic sense of one’s gender will underlie all of that.
Strength and love, as well as many other qualities become enhanced by these gender developments if they go well. Ideally the child has received the environmental support necessary to move through these stages while maintaining a connection to Being. In which case, one’s identity is in being, one’s individuality is an alive vibrant personality not a separateness, and one’s gender sense adds a thrill to life instead of some type of obsession or problem. | <urn:uuid:cacb952f-f72e-4b60-9dec-195b705db305> | {
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Once upon a time there was a bookseller. His name was Frederic G. Melcher, and he knew in his heart that books for children were just as important as books for adults, if not more so. Why, he wondered, are they so often ignored? He thought and thought, and decided in the end that it didn't matter why; what mattered was that he did something to change all that.
He did. In 1921, he proposed the Newberry Award to the American Library Association, an award named for 18th-century English bookseller John Newbery and to be awarded to the most distinguished American children's book published the previous year. The Association's Executive Board approved the idea, much to the joy of children's librarians everywhere, and the first Newbery Award was given in 1922.
The express purpose of the medal was "To encourage original creative work in the field of books for children. To emphasize to the public that contributions to the literature for children deserve similar recognition to poetry, plays, or novels. To give those librarians, who make it their life work to serve children's reading interests, an opportunity to encourage good writing in this field."
Not only the winning books, but runner-up Newbery Honor Books, are included in the list of titles. Melcher's brainchild was the first children's book award in the world, and remains the measure all the others. He went on to initiate the Caldecott Award for best illustrated children's book, and together the Newbery and the Caldecott provide the standard for evaluating children's books in the United States and beyond. | <urn:uuid:0bbcad4a-e743-4ec2-8624-cf8dbe911542> | {
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Radiobiology Research Team
Our Research Focus
The Radiobiology Research Team performs research on the effects of ionizing and
non-ionizing radiation on living systems, identifies radiation hazards in the aviation
environment, and studies methods of protection from such hazards.
The CARI-6 computer program, developed at the FAA's Civil Aerospace Medical Institute,
calculates the effective dose of galactic cosmic radiation received by an individual (based on
an anthropomorphic phantom) on an aircraft flying the shortest route (a geodesic) between any
two airports in the world. The program takes into account changes in altitude and geographic
location during the course of a flight, as derived from the flight profile entered by the user.
- How CARI-6 Works
- Information on the latest version of CARI-6
- Download the latest version of CARI-6 (7 July 2004)
- How CARI-6M works and differs from CARI-6
- Information on the latest version of CARI-6M
- Download the latest version of CARI-6M (3 December 2001) | <urn:uuid:6c6daabc-902d-4c40-b919-3f2df47c9849> | {
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In Kenya, there are an estimated 1.5 million people living with HIV/AIDS. Nyanza Province, in western Kenya, has been the most severely affected; it has the highest prevalence in the country at 14.9% compared to 7.1% countrywide.
FACES works collaboratively with the Kenya Ministry of Health and other local partners to support and strengthen local capacity for quality HIV prevention, care, and treatment services in Nyanza province and Nairobi. FACES works to provide family-centered, comprehensive, compassionate care, and build the foundation for long-term, sustainable treatment.
FACES is a University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) and Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) collaborative partnership. It was funded in September 2004 by the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Learn more about FACES’ Health and Support services, Education and Training programs, and Community Building initiatives. | <urn:uuid:8365b0a7-1ac1-4de7-8f1f-e4b1554628d9> | {
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Arcadelt, Jacob (yäˈkōp ärˈkädĕlt) [key], c.1505–1568, Flemish composer, b. Liège. He spent much of his time at the Papal court in Rome. After 1555 he was in Paris in the service of the duke of Guise. Arcadelt was one of many Netherlander composers who worked in Italy. He wrote Italian madrigals, French chansons, masses, and motets.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
More on Jacob Arcadelt from Fact Monster:
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Music: History, Composers, and Performers: Biographies | <urn:uuid:f776869b-d199-48e8-b003-e84060855bb1> | {
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What is Facts for Life?
Using Facts for Life
Safe Motherhood and Newborn Health
Child Development and Early Learning
Nutrition and Growth
Coughs, Colds and More Serious Illnesses
Emergencies: Preparedness and Response
PDF and Word versions Resources
Medicines, poisons, insecticides, bleach, acids and liquid fertilizers and fuels, such as paraffin (kerosene), should be stored carefully out of children's sight and reach. Dangerous substances should be stored in clearly marked containers and never in drinking bottles. Child-resistant closures, where available, should be used on the containers of poisonous products.
Poisoning is a serious danger to small children. Bleach, insect and rat poison, paraffin (kerosene) and household detergents can kill or permanently injure a child.
Many poisons can kill, cause brain damage, blind or permanently injure if they:
The key to preventing poisoning is to keep harmful substances out of children's reach. | <urn:uuid:0e15b317-5581-43be-a717-d3efe01196ac> | {
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- Health Advisories/Air Quality Index - Explanation of the air quality index chart and links to Ozone and air quality alert sites.
- Ozone - What is Ozone, good and bad Ozone, who is at risk?
Criteria Pollutants - EPA
criteria pollutants: ozone , carbon monoxide , nitrogen dioxide, sulfur
dioxide , lead , and particulate matter.
Air Quality Standards - The
National Ambient Air Quality Standards , as defined in Title 40 of the
Code of Federal Regulations, Part 50.
Radon - Radon gas can not be seen,
smelled or tasted, but it may be a health hazard in your home.
Additional Air Quality Information Sites
Air Quality Forecast
EPA Air & Radiation
EPA Air Now
Council of Governments Air Quality index
Washington, DC Area Real-Time Display
Clean Air Partners - Air Quality Resources | <urn:uuid:3bdf4c21-33a7-429e-b0b3-68605c8de5df> | {
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Children spend as much as four and a half hours each day watching television and are influenced by the programming and advertising they see. In 2010, one out of every three American children was obese or overweight. As childhood obesity rises, there is an opportunity for the FCC to examine the impact of the media,children's television programming and advertising on this growing health concern.
While the direct relationship between food marketing and childhood obesity has yet to be established, the federal government can take several steps to help improve the media environment for our children and promote healthier lifestyles. In 2010, the FCC joined the White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity and released a report to the president, entitled "Solving the Problem of Childhood Obesity Within a Generation." The commission worked closely with the FTC, the FDA and HHS on the food marketing section of the report. For more information, visit the FCC's Parent's Place. | <urn:uuid:72097efa-6807-42c3-ba5e-0471da57eb4f> | {
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(Mimosa, Silk tree)
A large shrub or small tree, Albizia julibrissin is native to Iran to Japan. It is a fast-growing plant whose seedlings can become invasive. It can be seen growing in the wild in the southeastern U.S. and California in waste places, fields, and along roads.
However, its bipinnate, ferny leaves and fluffy pink flowerheads that cover the tree in summer make it a garden-worthy plant, as do the fragrance emitted by the flowers, which attract bees. Seed pods that resemble flat beans follow the flowers and persist into winter. Still, care should be used so that seeds from garden plants can't escape into the wild. | <urn:uuid:7a28ac56-974e-4627-9274-12313adcde41> | {
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In a strange coincidence of biology, pregnant women think about visiting the bathroom roughly as often as the average man thinks about sex.
A fish belongs in water. The Eiffel Tower belongs in Paris. And stomach acid belongs in your stomach. Unfortunately, pregnancy hormones affect the sphincter that forms a barrier between the esophagus and stomach, allowing acids to percolate upward. The plot thickens as your growing uterus crowds your digestive organs. To help douse the fire:
- Eat smaller, more frequent meals.
- Chew your food thoroughly. Eat every bite as slowly as possible.
- Avoid spicy or greasy foods.
- Remain upright for at least an hour after eating.
- Keep your upper body as upright as possible when you sleep by propping yourself up with pillows or elevating the head of your bed.
- When heartburn strikes, have some milk or yogurt.
- Ask your doctor about taking calcium-based antacids.
4. Constipation and hemorrhoids
These two nuisances often work in tandem. Pregnancy hormones, abetted by certain vitamin and iron supplements and, sometimes, a nausea-inspired diet of crackers and milk, can make your digestive tract sluggish. Then constipation begets hemorrhoids, which can develop from straining. Your burgeoning uterus also may contribute to hemorrhoids by decreasing the amount of blood flow into and out of your pelvic region. To keep things moving:
- Drink plenty of fluids.
- Eat lots of whole grains, fruits and vegetables. Prunes, however unglamorous, really do work.
- Eat yogurt to aid digestion.
- Don’t delay when you get the urge to move your bowels.
- Avoid straining during bowel movements. Keeping your feet on a step stool or box will help.
- When hemorrhoids flare up, use flushable wipes instead of toilet paper, and sit in a shallow tub of very warm water.
- Do Kegel exercises regularly to increase blood flow to your pelvic area.
- Ask your doctor if a change in your iron supplement might help.
Pregnancy hormones loosen your joints, while your ballooning breasts and belly play havoc with your center of gravity. No wonder backaches are among pregnancy’s most common complaints. “There’s some controversy as to whether you can tone up a stretched muscle, so it’s important for women to start building their abdominal muscles [which support the back] early in pregnancy, before they get stretched out,” says fitness trainer and childbirth education specialist Bonnie Berk, R.N., founder of Motherwell Maternity Health and Fitness in Carlisle, Pa. Additionally:
- When possible, don’t stand or sit for prolonged periods.
- When you do stand or sit, rest one foot on a box, stool, low shelf or a couple of telephone books. In the kitchen, pull out a low drawer.
- If you sleep on your side (the left is preferable during pregnancy to allow for maximum flow of blood and nutrients to the placenta), keep your knees bent and put a pillow between them; tuck one under your abdomen, too, if it needs support. If you sleep on your back, use pillows to support your thighs and back.
- Get massages. (Make sure you find a qualified therapist.)
- Stick to flat-heeled, supportive shoes.
- Bend at the hips, not the waist, and lift with your legs bent so you’re not using your back.
- Do pelvic tilts.
- Berk’s tip for toning abs: Walk through water deep enough to cover your belly. “The resistance of the water helps tone the muscles,” she says.
- Consider a “belly bra” or other supportive device. | <urn:uuid:53e642fb-4772-4e58-8949-e7fcc883d904> | {
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Many flying fears stem from a lack of understanding of aerodynamics, and how the aircraft stays in the air. In this article I’m going to explain the basics for you, to help you gain more knowledge on the subject and overcome your fear of flying.
It’s a common misconception that the aircraft’s engines keep the plane in the air, whereas it’s actually simple aerodynamics at work. A huge jet aircraft (such as a 435ton Boeing 747) can glide to safety with NO ENGINE POWER.
The probability of losing all engines on a commercial aeroplane is minuscule to say the least – but even in the unlikely event of it happening, you can still land perfectly safely.
So, why have engines?
The engines simply keep the aircraft in the air for a longer period of time – and provide the necessary thrust to take-off.
The basics of aerodynamics are split into these four forces;
Lift – Thrust – Weight – Drag
For a aircraft to fly straight, and at a constant speed, then thrust must be equal to drag, and lift must be equal to weight. Sounds slightly technical I know!
The lift is mainly provided by the wings, and it’s the lift that keeps the aircraft in the air. Whereas thrust is important to reach your destination, it only acts as a controller of speed (by compensating for the drag).
If thrust is less than the drag, the aircraft will slow, and descend. But, the wings are still providing lift, which in turn is keeping the plane airborne, therefore, the descent will be slow.
That is the basic explanation of how a huge jet aircraft can glide – even with complete engine loss.
Air is a Liquid? Not Quite..
Air behaves in a very similar way to water – and the mathematical relationships are identical. Therefore, flying is very similar to swimming. In fact, many aerodynamic tests are carried out underwater.
I hope that all makes sense. The reason I’m sharing this with you, is that your flying fear may be related to the fear of the aircraft falling out of the sky. Now you can be rest assured that this can not happen – even in the highly unlikely event of a complete loss of engine power.
I will be covering the excellent reliablility of modern jet engines in future articles, so stay tuned. I’ll also be covering aerodynamics in more detail soon…… | <urn:uuid:02d35fe7-91c2-4fa0-a2e4-0852999ecd20> | {
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Just as in humans, a dog's tumor can be either malignant or benign. The first step should be to determine which it is. Benign tumors are those that don't spread to surrounding tissues. These can generally be surgically removed without further problems. Malignant tumors are cancerous, and can quickly spread to surrounding areas. If detected early enough, surgical removal, followed by chemotherapy or radiation treatment, can save the dog's life. In some cases, depending on the location of the tumor, amputation of the limb may be necessary. Examine your pet frequently and check with the vet if you detect any unusual lumps, bumps, or swellings. Early detection gives you the best chance of saving your pet's life. | <urn:uuid:930ffc77-5376-4928-bef9-14e58f810498> | {
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Carbohydrates provide the body with energy and are an essential part of the diet. People with diabetes (die-uh-BEET-eez) should make healthy choices about eating the right kind of carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates are sugars found in foods like table sugar, honey, or syrup. Since they are converted into glucose rapidly and can cause the blood glucose level to soar, simple carbohydrates should be avoided, but always consult with your health care provider or dietitian on if or how to include them in your diet. Complex carbohydrates are found in breads, fruits, cereals, grains, and vegetables. These foods are a good source of fiber and slow the release of glucose into the bloodstream after a meal. In order to form a meal plan that best suits your nutritional needs, consult with your health care provider. | <urn:uuid:7f3593bb-33a7-40b7-aacf-f0b0c84d606c> | {
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|When in doubt, tell the truth. - Mark Twain|
(January 19, 1994)
From Russia and from America comes a new information service called "Friends and Partners" -- one of the first information systems jointly developed by citizens of these two nations.
It is hoped that it will contribute towards better understanding between our nations by providing instruction on our countries and cultures, by providing a common base of information about issues affecting relations between our countries, and by providing a common 'meeting place' where folks can find and communicate with each other.
If you wish to visit, the following uniform resource locator (URL) will allow you to connect to the World Wide Web server:
What are the potential uses? Scientists should be able to use the service to find information about funding opportunities and exchange programs, access various databases and library resources, and locate potential colleagues and co-workers. Teachers and educators at all levels should be able to find and contribute interesting and up-to-date material to assist in their instruction -- making their courses more 'alive' and more pertinent to real world issues. Folks in business should be able to learn about the economic environment and opportunities in both countries as well as the rules and laws pertaining to conducting business. Artists from all fields (and their patrons) should be able to learn about, meet and work with each other. And people from all walks of life should be able to learn more about these two nations -- so closed off from one another for so many years.
The primary motivation of this service is to help introduce new friendships and partnerships between our peoples. It hopes to build upon the excellent work already being accomplished by our governments and by the various groups, centers, and institutes who have been working for so many years towards this same goal of cooperation and friendship.
Perhaps the only difference from other efforts is the intention to use the World Wide Web on the Internet as the method of communicating information. The World Wide Web was chosen because of its ability to handle mixed media (text, graphics, audio, etc.), the excellent graphic and non-graphic browsers available for free on the Internet, and its ability to 'integrate' information from all of the best Internet-based tools and utilities -- Listservers, Gophers, WAIS indexes, FTP archives, etc.
If you do not have a WWW browser, you can use our 'friends' account. Telnet to solar.ncsa.uiuc.edu. At the login: prompt, enter friends and press return (make sure to enter friends in all lower case). This will place you in a non-graphic WWW browser called 'Lynx' (on-line help is available). (Note: you must be emulating a vt100 terminal to use this method of access.)
We will soon be providing a 'mirror' of this server in Pushchino, Russia (near Moscow) on the computer of co-developer Natasha Bulashova. This will be perhaps the first information system of its kind in Russia. One of the most exciting developments underway in Pushchino is the development of a 'virtual network' of biological sciences information. This is being designed to be a global information resource on biological sciences research and will be offered soon as a part of this overall service. Efforts will soon begin to establish both servers in Russian and English languages.
We have established an electronic mailing list (listserver) to help facilitate communication for this project. Please feel most free to join by sending a message to [email protected] with the following text:
SUBSCRIBE FRIENDS Your nameThis is a moderated list with which one 'digest' of all postings will be sent to subscribers each day.
Please send us your comments, criticisms, suggestions (and offers of help! :-) ).
P.S. We hope to quickly broaden the scope of this server to incorporate information and communication with all of the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union. The information content of this server must reflect a much larger constituency than just our two nations and we should work towards that end. (but, of course, one step at a time . . . )
FIRST LISTSERV POSTING
|Files Transmitted During Summary Period||14910|
|Bytes Transmitted During Summary Period||80870101|
|Average Files Transmitted Daily||2130|
|Average Bytes Transmitted Daily||11552872|
|Domain||Accesses||Bytes||% Files||% Bytes|
|US Educational||7127||41853181||47.80||51.75 ****|
|**** Over 2,000 of these
accesses are from our own host machine -- reflecting
over 400 telnet sessions from all over the world for our special 'friends' account.
Weather information for Moscow and St. Petersburg has been updated (this should soon be done automatically each day).
Server statistics (including access by country) are now included as an option from the home page.
Current exchange rates for the Russian currency have been updated (on the economics/business page).
Notice of the The Financial / Economic Network has been added to the economics page as well as a description of the The Russian Graduate School of International Business. We have also added a link to a gopher server in Vienna, Austria at the University of Economics and Business Administration.
A hook to the World Wide Web server about the East-West International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction has been added to the Funding Opportunities page. This server also contains hooks to several other interesting resources.
A new section under "Education" is being prepared on The Alliance of Universities for Democracy. This is a consortium of over 70 universities devoted to "Enhancing the role of higher education in promoting democratic institutions, economic development, and common moral and social values."
We welcome the efforts of "The Alliance of Universities for Democracy" -- more information will appear soon -- look on the Education page.
Under the music section, we have had two very generous offers for some digitized music: from the University of Oregon, we are hoping to receive some ulaw files by the Irkutsk Philharmonic Society. From San Francisco, we will soon be posting some music played at the International Accordion Festival in Vilnius this past year. These audio files should be available for your 'listening pleasure' in a few more days.
From site eskimo.com, we will soon provide a WWW version of their excellent GlasNews newsletter.
We have received several generous offers of software, fonts, etc. for helping with the display and printing of Cyrillic text. We are planning to establish an ftp archive of such on our system with a hypertext reference from the F&P server.
We have had several suggestions and offers of help for telecommunications and computing assistance from various companies and from the International Science Foundation.
We received an offer from a school principal in the northeastern U.S. to begin work on an information 'exchange' program with Russian schools.
We have had offers from Vienna, Austria and from Moscow for the establishment of 'mirror' servers to help speed access to the material from Russia and from Central and East European sites. Natasha is actively working to establish a mirror server in Pushchino.
Dirk van Gulik is working to establish for us an interactive 'talk-room' (fascinating project -- you will see!)
We have received several offers to assist with such efforts as typing, transcription, and translation.
We have received several offers to provide us with photographs and slides for publishing on the server. The server should have much additional 'graphic' material in about a week.
We received a very generous offer from the City University of New York for material describing all aspects of computer-aided language activities and natural language processing (e.g., machine translation, text data- bases, language instruction -- native and foreign -- text analysis, and the linguistic dimensions of electronic communication).
We have received several notes from people who have made very open-ended offers of help.
Several more suggestions and offers of assistance will be summarized and posted here in the next digest.
Finally, in answer to a question we have seen a few times, there is
Once again, we thank each of you for your interest and hope
to hear from many as we begin our work together on this service.
Please write with your comments, criticisms, and suggestions
(and, of course, those offers of help).
Pushchino, Moscow Region
Greg Cole, Associate Director
National Center for Supercomputing Applications
The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Once again, we thank each of you for your interest and hope to hear from many as we begin our work together on this service. Please write with your comments, criticisms, and suggestions (and, of course, those offers of help).
write to us
with your comments and suggestions.
F&P Quick Search
About Friends & Partners
ISOC '95 Paper
©1996 Friends and Partners | <urn:uuid:70ede211-87e9-42d3-9eec-712a5c2cd71e> | {
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Gardening Articles: Landscaping :: Lawns, Ground Cover, & Wildflowers
Lawn Grass (page 2 of 2)
by National Gardening Association Editors
These are found throughout the South. Often they are wide-bladed and coarse compared to the northern grasses. They put on vigorous growth during summer and go dormant and turn brown in winter. Golf courses and some homeowners keep lawns green by overseeding with annual rye grass toward the end of the growing season. Instead of being started from grass seed, lawns of warm-climate grasses are usually started from planting sprigs, plugs, or sod.
Bermuda grass. Durable and heat-loving, Bermudagrass is the most common of the warm-climate grasses. It does not do well in shade. Hybrid bermuda grass is very soft and fine-bladed and is therefore a common choice for golf greens in southern regions.
Centipedegrass. This grass makes a good lawn in hot areas, although it is lighter green in color and subject to drought damage because of shallow roots. It does well in poor soil.
St. Augustine grass. St. Augustine does well in shade and is fast-growing, but is subject to damage from chinch bugs. It prefers slightly alkaline soils over acid soils.
Zoysiagrass. This grass establishes slowly, but when it gets going forms a dense, wirey, fine-textured lawn and is resistant to heat and drought. It tolerates shade, where it grows slowly. Zoysiagrass is relatively free of diseases and insect problems. Many improved varieties are available.
If you have deep shade, steep banks, or other problem areas, it might be worth investigating the many ground covers that can be used in place of grass lawns.
Photography by Suzanne DeJohn/National Gardening Association. | <urn:uuid:f2e21400-b3b0-49b5-b99a-7d24c495dac1> | {
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Press Release: Adult Education x Dropouts = Lose-Lose
Problems that have been plaguing urban secondary schools may be shifting to adult education venues, according to a new study conducted by The Graduate Center, City University of New York, and commissioned by the U.S. Department of Education. Researchers from the Center for Advanced Study of Education (CASE) at The Graduate Center examined five urban adult education programs and discovered a rise in enrollment among 16-20 year-old high school dropouts along with increases in the difficulties those students brought. Overall, the results seem to indicate a lose-lose situation, with teenagers not getting the support services they need and adults being disrupted in their learning by needy teenagers.
An exploratory case study, the report was commissioned to examine a perceived trend in the increasing effect of high school dropouts on adult education and to see if that perception held up and warranted further concern. The results serve as an alert to policymakers that this trend must be more comprehensively identified, evaluated, and remedied.
The research focused on five adult education programs run by Local Education Agencies (LEAs), which were promised anonymity in return for their participation. The total current enrollment of 16 to 20 year-olds at the sites was estimated at 35,656, just short of 50% of the total enrollment of 71,981. Although individual sites had different periods and methods of tracking the numbers, they collectively reported a significant increase in 16 to 18 years olds, along with a rise in the percentage those high school age students represented of their total student population. In all cases, the students were primarily black and Hispanic, many scored low on standardized reading and mathematics tests, and most had either dropped out of or had been expelled from high school.
Interviews with teachers, administrators, and students revealed that many in the 16-20 year-old cohort were hard-working, motivated students. However, when compared with adult education students as a whole, the 16-20 year old students were perceived to be less motivated, more involved in drugs, more involved in gangs and fighting, more likely to exhibit behavior problems, more likely to manifest symptoms of learning disabilities and attention deficit disorder, and more often mandated to attend by courts and drug rehabilitation programs.
The net result of the increase enrollment of 16-20 year old students was a direct negative impact on the adult education programs, along with a need for greater and different resources to deal with what is generally characterized as a dropout population. Although it was not the intention to establish a causal link, the study did discuss a combination of factors contributing to the rise in teenage enrollment in adult education programs, including: a more flexible learning environment; increasingly more difficult secondary school graduation standards; students' behavioral difficulties in high school; an increase in referrals by the courts and drug rehabilitation agencies for GED instruction; high school student and counselor misperceptions about the nature of the GED; and more aggressive adult education marketing to a younger group because of reduced welfare-related adult enrollments.
In all, research areas the study investigated included:
Principal Investigators included: Bert Flugman, Ph.D., Director, Center for Advanced Study in Education, Graduate Center of the City University of New York; Dolores Perin, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Teachers College, Columbia University; and Seymour Spiegel, M.Ed., Project Director, Center for Advanced Study in Education, Graduate Center of the City University of New York. The study was funded by The Office of Vocational and Adult Education of the U.S. Department of Education.
- Relevant Federal, State, and Local Policies
- Changes in Adult Education Enrollment
- Qualitative and Quantitative Student Characteristics
- Reasons for Increased 16-20 Year-Old Enrollment in Adult Education
- Program Characteristics
- Program Effectiveness and Strategies
The complete study, including recommendations, at www.16to20AE.org.
The Center for Advanced Study in Education (CASE) conducts basic and applied research: 1) to broaden the knowledge and understanding of current urban educational policies and trends, 2) to improve the quality of educational practice in urban school districts, and 3) to provide research findings upon which local, state, and federal agencies can fashion educational and fiscal policy.
CASE also serves as a forum for the deliberation and analysis of educational policy issues, promotes interdisciplinary initiatives in seeking solutions to educational problems, and functions as a clearinghouse for educational research strategies and for the dissemination of research findings.
The Graduate Center is the doctorate-granting institution of The City University of New York. The only consortium of its kind in the nation, The Graduate Center draws its faculty of more than 1,600 members mainly from the CUNY senior colleges and cultural and scientific institutions throughout New York City.
Established in 1961, The Graduate Center has grown to an enrollment of about 3,900 students in 30 doctoral programs and six master's degree programs in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences. The Graduate Center also houses 28 research centers and institutes, administers the CUNY Baccalaureate Program, and offers a wide range of continuing education and cultural programs of interest to the general public. According to the most recent National Research Council report, more than a third of The Graduate Center's rated Ph.D. programs rank among the nation's top 20 at public and private institutions.
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What is Bankruptcy?
Bankruptcy is a legal procedure that provides a financial fresh start to people who cannot pay their debts. It is a serious step and should not be considered a quick fix for money woes. Bankruptcy should only be pursued as a last resort when all other attempts to solve financial problems fail.
There are three types of bankruptcy:
- Chapter 13 is for an individual who is temporarily unable to pay their debts and wants to pay them in installments over a period of time. You can usually keep your property, but you must earn wages or have some other source of regular income and you must agree to pay part of that income to creditors. A federal court must approve your repayment plan and your budget. A trustee is appointed and will collect the payments from you, pay your creditors, and make sure you abide by the terms of your repayment plan.
- Chapter 11 is primarily for the reorganization of a business. Under Chapter 11, you may continue to operate a business, but your creditors and the court must approve a plan to repay debts. No trustee is appointed unless a judge decides that one is necessary. If a trustee is appointed, the trustee takes control of your business and property.
- Chapter 7 is for debtors who cannot pay their debts. Under Chapter 7, you may be able to keep certain property and a trustee may take control of the remaining property of value and sell it to pay creditors.
Bankruptcy does not fix a bad credit history and it remains on your credit record for up to 10 years. It may be a roadblock to getting a mortgage or credit card. And, not all debt can be cleared up through bankruptcy. For example, you must still pay taxes, alimony, child support, student loans, and court fines.
Check with a financial counselor to find out if it's really necessary for you to file bankruptcy. Instead, you may be able to reach an agreement with your creditors. | <urn:uuid:944bf3a5-dfeb-4b73-adea-426e044dd64d> | {
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I find this fascinating....
Stanford researchers' cooling glove 'better than steroids' – and helps solve physiological mystery, too
The temperature-regulation research of Stanford biologists H. Craig Heller and Dennis Grahn has led to a device that rapidly cools body temperature, greatly improves exercise recovery, and could help explain why muscles get tired.
By Max McClure
The rapid thermal exchange device, nicknamed 'the glove,' creates a vacuum to draw blood to the surface of the palms. Cold circulating water cools the blood, which returns to the heart and rapidly lowers the body's core temperature.
"Equal to or substantially better than steroids … and it's not illegal."
This is the sort of claim you see in spam email subject lines, not in discussions of mammalian thermoregulation. Even the man making the statement, Stanford biology researcher Dennis Grahn, seems bemused. "We really stumbled on this by accident," he said. "We wanted to get a model for studying heat dissipation."
But for more than a decade now, Grahn and biology Professor H. Craig Heller have been pursuing a serendipitous find: by taking advantage of specialized heat-transfer veins in the palms of hands, they can rapidly cool athletes' core temperatures – and dramatically improve exercise recovery and performance.
The team is finally nearing a commercial version of their specialized heat extraction device, known as "the glove," and they've seen their share of media coverage. But what hasn't been discussed is why the glove works the way it does, and what that tells us about why our muscles become fatigued.
For Heller and Grahn, the story starts, improbably, with a longstanding question about bears.
Black bears are extremely well-insulated animals, equipped with a heavy coat of fur and a thick layer of subcutaneous fat that help them maintain their body temperature as they hibernate through winter. But once spring arrives and temperatures rise, these same bears face a greater risk of overheating than of hypothermia. How do they dump heat without changing insulation layers?
Heller and Grahn discovered that bears and, in fact, nearly all mammals have built-in radiators: hairless areas of the body that feature extensive networks of veins very close to the surface of the skin.
Rabbits have them in their ears, rats have them in their tails, dogs have them in their tongues. Heat transfer with the environment overwhelmingly occurs on these relatively small patches of skin. When you look at a thermal scan of a bear, the animal is mostly indistinguishable from the background. But the pads of the bear's feet and the tip of the nose look like they're on fire.
These networks of veins, known as AVAs (arteriovenous anastomoses) seem exclusively devoted to rapid temperature management. They don't supply nutrition to the skin, and they have highly variable blood flow, ranging from negligible in cold weather to as much as 60 percent of total cardiac output during hot weather or exercise.
Coolers and vacuums
In humans, AVAs show up in several places, including the face and feet, but the researchers' glove targets our most prominent radiator structures – in the palms of our hands.
The newest version of the device is a rigid plastic mitt, attached by a hose to what looks like a portable cooler. When Grahn sticks his hand in the airtight glove, the device creates a slight vacuum. The veins in the palm expand, drawing blood into the AVAs, where it is rapidly cooled by water circulating through the glove's plastic lining.
The method is more convenient than, say, full-body submersion in ice water, and avoids the pitfalls of other rapid palm-cooling strategies. Because blood flow to the AVAs can be nearly shut off in cold weather, making the hand too cold will have almost no effect on core temperature. Cooling, Grahn says, is therefore a delicate balance.
"You have to stay above the local vasoconstriction threshold," said Grahn. "And what do you get if you go under? You get a cold hand."
Even in prototype form, the researchers' device proved enormously efficient at altering body temperature. The glove's early successes were actually in increasing the core temperature of surgery patients recovering from anesthesia.
"We built a silly device, took it over to the recovery room and, lo and behold, it worked beyond our wildest imaginations," Heller explained. "Whereas it was taking them hours to re-warm patients coming into the recovery room, we were doing it in eight, nine minutes."
But the glove's effects on athletic performance didn't become apparent until the researchers began using the glove to cool a member of the lab – the confessed "gym rat" and frequent coauthor Vinh Cao – between sets of pull-ups. The glove seemed to nearly erase his muscle fatigue; after multiple rounds, cooling allowed him to do just as many pull-ups as he did the first time around. So the researchers started cooling him after every other set of pull-ups.
"Then in the next six weeks he went from doing 180 pull-ups total to over 620," said Heller. "That was a rate of physical performance improvement that was just unprecedented."
The researchers applied the cooling method to other types of exercise – bench press, running, cycling. In every case, rates of gain in recovery were dramatic, without any evidence of the body being damaged by overwork – hence the "better than steroids" claim. Versions of the glove have since been adopted by the Stanford football and track and field teams, as well as other college athletics programs, the San Francisco 49ers, the Oakland Raiders and Manchester United soccer club.
The elegant muscle
But what does overheating have to do with fatigue in the first place?
Much of the lab's recent research can be summed up with Grahn's statement that "temperature is a primary limiting factor for performance." But the researchers were at a loss to understand why until recently.
In 2009, it was discovered that muscle pyruvate kinase, or MPK, an enzyme that muscles need in order to generate chemical energy, was highly temperature- sensitive. At normal body temperature, the enzyme is active – but as temperatures rise, some of the enzyme begins to deform into the inactive state. By the time muscle temperatures near 104 degrees Fahrenheit, MPK activity completely shuts down.
There's a very good biological reason for this shutdown. As a muscle cell increases its activity, it heats up. But if this process continues for too long, the cell will self-destruct. By shutting itself down below a critical temperature threshold, MPK serves as an elegant self-regulation system for the muscle.
"Your muscle cells are saying, "You can't work that hard anymore, because if you do you're going to cook and die,'" Grahn said.
When you cool the muscle cell, you return the enzyme to the active state, essentially resetting the muscle's state of fatigue.
The version of the device that will be made available commercially is still being tweaked, but the researchers see applications for heat extraction in areas more important than a simple performance boost. Hyperthermia and heat stress don't just lead to fatigue – they can become medical emergencies.
"And every year we hear stories about high school athletes beginning football practice in August in hot places in the country, and there are deaths due to hyperthermia," said Heller. "There's no reason why that should occur."
Craig Heller and Dennis Grahn have personal financial interests in the company that is developing the cooling glove as a commercial product. | <urn:uuid:afb936b8-b01a-4b0e-b341-873ae97a6838> | {
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The angel Gabriel interrupts Mary at her devotions and announces, "You shall conceive and bear a son, and you shall give him the name Jesus." (Luke 1:31) In an attitude of humility, Mary sits on the plain tiled floor, eyes downcast, and raises her hands in surprise. Gabriel, dressed in white with multi-colored wings, kneels and points towards the circular window above, indicating the presence of God. With his other hand he draws back the curtain of the canopy.
Dieric Bouts painted the scene in a lucid and spatially convincing setting. The room at the left is simply described: a barrel ceiling, a marble column with two steps leading up to the room, and a stained glass window. A mood of solemnity, suitable for prayer, pervades the scene. In this somber setting Bouts's use of bright red for the drapery seems unusual. It may signify the Passion, forecasting the death of Christ, or it may be purely decorative since Bouts used this color in other compositions.
The Annunciation belongs to a set of five paintings that originally constituted a polyptych representing scenes from the life of Jesus Christ. It was probably the upper left panel of an altarpiece that included paintings of the Adoration of the Magi, Entombment (upper right), Resurrection (lower right), and perhaps the Crucifixion in the center. | <urn:uuid:0c08f3db-68e9-4913-a3ed-54c396589024> | {
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Electrical inductance sensors are non-contact devices that measure the inductance of an electrical component or system. They consist of a wire loop or coils and are relatively inexpensive. Inductance, the property of a circuit or circuit element to oppose a change in current flow, refers to the capacity of a conductor to produce a magnetic field. The standard unit of inductance is the Henry (H). Because the Henry is a large unit, electrical inductance sensors often measure inductance in microhenry (µH) or millihenry (mH) levels.
Electrical inductance sensors contain a nickel-iron core shaft that rotates within the coil around the material. The inductance measured by an electrical inductance sensor depends on the number of turns in the coil, the type of material around which the coil rotates, and the radius of the coil. With the rotation of the shaft, displacement occurs within the coil and generates inductance. This displacement produces signals that can be measured by an inductance meter and recorded. Most inductance meters are digital, hand held devices suitable for measuring inductance of very low value. The results of the inductance calculation can be plotted as a graph for future study.
Selecting electrical inductance sensors requires a careful analysis of product specifications and application requirements. Most electrical inductance sensors have a standard accuracy variance of less than 0.5% when measured on full scale. For best results, an electrical inductance sensor should be able to generate an output signal of at least 4-20 mA. Typically, a sensor’s measurement range is approximately 30% of the coil diameter. For high precision measurements, the thickness of the coil should be at least 0.025 inches (in.).
Electrical inductance sensors are used in many different applications. Some electrical sensors are used in the automotive industry and the power industry. Other electrical sensors are used in constructing planar transformers, generating electrical magnetic fields, and monitoring the inductance of an electrical component. Electrical sensors such as electrical inductance sensors are widely used for detecting the presence of electrical voltage in equipments, and defective grounds. | <urn:uuid:bfe63548-3bc5-44fa-be93-553592b82423> | {
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Please note that the Topic Hubs developed by this Center have been archived and are no longer being updated.
