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Louis Washkansky (1913-67)
Louis Washkansky was a Lithuanian Jew who moved to South Africa in 1922 and became a grocer. Although he participated in sport and led a healthy lifestyle, he was diabetic and suffered from an incurable heart disease, resulting in three heart attacks which led to congestive heart failure.
Washkansky was the recipient of the first successful human heart transplant on 3 December 1967. He received the heart of a young woman, Denise Darvall, who had been critically injured in a car accident. His ground-breaking surgery was performed by Christiaan Barnard, who immediately became famous around the world.
Even though Washkansky died 18 days after he received his transplant, his surgery was considered a success and while many other heart transplant patients died after a short period of time in the early period of transplant surgery, advances in drug therapy and surgical techniques have provided a longer life for recipients. | <urn:uuid:644f7a91-abf5-47df-b91a-76d2651ee0ab> | {
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By John Fleck
Web edition: February 12, 2010 Print edition: February 27, 2010; Vol.177 #5 (p. 30)
Buy this book
Young adults can learn how scientists use tree rings to document climate change.University of New Mexico Press, 2009, 91 p., $21.95.
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© Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2013 All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:d86faf02-af22-4034-9716-90c2739df0e6> | {
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Hot Sites and Cool Books
Recommended Web sites:
Information about the 2006 dinosaur dig at the 5E Ranch can be found at www.montanadinosaurdigs.com/sauro.htm (Judith River Dinosaur Institute).
Perkins, Sid. 2006. Bone hunt. Science News 170(Aug. 26):138-140. Available at http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20060826/bob10.asp .
Books recommended by SearchIt!Science:
The Fossil Factory: A Kid's Guide to Digging Up Dinosaurs, Exploring Evolution, and Finding Fossils Niles Eldredge
Published by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1989.
If you think that fossils are dinosaur bones, you're partly right. There are fossils of lots of other things, toograins of pollen, sea creatures, even human beings! How can you find fossils on your own? With black-and-white, cartoon-style drawings and a humorous writing style, a world-famous scientist and his teenage sons explain how fossils are formed, where you can find them, and how to take care of them. Along the way, they also offer a few chuckles as well as fascinating information about the history of life on Earth, the way rocks and continents formed, and what Earth was like during the age of the dinosaurs. Twelve activitiesincluding instructions for making a plaster cast of your own footprintare featured, too, along with step-by-step diagrams. At the end, a timeline shows how life forms evolved over millions of years.
Armored, Plated, and Bone-Headed Dinosaurs: The Ankylosaurs, Stegosaurs, and Pachycephalosaurs Thom Holmes
Published by Enslow Publishers, 2002.
What are the origins of these spiny, armor-plated dinosaurs? What were their feeding habits? How did they defend themselves? Explore the anatomy and physiology of these creatures that are now extinct.
Return to article
From The American Heritage® Student Science Dictionary
and The American Heritage® Children's Science Dictionary
estuary The wide lower end of a river where it flows into the sea. The water in estuaries is a mixture of fresh water and salt water.
fossil The hardened remains of traces of plant or animal that lived long ago. Fossils are often found in sedimentary rocks.
paleontology The scientific study of life in the past, especially through the study of fossils.
sauropod One of the two types of saurichian dinosaurs, widespread during the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods. Sauropods were plant-eaters and often grew to tremendous size, having a stout body with thick legs, long slender necks with a small head, and long tails. Sauropods included the apatosaurus (brontosaurus) and brachiosuarus.
sedimentary rock A rock that is formed when sediment, such as sand or mud, becomes hard. Sedimentary rocks form when sediments are collected in one place by the action of water, wind, glaciers, or other forces, and are then pressed together. Limestone and shale are sedimentary rocks.
stegosaurus or stegosaur Any of several plant-eating dinosaurs of the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods. Stegosaurus had a spiked tail and an arched back with a double row of large, triangular, upright, bony plates. Although stegosaurs grew to 20 feet (6.1 meters) in length, they had tiny heads with brains the size of a walnut
Copyright © 2002, 2003 Houghton-Mifflin Company
. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
Return to article
Behind the Scenes
Hot Sites & Cool Books | <urn:uuid:2adbea19-6442-400d-895e-a52d103f9c60> | {
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In A.D. 79 Mount Vesuvius erupted, annihilating the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum and killing thousands who did not evacuate in time. To avert a similar fate for present-day Naples, which lies six miles west of the still active Vesuvius, as well as for the cities near volatile Mount Etna in Sicily, a novel laser system could soon forecast volcanic eruptions up to months in advance.
Current methods to predict eruptions have downsides. Seismometers can monitor tremors and other ground activity that signal a volcano's awakening, but their readings can prove imprecise or complicated to interpret. Scanning for escaping gases can reveal whether magma is moving inside, but the instruments used to analyze such emissions are often too delicate and bulky for life outside a laboratory. "You have to collect samples from the volcano, bring them to a lab, and often wait through backlogs of weeks to months before analysis," explains Frank Tittel, an applied physicist at Rice University.
A more promising technique for early detection focuses on changes in carbon isotopes in carbon dioxide. The ratio between carbon 12 and carbon 13 is roughly 90 to one in the atmosphere, but it can differ appreciably in volcanic gases. A ratio change by as little as 0.1 part per million could signal an influx of carbon dioxide from magma either building under or rising up through the volcano.
Lasers can help detect this change: carbon 12 and 13 absorb light at slightly different mid-infrared wavelengths. The lasers must continuously tune across these wavelengths. Previously investigators used lead-salt lasers, which require liquid-nitrogen cooling and thus are impractical in the field. Furthermore, they are low-power devices, generating less than millionths of a watt, and can emit frequencies in an unstable manner. Other isotope scanning techniques are similarly lab-bound.
Tittel and other scientists in the U.S. and Britain, in partnership with the Italian government, have devised a volcano-monitoring system around a quantum-cascade laser. Such a semiconductor laser can produce high power across a wide frequency. Moreover, they are rugged and do not require liquid-nitrogen cooling, making them compact enough to fit inside a shoe box.
The researchers first tried out their device on gas emissions from Nicaraguan craters in 2000. The new field tests will check its performance and accuracy in harsh volcanic locales. Dirk Richter, a research engineer at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colo., says it would prove difficult to design a system "to work in one of the worst and most challenging environments possible on earth," but "if there's one group in the world that dares to do this, that's Frank Tittel's group."
If the instrument works, the plan is to deploy early-warning systems of lasers around volcanoes, with each device transmitting data in real time. False alarms should not occur, because carbon isotope ratios in magma differ significantly from those in the crust. The changes that the laser helps to detect also take place over weeks to months, providing time to compare data from other instruments, as well as ample evacuation notice. "Our system aims at avoiding a catastrophe like the Vesuvius eruption," says team member Damien Weidmann, a physicist at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Oxfordshire, England. Field tests for the prototype are planned for the spring of 2005 in the volcanic Alban Hills region southeast of Rome, near the summer home of Pope John Paul II, as well as for volcanic areas near Los Alamos, N.M.�
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If astronomy and outerspace interest you, then this activity set will fascinate you. You'll learn about the planets, stars, sun, moon, and even rockets - all through fun, hands-on experiments. Activities include using balloons and chemically powered rockets to study rocket propulsion, building a telescope and star map to investigate the stars and constellations, assembling a model of the solar system to about the planets that share it,and more. Once you work through all the activities, you will understand how Earth’s axis and revolution around the sun causes the seasons, how the moon’s rotation around Earth gives us the phases of the moon, how meteorites formed the craters on the moon, how meteoroids become falling stars, and so much more. Includes a full-color, 32-page experiment book to guide your space exploration. Ages 8 and up.
WARNING: CHOKING HAZARD — Children under 8 yrs. can choke or suffocate on uninflated or broken balloons. Adult supervision required. Keep uninflated balloons from children. Discard broken balloons at once.
- launch three types of rockets
- build a telescope and star map
- model the solar system
- investigate the revolution and rotation of Earth
- swing a moon sling
- find the man in the moon
- recreate lunar and solar eclipses
- learn about falling stars
- discover how the universe is expanding | <urn:uuid:ed799365-aaf6-44a3-9da2-8f42750a83fe> | {
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- A Prehistoric evergreen that keeps coming back to life!
- Grows in one day! Unconditionally guaranteed to grow!
- Can "sleep" for fifty years and spring back to life in one day!
Take the amazing Dinosaur Plant out of its home for days, months, even years-then give it water, and it will ROAR back to life!
The Amazing Dinosaur Plant is one of the longest-living plants in the world! This plant actually lived when the first dinosaurs emerged. At that time, this plant would grow to over 120 feet, taller than even a Tyrannosaurus Rex!
When the ice age came, the Dinosaur Plant had to mutate and get really small. In order to survive, it learned how to blow onto dry land and sleep, waiting for water. Usually the plant drifted around until it stumbled into a puddle. Then the plant "drank" greedily, and went back sleep until it found the next puddle.
The Dinosaur Plant is very easy to care for. All it needs is a little water and some occasional sleep. Simply place the plant in its bowl with New Mexico lava rock (included), pour some water on the plant and it will spring to life within one day! If you let the Dinosaur Plant dry out, it will shrink back to its sleeping state. It can sleep for up to fifty years and will still rise when you place it in water! A fun project for the entire family to enjoy!
The Amazing Dinosaur Plant includes a live plant, bag of genuine volcanic lava rock, display bowl, and instructions. Appropriate for ages 4+. Dinosuar Plant Instructions | <urn:uuid:b2ba0e3b-7630-4e8d-b192-1e27020758af> | {
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|Scientology Video Channel||
USING THE TONE SCALE
The simplest thing to know about this scale is that people find it difficult to respond to communication which is too far above where they are stuck on the scale. If you try to help someone in apathy by talking to them in enthusiasm, you will probably not have much success. The gap between such extremes is not easily bridged unless you understand the Tone Scale.
Using knowledge of the Tone Scale, however, you would recognize the emotion one-half to one full tone above the person, communicate in that tone and thus bring him up to higher tones. By moving up the scale gradiently it is possible to help someone overcome fixed conditions and regain a more happy and vital outlook.
The Tone Scale is of enormous value in life and its relationships. Mr. Hubbard thoroughly researched human behavior and the full body of his work in this area furnishes an accurate description of the attitudes and behavior of others. By knowing where a person falls on the scale, one can precisely predict his actions.
Knowledge of the Tone Scale gives one a greater understanding of his fellows than ever before available. It is a true technology of helping others to improve their conditions. | <urn:uuid:aea945c5-77f4-4d04-b421-ba9a53ea5c53> | {
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An instrument to measure the altitude of an object above a fixed level.Generally, mean sea level is used for the reference level.
Mid-level cloud (bases generally 2000 - 8000m), made up of grey,puffy masses, sometimes appearing in parallel waves or bands. An indicatorof mid-level instability. Altocumulus can take on various forms such as AcLenticularis, Ac Undulatus, Ac Castellanus, Altocumulus 'mackerel sky'.
A middle level cloud with vertical development that forms from altocumulusclouds. It is composed primarily of ice crystals in its higher portions andcharacterised by its turrets, protuberances or crenulated tops.
Mid-level cloud composed of water droplets and ice crystals. Usuallygives the sun a watery or dimly visible appearance.
A local wind that flows up the side of valleys due to increased heating alongthe valley walls. Often the anabatic wind results in cumulus clouds along theridges either side of the valley. See also Katabatic winds.
A device used to measure wind speed.
The departure of an element from its long-term average for the locationconcerned. For example, if the average maximum temperature for
Melbourne in June is 14 degrees and on one particular day the temperature
only reaches 10 degrees, than the anomaly for that day is -4.
A large scale atmospheric circulation system in which the winds rotate anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (clockwise in Northern Hemisphere).Anticyclones are areas of high atmospheric pressure and are generallyassociated with light winds and stable weather conditions. Interchangeablewith High pressure system.
Rotation in the opposite sense as the Earth's rotation, i.e., anticlockwise in | <urn:uuid:1f2052ca-130e-43ae-ae93-421e6e25982d> | {
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What Is Graywater?
According to Health and Safety Code Section 17922.12, graywater is “untreated wastewater that has not been contaminated by any toilet discharge, has not been affected by infectious contaminated or unhealthy bodily wastes, and does not present a threat from contamination by unhealthful processing, manufacturing, or operation wastes. ”Graywater” includes but is not limited to wastewater from bathtubs, showers, bathroom washbasins, clothes washing machines, and laundry tubs, but does not include wastewater from kitchen sinks or dishwashers.”
- Download an informational brochure on installation and permitting requirements for graywater systems in Sonoma County
Graywater Systems Standards
On July 30, 2009, the CA Department of Housing and Community Development (HCD) Codes and Standards Division and the California Building Standards Commission (CBSC) announced the adoption of the state’s new graywater standards. The new standards became effective on August 4, 2009. "These new graywater standards will be a big step toward reducing California’s water consumption by providing cost-effective guidelines that will be beneficial to every home throughout the state,” said Director Lynn L. Jacobs. “HCD and its staff recognize the importance of continually improving the state building codes and standards to help improve our sustainability.”
For more information regarding the Standards and building permits, please contact the County Permit and Resource Development Department (PRMD) at (707) 565-1900 or visit the PRMD website, or view the new Graywater Standards.
Graywater Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is graywater?
Graywater is untreated wastewater that has not been contaminated by any toilet discharge. Graywater includes wastewater from bathtubs, showers, bathroom sinks, clothes washing machines and laundry sinks. It does not include wastewater from kitchen sinks, dishwashers, photo lab sinks or laundry water from soiled diapers.
2. What is a graywater system?
Graywater systems are onsite wastewater systems that use graywater for subsurface landscape irrigation through the use of mulch basins, disposal trenches or subsurface drip irrigation fields.
3. Are there regulations for the use of graywater?
The regulations for the design, construction and use of graywater systems can be found in Chapter 16A of the California Plumbing Code (CPC). A copy of these regulations can be found on our website at http://www.sonoma-county.org/prmd/divpages/wellsepdiv.htm
4. Who regulates the use of graywater in Sonoma County?
The County of Sonoma Permit and Resource Management Department (PRMD) has been delegated the authority to regulate graywater systems in the unincorporated area of Sonoma County by the California Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB). PRMD does not regulate graywater systems in the incorporated cities in Sonoma County. These cities can implement a program of their own that meets or exceeds the requirements of the CPC with approval from the RWQCB. Questions regarding graywater systems within an incorporated city should be go directly to that city.
5. Can I allow my graywater to discharge to the ground surface?
Due to the potential for high levels of bacteria and viruses in graywater, graywater must be used in a way that eliminates potential human contact or the creation of nuisances. The regulations for graywater systems allows for subsurface irrigation only, although graywater can be discharged to the ground surface in a mulch basin as long as it remains covered with at least two inches of mulch, rock or soil.
6. Can I use graywater for other purposes such as flushing toilets?
The CPC allows graywater to be used for flushing toilets but the graywater must meet the same regulations in place for the use of recycled water (Title 22) with respect to treatment, permitting, inspection and cross connection control.
7. Do I need a permit to install a graywater system?
The CPC exempts graywater systems that collect graywater from a clothes washer only and where no modifications to the plumbing system are required or pumps are used in the graywater system from construction permits but the system must still meet the design and construction standards found in the regulations. All other graywater systems require a construction permit. Plans for graywater systems must be submitted to PRMD or the authorized permitting agency for review and approval of the graywater design. Once the design is approved, a construction permit must be obtained to install the graywater system and allow for inspection by the permitting agency.
8. Do I need to contact any other agencies for the installation of a graywater system?
You need to contact your local building department to discuss plumbing, venting and electrical requirements as needed for either new construction or the retrofit of an existing structure where a graywater system is proposed. In addition, you need to contact your local water purveyor to discuss the need for the installation of a backflow protection device at the water meter.
9. What kind of plants can I irrigate with graywater?
Graywater can be used to irrigate fruit trees, ornamental trees, shrubs, groundcover and lawns. Graywater should not be used in vegetable gardens where the food is a root crop or touches the ground surface. Be aware that soaps and detergents can contain a variety of chemicals to aid in cleaning that may be harmful to your plants. Please contact your local landscape specialist for more information.
10. Where can I find more information on graywater?
Additional information regarding graywater and onsite wastewater systems is available on the PRMD website at http://www.sonoma-county.org/prmd/divpages/wellsepdiv.htm. PRMD is currently in the process of developing new guidelines for the use of graywater to address the revisions to the CPC and will post these when available. | <urn:uuid:324559a0-6ce1-4e00-b66c-09246844c16d> | {
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How to Develop a Wind Farm
The Benefits of Wind Power
Wind powered electricity is relatively new in Ireland even though we have some of the best wind resources in Europe. Global environmental benefits of wind power include reduced greenhouse gas emissions and national benefits include security of supply from a locally sourced energy.
The development of a wind farm can provide opportunities at a local level also. Development can provide landowners with an alternative or supplementary income and can provide jobs locally during the construction and operational phases of the project. Tax receipts are generated as are local authority rates for collection and use within the region of the wind farm. If operated as a community scheme, those within the vicinity of the wind farm can benefit directly from the share dividends.
Is my site suitable?
Not all sites are suitable for wind farms, for either economic or environmental reasons. When assessing the suitability of a site both technical suitability and environmental suitability must be addressed. Key suitability criteria are outlined below:
- Visual aspects
- Proximity to dwellings
- Ecological/archaeological/architectural protection
- Recreational use
- Restricted Areas
- Wind speed
- Grid connection
- Site size
It is important to discuss a proposed development with a Local Planner at an early stage to receive feedback for the plan and to identify the scope of the planning application and, where appropriate, the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) that should accompany the planning application. The development of a wind farm can be a long process and cannot be treated lightly so in order to ensure high quality development, professional services must be employed throughout the process.
Each local authority has developed a map where wind energy projects will be considered, are prohibited or are encouraged. This local authority wind strategy should be one of the first documents to refer to.
The Economics of Wind Farming
Wind farms differ in size and the location and scale of the project can dictate the economics for each site. Typical investment costs are in the region of €1.7 -€2m. The figure represents the total project cost, including the planning/EIS, equipment procurement, civil works, grid connection, commissioning, O&M and decommissioning costs.
Turbines generally account for between 65 and 75% of the total project costs. Financial institutions have in the past been willing to finance up to 85% of a wind farm project costs subject to several assurances. Recent reports suggest that 75% finance is more common in the current economic and banking climate. Local equity available through a shared or community developed wind farm may prove attractive for the project developers.
Financially viable: What the bank looks for
- Verified wind data measured onsite
- Power purchase agreement for energy produced
- Full planning permission
- Professional feasibility study
- Site title
- Experienced development team
- Authorisation to construct a generator from the Regulator
Use Independent Professional support for
- Pre-feasibility study
- Feasibility and basic design
- Wind measurement and assessment
- EIS and Planning application
- Landscape classification
- Lease/Loan/shareholder agreements
- Attaining grid connection
- Power purchase agreements
- EPC agreements
- O&M agreements
Building a Wind Farm
With Planning Permission achieved and a power purchase contract agreed the construction of the wind farm offers two choices:
As owner of the wind farm you can choose to employ the turbine manufacturer (or their agent) to project manage the construction and commissioning of the wind farm. By doing so, they will undertake the design, procurement of equipment, civil works and commissioning plus in most cases deal with future operation and maintenance of the wind farm. The benefit of this arrangement is that one party takes care of the entire construction management of the project - this however at a higher price than using an "Owners Engineer".
You may however choose to employ a professional experienced engineer or firm of engineers to manage the project for you. This way you can achieve the same objectives as outlined for the Turnkey developer but you may also avail of their independent advice when selecting the turbines and of the lower project management costs. Separate O&M contracts from the turbine manufacturer will be available. If choosing this type of development process, it is vital that clear responsibilities are defined and agreed beforehand to avoid possible delay during the construction phase.
The Working Wind Farm
The turbines stand and their blades are busy turning wind energy into electricity but the job is not complete. As owner of the wind farm you also ultimately assume responsibility for its continued operation and any scheduled or unscheduled maintenance necessary to keep it working efficiently.
It is vital that any agreements made in conjunction with the planning permission are adhered to and that O&M contracts and warranty conditions are honoured. Personnel will require continual training and local residents should continue to be informed about the development. Wind farms must be maintained in a fashion reflecting the clean and efficient energy source that we can all be happy to benefit from. | <urn:uuid:5e692344-2a6f-4f5d-9e42-d7fe837e424a> | {
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The History of Pressure Measurement
1594 Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa (Italy), obtains the patent
for a machine to pump water from a river for the irrigation of
land. The heart of the pump was a syringe. Galileo Galilei
found that 10 meters was the limit to which the water would
rise in the suction pump, but had no explanation for this
phenomenon. Scientists were then devoted to find the cause for this.
1644 Evangelista Torricelli (rorr). Italian physicist, filled a
tube 1 meter long, hermetically closed at one end, with
mercury and set it vertically with the open end in a basin
of mercury. The column of mercury invariably fell to about
760 mm, leaving an empty space above its level. Torricelli
attributed the cause of the phenomenon to a force on the
surface of the earth, without knowing, where it came from. He also
concluded that the space on top of the tube is empty, that nothing
is in there and called it a "vacuum".
1648 Blaise Pascal, French philosophei physicist and
mathematician, heard about the experiments of Torricelli
and was searching for the reasons of Galileo's and Torricelli's
findings. He came to the conviction that the force, which
keeps the column at 760 mm, is the weight of the air above.
Thus, on a mountain, the force must be reduced by the weight of
the air between the valley and the mountain. He predicted that the
height of the column would decrease which he proved with his
experiments at the mountain Puy de Dome in central France. From
the decrease he could calculate the weight of the air. Pascal also
formulated that this force, he called it "pressure", is acting uniformly
in all directions.
1656 Offo von Guericke, born in Magdeburg/Germany.
Torricellis conclusion of an empty space or "nothingness"
was contrary to the doctrine of an omnipresent God and
was thus attacked by the church. Guericke developed
new air pumps to evacuate larger volumes and staged a
dramatic experiment in Magdeburg by pumping the air out of two
metal hemispheres which had been fitted together with nothing
more than grease. 8 horses at each hemisphere were not strong
enough to separate them.
1661 Robert Boyle. an Anglo-Irish chemist, used "J"-shaped
tubes closed at one end to study the relationship between
the pressure and volume of trapped gas and stated the law
of x V = K (P: Pressure, V: Volume, K: Constant) which
means that if the volume of a gas at a given pressure is
known, the pressure can be calculated if the volume is changed,
provided that neither the temperature nor the amount of gas is changed.
1820 Almost 200 years later, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac.
French physicist and chemist, detects that the pressure
increase of a trapped gas at constant volume is proportional
to the temperature. 20 years later, William Thomson
(Lord Kelvin) defines the absolute temperature
Mechanical Measurement Technologies
1843 Lucien Vidie, French scientist, invented and
built the aneroid barometer, which uses a spring
balance instead of a liquid to measure atmospheric
pressure. The spring extension under pressure is
mechanically amplified on an indicator system.
Employing the indicator method of Vidie, Eugene
Bourdon (founder of the Bourdon Sedeme Company) patented 1849
the Bourdon tube pressure gauge for higher pressures.
Electrical Measurement Technologies
1930 The first pressure transducers were transduction
mechanisms where the movements of diaphragms, springs
or Bourdon tubes are part of an electrical quantity.
Pressure diaphragms are part of a capacitance. the
indicator movement is the tap of a potentiometer.
1938 The bonded strain gauges were independently
developed by E. E. Simmons of the California Institute
of Technology and AC. Ruge of Massachuseffs Institute
of Technology. Simmons was faster to apply for a patent.
1955 The first foil strain gauges came up with an integrated full
resistor bridge, which, if bonded on a diaphragm. see opposite stress
in the center and at the edge.
1965 The bonding connection of the gauges to the diaphragm was
always the cause for hysteresis and instability. In the 1960's,
Statham introduced the first thin-film transducers with good stability
and low hysteresis. Today, the technology is a major player on the
market for high pressure.
1973 William R. Poyle applied for a patent for capacitive
transducers on glass or quartz basis, Bob Bell of Kavlico
on ceramic basis a few years later in 1979. This technology
filled the gap for lower pressure ranges (for which thin
film was not suited) and is today, also with resistors on
ceramic diaphragms, the widest spread technology for
The Sensor Age
1967 Honeywell Research Center, Minneapolis/USA, 1967:
Art R. Zias and John Egan applied for patent for the
edge-constrained silicon diaphragm. 1969. Hans W. Keller
applied for patent for the batch-fabricated silicon sensor.
The technology is profiting from the enormous progresses
A modern sensor typically weighs 0.01 grams. If all non-cristalline
diaphragms have inherent hysteresis, the precision limit of this item
is not detectable by todays means.
2000 The piezoresistive technology is the most universal one. It applies
for pressure ranges from 100 mbar to 1500 bar in the absolute, gauge
and differential pressure mode. The slow spread of the technology in
high volume applications for non-benign media resulted from the inability
of US-companies to develop a decent housing. In 30 years, KELLER has
perfected it at costs comparable to any other technology.
For more information, please contact... KELLER at www.keller-druck.com
For details of Pressure Sensors Suppliers, click here...
Home - Website - Search - Suppliers - Links - New Products - Catalogues - Magazines
Problem Page - Applications - How they work - Tech Tips - Training - Events - Jobs - Register | <urn:uuid:7d3e2cec-8320-49ff-9c12-b11bc2f24ce0> | {
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Zooplankton community dynamics
Ballast water transport as a taxonomic and numeric 'filter'
Zooplankton data collected from ballast tanks at the beginning and end of 25 voyages showed an overall decline in total zooplankton abundance during a voyage. Mortality within tanks could be caused by a number of factors, including:
- Lack of settlement substrate
- Exposure to toxic substances
- Physiological stress caused by changes in physical conditions
In addition, the duration of a voyage or the age of the ballast water is also an important factor, as mortality within tanks appears to increase with time.
For example, our data indicated that:
• On short voyages (<10 days) survival of zooplankton is unpredictable, but typically high (both increases and decreases in abundance were recorded) .
• On long voyages (16-22 days) there were large declines in survivorship (>95% decrease in abundance in all cases.
This an important finding because in order to survive, establish, and thus achieve a successful ballast-mediated invasion, an organism must be delivered in adequate densities to increase the chances of encountering a mate and reproducing. This means that shorter coastwise voyages, where survivorship is more variable and the final densities are relatively higher pose a greater 'invasion threat' than do longer voyages.
Though these data bring us closer to identifying predictors of overall zooplankton survivorship, identifying individual taxonomic groups that are more likely to become successful invaders remains elusive. Survivorship varied both between taxonomic groups and within taxonomic groups for different voyages. Thus, we still do not fully understand the extent to which particular taxonomic groups are better able to survive transport in ballast tanks than others.