GLRPPR has converted several of its Topic Hubs to LibGuides, which allowed for integration of some social features. View the converted hubs, as well as other LibGuides related to pollution prevention and sustainability, in the University of Illinois' LibGuides Community.
Regulatory Integration: Browse by Keyword
Air pollution / Air quality / Air quality control / Alabama / Awards / California / Case studies / Cleaner production / Compliance / Connecticut / Construction contracts / Drinking water / Energy policy / Enforcement / Environmental auditing / Environmental policy / Factory and trade waste / Federal government / Fiberglass / Florida / Georgia / Government agencies / Great Lakes Region / Groundwater / Hazardous waste / Hazardous waste disposal / Hazardous waste generators / Illinois / Incentives / Indiana / Inspection / Iowa / Laws and legislation / Legislative bodies / Legislators / Licenses / Local government / Manufacturers / Massachusetts / Michigan / Minnesota / Municipal government / Nebraska / New Jersey / Ohio / Permits / POTW / Public works / Remediation / Standards / State governments / Styrene / Sustainable development / Technical assistance / Texas / United States. Environmental Protection Agency / Virginia / Waste / Waste disposal / Waste management / Waste reduction / Wastewater / Water pollution / Water quality / Wisconsin
Alphabetical Listing of Reference Documents by Title
NOTE: [PDF] links require Acrobat Reader from Adobe.
Clean Energy-Environment Guide to Action [PDF]
Abstract: The Clean Energy-Environment Guide to Action identifies and describes 16 clean energy policies and strategies that states have used to meet their clean energy objectives. It describes how states are successfully expanding the role of clean energy in the U.S. energy system and shares the experience and lessons learned from successful state clean energy policies. EPA developed the Guide to Action to help states learn from each other as they develop their own clean energy programs and policies. State energy offices, public utility commissions, environmental regulators, other state policymakers, and their stakeholders can use the Guide to analyze and implement policies and programs that effectively integrate clean energy into a low-cost, clean, reliable energy system for their state. States participating in the Clean Energy-Environment State Partnership will use the Guide to Action to develop a Clean Energy-Environment State Action Plan for using new or existing policies and programs to increase the use of cost-effective clean energy. (PDF Format; Length: 361 pages)
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Environmental Council of the States
Abstract: Environmental Council of the States (ECOS), is a national non-profit, non-partisan association of state and territorial environmental commissioners.
Source: Environmental Council of the States
Illinois EPA: Regulatory Integration
Abstract: This portion of the Illinois EPA Office of Pollution Prevention (OPP) web site provides an overview of OPP's efforts to work with the agency's regulatory programs to integrate P2 into their mainstream functions. Included are brief summaries of "special regulatory integration projects" in which OPP has partnered with regulatory programs on targeted efforts to promote P2 during inspection activities.
Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Indiana Department of Environmental Management Pollution Prevention Regulatory Integration
Abstract: Goal: Develop, in coordination with the program offices, recommendations and make decisions on implementation for specific pollution prevention integration goals and projects for the permitting, compliance assurance and enforcement programs.
Source: IDEM OPPTA
Integrating P2 into the Permit Writing Process [PDF]
Abstract: This report from the Kansas SBEAP provides guidance for permit writers in promoting pollution prevention. (PDF Format; Length: 8 pages)
Source: Kansas Small Business Environmental Assistance Program (SBEAP) Pollution Prevention Institute (PPI)
Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR).
Abstract: This collaborative effort within the DNR?s assistance and regulatory units improves communication between businesses whose waste production is regulated by the DNR and its problem-solving resource units.
Source: Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR).
Is EPA's Performance Track Running Off the Rails?
Abstract: Since its creation in 2000 as a program that relaxes regulatory oversight on companies with exemplary environmental performance, the U.S. EPA?s Performance Track has come under fire for bending over backward in favor of polluters. When first enacted, Performance Track was touted as a voluntary means to improve habitat protection, water and energy use, and waste reduction?areas over which the EPA has little regulatory authority. But moves to abolish the reporting that could help improve pollution technologies, together with changes that might allow companies to break their promises, have placed Performance Track under scrutiny. Article by Janet Pelley.
Source: Environmental Science & Technology
Measuring Pollution Prevention (P2) Regulatory Integration: Review of Other States? Efforts and Recommendations for Action (2000) [PDF]
Abstract: This report, compiled by the Tellus Institute for the Ohio EPA, offers a review of the breadth and depth of the efforts by 11 state P2 programs to measure the progress of their P2 regulatory integration activities.
Source: Tellus Institute (for the Ohio EPA)
Michigan Clean Corporate Citizen (C3) Program
Abstract: This portion of the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality web site describes the Clean Corporate Citizen (C3) Program and provides links to all related annual reports, application forms, and other documentation. The C3 program allows regulated establishments that have demonstrated environmental stewardship and a strong environmental ethic through their operations in Michigan to be recognized as Clean Corporate Citizens. The C3 program is built on the concept that these Michigan facilities can be relied upon to carry out their environmental protection responsibilities without rigorous oversight, and should enjoy greater permitting flexibility than those that have not demonstrated that level of environmental awareness. Clean Corporate Citizens who voluntarily participate in this program will receive public recognition and are entitled to certain regulatory benefits, including expedited permits.
Source: Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ)
Michigan Department of Environmental Quality: Regulatory Integration
Abstract: This portion of the Michigan DEQ Environmental Assistance Division web site provides an overview of the agency's regulatory integration efforts. Included are information on the agency's staff awards, P2 and drinking water, P2 integration tools, P2 financial assistance, and P2 field services, as well as issues of P2 Revue and related links.
Source: MIchigan Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ)
National Environmental Performance Track
Abstract: Designed to motivate and reward facilities that go beyond compliance with regulatory requirements to attain levels of environmental performance that benefit people, communities, and the environment.
Source: U.S. EPA
NY: First Lady Silda Wall Spitzer Announces Green Building Initiatives
Abstract: First Lady Silda Wall Spitzer and David D. Brown, Executive Director of the Dormitory Authority of the State of New York (DASNY), today announced two important initiatives to promote the construction of green homes and State-owned buildings throughout the State. Building on her effort to encourage homeowners throughout the State to incorporate simple energy reduction features into their homes, the First Lady announced that the Administration will offer legislation that offers a direct incentive to homeowners who build or renovate homes that meet green building criteria. The amount of the incentive will be based on the size of the home, with a cap of $10,000 per home, and help offset the typical 5 percent increase in construction costs when "green" or "sustainable" features are incorporated. The Dormitory Authority announced that beginning in 2008, all new State construction projects and major renovations managed by the Dormitory Authority will meet LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) standards established by the United States Green Building Council. The LEED Green Building Rating System is an internationally recognized program for the design, construction, and maintenance of high-performance green buildings. LEED addresses all aspects of building construction and operation, including energy efficiency, land use, water conservation and re-use, indoor air quality, renewable energy, non-toxic landscaping practices, and recycling.
Source: Dormitory Authority of the State of New York
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
Abstract: OH EPA uses innovation, quality service, and public involvement to ensure a safe and healthy environment for all Ohioans. Their mission is to protect the environment and public health by ensuring compliance & demonstrating stewardship.
Source: Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
Ongoing Efforts by State Regulatory Agencies to Integrate Pollution Prevention into their Activities
Abstract: While the vast majority of state P2 initiatives remain focused on providing non-regulatory assistance to industry, there is an increasing effort in many states to modify regulatory programs to incorporate P2 approaches.
Source: U.S. EPA, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
Pollution Prevention Regulatory Integration Case Studies [PDF]
Abstract: Case studies provided by individuals and organizations actively working to integrate P2 into core environmental regulatory programs. Includes state, national, and international projects.
Source: National Pollution Prevention Roundtable Pollution Prevention Integration and Innovation (P2I2) Workgroup
Pollution Prevention Success Stories
Abstract: This document highlights 26 P2 success stories spread over a wide spectrum. Included are examples of successful regulatory integration. Text version available at http://www.epa.gov/p2/docs/p2case.txt.
Source: US EPA
Small Business Assistance?Permit Primer (Wisconsin)
Abstract: The Permit Primer is an interactive web page that helps Wisconsin businesses determine which environmental permits and licenses they need. It also links users to pollution prevention tips, contacts, statutes and more. Includes sections on water supply, storm water, solid waste, hazardous waste, waterway and wetland permits, and air.
Source: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
State Regulatory Innovations Laws?Comparison [PDF]
Abstract: Comparison of state laws that authorize regulatory innovation pilot projects. Brief overview & description of each law, requirements for environmental performance, stakeholder process, waiver authority & termination process.
Source: Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
Summary: Ohio EPA P2 Integration Activities (thru July 1999) [PDF]
Abstract: Annotated list of Ohio EPA P2 integration accomplishments and activities until July 1999. Serves as a baseline for measurement of P2 integration progress at Ohio EPA.
Source: Ohio EPA, Office of Pollution Prevention
Toxic Use Reduction Institute (TURI): Government Programs
Abstract: Policy research assesses, develops, and evaluates specific initiatives that public agencies can implement to reduce the use of toxic chemicals and the generation of toxic byproducts by industry and communities. The Institute also has worked with environmental agencies to help them more fully integrate pollution prevention into their public administration activities and operations.
Source: Toxic Use Reduction Institute (TURI)
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Cooperative Environmental Assistance (CEA)
Abstract: The CEA Bureau coordinates and integrates P2, waste reduction, and other voluntary approaches to environmental protection within WI DNR, and investigates and supports innovative, non-regulatory incentives to promote environmental protection.
Source: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Wisconsin Green Tier Program
Abstract: Building on the successes of the Environmental Cooperation Pilot Program, Green Tier creates co-benefits for businesses aspiring to differentiate themselves by systematically delivering superior environmental performance. Green Tier is based on a collaborative system of contracts and charters crafted jointly by participating businesses and the DNR. These contracts and charters streamline environmental requirements in many cases and encourage new environmental technologies.
Source: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources | <urn:uuid:cdfc0092-9385-4a5f-9e4b-531e4581c643> | {
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Encyclopedia Vol. 2
Appendix Part 1
FOSSILS AND STRATA
The only past evidence available to us of the evolution from one
species through transitional species to others is the fossil record in the sedimentary
*McLoughlin assures us that the proof of evolution is available, and
that it is to be found in the evidence in the rocks.
[After considering Archbishop Ussher's famous chronology as being a search for the
limits of time on our planet:] "Today we continue Archbishop Ussher's search, but we
now use a far more accurate source of information than his Bible. From the beginning of
its history, the earth has maintained a detailed geological journal . . " *J.
C. McLoughlin, Archosauria (1979), p. 1.
The case for evolution rests in the rocks.
"If evolution has taken place, there [on the rocks] will its mark be left: if
it has not taken place, there will be its refutation." H. Enoch, quoting
T.H. Huxley in Evolution or Creation, (1966), p. 51.
*Pierre Grass agrees.
"Naturalists must remember that the process of evolution is revealed only
through fossil forms. A knowledge of paleontology is, therefore a prerequisite; only
paleontology can provide the evidence of evolution and reveal its course or
mechanism." *Pierre Paul Grasse, Evolution of Living Organisms (1977), p. 4.
The evidence for the theory that counts will be evidence shown in the
"The really crucial evidence for evolution must be provided by the paleontologist
whose business it is to study the evidence of the fossil record." *W.E. Le
Gros Clark (1955), p. 7.
It can provide us with the only evidence available.
"Evolution, if it has occurred, can in a rather loose sense be called a historical
process; and therefore, to show that it has occurred, historical evidence is required . .
The only evidence available is that provided by the fossils." *W.R.
Thompson, Introduction to *Charles Darwin, Origin of the Species (1956 ed.).
But the truth is that the geological evidence is of little help to the evolutionary
"Geology, however, has been notably unforthcoming, and instead of
being the chief support of Darwin's theory, it is one of its moat serious
weaknesses." *Gertrude Himmelfarb, Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution
(1962), p. 330.
Facts supporting evolution are not to be found in the fossils, so faith
alone must suffice.
"The more one studies paleontology, the more certain one becomes that evolution
based on faith alone, exactly the same sort of faith which it is necessary to have when
one encounters the great mysteries of religion." *Louis Trenchard More, The
Dogma of Evolution (1925). [Dean of Graduate School of University of Cincinnati, and a
*Darwin's champion and "bulldog" admitted the total absence
of evidence from the strata for evolutionary theory.
"To say, therefore, in the admitted absence of evidence [for evolution], that I
have any belief as to the mode in which the existing forms of life have originated would
be using words in a wrong sense. . I have no right to call my opinion anything but an act
of philosophical faith." *Thomas Henry Huxley, Discourses Biological and
Geological (1896 ad.), pp. 256-257.
*Allen deplores the sorry state of historical geology, which encompasses both paleontology
(fossil study) and stratigraphy (strata study), which is supposed to
provide us with evidence from the past for the evolution of plants, animals, and man.
"Because of the sterility of its concepts, historical geology, which includes
paleontology and stratigraphy, has become static and unproductive. Current methods . . of
establishing chronology are of dubious validity. Worse than that, the criteria of
correlationthe attempt to equate in time, a synchronize the geological history of
one area with that of anotherare logically vulnerable. The findings of historical
geology are suspect because the principles upon which they are based are either
inadequate, in which case they should be discarded or reformulated. Most of us refuse to
discard or reformulate, and the result is the present deplorable state of our
discipline." *Robin S. Allen, "Geological Correlation anal
Paleoecology," Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, January 1948, p. 2.
A London anatomy professor summarizes it in this manner:
"Paleontology, or the study of fossils, provides the really crucial evidence
concerning the evolution of the Hominidae in the past. However extensive and compelling it
may be, the evidence for evolution based on the study of red living today can be only
indirect. . Direct evidence of evolution must depend on actual demonstration from the
fossil record of a succession of stages representing the transformation of ark ancestral
into a descendant type. . That evolution did occur can be scientifically established only
by fossilized representative samples of those intermediate types that have been postulated
on the basis of indirect evidence." *Michael Day, article, "Man,"
in Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. 11 (19n ed.), p. 420.
2. THE FOSSIL HUNTERS
Millions of fossil specimens have boon located, preserved, shipped to universities and
museums for study and categorization and then stored. How do men obtain and process
1 - Selecting the area to search. Fossil
seekerswhether they be amateur rock hounds, pebble puppies, or professional
paleontologists; first go to locations where larger quantities of fossils have been
discovered. For example, If one wants to find dinosaurs he will probably go to Colorado,
Wyoming, or Alberta, Canada. The best collecting areas are those places where wind, water,
or highway excavation has cut deep into the rocks and exposed large areas. In such paces,
one does not have to dig as far to find fossils.
2 - Beginning the search. .
Plants or invertebrate
(backboneless) animals will be found inside rocks, so the fossil
hunter split rocks open to locate them. To find the larger animals,
a search is made for fragments of bone which might be sticking out of
the ground. Then other bones must be found that match it The searcher
begins with larger tools, but switches to smaller ones when he comes
to the bones. Final cleaning of skeletons is done with small awls
and paintbrushes, 3. Protecting the finds In the field. As each bone
is uncovered, it is given a protective coating of shellac or a
quick-drying plastic. Then it is covered with strips of wet paper,
over which are wrapped strips of burlap dipped in plaster of Paris.
This forms a protective "jacket" Larger bones may be
strengthened by placing sticks inside the jacket. When the plaster has
hardened, the specimen is rolled over and a jacket is placed on the
3 - Protecting the finds in the field. As .
As each bone is uncovered, it is
given a protective coating of shellac or a quick-drying plastic. Then it is covered with
strips of wet paper, over which are wrapped strips of burlap dipped in plaster of saris.
This forms a protective "jacket." Larger bones may be strengthened by placing
sticks inside the jacket. When the plaster has hardened, the specimen is rolled over and a
jacket is places do the other side.
4 - Final work back in the museum. 4 - Final work back in the museum. Final work back in the museum.
Final work back in the museum. Upon arriving at the museum, it is then
fully uncovered, given a better cleaning, and plaster is added to fill out broken or
missing parts. The piece is then classified and either added to the already, huge fossil
stockpiles, or, if it is a particularly good specimen, it may be put on display.
Specimens for display are mounted. For a shelf mount, specimens are merely
cleaned and set on a shelf for people to look at. For a bas-relief mount, technicians
clean off the best side of the skeleton, strengthen the other side with plaster, and then
fasten the slab to the wall. For a free mount, each bone is removed from the rock,
cleaned, and strengthened. Then a small model is made to indicate the position of all the
bones in the finished mount. A steel framework is welded together, and the bones are
fastened to the outside of the framework, hiding the steel. Once completed, the skeleton
appears to stand by itself.
5 - Has it been worth it?
When you stop to think about it, millions of
man-hours and entire lives have been devoted to the urgent task of finding transitional
species. But it has been a total failure; all the paleontologists have found have been
distinct species. In addition, there is nothing inherent in the fossils or the strata by
which to date any of the rocks or their contents.
3. THE EXPERTS SPEAK
The scientists themselves recognize that the flaws !n the fossil evidence are simply
too great. The rocks and their fossils simply do not support evolutionary theory:
*Charles Darwin recognized in his time that the fossil evidence was lacking for the
origin of species and their transition from one species to another. But he said that later
fossil discoveries would vindicate his position. Yet a century of fossil exploration has
failed to do that.
"Darwin set aside most of the fossil evidence for evolution with the proposal
that it was massively incomplete. But there were polemic rather than scientific reasons
for this attitude because he insisted on gradualistic evolution which most fossils did not
substantiate. But the fossil record can no longer be set aside as woefully incomplete.
More than 100 years of study demand instead that the gradualistic concept be
reassessed." *J.B. Waterhouse, "The Role of Fossil Communities in the
Biostratigraphical Record and in Evolution," in *J. Gray and *A.J.
"Historical Biogeography, Plate Tectonics, and the Changing Environment" (1979),
in Proceedings of the 37th Annual Biology Colloquium (1979), P. 249-250.
So little paleontolgical evidence is available, that Darwinism has to be read into the
rocks,, not out of them!
"The record of the rocks is decidedly against evolutionists." *Sir
William Dawson, Geologist.
The fossilized record book declares that evolution is based on faith alone.
The more one studies paleontology, the more certain one becomes that
evolution is based on faith alone; exactly the same sort of faith which it is necessary to
have when one encounters the great mysteries of religion. The changes that are noted as
time progresses show no orderly and no consecutive evolutionary chain, and above all, they
give us no clue whatever as to the cause of variations. Evolutionists would have us
believe that they have photographed a succession of fauna and flora, and have arranged
them on a vast moving picture 51m. The evidence from paleontology is for discontinuity
[separate species]; only by faith and imagination is there continuity [evolution] of
variation." *Louis T. More, The Dogma of Evolution, also presented in a
series of lectures delivered at Princeton University.
The fossil evidence provides no particular evidence in support of
"The fossil record doesn't even provide any evidence in support of Darwinian
theory except in the weak sense that the fossil record is compatible with it; just as it
is compatible with other evolutionary theories, and revolutionary theories, and special
creationist theories and even ahistorical [nonhistorical] theories. " *David
B. Kitts, "Search for the Holy Transformation," Paleobiology, Vol. 5, Summer
1979, p. 353.
"No real evolutionist, whether gradualist or punctuationist, uses the fossil
record as evidence in favor of the theory of evolution over special creation."
*Mark Ridley, "Who Doubts Evolution?" New Scientist, Vol. 90, June 25,
1981, p. 831.
"But the facts of paleontology conform equally well with other
interpretations. . e.g., divine creation, etc., and paleontology by itself can neither
prove nor refute such ideas." *Dwight Davis, "Comparative Anatomy and
the Evolution of Vertebrates." in *Jepsen, *Mayr and *Simpson (sort. hors), Genetics,
Paleontology and Evolution (1949), p. 74.
"The fossil evidence could be consistent with the idea of a Great
Designer." *Carl Sagan, Cosmos (1980). P. 29.
Adherence to Darwin's theory has locked paleontologists into a position
which their research does not vindicate:
"Contrary to popular myths, Darwin and Lyell were not the heroes of true science .
. Paleontologists have paid an exorbitant price for Darwin's argument. We fancy ourselves
as the only true students of life's history, yet to preserve our favored account of
evolution by natural selection we view our data as so bad that we never see the very
process we profess to study." *Stephen Jay Gould, "Evolution's Erratic
Pace," Natural History, Vol. 88, May 1977, p. 12, 14. [Gould is a professor at
Harvard University teaching geology, biology, and the history of science.]
The fossil hunters have little hope that their profession will accomplish its task
within the foreseeable future.
"Likewise, paleontologists do their best to make sense out of the fossil record
and sketch in evolutionary sequences or unfossilized morphologies without realistic hope
of obtaining specific verification within the foreseeable future." *Donald
R. Griffin, "A Possible Window on the Minds of Animals," American Scientist,
Vol. 84, September-October 1978, p. 534.
The geologic column theory of evolution is supposed to show gradual
evolutionary progression of life forms, but it fails to do just that:
five-kingdom system may appear, at first glance, to record
an inevitable progress in the history of life that I have often opposed in these columns.
Increasing diversity and multiple transitions seem to reflect a determined and inexorable
progression toward higher things. But the paleontolgical record supports no such
interpretation. There has been no steady progress in the higher development of organic
design." *Stephen J. Gould, Natural History, 85(8):37 (1978).
Not only Christians, but scientistsand even
paleontologistsare coming to the conclusion that Darwin's theory is incorrect.
"Evolution . . is not only under attack by fundamentalist Christians, but is
also being questioned by reputable scientists. Among Paleontologist, scientists who study
the fossil record, there is growing dissent from the prevailing view of Darwinism."
*James Gorman, "The Tortoise or the Hare?" Discover, October 1980, p.
The facts written in the rocks are totally separate from the theories taught by
"So the geological time scale and the basic facts of biological change over
time are totally independent of evolutionary theory.
"In the years after Darwin, his advocates hoped to find
predictable progressions. In general, these have not been foundyet the optimism has
died hard, and some pure fantasy has crept into textbooks." *David M.
"Evolution and Me Fossil Record " in Science, July 17, 1981, p. 289.
Evolutionary theory is a false science, founded on assumptions based on assumptions.
"Through use or abuse of hidden postulates, of bolo, often ill-founded
extrapolations, a pseudoscience has been seated. It is taking root in the very heart of
biology and is leading astray many biochemists and biologists, who sincerely believe that
the accuracy of fundamental concepts has been demonstrated, which is not the case." *P.
Grasse, in The Evolution of Living Organisms (1977), p. 8.
The transitional forms are just not there.
"The extreme rarity of transitional forms in the fossil record persists as the
trade secret of paleontology. The evolutionary trees that adorn our textbooks have data
only at the tips and nodes of their branches; the rest is inference, however reasonable,
not the evidence of fossils." Op. cit., p. 14.
Only the fossil record can provide past evidence of evolution, and this
it does not do.
"Although the fossil record forms our only direct evidence of the course of
evolutionary. . history, it is notoriously incomplete." *J. W. Valentine,
"Phanerozoic Taxonomic Diversity: a Test of Alternate Models, " in Science,
If evolutionary theory had been correct, vast numbers of transitional
species ought to have been found.
"Even if a number of species were known to biology which were indeed perfectly
intermediate, possessing organ systems that were unarguably transitional in the sense
required by the evolutionary model of nature, to refute typology and securely validate
evolutionary claims would necessitate hundreds of thousands or even thousands [of
thousands] of different species, all unambiguously intermediate in terms of their overall
biology and the physiology and anatomy of all their organ systems." *Michael
Denton, in Evolution: A Theory in Crisis (1985), p. 117.
*Hoffman tells us that all the arguments among the fossil hunters may
have helped them understand what they are trying to accomplish, but it has not helped them
accomplish it. The task before them has been to provide evidence of evolution.
"All the recent paleobiological debates have, in my opinion, contributed much
to the conceptualization of paleobiological research itself, but nothing to evolutionary
biology. This is not to say that paleobiologists cannot contribute to evolutionary
biology. I contend only that they have not done so." *A. Hoffman,
"Paleobiology at the Crossroads: a Critique of some Modern Paleobiological Research
Programs," in Dimensions of Darwinism (1983), p. 241.
A leading expert on fossils suggests not only that transitional fossil
species are not existent, but that the theory being pursued is a will-of-the-wisp that is
little more than a scholastic myth:
"I conclude that instances of fossils overturning theories of relationship
based on Recent organisms are very rare, and may be nonexistent. It follows that the
widespread belief that fossils are the only or best means of determining evolutionary
relationships is a myth. Tracing how this myth came to be an article of faith among
biologists [an 'Idol of the Academy'] should be an interesting study in the sociology of
science; it seems to have followed, as an unquestioned corollary, from acceptance of
evolution." *Colin Patterson, "Significance of Fossils in Determining
Evolutionary Relationships," in Annual Review Ecology and Systematics (1981), p. 218.
The evidence is lacking for the theory that living forms all descended
from a common ancestor.
"The attempt to explain all living forms in terms of an evolution from a
unique source, though a brave and valid attempt, is one that is premature and not
satisfactorily supposed by present-day evidence." *G. Kerkut, in
Implications of Evolution (1977), p. 6.
Pitman provides us with an excellent summary of the problem:
"Cambrian rocks exhibit an explosion of life, so termed. All kingdoms and
subkingdoms are represented in the geologic record from here onward. So are all classes
except vertebrates, insects, moss corals, and the extinct trilobites and graptolites.
Divisions of the plant kingdom, except algae and fungi, appear later. No new phylum (a
division) has arisen for 350 million years, and there is a complete absence of
transitional series between any two phyla. In excess of 5,000 species adorn the Cambrian
layers." *Michael Pitman, Adam and Evolution (1984), p. 190.
Here is a companion statement:
"Evolution has to explain not only persistent species but persistent kinds. As
regards classification, all kingdoms and subkingdoms are represented from the Cambrian
onward. All classes of the animal kingdom are represented from the Cambrian onward except
insects (Devonian onward) and (perhaps) vertebrates and moss-corals from the Ordovician
[onward]. All phyla in the plant kingdom are represented from the Triassic onward except
bacteria, algae, (algae, with bacteria and fungi, occur from the pre-Cambrian onward);
mosses and horsetails (Silurian onward); diatoms (Jurassic onward) and flowering plants
(Cretaceous onward). As we noted earlier, orders and families (as well as kingdoms, phyla
and classes) appear suddenly in the fossil record, with no indication of transitional
forms from earlier types. The is the case even for most genera and species. Index-fossil
sequences such as micraster, ammonites and trilobites indicate only variation
('microevolution')." *Op. cit., p. 236.
The study of fossils reveals "vast stretches of little or no
change and one evolutionary burst that created the entire system."
"Increasing diversity and multiple transitions seem to reflect a determined
and inexorable progression toward higher things. But the paleontological record supports
no such interpretation. There has been no steady progress in the higher development of
organic design. We have had, instead, vast stretches of little or no change and one
evolutionary burst that created the entire system." *Stephen Jay Gould,
"The Five Kingdoms, "in Natural History, June-July 1976, p. 37.
When new species did appear, they appeared suddenly, and with no links
to previous species.
"New species almost always appeared suddenly in the fossil record with no
intermediate links to ancestors in older rocks of the same region." *S.J.
Gould, "Evolution's Erratic Pace," in Natural History, May 1977, p. 12.
Evolutionary theory is based on group preferences, rather than on any scientific data:
"I know that at least in paleoanthropology, data are still so sparse that
theories heavily influence interpretations. Theories have, in the past, clearly reflected
our current ideologies instead of actual data." *David Pilbeam,
"Rearranging our Family Tree," in Human Nature June:45 (1978). [Yale
Fossil experts well know that the evidence in the sedimentary rocks provides no defense
against the Creationist view that God created the world:
"No real evolutionist, whether gradualist or punctuationist, uses the fossil
record as evidence in favor of the theory of evolution as opposed to special
creation." *Mark Ridley, "Who Doubts Evolution?" in New Scientist,
90:830-831(1981). (Oxford University zoologist.)
UNIFORMITARIANISM VS. CATASTROPHISM
The theory of uniformitarianism teaches that "all things continue as they were
from the beginning" (2 Peter 3:4; read 2 Peter 3:3-7). This theory declares that all
past history has been just like our own time in regard to flooding, atmospheric
conditions, and orogenic (mountain building) activity. In contrast, Creationists hold to
the position that a massive cataclysm of immense proportions occurred only a few thousand
years ago. That crisis was the Genesis Flood, recorded in Genesis 8 to 9.
* Lyell was the first to widely champion the theory of
"Opposed to the line of thinking was Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875), a
contemporary of Cuvier, who held that earth changes were gradual, taking place at the same
uniform slowness that they are today. Lyell is thus credited with the propagation of the
premise that more or less has guided geological thought ever since, namely, that the
present is the key to the past. In essence, Lyell's doctrine of uniformitarianism stated
that past geological progress operated in the same manner and at the same rate it does
today." *J. H. Zumberge, Elements of Geology, 2nd. Edition, (1963), p. 200.
The uniformitarian theory provides a neatly-wrapped package, inside of which is the
evolutionary geologic theory:
"This is the great underlying principle of modern geology and is known as the
principle of uniformitarianism . . Without the principle of uniformitarianism there could
hardly be a science of geology that was more than pure description." *William
Thornbury, Principles of Geomorphology (1954), pp. 16-17.
"Uniformitarian thinking compels us to recognize, in the record of the rocks,
the slow unfolding of diverse sequence of events whose full display is beyond our
comprehension." *W. Dickinson, "Uniformitarianism and Plate
Tectonics," in Science 174:107.
(We should here mention that there is a type of uniform pattern in
nature with which we can well agree: the unalterable laws governing the natural world.)
"Uniformitarianism is a dual concept. Substantive uniformitarianism (a
testable theory of geologic change postulating uniformity of rates of material conditions)
is false and stifling to hypothesis formation. Methodological uniformitarianism (a
procedural principle asserting spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws) belongs to
the definition of science and is not unique to geology." *Stephen Jay Gould,
"Is Uniformitarianism Necessary?" American Journal of Science, Vol. 263, March
1985, p. 223. (Harvard University.)
"Substantive uniformitarianism as a descriptive theory has not withstood the
test of new data and can no longer be maintained in any strict manner."
J. Gould, "Is Uniformitarianism Necessary?" in Journal of Paleontology, March,
1956, p. 227.
It has been admitted that one reason uniformitarianism was adopted was
as an attempt to explain geological evidence for the Genesis Flood in a totally different
"Frequently the doctrine of uniformitarianism is used fruitfully to explain
the anti-catastrophist viewpoint of history." *James W. Valentine, "The
Present is the Key to the Present," Journal of Geological Education, Vol. XIV, April
1986, p. 60.
"It is both easy and tempting.. to adopt a neocatastrophist attitude to the
fossil record . . This is a heady wine and has intoxicated paleontologists since the day
when they could blame it all on Noah's flood." *Derek V. Alter, The Nature
of the Stratigraphical record, p. 19.)Department of Geology and Oceanography, University
Cc" of Swansea, England.]
"Catastrophism is a fighting word among Geologists. It is a theory based on
divine intervention, and its adherents held that the history of the earth and life on it
were moved by a series of disasters inspired by God." *Newsweek, December
But there are other scientists who object, declaring that the
uniformitarian theory is totally inaccurate, when viewed in accordance with the facts:
"There are many other reasons why we should not blandly accept the doctrine of
uniformitarianism." *E. Haylmun, "Should We Teach
Uniformitarianism?" in Journal of Geological Education, 19 (1971) p. 36.
*Dunbar was perhaps the leading geologic authority of the 1950s. Here
is his statement:
"The uprooting of such fantastic beliefs [of the catastrophist] began with the
Scottish geologist, James Hutton, whose Theory of the Earth, published in 1785, maintained
that the present is the key to the past and that, given sufficient time, processes now at
work could account for all the geologic features of the globe. This philosophy, which came
to be known as the doctrine of uniformitarianism, demands an immensity of time; it has not
gained universal acceptance among intelligent and informed people." *C.O.
Dunbar, Historical Geology, 2nd Edition, (1960), p. 18.
There are simply too many flaws in the uniformitarian theory.
"The hurricane, the flood, or the tsunami may do more in an hour or a day than
the ordinary processes of nature have achieved in a thousand years." *Derek
V. Ager, The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record, p. 49.
In fact, there are serious-minded scientists today who believe that
catastrophic conditions have indeed occurred in the past.
Of late there has been a serious rejuvenation of catastrophism in geologic
thought. This defies logic; there is no science of singularities. If catastrophe is not a
uniform process, there is no rational basis for understanding the past. For those who
would return us to our Babylonian heritage of 'science' by revelation and possibility, we
must insist that the only justifiable key to the past is probability and the orderliness
of natural process; if uniformity is not the key, there is no key in the rational sense,
and we should pack up our boots and go home." *B. W. Brown, "Induction,
Deduction, and Irrationality in Geologic Reasoning, Geology, Vol. 2, September 1974, p.
There are scientists who are anxious to get rid of the uniformitarian
concept, declaring it to be foolishness:
Accepting the principle of the rare event as a valid concept made it even
more desirable to retire the term 'uniformitarianism. ' " *P.
"Significance of the Rare Event in Geology, " in Bulletin of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, 51 (1967) p. 2205.
"Substantive uniformitarianism as a descriptive theory has not withstood the
test of new data and can no longer be maintained in any strict manner." *S.
Gould, "Is Uniformitarianism Useful, "in Journal of Geological Education, 15
(1967) p. 150.
"Conventional uniformitarianism, or 'gradualism,' i.e., the doctrine of
unchanging change, is verily contradicted by all post-Cambrian sedimentary data and the
geotectonic histories of which these sediments are the record." *P.
"Uniformitarianism is a dangerous Doctrine, " in Paleontology, 30 (1956) p.
"The present is the key to the past" is the definition of
"The present is the key to the past . . No causes whatever have from the
earliest time . . to the present, ever acted, but those now acting: and they have never
acted with different degrees of energy from that which they now exert." *R.
Moors, The Earth We Live On (1911), pp. 145-146.
Even this standard definition of uniformitarianism is ridiculed by
It seems unfortunate that uniformitarianism, a doctrine which has so
important a place in history of geology, should continue to be misrepresented in
introductory texts and courses by 'the present is the key to the past,' a maxim without
much credit." *J. Valentine, "The Present is the Key to the Present,
" in Journal of Geological Education, 14 (1966) p. 59-60.
"The present does not provide a complete key to the past, for we cannot find
good samples today of all phenomena found in the ancient world." *Robert H.
Dots and "Roger L. Batten, Evolution of the Earth (1971), p. 210.
There are scientists who recognize that the uniformitarianism view is
too simplistic. For, indeed, how dare anyone try to specify what the world has been like
through all past time?
From a purely scientific point of view, it is unwise to accept
uniformitarianism as unalterable dogma.. (One) should never close his mind to the
possibility that conditions in past geological time were different than today."
H. Zumberge, Elements of Geology (1963), p. 201.
"In dealing with rocks formed when the world was less than half of its present
age, a strict adherence to the doctrine of uniformitarianism is considered
unjustified." *A. Y. Glikson, Early Precambrian Tonalite, in Earth Science
There is no scientific law which requires that uniformitarianism be
Actually, the assumption that process rates must be uniform is without
scientific backing. There is no scientific law which requires a natural event always to
proceed at a constant rate. A scientific law only describes an event under a fixed set of
conditions and as conditions vary, so does the rate. Conditions, not scientific law,
determine the rate of process." S. Nevins, "A Scriptural Groundwork for
Historical Geology, " Symposium on Creation II (1970), p. 88.
"Factors may exist which scientists have not yet discovered. To insist that
present rates or material conditions are average for all geological time rests entirely
upon uniformitarian assumption." Ibid.