These data strongly point to the need for rigorous ballast water management policies across the board to effectively handle the release of domestic ballast water, particularly that portion of it which has only been subject to short-term transport. | <urn:uuid:92e01543-dc7c-4c93-93c8-34dc4304db73> | {
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Jellyfish Sex Position
The Jellyfish is a more difficult adaptation of the Kneeling Missionary. To get into the position, the giver kneels up slightly while the receiver sits into their lap facing them. The receiver wraps their legs around the giver; both wrap their arms around each other for support. This provides a good angle for penetration.
The giver and receiver together set up a rocking (fluid) motion to gain movement during penetration - the visual result providing the name Jellyfish. | <urn:uuid:3c84de20-04b4-4831-8f1d-ac4a9111635d> | {
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Mansfield, until the middle of the eighteenth century, was an isolated Market Town set in Sherwood Forest. Its transformation into an industrial urban area is the result of the effects of five crucial industries. The earliest industry noted is stone quarrying which is documented from about 1227 when King Henry 3 granted a Monday market and fair. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there was a growth in farming activity in the local area following the founding of the great estates known as the Dukeries in Sherwood Forest.
This led to the development of two crucial industries, malting and framework knitting, using wool from the Forest sheep, Mansfield's isolation was eased by the turnpiking of the roads, the first Trust coming in 1760, followed in 1819 by the Mansfield and Pinxton Railway.
Prior to the building of this railway malt was exported on pack-horses who returned with coal required for the malt production from the Erewash valley pits.
The railway was built to carry this coal. By the middle of the eighteenth century there were 36 maltings in the town, the majority being owned by William Broadhurst. The only surviving one, built circa 1740, is now a bar and stands in Midworth Street having ceased production in 1975. Broadhurst died in 1846, the maltster in 1844 being loseph Gilstrap. A significant remnant of the malting industry is Mansfield Brewery. It was founded in 1855 on a site in Littleworth where it has remained and expanded to the present day. Some old buildings can still be seen in the current complex.
After malting the other four crucial industries are coal, cotton, iron and quarrying. Quarrying has been for three varieties of stone.White freestone is found to the south of the town in 50 to 60 foot irregular beds. It was used in 1337 during the building of Southwell Minster. Red sandstone, also in 50 foot beds, was worked in Rock Valley and along Chesterfield Road north of the town centre. The Lower Magnesian Limestone (Dolomite) has been worked in the Mansfield Woodhouse area. Actually a Dolomitic sandstone it was used in the building work at the Houses of Parliament. Charles Lindley, the quarry owner, named that particular quarry Parliament Quarry. Redstone has been used at Belton House, Grantham, and White for Mansfield Town Hall.
Parliament Quarry has now been filled in. In 1967 these quarries were reopened during the building of the M1 motorway producing 20,000 tonnes of roadstone per week. A remaining quarry, Gregory Quarry, was opened prior to 1823 by Charles Lindley, who died in 1861. He was the major quarry owner during this period, also working Chesterfield Road and Rock Valley quarries. In the early years of the twentieth century the Gregory Family took over, followed, in 1953, by the King family. Gregory Quarry has just closed. The other quarrying activity, which still survives, is for building and moulding sand worked from the Bunter Sandstone beds. It was being worked before 1851 as it won a gold medal in the 1851 Great Exhibition for the Mansfield Sand Company Ltd. It is thought to have been worked prior to 1819.
In 1907 the Abraham family formed the Standard Sand Co. Ltd. and commenced working the same material as the Mansfield Standard Sand Co. Ltd. The firm still operates in a major way with three branches - building sand, moulding sand and calcium-silica te brick making.
This local supply of excellent moulding sand inevitably led to the establishment of iron founding in the area. Luke Abbot was ironfounding in 1788, Stanford and Burnside in 1790 and possibly Sherwood Foundry as early as 1759. By the late nineteenth century there were in excess of 10 companies in the town, by the 1940s the number was 5 and currently only 2 still operate, the major firm being James Maude & Co. Ltd., who were probably active in 1753. Certainly in 1775 they were building Foundry Cottages which remained occupied until 1950. Over the years their output has been very varied. The Dolphin lamposts on The Embankment, The Mall, and Regents Park in London were made by them. At one time they had the sole contract for producing pillar boxes for the Post Office. The agents names cast on them are Colin Ching and W.T. Allen. Other items made have been fireplaces, balconies, railway castings and rainwater goods. Since 1945 they have used air setting sands for moulding and currently are making machin e tool castings, 40% of which are exported to the U.S.A.. Stokes Castings, founded in 1862, is the only other firm still active and currently market under pressure castings. Other major late nineteenth and twentieth century firms have ceased production, e xamples being Meadow Foundry who operated 1852-1980 and S.Walker & Son 1847-1987.
Coalmining, arrived towards the end of the nineteenth century and brought with it the large growth in the local population. The earliest deep mines were sunk to the west of the town and the first in the Mansfield area was that at Warsop, sunk in 1890 by the Staveley Coal and lron Company.Thc adjacent housing was built to house the miners. The Ellis family from Hucknall sank Sherwood Colliery in 19O2-3. The Bolsover Colliery Company sank Mansfield (Crown Farm) colliery in 1905-6, and, as for their other collieries, built a village to house the miners and their families.
It consisted of 320 houses in eighteen 200 foot terraces leading off to the east of a main drive and seventeen to the west. This village became Forest Town. The colleries employed about 2000 men each and closed in the 1990s.
The other critical industry in Mansfield's development is textiles. In the seventeenth century it began wilh framework knitting, a basically cottage industry. In 1727 there were 40 framework knitters in the town. By 18OO there about 700 frames rnaking stockings, and cotton and silk gloves. Later on many frames were converted into lace frames. In the late eighteenth century Mansfield was suffering an economic depression and the construction of five water-powered cotton spinning mills along the River Maun were financed by the Duke of Portland to create employment. He also financed the conversion to cotton spinning of the Old Town Mill (now a public house) which had been built circa 1744 as a corn and malt mill. This conversion was completed by 1795.
The furthest west of the five new mills was Hermitage Mill, leased from the Duke of Portland in 1782 and currently occupied by a builders merchants. Reed Mills, in Bleakhills, was operating by 1708 and demolished in 1971.
Little Matlock Mill was another late eighteenlh century mill, and is still extant. Field Mill was also leased in 1788 and was demolished in 1925. Bath Mill was built in 1792 and still survives, albeit in a derelict condition.One other late eighteenth century mill survives, now in mult iple occupancy, and that is Stantons Mill. This was built for Charles Stanton in 1795: he also had Carr Bank House built at about the same time. In the middle of the nineteenth century framework knitting gradually changed to machine hosiery and the cotton spinning mills generally to changed hosiery production. Most are still standing along with other later steam powered works, although most are no longer being used for textiles which have been relocated to more modern buildings.
lndustrial development led to better transport facilities. This is exemplified in two railway viaducts. The Mansfield and Pinxton Railway was constructed in 1019 as an ox-hauled railway. In 1849 the line was bought by the Midland Railway Company and up graded to take steam trains. This meant smoothing out some of the sharper curves ol the old line and so isolated the eight-arched Kings Mill Viaduct - an early example of preserved railway architecture. When the railway was extended northwards towards Worksop in 1871 the viaduct that splits the town centre was built. The industrial development of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw many inventions and Mansfield is well represented in its fields of activity. For example in 1764 John and William B etts of Mansfield together with John and Thomas Morris of Nottingham invented an improved framework knitting machine, while in 1885 Lorenzo Tindall, a partner in Sherwood Foundry, invented the hand mangle. In the eighteenth century ]ames Murray, working in an old bobbin shop in Rock Valley, is credited with inventing the circular saw. | <urn:uuid:44171de1-05c1-4722-b3f4-48096f2af356> | {
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Learn how you and your school can help save the rainforests with our fantastic, free online programme for primary and secondary schools across the UK and Ireland (pupils aged 8-14).
Choose from 3 fascinating challenge topics: the Food We Eat, Stuff We Buy and Energy We Use and then carry out simple tasks to help your school learn about the rainforest and how to protect the environment.
With brilliant curriculum-based resources, students learn about the rainforest across a range of subject areas including geography, citizenship, science, numeracy and PSHE building valuable life skills including creativity, communication and teamwork.
There are great prizes on offer including the opportunity to win £1,000 (€1,250) for your school and make a short film about the rainforest.
Register today to set up your Challenge Team!
Register your school today and help protect the world’s rainforests!
As you move through the Challenge, your team will accumulate points.
May 22 2013 is International Day for Biological Diversity – a chance for people around the world to come together to help protect the amazing plants and animals that live on our planet.
This year the theme is water – a resource that we sometimes take for granted, but is vital to every living thing on Earth. Rainforests such as the Amazon are particularly important as they provide clean water for human communities. It’s really important that everyone joins together to do their bit in helping to protect them.
By taking part in the Sky Rainforest Rescue Schools Challenge schools across the UK and Ireland can take real action to look after the world’s rainforests. Through an ...
Teams Taking Action
Registration is free and only takes a couple of minutes.
Challenge: Food We Eat
It's our absolute pleasure to announce our new Team of the Month - St. Bride's Foodies from St. Bride's Primary in Cambuslang. The team, led by their teacher Mr Nugent has shown great enthusiasm through their blog and the team members have undertaken some brilliant actions since starting the Challenge in February. Well done to you all and keep up the hard work during the final few weeks of the Challenge. Remember - the competition deadline is 14th June at midnight!
The 2011/12 Grand Prize winners of the Sky Rainforest Rescue Schools Challenge were the students from St Marks C.E Primary School in Wigan. Click below to watch the the rainforest news story they made at the Sky Skills Studio as part of their Grand Prize.
The Challenge is a very effective tool for learning. The way it fits with the curriculum was spot on, and was an enhancement to what we were already doing." | <urn:uuid:280c0151-7c35-44db-9a30-4a0ae93aeecf> | {
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- 7,438 views
Grid computing is the application of several computers to a single problem ...
Grid computing is the application of several computers to a single problem
at the same time.
This Presentation deals with the idea of Grid Computing, its Design
Considerations, How a Grid Works, and some of the existing Grids in the
- Embed Views
- Views on SlideShare
- Total Views | <urn:uuid:1ab7f4c9-ea3c-4f2e-afeb-f9984d608354> | {
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Backyard Aquaponics - Home Aquaponics - Commercial Aquaponics
A building designed to collect heat when temperatures are cold also needs to be able to vent heat when temperatures are warm. Air exchange also is critical in providing plants with adequate levels of carbon dioxide and controlling humidity. Because of the concentrated air use by plants, greenhouses require approximately two air exchanges per minute (in contrast to the one-half air exchange per minute recommended for homes).
Thermal storage materials are effective in keeping a greenhouse cool in summer as well as keeping it warm in winter. Since these materials absorb heat during the day, less heat radiates within the greenhouse when the sun is shining. When the sun goes down, heat released from the thermal storage materials can be vented out of the greenhouse.
Removing external shading can also decrease heat build-up within the greenhouse. Shading provided by mature trees is not recommended. Active solar cooling systems include solar air-conditioning units and photovoltaic set up to run standard evaporative cooling pads. Both are more complex and expensive to equip than passive systems.
This information is courtesy of ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service | <urn:uuid:9af3aeff-cc9e-4617-aba3-fd0acd481564> | {
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In Greek mythology, the Oneiroi were the sons of Hypnos, the god of sleep. They were personifications of dreams—black-winged daemon—and were said to live on the shores of the Ocean in the far West, in a cavern near the border of Hades. The gods sent dreams to mortals from one of two gates located there: true dreams emerged from a gate made of horn, whereas false dreams threaded their way from a gate fashioned of ivory. They are described in the Odyssey, Hesiod's Theogony, and Ovid's Metamorphoses. According to Euripides, their mother was Gaea.The most powerful of the Oneiroi was Morpheus. His brothers Phobetor (also known as Icelus) and Phantasos crafted parts of dreams, while he formed the dream in general. Morpheus shaped human figures, Phobetor animal, while Phantasos shaped inanimate objects.
Oneiroi in Pop Culture
Fates Warning, a progressive metal band, has a side long epic on their 1988 release No Exit titled The Ivory Gate of Dreams which touches on this myth. | <urn:uuid:44f3cdf1-8ed4-4c6c-acc5-f158ace3bf46> | {
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Home › SparkNotes › Chemistry Study Guides › Review of Gases › Gases Review Test
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Which of the following is a correct interpretation of the ideal gas law?
What is the correct relationship between
An isolated container of gas doubles in pressure and triples in volume. By what factor does T change?
If the volume of a gas is doubled at constant temperature, the factor by which the pressure increases is:
A barometer filled with an unknown liquid has a height of 1 m at 1 atm. During stormy weather, the height
of the column is observed to rise to 1.3 m. What is the atmospheric pressure?
Which of the following are possible units of R?
What are the conditions of STP?
A container contains 32 grams of
gas and 2 grams of
gas. If the total pressure of the vessel
is 16 atm, what is the partial pressure of the
As the average radius of a population of gas molecules increases, how does the factor b of van der Waals
All of the following are properties of an ideal gas except:
The ideal gas law is most valid under these conditions:
For the van der Waals equation:
For the equation
PV = nRT
, the value of T must be expressed in:
Which of the following is not a SI unit
A sample of gas has a volume of 22.4 L at a temperature of 273 K. How many moles are in the sample?
The volume of a sample of gas expands five times at constant pressure. By what factor has the absolute
The following reaction produces
A sample of gas occupies 100 L at STP. If the absolute temperature is halved while all other conditions are
constant, what will be the final volume?
of a sample of
at 300 K.
A closed jar contains 2 moles of
and 3 moles of
. What is the ratio of the partial pressure of
over the total pressure in the jar?
The rate of effusion of gas A is four times that of gas B. What is
The density of a certain gas at STP is 1.43 g/L. What is the identity of the gas?
One end of a mercury manometer is open to the atmosphere (
tm = 760mmHg
). The other end is
connected to a 1 mol sample of
that is at 273 K and occupies 22.4 L. What is the height of the
The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution graph plots:
James the giant has big shoes to fill. His shoes have a total area of
in contact with the ground.
Unfortunately, James' feet are not so big. Barefoot, his weight is spread over
. What is the ratio of
the pressure he exerts on the ground barefoot over the pressure he exerts with his shoes on?
The "air" in airbags is generated via the decomposition of solid
A sample of an ideal gas is compressed at constant temperature. What happens to the average
kinetic energy of the molecules?
A piston compresses a gas at constant temperature. Initially the gas occupied 1 L and was at a pressure of 1
atm. After compression, the gas occupies 0.1 atm. What is the pressure of the compressed gas?
A collaborator from a foreign country reports that the value of
has probably used units of "woozle" for which of the following variables:
Avogadro's number is:
The following Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution plot was measured for two gases A and B at the same
A rigid container holds a mixture of gases. Within this mixture, the partial pressure of
is 400 torr.
If an additional quantity of
gas is injected into the container such that the total pressure of the
container rises by 760 torr, what is the change in the partial pressure of
? Assume that the
temperature of the container's contents stays constant.
If the pressure of a gas doubles and the temperature quadruples, by what factor does the volume change?
Which of the following are possible units for pressure?
The following Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution plot was measured for a gas at two temperatures A and B:
For the following calculation of
, the molar mass (MM) should be expressed in what units?
By what significant numerical value are Boltzmann's constant (k) and the gas constant (R) related?
The pressure of a gas is tripled while the volume is halved. By what factor does the temperature increase?
The gas constant R:
One end of a manometer is sealed off to a vacuum. The other end of the manometer is connected to a
pressurized gas. The height of the liquid column is indicative of:
A sample of
and a sample of
both have a temperature of 330 K. What is the ratio of the
average kinetic energy of the
over that of the
The density of a gas at STP is 0.089 g/L. What is the molar mass of the gas?
The following Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution plot was measured for two gases A and B at temperatures
Gaseous methane (
) burns completely in gaseous oxygen to produce carbon dioxide gas and water
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Taking care of your back at homeDefinition:
Back strain treatment; Back pain - home care; Low back pain - home care; Lumbar pain - home care
A common myth about back pain is that you need to rest and avoid activity for a long time. In fact, bed rest is NOT recommended. If you have no sign of a serious cause for your back pain (such as loss of bowel or bladder control, weakness, weight loss, or fever), you should stay as active as possible. Here are some tips for how to handle back pain and activity early on:
- Stop normal physical activity only for the first few days. This helps calm your symptoms and reduce any swelling (inflammation) in the area of the pain.
- Apply heat or ice to the painful area. One good method is to use ice for the first 48 - 72 hours, then use heat after that.
- Take over-the-counter pain relievers such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB) or acetaminophen (Tylenol).
- Sleep in a curled-up, fetal position with a pillow between your legs. If you usually sleep on your back, place a pillow or rolled towel under your knees to relieve pressure.
- Do NOT perform activities that involve heavy lifting or twisting of your back for the first 6 weeks after the pain begins.
- Avoid exercise in the days right after the pain begins. After 2 - 3 weeks, however, slowly begin to exercise again (it's helpful to get advice from a physical therapist). You can start getting back to regular activities after a few days.
EXERCISE AND YOUR BACK PAIN
Exercise is important for preventing future back pain. Through exercise you can:
- Improve your posture
- Strengthen your back and improve flexibility
- Lose weight
- Avoid falls
A complete exercise program should include aerobic activity (such as walking, swimming, or riding a stationary bicycle), as well as stretching and strength training. Always follow the instructions of your doctor or physical therapist.
Begin with light cardiovascular training. Walking, riding a stationary bicycle, and swimming are great examples. Such aerobic activities can help improve blood flow to your back and promote healing. They also strengthen muscles in your stomach and back.
Stretching and strengthening exercises are important in the long run. However, starting these exercises too soon after an injury can make your pain worse. A physical therapist can help you determine when to begin stretching and strengthening exercises and how to do them.
Avoid these exercises during recovery, unless your doctor or physical therapist say it is okay:
- Contact sports
- Racquet sports
- Weight lifting
- Leg lifts when lying on your stomach
PREVENTING YOUR BACK PAIN FROM COMING BACK
To prevent back pain, it is also very important to learn to lift and bend properly. Follow these tips:
- If an object is too heavy or awkward, get help.
- Spread your feet apart to give you a wide base of support.
- Stand as close to the object you are lifting as possible.
- Bend at your knees, not at your waist.
- Tighten your stomach muscles as you lift the object or lower it down.
- Hold the object as close to your body as you can.
- Lift using your leg muscles.
- As you stand up with the object, DO NOT bend forward.
- DO NOT twist while you are bending for the object, lifting it up, or carrying it.
Other measures to prevent back pain include:
- Avoid standing for long periods of time. If you must stand for your work, try using a stool. Alternate resting each foot on it.
- DO NOT wear high heels. Use cushioned soles when walking.
- When sitting for work, especially if using a computer, make sure that your chair has a straight back with an adjustable seat and back, armrests, and a swivel seat.
- Use a stool under your feet while sitting so that your knees are higher than your hips.
- Place a small pillow or rolled towel behind your lower back while sitting or driving for long periods of time.
- If you drive long distance, stop and walk around every hour. Bring your seat as far forward as possible to avoid bending. Don't lift heavy objects just after a ride.
- Quit smoking.
- Lose weight.
- Do exercises to strengthen your abdominal muscles on a regular basis. This will strengthen your core to decrease the risk of further injuries.
Learn to relax. Try methods such as yoga, tai chi, or massage.
Anema JR, Steenstra IA, Bongers PM, de Vet HC, Knol DL, Loisel P, van Mechelen W. Multidisciplinary rehabilitation for subacute low back pain: graded activity or workplace intervention or both? A randomized controlled trial. Spine. 2007;32:291-298.
Chou R, Qaseem, Snow V, Casey D, Cross JT Jr., Shekelle P, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: a joint clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:478-491.
Chou R, Loeser JD, Owens DK, Rosenquist RW, et al. American Pain Society Low Back Pain Guideline Panel. Interventional therapies, surgery, and interdisciplinary rehabilitation for low back pain: an evidence-based clinical practice guideline from the American Pain Society. Spine. 2009;34(10):1066-77.
|Review Date: 7/23/2011|
Reviewed By: David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc.; and C. Benjamin Ma, MD, Assistant Professor, Chief, Sports Medicine and Shoulder Service, UCSF Department of Orthopaedic Surgery.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997-
A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited. | <urn:uuid:5c979335-eec9-49c8-a27e-5ae3dd01c71b> | {
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The construction of the Utopia Planitia Fleet Yards and therefore the included Utopia Planitia stations at the beginning of the 23rd century was the direct consequence of the faster and faster proceeding exploration of space with the ships of Starfleet. This organization surveyed and colonized dozens of planetary systems in the first 40 years since its foundation, using the out-of-date, fusion-powered ships of the Valiant class, which were still based on the first Earth warp ship, the Phoenix, and the newly-developed Daedalus, Federation and Seleya classes. With the increasing spreading of mankind and its allies in space, the demand for starships rose - starships which should be faster and more reliable than the established classes. First, this lack lead to the institutionalization and centralization of starship construction and the foundation of the Advanced Starship Design Bureaus (ASDB) in the year 2184, which should drive forward the development of new starship technologies and coordinate the building up of Starfleet at many production locations within the Federation, and subsequently to the construction of new yards inside and outside the solar system. Simultaneously with the beginning of the free colonization of Mars and the erection of Mars colony 1, in 2203 the go-ahead was given for the construction of the first extensive, planetary as well as orbital starship construction center of the still young Federation. While all formerly constructed Starfleet yards were exclusively ground or space stations, the ASDB superiors hoped the newly-developed transporter technology would facilitate an easy and quick combined production process: already few years after the completion of the facility the metal ores extracted from the Mars mines should be processed to starship components on the spot, which would be then put together to complete starships in space - without the loss of time of a conventional orbital transport. Together with further breakthroughs in starship construction techniques, which were realized with the Utopia Planitia Yards for the first time, this concept led to production rates which nobody considered to be possible at the end of the 22nd century. Before, however, the work on mankind's largest construction in space at this time proved to be a special challenge for the constructors of the Starfleet Corps of Engineers (SFCE); within all in all fourteen years, at the Utopia planes the Utopia Planitia administration and a construction center for Starfleet equipment and starship components was built, while in a geosynchronous orbit 16626 m above, first of all three dry docks were constructed, which were based on the already thirty year old San Francisco yard in orbit over Earth, as well as two special stations for the easy maintenance of the newly-developed starship classes with a saucer design, which should replace the Daedalus class ships put out of service in 2196, and two smaller starbases, the Utopia Planitia Stations for ASDB planning and observation tasks. Because of the acute lack of (modern) vessels, after the first construction phase had been completed in 2208, the production at Utopia Planitia, only completed by 41% at that time, was started under the command of the ASDB command staff member Admiral Tiron Narsu, the son of the legendary first commander of Starbase 12. One of the first projects was the large-scale production of the Icarus class produced on a small scale since 2201, a pioneering design followed by many other revolutionary developments in the next hundred years which have been planned in the Utopia Planitia Stations and constructed in the Utopia Planitia Fleet Yards.
© 1999-2001 by Star Trek
Dimension / Webmaster. Last update: January 1st, 2001 | <urn:uuid:6350bb2e-5972-4eca-be77-f3087f09c5ee> | {
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|Near Kelso Scotland||| scottish borders ||
|| HOME | LOCATION | HISTORY | FACILITIES | CONTACT ||
Information on the village of Stichill, near Kelso in Scotland.
The earliest records of Nenthorn are when, with Newton, the land was in the keeping of the De Morvilles in the 12th century.
Nenthorn Spittal is recorded as one of the places laid waste by the English in 1542, but its whereabouts are unknown.
The Old Church at Nenthorn was abandoned in 1802, but the graveyard continued in use until about 60 years ago. Little remains of the building, and it would appear that graves have been dug into what was the area covered by the old church. The oldest gravestone seems to be dated 1606.
The old villages of Nenthorn and Newton have disappeared, probably having been demolished because of their proximity to the mansions, Nenthorn House and Newton Don House. This practice was fashionable in the late 18th century, when landowners were intent on extending and upgrading their houses, with landscaping of the grounds being all the rage.
A new church for the parish was built in 1802, with two galleries - one for the laird of Nenthorn and the other for the laird of Newton Don. This building was closed in 1972, after which it was converted into a house.
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Teachable Moment Study
St. Mary’s Home conducted research and produced a report called “The Teachable Moment” that documented the issues of addiction and substance use among pregnant teens in all maternity homes across Ontario in 1990.
This research highlighted the significance of substance use and misuse and paved the way for development of programs to support pregnant youth in having a substance-free pregnancy, greatly improving the health of the infant.
Today much more is known about the devastating effects of alcohol on the unborn child and about Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) as a completely preventable tragedy. Programs and services available the Teen Parent/Child Outreach Centre are directed at reducing the incidence of FASD among the children of teen parents.
“The Spiral of Growth” a sequel study completed in 1994, provided guidance to revising the residential program, aimed at supporting clients in decision-making for healthy lifestyle changes. | <urn:uuid:6d8f8754-80ad-4139-b84d-0dbffb85ec1b> | {
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|The gaging station near Soldiers Summit is one of more than 100 facilities located along streams in Utah. Originally manually read, many stations are now automated and stream flow information is posted on the Internet.|
History is filled with examples of how mankind measures almost everything.
Property is measured by acreage.
Mankind measures money in dollars, pounds, pesos, etc
Time is measured in hours, days, years, decades and centuries.
Mankind also measures water.
As water is piped into a home from a municipal system, a district or city measures consumption by the gallon based on a meter that has been set in the line.
In most cases, the transmission line leading to the meter and the water consumption measuring device belong to the controlling entity. The line from the meter to the residence and inside the structure belong to the individual property owner.
However, the state owns the water. The service district, the city, the county and private residents are basically paying for the system that delivers the water and for the right to use the liquid.
The average home in the United States uses less than 10,000 gallons of water per month, according nationally compiled data. Average residential consumption represents a small factor in the scheme of water matters.
A debate continues to rage in certain circles in the world community as to whether fresh, clean water should be a human right or a commodity that is bought and sold to the highest bidder.
The issue is an age old question, but one with more meaning as the world's population grows by leaps and bounds while fresh water is a finite natural resource.
Official estimates vary, but it is generally accepted that less than2 percent of the world's supply of the natural resource is fresh water. The rest is salt water in the oceans.
Of the 2 percent, more than half is locked up in ice on the two polar caps. A limited amount of fresh water is produced annually, with the evaporation and precipitation cycle being fairly predictable on a global basis.
Water is deceiving. A small space can contain a significant amount of water, yet a large lake or reservoir full to capacity can be depleted quickly by the agricultural and municipal uses.
For example, Lake Superior is considered to be the greatest of the great lakes because of its size and depth. Lake Superior is 350 miles long and 160 miles wide, with a depth of more than 1,300 feet.
Lake Superior has the storage capability to cover the continental United States with one foot of water. The U.S. mainland has 3,608,787 square miles of surface. Multiply the surface by 640 acres per square mile. The total is 2,309,623,680 acre feet of water.