Uniformitarianism is unproved, unprovable, and contrary to the evidence
"The very foundation of our science is only an inference: for the whole of it
rests on the unprovable assumption that all through the inferred lapse of time which the
inferred performance of inferred geological processes involves, they have been going on in
a manner consistent with the laws of nature as we now know them. We seldom realize the
magnitude of that assumption." *W. Davis, The Value of Outrageous Geological
Hypothesis, " Science 83; May 7, 1926; pp. 485-468.
There is simply too much data coming to light, for uniformitarianism to
[Noting the subtropical conditions earlier existing in North America, Europe,
Siberia, and Australia:] "If so, the present is not a very good key to the past in
terms of climate." *Robert H. Dolt and *Roger L Batten, Evolution of the
Earth (1971), p. 298.
There is evidence of massive geological catastrophes at some time in
"The diatomite fossil beds in Santa Barbara County, California, contain
striking evidence of a sudden catastrophe. Fish fossils are heavily matted together in
foot-thick layers so well preserved they retain a fish odor when a fragment is broken.
"There are many indications that the fish were suddenly trapped. The fossils show
wide open gasping mouths, fins widely spread, back fiercely arched, body twisted, and head
back. Many fossil fish are partly on end through bedding planes of the rock."
A. von Fange, "Time Upside Down," in Creation Research Society Quarterly, June
1974, p. 22 also see CRSQ, 6(3):129-135).
"Over an area of more than 10,000 sq. miles fish remains are found bearing
unequivocally marks of violent death. The figures are contorted, contracted, curved; the
tail in many cases is bent around to the head, the spines stick out, the fins are spread
to the full." *H. Miller, Old Red Sandstones, pp. 221.
Consider this violation of uniformitarian theory:
"The recent report of the discovery of a fossil skeleton of a baleen whale in
a diatomaceous earth quarry in Lompoc, California, should be of unusual interest to
" 'The whale is standing on end in the quarry and is being exposed gradually as
the diatomite is mined. Only the head and a small part of the body are visible as yet. The
modern baleen whale is 80 to 90 feet long and has a head of similar size [to the one just
discovered], indicating that the fossil may be close to 80 feet long.'
"No comment was made concerning the implications of such a unique discovery.
However, the fact that the whale is 'standing on end,' as well as the fact that it is
buried in diatomaceous earth, would strongly suggest that it was buried under very unusual
and rapid catastrophic conditions. The vertical orientation of the whale is also very
similar to observations of vertical tree trunks extending through several successive coal
seams. Such phenomena cannot easily be explained by uniformitarian theories, but fit
readily into a historical framework based upon the recent and dynamic universal flood
described in Genesis." Larry S. Helmick, "Whale Skeleton Found in
Diatomaceous Earth Quarry," in Creation Research Society Quarterly, June 1977, p. 70.
In graphic terms (and one long sentence!), a scientist lists a
number of examples of catastrophes that can suddenly and unexpectedly occur:
"Hurricanes of global magnitude, of forests burning and swept away, of dust,
stones, fire, and ashes falling from the sky, of mountains melting like wax, of lava
flowing from riven ground, of boiling sea, of bituminous rain, of shaking ground and
destroyed cities, of humans seeking refuge in caverns and fissures of the rock in the
mountains, of oceans upheaved and falling on the land, of tidal waves moving toward the
poles and back, of land becoming sea by submerging and the expanse of sea fuming into
desert, islands born and others drowned, mountain ridges leveled and others rising, of
crowds of rivers seeking new beds, of sources that disappeared and others that became
bitter, of great destructions in the animal kingdom, of decimated mankind, of migrations,
of heavy clouds of dust covering the face of the earth for decades, of magnetic
disturbances, of changed climates, of displaced cardinal points and altered latitudes, of
disrupted calendars and of sundials and water clocks that point to changed length of day,
month, and year, mountains springing from plains and other mountains leveled, strata
folded and pressed together and overturned and moved and put on top of other formations,
melted rock flooding enormous areas of land with miles-thick sheets, ocean and lake shores
tilted or raised or lowered as much as a thousand feet, whales cast out of oceans onto
mountains." *Immanuel Velikovsky, Earth in Upheaval (1955).
So-called "index fossils" are the key to all geologic
stratigraphic dating. Yet, as we have observed earlier in this chapter, they constitute a
woefully inadequate means of dating rocks. There simply is no reliable method of dating an
"index fossil," yet that is a fact which most geologists and paleontologists
refuse to consider. Here are admissions by experts that it is index fossils, and the
theory behind them, which are the basis of fossil and strata dating:
The fossils are dated by the fossils:
"In each sedimentary stratum certain fossils seem to be characteristically
abundant: these fossils are known as index fossils. If in a strange formation an
index fossil is found, it is easy to date that particular layer of rock and to correlate
it with other exposures in distant regions containing the same species." *J.E.
Ransom, Fossils in America (1984), p. 43.
The formations are dated by the fossils:
"The primary divisions of the geological time scale are, as we have just seen,
based on changes in life, with the result that fossils alone determine whether a formation
belongs to one or the other of these great divisions." *Amadeus William
Gragau, Principles of Stratigraphy 2nd ed. (1924), p. 1103.
Geologic events are dated by the fossils:
"The only chronometric scale applicable. . for dating geologic events exactly is
furnished by the fossils." *O.H.
Schindewolf, "Comments on some
Stratigraphic Terms," in American Journal of Science, June 1957, p. 394.
All sedimentary rocks are dated by the fossils:
"These systems, although actually arbitrary groupings of the stratified rocks of
particular regions, have come into common use as the primary divisions for the rocks
whenever chronological sequence is considered. In describing any newly discovered
fossiliferous strata in any part of the earth, the first step to be taken in giving them a
scientific definition is to assign them to one or other of the systems upon evidence of
the fossils found in them. The character of the rocks themselves, their composition or
their mineral content, have nothing to do with settling the question as to the particular
system to which the new rocks belong. The fossils alone are the means of
correlation." *Henry S. Williams, Geological Biology (1895), pp. 37-38.
The rocks are correlated by the fossils:
"No paleontologist worthy of the name would ever date his fossils by the strata in
which they are found . . Ever since William Smith at the beginning of the 19th century,
fossils have been and still are the best and most accurate method of dating and
correlating the rocks in which they occur." *Derek Ager, "Fossil
Frustrations," New Scientist, November 10, 1983, p. 425.
Only the fossils are considered:
"The character of the rocks themselves, their composition, or their mineral
contents have nothing to do with settling the question as to the particular system [age
level] to which the new rocks belong. The fossils alone are the means of
correlation." *Henry Shaler Williams, Geological Biology (1895), p. 38.
6. CIRCULAR REASONING
"Circular reasoning" is a method of false logic, by which "this is used
to prove that, and that is used to prove this. " It is also called "reasoning in
a circle." Over a hundred years ago it was described by the phrase, circulus in
probando, which is Latin for "a circle in a proof. "
There are several types of circular reasoning found in support of
evolutionary theory. One of these is the geological dating position that "fossils are
dated by the type of stratum they are in, while at the same time the stratum is dated by
the fossils found in it." An alternative evolutionary statement is that "the
fossils and rocks are interpreted by the theory of evolution, and the theory is proven by
the interpretation given to the fossils and rocks."
In other chapters, we will find that circular reasoning is also used in regard to other
evolutionary "proofs," such as the origin of life, genetics, and mutations. The
theory of natural selection is almost totally dependent on circular reasoning.
As we will see below, geologists admit that this circular reasoning exists as a
fundamental pillar of geological faith. For example, in a 1979 interview with *Dr. Donald
Fisher, the state paleontologist for New York, Luther Sunderland, asked him: "How
do you date fossils?" His reply: "By the Cambrian rocks in which
they were found." Sunderland then asked him if this was not circular reasoning,
and *Fisher replied, "Of course; how else are you going to do it?"
Science Newsletter, December 1986, p. 6.)
"The rocks do date the fossils, but the fossils date the rocks more accurately.
Stratigraphy cannot avoid this kind of reasoning . . because circularity is inherent in
the derivation of time scales." *J. E. O'Rourke, "Pragmatism Versus
Materialism in Stratigraphy," American Journal of Science, January 1976.
The paleontology director of the Field Museum in Chicago admits the problem exists.
"The charge that the construction of the geologic scale involves circularity
has a certain amount of validity." *David M. Raup, "Geology and
Creationism," Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, March 1983, p. 21.
Ager bemoans the problem:
"It is a problem not easily solved by the classic methods of stratigraphical
paleontology, as obviously we will land ourselves immediately in an impossible circular
argument if we say, firstly that a particular lithology [theory of rock strata] is
synchronous on the evidence of its fossils, and secondly that the fossils are synchronous
on the evidence of the lithology." *Derek V. Ager, The Nature of the
Stratigraphic Record (1973), p. 62.
But the experts have no clear-cut answer for extricating themselves from this dilemma,
which *Kitts says is caused by an acceptance of evolutionary theory:
"But the danger of circularity is still present. For most biologists the strongest
reason for accepting the evolutionary hypothesis is their acceptance of some theory that
entails it. There is another difficulty. The temporal ordering of biological events beyond
the local section may critically involve paleontological correlation, which
necessarily presupposes the nonrepeatability of organic events in geologic history.
There are various justifications for this assumption but for almost all contemporary
paleontologists it rests upon the acceptance of the evolutionary hypothesis."
G. Kitts, "Paleontology and Evolutionary Theory, " in Evolution, September 1974,
No solid replies to the dilemma have been forthcoming:
"The intelligent layman has long suspected circular reasoning in the use of
rocks to date fossils and fossils to date rocks. The geologist has never bothered to think
of a good reply, feeling the explanations are not worth the trouble as long as the work
brings results. This is supposed to be hard-headed pragmatism." *J.E.
O'Rourke, "Pragmatism versus Materialism in Stratigraply, " American Journal of
Science, January 1976, p. 48.
*West explains that the theory is based on the interpretation of
fossils, and the fossil interpretation is based on the theory:
"Contrary to what most scientists write, the fossil record does not support
the Darwinian theory of evolution because it is this theory (there are several) which we
use to interpret the fossil record. By doing so, we are guilty of circular reasoning if we
then say the fossil record supports this theory." *Ronald R. West,
"Paleontology and Uniformitarianism," Compass, May 1968, p. 218.
The theory explains the rock strata and their contents, and they in
turn explain the theory:
Material bodies are finite, and no rock unit is global in extent, yet
stratigraphy aims at a global classification. The particulars have to be stretched into
universals somehow. Here ordinary materialism leaves off building up a system of units
recognized by physical properties, to follow dialectical materialism, which starts with
time units and regards the material bodies as their incomplete representatives. This is
where the suspicion of circular reasoning crept in, because it seemed to the layman that
the time units were abstracted from the geological column, which has teen put together
from rock units." *J.E. O'Rourke, "Pragmatism versus Materialism in
Stratigraphy," American Journal of Science, January 1978, p. 49.
The sequences of which creatures are ancestors and which are
descendants both provesand is proven bythe theorized age and sequence of rock
"The prime difficulty with the use of presumed ancestral-descendant sequences
to express phylogeny is that biostratigraphic data are often used in conjunction with
morphology in the initial evaluation of relationships, which leers to obvious
circularity." *B. Schaeffer, *M.K Hecht and *N. Eldredge, "Phylogeny
and Paleontology," in *Dobzhansky, *Hecht and *Steere (Eds.), Evolutionary Biology,
Vol. 6 (1972), p. 39.
According to *North, first came the theory that the strata had to be in
a certain order, thus deciding the age of the fossils in it. Then came the theory that the
fossils in the rocks decided the age of the strata they were in.
"The paleontological time-scale rests squarely on the law of superposition [which
fossil strata is placed on top of which]. From this unassailable foundation, the
paleontologist became for more than a century the arbiter of all stratigraphic
organization. But for geologists, the law of superposition presupposes the existence of
decipherable geological sections, and every geological section must have a top and a base.
[Every fossil strata must be identifiable, and have a top and a bottom.] The
paleontological succession was pieced together from hundreds of such sections, the tops
and bases of which had been established by geologists on the ground.
"The paleontologists' wheel of authority turned full circle when he put this
process into reverse and used his fossils to determine tops and bottoms for himself. In
the course of time he came to rule upon stratigraphic order, and gaps within it, on a
world-Wide basis." *F.K North, "The Geological Time-Scale," in
Royal Society of Canada Special Publication, 8:5 (1984). (The order of fossils is
determined by the rock strata they are in, and the strata they are in are derided by their
tops and bottomswhich are deduced by the fossils in them.)
The ages are dated by the fossils, which is the basis for evolution,
which is the determinate of the ages:
"The geologic ages are identified and dated by the fossils contained in the
sedimentary rocks. The fossil record also provides the chief evidence for the theory of
evolution, which in turn is the basic philosophy upon which the sequence of geologic tees
has been erected. The evolution-fossil-geologic age system is thus a closed circle which
comprises one interlocking package. Each goes with the other." Henry M.
Morris, The Remarkable Birth of Planet Earth (1972), pp. 7877.
It cannot be denied that it is all one big circle:
"It cannot be denied that, from a strictly philosophical standpoint,
geologists are here arguing in a circle. The succession of organs has been determined by a
study of their remains buried in the rocks, and the relative ages of the rocks are
determined by the remains of organisms that they contain." *R.H.
article "Geology," Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 10, (14th ad.; 1958), p. 168.
Strata dating cannot avoid reasoning in a circle. (Because, at the
heart of it, the dating comes from a theory, instead of facts!)
"The rocks do date the fossils, but the fossils date the rocks more accurately.
Stratigraphy cannot avoid this kind of reasoning, if it insists on using only temporal
concepts, because circularity is inherent in the derivation of time scales." *J
E. O'Rourke, "Pragmatism Versus Materialism in Stratiqraphy, " American Journal
of Science, January 1976, p. 53.
*Azar utters a cry for help.
"Are the authorities maintaining, on the other hand, that evolution is
documented by geology and on the other hand, that geology is documented by evolution?
Isn't this a circular argument?" *Larry Azar, "Biologists, Help!"
BioScience, November 1978, p. 714.
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You've stocked up on the makings of a few great salads: lettuce, peppers, onions, and more. But between shuttling the kids around and running errands, you've pushed the vegetables to the back of your mind -- and to the far corners of the fridge. A week later, you come across your wilted lettuce and moldy tomatoes, and you throw them out.
That's not an uncommon scene. According to a recent study by the University of Arizona, 1.28 pounds of food (a third of which is vegetables) gets tossed out of the average household per day. And a previous government study found that the typical household in the U.S. wastes an average of $300 per year letting 150 pounds of fruits and vegetables spoil.
To avoid such waste -- and to lead a healthier lifestyle -- plan your meals in advance. Spend a few minutes each morning deciding what you'll eat for the rest of the day. And when you shop, think about what you can use for the week. (Don't load up on too much perishable produce if you're planning to dine out or leave town for a few days.)
Some planning and storage tips:
- Don't wash berries when you get them -- they'll spoil quicker. Instead, rinse them just before eating.
- Choose produce with a long shelf life, such as citrus fruits, apples, or bags of lettuce with an expiration date. And use up your less stable fruits and veggies first.
- Store vegetables in the refrigerator crisper drawer; your bag of baby carrots should be tightly sealed and packaged in an extra zipper bag for good measure. Tomatoes should be kept on the counter (not in the refrigerator) | <urn:uuid:ced8c54f-a342-4ddb-813e-509bea5f6869> | {
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From Greenlivingpedia, a wiki on green living, building and energy
Greenhouses are used to protect plants and also to maintain a higher temperature than the surrounding environment.
They do this by trapping heat from the sun and releasing it within the enclosure - this is know as the "greenhouse effect".
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Obviously, some sports are more dangerous than others. For example, contact sports such as football can be expected to result in a higher number of injuries than a noncontact sport such as swimming. However, all types of sports have a potential for injury, whether from the trauma of contact with other players or from overuse or misuse of a body part. Listed below are some sports injuries that are common in the growing child, for which we have provided a brief overview.
Sprains and Strains
Heat-Related Illnesses (Heat Cramps, Heat Exhaustion, Heat Stroke) | <urn:uuid:2b5b8ac2-7117-4a1c-ab5e-b66d122737c8> | {
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Become a fan of h2g2
The Greek alphabet is used throughout Greece and in the Greek part of Cyprus. If you are going to these regions, it is worth learning the alphabet, if only to read the signs over shops.
The letters of the Greek alphabet are also used as handy symbols by mathematicians and scientists. These people pronounce the names of the letters quite differently from Greek people, being loosely based on the pronunciation of classical Greek.
The Greek alphabet was developed in about 1000 BC. It was a modification of Northern Semitic, an alphabet from which Hebrew is also derived. The Semitic languages (which include Hebrew and Arabic) have a lot of consonantal sounds, while vowels are relatively unimportant. As a result, their alphabet had no symbols for vowels. The Greeks changed the alphabet; consonantal signs which represented sounds not present in Greek were re-used for vowel sounds. Greek thus became the first alphabet in the world with signs for both vowels and consonants.
At the start, the direction of writing was from right to left, but the early Greeks adopted an unusual practice of writing every second row in the opposite direction. This was called boustrophedon, literally meaning 'as the ox turns' because it resembled the way an ox ploughs a field. There is a very good example of this in the Greek city of Gortys in Crete, where the laws of the city were carved on a wall in boustrophedon style and are still there for all to see. Around 500 BC, the practice changed to writing from left to right, and this continues to the present day.
The Roman alphabet used for Western European languages, the Cyrillic alphabet used for Eastern European languages and even the Scandinavian Runic alphabet are all directly descended from the Greek alphabet, so it certainly was the parent of all modern European alphabets. The word alphabet itself comes from the names of the first two Greek letters, Alpha and Beta.
There are 24 letters in the alphabet. They can be capitals or lower case. In addition, one of the lower case letters, the sigma, has two different forms.
The table shows the Modern Greek pronunciation. A separate column shows the Ancient Greek pronunciation if it was different. Pay particular attention to B, H, P, X and Y. They look the same as letters in the Roman alphabet we're all familiar with, but in Modern Greek they are pronounced very differently.
|Modern Pronunciation||Ancient Pronunciation|
|Α||α||alpha||alfa||a as in bath|
|Γ||γ||gamma||ghamma||Before A or O, this is a sound that does not occur in English, like a soft g, the voiced version of the kh below. Before E, I or Y it is pronounced y as in yet.||g|
|Δ||δ||delta||dhelta||dh represents the voiced th sound in this and that||d|
|Ε||ε||epsilon||epsilon||e as in pet|
|Η||η||eta||eeta||ee as in feet||ay as in day|
|Θ||θ||theta||theeta||th unvoiced as in thin and thanks|
|Ι||ι||iota||yotta||ee as in feet; like y in yes when before vowel||i as in fit|
|Ξ||ξ||xi||ksee||ks as x in fox, never as x in xylophone|
|Ο||ο||omicron||omicron||o as in got|
|Ρ||ρ||rho||ro||r trilled as in Spanish or Italian|
|Σ||σ or ς||sigma||sighma||s unvoiced as in sauce, not vase. The first lower-case form is for the start or the middle of words, the second for the last letter of words.|
|Υ||υ||upsilon||eepsilon||ee as in feet||slender u as in French tu or German fünf|
|Χ||χ||chi||khee||kh represents ch sound in Scottish word loch|
|Ψ||ψ||psi||psee||ps as in copse. The p is pronounced even at the start of words.|
|Ω||ω||omega||omegha||o as in got||o as in pole|
Combinations of Letters
Some letters are pronounced differently when they appear in combination with other letters.
|ΑΙ||e as in pet|
|ΑΥ||af or av (depending on next letter)|
|ΕΥ||ef or ev (depending on next letter)|
|ΟΥ||oo as in moon|
|ΜΠ||b at start of word, mb in middle of word|
|ΝΤ||d at start of word, nd in middle of word|
|ΓΚ||g as in go at start of word, ng in middle of word|
|ΓΓ||ng as in singer|
An exception to these is that if the first vowel of any of these two-vowel combinations has an accent mark on it, or if the second vowel has two dots over it, the two vowels are treated separately, and not combined as in the table. Thus for example κομπολóι (worry beads) is pronounced 'kombol-oh-ee'.
Greek is a strongly stressed language, even more so than English. The stress is very important, so it is normally marked with an accent over the vowel. Ancient Greek used three different accents, while Modern Greek uses only one.
In Ancient Greek, words starting with a vowel or an r had a special sign called a breathing mark. This looked like an apostrophe and was positioned over the first letter, although printers often put it in front of the first letter. A right-facing mark (like a backwards 9) was called a 'rough breathing mark' and indicated that there was a 'h' sound before the vowel. A left-facing mark (like a 9) was called a 'smooth breathing mark' and indicated that there was no 'h' sound.
In Modern Greek, the 'h' sound is no longer pronounced at the start of any word, but the breathing marks were still used for historical reasons until about 1970, when they were officially dropped from the language.
In Ancient Greek, in some cases when iota appeared after another vowel (a diphthong), it was written using a special little iota under the vowel instead. This was called an iota subscript. These do not occur in Modern Greek. | <urn:uuid:c8db14b0-da04-4e56-87db-7b87ce5683b5> | {
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Back Me Up - Anti Cyberbullying Campaign & Competition
This is Jasper. At 13, he was getting cyberbullied on line – particularly via X-box. After seven months of bullying that included death threats and being beaten at school, the police became involved. He was in a “very dark place".
This is Troy, friend to both Jasper and his bully – he didn’t realise his mate could be so cruel. Troy says he noticed Jasper becoming quiet, depressed and isolated. Once Troy realised what was going on, he was able to be a supportive friend through the low times. They remain the best of mates.
In Australia, at least one in ten students say they’ve experienced cyberbullying.
What is BackMeUp?
The message of the BackMeUp campaign is that young people can take positive and safe action if they witness cyberbullying, and can support those whose rights have been violated. It’s a call to action to the friends, peers and colleagues on the sidelines, because being a witness, and doing nothing, is wrong.
Cyberbullying is bad for your mental and physical health. In an effort to help young people overcome cyberbullying, the Australian Human Rights Commission is helping young people understand the role of bystanders and encouraging them to take (safe) actions to support those who are bullied.
Research shows that peers are present as bystanders in 87% of bullying situations among young people, suggesting that peers have a pivotal role in effecting a bad situation, simply because they are a witness. While most students dislike and disapprove of bullying and would like to see it stop, less than 20% of students intervene to help the person being bullied.
And without becoming a target themselves, bystanders can take a variety of positive actions.
What Can Bystanders Do?
A witness to a bullying situation can ask a teacher or trusted adult for help, let the person doing the bullying know that what they are doing is bullying, refuse to join in, and can comfort the student who has been bullied. When positive bystander action occurs, students report a greater sense of safety at school and fewer social and mental health problems.
Here’s some practical things you can do:
Save It! Take a photo, screenshot, make a diary note. The person being bullied may not know how to or the importance of saving the evidence. You can help them by keeping a record of when and where the cyberbullying is happening, and what happened. If it gets really nasty, you might need to get school, work or the police involved.
Speak Up! Take positive action in ways that make you feel comfortable and safe. If you feel safe, tell the person bullying to stop. The person may be bullying people because no one has ever stood up to them and called them out on what they are doing.
Otherwise tell someone you trust like a teacher or parent about what is happening and get advice about how you can help stop the bullying behaviour.
Be supportive! You could respond by sticking up for the person being bullied in an open way, but if this sounds too challenging or scary, you could also send a private message or text to the person being bullied to show you support them.
Let them know that they are not alone and that they can get help by talking to a supportive teacher, parent or guardian, organisations that have helped many teens deal with online problems.
Report It! Most sites have ways to report bullying. There is information on the BackMeUp site that can help you report cyberbullying directly to the website that you are using.
Check it! The person being bullied might not know about privacy settings. Let them know that they can change these so that their info is only viewed by friends and family. Also let them know they can block a user or even delete a so-called “friend” at any time.
Make a Video and Make a Difference
The Commission is inviting 13 – 17 year olds to make a short two minute video about how they can back-up someone who has been cyberbullied. All details are on the something in common website Entries close on 15 August 2012 and winners are announced on Monday 3 September 2012.
Ten winners will receive a week-long, all-expenses paid trip to Sydney to attend a prestigious film-making workshop at the National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA). There are also weekly winners and prizes!
Entries from the video competition will form part of an ongoing educational strategy that will be used not only by the Commission but stakeholders and partners. Young people teaching young people – we love that!
Who is Supporting BackMeUp?
This is a project from the Australian Human Rights Commission. MTV’s Ruby Rose and former Australia’s Got Talent contestant Cody Bell are ambassadors for the campaign. BackMeUp supporters include Australian Communication and Media Authority, YHA, Kids Helpline, UNICEF, Alannah and Madeline Foundation, headspace, Inspire Foundation, Bullying. No Way!, Scouts Australia, Girl Guides Australia, Foundation for Young Australians, Lawstuff, Facebook Australia and Google.
The message is…backing someone up isn’t easy but there are lots of things that you can do! Dig deeper. Take action. | <urn:uuid:39b97508-9caf-48dd-a4ac-ec319a05077c> | {
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Arthur M. Sackler Museum, 485 Broadway, Cambridge, MA 02138
Jeffrey F. Hamburger, Kuno Francke Professor of German Art and Culture, Department of History of Art and Architecture, Harvard University. Lynette Roth, Daimler-Benz Associate Curator of the Busch Reisinger Museum, Division of Modern and Contemporary Art, Harvard Art Museums
German artists of the 20th century, most famously Brücke expressionists, consciously employed the medium of wood in their practice, playing up its associations with the medieval and “primitive” traditions. In conjunction with a special display focusing on disparate objects made from the same material, Hamburger and Roth will discuss the intersections between medieval and modern art in wood, from a 15th-century Madonna and Child to expressionist printmaking and sculpture.
This series considers objects from more than one point of view. The informal talks, many of them by Harvard Art Museums curators, conservators, and educators and Harvard University faculty members, are designed to stimulate thinking about works of art and to encourage participants to explore their own ways of seeing.
Free with the price of admission.
Gallery talks are informal and include discussion. Limited to 25 participants; please arrive early. | <urn:uuid:715a9d39-432e-451f-b833-31acff1d980d> | {
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By the HELP Committee and Havre Public Schools
Summer can be a risky time for teens. More teens try marijuana for the first time in June and July than any other time of the year, according to a new report from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Each day in June and July, more than 6,300 youths try marijuana for the first time. That's 40 percent more per day than during the rest of the year. The number of new underage drinkers and cigarette smokers also jumps during the summer months.
The increase in new marijuana use is likely due to teens having more unsupervised and unstructured time in the summer. Research shows that unmonitored teens are four times more likely to use marijuana or engage in other risky behaviors.
"Youth marijuana use has declined by 11 percent over the past two years. Despite the good news, the battle of reducing teen drug use is not yet over," said John P. Walters, director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy. "Kids may equate summer with freedom, but for parents, it's when they need to be even more involved in their teens' lives. By keeping teens busy, knowing who they're with and making sure they're supervised, parents can help prevent their teen's summer from going to pot."
And marijuana is more harmful than some parents think. Marijuana can be addictive and lead to a host of health, social and behavioral problems at a crucial time in kids' lives - when their bodies and brains are still developing. Marijuana use damages lungs, impairs learning and decreases motivation. Kids who use marijuana in early adolescence are more likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as delinquency, engaging in sexual activity, driving while high, or riding with someone who is under the influence of drugs or alcohol. They are also more likely to perceive drugs as not harmful and to have more friends who exhibit deviant behavior.
Havre kids are at greatest risk between 11 and 16 years of age.
Each year, Havre Public Schools administers the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance assessment to students at the high school, alternative school and middle school.
Four of the assessment questions address marijuana use. While these questions do not address which season of the year marijuana was used, students are asked "How old were you when you tried marijuana for the first time?" Nearly 16 percent of respondents were 11 or 12 years old when they used marijuana for the first time. Just over 19 percent of respondents were 13 or 14 years old. More than 15 percent were 15 or 16 years old. At 17 years of age, the incidence of first-time marijuana use dropped to 2 percent.
Canterbury Consultive Services of Helena administers the YRBS assessment. In its executive summary, the Canterbury researchers asserted that "frequency of alcohol and drug abuse risk behaviors as reported by Havre Middle School respondents were generally consistent with statewide respondents with little variation over the four-year reporting period." However, the frequency of these same behaviors "as reported by Havre High School respondents were consistently higher than statewide respondents. With the exception of alcohol and cocaine, reported usage apparently increased during the four-year reporting period."
Sadly, these findings show that, in general, Havre kids experiment with some risky behaviors at a younger age and continue these risky behaviors throughout their youth at a higher rate than other Montana children. This should prompt parents to maintain close ties with and supervision of their children throughout adolescence, even though adolescent children desire, seek and need increasing freedom. It can be a tough balancing act for any parent.
So how can you stop your teen's summer from going to pot? Here is a drug-free checklist:
Set rules. Have you set clear rules and let your teen know that marijuana use is unacceptable?
Set limits with clear consequences for breaking them. Be sure to balance this with praise and rewards for good behavior.
Understand and communicate. Have you talked to your teen in the past month about the harmful physical, mental and social effects of marijuana and other illicit drugs on young users?
Young people who learn about the risks of drugs at home are up to 50 percent less likely to try drugs than their peers who learn nothing from their parents. Look for teachable moments in everyday life to keep the conversation ongoing.
Monitor your teen's activities and behaviors. Have you checked to see where your teen is, who he is with, and what he is doing?
Teens who are not regularly monitored by their parents are four times more likely to use drugs. Check up on your teens to make sure they are where they say they are.
Make sure you stay involved in your teen's life Have you talked to your teen's coach, employer and friends lately?
Stay in touch with the adult supervisors of your child (camp counselors, coaches, employers) and have them inform you of any changes in your teen. Parents of teens with summer jobs still need to know how their teens are spending disposable income, what type of workplace setting they are in, and who they are working with.
Engage your teen in summer activities. Have you helped plan activities to keep your teen busy?
Teens who report they are "often bored" are 50 percent more likely to smoke, drink, get drunk and use illegal drugs than teens who aren't. Teens who are involved in constructive and adult-supervised activities are less likely to use drugs.
Other adults who influence teens, such as camp counselors, coaches, physicians and employers, can and do play a vital role in keeping teens drug-free during the summer. These adults are well-positioned to reach teens with marijuana-prevention messages, and, just by being role models or mentors, they help prevent drug use.
Have you planned a family activity with your teen in the coming weeks, such as going to the movies, taking a walk or sharing a meal?
Teens who spend time, talk and have a close relationship with their parents are much less likely to drink, take drugs or have sex. Two-thirds of youth ages 13 to 17 say fear of upsetting their parents or losing the respect of family and friends is one of the main reasons they don't smoke marijuana or use other drugs. This proves that parents are still the most powerful influence on their teen when it comes to drugs.
The HELP Committee and Boys & Girls Club of the Hi-Line is committed to supporting a drug-free lifestyle for everyone in the community. For more information on this or related topics, call 265-6206. | <urn:uuid:e3a00fd7-775b-4d27-9b39-9b45573d52ed> | {
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Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) is a rare, but serious disease caused by a virus that is carried by many species of swamp breeding mosquitoes. EEE virus (EEEV) occurs in the eastern half of the United States where it causes disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. Because of its high mortality rate, EEE is regarded as one of the most serious mosquito-borne diseases in the United States.
The incubation period for Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) disease (the time from infected mosquito bite to onset of illness) ranges from 4 to 10 days. EEEV infection can result in one of two types of illness, systemic or encephalitic (involving swelling of the brain, referred to below as EEE). The type of illness will depend on the age of the person and other host factors. It is possible that some people who become infected with EEEV may be asymptomatic (will not develop any symptoms). Systemic infection has an abrupt onset and is characterized by chills, fever, malaise, arthralgia, and myalgia. The illness lasts 1 to 2 weeks, and recovery is complete when there is no central nervous system involvement. In infants, the encephalitic form is characterized by abrupt onset; in older children and adults, encephalitis is manifested after a few days of systemic illness. Signs and symptoms in encephalitic patients are fever, headache, irritability, restlessness, drowsiness, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, cyanosis, convulsions, and coma. (more)
The best way to prevent EEE is to avoid mosquitoes and prevent mosquitoes from breeding. (more)
Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which may circulate the virus in their blood for a few days. Infected mosquitoes can then transmit EEE to humans and animals when they bite. | <urn:uuid:16ebec01-bd98-437f-9062-d28d8f117101> | {
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Older women who lose weight and gain it back again may be increasing their risk for heart disease, Wake Forest University researchers report.
Although cholesterol, blood pressure, triglycerides and blood sugar all improve with weight loss, with weight regain they all return to pre-diet levels and, in some cases, to even higher levels, the researchers found.
"For postmenopausal women considering weight loss, maintaining weight loss is just as important as losing weight," said lead researcher Daniel Beavers, an assistant professor in the department of biostatistics and public health sciences at Wake Forest University School of Medicine in Winston-Salem, NC. "Even partial weight regain is associated with worsened diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors."
What the study found
In an earlier study of these same women, the researchers found that those who regained weight during the year following weight loss regained fat mass to a greater degree than lean mass, Beavers said.
The report was published in the online edition of the Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences.
For the study, the researchers studied more than 100 postmenopausal obese women while they took part in a five-month weight-loss program. They continued to monitor the women for a year. During the weight-loss program the women lost an average of 25 pounds.
After a year, two-thirds of the women had regained at least four pounds, on average regaining about 70 percent of the weight they had lost, the researchers found.
"Women who regained 4.4 pounds or more in the year following the weight-loss intervention had several worsened cardiovascular and diabetes risk factors," Beavers said.
"What was striking about the women who regained weight was that although they did not return to their full baseline weight on average -- women only regained about 70 percent of lost weight -- several chronic disease risk factors were right back at baseline values and in some cases, particularly for the diabetic risk factors, slightly worse than baseline values," he added. "Meanwhile, women who maintained their weight loss a year later managed to preserve most of the benefits."
Maintaining weight loss is key
Dr. Gregg Fonarow, professor of cardiology at the University of California, Los Angeles, said that "this study highlights the importance of not just losing weight, but the need to develop effective and enduring strategies so that this weight loss can be successfully maintained long term."
Another expert advises taking a lifestyle approach to dieting.
"This small study is a great example of why we need to avoid fad diets and diet programs, potions and pills that promise quick weight loss," said Samantha Heller, an exercise physiologist and clinical nutrition coordinator at the Center for Cancer Care at Griffin Hospital in Derby, Conn.
Most people regain the weight within five years, she said. "This study indicates that regaining as little as five pounds can spell cardiometabolic trouble, especially for postmenopausal women," Heller said.
People should be focusing on being healthy, not skinny, she said, and they should create strategies for reaching and maintaining a healthy weight throughout their lifetime.
"The roller coaster of weight loss and regain is deleterious both physically and psychologically," Heller said.
"While it can be frustrating to take the slower, healthier route to weight loss, the long-term results are ultimately more satisfying and healthier," she said. "Start with simple changes such as swapping seltzer for soda, keeping a daily food record, adding a salad to lunch and substituting a second vegetable for half the starch at dinner."
For more information on healthy diets, visit the U.S. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute.
(Copyright © 2012 HealthDay. All rights reserved.) | <urn:uuid:a223071c-38d5-489e-9e60-9ef1e24dfbbb> | {
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Basketball players, soccer players, and in particular, runners, will often suffer from Tibial Stress Syndrome, commonly referred to as shin splints. The pain of shin splints occurs because the tibia (shinbone) and the connective tissues attached to it become overloaded. This happens when athletes train too hard or for too long, or when they suddenly increase the intensity or duration of exercise. For example, when runners add to their mileage, or alter the terrain or incline of their workout, shin splints are a likely result. Shin splints may be accompanied by swelling and hardening of the soft tissues.
While there are a number of physical therapies and medications one can take to relieve the symptoms of shin splints, one must begin by resting and limiting any stress or load to the shin area.
One possible treatment increasingly used by athletes for shin splints is acupuncture.