By comparison, Scofield Reservoir can store 73,600 acre feet of water at capacity. According to state water engineer Mark Page, the level at Scofield currently exceeds 25,000 acre feet. Although the water level continues to rise due to spring runoff, Scofield Reservoir is only about one-third full.
"Also, remember that 8,000 acre feet of that water is what is called dead water," noted Page during an iterview on Wednesday. "That is water in the bottom of the reservoir that is lower than the drainage from the reservoir can remove."
According to data compiled by experts, the entire Great Lakes system - Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario - contains more than 50 percent of the world's fresh water supply.
Therefore, the other lakes and streams in the United States, the nation has a vast majority of fresh water that is not locked up in ice that exists in the world.
Water, and it's measurement has always been an issue, but in the eastern, southern and much of the upper midwest there has generally always been enough of it to go around. But the west and it's rivers are a different sort of animal.
Water in the west in the form of precipitation falls largely in the mountains, from which streams flow through vast desert areas, turning those little areas around the streams into literal oasises, while the vast majority of the countryside is barren and survives on the little rainfall that does occur.
This means the streams become the life blood of the region and with the intervention of man and his laws about distribution, rights and use, measurement became most important.
Water agreements between various government and private agencies, including those between states such as the Colorado River Compact (CRC), often guarantee certain amounts of water to be delivered to downstream users.
That particular agreement guarantees the lower basin states (Arizona, California and Nevada) 7.5 million acre feet of water per year.
This means that the upper states must make sure (and the lower basin states want it verified) that amount of water is delivered each year.
To do this, a series of "gaging stations" were set up many years ago.
Tied to the large stations directly on the major rivers (such as the one just above Grand Junction, Colo; that can be seen from I-70 by motorists) are a series of smaller stations on other streams farther up the drainage.
Not all of these were put in place for the CRC, but they add to the data that shows how much water is being contributed by various tributaries.
These stations are regulated and monitored by the United States Geological Survey (USGS).
Manual monitoring used to be the norm, but in these days of modern electronics and solar power, even some of the remotest stations can be monitored 24 hours a day.
For instance, at 10:40 on Wednesday morning May 21, the Price River near Heiner was flowing at 77 cubic feet per second (cfs) and was under the 10 percentile for that day in an average year according to the survey's monitoring system.
In contrast, the station on the White River, just off of US 6 between Scofield Junction and Soldiers Summit measured a stream flow of 117 cfs that falls in a 25 to 75 percent category of normal for that day indicated the survey site.
At the same time, the Colorado River, near the Utah-Colorado border measured 119,000 cfs that falls in a 25 to 75 percent category.
"These instruments must be recalibrated periodically," states Page. "For instance, a flood period may change a stream depth or width and the USGS must change the measuring devices to reflect those differences."
In Utah, there are 129 of these stations located on various drainages. Some streams only have one, other streams have multiple locations due to the fact that tributaries flow into them and major users along the streams can change the water flow from one point to another.
As of Wednesday morning, no ranked stream in Utah that is on the USGS website was flowing at all time highs or even above 90 percent of normal.
Most of these streams are in the lower ranges according to the geological survey system, but stream flows have been slow to grow this year because of the cool, wet spring.
Most experts expect the stream flows to pick up considerably over the next week as the warm weather strikes.
But in the drought the state is presently in, it is not so much when the stream flow picks up and reaches higher capacity, but for how long it does that, particularly in those areas where streams feed reservoirs and lakes that supply water to agriculture and culinary purposes for the summer.
Those interested in seeing present stream flows on electronic gaging stations can go to the national Internet website at www.usgs.gov and click on realtime stream flow and then click on Utah on the station map.
Once on the Utah segment, individual stations are listed and can be read. | <urn:uuid:b84c5a2b-a362-4345-89c4-ca00f3961593> | {
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The plan has been discussed as part of negotiations between the White House and Congress to avoid going over the "Fiscal Cliff".
“Granting any president the sole power over the federal debt limit is clearly not what the Founding Fathers envisioned when they drafted the Constitution. This proposal is an unnecessary distraction from reaching bipartisan solutions to the immediate budget and deficit problems the nation faces today,” Cochran said.
“The President’s request for permanent authority to raise the debt ceiling is a non-starter in Congress,” said Wicker. “A solution to avoid the fiscal cliff will require cooperation from both sides. With 21 days until the end of the year, now is the time to work together rather than spending time posturing.”
The following is text from the Cochran-Wicker news release:
The letter to Obama cites the use of the debt limit by Congresses in the past to craft deficit-reduction agreements since the mid-1980s. The letter also links the debt limit authority to the constitutional “power of the purse” granted to Congress.
The letter states that nearly every significant deficit reduction law of the past 27 years has been linked to a debt limit debate: “For Congress to surrender its control over the debt limit would be to permanently surrender what has long provided the best opportunity to enact bipartisan deficit reduction legislation.”
It goes on to say: “We also believe that Congress’ power over borrowing, like the power of the purse, is firmly rooted in our constitutional tradition. The Founders understood the potential danger of permitting the Executive to unilaterally incur new public debt. Consequently, Article I of the Constitution empowers only Congress ‘to borrow money on the credit of the United States.’ The debt ceiling is the means by which Congress exercises this inherent legislative responsibility.” | <urn:uuid:6204fc6a-2fe5-423c-8229-cdf3f09e8045> | {
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Faced with the limits imposed by global climate change and the de-carbonization of the world’s economy required to address it, continued economic growth in the already affluent world does not offer the solution; it represents the problem. That's the premise of a book published this week by Tim Jackson called Prosperity Without Growth: Economics for a Finite Planet.
"Governments are locked into defending growth in a system where stability depends on growth. Chasing growth makes it incredibly difficult to chase climate goals too," said Jackson, who is Professor of Sustainable Development at the University of Surrey.
"So what we urgently need is an economic system that doesn't rely on growth. Right now the one we have is undermining the ability of governments to function properly. It is undermining wellbeing in the richest nations and failing those in the poorest. It has already led us to the brink of economic collapse and it is driving us rapidly towards catastrophic climate change," he adds.
The book calls for a new vision of prosperity based around providing the capabilities for people to flourish--within the ecological limits of the planet. Key recommendations include the need for:
- a massive uplift in ‘ecological’ investment: renewable energy, energy efficiency, local infrastructure, low-carbon transport, climate adaptation, ecological protection
- support for ‘ecological’ enterprise-resource efficient, community-based activities that offer meaningful employment and deliver low-carbon goods and services
- clear restraints on unbridled consumerism
- the protection of public spaces and a renewed vision of social goods
- investment in the capabilities for people to participate in society in less materialistic ways
- real commitment by the richer nations towards low-carbon development in the poorer nations
In the past few months, a number of leading figures have come out in support of the call to re-think economic growth. President Nicolas Sarkozy has asked world leaders to join a revolution in the measurement of economic progress, and Sir Nicholas Stern has warned “at some point we would have to think about whether we want future growth."
Jonathon Porritt said: "The idea that today’s model of
consumption-driven economic growth will secure sustainable, equitable
and decent lives for 9 billion people between now and 2050 is literally
laughable. The refusal of all the major parties even to acknowledge
this incontrovertible reality, let alone explore its implications, is
Last week, George Soros--backed by distinguished academic economists including Nobel laureate economists--launched the Institute for New Economic Thought, an independent think-tank charged with reinventing economics.
Chapter one of the book can be read at the link below. | <urn:uuid:f855c304-3415-489d-8199-700afc709708> | {
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Colorectal polyps should be removed because some can develop into cancer. In most cases, the polyps may be removed during a colonoscopy.
People over age 50 should consider having a colonoscopy or other screening test. Regular colonoscopy helps prevent colon cancer because polyps can be removed before they become cancerous. People with a family history of colon cancer or colon polyps may need to be screened at an earlier age.
For people with adenomatous polyps, new polyps can appear in the future. Follow-up colonoscopy is usually recommended 1 to 10 years later, depending on the:
Person's age and general health
Number of polyps
Size and characteristics of the polyps
Rarely, the health care provider may recommend a colectomy (removing part of the colon) if polyps are very likely to become cancerous.
The outlook for people with colorectal polyps is excellent if the polyps are removed. Polyps that are left behind can develop into cancer over time.
Polyps can cause bleeding. Over time, some polyps can develop into cancers.
Calling your health care provider
Call your health care provider if you have:
Blood in a bowel movement
Change in bowel habits
To reduce your risk of developing polyps:
Eat a diet low in fat and high in fruits, vegetables, and fiber
Avoid smoking and heavy alcohol intake
Maintain a normal body weight
Colonoscopy prevents colon cancer by removing polyps before they can become cancer. People over age 50 should consider having a colonoscopy or other screening test. This may reduce the odds of developing colon cancer, or at least help catch it in its most treatable stage. Those with a family history of colon cancer or colon polyps may need to be screened at an earlier age.
Taking aspirin or similar medicines may help reduce your risk for new polpys. However, these medicines can have serious side effects if you take them for a long time. Side effects include bleeding from your stomach or colon and heart disease. Talk with your doctor before taking these medicines.
Burt RW, Barthel JS, Dunn KB, et al. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology. Colorectal cancer screening. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2010 Jan;8(1):8-61.
Cooper K, Squires H, Carroll C, et al. Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer: systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2010 Jun;14(32):1-206.
George F. Longstreth, MD, Department of Gastroenterology, Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program, San Diego, California. Also reviewed by A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc., Editorial Team: David Zieve, MD, MHA, David R. Eltz, and Stephanie Slon. | <urn:uuid:2eff4444-83c6-473d-a538-622648d466ec> | {
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As Sweetwater celebrates the festivities of the 54th Annual World’s Largest Rattlesnake Round-up, local snakes will also begin to emerge from winter hibernation. Rolling Plains Memorial Hospital (RPMH) urges the community to know how to respond to snakebites.
Many different types of snakes can be found in Nolan County; some with poisonous venom that can have debilitating or even deadly consequences.
Treatment of snakebites can be extremely costly. According to Dr. Robert Eaker, emergency department medical director at RPMH, each vial of anti-venom costs approximately $5,000. Depending on the severity of the wound and type of snake, eight to 10 vials are needed for treatment. Many times, treatment requires double the number of vials.
Sometimes, snakebites occur so quickly that victims do not know what hit them. Signs and symptoms may vary, but most typically include: a pair of puncture marks at the center of the wound; redness, swelling and severe pain around the bite; nausea, increased sweating, and labored breathing; and numbness or tingling around your face or limbs.
“One of the most important things to do when bitten by a snake is to see and remember the color, shape and/or pattern of the snake,” said Dr. Eaker. “This information can be very helpful to doctors at the hospital so that proper treatment of the snakebite can be administered.”
Dr. Eaker added that seeking immediate medical attention is critical. Until medical aid can be rendered, keeping the victim calm and still can slow the spread of the venom if the snake is poisonous.
“Contrary to many beliefs, you should never apply a tourniquet to snake bites. Likewise, you should also remove jewelry such as rings and other tight clothing such as boots,” explained Dr. Eaker. “Snake venom can cause massive swelling of the affected area and can destroy red blood cells. If you block the blood flow, you are essentially trapping dead blood cells in the affected area or limb which can cause more harm to the victim than the bite itself.”
Other items to avoid doing after being bitten by a snake is to not slash the wound with a knife, suck out the venom, apply ice or immerse the wound in water, and drink alcohol or caffeinated beverages.
Calling 911 or getting to a hospital as quickly as possible can make a huge difference in recovery from a snakebite. Although death from rattlesnakes is rare, the side effects can be unpleasant. | <urn:uuid:20efc78a-fe17-429a-9307-1ecf0ce23129> | {
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Adjustment Assistance and Compensation
There will always be winners and losers from agricultural trade policy reform. When the losers include the most vulnerable countries and communities, development assistance has an important has an important coherence role to play. At the country level, adverse shocks can arise either because food-importing countries must pay more for their food imports after reform, or because some food-exporting developing countries lose out because the advantages of preferential access to protected markets in developed countries are eroded. Such shocks can arise either in the multilateral context, e.g. the Doha Round, or because of unilateral policy changes, e.g. EU sugar or banana policy reform.
Helping Net Food-Importing Countries
The fear that food-importing developing countries might face short term difficulties in financing normal levels of imports of basic foodstuffs following the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture was addressed in the Decision on Measures Concerning the Possible Negative Effects of the Reform Programme on Least-Developed and Net Food-Importing Developing Countries. This Decision provided guarantees of adequate food aid commitments and greater priority to requests for assistance to improve agricultural productivity and infrastructure. It also established a link with facilities provided by the international financial institutions to help vulnerable countries address short-term financing difficulties when importing food.
However, developing countries have been dissatisfied with the ineffectiveness of this Decisions and it was one of the implementation issues raised in the run-up to the WTO Doha Ministerial Meeting in 2001. In September 2001, the WTO Agriculture Committee reached an agreement, which covered food aid, technical assistance to improve productivity and infrastructure, financing for import, and follow up review. Disciplines on food aid are now being discussed in the export competition pillar of the Doha Round Agricultural negotiations, with the debate around whether an agreement will help to improve the quality of food aid or whether its developmental and humanitarian benefits will be sacrificed to satisfy the concerns of agricultural exporters.
Compensating for Preference Erosion
Preference erosion is one of the key issues in the Doha Round. While the average effect of preference erosion on developing countries is not large, it is important for particular commodities exported by a small number of countries – primarily small island economies dependent on sugar and bananas. In the case of a temporary shock to export revenues, it is sometimes appropriate to provide short-term support to affected industries until revenues recover. Preference erosion, however, is a once-and-for-all change in a country’s external trading environment. The ultimate aim of policies to address the loss of these income transfers must be to encourage public and private sector investment to diversify into new higher-growth industries, and on rationalising existing preferential sectors to improve their international competitiveness.
Existing adjustment initiatives
The IMF operates a Compensatory (and Contingency) Financing Facility as a concessional loan arrangement to help to mitigate balance of payments difficulties caused by a temporary decline in export earnings or a temporary increase in cereal import costs. In 2004, it launched the Trade Integration Mechanism, which enhances access to existing IMF facilities for countries experiencing a balance of payments shortfall resulting from multilateral liberalisation. However, borrowing to finance adjustment is not always an appropriate response where there is a permanent change in a country’s external trade environment, and is not always desirable or indeed feasible for vulnerable countries which are already highly-indebted.
Bilateral initiatives include a number of schemes run by the EU. Under the Cotonou Agreement, for example, the FLEX scheme is a mechanism to provide ‘fast-disbursing’ support to African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries with fluctuating export earnings. FLEX is also triggered by government revenue losses arising from a decline in export earnings. The EU has also put in place specific compensation arrangements in connection with the reform of its sugar and banana regimes.
Social Safety Nets
Greater access to agricultural markets in the EU and other developed countries will contribute to increased economic growth in developing countries. In the short run, however, some social groups in developing countries might be negatively affected by higher food prices, or by the increased risks of integration into world food markets, or by the dynamic forces of accumulation set in train by the emergence of profitable export opportunites for food or cash crops.
Identifying the losers from trade reform requires analysis of its effects on different groups stratified by income source and expenditure patterns. In vulnerable economies regularly buffeted by external shocks, some positive, others negative, it may not be easy to follow the chain of causation between, say, an EU policy change and its impact on particular livelihood in poor countries. It may also be questioned why assistance is provided only to mitigate the risks of one type of adverse shock (e.g. EU trade reform), rather than the many other shocks which these countries face.
Generalised social protection arrangements can take many forms, including employment generation schemes, transfers (whether cash or in kind) and microfinance services. Issues in the design of these schemes include whether to attempt targeting, whether to provide assistance in the form of cash or commodities, and how best to ensure transfer efficiency and fiscal sustainability. Project food aid (food-for-work, school feeding, and supplementary feeding) has been one of the traditional mechanisms for delivering social protection, although impact assessments suggest that it has only limited long-term development impacts.
EU Commission DG Development commodities webpage
Provides detatils on EU adjustment assistance to developing country commodity producers
Page, S., Preference erosion: helping countries to adjust (PDF), Briefing paper, ODI, 2004
Makes the case for a WTO compensation fund for preference beneficiaries who would lose from further multilateral liberalisation
FAO, Social Safety Nets Briefing (PDF), 2005
Short paper providing short illustrative examples of social safety nets in operation from the FAO Food Security Service | <urn:uuid:47fe6f65-466e-49c9-b4f3-aabcc8cfa678> | {
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Program Evaluation: Reading, Math, Science, and Technology Initiatives
Technology-Based Supplemental Instruction Pilot Program in Rural School Districts (R-TECH)
R-Tech is intended to finance technology-based supplemental instruction to students at the sixth through twelfth grade levels at participating campuses. Additional information about can be found at TEA's R-Tech page.
The Student Success Initiative (SSI)
Created by the 76th Texas Legislature in 1999 and modified by the 81st Texas Legislature in 2009, the purpose of the Student Success Initiative (SSI) is to offer a system of academic support programs to help ensure that every student in Texas performs on grade level in reading and mathematics. Please see TEA's SSI page for more information.
Accelerated Reading/Accelerated Math Instruction (ARI/AMI)
ARI/AMI provided funding to be used by school districts to provide accelerated instruction to students in Kindergarten through Grade 6 who were performing below grade level in reading and math. The funding provided to school districts and charter schools each fiscal year was based on the number of students who did not meet the state standard on the Grade 3 reading TAKS and the Grade 5 math TAKS the previous year. The evaluation of ARI/AMI for the 2006-2007 school year was included in the Student Success Initiative (SSI) Report.
Intensive Reading Instruction/Intensive Math Instruction (IRI/IMI)
IRI and IMI Program funds were designated to serve those schools exhibiting the most difficulty in improving reading and/or math achievement, beginning in 2006-2007 school year. IRI and IMI funding was non-competitive and provided to schools with students enrolled in Grades 4-6 that failed to improve student performance in reading and/or mathematics. This funding was to be used to provide immediate, targeted instruction programs for students who were struggling in these two key areas so they would be able to meet the grade advancement requirements of the Student Success Initiative (SSI) and master grade level curriculum expectations. Texas Education Code (TEC) Section 28.0211, requires districts to provide accelerated (intensive) instruction to a student after he or she has not met the passing standard after the second administration of the reading or math TAKS tests in Grade 5, and the reading TAKS in Grade 3.
Texas Reading First Initiative (TRFI)
TRFI is intended to enable the selected eligible applicants to implement scientifically-based reading programs that help all students achieve reading mastery by the end of Grade 3. TRFI places specific emphasis on the importance of scientifically based reading research – research that applies rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain valid knowledge relevant to reading development, reading instruction and reading difficulties. The evaluation focuses on activities that occurred primarily during the 2005-2006 school year. For additional information about TRFI please see TEA's Reading First page.
Technology Immersion Pilot (TIP)
The purpose of TIP is to explore the impact of technology immersion on student progress by providing students in grantee campuses with a wireless mobile computing device and other appropriate learning technologies that have been shown to improve student achievement. The primary goal of TIP is to increase the academic progress of participating students by immersing the campus with appropriate innovative technologies including, but not limited to, wireless mobile computing devices, integrating software, online formative assessment tools, and online resources. Evaluation reports were delivered to the agency in December at the conclusion through the 2007-2008 school year. For additional information, please see TEA's TIP page.
Career and Technology Education (CTE) Grant Program
The Texas Legislature established Career and Technology Education goals for all Texas students in secondary schools. Texas Education Code (TEC) Section 29.181 mandates that each public school student shall master the basic skills and knowledge necessary for: 1) managing the dual roles of family member and wage earner; and 2) gaining entry-level employment in a high-skill, high-wage job or continuing the student's education at the postsecondary level. For additional information about CTE in Texas, please see TEA's CTE page.
Page last modified on 2/28/2011. | <urn:uuid:9cfc05a8-b996-42b2-a8d9-02040a354f80> | {
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Athletics events have been a part of the Paralympic program since the first Paralympic Games in Rome, Italy, in 1960. Events include track, throwing, jumping and the marathon.
The rules of Paralympic track and field are almost identical to those of its non-disabled counterpart. Certain allowances are made to accommodate certain disabilities. For example, the blind and more severely visually impaired runners compete with guide runners, who are often attached by the wrist with a tether to the runner. More information on IPC Rules can be found by visiting the IPC Athletics website: http://www.paralympic.org/Athletics/Rules
Paralympic track and field competition is open to male and female athletes with physical disabilities such as dwarfism, amputation/limb loss, blindness/visual impairment, spinal cord injury/wheelchair-users and cerebral palsy/brain injury/stroke.
How Do I Become a Paralympian?
U.S. Paralympics Track and Field 2013 Standards (Men and Women)
Find a local program in your community - visit the Paralympic Resource Network.
High School Track & Field Opportunities for Athletes with Physical Disabilities
A number of states now have inclusion rules which will allow athletes with a physically disability to participate and score points for their team at high school regional and state finals/championships. The states include Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Idaho, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Washington and Wisconsin. Scoring events are offered for certain track events and field events.
For more information, please contact the individual state's high school sports association. | <urn:uuid:cf7587a9-6366-406d-ae42-bd116c446e70> | {
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First we see 3D printing enabling consumers to re‐position themselves right at the heart of manufacturing. Second, we see more and more companies engaging across the supply chain.
1. Demand for Online Content is Accelerating
As a response to the growing societal demand to be involved in the development process and a growing demand for personalized production, today we find a plethora of very low cost 3D printing machines for the home and for the educational & maker community. This trend is spurring increasing demand for online ‘iStore’ repositories and libraries where home makers can download and then 3D print an ever increasing array of products. We will also find in the coming years an increasing number of web shops and online web portals where consumers can become co‐creators by engaging directly with their own product designs. The development of home based 3D printing and online data allows consumers to become in effect, mini‐factories, thus compressing the supply chain from the CAD terminal straight to the consumer.
2. Manufacturing is Shifting Back to the Consumer
Until quite late into the industrial revolution people still learned a trade and made products with their own hands. The process was slow, inefficient and relatively unaffordable for the vast majority of people. The industrial revolution brought factories and mass production machines into play to standardize goods and ensure a cheap supply of products to meet the burgeoning demand of European citizens. Today, now that mass produced goods are largely attainable, we see a rebounding trend back to more individually‐designed goods. This trend is a result of the ‘squeeze’ from both the societal move to mass customization and personalization on the one side; and the economic times we now find ourselves in, where the high capital investment required for mass production is prohibitively expensive for many entrepreneurs to set up on their own. One positive response being enabled by 3D printing is the ‘Quirky’ business model – named for the New York‐based firm founded by entrepreneur Ben Kaufman. Quirky’s business model is based on the principle that traditional manufacturing is becoming increasingly above and beyond the reach of everyday designers and entrepreneurs.
In traditional manufacturing plants it can take anywhere between 18 to 24 months of planning and capital investment before a new product actually rolls off the production lines and into shops. This process effectively raises the barrier to entry for people who may have a new innovative idea and who want to turn these ideas into a commercial product within a reasonable time to market.
With an in‐house 3D printer, Quirky is able to shorten and simplify the product development process and enable people with good product ideas to be able to rapidly and efficiently create working prototypes that can be held and tested, thus eliminating a major stumbling block in the way of bringing their product to market. Today Quirky designs and develops a number of new consumer products from scratch every single week. The Quirky model is a natural response to the economic pressures of today’s downturn, the demographic changes that represent new opportunities in both home and foreign markets, and societal changes that are pressuring the way we consume resources.
The implications of the Quirky model for Western national economies may also be significant in the years ahead. If the deepening of the recession continues to hit manufacturing capacity, 3D printing may be able to offset some of the loss by bypassing the traditional capital‐intensive process, enabling the speedy development of a wide range of innovative products. The value & differentiation here in both the ‘iStore’ trend and the Quirky trend is in the content and the development of user communities of designers and innovators who are now able to produce for themselves. In both cases, 3D printing represents the hardware enabler – the consumer value is in the fast and relatively easy realization of a new idea into a working prototype and even real product.
3. More Companies are Engaging Across the Supply Chain
We will increasingly see 3D printing as an enabler for companies to engage across the supply chain. 3D printing will increasingly be used as a distribution solution where parts are made to order, without the need to hold stock near to the consumer. This is having a profound impact already in the small number of application areas using 3D printing on a daily basis such as lamp shades and iPhone covers. With the rise of 3D printing service bureaus, and now even Cloud‐based 3D printing services, making parts on‐demand and nearer to the consumer will continue to make supply chains increasingly lean and efficient in the coming years. The potential benefits of this tool‐less and inventory‐free supply chain include lower material consumption, less waste, lower carbon footprint, reduced capital investment, mitigated risk, and the ability to easily differentiate your product from the rest.
4. Desktop 3D Printers are Proliferating in Office Environments
We can expect an expanding penetration of desktop 3D printers into more offices and smaller offices thanks to the rapidly increasing capabilities of the models available today. While the larger, more complex 3D printers will continue to be a natural part of a centralized prototyping lab in virtually every large manufacturing company, the rise of the desktop 3D printer – imbued with increasingly similar levels of accuracy and producing comparable 3D models to the industrial size machines, will become more and more defused through the many smaller firms and boutique design houses.
Desktop 3D printers are becoming ever‐more affordable and advanced in their accuracy & resolution quality and in their ability to suitably simulate the fit and form of parts and products envisioned by designers and engineers. They also offer today a greater range and versatility of materials than ever before.
The Objet30 desktop 3D printer for example offers a range of 5 different 3D printing materials, including different opaque shades and a polypropylene‐like material for prototyping snap‐fit parts. The plethora of professional‐level desktop 3D printers available for under $50,000 is rapidly expanding, placing fast and professional rapid prototyping capabilities at the service of virtually any design house or small engineering firm.
The resulting rise of the professional desktop machine is a game changer for smaller firms – providing better risk mitigation in an era of scarcer investment capital, faster innovation cycles, better communication within the supply chain and overall lead‐time compression. This will enable companies on one side of the world to respond agilely to the plethora of new demographic and consumer group opportunities on other sides of the world – for example, in the newly emerging markets of Asia and South America. Those companies with their own 3D printing capabilities will be able to develop an edge – enabling them to compete with much large multi‐nationals when it comes to rapidly transforming ideas into working products.
5. High-End 3D Printing Capabilities Will Continue to Exponentially Improve
Today’s high end 3D printers have improved exponentially over the last decade. For an example, Objet’s original Quadra Tempo released in 2000 delivered 20 micron print layers (a game changer in its day), featured 1536 jet nozzles in 4 print heads, based in a single block and the machine printed one material, known in its time as M510. Compare this to the latest Objet260 Connex delivering double the print quality from just half the number of print nozzles, at a significantly higher run speed – and in a machine with half the footprint.
In place of just one material, today’s machine features a choice of 68 different materials with ranging properties from opaque to transparent, rigid to flexible, and standard to engineering plastics. It can also combine up to 14 different material properties and color shades within a single model prototype. So not only are 3D printers becoming more capable, but the range and mechanical properties of 3D printing materials, especially for inkjet based technology, is expanding exponentially.