This treatment is most effective when the symptoms first occur. Based on the principles of traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture works on the whole body to release a variety of substances including endorphins, serotonin, neuropeptides, and neurotransmitters. Acupuncture can promote healing, reduce pain, increase local microcirculation, and attract white blood cells to the area. This can speed the rate of healing, reduce swelling, and disperse bruising.
In 2002, researchers conducted a random controlled trial to assess the effectiveness of acupuncture in treating shin splints. Forty athletes with shin splints were divided among three treatment groups: standard sports medicine, acupuncture, and a combined group who received both. The patients received at least two treatments per week for three weeks. The acupuncture and combined groups reported significantly lower pain levels during all activities and at rest. For overall effectiveness, acupuncture was rated at 72.5%, the combined therapy at 54.5%, and standard sports medicine at 46.5%. Self-medication with anti-inflammatory drugs was also significantly lower in the acupuncture and combined groups. The study revealed that acupuncture could be an effective modality for relieving pain associated with shin splints and for reducing reliance on anti-inflammatory medication.
For more information on acupuncture, please contact Pacific College of Oriental Medicine at (800) 729-0941, or visit www.PacificCollege.edu | <urn:uuid:9aa641e6-c8a2-404e-9f6a-d95b02000d1e> | {
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Caring for Your Bird
Bird Care Sheet (pdf)
The Right Cage
Ask your veterinarian as different birds need different cages. Here are some must-haves:
- The cage must be big enough for your bird to stretch his/her wings and fly
- The cage must be made from nontoxic (nonpoisonous) material
- The cage base must be so hard that your bird can’t ruin it by chewing
- Make sure the cage can’t be knocked over or fall
- Put the cage in an area like a family room, so your pet can be around everyone - birds are very social
- Avoid drafts and kitchens. Kitchen fumes like burnt Teflon from a cooking pan can kill a bird.
- Use non-colored newspapers with soy ink, paper towels, or brown paper
- Get both fat and thin perches – like manzanita branches. This helps birds exercise their feet and prevents pressure sores.
- Never use sandpaper perches, they will hurt your pet’s feet.
- Large birds like Amazons or African Grey Birds need a freestanding perch outside the cage.
- Must be attached, so they can’t be tipped over
- Birds like mirrors and other toys. Make sure all toys are made from nontoxic material.
- Clean cage of any droppings
- Change water once or more if needed
- Provide fresh fruits and vegetables, and remove food after a couple hours
- If your bird is hand-tamed, take him/her out to play for at least an hour each day
Breakdown and clean cage with mild soap and make sure you rinse off all the soap.
Ask your veterinarian to recommend a disinfectant cleaner that you can use to clean the cage each month.
Birds, like all pets, should see their veterinarian each year.
What to Feed Your Bird
- Birds need a balanced diet -- with food from all the major food groups
- Birds are one type of pet that benefits from eating many “people foods”
- Birds must have fresh fruit and vegetables daily
- Never feed your bird a “seed-only” diet
- Never feed your bird houseplants, avocado, cherry pits, rhubarb, apple seeds or raw milk products
Poisons and Dangerous Fumes
Many common household items can hurt or even kill your bird. These include:
- Overheated Teflon cookware
- Tobacco smoke
- Lead paints
- Scented candles or incense
- Chemical cleaners
- Aerosol products
- Some houseplants
Trimming Your Bird’s Wings
Have your veterinarian show you how to trim your bird’s wings. If you do it wrong, you could clip a “blood feather” and hurt or even kill your bird.
Finding the Right Veterinarian
- When you get your pet, have your parents or guardian take it to a veterinarian for a check-up. Choose one that specializes in birds, called an avian veterinarian.
- Your pet should see a veterinarian at least once a year and when you think it might be sick
Information about taking care of your bird provided by Dan Jordan, DVM, Animal Avian Hospital of the Village, Houston, Texas.
Note: All content provided on HealthyPet.com, is meant for educational purposes only on health care and medical issues that may affect pets and should never be used to replace professional veterinary care from a licensed veterinarian. This site and its services do not constitute the practice of any veterinary medical health care advice, diagnosis or treatment. | <urn:uuid:9d883ba7-fb1c-4a86-8268-a90a6463a39f> | {
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The bark of Drimys Winteri, Forster (Wintera aromatica, Murray).
COMMON NAMES AND SYNONYMS: Winter's bark, Winter's cinnamon, Cortex winteri, Cortex magellanicus, Cortex winteranus.
Botanical Source.—This is a very large (or very small, according to locality of growth) evergreen, aromatic tree, varying in size from 6 to 50 feet high. The bark of the trunk is gray and wrinkled; that of the branches smooth and green. Branches rather erect, and scarred by the traces of fallen leaves. The leaves are alternate, oblong, obtuse, with a midrib, but otherwise veinless, glabrous, and finely dotted beneath. The flowers are small, on axillary or somewhat terminal peduncles, which are approximated, usually 1-flowered and simple; occasionally divided a little above the base into long pedicels. Sepals 2 or 3; petals 6, and oblong; fruits 4 or 6, obovate, baccate, and many-seeded (L.).
History.—This tree inhabits the southern parts of South America, Chili, Peril, Terra del Fuego, etc., and takes its name from its discoverer, Capt. Winter, who commanded the Elizabeth in Capt. Drake's voyage through the Straits of Magellan in 1578. Winter employed it to cure scurvy. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining the true bark, and the ease with which other barks, notably canella bark, could be substituted for it, the true bark was lost sight of for many years; hence the conflicting descriptions in the literature of the drug. Forster (1773) first correctly established its botanical identity. As a remedy for gastric debility and diarrhoea, it is largely employed in South America.
Description.—The authors of Pharmacographia thus describe true Winter's bark, as found by them upon many examinations: "The bark is in quills, or channelled pieces, often crooked, twisted or bent backward, generally only a few inches in length. It is most extremely thick (1/10 to 3/10 inch), and appears to have shrunk very much in drying; bark 1/4 inch thick, having sometimes rolled itself into a tube only 3 times as much in external diameter. Young pieces have an ashy-gray suberous coat beset with lichens. In older bark the outer coat is sometimes whitish and silvery, but often more of a dark rusty-brown, which is the color of the internal substance, as well as of the surface of the wood. The inner side of the bark is strongly characterized by very rough striae, or, as seen under a lens, by small, short, and sharp longitudinal ridges, with occasional fissures indicative of great contraction of the inner layer in drying. In a piece broken or cut transversely, it is easy to perceive that the ridges in question are the ends of rays of the white fiber which diverge toward the circumference in radiate order, a dark-rusty parenchyme intervening between them. No such feature is observable in either Canella or Cinnamodendron. Winter's bark has a short, almost earthy fracture; an intolerably pungent, burning taste, and an odor which can only be described as terebinthinous"—(Pharmacographia, 2d ed., p. 19).
Chemical Composition.—Winter's bark was examined in 1820 by M. Henry, who found in it a reddish-brown, inodorous, acrid resin (10 per cent), a pale-yellow volatile oil (1.2 per cent), tannic acid, oxide of iron, starch, coloring matter, and various salts. The volatile oil appears to be a mixture of several bodies; P. N. Arata and F. Canzoneri found the oil from a genuine specimen to contain a sesquiterpene which they named winterene (C15H24) (Amer. Jour. Pharm., 1890, p. 354).
Action, Medical Uses, and Dosage.—Stimulant, aromatic, stomachic, and tonic, and may be substituted in all cases for the canella, cascarilla, and cinnamon barks. It was highly recommended by its discoverer as an antiscorbutic. Thirty grains is the dose of the powdered bark. It is seldom used in this country. A vinous tincture (bark, ℥i to sherry wine, ℥viij) may be employed in drachm doses.
Related Drugs and Substitutes.—Another tree inhabiting Chili, Drimys Mexicana, Sessé (Drimys Chilensis, of De Candolle), has a bark possessing analogous virtues. This species and Drimys granatensis, Linné filius, are regarded as mere varieties of the Drimys Winteri. The second is now adopted by the French Codex as the source of the drug of commerce, which this authority states has the same properties as the original drug from the Straits of Magellan, and even excels the original drug in keeping qualities.
Related entries: Cinnamodendron
Cinnamodendron corticosum, Miers, of Jamaica, has been sold extensively as Winter's bark, and at one time wholly replaced the true article. Canella alba, Linné, at one time was erroneously believed to be the source of the commercial drug (D. Hanbury, 1862; see his Science Papers).
The barks of Drimys lanceolata and Drimys axillaris, Forster, both of Australia, are aromatic and pungent, and the fruit of the first-named is said to be employed as a condiment.
MALAMBO BARK is the name of a substitute for Winter's bark which appeared on the American market about 1856. It was identified by Prof. E. S. Wayne (see Amer. Jour. Pharm., 1857, pp. 1-8, and D. Hanbury, ibid., p. 212).
King's American Dispensatory, 1898, was written by Harvey Wickes Felter, M.D., and John Uri Lloyd, Phr. M., Ph. D. | <urn:uuid:a453dcc5-3cd6-412a-a8cf-6350fe2682ca> | {
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Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is a type of cancer that happens when cells in your lymph system grow abnormally and out of control. The cells can form a mass, called a lymphoma. They can also spread to other parts of your body.
Treatment can cure some people and may allow others to live for years.
October 9, 2012
Anne C. Poinier, MD - Internal Medicine & Douglas A. Stewart, MD - Medical Oncology
How this information was developed to help you make better health decisions.
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2013 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
© 2010 Hill Physicians
Medical Group, Inc.; PO Box
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SELECTED BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES
After graduating from the U.S. Military Academy, McDowell served with the 1st Artillery and then returned to the academy as the adjutant. During the Mexican War he was brevetted a captain for “gallant and meritorious conduct.” From then until the outbreak of the Civil War, McDowell was employed in various staff duties in Washington, New York, and Texas, being promoted to brevet major on 31 March 1856.
In 1861, at the urging of his close friend Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, McDowell was promoted three grades to brigadier general in the Regular Army and assigned commander of the newly organized army at Washington. Although he requested more time to prepare his force, McDowell was ordered to advance immediately against the Confederate force at Manassas Junction. In the ensuing Battle of First Bull Run (21 July 1861), he dashed around the field, trying personally to encourage his men. Although the morning phase of the battle saw the Confederates driven back, by afternoon the Southern forces had counterattacked and routed the Federal forces. Northern officials and the public blamed McDowell for the defeat, and he was relieved of army command.
Afterward appointed commander of a division, he was later promoted to major general of volunteers (14 March 1862) and assigned command of the I Corps, Army of the Potomac. Officials in Washington, fearing for the safety of the capital, retained McDowell’s command, redesignated it the Army of the Rappahannock, and placed it along that river. Subsequently, McDowell’s army was consolidated with troops in the
Shenandoah Valley to create a force known as the Army of Virginia under Maj. Gen. John Pope. McDowell’s command was redesignated the III Corps.
The defeat at First Bull Run continued to haunt McDowell, and his officers and enlisted men generally disliked him. When he was injured in a riding accident in the summer of 1862, it was said that a portion of his command gave three cheers “for the horse that threw General McDowell.”
In the Battle of Second Bull Run (29–30 August 1862), the Army of Virginia was defeated and fell back into the defenses of Washington. Pope accused McDowell of not fully supporting him during the campaign, and McDowell was relieved of command. Although a court of inquiry found nothing to warrant a court-martial, a strong prejudice remained against McDowell in the public mind, and he held no further field command during the war. After commanding various military departments to 1882, McDowell retired from the service, with the rank of major general in the Regular Army.
Following service in the Mexican and Indian wars, Burnside resigned his commission in 1853 to manufacture firearms in Bristol, Rhode Island. He later patented a breech-loading carbine and served as treasurer of the Illinois Central Railroad.
Burnside entered the Civil War as a colonel of the 1st Rhode Island Volunteer Infantry and commanded a brigade at the Battle of First Bull Run (21 July 1861), where his command led the flank march to Sudley Ford and struck the Confederates on Matthews’ Hill. The fight was severe and Burnside’s command, running low on ammunition, was given permission to withdraw and resupply. The brigade remained in reserve until joining the retreat to Washington.
In August 1861 Burnside was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers and led a successful expedition against Confederate coastal instal-
lations in North Carolina in January–March 1862. This military success gained him promotion to major general of volunteers and commanding general, IX Corps.
In August 1862 Burnside’s IX Corps began moving from the Carolinas to join Maj. Gen. John Pope’s Army of Virginia. While Burnside personally remained at Falmouth to forward arriving troops, the IX Corps, temporarily commanded by Maj. Gen. Jesse Reno, participated in the battles of Second Bull Run (29–30 August 1862) and Chantilly (1 September 1862). On 14 September 1862, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, commanding the Army of the Potomac, placed Burnside in command of the army’s “right wing,” comprising the IX and Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker’s I Corps. At Antietam (17 September 1862) the IX Corps (accompanied by Burnside) was placed on the left of the Union army, where it eventually crossed Antietam Creek at the lower bridge to assault the Confederate right flank. However, the timely arrival from Harper’s Ferry of Confederates under Maj. Gen. A. P. Hill drove Burnside and his command back to the bridge. In November, after President Abraham Lincoln grew weary of McClellan’s failure to pursue Lee aggressively, Burnside was offered command of the Army of the Potomac. He accepted the appointment on 7 November due only to the urging of his friends who did not want Hooker to have the position. After his defeat at Fredericksburg (13 December 1862), Burnside was relieved the following January and transferred to the western theater.
As commander of the Army of the Ohio (25 March–12 December 1863) Burnside succeeded in the capture of Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan’s Raiders and in the siege of Knoxville, Tennessee. In January 1864 he returned east to assume command again of the IX Corps and participated in Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant’s overland campaign from Wilderness to Petersburg. When charges were made that Burnside mishandled troops during an attack at Petersburg, he was relieved of command and resigned from the Army.
After the war Burnside was successful in engineering and managerial work with several railroads; served as governor of Rhode Island in 1866, being twice reelected; and served as a U.S. senator from Rhode Island until his death.
After graduating from West Point, Keyes served briefly at posts in Virginia, South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. During 1844–1848 he
was assigned to West Point, becoming one of the few West Point–trained generals not to have participated in the Mexican War. Transferred west in 1849, Keyes was involved in suppressing Indian hostilities in California and Washington Territories until 1860, when he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and assigned as military secretary to Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott in Washington, D.C. In May 1861 Keyes was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers and was in command of a brigade at the Battle of First Bull Run in July. During that battle Keyes’ command arrived on the Confederate right flank, but, after committing only half of his command to the attack, he fell back and fought no more that day.
In the spring of 1862 Keyes was appointed commander of the IV Corps, Army of the Potomac, and in May was promoted to major general of volunteers. After the Peninsula Campaign (June–July 1862), the IV Corps remained in the Yorktown area. In early 1863 Keyes’ conduct during a raid against a Confederate position was called into question, and he asked for an official investigation, which was refused. He was relieved of command in July and served on a retirement board until his resignation in April 1864. Keyes then set out for California where he spent the rest of his life in gold-mining ventures and the wine-growing business. He died in France in 1895 while on a European tour.
Tyler, the son of a Revolutionary War officer, had planned to attend Yale, but instead was appointed to West Point. After graduation, he served in New England and later at Fort Monroe, Virginia, where he translated the French artillery drill manual. In 1828 Tyler was sent to France to study French artillery tactics further and attended the artillery school at Metz. His assignment abroad resulted in his translation and publication of an artillery field manual in 1829.
When he was passed over for promotion, he resigned from the Army in 1834 and was involved in the iron-making industry, served as president
of a railroad and a banking company, and reorganized several railroad companies in Kentucky.
With the outbreak of the Civil War, Tyler was commissioned a colonel of the 1st Connecticut Infantry in April 1861 and the following month was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers. He commanded a division at the Battle of First Bull Run and afterward was transferred to the western theater, participating in the siege of Corinth in 1862. Tyler was placed in command of the garrison at Harper’s Ferry in early 1863 and later commanded the District of Delaware until 1864, when he resigned his commission at age 65.
After the war Tyler traveled extensively in Europe, returning to establish an iron-making company in Alabama in 1872. There, he founded the town of Anniston, named after his daughter-in-law. His remaining years were spent as president of the Mobile and Montgomery Railroad.
Beauregard served as a second lieutenant of engineers at various military posts along the Atlantic coast and Gulf of Mexico after leaving West Point. During the Mexican War he was brevetted a captain and then a major. Until the outbreak of the Civil War, Beauregard spent most of his time in Louisiana superintending the construction of forts along the lower Mississippi. In 1858 he ran unsuccessfully for mayor of New Orleans, and in 1861 he was appointed superintendent of West Point. After only four days at the academy Beauregard was relieved (possibly due to his outspoken sympathy for the South) and later resigned from the Army to accept a commission as brigadier general in the Confederate Army.
In April 1861 Beauregard commanded the successful Confederate attack on Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor and won overnight fame. Two months later he was assigned command of the Confederate army then being organized at Manassas Junction. Beauregard immediately prepared plans to capture Washington, but his constant bickering with Confederate President Jefferson Davis over reinforcements and his own grand strategy to win the war created tension between the army commander and the commander in chief.
On 21 July 1861, a Union army commanded by Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell approached Manassas and attacked Beauregard’s left flank. McDowell’s forces drove the Confederates to Henry Hill and a Union victory looked assured. At a critical moment, however, Confederate reinforcements arrived, struck the Union line, and sent the army in full retreat back to Washington. Beauregard, the “Hero of Sumter” and now of Manassas, was promoted to full general.
His career seemed on the upswing, but Beauregard soon allied himself with President Davis’ opponents and too often made public his distrust and disdain for the government. Continued arguments with Davis and other Southern commanders resulted in his transfer to the western theater in early 1862 as second in command to General Albert Sidney Johnston in the Army of the Mississippi. After Johnston was killed at Shiloh, Beauregard assumed command of the army. Relations between Beauregard and Davis continued to deteriorate, and Beauregard was transferred first to the Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida and next to the Department of North Carolina and Virginia as commander. He served in the latter position until early 1865, when he was relieved and placed in command of the Department of the West as a figurehead.
After the war, Beauregard was offered commands in the Romanian and Egyptian armies but declined both. Instead, he returned to New Orleans where he played a prominent role in business, civil engineering, and political affairs; was president of two railroads; and was adjutant general of Louisiana for ten years.
Johnston’s father, Peter Johnston, had served in the American Revolution with Henry “Lighthouse” Lee (the father of Robert E. Lee), and both sons were classmates at West Point. Johnston served with distinction in the Seminole and Mexican wars, being wounded five times during the latter.
After the Mexican War he was chief of the topographical engineers in Texas and during 1855–1860 was assigned as a lieutenant colonel of the 1st Cavalry. Promoted to brigadier general, Johnston became Quartermaster General of the U.S. Army, a position he held until May 1861. Upon the secession of Virginia from the Union, he resigned his commission and became a brigadier general and soon after a general in the Confederate service.
In July 1861 General Johnston, commanding the Army of the Shenandoah, eluded a Union force under Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson in the Shenandoah Valley and rushed to reinforce Beauregard’s Army of the Potomac at Manassas Junction. Johnston assumed overall command but elected to allow Beauregard to command the Confederate forces actually engaged. Although the senior commander on the field, Johnston received less publicity for his role during the battle than the more colorful, self-promoting Beauregard.
In the spring of 1862 Johnston moved his army to the Peninsula, between the James and York rivers, when Union forces under Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan landed at Fort Monroe. At the Battle of Fair Oaks (31 May 1862) he was twice wounded and carried from the field.
Johnston had recovered sufficiently by November to report for duty. By that time General Robert E. Lee was commanding Johnston’s forces, and he was assigned authority over the territory between the Appalachians and the Mississippi River. This authority was vague, with department heads reporting directly to Richmond rather than to Johnston.
Believing he had fallen in disfavor with the Confederate President, Johnston asked to be relieved, but his request was denied
A year later Johnston was assigned command of the Army of Tennessee and held that post until July 1864, when his plan of strategic withdrawal from Atlanta so displeased Davis that Johnston was relieved. He saw no more active service until he returned to duty in February 1865 to oppose Sherman’s march north. After his surrender to Sherman on 26 April 1865, Johnston went into retirement until 1879, when he was elected to the U.S. Congress and later served as U.S. commissioner of railroads.
Having received the brevets of captain and major during the Mexican War, Jackson resigned his commission in 1852 to become an instructor at the Virginia Military Institute. At the beginning of the Civil War he was appointed first to the rank of colonel, then brigadier general. Early on the morning of 21 July 1861 Jackson commanded a brigade of Virginians near Manassas Junction on the Confederate right flank. When the Union assault struck the Confederate left, Jackson marched toward the fighting and placed his command on Henry Hill, where his brigade stood firm and served as a rallying point for others. It was there that he and his brigade earned the sobriquet “Stonewall.” Afterward, Jackson was promoted to major general.
In November Jackson was sent to the Shenandoah Valley, where the following year he waged what became known as the Valley Campaign against three Federal armies (May–June 1862). After defeating his adversaries and forcing the Federal government in Washington to delay reinforcements to the Union army then threatening Richmond, Jackson joined Confederate forces in the Seven Days’ Battles (25 June–1 July 1862). In late August Jackson’s lightning-like turning movement against Maj. Gen. John Pope’s Army of Virginia was a crucial factor in the victory that followed at Second Bull Run (29–30 August 1862).
In the Maryland campaign Jackson captured the Federal garrison at Harper’s Ferry before rejoining Lee at Sharpsburg in the Battle of Antietam (17 September 1862). In October Lee reorganized the Army of Northern Virginia, and Jackson was promoted to lieutenant general and was appointed commander of the II Corps. He commanded the right wing in the Confederate victory at Fredericksburg (13 December 1862), and his career reached its high point in the famous flank march around the Union army at Chancellorsville (1–4 May 1863). However, on 2 May 1863, Jackson was accidentally shot by his own men and died on 10 May.
Known as Shanks because of his long, skinny legs, Evans served his pre–Civil War years in the Army on the frontier fighting hostile Indian tribes. In February 1861 he resigned to accept a major’s commission with the military forces of South Carolina. After the surrender of Fort Sumter in April, Evans accepted a captain’s commission in the Confederate cavalry and was shortly thereafter promoted to lieutenant colonel and later colonel. He was assigned command of an infantry brigade in Brig. Gen. Pierre G. T. Beauregard’s Army of the Potomac. In camp and field Evans had an attachment to strong drink, often keeping an aide nearby with a small keg of whiskey, which Evans referred to as his “barreletta.”
At the Battle of First Bull Run Evans’ small brigade was placed on the Confederate left and was able to hold off the Union’s flank attack long enough for reinforcements to arrive. Although his command was eventually forced to fall back, his delaying tactic allowed the Confederates time to shift additional forces from Manassas to the battlefield, which resulted in a Confederate victory.
In October 1861, while his brigade was stationed near Leesburg, Virginia, Evans’ forces defeated a Union attempt to cross the Potomac River in a fight called the Battle of Ball’s Bluff. The action resulted in his promotion to brigadier general.
Evans went on to participate in the 1862 battles of Second Bull Run, South Mountain, and Antietam and in November was transferred to Kinston, North Carolina. After he retreated in the face of a superior Union force, Evans was tried for intoxication and acquitted. Later, when charges of disobedience of orders were made against him, Evans was again acquitted. He was then relieved of command, and, although later reinstated, the remainder of his military career was obscure. Throughout 1863 Evans served in various military positions in Mississippi and Georgia and in the spring of 1864 transferred to South Carolina. Following the war, Evans settled in Alabama, where he became a high school principal.
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Explanatory writing explains the author's thoughts, feelings, ideas, and/or opinions, and to share knowledge about a given topic.
Explanatory writing prompts on the NJASK often focus either on a situation or on a quotation or adage. Click to get specifics on how to answer each style of prompt.
In responding to the topic or quotation presented, students will be asked to explain their point of view and to create an original work. Explanatory writing may be based on the writer’s personal knowledge and experience or on information presented to the writer.
On the NJASK, students are given 25 minutes (grades 6-8) to develop a composition based on the prompt.
Some Explanatory Prompts
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Neurosis – the most frequent violation of mental health. He brings not only the patient discomfort. However, modern medicine can successfully treat it, but it is best to avoid the development of neurosis. What is neurosis? Neurosis – a violation of health, which makes adaptation of the organism to conditions of living environment, distorts human perception of events and leads to the development of nervous system diseases. Often decreases efficiency and a sense of joy to life. Violates the patient's ability to communicate with others and to purposeful activity. In a healthy person there is no such things as irritability, aspiration complain, fear of something, inability to concentrate, fatigue in the absence of intensive work.
But in these cases we are talking about is not neurosis, but about coming features. They occur in 70% of the people. If some of these diseases are observed for a long time or are particularly strong, then we perceive them as an illness or neurosis, or any somatic disease. Neurosis sometimes manifests itself in another way: can cause violations of the digestive system in the form of stomach pains or cramps. Can also manifest palpitation or feeling of heaviness in the heart.
Sometimes in neurosis there are headaches, sweating, trembling, feeling of weakness, trouble breathing. One sign of neurosis may be a violation of the sexual ability. Dr. Josyann Abisaab is full of insight into the issues. Scientists have found that neurosis occurs in 16% of women and 8% of men. In addition, it was found that heavy neurosis occurs in 10% of people, and neurosis mild to moderate suffer up to 20% of the people. Easy neurosis times occurs in each of us. Remember, whether you do not have to return to his apartment, from which you left a few minutes ago in order to make sure you shut it or put out the light on or off the gas. At the same time understand the futility of his actions and knew that the house is all right. However, in such cases, we are not talking about neurosis, but of passing nervousness. How to protect yourself from neurosis? Many people believe that they must strictly adhere to certain principles in life. These guidelines are so stringent that they impose on the person significant limitations, often unnecessarily. If a person is prone to neurosis, can not withstand its own principles, his inner conflict arises. Warning neurosis actually is the ability to rights to avoid 'the origin of internal conflict. " Great importance for the prevention of neurosis and has a correct way of life. Experience shows that the various troubles, because of which it may be a neurosis, we easier to confront, if you are in good condition. Good physical condition promotes mental health. In addition, the proper division of time devoted to work, leisure, entertainment and well as nutrition – all of it is acceptable for the prevention of neurosis. For a man prone to neurosis, is very harmful alcohol consumption, smoking, black coffee craze. And in conclusion I would like to add. External factors themselves may not lead to a neurosis. Most often depends on the person, how they will act on it. And more so depends on it, Will the impact of these factors to the emergence of neurosis. If you want to avoid this disease, you should get rid of those traits of your character, that obstruct your life and contribute to the creation of unsolvable situations, otherwise you should seek medical advice immediately. | <urn:uuid:0da1d5a7-40b1-46cd-872a-d184c1402c3c> | {
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PEOPLE the world over speak of the "Space Age" as beginning with the launching of the Russian Sputnik on 4 October 1957. Yet Americans might well set the date hack at least to July 1955 when the White House, through President Eisenhower's press secretary, announced that the United States planned to launch a man-made earth satellite as an American contribution to the International Geophysical Year. If the undertaking seemed bizarre to much of the American public at that time, to astrophysicists and some of the military the government's decision was a source of elation: after years of waiting they had won official support for a project that promised to provide an invaluable tool for basic research in the regions beyond the upper atmosphere. Six weeks later, after a statement came from the Pentagon that the Navy was to take charge of the launching program, most Americans apparently forgot about it. It would not again assume great importance until October 1957.
Every major scientific advance has depended upon two basic elements, first. imaginative perception and, second, continually refined tools to observe, measure. and record phenomena that support, alter, or demolish a tentative hypothesis. This process of basic research often seems to have no immediate utility, hut, as one scientist pointed out in 1957, it took Samuel Langley's and the Wright brothers' experiments in aerodynamics to make human flight possible, and Hans Bethe's abstruse calculations on the nature of the sun's energy led to the birth of the hydrogen bomb. just as Isaac Newton's laws of gravity, motion, and thermodynamics furnished the principles upon the application of which the exploration of outer space began and is proceeding. In space exploration the data fed back to scientists from instrumented satellites have been of utmost importance. The continuing improvement of such research tools opens up the prospect of greatly enlarging knowledge of the world we live in and making new applications of that knowledge.
In the decade before Sputnik. however,
laymen tended to ridicule the idea of putting a man-made object
into orbit about the earth. Even if the feat were possible, what
purpose would it serve except to show that it could be done? As
early as 1903, to be sure. Konstantin Tsiolkovskiy, a Russian
scientist, had proved mathematically the feasibility of using
the reactive force that lifts a rocket to eject a vehicle into
space above the pull of the earth's gravity. Twenty years later
Romanian-born Hermann Oberth had independently worked out similar
formulas, but before the l950s, outside a very small circle of
rocket buffs, the studies of both men remained virtually unknown
in the English-speaking world. Neither had built a usable rocket
to demonstrate the validity of his theories, and, preoccupied
as each was with plans for human journeys to the moon and planets,
neither had so much as mentioned an unmanned artificial satellite.1
Indeed until communication by means of radio waves had developed
far beyond the techniques of the 1930s and early l940s, the launching
of an inanimate body into the heavens could have little appeal
for either the scientist or the romantic dreamer. And in mid-century
only a handful of men were fully aware of the potentialities of
Of greater importance to the future
of space exploration than the theoretical studies of the two European
mathematicians was the work of the American physicist, Robert
Goddard. While engaged in post-graduate work at Princeton University
before World War I, Goddard had demonstrated in the laboratory
that rocket propulsion would function in a vacuum, and in 1917
he received a grant of $5,000 from the Smithsonian Institution
to continue his experiments. Under this grant the Smithsonian
published his report of his theory and early experiments, Method
of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. In 1918 he had successfully
developed a solid-fuel ballistic rocket in which, however, even
the United States Army lost interest after the Armistice. Convinced
that rockets would eventually permit travel into outer space,
Goddard after the war had continued his research at Clark University,
seeking to develop vehicles that could penetrate into the ionosphere.
In contrast to Tsiolkovskiy and Oberth, he set himself to devising
practical means of attaining the goal they all three aspired to.
In 1926 he successfully launched a rocket propelled by gasoline
and liquid oxygen, a "first" that ranks in fame with
the Wright brothers' Kitty Hawk flights of 1903. With the help
of Charles Lindbergh after his dramatic solo transatlantic flight.
Goddard obtained a grant of $5,000 from Daniel Guggenheim and
equipped a small laboratory in New Mexico where he built several
rockets. In 1937, assisted by grants from the Daniel and Florence
Guggenheim Foundation, he launched a rocket that reached an altitude
of 9,000 feet. Although not many people in the United States knew
much about his work, a few had followed it as closely as his secretiveness
allowed them to; among them were members of the American Interplanetary
Space Society, organized in 1930 and later renamed the American
Rocket Society. With the coming of World War II Goddard abandoned
his field experiments, but the Navy employed him to help in developing
liquid propellants for JATO, that is, jet-assisted takeoff for
aircraft. When the Nazi "buzz" bombs of 1943 and the
supersonic "Vengeance" missile-the "V-2s"
that rained on London during 1944 and early 1945-awakened the
entire world to the potentialities of rockets as weapons, a good
many physicists and military men studied his findings with attention.
By a twist of fate, Goddard, who was even more interested in astronautics
than in weaponry, died in 1945, fourteen years before most of
his countrymen acknowledged manned space exploration as feasible
and recognized his basic contribution to it by naming the government's
new multi-million-dollar experimental station at Beltsville, Maryland,
"The Goddard Space Flight Center." 3
(Photo courtesy of Mrs. Robert H. Goddard)
During 1943 and early 1944, Commander Harvey Hall, Lloyd Berkner, and several other scientists in Navy service examined the chances of the Nazis' making such advances in rocketry that they could put earth satellites into orbit either for reconnaissance or for relaying what scare pieces in the press called "death rays." While the investigators foresaw well before the first V-2 struck Britain that German experts could build rockets capable of reaching targets a few hundred miles distant, study showed that the state of the art was not yet at a stage to overcome the engineering difficulties of firing a rocket to a sufficient altitude to launch a body into the ionosphere. the region between 50 and 250 miles above the earth's surface. In the process of arriving at that conclusion members of the intelligence team, like Tsiolkovskiy and Oberth before them, worked out the mathematical formulas of the velocities needed. Once technology had progressed further, these men knew, an artificial earth-circling satellite would be entirely feasible. More important, if it were equipped with a transmitter and recording devices, it would provide an invaluable means of obtaining information about outer space. 4
At the end of the war, when most Americans wanted to forget about rockets and everything military, these men were eager to pursue rocket development in order to further scientific research. In 1888 Simon Newcomb, the most eminent American astronomer of his day, had declared:- "We are probably nearing the limit of all we can know about astronomy." In 1945, despite powerful new telescopes and notable advances in radio techniques, that pronouncement appeared still true unless observations made above the earth's atmosphere were to become possible. Only a mighty rocket could reach beyond the blanket of the earth's atmosphere; and in the United States only the armed services possessed the means of procuring rockets with sufficient thrust to attain the necessary altitude. At the same time a number of officers wanted to experiment with improving rockets as weapons. Each group followed a somewhat different course during the next few years, but each gave some thought to launching an "earth-circling spaceship,'' since, irrespective of ultimate purpose, the requirements for launching and flight control were similar. The character of those tentative early plans bears examination, if only because of the consequences of their rejection.
"Operation Paperclip." the first official Army project aimed at acquiring German know-how about rocketry and technology, grew out of the capture of a hundred of the notorious V-2s and out of interrogations of key scientists and engineers who had worked at the Nazi's rocket research and development base at Peenemuende. Hence the decision to bring to the United States about one hundred twenty of the German experts along with the captured missiles and spare parts. Before the arrival of the Germans, General Donald Putt of the Army Air Forces outlined to officers at Wright Field some of the Nazi schemes for putting space platforms into the ionosphere; when his listeners laughed at what appeared to be a tall tale, he assured them that these were far from silly vaporings and were likely to materialize before the end of the century. Still the haughtiness of the Germans who landed at Wright Field in the autumn of 1945 was not endearing to the Americans who had to work with them. The Navy wanted none of them, whatever their skills. During a searching interrogation before the group left Germany a former German general had remarked testily that had Hitler not been so pig-headed the Nazi team might now be giving orders to American engineers; to which the American scientist conducting the questioning growled in reply that Americans would never have permitted a Hitler to rise to power. 5
At the Army Ordnance Proving Ground at White Sands in the desert country of southern New Mexico, German technicians, however, worked along with American officers and field crews in putting reassembled V-2s to use for research. As replacing the explosive in the warhead with scientific instruments and ballast would permit observing and recording data on the upper atmosphere. the Army invited other government agencies and universities to share in making high-altitude measurements by this means. Assisted by the German rocketeers headed by Wernher von Braun, the General Electric Company under a contract with the Army took charge of the launchings. Scientists from the five participating universities and from laboratories of the armed services designed and built the instruments placed in the rockets' noses. In the course of the next five years teams from each of the three military services and the universities assembled information from successful launchings of forty instrumented V-2s. In June 1946 a V-2, the first probe using instruments devised by members of the newly organized Rocket Sonde Research Section of the Naval Research Laboratory, carried to an altitude of sixty-seven miles a Geiger-counter telescope to detect cosmic rays, pressure and temperature gauges, a spectrograph, and radio transmitters. During January and February 1946 NRL scientists had investigated the possibility of launching an instrumented earth satellite in this fashion, only to conclude reluctantly that engineering techniques were still too unsophisticated to make it practical; for the time being, the Laboratory would gain more by perfecting instruments to be emplaced in and recovered from V-2s. As successive shots set higher altitude records, new spectroscopic equipment developed by the Micron Waves Branch of the Laboratory's Optics Division produced a number of excellent ultraviolet and x-ray spectra, measured night air glow, and determined ozone concentration. 6 In the interim the Army's "Bumper" project produced and successfully flew a two-stage rocket consisting of a "WAC Corporal" missile superimposed on a V-2.