These developments are working to constantly reduce the price of 3D printed components, compress lead times and expand the range and functionalities of 3D printed parts. The result of all this is that advanced 3D printers are becoming a must‐have fixture within every large product development company from the automotive sector to electronic goods and household appliances. Manufacturers will be able in future to cut out much of their secondary tooling processes such as injection molding, resin tooling and soft tooling. And all of this will go into helping them compress their time to market, reduce their costs and also reduce the burden they place on the environment.
When faced with the rapid pace of change in the years ahead, 3D printing represents a potent device, one that could mitigate many of the structural challenges of our economies and societies, allowing more businesses to compete and take advantage of developing opportunities around the world. The growth of personal manufacturing and online content in itself has the potential to re‐invent whole economies. Bolstered by the emergence of the ‘Quirky’ model, 3D printing may bring a level of self‐sufficiency back in the face of scarcer resources, greater ethical consumerism, more demand for personalization, shifting demographics and new centers of wealth.
3D printing has the potential to help offset the decline in Western manufacturing, replacing the top heavy ‘too big to fail’ model with a lighter, more agile and more evenly spread production base providing higher added value. Such a model puts innovation back into the hands of more citizenry – and could spur a new round of global and technological innovations leading to a new, grassroots prosperity. While perhaps still a shadowy vision, the vision is being rapidly animated by the increasing capabilities of 3D printing itself ‐ lower prices, more advanced prototyping capabilities, smaller machines and a greater range of 3D printing materials than ever before.
With all of the trends taken together, it’s a safe bet to assume that the future of product design and development will look very different a decade hence. But rather than frighten, this knowledge should help to invigorate entrepreneurs and businesses into renewed action. 3D printing will help by becoming an essential component in leveling the product development playing field ‐ enabling every company to leverage the most from the opportunities that are coming to the fore even now, as we speak.
Objet Ltd., is a leading provider of high quality, cost effective inkjet‐based 3D printing systems and materials. A global company, Objet has offices in North America, Europe, Japan, China, Hong Kong, and India. | <urn:uuid:02ff5420-a013-4ae8-a738-4aa32cf2eec7> | {
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This week the U.S. Department of Energy released a new roadmap for the development of algal biofuels. DOE researchers had dismissed this type of biofuel as too costly to be commercially successful in the mid-1990s following a nearly two-decade-long research project.
The new roadmap was accompanied by the announcement of $24 million in new DOE funding for algal biofuels research. That money is in addition to $140 million in algae funding from last year’s Recovery Act.
“Biotechnology has come a long way” since the earlier project, says Valerie Sarisky-Reed of the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, one of the lead authors of the roadmap. “With a dedicated research and development program, we can bring the economics to a suitable place within a 10-year time frame,” she says. “We chose to invest in it again because we felt we were within striking distance.”
The DOE originally considered algae as a means of making biofuels because some types of algae naturally produce large amounts of oil. The prolific organisms, if grown in ponds or closed bioreactors, could be used to produce more fuel per acre than other biofuels approaches, such as biochemically or thermochemically converting cellulosic biomass into fuel.
But the DOE program, which concluded in 1996, found that growing algae, and then harvesting and processing the oils, would only be cost-effective at high petroleum prices–between $59 and $186 a barrel. About that time, oil prices were less than $20 a barrel. Current estimates of the required price of petroleum for algae to be competitive range widely, from $10 to $100 a barrel, Sarisky-Reed says. Some estimates are even higher. Conventional approaches are only competitive when oil prices are as high as $400 a barrel, says David Berry, a partner at Flagship Ventures, based in Cambridge, MA.
The roadmap lays out a wide-ranging plan to bring the cost of algal biofuel production down. It identifies a broad set of challenges and research goals rather than selecting the most promising approaches. Sarisky-Reed says more research is needed to know whether it’s better, for example, to grow algae in an open pond and then harvest the oil, or to grow algae that’s been genetically engineered to continuously secrete fuels inside closed bioreactors.
The roadmap also details the reasons algal biofuels have proved challenging. For example, growing algae in open ponds is likely the lowest capital cost option, but pilot projects have shown that highly productive strains in these open ponds are quickly crowded out by less productive wild strains from the environment. Sealing algae in bioreactors can help protect them, but can also cause algae to overheat. | <urn:uuid:90369623-8bd3-47aa-abf0-36a3d6ee760a> | {
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Performance Analysis of AODV Routing Protocol in Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network Service Discovery Architecture
VANET is the special type of MANET (Mobile Ad hoc NETworks) where the mobile nodes are vehicles that move on roads at very high speed following traffic rules; they provide communication between Vehicle and Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle and Road side Infrastructural unit (V 2 I). This paper explores the possibility of using VANET in inter vehicular communication. An attempt has been made earlier to create a new cluster model for efficient communication among the VANET nodes by the author. A new clustering model has been created after taking the simple highway vehicular model concept into consideration. | <urn:uuid:fc9ba1a3-e981-4688-83ac-a84f32007305> | {
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Sudden crime waves, injuries and other random acts have been blamed on the monthly phenomenon, sometimes by doctors, nurses and the police.
But research by a group of psychologists in Canada has finally debunked the myth, proving that the lunar cycle has no influence on these freak occurrences.
More than 770 hospital patients were studied in the three-year project with those suffering from psychological problems being closely analysed.
Patients suffered problems ranging from panic attacks to suicidal behaviour and often claimed to have mystery chest pains.
No evidence of a lunar link was discovered.
"This may be coincidental or due to factors we did not take into account,” Professor Genevieve Belleville, a psychologist for Canada's Universite Laval told the journal General Hospital Psychiatry.
"But one thing is certain – we observed no full moon or new moon effect on psychological problems.
"The analyses revealed no link between the incidence of psychological problems and the four lunar phases."
The pains were instead attributed to the mental health of the patients and timing found to have no specific pattern – with one exception. Anxiety attacks were 32 per cent less frequent during the last quarter of a lunar cycle than at other times.
The full moon causing odd behaviour is a myth that has been believed for centuries.
Around 80 per cent of nurses and 63 per cent of doctors in the hospitals had been convinced they were seeing more patients for mental problems during a full moon than any other time.
Police forces from Brighton to Ohio have also beefed up their night time presence during the full moon after blaming it for rises in crime, according to reports.
Commentators even claimed the reason George W. Bush unexpectedly won the 2000 US presidential election was as a result of the full moon sending voters crazy. | <urn:uuid:b5610646-65e2-4892-8c6d-d6db353b7976> | {
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by Tony Badillo
Importance of tabnit, the ‘plan’
The key to the Temple’s secrets is in the floor plan and layout of its furnishings. The “plan” or “pattern” (Heb., tabnit) of its structure and furniture is mentioned I Chronicles 28:11, 12, 19. Tabnit is also translated as design, structure, figure, form, likeness, and shape. Thus, in Deuteronomy 4:16-18 the Israelites are forbidden making any likeness, form, or figure of a human or beast for worship. In Ezekiel 8:10 the prophet sees repulsive forms or figures of creeping beasts, but in 8:3 he is lifted up by the form or figure of God’s hand or an angel’s (see also 10:8); and in Psalms 144:12 sons and daughters are compared to choice cut stones giving shape or form to a palace (see the Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh).Tabnit generally refers to the form of something. King David received Divine inspiration for the form, i.e., plan or pattern of the Temple; and before him at Sinai Moses heard God’s verbal instructions for the form of the Mishkan (tabernacle). Tabnit is also related to banah, which means to build a structure or house –– or to raise children, since a “house” may also refer to a family. Thus, in Ruth 4:11 Rachel and Leah, the two wives of Jacob (later renamed Israel), are called the “builders” of the House of Israel. This is tabnit’s link to buildings, ordinary houses, human beings, and the human body temple, as shown below.
3. THE ARK of the COVENANT – This is a gold plated chest with a solid gold cover and two small cherubs (small stars).The Ark is his nose; and its poles –when attached to its long sides and drawn forward (I Kings. 8:8) – depict extended nostrils smelling the sweet smoke from the Incense Altar in the Holy Place.
4. STAIRWAY – A short staircase or ramp led from the Holy Place to a slightly elevated (six cubits) Holy of Holies.The stairway is his neck/throat and its top is his mouth. See First Temple vs. Second Temple.
5. INCENSE ALTAR – This small gold plated altar (I Kings 6:22) is national Israel’s heart, and its sweet-smelling smoke is the prayers and spiritual life of national ideal Israel, i.e., Israel as she should be.
6. TABLES OF THE SHOWBREAD – On these gold plated tables (I Kings 7:48) were bread and wine, symbolizing flesh and blood, i.e., the humanity of national Israel.
7. THE LAMP STANDS (I Kings 7:48, 49) – Their total number was 10 stands/msenorahs x 7 stems each = 70 lights, relating to the 70 Israelites of Exodus 1:5 (Jacob’s offspring). This is national Israel as the light to the world, and the world is the 70 nations of Genesis 10. They may also symbolize Shabbat (the Sabbath) multiplied 10 times, implying a messianic age of worldwide rest (meaning peace). For a larger view of them see Secrets of the Holy Place.
8. THE PORCH, Portico or vestibule – This antechamber, the ulam, (I Kings 6:3, II Chronicles 3:4) corresponds to the human pelvis (hips) and, therefore, procreation through the male and female genitalia.
10. TEN LAVERS – Five bronze water lavers were on the north and five on the south side, by the Porch. These signify the ten fingers of the hands. The lavers were for washing the blood off the sacrificial offerings, I Kings 7:38; II Chronicles 4:6.
11. JACHIN, BOAZ – The large bronze pillars by the Porch were named Jachin and Boaz (II Chronicles.3:17) and form Temple Man’s legs. These are two hybrid plants symbolizing Kings David and Solomon, war and peace.
12. SEA OF BRONZE, TWELVE BULLS – This was a huge basin full of water for the priests to wash their hands and feet (II Chronicles 4:2). It depicts the twelve tribes of Israel crossing the Red Sea. Its water symbolizes the God’s spirit and also his seed.13. THE SACRIFICIAL ALTAR – This (II Chronicles. 4:1) forms Temple Man’s feet, while also symbolizing the metallic King Messiah’s feet and footstool, as was the custom of that time, II Chronicles 9:18, Psalms 110:1.
The High Priest’s Garments: White and Gold
Jacob’s Dream and the Temple
Jewish tradition tells us that Jacob (father of the twelve Israelite tribes) saw the Temple in advance in his dream at Luz. After seeing angels ascending and descending on a stairway (‘ladder’), he says in Genesis 28:17, 'This is none other than God’s house ...,” and in v. 19 renames the place Bethel, House of God, which is also a designation for the Temple. Later he changes it again to El Bethel (God house of God) 35:7; and God, in turn, renames him Israel, 35:10. As shown below, Jacob's raised head corresponds to an elevated Holy of Holies and his ‘pillow stone’ (28:11) to the Even Shetiyah or 'Foundation Stone' where Abraham had earlier bound Isaac (22:9 -11). In other words, as he slept – unbeknownst to him – his head and body became a model for the Temple that was eventually built atop Mount Moriah by King Solomon (2 Chronicles 3:1). Today this site is called Haram al-Sharif by the Arabs, and the Temple Mount by the Israelis and others.
Why was Jacob given the dream at this time? Not solely because he was fleeing the wrath of his brother Esau, but also because he was on his way to Mesopotamia to find a wife and create a family, i.e., a “house”. Isaac practically ordered him to leave and start his own family (Genesis. 28: 1, 2), that he might multiply and become an “company of peoples,” v. 3; and later it is said his two wives are the “builders” of the House of Israel, Ruth. 4:11. Jacob, therefore, constructed a human temple, a house of twelve tribes (plus the Levites) and centuries later these twelve, with hired Phoenician craftsmen, raised Solomon’s stone temple, the ‘House of God’. Therefore, the dream concerns the building of two houses, Israel’s (Jacob’s) and God’s.
The Amazing Metallic Messiah
The illustration below at right shows how the metals of the Temple’s interior reveal the Metallic Messiah. But how do we know the interior metals have this secondary meaning?
Because their type and order parallel those of King Nebuchadnezzar’s metal statue below, which itself symbolizes an unholy, secular messianic world ruler.
For the interior gold plating of the Temple’s Holy of Holies, Holy Place and Porch, see I Kgs. 6:20 - 22 and II Chr. 3:4 -10. For the bronze furniture outside see I Kgs. 7:15 - 27, 38 and II Chr. 4:1 -7.This gives the Metallic Messiah a head, torso and pelvis of gold, but hands, legs and feet of bronze. His silver shoulders and arms relate to the silver plated walls ‘houses’ or ‘buildings’ (i.e., priestly cells) of I Chr. 29:4.
However, we remove the western cells – also silver plated inside – that form the turban (as shown at right) because we are viewing a nude man who is the counterpart of another nude man, Nebuchadnezzar’s metallic statue, below. Thus, we compare one nude figure with another, not a clothed one with a nude one. Also excluded is the Sea of Bronze because it is not part of the natural human anatomy.Nebuchadnezzar’s Metal Statue - The account of the huge metal statue that King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon saw in a dream is found in chapter 2:1 - 35 of the Book of Daniel, but our focus is primarily on vv. 31 - 33.
This statue of four metals, v. 31, has a head of gold, arms and chest of silver, belly and thighs of bronze, v. 32, legs of iron, v. 33, and feet of iron fused with baked clay, v. 33. The clay counts as one with the iron so that he is made of fourmetals. However, Temple Man, i.e. the Metallic Messiah, consists of only three metals: gold, silver, and bronze (or copper). These same three were also in the tabernacle of Moses’ time, Exodus 25:3, 31:4; 35:5.