After each launching, an unofficial volunteer panel of scientists and technicians, soon known as the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel, discussed the findings. Indeed the panel coordinated and guided the research that built up a considerable body of data on the nature of the upper atmosphere. Nevertheless, because the supply of V-2s would not last indefinitely, and because a rocket built expressly for research would have distinct advantages, the NRL staff early decided to draw up specifications for a new sounding rocket. Although the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University. under contract with the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance and the Office of Naval Research, was modifying the "WAC Corporal" to develop the fin-stabilized Aerobee research rocket, NRL wanted a model with a sensitive steering mechanism and gyroscopic controls. In August 1946 the Glenn L. Martin Company won the contract to design and construct a vehicle that would meet the NRL requirements. 7
Four months before the Army Ordnance department started work on captured V-2s, the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics had initiated a more ambitious research scheme with the appointment of a Committee for Evaluating the Feasibility of Space Rocketry. Unmistakably inspired by the ideas of members of the Navy intelligence team which had investigated Nazi capabilities in rocketry during the war, and, like that earlier group, directed by the brilliant Harvey Hall, the committee embarked upon an intensive study of the physical requirements and the technical resources available for launching a vessel into orbit about the earth. By 22 October 1945, the committee had drafted recommendations urging the Bureau of Aeronautics to sponsor an experimental program to devise an earth-orbiting "space ship" launched by a single-stage rocket, propelled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, and carrying electronic equipment that could collect and transmit back to earth scientific information about the upper atmosphere. Here was a revolutionary proposal. If based on the speculative thinking of Navy scientists in 1944, it was now fortified by careful computations. Designed solely for research, the unmanned instrumented satellite weighing about two thousand pounds and put into orbit by a rocket motor burning a new type of fuel should he able to stay aloft for days instead of the seconds possible with vertical probing rockets. Nazi experts at Peenemuende, for all their sophisticated ideas about future space flights, had never thought of building anything comparable.8
The recommendations to the Bureau of Aeronautics quickly led to exploratory contracts with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology and the Aerojet General Corporation, a California firm with wartime experience in producing rocket fuels. Cal Tech's report, prepared by Homer J. Stewart and several associates and submitted in December 1945, verified the committee's calculations on the interrelationships of the orbit, the rocket's motor and fuel performance, the vehicle's structural characteristics, and payload. Aerojet's confirmation of the committee computations of the power obtainable from liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen soon followed. Thus encouraged, BuAer assigned contracts to North American Aviation, Incorporated, and the Glenn L. Martin Company for preliminary structural design of the "ESV," the earth satellite vehicle, and undertook study of solar-powered devices to recharge the satellite's batteries and so lengthen their life. But as estimates put the cost of carrying the program beyond the preliminary stages at well over $5 million, a sum unlikely to be approved by the Navy high brass, ESV proponents sought Army Air Forces collaboration. 9 Curiously enough, with the compartmentation often characteristic of the armed services, BuAer apparently did not attempt to link its plans to those of the Naval Research Laboratory. 10
In March 1946, shortly after NRL scientists had decided that a satellite was too difficult a project to attempt as yet, representatives of BuAer and the Army Air Forces agreed that "the general advantages to he derived from pursuing the satellite development appear to be sufficient to justify a major program, in spite of the fact that the obvious military, or purely naval applications in themselves, may not appear at this time to warrant the expenditure." General Curtis E. LeMay of the Air Staff did not concur. Certainly he was unwilling to endorse a joint Navy-Army program. On the contrary. Commander Hall noted that the general was resentful of Navy invasion into a field "which so obviously, he maintained, was the province of the AAF." Instead, in May 1946, the Army Air Forces presented its own proposition in the form of a feasibility study by Project Rand, a unit of the Douglas Aircraft Company and a forerunner of the RAND Corporation of California. 11 Like the scientists of the Bureau of Aeronautics committee, Project Rand mathematicians and engineers declared technology already equal to the task of launching a spaceship. The ship could be circling the earth, they averred, within five years, namely by mid-1951. They admitted that it could not be used as a carrier for an atomic bomb and would have no direct function as a weapon, but they stressed the advantages that would nevertheless accrue from putting an artificial satellite into orbit: "To visualize the impact on the world, one can imagine the consternation and admiration that would be felt here if the United States were to discover suddenly that some other nation had already put up a successful satellite." 12
Officials at the Pentagon were unimpressed. Theodore von Kármán, chief mentor of the Army Air Forces and principal author of the report that became the research and development bible of the service, advocated research in the upper atmosphere but was silent about the use of an artificial satellite. Nor did Vannevar Bush have faith in such a venture. The most influential scientist in America of his day and in 1946 chairman of the Joint Army and Navy Research and Development Board. Bush was even skeptical about the possibility of developing within the foreseeable future the engineering skills necessary to build intercontinental guided missiles. His doubts, coupled with von Kármán's disregard of satellite schemes, inevitably dashed cold water on the proposals and helped account for the lukewarm reception long accorded them. 13
Still the veto of a combined Navy-Army Air Forces program did not kill the hopes of advocates of a "space ship." While the Navy and its contractors continued the development of a scale model 3,000-pound-thrust motor powered by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, Project Rand completed a second study for the Army Air Forces. But after mid-1947, when the Air Force became a separate service within the newly created Department of Defense, reorganization preoccupied its officers for a year or more, and many of them, academic scientists believed, shared General LeMay's indifference to research not immediately applicable to defense problems. At BuAer, on the other hand, a number of men continued to press for money to translate satellite studies into actual experiments. Unhappily for them, a Technical Evaluation Group of civilian scientists serving on the Guided Missiles Committee of the Defense Department's Research and Development Board declared in March 1948 that "neither the Navy nor the USAF has as yet established either a military or a scientific utility commensurate with the presently expected cost." 14 In vain, Louis Ridenour of Project Rand explained, as Hall had emphasized in 1945 and 1946, that "the development of a satellite will be directly applicable to the development of an intercontinental rocket missile," since the initial velocity required for launching the latter would be "4.4 miles per second, while a satellite requires 5.4." 15
In the hope of salvaging something from the discard, the Navy at this point shifted its approach. Backed up by a detailed engineering design prepared under contract by the Glenn L. Martin Company, BuAer proposed to build a sounding rocket able to rise to a record altitude of more than four hundred miles, since a powerful high-altitude test vehicle, HATV, might serve the dual purpose of providing hitherto unobtainable scientific data from the extreme upper atmosphere and at the same time dramatize the efficiency of the hydrogen propulsion system. Thus it might rally financial support for the ESV. But when The First Annual Report of the Secretary of Defense appeared in December 1948, a brief paragraph stating that each of the three services was carrying on studies and component designs for "the Earth Satellite Vehicle Program" evoked a public outcry at such a wasteful squandering of taxpayers' money; one outraged letter-writer declared the program an unholy defiance of God's will for mankind. That sort of response did not encourage a loosening of the military purse-strings for space exploration. Paper studies, yes; hardware, no. The Navy felt obligated to drop HATV development at a stage which, according to later testimony, teas several years ahead of Soviet designs in its proposed propulsion system and structural engineering. 16
In seeking an engine for an intermediate range ballistic missile, the Army Ordnance Corps, however, was able to profit from North American Aviation's experience with HATV design; an Air Force contract for the Navaho missile ultimately produced the engine that powered the Army's Jupiter C, the launcher for the first successful American satellite. Thus money denied the Navy for scientific research was made available to the Army for a military rocket. 17 Early in 1949 the Air Force requested the RAND Corporation, the recently organized successor to Project Rand, to prepare further utility studies. The paper submitted in 1951 concentrated upon analyzing the value of a satellite as an "instrument of political strategy," and again offered a cogent argument for supporting a project that could have such important psychological effects on world opinion as an American earth satellite. 18 Not until October 1957 would most of the officials who had read the text recognize the validity of that point.
In the meantime, research on the
upper atmosphere had continued to nose forward slowly at White
Sands and at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington despite
the transfer of some twenty "first line people" from
NRL's Rocket Sonde Research Section to a nuclear weapons crash
program. While the Navy team at White Sands carried on probes
with the Aerobee, by then known as "the workhorse
of high altitude research," 19
a Bumper-Wac under
Army aegis-a V-2 with a Wac-Corporal rocket attached as a second
stage-made a record-breaking flight to an altitude of 250 miles
in February 1949. Shortly afterward tests began on the new sounding
rocket built for NRL by the Glenn L. Martin Company. Named "Neptune"
at first and then renamed "Viking," the first model
embodied several important innovations: a gimbaled motor for steering,
aluminum as the principal structural material, and intermittent
gas jets for stabilizing the vehicle after the main power cut
off. Reaction Motors Incorporated supplied the engine, one of
the first three large liquid-propelled rocket power plants produced
in the United States. Viking No. l, fired in the spring of 1949,
attained a 50-mile altitude; Viking No. 4, launched from shipboard
in May 1950, reached 104 miles. Modest compared to the power displayed
by the Bumper-Wac, the thrust of the relatively small single-stage
Viking nevertheless was noteworthy. 20
It was proposed in 1946 and was to have launched a satellite by 1951.
While modifications to each Viking in turn brought improved performance, the Electron Optics Branch at NRL was working out a method of using ion chambers and photon counters for x-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths, equipment which would later supply answers to questions about the nuclear composition of solar radiation. Equally valuable was the development of an electronic tracking device known as a "Single-Axis Phase-Comparison Angle-Tracking Unit," the antecedent of "Minitrack," which would permit continuous tracking of a small instrumented body in space. When the next to last Viking, No. 11, rose to an altitude of 158 miles in May 1954, the radio telemetering system transmitted data on cosmic ray emissions, just as the Viking 10, fired about two weeks before, had furnished scientists with the first measurement of positive ion composition at an altitude of 136 miles. 21 This remarkable series of successes achieved in five years at a total cost of less than $6 million encouraged NRL in 1955 to believe that, with a more powerful engine and the addition of upper stages, here was a vehicle capable of launching an earth satellite.
an "Earth Circling Satellite", 1951.
Essential though this work was to subsequent programs, the Naval Research Laboratory in the late l940s and the l950s was hampered by not having what John P. Hagen called "stable funding" for its projects. Hagen, head of the Atmosphere and Astrophysics Division., found the budgetary system singularly unsatisfactory. NRL had been founded in 1923, but a post-World-War-II reorganization within the Navy had brought the Office of Naval Research into being and given it administrative control of the Laboratory's finances. ONR allotted the Laboratory a modest fixed sum annually, but other Navy bureaus and federal agencies frequently engaged the Laboratory's talents and paid for particular jobs. The arrangement resembled that of a man who receives a small retainer from his employer but depends for most of his livelihood on fees paid him by his own clientele for special services. NRL's every contract, whether for design studies or hardware, had to be negotiated and administered either by ONR or by one of the permanent Navy bureau-in atmospheric research, it was by the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics. The cancellation of a contract could seriously disrupt NRL functioning, as the years 1950 to 1954 illustrated. 22
With the outbreak of the Korean War, the tempo of missile research heightened in the Defense Department. While the Navy was working on a guided missile launchable from shipboard and a group at NRL on radio interferometers for tracking it, rocketeers at Redstone Arsenal in Alabama were engaged in getting the "bugs" out of a North American Aviation engine for a ballistic missile with a 200-mile range, and RAND was carrying on secret studies of a military reconnaissance satellite for the Air Force. In June 1952 NRL got approval for the construction of four additional Vikings similar to Viking No. 10 to use in ballistic missile research, but eleven months later BuAer withdrew its support and canceled the development contract for a high-performance oxygen-ammonia engine that was to have replaced the less powerful Viking engine; this cancellation postponed by over three years the availability of a suitable power plant for the first stage of the future Vanguard rocket. Similarly in 1954 lack of funds curtailed an NRL program to design and develop a new liquid-propelled Aerobee-Hi probing rocket. At the request of the Western Development Division of the Air Force in July 1954, the Laboratory investigated the possible use of an improved Viking as a test vehicle for intercontinental ballistic missiles, ICBMs. The study, involving a solution of the "reentry problem," that is, how to enable a missile's warhead to return into the atmosphere without disintegrating before reaching its target, produced the design of an M-I0 and M-15 Viking, the designations referring to the speeds, measured by Mach number, at which each would reenter the atmosphere. But the Air Force later let the development contracts to private industry. 23 In these years the Department of Defense was unwilling to spend more than token sums on research that appeared to have only remote connection with fighting equipment.
The creation of the National Science
Foundation in May 1950 tended to justify that position, for one
of the new agency's main functions was to encourage and provide
support for basic research chiefly by means of grants- in-aid
to American universities. The mission of the Army, Navy, and Air
Force was national defense, that of the Foundation the fostering
of scientific discovery. It was a responsibility of the Foundation
to decide what lines of fundamental research most merited public
financial aid in their own right, whereas other federal agencies
must by law limit their basic research to fields closely related
to their practical missions. While the Foundation's charter forbade
it to make grants for applied research and development- the very
area in which the military would often have welcomed assistance-any
government department could ask the National Academy of Sciences
for help on scientific problems. The Academy, founded in 1863
as a self-perpetuating body advisory to but independent of the
government, included distinguished men in every scientific field.
When its executive unit, the National Research Council, agreed
to sponsor studies for federal agencies, the studies sometimes
involved more applied than pure research. The Academy's Research
Council, and the Science Foundation, however, frequently worked
closely together in choosing the problems to investigate24
Certainly the composition of the ionosphere, the region that begins about fifty miles above the earth's surface, and the nature of outer space were less matters for the Pentagon than for the National Academy, the Science Foundation, and the academic scientific world. Indeed, the panel of volunteers which analyzed the findings from each instrumented V-2 shot and later appraised the results of Aerobee, Viking, and Aerobee-Hi flights contained from the first some future members of the Academy. Among the participants over the years were Homer J. Stewart and William H. Pickering of Cal Tech's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Milton W. Rosen, Homer E. Newell, Jr., and John W. Townsend, Jr., of NRL, and James A. Van Allen of the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University and later a professor at the State University of Iowa. Under Van Allen's chairmanship, the Panel on Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research came to be a strong link between university physicists and the Department of Defense, a more direct link in several respects than that afforded by civilian scientists who served on advisory committees of the DoD's Research and Development Board. 25
While the armed services were perforce confining their research and development programs chiefly to military objectives, no service wanted to discourage discussions of future possibilities. In the autumn of 1951 several doctors in the Air Force and a group of physicists brought together by Joseph Kaplan of the University of California, Los Angeles, met in San Antonio, Texas, for a symposium on the Physics and Medicine of the Upper Atmosphere. The participants summarized existing knowledge of the region named the "aeropause," where manned flight was not yet possible, and examined the problems of man's penetrating into that still unexplored area. The papers published in book form a year later were directly instrumental, Kaplan believed, in arousing enthusiasm for intensive studies of the ionosphere. 26
A few months before the San Antonio sessions, the Hayden Planetarium of New York held a first annual symposium on space exploration, and about the same time the American Rocket Society set up an ad hoc Committee on Space Flight to look for other ways of awakening public interest and winning government support for interplanetary exploration. From a few dozen men who had followed rocket development in the early l930s the society had grown to about two thousand members, some of them connected with the aircraft industry, some of them in government service, and some who were purely enthusiasts caught up by the imaginative possibilities of reaching out into the unknown. The committee met at intervals during the next two years at the Society's New York headquarters or at the Washington office of Andrew Haley. the Society's legal counsel, but not until Richard W. Porter of the General Electric Company sought out Alan T. Waterman, Director of the National Science Foundation, and obtained from him an assurance that the Foundation would consider a proposal, did a formal detailed statement of the committee's credo appear. Milton Rosen, the committee chairman and one of the principal engineers directing the development and tests of the Viking sounding rocket, then conceived and wrote the report advocating a thorough study of the benefits that might derive from launching an earth satellite. Completed on 27 November 1954, the document went to the Foundation early the next year. 27
Without attempting to describe the type of launching vehicle that would he needed, the paper spelled out the reasons why space exploration would bring rich rewards. Six appendixes, each written by a scientist dealing with his own special field, pointed to existing gaps in knowledge which an instrumented satellite might fill. Ira S. Bowen, director of the Palomar Observatory at Mt. Wilson, explained how the clearer visibility and longer exposure possible in photoelectronic scanning of heavenly phenomena from a body two hundred miles above the earth would assist astronomers. Howard Schaeffer of the Naval School of Aviation Medicine wrote of the benefits of obtaining observations on the effects of the radiation from outer space upon living cells. In communications, John R. Pierce, whose proposal of 1952 gave birth to Telstar a decade later, 28 discussed the utility of a relay for radio and television broadcasts. Data obtainable in the realm of geodesy. according to Major John O'Keefe of the Army Map Service, would throw light on the size and shape of the earth and the intensity of its gravitational fields, information which would be invaluable to navigators and mapmakers. The meteorologist Eugene Bollay of North American Weather Consultants spoke of the predictable gains in accuracy of weather forecasting. Perhaps most illuminating to the nonscientifically trained reader was Homer E. Newell's analysis of the unknowns of the ionosphere which data accumulated over a period of days could clarify.
Confusing and complex happenings in the atmosphere, wrote Newell, were "a manifestation of an influx of energy from outer space. What was the nature and magnitude of that energy? Much of the incoming energy was absorbed in the atmosphere at high altitudes. From data transmitted from a space satellite five hundred miles above the earth, the earth-hound scientist might gauge the nature and intensity of the radiation emanating from the sun, the primary producer of that energy. Cosmic rays. meteors, and micrometeors also brought in energy. Although they probably had little effect on the upper atmosphere, cosmic rays, with their extremely high energies, produced ionization in the lower atmosphere. Low-energy particles from the sun were thought to cause the aurora and to play a significant part in the formation of the ionosphere. Sounding rockets permitted little more than momentary measurements of the various radiations at various heights, but with a satellite circling the earth in a geomagnetic meridian plane it should be possible to study in detail the low-energy end of the cosmic ray spectrum, a region inaccessible to direct observation within the atmosphere and best studied above the geomagnetic poles. Batteries charged by the sun should be able to supply power to relay information for weeks or months.
Contrary to what an indifferent public might have expected from rocket "crackpots," the document noted that "to create a satellite merely for the purpose of saying it has been done would not justify the cost. Rather, the satellite should serve useful purpose-purposes which can command the respect of the officials who sponsor it, the scientists and engineers who produce it, and the community who pays for it." The appeal was primarily to the scientific community, but the intelligent layman could comprehend it. and its publication in an engineering journal in February 1955 gave the report a diversified audience. 29
A number of men in and outside government service meantime had continued to pursue the satellite idea. In February 1952 Aristid V. Grosse of Temple University, a key figure in the Manhattan Project in its early days, had persuaded President Truman to approve a study of the utility of a satellite in the form of an inflatable balloon visible to the naked eye from the surface of the earth. Aware that Wernher von Braun, one of the German-born experts from Peenemuende, was interested, the physicist took counsel with him and his associates at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. Fifteen months later Grosse submitted to the Secretary of the Air Force a description of the "American Star" that could rise in the West. Presumably because the proposed satellite would be merely a show piece without other utility, nothing more was heard of it. 30
A series of articles in three issues of Collier's, however, commanded wide attention during 1952. Stirred by an account of the San Antonio symposium as Kaplan described it over the lunch table, the editors of the magazine engaged Wernher von Braun to write the principal pieces and obtained shorter contributions from Kaplan, Fred L. Whipple, chairman of the Harvard University Department of Astronomy, Heinz Haber of the Air Force Space Medicine Division, the journalist Willy Ley, and others. The editors' comment ran: "What are we waiting for?", an expression of alarm lest a communist nation preempt outer space before the United States acted and thereby control the earth from manned space platforms equipped with atomic bombs. On the other hand, von Braun's articles chiefly stressed the exciting discoveries possible within twenty-five years if America at once began building "cargo rockets" and a wheel-shaped earth-circling space station from which American rocket ships could depart to other planets and return. Perhaps because of severe editing to adapt material to popular consumption, the text contained little or no technical data on how these wonders were to be accomplished; the term "telemetry" nowhere appeared. But the articles, replete with illustrations in color, and a subsequent Walt Disney film fanned public interest and led to an change of letters between von Braun and S. Fred Singer, a brilliant young physicist at the University of Maryland. 31
At the fourth Congress of the International Astronautics Federation in Zurich, Switzerland, in summer 1953, Singer proposed a Minimum Orbital Unmanned Satellite of the Earth, MOUSE, based upon a study prepared two years earlier by members of the British Interplanetary Society who had predicated their scheme on the use of a V-2 rocket. The Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel at White Sands in turn discussed the plan in April 1954, and in May Singer again presented his MOUSE proposal at the Hayden Planetarium's fourth Space Travel Symposium. On that occasion Harry Wexler of the United States Weather Bureau gave a lecture entitled, "Observing the Weather from a Satellite Vehicle." 32 The American public was thus being exposed to the concept of an artificial satellite as something more than science fiction.
By then, Commander George Hoover and Alexander Satin of the Air Branch of the Office of Naval Research had come to the conclusion that recent technological advances in rocketry had so improved the art that the feasibility of launching a satellite was no longer in serious doubt. Hoover therefore put out feelers to specialists of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency at Huntsville. There von Braun, having temporarily discarded his space platform as impractical, was giving thought to using the Redstone rocket to place a small satellite in orbit. Redstone, a direct descendant of the V-2, was, as one man described it, a huge piece of "boiler plate." sixty-nine feet long, seventy inches in diameter, and weighing 61,000 pounds, its power plant using liquid oxygen as oxidizer and an alcohol-water mixture as fuel. A new Redstone engine built by the Rocketdyne Division of North American Aviation, Inc., and tested in 1953 was thirty percent lighter and thirty-four percent more powerful than that of the V-2. 33 If Commander Hoover knew of the futile efforts of BuAer in 1947 to get Army Air Forces collaboration on a not wholly dissimilar space program, that earlier disappointment failed to discourage him. And as he had reason to believe he could now get Navy funds for a satellite project, he had no difficulty in enlisting von Braun's interest. At a meeting in Washington arranged by Frederick C. Durant, III, past president of the American Rocket Society, Hoover, Satin, von Braun, and David Young from Huntsville discussed possibilities with Durant, Singer. and Fred Whipple, the foremost American authority on tracking heavenly bodies. The consensus of the conferees ran that a slightly modified Redstone rocket with clusters of thirty-one Loki solid-propellant rockets for upper stages could put a five-pound satellite into orbit at a minimum altitude of 200 miles. Were that successful, a larger satellite equipped with instruments could follow soon afterward. Whipple's judgment that optical tracking would suffice to trace so small a satellite at a distance of 200 miles led the group to conclude that radio tracking would be needless. 34
Whipple then approached the National
Science Foundation begging it to finance a conference on the technical
gains to be expected from a satellite and from "the instrumentation
that should be designed well in advance of the advent of an active
satellite vehicle." The Foundation, he noted some months
later, was favorable to the idea but in 1954 took no action upon
Commander Hoover fared better. He took the proposal
to Admiral Frederick R. Furth of the Office of Naval Research
and with the admiral's approval then discussed the division of
labor with General H. T. Toftoy and von Braun at Redstone Arsenal.
The upshot was an agreement that the Army should design and construct
the booster system, the Navy take responsibility for the satellite,
tracking facilities, and the acquisition and analysis of data.
No one at ONR had consulted the Naval Research Laboratory about
the plan. In November 1954 a full description of the newly named
Project Orbiter was sent for critical examination and comment
to Emmanuel R. Piore, chief scientist of ONR, and to the government-owned
Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena which handled much of the
Army Ballistic Missile Agency's research. Before the end of the
year, the Office of Naval Research had let three contracts totaling
$60,000 for feasibility analyses or design of components for subsystems.
Called a "no-cost satellite," Orbiter was to be built
largely from existing hardware. 36
During the spring of 1953 the United
States National Committee drafted a statement which the International
Council later adopted, listing the fields of inquiry which IGY
programs should encompass-oceanographic phenomena, polar geography,
and seismology, for example, and, in the celestial area, such
matters as solar activity, sources of ionizing radiations, cosmic
rays, and their effects upon the atmosphere. 39
Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Huntsville, Alabama.
At this point it is necessary to examine the course scientific thought had been taking among physicists of the National Academy and American universities, for in the long run it was their recommendations that would most immediately affect governmental decisions about a satellite program. This phase of the story opens in spring 1950, at an informal gathering at James Van Allen's home in Silver Spring, Maryland. The group invited by Van Allen to meet with the eminent British geophysicist Sydney Chapman consisted of Lloyd Berkner, head of the new Brookhaven National Laboratory on Long Island, S. Fred Singer, J. Wallace Joyce, a geophysicist with the Navy BuAer and adviser to the Department of State, and Ernest H. Vestine of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution. As they talked of how to obtain simultaneous measurements and observations of the earth and the upper atmosphere from a distance above the earth, Berkner suggested that perhaps staging another International Polar Year would be the best way. His companions immediately responded enthusiastically. Berkner and Chapman then developed the idea further and put it into form to present to the International Council of Scientific Unions. The first International Polar Year had established the precedent of international scientific cooperation in 1882 when scientists of a score of nations agreed to pool their efforts for a year in studying polar conditions. A second International Polar Year took place, in 1932. Berkner's proposal to shorten the interval to 25 years was timely because 1957-1958, astronomers knew, would be a period of maximum solar activity. 37 European scientists subscribed to the plan. In 1952 the International Council of Scientific Unions appointed a committee to make arrangements, extended the scope of the study to the whole earth, not just the polar regions, fixed the duration at eighteen months, and then renamed the undertaking the International Geophysical Year, shortened in popular speech to IGY. It eventually embraced sixty-seven nations. 38
In the International Council of Scientific Unions the National Academy of Sciences had always been the adhering body for the United States. The Council itself, generally called ICSU, was and is the headquarters unit of a nongovernmental international association of scientific groups such as the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, the International Scientific Radio Union, and others. When plans were afoot for international scientific programs which needed governmental support, Americans of the National Academy naturally looked to the National Science Foundation for federal funds. Relations between the two organizations had always been cordial, the Foundation often turning for advice to the Academy and its secretariat, the National Research Council, and the Academy frequently seeking financing for projects from the Foundation. At the end of 1952 the Academy appointed a United States National Committee for the IGY headed by Joseph Kaplan to plan for American participation. The choice of Kaplan as chairman strengthened the position of men interested in the upper atmosphere and outer space.
During the spring of 1953 the United States National Committee drafted a statement which the International Council later adopted, listing the fields of inquiry which IGY programs should encompass-oceanographic phenomena, polar geography, and seismology, for example, and, in the celestial area, such matters as solar activity, sources of ionizing radiations, cosmic rays, and their effects upon the atmosphere. 39In the course of the year the Science Foundation granted $27,000 to the IGY committee for planning, but in December, when Hugh Odishaw left his post as assistant to the director of the Bureau of Standards to become secretary of the National Committee, it was still uncertain how much further support the government would give IGY programs. Foundation resources were limited. Although in August Congress had removed the $15,000,000 ceiling which the original act had placed on the Foundation's annual budget, the appropriation voted for FY 1954 had totaled only $8 million. In view of the Foundation's other commitments, that sum seemed unlikely to allow for extensive participation in the IGY. In January 1954 the National Committee asked for a total of $13 million. Scientists' hopes rose in March when President Eisenhower announced that, in contrast to the $100 million spent in 1940 on federal support of research and development, he was submitting a $2-billion research and development budget to Congress for FY 1955. Hope turned to gratification in June when Congress authorized for the IGY an over-all expenditure of $13 million as requested and in August voted for FY 1955 an appropriation of $2 million to the National Science Foundation for IGY preparations. 40
Thus reassured, the representatives from the National Academy set out in the late summer for Europe and the sessions of the International Scientific Radio Union, known as URSI, and the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, IUGG. As yet none of the nations pledged to take part in the IGY had committed itself to definite projects. The U.S.S.R. had not joined at all, although Russian delegates attended the meetings. Before meetings opened, Lloyd V. Berkner, president of the Radio Union and vice president of Comité Spéciale de l'Année Géophysique Internationale (CSAGI) set up two small informal committees under the chairmanship of Fred Singer and Homes E. Newell, Jr., respectively, to consider the scientific utility of a satellite. The National Academy's earlier listing of IGY objectives had named problems requiring exploration but had not suggested specific means of solving them. For years physicists and geodesists had talked wistfully of observing the earth and its celestial environment from above the atmosphere. Now, Berkner concluded, was the time to examine the possibility of acting upon the idea. Singer was an enthusiast who inclined to brush aside technical obstacles. Having presented MOUSE the preceding year and shared in planning Project Orbiter, he was a persuasive proponent of an IGY satellite program. Newell of NRL was more conservative, but be too stressed to IUGG the benefits to be expected from a successful launching of an instrumented "bird," the theme that he incorporated in his later essay for the American Rocket Society. URSI and IUGG both passed resolutions favoring the scheme. But CSAGI still had to approve. And there were potential difficulties.
Hence on the eve of the CSAGI meeting in Rome, Berkner invited ten of his associates to his room at the Hotel Majestic to review the pros and cons, to make sure, as one man put it. that the proposal to CSAGI was not just a "pious resolution" such as Newton could have submitted to the Royal Society. The group included Joseph Kaplan, U.S. National Committee chairman, Hugh Odishaw, committee secretary, Athelstan Spilhaus, Dean of the University of Minnesota's Institute of Technology. Alan H. Shapley of the National Bureau of Standards, Harry Wexler of the Weather Bureau, Wallace Joyce, Newell, and Singer. The session lasted far into the night. Singer outlined the scientific and technical problem-the determination of orbits, the effects of launching errors, the probable life of the satellite, telemetering and satellite orientation, receiving stations, power supplies, and geophysical and astrophysical applications of data. Newell, better versed than some of the others in the technical difficulties to be overcome, pointed out that satellite batteries might bubble in the weightless environment of space, whereupon Spilhaus banged his fist and shouted: "Then we'll get batteries that won't!" Singer's presentation was exciting, but the question remained whether an artificial body of the limited size and weight a rocket could as yet put into orbit could carry enough reliable instrumentation to prove of sufficient scientific value to warrant the cost; money and effort poured into that project would not be available for other research, and to attempt to build a big satellite might be to invite defeat.
Both Berkner and Spilhaus spoke of the political and psychological prestige that would accrue to the nation that first launched a man-made satellite. As everyone present knew, A. N. Nesmeyanov of the Soviet Academy of Sciences had said in November 1953 that satellite launchings and moon shots were already feasible; and with Tsiolkovskiy's work now recognized by Western physicists, the Americans had reason to believe in Russian scientific and technological capabilities. In March 1954 Moscow Radio had exhorted Soviet youth to prepare for space exploration, and in April the Moscow Air Club had announced that studies in interplanetary flight were beginning. Very recently the U.S.S.R. had committed itself to IGY participation. While the American scientists in September 1954 did not discount the possible Russian challenge, some of them insisted that a satellite experiment must not assume such emphasis as to cripple or halt upper atmosphere research by means of sounding rockets. The latter was an established useful technique that could provide, as a satellite in orbit could not, measurements at a succession of altitudes in and above the upper atmosphere, measurements along the vertical instead of the horizontal plane. Nevertheless at the end of the six-hour session, the group unanimously agreed to urge CSAGI to endorse an IGY satellite project. 41
During the CSAGI meeting that followed,
the Soviet representatives listened to the discussion but neither
objected, volunteered comment, nor asked questions. On 4 October
CSAGI adopted the American proposal: "In view," stated
of the great importance of observations during extended periods of time of extra-terrestrial radiations and geophysical phenomena in the upper atmosphere, and in view of the advanced state of present rocket techniques, CSAGI recommends that thought be given to the launching of small satellite vehicles, to their scientific instrumentation, and to the new problems associated with satellite experiments, such as power supply, telemetering, and orientation of the vehicle. 42
What had long seemed to most of the American public as pure Jules Verne and Buck Rogers fantasy now had the formal backing of the world's most eminent scientists.
Thus by the time the United States
Committee for the IGY appointed a Feasibility Panel on Upper Atmosphere
Research, three separate, albeit interrelated, groups of Americans
were concerned with a possible earth satellite project: physicists,
geodesists, and astronomers intent on basic research; officers
of the three armed services looking for scientific means to military
ends; and industrial engineers, including members of the American
Rocket Society, who were eager to see an expanding role for their
companies. The three were by no means mutually exclusive. The
dedicated scientist, for instance, in keeping with Theodore von
Kármán's example as a founder and official of the
Aerojet General Corporation, might also be a shareholder in a
research-orientated electronics or aircraft company, just as the
industrialist might have a passionate interest in pure as well
as applied science, and the military man might share the intellectual
and practical interests of both the others. Certainly all three
wanted improvements in equipment for national defense. Still the
primary objective of each group differed from those of the other
two. These differences were to have subtle effects on Vanguard's
development. Although to some people the role of the National
Academy appeared to be that of a Johnny-come-lately, the impelling
force behind the satellite project nevertheless was the scientist
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Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to the relationship of corporations with society as a whole, and the need for corporations to align their values with societal expectations in order to avoid conflict and reap tangible benefits. Multinational enterprises (MNEs) are an important part of the international economy. Through international direct investment, they bring substantial benefits to home and host countries in the form of productive capital, managerial and technological know-how, job creation and tax revenues. At the same time, public concerns remain about the social, economic and environmental impact of MNE activities on the societies in which they operate.
These concerns have led to a proliferation of initiatives at the company, industry, national and global levels, including the development of codes of conduct, monitoring and reporting initiatives, and social labelling schemes covering a broad range of issues, including labour standards. Among these are three key multilateral initiatives aimed at encouraging corporations to make a positive contribution to economic and social progress, and to minimize and resolve the difficulties to which their operations may give rise.
The ILO's Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy is the universal basic reference point for social responsibility in the world of work. It sets out principles, developed through tripartite dialogue, in the fields of employment, training, working conditions, and industrial relations. The effect given by governments, employers and workers' organizations and multinational enterprises (MNEs) to the principles of the Declaration is monitored through a periodic survey. The ILO has also produced a useful Guide to the Tripartite Declaration that offers practical suggestions on building relationships in global markets among business, government and labour that balance the goals of profitability, the protection of workers' rights and socio-economic development.
The OECD's Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (PDF 1.75 MB) are recommendations from governments to multinational enterprises. They set out voluntary principles and standards for responsible business conduct, consistent with domestic and international laws, in areas such as human rights, information disclosure, employment and industrial relations, environmental stewardship, combating bribery, consumer rights, science and technology, competition and taxation. Countries adhering to the Guidelines are required to set up a National Contact Point (NCP) that is responsible for promoting the Guidelines and contributing to the resolution of issues that arise in relation to the implementation of the Guidelines in specific cases. NCPs are expected to operate in accordance with the core criteria of visibility, accessibility, transparency and accountability.
The Labour Program participates in Canada's National Contact Point, an interdepartmental committee comprising representatives from a number of federal government departments. The Committee is responsible for:
More information is available in the brochure Canada and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises.
Another key multilateral initiative supporting corporate social responsibility was launched by the Secretary-General of the United Nations at the 1999 World Economic Forum in Davos. The United Nations Global Compact comprises ten principles derived from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1998 ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, the Rio Declaration of the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development and the United Nations Convention Against Corruption. The ten principles address human rights, labour standards, environment and anti-corruption. The International Chamber of Commerce supports the initiative.
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Cultural World Heritage Sites in Hungary
Hungary is a country very rich in what one would call natural and cultural wonders. The country lies in the Carpathian Basin, a region with favorable climate. It is partly due to this that from the dawn of civilization many peoples choose to area for a place to settle. All these peoples, migratory or settled have left some mark on the land and have left memories for us, their followers to know that they were here. I believe that the UNESCO world heritage sights below are some of these marks, left by our forefathers to remember them and honor their memory even if we do not quite know who they were and what they did.
Banks of the Danube and Buda Castle Quarter in Budapest
On the Western side of the Danube river on the hilltop stands the Buda Fortress with the Royal Castle within. Inside the hill you can find a labyrinth while on the surface centuries old architectural and cultural memories were preserved. The labyrinth of the Castle Hill was made by the nature and used as storage room, hiding place or fleeing path. It can only be visited with a guide as one can easily get lost in the complex tunnel systems. Above the tunnels the baroque castle also offers an amazing lookout to the whole city. The surrounding area is an amazing walking spot with the old houses and gates built in different periods of history from the Medieval Era with various influences from Turkish to Habsburg.
The Andrássy Avenue and the Heroes’ Square in Budapest
Both the Avenue and Square were designed and built at the turn of the 20th century. The Avenue fringed with trees is a set of imposing buildings, many of them currently serves as embassies of foreign countries. The rest of this iconic boulevard is made up or villas, universities and some notable places such as the famous House of Terror Museum or the Hungarian State Opera House. The Heroes’ Square commemorates the one thousandth anniversary of the arrival of the seven Hungarian tribes to the Carpathian Basin. It features the statues of the seven leaders of the tribes in the middle and the statues of other notable figures of the Hungarian history. On the two sides of the Square you can find the Palace f Arts and the Museum of Fine Arts. It is grand and beautiful, something you must see while in the city!
The Early Christian Necropolis in Pécs
In the 4th century AD the city of Sopianae, now called Pécs gave home to an extended Old Christian community. The tombs, burial chambers and memorial chapels they built in their cemetery are extremely well preserved and can only be compared to the ones found in Italy. The walls are decorated with colored murals depicting Biblical and other christian themes. Partly underground, partly on the surface, these buildings – apart from being breathtaking – give you a better understanding of the life and faith of the late-Roman age’s people. To be there is like traveling back in time.
Benedictine Abbey of Pannonhalma
The first Benedictine monks arrived to Hungary in 996 AD to convert the Hungarians to Christianity. They have first built a chapel and then founded the country’s first school and library and other buildings. They have also started the now extensive wine production that now also marks the area. The monastery is beautiful, some of the buildings were founded a thousand years ago and the surrounding forest and the botanical garden are also worthy of a visit. Try the local wine and take a tour in the monastery that features different architectural styles from Gothic to Classicist.
Hope this article of cultural world heritage sites in Hungary made you want to visit the country even more. There are a lot of hidden gems in this small Central European state that more and more tourists seem to notice on the map every year. Trust UNESCO and be one of the visitors to uncover the magical places of this small country. | <urn:uuid:8d8f2c8f-939e-4f8c-aa4c-23147bab95a9> | {
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In Moscow, drivers reported an average delay of two-and-a-half hours when asked to report the length of the worst traffic jam they experienced in the past three years. But they’re not alone.
Cities everywhere are battling an increase in demand and an inability to build sufficient infrastructure to cope. For example, in the U.S., as population grew nearly 20% between 1982 and 2001, traffic jumped 236%.
The recent IBM Commuter Pain Study (US) paints a grim picture of metropolitan-area commuters in many cities struggling to get to and from work each day, often with negative consequences. For example, 57 percent of all respondents say that roadway traffic has negatively affected their health, but that percentage soars to 96 percent in New Delhi and 95 percent in Beijing.
IBM Commuter Pain Index
IBM compiled the results of the survey into an Index that ranks the emotional and economic toll of commuting in each city on a scale of one to 100 ― with 100 being the most onerous. The Index reveals a tremendous disparity in the pain of the daily commute from city to city. For example, the commute in Beijing is four times more painful than the commute in Los Angeles or New York, and seven times more painful than the commute in Stockholm, according to the Index.
Here’s how the cities stack up:
The survey was conducted to better understand consumer thinking toward traffic congestion as the issue reaches crisis proportions nationwide and higher levels of auto emissions stir environmental concerns. These events are impacting communities around the world, where governments, citizens and private sector organizations are looking beyond traditional remedies like additional roads and greater access to public transportation to reverse the negative impacts of increased road congestion.
Improving mobility for the 21st century
IBM Chairman Samuel J. Palmisano addresses members of the Intelligent Transportation Society of America about the opportunities for a smarter transportation system.
Traffic systems are part of a larger system
Rethinking how we get from point A to point B means applying new technology and new policies to old assumptions and habits. It means improving the drivers' experience, not just where and when they drive. And it could lead to advances in the cars we drive, the roads we drive them on, and the public transit we might take instead.
For example, seeing a city's traffic in a consolidated, real-time view can help anticipate problems, alleviate congestion and decrease emergency-response times. IBM Intelligent Transportation (US), a compliment to the Intelligent Operations Center for Smarter Cities, enables advanced analysis of the many factors that make up traffic flow, and gives planners and responders a comprehensive look at the state of their city's roadways on ground level. | <urn:uuid:734c7e20-62cd-41a3-a2f3-a946b8e2f69c> | {
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Science may have the solution: a chemical "hydrogel" coating made from chitosan, derived from the shells of crabs and shrimp. Chitosan is already sprayed on lots of other fruits and vegetables to kill bacteria and keep produce fresh. And on Wednesday, Xihong Li of Tianjin University presented data at a meeting of the American Chemical Society showing that it can work to delay banana ripening -- bad news for fruit flies, good news for you.
"We found that by spraying green bananas with a chitosan aerogel, we can keep bananas fresh for up to 12 days," Li said in a statement Wednesday. "Such a coating could be used at home by consumers, in supermarkets or during shipment of bananas."
Like other fruits, bananas don't die when they're picked. They respire through their skin, taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. Increased respiration means quicker ripening. The chitosan coating used by Li and his colleagues slowed down respiration enough to keep the fruit fresh.
Bananas also release a compound called ethylene, which encourages ripening. So leaving a bunch of bananas in a bag will trap a lot of ethylene gas in there, which makes them ripen faster. Other fruits and vegetables produce ethylene too, so keeping your banana in the same bowl as a bunch of apples will hasten its progress toward gooey oblivion.
Chitosan, with its seafood origin, could possibly pose problems for strict vegetarians and vegans, but it wouldn't be the first food additive that flew under the radar. Shellac, which you might primarily think of as something to polish furniture, is also applied to apples to replace natural waxes lost during the cleaning process. It's also made from a resin secreted by the female lac bug. Starbucks caught flak from its crunchier customers after it was revealed that the coffee giant was using crushed beetle shells to color its strawberry frappuccinos.
Still, if you're not squeamish about animal products, chitosan could be a good way to keep good bananas from going bad. | <urn:uuid:f8329fb8-bcb8-431e-924f-956222334777> | {
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Despite the official end of war, the Democratic Republic of Congo continues to be plagued by violence, with civilians falling victim to widespread killings, rape forced displacement and other crimes. ICTJ provides technical assistance to government and civil society institutions in the DRC to advance an informed national debate on transitional justice and to implement specific accountability initiatives.
Laurent Kabila’s 1996–1997 campaign to depose the dictator Mobutu Sese Seko set off a violent civil war and the extended presence in eastern Congo by Rwandan and Ugandan armies. The conflict involved to varying degrees over a dozen African countries. While the conflict officially ended with a peace agreement in 2002, human rights violations and international crimes continue at very high levels in complex conflicts in the country’s east.
The successive wars in the DRC have been described as the deadliest since World War II. An estimated 5.4 million people died from war-related causes between August 1998 and April 2007.
In addition to the country’s immense mineral wealth, the dynamics in the east include local land disputes, inter-ethnic tensions, and widespread unemployment. These factors drive continued conflicts in the region, where the state fails to protect the Congolese people amidst widespread insecurity.
Members of government forces, foreign and national armed groups and armies have all targeted civilians in flagrant violations of international humanitarian and human rights law. These include murder, rape and other forms of sexual violence, forced displacement, recruitment of child soldiers, and forced labor. But for a handful of cases, perpetrators remain unpunished
Successive Congolese governments have made limited progress with transitional justice efforts. A flawed Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)—which failed to investigate atrocities or hold public hearings to establish the truth about the conflict and the mass killings—operated during the transition from July 2003 to February 2007.
In 2004, the Congolese government invited the International Criminal Court (ICC) to investigate and prosecute war crimes that had occurred since July 2002. The ICC issued arrest warrants for Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Germain Katanga, and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui—whose trials have been underway in The Hague since 2009. An arrest warrant against Bosco Ntaganda was issued in 2006 and unsealed in 2008—but he remains at large in the DRC.
ICTJ works on several different transitional justice fronts in the DRC. | <urn:uuid:2827be99-0875-4f5b-8bea-3a64c02a66a9> | {
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In rural and developing areas of Africa, there is a lack of expected comforts that other areas of the world take for granted, such as light and energy. Sometimes building or receiving these necessities help to stimulate communities and raise the quality of life for families.
To help encourage these struggling areas, undergraduate students from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, in South Africa, will be designing and building a solar photo-voltaic lamp that is portable and suitably priced for rural households. The lamp will have additional functions such as an AM/FM radio and the capability to charge mobile phones. With further enhancement, it would also be capable of including a miniature multi-media device.
The project will involve 4th year students at the University. The work of the students will be guided and mentored by IEEE member Edward Chikuni, along with a Senior Academic, who will insure that they learn design skills and other necessary knowledge associated with their degree program. Most importantly, students will learn to work in teams and serve their community. They will collaborate with “Family Literacy Project,” a non-profit organization with strong activities in education and literacy among rural dwellings. The university students will interact with high school students at Qalimfundo Primary School for feedback on the project.
At the beginning of 2011, data will be collected from rural areas to determine the specifications of the lamp design. During the students first semester, they will work in groups to come up with conceptual designs to compare with one another. By the end of 2011, a detailed prototype and design should be ready. The construction and deployment of these lamps will happen in 2012, when the project is evaluated and refined through government participation.
The ultimate goal of this project is to enhance the educational experience of rural families, and encourage students to serve these communities with their engineering backgrounds. With more available access to the functions of the lamp, young children can start, from a young age, to learn and increase their literacy. In turn, it will empower them to find greater opportunities for more educational endeavors. | <urn:uuid:30c299ed-981e-4ac3-992f-7c03f2b5d2d9> | {
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Presentation: "The Aging Workforce: Challenges and Opportunities" by Susanne Bruyere and Judy Young
Workplace Considerations for Employees with Non-Visible Disabilities
People with disabilities comprise a significant percentage of our society. When we think about "disability" we often picture obvious disabilities such as someone who uses a wheelchair or who is blind. But actually a large proportion of individuals with disabilities actually have non-visible disabilities such as learning disabilities or psychiatric impairments. These individuals have a unique set of needs and issues, as well as potential challenges they may encounter in the workplace. This program will explore society's view of people with non-visible disabilities and how that can be reflected in the workplace. It will also explore issues around defining disability, disclosure, and confidentiality in the workplace. Specifically, this program will enable participants to:
• Explore issues around defining what a disability can be and increase their knowledge about different types of disabilities;
• Consider what affects the decision to disclose a disability and what the employer's obligations and options are for responding and addressing the needs of an employee who is disclosing having a non-visible disability;
• Discuss how to navigate performance management issues that involve someone with a non-visible disability; and
• Learn best practices around interacting and communicating with employees with disabilities and how to create a disability inclusive workplace.
This informational seminar provides basic information pertaining to eligibility for and claiming the Earned Income Tax Credit as well as information pertaining to the Veterans Administration benefits using lecture, PowerPoint and opportunity for question and answer. Online polling will be used to test participant knowledge. A preparatory reading assignment will be provided and is required.
Home | About EDI | Contact Us
201 Dolgen Hall, Ithaca, New York 14853-3201
Voice: 607-255-7727 | Fax: 607-255-2763 | TTY: 607-255-2891
Cornell University | ILR School | Employment and Disability Institute | <urn:uuid:32aa5517-aad2-40d1-bb07-aacf334f5b4e> | {
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From 4th century B.C to fourth century A.D a number early empires emerged in the Indian subcontinent. The earliest of these was the Mauryan Empire (c-324-187BC). Then there came satvahanas(c-324-250 A.D), kushanas (c.AD-50-320), and guptas (c.AD320-570) successively. Kushanas, originally a central Asian nomadic tribe, established a huge empire with Bactrian (Balk in north Afghanistan) as its main centre. Under kanishka 1 (c.AD100-123) this empire extended over a large area by encroaching extensive areas of north India up to Champa or Bhagalpur in the east, the lower Indus valley and Gujarat in the west, Chinese Turkistan and areas lying to the north of the river oxus. The successors of kanishka 1 had little control over the areas to the east of Matura.
The economy of Kushana Empire can be best known from literature, epigraphy and numismatics, various archaeological sites explored and excavated in the later period also acts as good source for the study of the economy of the Kushana Empire.
The kushana period was remarkable as kushana monarchs issued a large number of coins. Besides, there were numerous inscriptions, most of which are donatives in nature. Some of the Indian literatures like the Jatakas, the Angavijja, and the Lalitavistara highlights on the economy of the period.
Very little is known about the land system under the kushanas. During kushana reign agriculture was given due importance. No evidence can be put forward to prove this statement; in the north western part of the Kushana Empire a survey conducted by different scholars helped them to locate remains old canals, agricultural lands on the river courses and plain areas on the terraces of hills with means to canalized rain water from top to bottom.
It is evident from, archaeological evidences that agriculture was not the principal source of income in the kushana reign. Trade was given utmost importance both internally and externally huge amount of resources were mobilized through trade. Besides crafts production mining and different kinds of taxes were imposed on the subjects carved bone and ivory products, potteries excavated from different areas within the kushana realm shows influence of ancient Matura and Taxila art. Movements of ideas and people in the form of merchants’ artists inside the Kushana Empire resulted in exchange of ideas related to culture, art and literature.
Besides internal trade, external trade both over land and maritime played a great role in the kushana economy. Roman Empire had trade links with china. There was a great demand for Chinese silk in roman market. The famous Silk Road from loyang in china reached the two Mediterranean parts of Antioch and Alexandria by passing through central Asia, west Asia and Eurasia. Chinese silk had a great demand not only in the roman but also ion the European markets besides Indian wares, crafts, gems and spices were sold in the overseas markets. Better knowledge and utilization of the monsoon wind system through the Red sea cannels gave a fresh impetus to the flourishing trade during the kushana period. To maintain overseas trade with European countries two major parts of north India known as Barbaricum at the north of the river Indus and Barygara on the mouth of the river Narmada played a vital role and it was quite evident from perilous and Ptolemy’s geography. The city of Matura was a major political center. In case of trade with central and west Asia the cities of Taxila and pushkalavati acted as gateways.
Large scale commercial prosperity during the kushana period led to extensive monetization of the whole economy. kushana gold coins found in Ethiopia proves the value of kushana gold coins in international arena. These gold coins were mainly used in the overseas trade. The kushanas themselves struck silver coins only in the lower Indus area. Large number of copper coins were also struck and used copper coins and Bartend system which were very much in practice indicate that the impact of monetization ran parallel with system of exchange of goods on the basis of needs.
With the expansion of trade proliferation of crafts also took place. Crafts in practice during the kushana period were varied in nature and form. There were different occupations like constructions (navakarmikah), actors (sailakah), carpenters (vaddhaki), perfumers(gamdhika), goldsmith (suvarnakara), clothmakers9pravarika), ironsmith (lohakara), jewelers (manikara0 etc. the mining industry was directly under the state control. the of the state was augmented through mining and marketing of precious stones. Guilds mostly called srenis acted as an early form of bank in which money was deposited and only the interest could be utilized. Cities like Taxila, Matura, Bactra were well planned and blossomed further during the kushana period. | <urn:uuid:f0988e44-e9e4-496a-8e5d-1da7a3966d7d> | {
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Gautama was born a prince, over 2500 yeaago in Lumbini, in the northern part of India. He left the comfortable life of the palace, his young wife and infant son, to go in search of true knowledge. After a life of wander, austerities and meditation, he became Buddha ('the Enlightened one'). Buddha taught compassion, non-violence and the need for right conduct in life. His teachings spread far and wide even outside India, in China and Southeast Asia. The 'Jataka' (Birth-cycle) tales narrate the stories related to the 'seekeof truth' - those who wish to follow the path of Buddha. The 550 Jatakas that form the canon, many are about both animals and humans. The stories were originally were compiled in the Pali language. Of the three Jataka tales here, the fit tells of an elephant who helped a lost traveler in a forest find his way to the city and even gave him his tusks to be sold for money. In the second the kind elephant protects a young quail. The elephant in the third story helps wood-workeby lifting and carrying logs. | <urn:uuid:5a8aa790-8648-4d44-afae-c9c976be4d70> | {
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English | Children's Literature
L390 | 15888 | Kanwit/Horrocks/Stanton/Wadewitz
L390 15888 CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
10:10a-11:00a MW (150 students) 3 cr., A&H.
The field of children’s literature presents a wealth of texts that
are both linguistically satisfying and theoretically rich.
Children’s literature raises profound questions, including those
about life, death, and marriage. Indeed, our focus in this course
is not teaching literature to children, but why children’s
literature is so powerful and why, therefore, we do teach it to
children. We will study three themes in particular: conceptions of
learning and education; children and adventure; and children,
cruelty, and violence. We will examine fairy tales, picture books,
childhood poems, nursery rhymes, film adaptations of children’s
literature, and longer readings by such authors as Lewis Carroll, R.
L. Stevenson, L. Frank Baum, Madeleine L’Engle, J. M. Barrie, Lois
Lowry, and Lemony Snicket. Course requirements are careful reading,
weekly written responses to the texts, reading quizzes, two longer
essays (5-6 pages), two exams, and thoughtful participation in | <urn:uuid:a0355537-ac03-4aa1-bb69-885e0028b326> | {
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First Olympic Appearance: 1896 (men); 2000 (women)
by John Gettings and Mark Zurlo
It's impossible to put an exact date on the first weightlifting competition, but to give you an idea, ancient Chinese texts and Greek statues commonly depict the feat. Not much about the sport has changed since then. The winner is still the man—and finally the woman—to lift the most weight.
Women's weightlifting made its first Olympic appearance in 2000. Both men and women must complete two different lifts in this event. In a "snatch lift", the barbell is pulled from the platform to above the head in one continuous motion. In a "clean-and-jerk" the lift is done in two motions. First, the bar is pulled up to the shoulders as the lifter goes into a squat and follows that with a burst into an upright position. Once there, with the bar resting on their chest, the lifter must extend his/her arms and raise the bar above their head and wait for the referee's signal.
The maximum weights the lifter is able to successfully lift using both techniques are added together to determine the winner.
If you want to keep track of how much each competitor is lifting it's easy because the plates at either end of the bar are color coded according to their weight: Red 25 kg/55 lbs; Blue 20 kg/44 lbs; Yellow 15 kg/33 lbs; Green 10 kg/22 lbs; White 5 kg/11 lbs; Black 2.5 kg/5.5 lbs; Silver 1.25 kg/2.75 lbs; Record Disks .25 kg/.55 lbs. And don't forget the bar-the men's bar weighs 44 pounds and the women's bar weighs 33 pounds.
Men compete in eight weight classes, and the women seven. The maximum weights for each of those classes were new in 2000, therefore, each gold medallist automatically established a new Olympic record in their weight class.
The weightlifting competition at the Beijing Games will feature 170 men and 90 women and will be held at the 5,400-seat Beijing University Gymnasium.
Information Please® Database, © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:484a3099-709f-4c0a-81e3-130d2e634270> | {
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Featured MP3 Podcast
"Scalp bounties were the payment of a fee for proof of death of an Indian, any Indian, on a graduated scale. At the top of the scale they would pay the highest amount for proof of death by way of the production of a scalp, or bloody red skin - origin of the term 'red skins' - of an adult male Indian. Half that fee would be payed for proof of death by the same means of a adult female, quarter to be payed for proof of death of a child, child being defined as as a human being under 10 years of age down to and including a fetus.. every single colony on the east coast, every state of the Union and territory of the United States within the confines of the 48 contiguous states, had in place, in some period of its history, a scalp bounty - removed usually when there were no longer sufficient number of Indians left to kill to warrant its continuation..that's as absolutely clinical a genocidal policy as is possible to envision, they weren't interested in any particular Indians, any Indians would do and they would pay for proof of death - they wanted all of us dead."
American Indian scholar, activist in the struggle for liberation of Indigenous Peoples in America
Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in North America, Action for Social and Ecological Justice on December 2, 2001, in Burlingotn, VT [50min / 11Mb] | <urn:uuid:ce7ef34b-0aa9-4895-8b5e-48098d26a6cd> | {
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Peripheral Arterial Disease
What Is It?
In peripheral arterial disease (previously called peripheral vascular disease), not enough blood flows to the legs. The condition usually is caused by fatty deposits called plaques that build up along the walls of blood vessels. This buildup shrinks the size of the passageway and reduces the amount of blood that can flow through. This is a condition called atherosclerosis.
The risk factors for getting peripheral arterial disease are similar to the risk factors for coronary heart disease, and include:
- Smoking cigarettes or using other forms of tobacco (such as snuff and chew)
- An abnormally high level of cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia)
- An abnormally low level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, the good cholesterol)
- High blood pressure (hypertension)
- Family history of cardiovascular disease
- Physical inactivity (too little regular exercise)
- Kidney disease
- Race (blacks appear to have a higher risk of developing the disease)
The most common symptom of peripheral arterial disease is intermittent claudication -- pain or cramping in the legs or buttocks that starts when you exercise and goes away when you rest. Often the pain is described as a deep ache, especially in the calf muscle. The pain may extend to the foot or up toward the thigh and buttock. Sometimes, there is just numbness in the leg or a sense that one leg gets tired when you walk. A foot or toes also may feel cold or numb.
If the arteries are severely narrowed, you could experience leg pain at rest, when you are not exercising. If blood flow stops completely (usually because a blood clot forms in the narrowed vessel), parts of the leg may become pale or turn blue, feel stone cold to the touch and eventually develop gangrene.
Your doctor will review your personal risk factors for atherosclerosis and your family history. Your doctor will ask if you or any family members have heart disease, high cholesterol, diabetes, kidney disease, high blood pressure or any other circulation disorder. During the physical examination, your doctor will feel the pulse in your upper leg (near the groin), on the inside of your ankle, the top of your foot and the back of your knee. Any weakness in a pulse may be a sign of narrowed arteries.
Usually the doctor can diagnose peripheral arterial disease based on your symptoms, risk factors, the examination of your legs and the strength of your pulses. Your doctor may measure the blood pressure in your legs and compare it to the blood pressure in your arm to calculate the ankle-brachial index, or ABI. The ratio the blood pressure measured at your ankle is compared to the blood pressure measured at your elbow. Normally blood pressure is the same or a little higher in the legs so the ratio is 1.0 or higher.
A ratio of less than 0.95 in either leg indicates narrowing of the arteries in that leg. People who have symptoms of peripheral arterial disease usually have a ratio of 0.8 or less.
Your doctor may order ultrasound of the legs to measure blood flow. The test is non-invasive and painless, using sound waves to create the pictures. If your doctor suspects that you need a procedure to help open a blocked blood vessel, you may need a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of your arteries or an angiogram, which is an X-ray test that uses dye in the narrowed arteries to reveal the pattern of blood flow and spot blockages.
Once you have peripheral arterial disease, your arteries usually will remain narrowed. However, even though your arteries are narrowed, your symptoms can decrease and even go away with treatment.
You can help to prevent peripheral arterial disease by modifying your risk factors:
- Don't smoke. This a major risk factor that you can control.
- Maintain a healthy weight. Obesity, especially a concentration of body fat around the waist, has been linked to unhealthy blood levels of cholesterol and other fats, which can build up inside your arteries.
- Eat a healthy diet. Your diet should be loaded with vegetables and fruits, and it should be low in saturated fats.
- Exercise regularly. Ideally, you should exercise 45 minutes or more every day.
- Lower your blood pressure. Medications may be necessary if maintaining a healthy lifestyle is not enough.
Treatment for peripheral arterial disease includes:
- Modifying risk factors. Quitting smoking can reduce the symptoms of intermittent claudication and decrease the likelihood that the disease will get worse. It is also important to lower your cholesterol levels if they are high, keep blood pressure in the normal range, and keep your diabetes well-controlled. Talk to your doctor about the best way to do this.
- Exercise programs. Studies have shown that people who exercise can nearly double the distance they can walk before they start feeling leg pain. Try to exercise at least 30 minutes every day. You may need frequent breaks if your legs hurt. Even if you have to stop every few minutes, don't give up. Any activity is very beneficial. Most people choose walking, and find that walking on a track or a treadmill is easier than walking on pavement. You could also try bike riding (stationary or standard) and swimming.
- Medications. Even if you exercise and modify your risk factors, medications can help you to better relieve symptoms and may help to slow the progression of the disease. Your doctor probably will advise you to take aspirin every day, or to take another blood-thinning medication, such as clopidogrel (Plavix). Medications, such as cilostazol (Pletal) and pentoxifylline (Trental), also can help to decrease the symptoms of intermittent claudication.
- Revascularization procedures. The goal of revascularization is to improve circulation, either by opening narrowed arteries or by bypassing the narrowed section of the artery. These procedures include surgical and nonsurgical techniques and are used in people who have severe or progressive symptoms, or whose leg pain occurs at rest. The most common nonsurgical procedure is percutaneous transluminal angioplasty, also called balloon angioplasty. In this procedure, a catheter is inserted into the narrowed artery and a small balloon at the tip is inflated to open the narrowed vessel. Often, a metallic implant called a stent is used as a scaffold to support the wall of the artery after it is opened with the balloon. In some people, the narrowed vessel must be bypassed surgically using either a section of vein taken from the leg or a synthetic graft.
When to Call a Professional
Call your doctor if you consistently suffer from cramps, aching, numbness or disproportionate fatigue in your leg muscles or buttocks when you exercise. Call immediately if you have these symptoms at rest or when any part of your leg or foot suddenly turns numb, cold, pale or a bluish color.
In most people with peripheral arterial disease, leg symptoms remain stable. About 10% to 15% of patients improve, and about 15% to 20% get worse. The outlook is better for people who are able to remain tobacco-free, stay on a healthy diet, keep their blood cholesterol under control and exercise regularly.
National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
P.O. Box 30105
Bethesda, MD 20824-0105 | <urn:uuid:05380065-66de-4d22-b1e0-8a9bb7550a9e> | {
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What Is It?
The cervix is a tubelike channel that connects the uterus to the vagina. Cervical polyps are growths that usually appear on the cervix where it opens into the vagina. Polyps are usually cherry-red to reddish-purple or grayish-white. They vary in size and often look like bulbs on thin stems. Cervical polyps are usually not cancerous (benign) and can occur alone or in groups. Most polyps are small, about 1 centimeter to 2 centimeters long. Because rare types of cancerous conditions can look like polyps, all polyps should be removed and examined for signs of cancer.
The cause of cervical polyps is not well understood, but they are associated with inflammation of the cervix. They also may result from an abnormal response to the female hormone estrogen.
Cervical polyps are relatively common, especially in women older than 20 who have had at least one child. They are rare in girls who have not started menstruating. There are two types of cervical polyps:
- Ectocervical polyps can develop from the outer surface layer cells of the cervix. They are more common in postmenopausal women.
- Endocervical polyps develop from cervical glands inside the cervical canal. Most cervical polyps are endocervical polyps, and are more common in premenopausal women.
Cervical polyps may not cause any symptoms. However, you may experience:
- Discharge, which can be foul-smelling if there is an infection
- Bleeding between periods
- Heavier bleeding during periods
- Bleeding after intercourse
If you have a cervical polyp, you probably won't be able to feel it or see it. Cervical polyps are discovered during routine pelvic exams or evaluations for bleeding or while getting a Pap test.
Sometimes a polyp will come off on its own during sexual intercourse or menstruation. However, most polyps need to be removed to treat any symptoms and to evaluate the tissue for signs of cancer, which is rare.
Visit your doctor for an annual Pap test and for regular pelvic exams. A direct examination is the best way to identify cervical polyps.
Cervical polyps are removed surgically, usually in a doctor's office. The doctor will use a special instrument, called a polyp forceps, to grasp the base of the polyp stem and then gently pluck the polyp with a gentle, twisting motion. Bleeding is usually brief and limited. Nonprescription, mild pain medication such as acetaminophen (Tylenol and others) or ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin and others) can help to relieve discomfort or cramping during or after the procedure.
The polyp or polyps are sent to a laboratory for examination. You may receive antibiotics if the polyp shows signs of infection. If the polyp is cancerous, treatment will depend on the extent and type of cancer.
Large polyps and polyp stems that are very broad usually need to be removed in an operating room using local, regional or general anesthesia. You will not need to stay in the hospital overnight. Cervical polyps may grow in the future from different areas of the cervix, usually not from the original site. Regular pelvic examination will help to identify and treat polyps before they cause symptoms.
When to Call a Professional
If you experience vaginal discharge, bleeding after intercourse, or bleeding between periods, make an appointment to see your doctor as soon as possible for a pelvic exam.
The outlook is excellent. The vast majority of cervical polyps are not cancerous. Once removed, polyps usually don't come back.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
P.O. Box 96920
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Genetic Testing Guide
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Genetic Testing Basics
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
What is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)?
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is more commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease. It was named after a famous baseball player who contracted the disease. ALS causes destruction of the nerve cells responsible for coordinating communication between the brain, spinal cord and muscles. When muscles no longer receive information from the spinal cord, they begin to shrink. People with ALS lose the ability to control their muscles. The disease does not affect a person's mental abilities. ALS is a progressive disorder because it continues to get worse over time.
People with ALS typically experience the following symptoms:
- Muscle weakness
- Muscle twitching
- Muscle wasting
- Poor coordination or clumsiness
- Muscle cramps
- Difficulty speaking or swallowing
- Increased or decreased reflexes (caused by unhealthy nerves)
- Muscles that become more rigid
Only about 5% to 10% of ALS cases are inherited. The other 90% not caused by genetics are called sporadic. The average age for someone to first see symptoms of sporadic ALS is 56. People with ALS that is genetic (it runs in the family) often see their symptoms start 10 or more years earlier. Symptoms for both causes of the disease may appear earlier or later in life.
Although ALS does not occur in distinct stages, the symptoms are progressive, meaning they get more severe over time. Symptoms depend upon which nerve groups have been damaged or destroyed.
- Early stages The first signs of ALS are often clumsiness or weakness of the hands and arms or weakness of the muscles that control speech and swallowing.
- Later stages The leg muscles become weak and poorly coordinated. Other muscles, such as those that control speech and swallowing, may become impaired.
- Long term The entire body begins to weaken and shut down. Vital muscle functions, such as breathing, become impaired. This typically leads to death.
In most cases, ALS causes death a few years after symptoms begin. With inherited ALS, the disease may progress more slowly.
How common is ALS?
Every year, between one and three people out of 100,000 are diagnosed with ALS. The disease affects men slightly more than women (about four men for every three women). In a country the size of the United States, about 3,000 to 9,000 new cases per year are reported.
Who is at risk of ALS?
In most cases of ALS, there is no way to tell if someone is at risk. About 90% of ALS cases are sporadic, meaning the affected person does not have a family history of the disease or anything else that would put him or her at increased risk. In the other 10% of ALS cases, called familial, the disease runs in the family. Researchers do not know the cause of sporadic ALS or why it has genetic and non-genetic varieties.
Is my ethnic background the key to my risk?
No. Both forms of ALS (sporadic and familial) occur among people of every ethnicity and race.
Is my family history the key to my risk?
It's not the key, but it is one factor. Almost 90% of cases occur in people who do not have a family history of the disease. Predicting who will get the sporadic form is impossible.
If you have a family history of ALS, figuring out your risk is not easy. Different families have different genes that may make different family members more or less likely to get ALS.
- Dominant inheritance. You only need to get one copy to be affected. For example, if one of your parents had ALS caused by a dominant gene, you would have a 50% chance of inheriting the changed gene from that parent.
- Recessive inheritance. You need to get one changed gene from each parent to be affected. If you only get one changed gene, you will be a carrier. Carriers do not have the disease; they have one normal copy of the gene and one altered copy. If you're a carrier, one or both of your parents must have been carriers. This also means your brothers and sisters have at least a 50% chance of having inherited the gene from one of your parents.
- X-linked inheritance. The X and Y chromosomes make a person male (XY) or female (XX). When a man inherits a change in a gene on the X chromosome, he most likely will be affected by that disease. In the same situation, a woman will be just a carrier because she has a "backup copy" of the gene on her other X chromosome.
Is there a cure?
No. However, people with ALS may benefit from technologies for example, motorized wheelchairs and electronic communication devices to compensate for their disabilities.
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
The Gene For ALS
What goes wrong with this gene?
A handful of genes have been associated with ALS. The best-understood gene is called superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1). This gene provides the instructions to make a protein called superoxide dismutase. The SOD1 gene is important for the survival of nerves that send electrical signals from the brain to the muscles. Some scientists believe that the lack of SOD1 leaves cells more vulnerable to "programmed cell death," a process used throughout the body to remove cells that are not functioning properly. With this type of "self-destruct" program around, the cell needs some checkpoints to prevent programmed cell death from happening in normal cells. SOD1 could be one of those checkpoints. When you don't have SOD1, nerve cells that should stay alive might be killed off. When the nerves die, the muscles stop working.
Researchers have described more than 100 changes throughout the SOD1 gene. One change is associated with a more rapid progression of the disease, while another change is associated with a slower progression.
Most of the changes in SOD1 cause dominant ALS, meaning you only need to inherit one copy of the change to develop the disease. Changes in SOD1 account for about 20% of inherited ALS cases. Genetic testing is only available for the SOD1 gene. A small proportion of other inherited ALS cases is caused by changes in one of three genes: FUS (~5% of cases), TARDBP (2 to 6% of cases), and ANG (less than 1% of cases). Still, for most cases of inherited ALS, no specific genetic change would be found after testing these four genes.
Should You Be Tested?
What types of tests are available?
If you have ALS, you can obtain a DNA test to determine whether the disease is caused by a change in the SOD1 gene. Even if you have ALS, your chance of having a change in the SOD1 gene depends on your family history. Remember, most cases of ALS are not related to a change in the SOD1 gene. Work with your doctor to help you decide whether genetic testing makes sense for you.
If you have no symptoms of ALS, a pre-symptomatic test may tell you how likely you are to get the disease in the future. If you have a close family member, such as a parent or a sibling, who has a change in the SOD1 gene, the DNA test can identify whether you share the same change in your SOD1 gene.
Pre-symptomatic testing is controversial because the test cannot determine when you will start having symptoms of ALS or whether you will develop the disease. If you have a change in the SOD1 gene, it does not necessarily mean you will get ALS.
With few exceptions, to qualify for testing you must either have symptoms of the disease or have a close relative (parent or sibling) who has been diagnosed with the disease. Pre-symptomatic testing of children for ALS is discouraged. According to generally accepted guidelines for genetic counseling, children under 18 should not be tested for a disease that begins in adulthood unless there is specific benefit to the child.
If you are concerned about your risk for ALS, speak with a medical professional who is knowledgeable about the disease to find out if testing is appropriate for you.
Carrier testing/Prenatal testing
If you have a family history of ALS, carry a change in one of the ALS genes mentioned above and have a baby on the way, you might be curious to find out whether your child carries the same change. But even if both you and your future child have a change in one of these genes, it does not mean that either one of you will develop ALS.
Understanding Test Results and Options
How Do You Make Sense Of The Results?
The results of DNA testing for ALS are complicated and rarely provide definitive answers. That's why testing is designed only for people who already have symptoms of ALS. You should have your results reviewed by a medical professional familiar with the test. He or she can explain how the results apply to you.
What does a positive result mean for me?
If you have symptoms of ALS and test positive for one of the genes, you already know how challenging the disease can be. If you do not have symptoms and you learn that you have inherited a genetic change found in a relative who has ALS, you might start developing symptoms around the same age as they did, but it could be many years later. The type of mutation may tell you if the disease is more likely to progress quickly or not, but these predictions are not perfect.
What does a positive result mean for my family?
If you test positive, your brothers, sisters and each of your children have a 50% chance of having inherited the gene. Your brothers and sisters may want to be tested to find out whether they carry an ALS gene. According to generally accepted principles of medical ethics, children under 18 should not be tested for adult diseases such as ALS unless there is an immediate benefit to the child.
Could I get a positive test result, but not carry the disease gene (a "false positive")?
Yes. Sometimes testing uncovers a change in the gene that has not been seen before. When this happens, the laboratory may not know if this change causes the disease or not. Once a new change is seen in several people with ALS, but not seen in healthy people, the laboratory can say that the change causes the disease.
Could I get a negative test result, but actually have the disease (a "false negative")?
Yes. Because more than one gene can cause ALS, not having a change in one of the four genes mentioned earlier only tells you "there's not a change in one of those four genes." You may still get ALS after a negative test because 90% of ALS cases are sporadic.
How will I cope if the test shows I might develop ALS?
Learning that you are affected by a serious illness is difficult. No formal research has been done on the psychological effects of genetic testing for ALS. Research on people with Huntington's disease, another disorder that gets progressively worse, has shown that people receiving test results tend to accept the news after a period of adjustment.
People who receive negative test results also may need to cope with new feelings. Some report that they feel guilty that they did not get the disease, especially when one of their brothers or sisters was found to carry the gene.
Ultimately, everyone will deal with the information in his or her own way. Most importantly, people who undergo testing should have support available, including friends, family and professional counselors.
If I have the ALS gene, can I have children who don't have the gene?
Yes. If you have a change in the SOD1 gene, or one of the three other genes mentioned earlier, you have a 50% chance of passing it on to each child you have.
If I DON'T have the ALS gene, can I have children who DO have the gene?
Yes. If you and your partner do not have a change in the SOD1 gene, or one of the three genes mentioned earlier, then your child cannot inherit the change from you, but it is possible that your child could have a new genetic change that has not been in the family before. Nobody knows exactly how often this happens, but the odds are against it.
How does the test work?
The ALS test requires a blood sample. A lab obtains DNA from the blood and looks at the genes associated with ALS: SOD1, FUS, TARDBP and ANG. The test can be ordered as a "panel" that looks at all four genes, or as an "a la carte" test for any one (or more) of the four genes. If the lab notes any changes from the normal sequence, the test will be reported as "positive."
If you decide to be tested for ALS, you should do it at a medical center that has experience with presymptomatic genetic testing.
If you're thinking about being tested, you probably have a family member with ALS. The neurologist caring for your family member can refer you to a testing center. A center has neurologists, geneticists and counselors with experience in dealing with the complicated issues related to genetic testing. You will have to sign a consent form indicating that you understand and agree to the test.
What do the tests cost?
The test costs about $500 to $900 for a single gene (depending on which gene), or about $1,500 to get all four genes at once. Costs vary slightly depending upon which lab does the testing.
Does insurance pay for the test?
Most health-insurance companies pay for "diagnostic testing," which means the test is being done to confirm a diagnosis in a person who already has symptoms. However, there are many different plans, and you should check whether diagnostic genetic testing is a covered service before having the test performed.
Many insurance companies will not pay for a predictive test (a test for a person who does not have symptoms), especially if there is nothing that can be done to prevent the condition (no change in patient management). If you are considering this test, call your insurance company and ask about its coverage.
How long does it take to get results?
The results of DNA testing for inherited ALS take about six to eight weeks. The results will not be reported directly to you. Instead, the laboratory provides the results to the medical center that ordered the test. You need to return to the center for another appointment to discuss the results. This way, your family and friends can be there for support when you receive the results.
Can a health-insurance company raise my rates or drop me from coverage if I test positive?
In 2008, the U.S. government passed a law called GINA (Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act). This law prohibits discrimination by health insurers and employers on the basis of genetic information. Learn more here.
Also, this may depend on whether you have group insurance or are self-employed. Both federal and state laws usually cover people with group insurance, while state laws only cover people who are self-employed. Also, the Federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 prohibits health insurance discrimination based on any "health status-related factor" (including genetic information) by group health plans. Unfortunately, this act does not apply to the self-employed.
Some states have enacted legislation to cover the gaps. Most states prohibit health-insurance companies from using genetic information to deny coverage. Other states require specific justification for the use of genetic information in denying a claim. Texas bans the use of genetic information by any group health plans, and Alabama prohibits discrimination based upon predisposition to cancer.
Life insurance, long-term care and disability insurance are generally not covered by these laws. People with life and disability coverage provided by their employers are unlikely to have this insurance affected by a genetic test result.
For information about laws in individual states, click on the following links:
Learn more about life insurance, disability insurance, and long-term care insurance laws.
Learn more about health insurance laws.
Last updated June 28, 2011
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
InteliHealth Medical Content
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Mental nerve is a general somatic afferent (sensory) nerve which provides sensation to the anterior aspects of the chin and lower lip as well as the buccal gingivae of the mandibular anterior teeth and the premolars. It is a branch of the posterior trunk of the inferior alveolar nerve, which is itself a branch of the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). The nerve emerges at the mental foramen in the mandibula, and divides beneath the Depressor anguli oris muscle into three branches:
• one descends to the skin of the chin.
• two ascend to the skin and mucous membrane of the lower lip.
These branches communicate freely with the facial nerve.
The mental nerve can be blocked with local anesthesia, a procedure used in surgery of the chin, lower lip and buccal mucosa from midline to the second premolar. In this technique, local anesthetic is infiltrated in the soft tissue surrounding the mental foramen.
What is mental nerve neuralgia?
Mental nerve neuralgia is a painful disorder of the mental nerve, which may be damaged or not function properly.
Mental nerve neuralgia can have many different causes. The most common cause is a complication of dental treatment. If this is not the cause, the disorder may be the first sign of a (general/systemic) malignancy.
Mental nerve neuropathy (MNN) or “numb chin syndrome” is a clinical symptom of metastatic carcinoma to the mandible. MNN is defined as numbness or paresthesia localized to the chin or lower lip, and it is often accompanied by an abnormal sensation of “thickening” of the lip similar to the experience of dental anesthesia. Most cases that are not dental in origin are associated with diffuse metastatic disease, particularly with underlying lymphoproliferative disorders. The mandible is an uncommon site for metastatic carcinoma but when it is involved, the primary tumour commonly originates in the breast, lung, prostate, kidney, thyroid, ovaries or testicles. In 47% of cases, MNN precedes diagnosis of the primary tumour, and in patients with a history of cancer, MNN often indicates recurrence or progression of the disease. When MNN develops in patients with underlying carcinoma, survival is typically less than one year.
MNN is a symptom caused by dysfunction of the terminal sensory branch of the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve. MNN is commonly due to compression of the mental or inferior alveolar nerve from a lesion present in the mandible or skull. Initially, the altered sensation is unilateral, but this may progress and cause bilateral mandibular symptoms. Glaser and colleagues described anesthesia and pain as the main symptoms of metastatic mandibular disease, and patients generally report paresthesia or dysesthesia in the peripheral distribution of the inferior alveolar and mental nerves. This symptom is the most consistent finding when a neoplasm is located in the ramus and body of the mandible, as was the case with our patient. The pain associated with a metastatic mandibular lesion can be severe and intense, and it may mimic a toothache, temporomandibular joint discomfort, osteomyelitis or atypical trigeminal neuralgia.
MNN may also be associated with local trauma, cysts, inflammatory disorders, mandibular atrophy or iatrogenic nerve injury by dental anesthesia. Other systemic causes of MNN include neurological disorders, diabetes mellitus, sarcoidosis, amyloidosis and sickle cell anemia. The literature review by Laurencet and coworkers suggests that lymphoma and adenocarcinoma of the breast are the primary tumours most likely to metastasize to the mandible. In patients with suggestive symptoms, mandibular x-rays or panoramic films may be diagnostic. A standard mandible series includes a right and left lateral oblique, posterior-anterior (PA) view, reverse Towne’s and submental vertex radiographs. The panoramic view is a valuable screening method because it has tomographic effects and visualizes the entire mandible, both temporal-mandibular joints, and maxillary sinuses on one film, allowing for more reliable comparison of anatomic structures. In patients with a history of carcinoma, radiographic evaluation should include a CT scan of the mandible, basal skull, head and neck if possible. CT provides images of thin sections of both hard and soft tissues without superimposition.
If no traumatic etiology or systemic disease is apparent, physicians should look for dental disease. Odontogenic infections and abscesses can present as intra-oral or facial swelling, which may be firm or fluctuant, with or without discharge, erythema and heat. Patients will often complain of spontaneous and increasing pain that is aggravated by heat, cold or chewing. Clinical exam may reveal tooth decay, dental restorations or both in the affected tooth. Periodontal infections may present with similar symptoms. In such cases, the gingiva may appear erythematous and edematous with deposits of plaque (white, thin) or calculus (yellow to brown or black) around the necks of the teeth.
Patients with temporomandibular joint dysfunction or myofascial pain syndromes often present with intermittent or constant dull pain that may be associated with mastication (e.g., temporalis or masseter use). In these cases, cheek, temporal and periauricular pain are common, and patients may report a history of grinding, clenching and reduced jaw excursion. Patients may also have experienced their jaw “locking” open or closed in the past.
Trigeminal neuralgia is characterized by sharp, often excruciating pain that is stimulated by a trigger; the patient often identifies the specific area and action that stimulates their discomfort.
Signs and symptoms
Patients complain of numbness of their cheek and lower lip, in combination with neuropathic pain.
How is mental nerve neuralgia diagnosed?
The first thing that must be done is a neurological examination of the cheek and lips. You will always be given a thorough examination by a dentist. If necessary, and if the problems did not result from dental treatment, further examinations are done to exclude other causes.
Do I need additional examinations?
• Diagnostic examination for other non-physical factors important for your pain, have already been done by yourself trough filling out your pain questionnaires.
• If the doctor suspects other causes, he or she will refer you to an internist.
What are my treatment possibilities?
Depending on the cause of your pain, your pain specialist will decide whether or not to embark on physical treatment. Based on the results of the completed pain questionnaire, additional examinations can be carried out and, apart from physical treatment, other methods of treatment will be suggested.
If the results of your pain questionnaire are abnormal, your pain specialist will offer you one of the non-physical treatments listed below:
• Psychological Treatment
• Depression Treatment
• Cognitive-Behavioural Treatment
• Rehabilitation Treatment
• Neuropathic pain medication
Interventional Pain Treatments
• Local infiltration of the mental nerve
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ČAḠĀNRŪD (Čaḡānīrūd in Farroḵī, the seventh and last right-bank tributary of the Oxus or Amu Darya, rising in what in medieval Islamic times were known as the Bottamān mountains and flowing southwards through the principality of Čaḡānīān into the Oxus just above the important crossing-point of Termeḏ (modern Termez). Hence it flows from what is now the Gissarski (from Ḥeṣār) Khrebet on the borders of the Tajik and Uzbek SSRs but has the greater part of its course in the Surkhandar’inskaya oblast of the easternmost part of the Uzbek SSR; its upper course is now known as the Qarataḡ Daryā and its lower one (below Denau, from Deh-e Now, the medieval Čaḡānīān town) as the Sorḵān Daryā. Of the classical Islamic geographers, Maqdesī (Moqaddasī; p. 22), calls it the anhār al-Ṣaḡānīān (the plural “rivers” presumably referring to its separate headwaters); Ebn Rosta (p. 93, tr. Wiet, p. 103) calls it the Rāmīḏ, thus confusing it with the Kāfernehān river to the east.
See also Barthold, Turkestan3, p. 72.
Farroḵī Sīstānī, Dīvān, ed. M. Dabīrsīāqī, Tehran, 1363 Š./1984, p. 189.
Ḥodūd al-ʿālam, tr. Minorsky, 6.11, p. 71, cf. comm. p. 209.
Le Strange, Lands, pp. 436, 440. J. Marquart, Wehrot und Arang, Leiden, 1938, pp. 89-94.
Bol’shaya sovetskaya èntsiklopediya3 XXV, 1976, p. 93a.
(C. Edmund Bosworth)
Originally Published: December 15, 1990
Last Updated: December 15, 1990
This article is available in print.
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Hitler has become an iconic figure in Asia in recent years, and his book Mein Kampf is being sold in bookstores across the continent. Israel has decided to work against that trend by inviting educators from India, Korea, Singapore, New Zealand and Australia to guide them in Holocaust studies.
For the first time a group of 20 school principals and teachers from India recently arrived in Israel to learn about the Holocaust at the International School at Yad Vashem (Israel's national Holocaust memorial and museum).
Dressed in traditional garb, the Indian guests were taught about the true horrors of the Holocaust as a background for ethics and history lessons at schools and universities in their own country. Some of the participants represented school systems that oversee the education of over two million students all the way from kindergarten to university.
The Indian delegation was invited by the Foreign Ministry's Department for Combating Anti-Semitism and by Yad Vashem, both of which hoped the visit would spark increased study of the Holocaust throughout Asia.
This month will also see the first visit by a group of 23 educators from New Zealand. Recently, a group of 20 teachers from Australia and another delegation from Singapore arrived for background lessons on the Holocaust.
"This demonstrates how the topic of the Holocaust remains of interest and is still relevant to the 21st century," said Gideon Baker, director of the Department for Combating Anti-Semitism.
"In 2013, we will expand the study of the Holocaust to countries that have not yet studied the subject in any organized manner, such as South Korea and Cyprus, as well as establish mobile training teams in India," Baker added.
There is no anti-Semitism in India. Mein Kampf sells in local bookstores and there is general admiration of Hitler as being a "strong man," but the public is mostly ignorant about who Hitler truly was and what he did to six million Jews. "Precisely for this reason it is important to teach the Holocaust in this country," said Baker.
Asia in general does not have an anti-Semitism problem. But Nazi symbols are widely used and Hitler is often idolized without true understanding of what this means to the Jews.
Israeli diplomats in Asia say that this phenomenon most often occurs as a result of ignorance and with no hostile intentions. "A lot of people in Asia are aware of what happened in Europe in general. Unfortunately, many people think that Hitler was a hero, not a monster, so it is important to strengthen the memory of the Holocaust," explained the Foreign Ministry. | <urn:uuid:05c4bbe7-d2cb-47e4-a258-4ca449f1cc8c> | {
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More than three decades ago, Vietnamese refugees began to settle in Versailles, a then-isolated community in eastern New Orleans. By the early 2000s, this working-class enclave was home to 8,000 residents. But although the community had accomplished material successes, it remained divided between older immigrants and American-born youth. Many Versailles residents felt like perpetual outsiders in greater New Orleans, ignored by the local government.
A Village Called Versailles is the incredible story of this little-known, tight-knit community in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. When the storm devastated New Orleans in August 2005, Versailles residents rebuilt their neighborhood faster than any other damaged neighborhood in the city, only to find themselves threatened by a new toxic landfill slated to open just two miles away. Forced out of Vietnam by the war 30 years ago, many residents felt their homes were being taken away from them once again.
By January 2006, more than half of the neighborhood has been rebuilt, financed by friends and family, with no help from FEMA. Community leaders put together an ambitious redevelopment plan for Versailles, including its own senior housing, a cultural center, and a community farm and market. But New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin exercised his emergency power to open Chef Menteur Landfill mere miles from Versailles for toxic debris disposal from Katrina — without getting an environmental impact study first.
Outraged, Versailles fought back. Residents protested at City Hall and crowded public hearings by the hundreds, making the Vietnamese community’s presence felt in New Orleans for the first time. As elders and youth fought side by side — chanting in English and Vietnamese — Versailles finally won a political voice.
- S. Leo ChiangProducer/Director | <urn:uuid:7b80449d-abf7-4c78-9bc2-0fe80269a58f> | {
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Spoon-billed sandpiper “headstarting” success
04 October 2012 | News story
With only about 100 breeding pairs remaining in the wild, the Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus) is in crisis. To help save this species from extinction, SOS – Save Our Species, in which IUCN is a partner, is supporting an innovative conservation project to boost the numbers of juvenile Spoon-billed Sandpipers at their summer breeding grounds in Chukotka, Russia.
Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT) an IUCN member, working in partnership with Moscow Zoo and Birds Russia has achieved incredible success by hatching, rearing and releasing nine Spoon-billed Sandpiper chicks, a species listed as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™.
The nine chicks hatched from 11 eggs carefully taken from breeding grounds on the tundra of the Chukotka region in eastern Russia. Next they were carefully monitored, hatched and nourished in the nearby village of Meinypil’gyno before being released. This intense phase in the project required constant attention and coordination from the team as they worked ceaselessly to give the hatchlings every opportunity for survival. Fledglings gained strength living in a purpose-built open-air aviary designed to shelter the birds from predators with the added protection of a guard who kept vigil night and day.
From Russia the birds will begin an 8,000km migration to South East Asia to their inter-tidal wintering grounds. This pioneering work is all the more remarkable considering that in the wild just three Spoon-billed Sandpipers, out of every 20 eggs laid, survive long enough to start the migration.
“We worked around the clock to keep the chicks alive and healthy,” said Roland Digby, project manager, Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust. “It was wonderful to release them and watch them as they found their way into the wild, but it was definitely tinged with anxiety, knowing the terrible threats they face.”
Their journey is made more difficult by the loss of inter-tidal habitats along the route which provide important re-fuelling points. Arriving in Southeast Asia, the Spoon-billed Sandpiper faces further threats from human hunters forced by economic pressures to hunt shorebirds. WWT and partners continue to work on strategies to develop longer-term economic and environmental solutions to help people in the South East Asia region give up their reliance on such destructive forms of hunting while extending protection to the Spoon-billed Sandpiper across its range.
A further 20 eggs destined for a Spoon-billed Sandpiper conservation breeding programme were brought from the breeding grounds to WWT’s facility at Slimbridge in the UK. It is hoped that these eggs will add to the stock of laid by these birds can one day be carefully relocated back to Russia for hatching in their natural habitat, boosting fledgling numbers that will make the long trek south for the winter.
Meanwhile, with nine out of 11 eggs hatching, the success of this first season of “headstarting”, demonstrates how innovative conservation and international collaboration can work to deliver measurable and meaningful results, although more funding is required to run the project again in 2013. | <urn:uuid:7c3546fc-dec0-41da-8d9d-dab8fca14b17> | {
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Acting beyond boundaries to address urban water challenge
“You cannot optimize water in cities without looking at the natural water basin or catchment areas which are serving them” said Dr Mark Smith, Director of the IUCN Water Programme during a recent workshop at the UN World Water Day conference in Cape Town.
From 20 to 22 March experts and scientists met in Cape Town, South Africa on the occasion of World Water Day to discuss solutions addressing the global urban water challenge. During the workshop, participants explored an integrated approach to providing access to water and sanitation in urban areas. In particular they focused on the urban connection with surrounding ecosystems, agriculture and industrial services, climate change and the role of business.
“Cities, business and agriculture need to act beyond their own boundaries, to address shared risks and opportunities to optimize urban water and invest in building more resilient basins” said Joppe Cramwinckel from the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD). A range of stakeholders and perspectives were brought together, including water, energy, food, land use, social equity, climate change, utility management, ecosystem services and job creation. Several examples of innovations and good practices were demonstrated.
“Basins also need investment. In terms of factors like risk reduction and investment, we have to ask: what is the best mix of natural and built infrastructure? And we need to see shifts towards building the resilience of basins”, said Dr Mark Smith. This was echoed by Jack Moss from AquaFed who commented that "the cost of ignoring the true economics of water is far greater than the costs of managing water properly" .
The real number of people without access to adequate water and sanitation is increasing rapidly, and this is causing disease, loss of economic productivity and environmental damage.
The challenge is not only an economic one. More taps and toilets are desperately needed. In addition to more infrastructure ‘hardware’, there is also a significant requirement for ‘software’ infrastructure. Ownership needs to be created among all sectors across the value chain, and effective management and financing tools are needed.
Martin Ginster from Sasol, a petrochemical company, said that “there is a growing realization that water is a core business, not just an add-on. We are moving beyond the factory fence to see how we can contribute to better management of water across the catchments within which we operate”. Marius van Aardt, from private water operator Senbcorp Silulumanzi urged that “business and water managers should innovate, but always start with community involvement”, highlighting the need for different stakeholders to collaborate.
There is scope for the involvement of small and medium-sized enterprises. Kevin Wall from South Africa’s Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) stated that “given the need for maintenance and jobs, it’s a no-brainer that small businesses involvement- if appropriately enabled and managed- could be an ideal vehicle. Construction jobs are short-term, but maintenance jobs are for life.”
The workshop was convened by the WBCSD, AquaFed, the International Water Association (IWA) and the South African National Business Initiative (NBI)
Key messages emerging from the session include:
• The complexity is vast and the numbers related to urbanization and the urban water challenge staggering. But there are significant opportunities for business to help transform urban water, improve bio-capacity, manage ecosystems and find innovative sustainable solutions.
• Planning for providing energy, water and food should be integrated as early as possible, from top to bottom, and ‘silo’ thinking must be broken.
• All parties -government, business, academics, communities and different sectors - must learn to speak the same language and commit to sharing information.
• Leading cities are already thinking ‘out of the box’ and looking for up-stream and down-stream solutions e.g. investing in eco-system services is usually more cost-effective than built infrastructure equivalents.
• Leading businesses are thinking in innovative ways, and investing ‘outside the factory fence’ across the catchment to ensure security of supply and shared benefits of water services e.g. in agriculture, ecosystems and urban water management.
• There are great opportunities for job creation, provided that enabling environments are created e.g. the role of small and medium sized enterprises in urban infrastructure maintenance.
For more detail, a report on the workshop event will be available early April 2011.
What businesses can do:
• Conduct a ‘Water Footprint Assessment’
• Use the WBCSD’s ‘Global Water Tool’ to map water use and assess risks.
• Encourage leadership to join the UN’s CEO Water Mandate.
For more information, please contact:
Mark Smith, Director IUCN Water Programme | <urn:uuid:5dba150a-c3ae-4a23-923c-9e5f80ede132> | {
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|Scientific Name:||Porcula salvania|
|Species Authority:||Hodgson, 1847|
Sus salvanius (Hodgson, 1847)
|Taxonomic Notes:||We follow Funk et al. (2007) is removing this species from the genus Sus and placing it in the monotypic genus Porcula.|
|Red List Category & Criteria:||Critically Endangered C2a(ii) ver 3.1|
|Assessor/s:||Narayan, G., Deka, P. & Oliver, W.|
|Reviewer/s:||Leus, K. & Oliver, W. ( Pig, Peccary & Hippo Red List Authority)|
Listed as Critically Endangered because its population size is estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, with all individuals in a single subpopulation, and it is experiencing a continuing decline.
|Range Description:||In the past, this species was confirmed from only a very few locations in northern West Bengal and north-western Assam in India, but is believed likely to have occurred in tall, wet alluvial grasslands extending in a narrow belt south of the Himalayan foothills from north-western Uttar Pradesh and southern Nepal to Assam, possibly extending at intervals into contiguous habitats in southern Bhutan (Oliver 1980). However, it is now confined to a very few locations in and around Manas National Park in north-western Assam (Narayan and Deka 2002, Narayan and Oliver, in press).|
Regionally extinct:Bangladesh; Nepal
|Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.|
|Population:||Today, this species is at the brink of extinction, as only a few isolated and small populations survive in the wild. In fact, the only viable population of the species, with a few hundred individuals, exists in small grassland pockets of Manas National Park (500 km²) and an adjacent reserve forest in the Manas Tiger Reserve and nowhere else in the world (Narayan and Deka 2002). Sixteen captive-bred Pygmy Hogs were released in Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary in May 2008 and similar reintroductions have been planned in Nameri and Orang National Parks of Assam. There are about 75 animals in captivity in northwestern Assam.|
|Habitat and Ecology:||The Pygmy Hog is the smallest and the rarest wild suid in the world. This species is dependent on early successional riverine communities, typically comprising dense tall grasslands, commonly referred to as 'thatchland', but which, in its pristine state, is intermixed with a wide variety of herbaceous plants and early colonizing shrubs and young trees (Oliver and Deb Roy 1993). There are many species of tall grasses, which dominate in different situations. The most important of these communities for Pygmy Hogs are those which tend to be dominated by Saccharum munja, S. spontaneum, S. bengalensis, Themeda villosa, Narenga porphyrocoma and Imperata cylindrical, which form characteristic associations of 1 to 4 m height, during secondary stages of the succession on well drained ground. These communities are not, therefore, maintained by prolonged inundation, though they may be maintained by periodic burning. However, as they also include some of the most commercially important thatching grasses, some of these areas (including many of those in protected areas) are harvested annually and virtually all of them are subject to wide-scale annual (in some areas, twice-annual) burning. Although it has been suggested by ecologists that any burning be conducted at the beginning of the dry season (in December or early January) in alternate blocks (demarcated by fire-lines) and only once in 2-3 years, most of the grasslands continue to be burnt every year in the dry season, which deleteriously affects their floral and faunal diversity. It has been recognised that some amount of ?early? burning may be required in order to preclude the possibility of later, uncontrolled 'hot' burns, which are far more destructive, and possibly to delay natural succession of the grasslands in protected areas. However, early burning also may deprive hogs and other grassland dependant species of cover and other resources for a longer period prior to the regrowth of vegetation and has the same consequences of dramatically reducing floral and faunal diversity.|
The main threats to survival of Pygmy Hog are loss and degradation of habitat due to human settlements, agricultural encroachments, dry-season burning, livestock grazing, commercial forestry and flood control schemes; the latter as a result of the disruption of natural successions and the replacements of former grasslands by later stage communities or other developments. In Assam, as elsewhere, most former habitat has been lost to settlements and agriculture following the rapid expansion of the human population (Oliver, 1980, 1981, 1989; Oliver and Deb Roy, 1993). Some management practices, such as planting of trees in the grasslands and indiscriminate use of fire to create openings and to promote fresh growth of grass, have caused extensive damage to the habitats the authorities intend to protect (Narayan and Deka 2002). A combination of these factors has almost certainly resulted in the loss of all of the small populations of these animals in the reserve forests of north-western Assam. These losses strongly reinforced the overwhelming importance of the largest and, by the early to mid-1980's, only known surviving population in the Manas (Oliver, 1981, 1989; Oliver and Deb Roy 1993).
Hunting for wild meat by tribes was not considered a major problem in the past but is now threatening the remnant populations (Narayan and Deka 2002). The survival of Pygmy Hogs is closely linked to the existence of the tall, wet grasslands of the region which, besides being a highly threatened habitat itself, is also crucial for survival of a number endangered species such as Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), tiger (Panthera tigris), swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), wild buffalo (Bubalus arnee), hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus), Bengal florican (Eupodotis bengalensis), swamp francolin (Francolinus gularis) and some rare turtles and terrapins.
The Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme (PHCP) is a broad-based research and conservation programme for this highly threatened species and its equally endangered habitats (Narayan and Deka 2002, Narayan 2006). It is being conducted under the aegis of a formal International Agreement, that was originally signed at New Delhi in 1995 and later renewed as a Memorandum of Understanding in 2001, between IUCN SSC Pigs Peccaries and Hippos Specialist Group, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust (DWCT), the Forest Department, Government of Assam, and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. A local governing body consisting of representatives of the four signatories and some Indian experts has been constituted to provide guidance to the Programme. The implementation of this agreement, the first of its kind in India, is being undertaken by PHCP and the local partner organisation, EcoSystems-India, with funds provided by DWCT, with assistance from the European Union, Darwin Initiative (UK government), Assam Valley Wildlife Society, Zoological Society for the Conservation of Species and Populations (ZGAP), and various other sources. The primary aim of this collaborative programme is conservation of the Pygmy Hogs and other endangered species of tall grasslands of the region through field research, captive breeding and re-introduction after adequate restoration of degraded former habitats. One of the main objectives of the Programme was to establish a well structured conservation breeding project for pygmy hogs as an insurance against the possible early extinction of the species in the wild and as a source of animals for re-introduction projects. In 1996, six (2 male, 4 female) wild hogs were caught from Manas National Park and transferred to a custom-built research and breeding centre built at Basistha near Guwahati, the capital of Assam. Five more hogs were caught and released at the capture site after fitting three males and a female with radio harness for radio-telemetry studies. The hog population kept in captivity almost doubled in 1997 from 18 to 35 through planned breeding. Between 1998 and 2002, several more hogs were born in captivity and a rescued wild hog was added to the captive population, taking it to over 75 animals which constituted over 1200% increase in 6 years. Although two more enclosures and a quarantine facility were constructed at Basistha, the unanticipated and rapid increase in the captive population created accommodation problems, forcing the programme to restrict breeding in captivity. Subsequently, a much larger facility was established at Potasali near Nameri National Park in Assam. This facility includes four holding enclosures and four pre-release enclosures with near natural habitat, where hogs earmarked for reintroduction are reared. Since the animals at Basistha Centre are the only captive pygmy hogs in the world, the second centre is also an insurance against any catastrophe at the present location. Once the Potasali pre-release enclosures were ready and the habitat at one of the release sites became reasonably suitable, the hogs were allowed to breed again.
Surveys to locate possible release sites in Assam were carried out, as the rapidly increasing captive population necessitated transfer of some of these pygmy hog back to where they belonged. Two potential re-introduction sites were identified in Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary and Nameri National Park, both in Sonitpur district of Assam bordering Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. Habitat management and protection regimes at the potential release sites were assessed in consultation with authorities and recommendations for restoration and scientific management were given. The management authorities are trying to implement the recommendations with limited auccess. The habitat in a part of Orang National Park was also found suitable, but in absence of any reliable record of the species formerly occurring in this area, further evaluation is considered necessary.
The actual release of hogs was delayed initially due to security problems and later due to presence of factors that were responsible for disappearance of the hogs at the potential reintroduction sites. Once the some of the recommendations were implemented at one of the sites (Sonai Rupai), preparations for soft release were started. In 2007, 23 babies were produced at Basistha. Three social groups comprising 16 (7 male, 9 female) hogs, including 10 yearlings, were transferred from Basistha to Potasali pre-release enclosures in December 2007. They were kept in the pre-release enclosures under minimum human contact. Each of these enclosures are 2,400 to 3,200 m² in size and capable of meeting most of the food requirements of a group of 5-6 hogs. These hogs began to behave like wild animals within a few weeks and did not come close even to their keepers except in an area where they were offered a few morsels of their favourite food. They were shifted to a release enclosure in Sonai Rupai after five months, and were given access to go to the wild after about two weeks. Unfortunately, the radio telemetry studies on these hogs could not be done as the radio harness fitted on six of them while they were in pre-release caused injuries when they moved rapidly through very dense grass. The released hogs will be monitored through indirect means (droppings, nests) and by observing them at bait stations.
Community conservation initiatives and awareness campaign have been started in the fringe villages of Manas, Nameri and Sonai Rupai as it is almost impossible to save the species without the cooperation of the local population. Capacity building and training programmes are also being carried out for the frontline protection staff in the above protected areas.
This species is listed on CITES Appendix I (as Sus salvanius).
|Citation:||Narayan, G., Deka, P. & Oliver, W. 2008. Porcula salvania. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 24 May 2013.|
|Feedback:||If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please fill in the feedback form so that we can correct or extend the information provided| | <urn:uuid:cda56879-e323-49ba-8ca6-acb2364ccf62> | {
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Cochin is basically a collection of islands and narrow peninsulas and can be divided into Ernakulam, Willingdon Island, Mattancherry and Fort Kochi. An international airport and seaport, connect Cochin to the rest of the world. The city also has an outstanding network of road, rail, backwater, and a modern communication system. Cochin was once an insignificant fishing village. When the backwaters of the Arabian Sea and the streams descending from the Ghats caused the separation of this village from the mainland and landlocked the harbour, it became one of the safest ports on India's southwestern coast. The port assumed a new strategic importance and began to enjoy commercial prosperity.
When the Portuguese penetrated the Indian Ocean in the late 15th century, they arrived at India's southwestern coast. Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral founded the first European settlement on Indian soil at Cochin in 1500. Vasco da Gama, discoverer of the sea route to India, established the first Portuguese factory (trading station) in Cochin in 1502, and the Portuguese viceroy Alfonso de Albuquerque built the first European fort in India in 1503.
The city remained a Portuguese possession until the Dutch conquered it in 1663. Much Portuguese architecture still exists in the city. Always a tourist favourite, this city offers visitors plenty. Forts, palaces, museums, old churches, cool backwaters, palm fringed lagoons, beaches and the practicality of a contemporary metro.
Population: Approx 16.6 lakhs
Climate: Being situated very close to the sea, Cochin has a moderate climate. Heavy showers are experienced during the months June, July and August due to the South-West Monsoon. The North-East Monsoon brings light rainfall during the months of September, October, November and December. The months from December to February are pretty cool.
Main Language(s): Malayalam, English Time Zone: GMT + 5.5
Best Time To Visit: Between November and February
The Chinese fishing nets
These huge cantilevered fishing nets along the backwaters are the legacy of the traders from the court of Kublai Khan. Built of teakwood and bamboo poles, they are fascinating to see. Adjacent to the fishing nets is the Vasco Da Gama Square, a narrow walkway with little stalls that serve fresh seafood and tender coconuts.
St. Francis Church:
This Protestant church was originally built by the Portuguese in 1510 A.D. It is considered to be India's oldest European church. Today it is governed by the Church of South India (CSI). Vasco Da Gama was buried here before his remains were taken back to Portugal 14 years later.
Located on Rose Street, Vasco House is one of the oldest Portuguese houses in Fort-Kochi and is believed to have been the residence of Vasco Da Gama. Vasco House sports the typical European glass paned windows and verandahs, characteristic of the times.
A large wooden gate with the initials VOC engraved on it, the VOC Gate is a little way off from Vasco House, facing the Parade Ground. The initials correspond to the monogram of the once powerful Dutch East India Company, which had its office here for almost 150 years.
Santa Cruz Cathedral
Built by the Portuguese in around the 16th century, this Roman Catholic church is famous for the beautiful paintings on its ceiling. It was demolished by the British when they took over Cochin in 1795. Until a new building was commissioned in 1887, there was no church on the site for almost a 100 years. The Santa Cruz church was declared a Basilica by Pope John Paul II in 1984.
The lovely Cherai beach, situated in Vypeen, is just a 15 minute ferry ride from Fort-Kochi. Besides the sea, sand and the sun, a typical Kerala village with paddy fields and coconut groves nearby completes the idyllic picture that the beach paints.
Also known as the Mattancherry Palace, it was built by the Portuguese and presented to the Cochin Raja in 1555 AD. A fine blend of Indo-European architecture, it acquired the present name after it was renovated by the Dutch in 1663. In the center of the building is the hall where the Cochin Rajas held their coronations. This central courtyard also enshrines the deity of the royal family. Adjacent rooms contain 17th and 18th century murals illustrating scenes from Indian epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. There are two temples on either side of the main palace, dedicated to Lord Krishna and Lord Shiva.
Situated close to the Mattancherry boat jetty, the Synagogue and the ancient Jew town built in 1568 A.D. is of great historical importance. The most distinctive features are its white willow-pattern tiles of which no two are alike. They are believed to have been presented by a merchant in 1763 A.D. You will find great scrolls of the Old Testament and the copper plates in which the grants of privilege made by the Cochin rulers were recorded. There are also numerous finely wrought gold and silver coins, gifted to the Synagogue by various patrons. Colourful Belgian chandeliers add to the beauty of the Synagogue. Instances from Jewish history and the hardships the Jews underwent are depicted through paintings.
Ernakulum and around:
Parikshith Thampuran Museum
This museum, adjacent to the Shiva temple was the Durbar (court) of the Cochin rajas. It features collections of 19th century oil paintings, sculptures in stone and plaster-of-paris, old coins and items of the Cochin royal family.
Museum of Kerala History
This museum at Edapally, is one of the best looks into the history of Kerala. Significant historic moments of the past 2000 years are depicted through life-size figures. There is also a one-hour commentary for each scene, along with a light and sound show.
St. George Forane Church
This Roman Catholic church, considered to be one of the oldest churches in Kerala, was built on a plot of land donated by the Raja of Edapally. The new church adjacent to it was built in 1080. It is a well known 9-day feast held every year in the month of May.
Situated on the palm-fringed Bolghatty Island, amidst 15 acres of lush green lawns, this palace was built by the Dutch in 1744. It became the official residence of the British. Today, it is a hotel run by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation.
The sprawling Hill Palace museum displays the erstwhile wealth and affluence of the royal family of Cochin. It has an interesting collection of paintings, antique temple carvings and other royal artifacts. Outside the museum is a botanical garden with exotic tropical trees. There is also a Deer Park in the palace compounds.
Keralites are mostly fish-and-rice eating people. Kerala cuisine is very hot and spicy, but delicious. The food is fresh, aromatic and flavoured. The land and the food are rich with coconut, though one can't imagine Kerala food without chillies, curry leaf, mustard seed, tamarind and asafoetida. Seafood is big in Kerala. However, the vegetarian fare is equally tasty. For the less adventurous, there are plenty of multi-cuisine restaurants to choose from: The Frontier Shanmugham Road Leaves Woods Manor Woodlands Junction MG Road Rice Boat Taj Malabar Willingdon Island Seafood Grill The Trident Willingdon Island Cheena Vala Yuvarani Residency Jos Junction Fish Market Quality Inn Presidency North Cochin Exotica Hotel Excellency Jos Junction Ernakulam Frys Village Near Mymoon Cinema Chittoor Road Kadaloram Abad Plaza MG Road Bubble, Taj Residency Ernakulam Multicuisine Regency Abad Plaza, MG Road Waterfront Cafe The Coffee Shop Taj Malabar Willingdon Island Coq-Dor Restaurant / Mando The International Hotel Cochin The Pallava / The Palm The Metropolitan, Near South Railway Station Cochin Princess Hotel Sea Lord Shanmugham Road Roof Top Sayana Hotel Sea Lord Shanmugham Road Jade Pavilion Taj Malabar Willingdon Island Mughal Hut Barbeque Paulson Hotel Carrier Station Road
Nishagandhi Dance Festival:
Held in February each year, this festival pays tribute to Indian classical dance. Visitors are treated to some of the most fabulous dance performances.
The carnival held from December 25-31, offers a kaleidoscope of performing arts, including Kathakali, classical dance, martial arts, and boat races.
This harvest festival commemorates a mythical time of social harmony, peace, and equilibrium. In the first month of the Kerala year, Chingam, (August-September) floral carpets, made by women, grace the towns throughout the state; adorned elephants parade in Thrissur and long decorative boats race the backwaters of Alappuzha.
Also known as Dussehra or Navaratri, this festival is held between September and October. It is celebrated throughout India but takes on special significance in Kerala. Young children are taken to the temples and are introduced to the letters of the alphabet in front of Saraswati, the goddess of wisdom and learning.
This is the festival of Lord Shiva. It is celebrated between February and March. All night, people chant and pray in honour of the deity.
© Jet Airways (India) Ltd. | <urn:uuid:7ef3ad5d-99e4-4590-9c7e-40d10460d6a8> | {
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(1908 - 1974)
Oskar Schindler was a German industrialist, former member of the Nazi Party and possibly the most famous "Righteous Gentile" who is credited with saving as many as 1,200 Jews during the Holocaust. His story was brought to international acclaim by the 1982 novel Schindler's Ark and the 1993 film, Schindler's List.
An ethnic German, Schindler was born April 28, 1908, in Zwittau, Austria-Hungary, what is now Moravia in the Czech Republic. Schindler grew up with all the privileges money could buy. He was born Catholic, but from an early age he inhabited a world of sin. His exploits with women are the stuff of barroom legend.
He married Emilie Schindler at nineteen, but was never without a mistress or two. Hard drinking and feckless, he had the soul of a gambler, winning big and losing bigger. He had presided over the demise of his family business and become a salesman when opportunity came knocking in the guise of the war.
Never one to miss a chance to make money, he marched into Poland on the heels of the SS. He dived headfirst into the black-market and the underworld and soon made friends with the local Gestapo bigwigs, softening them up with women, money and illicit booze. His newfound connections helped him acquire a factory which he ran with the cheapest labor around: Jewish.
In December 1939, as occupied Poland was being torn apart by the savagery of the Holocaust, Schindler took his first faltering steps from the darkness of Nazism towards the light of heroism. If you saw a dog going to be crushed under a car, he said later of his wartime actions, wouldn't you help him?
Before the outbreak of war, Poland had been a relative haven for European Jews - Krakow's Jewish population numbered over 50,000. But when Germany invaded, destruction began immediately and it was merciless. Jews were herded into crowded ghettos, randomly beaten and humiliated, capriciously killed. Jewish property and businesses were summarily destroyed, or appropriated by the SS and 'sold' to Nazi 'investors', one of whom was the fast talking, womanizing, money hungry Schindler.
Not long after acquiring his Emalia factory - which produced enamel goods and munitions to supply the German front - the removal of Jews to death camps began in earnest. Schindler's Jewish accountant put him in touch with the few Jews with any remaining wealth. They invested in his factory, and in return they would be able to work there and perhaps be spared. He was persuaded to hire more Jewish workers, designating their skills as essential, paying off the Nazis so they would allow them to stay in Krakow. Schindler was making money, but everyone in his factory was fed, no-one was beaten, no-one was killed. It became an oasis of humanity in a desert of moral torpor.
As the brutality of the Holocaust escalated, Schindler's protection of his Jewish workers became increasingly active. In the summer of 1942, he witnessed a German raid on the Jewish ghetto. Watching innocent people being packed onto trains bound for certain death, something awakened in him.
Beyond this day, no thinking person could fail to see what would happen, he said later. I was now resolved to do everything in my power to defeat the system.
By the autumn of 1944, Germany's hold on Poland had weakened. As the Russian army approached, the Nazi's tried desperately to complete their program of liquidation and sent all remaining Jews to die. But Schindler remained true to the Schindlerjuden, the workers he referred to as my children.
After the liquidation of the Krakow ghetto and the transfer of many Jews to the Plaszow concentration camp, Schindler used his influence to set up a branch of the camp for 900 Jewish workers in his factory compound in Zablocie and made his now famous list of the workers he would need for its operation.
The factory operated in its new location a year, making defective bullets for German guns. Conditions were grim, for the Schindlers as well as the workers. But Schindler saved most of these workers when he transferred his factory to Brunnlitz (Sudetenland) in October 1944.
He died in Hildesheim in 1974. His extraordinary story might have died with him but for their gratitude.
In trying to answer the inevitable question, why did he do it, one of the survivors said: I don't know what his motives were... But I don't give a damn. What's important is that he saved our lives.
He negotiated the salvation of his 1,300 Jews by operating right at the heart of the system using all the tools of the devil - bribery, black marketeering and lies, said Thomas Keneally, whose book about this paradoxical man was the basis of the movie Schindler's List.
Perhaps the question is not why he did it, but rather how could he not. And perhaps the answer is unimportant. It is his actions that matter now, testimony that even in the worst of circumstances, the most ordinary of us can act courageously. If Oskar Schindler, flawed as he was, did it, then so might we, and that is reason enough to hope. | <urn:uuid:bf4c7496-3942-41b1-bc75-5c7593dab49f> | {
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(1910-89) English philosopher. After studying with members of the Vienna circle, Ayer published Language, Truth, and Logic (1936), an excellent statement of the central views of logical positivism, including the use of verifiability as a criterion of meaning, the rejection of metaphysics and theology as meaningless, and an emotivist ethical theory. His father was Jewish; his mother, not.
Ibn Ezra (1089 - 1164) was born at Tudela, Navarre (now in Spain) in 1089, and died c. 1167, apparently in Calahorra. He was one of the most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the Middle Ages. Ibn Ezra excelled in philosophy, astronomy/astrology, mathematics, poetry, linguistics, and exegesis; he was called The Wise, The Great and The Admirable Doctor. | <urn:uuid:ee9707fc-e9ce-46e1-82c2-484a192a729f> | {
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MCP Plaid Phonics Level D (Grade 4)
CP Plaid Phonics Level D is a well-stuctured program. Students continue literacy development into intermediate grades by useing Word Study, comprehension, thinking, and writing skills. Your child will become a fluent reader with activities help develop spelling (encoding), recognize words in context, and use phonics in word-building and personal writing. This bundle includes Student Worktext, Teacher Resource Guide, and Parent Guide. Used for homeschool and classroom. MCP Plaid phonics works parallel with Spelling Workout to reinforce key spelling and phonics skills. | <urn:uuid:80d40269-8558-4366-9a23-1f04409cc1e6> | {
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The Counterfeit Constitution Mystery
Ages 7 & up. In this Carole Marsh mystery learn about the Founding Fathers and Patriots history, The American Revolution history, Bill of Rights facts, Washington Monument history,The White House history and facts, Cherry Blossom Trees and Parade history and much more!
Join Papa,Grant,Christina,and Mimi as they save the constitution! The real U.S.Constitution is in jeapordy. Is it lost, Stolen, Fake, Real? In this mystery, follow the constitution from its hostoric birth to its possible downfall. Time is running out and they are being chased! Join them for some mysterious fun.
Incorporate history, geography, and culture in this reading adventure. Educational facts, SAT words, fun, humor, built-in book club and activities are included in this mystery. Paperback, Grade Level 3-6, AR Level 4.8. AR Points 2, GRL Q | <urn:uuid:a4f26a82-466a-4590-8680-05da91f92f8f> | {
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Just when you thought it was safe to go into the water, the Natural Resources Defense Council has released its annual beach quality report and it's not pretty.
According to NRDC, a large number of U.S. seashores continue to suffer from storm water runoff and sewage pollution that can cause swimmers to become very ill.
The report, Testing the Waters: A Guide to Water Quality at Vacation Beaches, looks at 2011 data collected from test results taken at more than 3,000 beaches nationwide. It examines the pollution factors that affect these U.S. vacation spots and calls for public efforts to clean up.
The report found that last year the nation's beach waters continued to be affected by serious contamination and pollutants from human and animal waste. As a result, America's beaches had the third-highest number of closings or advisories in the report's history, with the second-highest number occurring just the year before. Progress, according to the report, is not being made.
"Our beaches are plagued by a sobering legacy of water pollution," said NRDC senior attorney Jon Devine. "Luckily, today more than ever, we know that much of this filth is preventable and we can turn the tide against water pollution. By establishing better beach water quality standards and putting untapped 21st century solutions in place -- we can make a day at the beach as carefree as it should be, and safeguard America's vital tourism economies."
The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that more than 10 trillion gallons of untreated storm water makes its way into surface waters each year, and hundreds of billions of gallons of wastewater - which includes sewage and storm water - are released in combined sewer overflows. This water dumps into many of America's coastal areas.
But the NRDC report is not all bleak. It includes a guide that rates the water quality and practices for testing water and administering public notifications at each beach. When a seashore exceeds the NRDC's expectations, it receives a 5-star rating.
Beaches that rated five stars with last year's data are:
-- California: Newport Beach in Orange County (2 of 3 monitored sections)
-- Newport Beach -- 38th Street | <urn:uuid:eb164b4d-526d-4e91-8629-95d8380fea75> | {
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|The beginning of adolescence is a time of very great change in your child. In addition to starting puberty and beginning to reach most of her adult height, her mind will also grow to understand logical and abstract thinking and she will develop the moral standards by which she will live her life. You can also expect her to begin to move away from the family as she develops her own identity and also become more influenced by her friends. Fortunately, this influence is usually limited to outward things, such as hair and clothing styles.
This is also a time when your child may become interested in dating. It usually starts as group dating, but her interest may progress to one on one dating by the time she reaches high school.
This is a time of growing independence and children at this age want to be considered more responsible. To help foster this sense of responsibility, now is a good time to begin giving your child an allowance. The amount is not very important, but is usually 50¢ to $1.00 per year in age and should be used for special things that your child wants. Managing an allowance will help to teach your child about the value of money and the importance of saving. To promote an interest in saving, you should encourage her to set aside a certain amount of her allowance for special items that she can buy later.
While it is also important that your child begin to have regular age appropriate chores (setting or clearing the table, taking out the garbage, cleaning their room, etc.) around the house, these should probably not be tied to their allowance. Positive reinforcement is important for completed chores, and failure to complete chores can be punished by loss of a privilege (TV, videogames, etc). Allowing your child to have a choice of which chore to do sometimes helps with compliance and you should rotate the assignment of undersirable chores among your children.
Encourage self esteem and a positive self image in your teenager by using positive reinforcement and frequent praise for things that he has accomplished. Encourage your child to be curious, explore and take on new challenges.
|The progression through adolescence includes your teens continuing need to become more independent, figure out who she is and learn to manage her own life. She will probably become less interested in spending time with the family and more interested in being with her friends.
It is important to continue to respect her need to be private and be available when she needs help or guidance. Some important milestones she will be facing now include dating and forming more intimate relationships, becoming more independent, the responsibilities of driving, and increasing peer pressure to experiment with smoking, alcohol, drugs and sex, and finally leaving the household for college or a formal job. | <urn:uuid:5b4e75d7-48b2-4eac-bce5-3759eb67d607> | {
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Be A Good Sport
Good sportsmanship is as an important part of playing sports as scoring points or winning games. How you and your team act on the field or on the court says as much about you as an athlete as how well you can shoot a basketball or kick a soccerball. Whether your team's winning big or getting its butt whooped, you should always remember these rules of good sportsmanship.
Win With Style, Lose With StyleEveryone likes to win, and no one enjoys losing. But when you're playing sports, there is always going to be a winner or a loser (unless the game ends in a tie). Whether you're playing in a Little League Championship game or a game of hoops in the playground, always try to be a good sport, no matter how the game ends.
Be A Good Teammate and a Good PlayerBeing a good sport means treating your teammates, coaches and opponents with respect:
Quotes On Sportsmanship | <urn:uuid:d6e67aaa-3292-4511-8ad6-6bc35f4c666c> | {
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KTM User Pages
Writing Fractions. Here’s one on Subtraction. And, here’s another. In DI, teachers use pre-designed scripts when teaching. The scripts are based on extensive research regarding student retention, and every aspect of every script is based upon results that were demonstrated through research. The great advantage of this approach is that every teacher using the script becomes the beneficiary of that research and will probably teach much more effectively than if left to her own devices. DI designers test the programs carefully before publishing them and each DI program is extensively revised based on specific student error data from the field test. Scripting the lessons allows sharing of these “polished stones” across teachers. Also scripting helps reduce the amount of teacher talk. Children learn by working through the sequence of tasks with carefully timed comments from the teacher. Children learn little from straight teacher talk. Too much teacher talk decreases pupil-motivation, draws out the lesson length unnecessarily, and often causes confusion by changing the focus of the tasks, disrupting the development of the larger generalization, of which a teacher the first time through is usually unaware. Also, without guidance, teachers may use language that students do not understand or that distracts students’ attention from examples. Scripts also allow aides, parents, and other paraprofessionals to assume teaching responsibilities, resulting in increased quality instructional time. Moreover, even though the DI programs are carefully tested and scripted, successful use of them requires training in the special techniques of delivery. Teachers must make many decisions in response to the children's performance. Some of the most important decisions involve placing each child appropriately and moving the children through the lessons at a pace that maximizes their learning potential. Lastly, the scripted presentations do not comprise the whole lesson, and the lessons do not comprise the whole school day. There are opportunities for group and independent work. A good DI teacher also creates additional activities that allow students to make use of their learning in various situations. So, there is a great deal of teacher creativity involved in the interpretation and presentation of the script, in attending to the needs and progress of all students and in designing expansion activities. -- KDeRosa - 17 Nov 2005 KtmGuest (password: guest) when prompted.
Please consider registering as a regular user.
Look here for syntax help.
3 links on scripted teaching: Carol Gambill's method of teaching algebra
Direct Instruction professional development workshop
(online videotape of a workshop on direct instruction. excellent)
direct instruction & question-asking
-- CatherineJohnson - 17 Nov 2005
EXCELLENT! -- CatherineJohnson - 17 Nov 2005
ANOTHER TOUR DE FORCE! -- CatherineJohnson - 17 Nov 2005
Moreover, even though the DI programs are carefully tested and scripted, successful use of them requires training in the special techniques of delivery. Teachers must make many decisions in response to the children's performance. Some of the most important decisions involve placing each child appropriately and moving the children through the lessons at a pace that maximizes their learning potential. To me, this sounds a lot like what a coach does in sports. Or a music teacher. -- CatherineJohnson - 17 Nov 2005
Which makes sense, because instead of focusing on the material, or on the child's innate ability, you are focused entirely on performance. Has the child mastered the material? Can he or she 'perform' it? -- CatherineJohnson - 17 Nov 2005 Back to: Main Page. | <urn:uuid:9c590371-a134-4944-b46f-f21d34beddf4> | {
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Sea-levels are rising unevenly around the world, with Pacific countries in particular suffering significant increases over the past two decades, according to accurate new satellite data.
On average, global sea-levels have been rising at about three millimeters (mm) a year, however, this masks large differences between regions of the world.
While some regions have seen sea-level rises of 12 mm a year, others have actually seen decreases of about 12 mm a year.
The results are based on radar readings from the European Space Agency (ESA) over an 18-year period from October 1992 to March 2010.
ESA used its satellites to send radar pulses to the sea surface below, recording the time delay in its return and creating a precise measurement of their height above the surface.
Scientists say sea-level rises are the result of the expansion of water due to rising temperatures, melting of glaciers and the melting of polar ice sheets.
The worst hit regions over the past two decades, according to the ESA data, have been the Pacific countries of Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and vulnerable Pacific islands like the Solomon Islands.
The Philippines for one is already frequently subjected to flooding and landslides caused by heavy rain, with seasonal monsoon rains in August killing at least 11 people.
Scientists suggest regions that have seen high sea level rises over the past 20 years will not necessarily continue to see higher than average sea-level rises in the future.
"We suspect that the bigger the differences get, the more they will tend to level out in the future," says Robert Meisner, a spokesperson for ESA. | <urn:uuid:6d728551-c8bc-4464-a2ba-460b4a692d95> | {
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Digital Communications 2 (91023)
Students answer multiple-choice and real-number questions, and perform troubleshooting exercises to demonstrate competency as they master course objectives. With up to 12 circuit faults to troubleshoot and 20 circuit modifications to observe and measure, FACET-trained students master skills necessary for employment and advanced studies.
The Circuit Board is mounted in a sturdy polystyrene tray for easy handling and connection to the Base Unit. The active components are in sockets for easy replacement. To permit the examination and testing of several different circuits, the student uses two-post connectors to quickly configure partially wired circuits within each circuit block. The circuits contain test points for the student to measure the electrical parameters.
The FACET Base Unit provides regulated ±15-volt DC power and protection to the circuit components. The Circuit Board is a multi-layer, G-10, glass-epoxy PC board with 2-ounce copper and has a black matte coating to enhance readability of circuit diagrams that appear in white.
The photograph shows the Digital Communications 2 Circuit Board. For more details on FACET Circuit Boards and Courses, please click here. | <urn:uuid:e4c848cf-74f1-40aa-8743-8bb88a0e34ae> | {
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The Seal of La Sierra University represents the core of our existence and our reason for being. Each element symbolizes an important part of our mission.
- The cross, the pre-eminent symbol for Christ, is placed in the position of greatest importance in the design, superimposing the world. It is in the Greek form rather than the Latin, with arms comprised of three strokes representing the Trinity. This “threeness” is repeated in the three elements of the open books; the aim To Seek, To Know, To Serve; and the braided strands of the border.
- The opened books are displayed in deep perspective, as though on a scholar's desk, their lines to converge at the center of the cross, indicating that Christ is at the heart of the University's life. The three books are titled by the three statements of the aim.
- The two intersecting circles in the right-hand border represent the mandorla, the symbol for the person of Jesus Christ linking the two realms of Heaven and Earth.
- The border and motto (“From Diversity, Community”) come together in three strands that sweep across the motif to connect one side of the globe with the other, forming a braid of unity and strength that encompasses the University—and the world. | <urn:uuid:e338a126-4a4b-42fa-9f12-8990da3703b1> | {
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Student Learning Outcomes
The Department of Music at La Sierra University is committed to helping the serious music student develop a life-long engagement with music as performer, composer, and listener. By providing the essential tools for making and responding to music, it is the aim of the following student learning outcomes to create a “whole” musician with the requisite skills, experiences, and artistic sensibilities that have the potential to continually inform and transform the musical life during and after formal study. Thus, at the completion of music studies at LSU, the student will have developed:
- A seeing ear and a hearing eye. Further defined, students should be able to recognize, identify, and create, given notation and/or sound, simple to complex patterns and structures as they relate to the musical elements of pitch, duration, amplitude, and timbre.
- A theoretical foundation of music. Analytical techniques, from simple to advanced, are presented as tools to help in understanding and internalizing musical form and content. This leads to the student’s development as “analyzer and evaluator” in becoming a qualified listener.
- The ability, given sound and/or notation, to respond to, perform and shape the elements of music. This suggests being able to manipulate these elements within the student’s role as listener (both analytical and evaluative), performer, or composer, in a stylistically coherent and informed manner.
- A working knowledge and practical understanding of the history of music and musical styles. Primarily based on the European-centered tradition, but also observed from world traditions, this study informs the student’s role as listener, performer and composer.
- An understanding and application of appropriate pedagogical techniques, methods and tools as they relate to the variety of demands placed on today’s music teacher. Depending on the student’s area of emphasis, this means gaining effectiveness in the implementation of methodologies in primary and secondary areas of musical expertise as they relate to age group and discipline.
- Refined technical and interpretive skills necessary for informed solo and collaborative performance appropriate to the degree.
- A basic competency in music technology. These elements include digital notation, sequencing, MIDI sequencing, audio recording, and web integration of multi-media objects.
- A broad base of experiences on which to build a personal philosophy of music. In light of the above outcomes, this means being able to appreciate music of worth, and distinguish between what is longlasting and what is fad, in secular and sacred styles | <urn:uuid:e848a776-89a8-4408-b6a6-af79686f7188> | {
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What: Shea Butter (Butyrospermum Parkii) is a slightly yellowish or ivory colored natural vegetable fat extracted from the nut of the African tree Vitellaria paradoxa. The nut is primarily comprised of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, as well as Vitamins A, E and F, and Carotene (Wiki). Vitamins A and E soothe and hydrate skin while boosting collagen. Vitamin F contains essential fatty acids which help to protect and heal. Shea Butter makes a suitable base for moisturizing products for skin and hair, and can be used on its own for its hydrating and regenerative effects. This emollient ingredient is anti-inflammatory and is said to be effective in fading scars, and treating skin ailments like eczema, burns, rashes, acne, stretch marks, and skin discoloration. by crushing, boiling and stirring. It is widely used in cosmetics as a moisturizer, salve or lotion (Wiki), and possesses protective properties against environmental influences.
Origin: Shea butter is obtained by crushing, boiling, and stirring the oil from the fruit kernel.
Products Found In: Shea Butter is widely used in cosmetics to moisturize and revitalize dry, irritated, or lacklustre skin and hair. Its anti-inflammatory and regenerative properties make it a popular ingredient for use in anti-aging products, as well. The ingredient is also often found in healing salves, ointments, and lip balms. Shea butter forms a breathable, water-resistant film and contains low levels of UV protection, so is sometimes used in sun protection products. The butter is commonly used in moisturizers, treatments, hand creams, lip balms, bar soap, anti-aging skincare, lipstick, body washes, cleansers, exfoliants, and facial cleaners.
Toxicity: Shea Butteris generally classified as non-toxic or harmful (EWG). Though Shea Butter does contain some sun protection properties, the level of protection against the sun's ultraviolet radiation is extremely variable, ranging from nothing to approximately SPF 6. However, studies have shown it to reduce the effects of UV damage on the skin. | <urn:uuid:016f1b92-6cc8-46cd-83e9-d1cfbd3ad5b1> | {
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5*, 12, 19*, 26, Mar. 5*, 12, 19*, 29, Apr. 2*, 9, 16*, 23, 30*, May
7, and 14*
Tulips have emerged in Palmer, Alaska! And in ND, gardens have bloomed
that were covered with a foot of snow this spring! Visit a garden
in WI planted under an unusual mural. Study the season in maps; revisit
the question, “How does spring move across the continent?”
Then compare and contrast many years of Journey North garden maps.
And a final thank you to all the gardeners who contributed to this
Students in the northern-most regions are just now reporting spring
has sprung in their gardens. Snowbanks are melting and temperatures
are warming. Students in Palmer, AK, dug a sample from their garden
to see if the bulbs were still there. See what they found. Will the
bulbs emerge by next week? How much snow and ice is there in May in
North America? NOAA maps help you discover where it is.
This is the time of year the maps are filling up with red blooming
gardens. Students are taking the time now to analyze their experimental
plots, and summarize their work. We take a close look at tulip blossoms
and learn that they really do move. The word to learn is phototropism.
Watch a flower move as the sun changes position in the sky. And compare
last year’s map with today’s map. How are they different?
April 23, 2009
Tulip gardens are blooming all across the Northern Hemisphere this
week. Many students in colder regions welcome tulips emerging, too.
Investigate an unusual tulip and learn what you call it. Does it fit
the botany of a tulip? Learn more about the tulip family and its relatives.
What does a normal tulip look like? And share the stories and pictures
of proud tulip gardeners across the region.
Tulip gardens are emerging across the Northern Hemisphere, but spring
is fickle and snow is forecast. Mirachimi, NB, shares pictures of
tulips emerging right through the snow. A good sign for a hardy plant!
An Albany, OR, teacher shares a good plan for recording garden happenings.
Go out on a phenology hike to really see what signs of spring you
Spring is arriving across the continent in fits and starts! April
snowstorm brings some damage to tulips already up, but doesn’t
seem to squash the enthusiasm the students bring to the garden project.
Another 45 degree latitude garden emerged this week. One more to go.
Take an artistic journey inspired by Georgia O’Keeffe. Express
the beauty of a tulip flower with a few simple materials and time
to explore. And send in those questions for the tulip expert!
A cold front in the middle of the continent has slowed the reports
of blooming tulips this week. Plants in Denver hit by the snow are
showing signs of stress. But spring is in the air for reporters who
are out observing subtle signs. Polish your math skills analyzing
11 years of data from the same garden in VA. And visit a middle school
tulip garden experiment recorded in VoiceThread.
The spring equinox has arrived, and our tulip map is proof that plants
are starting to grow across the continent. Visit a tulip flower. Look
carefully. Can you see all the parts? Start seeing other flowers as
spring brings new blossoms to your hometown. And take time to use
your senses outside in the garden. Create a poem!
Learn about a new invention to help you predict the coming of spring,
Latitude Shoes. Then travel the 45th parallel wearing them. What will
you see? Over 200 gardens have emerged so far. Scientists observe
and record. Are you? There is a chart to help you. And, are some of
your tulips growing differently than you expected? Explore some of
the troubles that can occur in the tulip garden.
Huge March snowstorm on the east coast dropped record snow amounts.
How will this affect the tulips that have emerged? Try some experiments
this week with water, sugar, and plant leaves. Put them into the freezer
to help you understand what happens inside plants. Re-visit the gardens
along the 45th parallel. One of them has emerged. Use new information
to help you predict which one will be next. Photo:
Temperatures are up and down all across the map as spring is on the
way. Are you watching the garden? Tiny little tulips emerging give
great cause for excitement as they grow into big plants. No blooms
yet on the map. Study the green wave of spring. Compare new gardens
with the temperature map. Follow the lines each week. Learn about
the wonderful variety of garden locations we have along the 45th latitude
Study today’s map to answer this: Does there seem to be a pattern
to the emerging gardens? Grab a crayon and find out. What factors
influence the Italian garden at 40.8N, compared to North American
gardens? Did you notice the spring-like temperatures last week? Did
they influence your garden? And find out which California garden has
It’s not hard to see the green on this week’s tulip garden
map. Why are tulips emerging in these locations? Let’s begin
to look at weather and climate. Are they different? Who reports the
weather across North America? Explore and track weather and climate
on a grand scale and in your own backyard. And let’s look at
why tulip shoots emerge with a red color.
The tulip map is showing some green! Study this week’s map and
then compare it to last year’s map. Predict which of 3 CA gardens
will emerge first. They are all within 90 miles of each other. The
weather made national news last week. Were your temperatures higher,
lower, or normal? What will that mean for your garden? And, an interesting
experiment to think about.
Get ready to track spring's arrival in the Northern Hemisphere!
Watch for weekly TULIP GARDEN UPDATES. They will be posted here every
Thursday, from February to May. (See schedule above.) Find out how
to report your tulips emerging and blooming on real-time migration | <urn:uuid:82ea5bdf-6f14-4bc4-8f3c-418af39fbbc9> | {
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Tuesday, June 10, 2008
Leckey on pluralism in the history of Canadian civil marriage
Posted by Mary L. Dudziak
Profane Matrimony is an essay by Robert Leckey, McGill University - Faculty of Law. It appeared in the Canadian Journal of Law and Society (2006). Here's the abstract: Recent debates over same-sex marriage prompt reflection more generally on the competing norms regulating marriages. Two supremacy claims emerged in the debates, one that religious traditions provide the supreme law of marriage, another that civil marriage is entirely secular and its supreme law is the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This paper identifies similarities in these claims. Both wrongly ascribe an internal uniformity to cultural communities. Referring to historical amendments to marriage law, the paper argues that both claims are unfaithful to the Canadian tradition of marriage law. Amendments to the prohibited degrees of relationship and the introduction of federal divorce legislation show the federal Parliament to have developed a civil or profane marriage in conscious opposition to religious forms. Since the 1880s, marriage law has been periodically altered on the basis that it is wrong in a plural, secular society to impose religious views on nonbelievers. Parliament has not simply followed top-down norms, but also regarded social practice as a source of marriage norms. Past instances of law reform indicate a rich political tradition of argument and contestation, one in which the churches have not maintained consistently that the civil law of marriage should mirror religious rules. Civil marriage and religious marriage are not, as claimed by the standard bearers of the Charter, unrelated. They stand instead in a constantly adjusting relationship of tension and difference. | <urn:uuid:f8c66cc8-4ba1-48ea-ba91-be47fca6e03b> | {
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The St. Christopher Woodcut, 1423
The Library has fifteen block-books and a number of block-prints, including the St Christopher Woodcut, the only surviving example of the first piece of European printing bearing a date, 1423 (see illustration, right). Of the collection of incunables, 3,000 come from the Spencer Collection, 215 were bequeathed by Richard Copley Christie, and the remainder have been acquired from other sources.
Approximately 1,000 are of German origin, about 2,000 were printed in Italy and the remainder represent the presses of other European countries and of England.
Of the earliest type-printed documents to which a place or date can be assigned there are the Letters of Indulgence of Pope Nicholas V, the 36- and 42-line Bibles, the first three Mainz Psalters and in all about 50 productions of the Mainz press associated with Gutenberg, Fust and Schöffer, several being the only recorded copies.
The Library has the only complete examples in Britain of books printed by Albrecht Pfister in Bamberg. The work of over 100 German presses is represented in the Collection.
Hand-coloured woodcut of Daniel in the Lions' Den, from the Historie von Joseph, Daniel, Judith und Esther, printed in 1462 at Bamberg by Albrecht Pfister.
In Manchester there are 66 volumes printed by Sweynheym and Pannartz, the first printers in Italy working in Subiaco and Rome between 1465 and 1473.
It is the most complete collection in the country, lacking only the Aristotle and Perottus of 1473.
253 printers working in nearly 50 different Italian towns are represented on the Library's shelves. There are 349 volumes printed in Rome (329 separate editions) and these include 39 items printed by Ulrich Han.
Of particular importance is Han's 1467 edition of the Meditationes of Cardinal Turrecremata, the only copy in the country of the first Italian illustrated book. Venetian incunables total 576 volumes (485 separate editions), with 42 printed by Vindelinus de Spira and 43 by Nicholas Jenson.
Other Italian towns for which significant numbers of incunables are available include Milan (125 volumes, 111 separate editions of which 30 were printed by Zarotus), Florence (110 volumes, 93 separate editions), and Naples (100 volumes, 96 separate editions).
The 49 volumes of 44 separate editions printed in Brescia are of particular importance as ten are not available elsewhere in Britain, and five items, the work of Thomas Ferrandus, are unique.
There are some 30 examples of the first Parisian printers, Gering, Friburger and Crantz, and about 100 other examples of the work of other printers in the French capital.
French provincial printers are also well represented, particularly those of Lyon and Toulouse, a unique item from the latter town being the 1488 edition of Aesop with Spanish text, issued by Johannes Parix and Stephan Cleblat.
Some twenty Spanish incunables are in the Library, together with a significant number of items originating in the Low Countries including William Caxton's first book (and the first book ever printed in English), The Recuyell of the Histories of Troye (Brugge, ?1473).
The English incunables include over 60 Caxtons of which 36 are complete and unsophisticated, and four are unique, constituting the second largest such collection in the world.
Other English printers well represented include John Lettou, William de Machlinia, Richard Pynson, Julian Notary, the Schoolmaster printer of St Albans, and Wynkyn de Worde, the copy of whose 1498 edition of Morte Darthur is unique; the Library also has one of the only two surviving copies of the Caxton edition of Morte Darthur.
Approaching three-quarters of the incunables date from before 1480. "Ephemera" include advertisements (Strasbourg, Mentelin, c.1471; Westminster, Caxton, c.1477), and the only surviving wood block used to print a block-book, an as yet unidentified variant edition of the Apocalypse.
- Recorded in general printed-book catalogue and on the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue (ISTC) database.
- See also Bibliography above. | <urn:uuid:954b3a63-aa5f-48a2-8e2b-b7485ed55c1e> | {
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SEDAN, a town of France, the chef-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Ardennes, lies on the right bank of the Meuse, 13 miles east-south-east of Mezieres by the railway to Thionville (Lorraine), and is surrounded by heights of about 1000 feet. Since its fortifications were declasses, a process of embellishment has been going on. Place Turenne takes its name from the statue of the illustrious marshal, who was born in the town in 1611. The public buildings include a Protestant church, a synagogue, a museum, and a college. The manufacture of fine black cloth has long been, and still continues to be, the staple industry, employing in the town and neighbourhood more than 10,000 workmen, and producing to the value of 40,000,000 francs 'annually. Several spinning-mills have been erected by Alsatian refugees since 1871. Considerable activity is also displayed in various departments of metal-working, especially in the surrounding villages. The population was 13,807 in 1872, and 19,240 in 1881 (19,556 in the commune).
Sedan was in the 13th century a dependency of the abbey of Monzon, the possession of which was disputed by the bishops of Liege and Rheims. United to the crown of France by Charles V., it was ceded by Charles VI. to Guillaume de Braquemont, who sold it to the La Marcks. For two centuries this powerful family managed to continue masters of the place in spite of the bishops of Liege and the dukes of Burgundy and Lorraine ; and in the person of Henri Robert they adopted the title "prince of Sedan." In the 16th century the town was an asylum for many Protestant refugees, who laid the basis of its industrial prosperity, and it became the seat of a Protestant seminary. The last heiress of the La Marck family brought Sedan and the duchy of Bouillon to Henri de la, Tour d'Auvergne, viscount of Turenne. When the new duke attempted to maintain his independence, Henry IV. captured Sedan in three days ; and the second duke (eldest brother of the great marshal), who had several times revolted against Louis XIII., was at last, after his share in the conspiracy of CinqMars, obliged to surrender his principality. Sedan thus became part of the royal domain in 1641. On 1st September 1870 the fortress was the centre of the most disastrous conflict of the Franco-German War. Shut in by the Germans, who had occupied the surrounding heights, the whole French army, after a terrific contest, was obliged to capitulate, - the emperor, 39 generals, 230 staff-officers, 2600 officers, and 83,000 men becoming prisoners of war. The village of Bazeilles was the scene of the heroic stand made by the marines under Martin des Pallieres. It now contains the great ossuary, and a monument to the memory of the marines ; and the house which has been rendered famous by Neuville's painting, "Les Dernieres Cartouches," is a museum of objects found on the battlefield. | <urn:uuid:edbc7be5-c4fa-42f8-927b-9fc2a4e3bc0f> | {
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