The four metals of Nebuchadnezzar’s statue depict four successive world empires, symbolizing Man’s ungodly earthly rule until the Last Days, Daniel 2: 34, 35. And just as Man’s rule is summed in one man of various metals, so too God’s forthcoming reign is portrayed by a single Metallic Messiah of three metals. See also Solomon’s Cyborg Messiah.
‘Messiah’ is a transliteration of mashiach, which means the anointed or anointed one. Jewish kings were anointed by having olive oil – symbolizing illumination – poured on their heads so that they might know how to rule their nation. Solomon himself was anointed in this manner, I Kings 1:39, and had prayed for an “understanding mind” to know how to rule, 3:9, and it was granted him, 3:12. Jewish kings were seen as sitting on the Divine throne and ruling on God’s behalf according to I Chronicles 29:23: ‘Then Solomon sat on the throne of Yahweh ... ,’ and also 28:5 where King David says that God ‘has chosen my son Solomon to sit on the throne of the kingdom of Yahweh,’ and that kingdom was national Israel. But King Messiah – the Metallic Messiah – is or will be anointed with the Divine spirit that he may know how to rule the entire world, not national Israel only.
.No Proof of Silver Walls?
Concerning the information directly above, someone wrote to another website claiming there was no proof that Solomon overlaid any walls with silver, totally ignoring I Chronicles 29:4. Yet all the bible translations I’ve consulted, both Jewish and non-Jewish, include this verse with its silver walls. Let us ask and answer, therefore: Is it likely that the “houses” (i.e., cells) in v. 29:4 above were silver plated? Yes, and here is why.A potent indicator of their existence is that they follow the pattern (Heb., tabnit) of the silver sockets of Moses’ tabernacle, which was constructed at the foot of Mount Sinai centuries before King Solomon’s time.
Keep in mind that everything about the Tabernacle (Fig. A) was portable, including its foundation. So what, then, was the Tabernacle’s ‘foundation’? One hundred (100) sockets (i.e., bases) of silver; and these were placed on only three sides: On the south, 40 sockets, Exodus 36:23, 24, and on the north another 40, vv. 25, 26; but on the west side, v. 27, the short side of the rectangular foundation, only 16 sockets were needed. This totals 96 silver sockets. What about the other four? Ah! now it gets more interesting. They were placed between the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, v. 36. For what purpose? To sustain the poles for the paroket, the ‘veil,’ a very special Dividing Curtain separating the two holy rooms. A description of the curtain is given in Exodus 36:35. Hence, the total number of silver sockets was 100, one socket from each talent of donated silver, (38:27). To complete the rectangular foundation, another five sockets were placed on the eastern side, the entrance, but these were of bronze or copper (36:38), not silver, as shown above (Fig. A).
The Temple had 90 or 993 priestly cells; the Tabernacle had none. But the number of cells or and sockets is not vital. What matters is their arrangement or pattern and that such a pattern is reproduced in the layout of the Temple’s priestly cells (‘houses’) with silver plated walls, I Chronicles 29:4. This also implies that the Tabernacle’s gold plated wooden frame (above at right), Exodus 26:29, relates to the Temple’s gold plated walls. The Tabernacle and Temple had similarities, and the correlation of the silver sockets and silver cells is one of them. The Temple’s foundation was of limestone blocks, not silver.
Finally, I have shown that the Temple wasalso in the hidden form of the Levite High Priest; and by law all priests were of the tribe of Levi. In Malachi 3:3 the Lord rebukes the priesthood saying that he ‘will purify the sons of Levi (of corruption) and refine them as gold and silver’. Since the central portion of the Temple’s interior was gold plated, it is perfectly fitting that its cell walls should be silver plated, symbolizing the priests themselves becoming as ‘gold and silver’ by attaining inward attributes of holiness after being purged of moral corruption.
1 Mitsnepheth (Heb.), the headgear of the High Priest, is often translated as miter, but a more fitting word is turban.Mitsnepheth (from the root sanip) may refer to something that fits around the head, such as a crown or tiara, but also to something that is wound around it, such as bandage or turban ( see First Kings 20:32 in the Tanakh by JPS or the NIV). The common priests wore a migbaah, usually translated as bonnet or cap,from the root term gibaah, meaning a hill or small hill , either of which resembles an inverted bowl. See Gesenius’ Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon, etc.
2 This room, a cube of 20 cubits, was the counterpart of the “Holy of Holies”(Heb.kodesh kodashim) of the Mosaic Tabernacle, but the Book of First Kings calls it debir, instead,from the Hebrew root dbr, meaning to speak, according to various Hebrew language references, and which is commonly translated as Shrine, Most Holy Place, Oracle, etc. Debir is a fitting name because from here Temple Man speaks, thus providing further confirmation that this room symbolizes the head, which includes the throat and mouth ( the stairway is the neck-throat, and the mouth is the top of the stairway). Oracle is the closest English equivalent to debir because it may refer to the response of a deity, the place where the deity speaks, or to a prophet or priest who speaks for the deity. And it also implies that Temple Man may symbolize a prophet, or possibly even God himself.
3 Based on Ezekiel 41:6, Jewish bibles prefer 99 cells (3 floors x33 cells each), most others 90 cells (3x30). Apparently the Hebrew text allows either view. It seems, though, that the 100 silver sockets of the Tabernacle symbolize Abraham’s age at Isaac birth, while the Temple’s 90 silver-clad cells symbolize Sarah’s age at that same event (Genesis 17:17, 21:5). Both Tabernacle and Temple were constructed centuries after Abraham and Sarah.
Notice: Verse citations used on this website are from the World English Bible online or some other public domain work. All artwork used on this site and originally created by Tony Badillo is copyrighted, as is public domain artwork from others that has been radically altered. And finally, all explanatory text originally written by Tony Badillo is also copyrighted. Please do not copy. | <urn:uuid:828f8fec-de90-45d7-b531-179d551d2d0a> | {
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Sprained ankles are relatively common in tennis players. Roger Federer, Andy Roddick and Andrew Murray have all suffered sprained ankles. The sudden sideways movements that are required during tennis can cause the ankle to twist, particularly if the surface is slippery or the player is fatigued.
A twisted ankle causes damage to ligaments and other soft tissues around the ankle. This is called a Sprained Ankle. The damage causes bleeding within the tissues, which produces a swollen ankle that can be extremely painful.
What can you do to prevent Sprained Ankles?
Applying an ankle brace to the ankle can help to reduce the risk of ankle sprains and it's a strategy that is employed by tennis pros such as Andrew Murray and Roger Federer.
Previous research has shown the injury incidence in people with taped ankles was 4.9 ankle sprains per 1000 participant matches, compared with 2.6 ankle sprains per 1000 participant matches in students wearing ankle braces. This compared with 32.8 ankle sprains per 1000 participant matches in subjects that had no taping or bracing.
What should you do if you suffer a Sprained Ankle?
In the first few days following an ankle sprain it is important to follow the PRICE protocol - protection, rest, ice, compression and elevation (never apply ice directly to the skin). An Ankle Cryo/Cuff is the most effective method of providing ice therapy and is the professional's choice. A Cryo/Cuff is ideal for home use as it is the safest and most effective method of ice therapy. It can provide continuous ice cold water and compression for 6 hours and significantly reduce ankle pain and swelling. Alternatively if you have to apply ice at home, the use of an Ice Bag is recommended. This is a safe method of ice application to avoid the risk of an ice burn.
Rehabilitation with a Chartered PhysiotherapistA member of the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy, signified by the initials MCSP.','',250)" onmouseout=hideddrivetip() ;>chartered physiotherapist significantly improves the level of ankle function. Wobble board training in the later rehab stage is designed to assist the re-education of the ProprioceptiveRelating to the system by which nerve receptors in skin, muscle, ligament and joint tissue relay information to the brain about body position sense, where this information is quickly processed and movement strategies are formulated and executed using nerve signals to muscles.','',250)" onmouseout=hideddrivetip() ;>proprioceptive system. Previous research has suggested that patients with ankle instability who underwent wobble board training experienced significantly fewer recurrent sprains during a follow-up period than those who did not follow the training programme.
IMPORTANT SAFETY NOTICE The articles on this web site are provided for general information only and should not be used as a basis for diagnosis or treatment. All exercises and information featured on this web site should only be practised under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional
02-23-2009, 06:13 PM
I noticed Andy Murray hampered by his ankle again today, he did manage to win with a retirement in the final set by his oponent, looks bad for the rest of the week though !
02-26-2009, 12:37 PM
Now reported Andy has a virus and has suffered with it since the Australian Open ! he has pulled out of the quarters in Dubai now, rest a while Andy and get 100% fit again before playing tennis again ! | <urn:uuid:00b14d5d-1673-45b2-802f-160f36350f67> | {
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All procedures in the Verilog HDL are specified within one of the following four statements:
-- initial construct
-- always construct
The initial and always constructs are enabled at the beginning of a simulation. The initial construct shall execute only once and its activity shall cease when the statement has finished. In contrast, the always construct shall execute repeatedly. Its activity shall cease only when the simulation is terminated. There shall be no implied order of execution between initial and always constructs. The initial constructs need not be scheduled and executed before the always constructs. There shall be no limit to the number of initial and always constructs that can be defined in a module
An initial block consists of a statement or a group of statements enclosed in begin... end or a signle statement , which will be executed only once at simulation time 0. If there is more than one block they execute concurrently and independently. The initial block is normally used for initialisation, monitoring, generating wave forms (eg, clock pulses) and processes which are executed once in a simulation. An example of initialisation and wave generation is given below
clock = 1'b0; // variable initialization
begin // multiple statements have to be grouped
alpha = 0;
#10 alpha = 1; // waveform generation
#20 alpha = 0;
#5 alpha = 1;
#7 alpha = 0;
#10 alpha = 1;
#20 alpha = 0;
An always block is similar to the initial block, but the statements inside an always block will repeated continuously, in a looping fashion, until stopped by $finish or $stop.
NOTE: the $finish command actually terminates the simulation where as $stop. merely pauses it and awaits further instructions. Thus $finish is the preferred command unless you are using an interactive version of the simulator.
One way to simulate a clock pulse is shown in the example below. Note, this is not the best way to simulate a clock. See the section on the forever loop for a better method.
initial clock = 1'b0; // start the clock at 0
always #10 clock = ~clock; // toggle every 10 time units
initial #5000 $finish // end the simulation after 5000 time units
Tasks and functions can bu used to in much the same manner but there are some important differences that must be noted.
A function is unable to enable a task however functions can enable other functions.
A function will carry out its required duty in zero simulation time.
Within a function, no event, delay or timing control statements are permitted.
In the invocation of a function their must be at least one argument to be passed.
Functions will only return a single value and can not use either output or inout statements.
Functions are synthesysable.
Disable statements canot be used.
Function canot have numblocking statements.
module function_calling(a, b,c);
input a, b ;
input a, b;
myfunction = (a+b);
assign c = myfunction (a,b);
Tasks are capable of enabling a function as well as enabling other versions of a Task
Tasks also run with a zero simulation however they can if required be executed in a non zero simulation time.
Tasks are allowed to contain any of these statements.
A task is allowed to use zero or more arguments which are of type output, input or inout.
A Task is unable to return a value but has the facility to pass multiple values via the output and inout statements.
Tasks are not synthesisable.
Disable statements can be used.
reg clock, red, amber, green;
parameter on = 1, off = 0, red_tics = 350,
amber_tics = 30, green_tics = 200;
// initialize colors.
initial red = off;
initial amber = | <urn:uuid:2dc62b9f-398e-47e8-9d87-d0375daf0011> | {
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Osgood-Schlatter disease is a painful swelling of the bump on the front, upper part of the lower leg bone. This bump is called the anterior tibial tubercle.
Causes, incidence, and risk factors:
Osgood-Schlatter disease is thought to be caused by small, usually unnoticed, injuries caused by repeated overuse before growth of the area is complete. The disorder is seen most often in active, athletic adolescents, usually between ages 10 and 15. It is common in adolescents who play soccer, basketball, and volleyball, and who participate in gymnastics. Osgood-Schlatter disease affects more boys than girls.
The main symptom is a painful swelling just below the knee on the front (anterior) surface of the lower leg bone. Symptoms occur on one or both legs.
The person may have leg pain or knee pain , which gets worse with running, jumping, and climbing stairs.
The area is tender to pressure, and swelling ranges from mild to very severe.
Signs and tests:
Your doctor can tell if you have this condition by performing a physical exam.
A bone x-ray may be normal, or it may show swelling or damage to the tibial tubercle. X-rays are rarely used unless the doctor wants to rule out other causes for the pain.
Treatment starts with rest, ice, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen. In many cases, the condition will get better using these methods.
In the rare case where symptoms do not go away, a cast or brace may be used to support the leg until it heals. This typically takes 6 - 8 weeks. Crutches may be used for walking to keep weight off the painful leg.
Rarely, surgery may be needed.
Most cases get better on their own after a few weeks or months. Most cases eventually go away once the child finished growing.
Adolescents should be allowed to play sports if the activity does not cause discomfort. However, the condition will get better faster if such activity is kept to a minimum.
Chronic pain is the most significant complication.
Calling your health care provider:
Call your health care provider if your child has knee or leg pain, or if pain does not get better with treatment.
The small injuries that may cause this disorder are usually unnoticed, so prevention may not be possible. Regular stretching, both before and after exercise and athletics, can help prevent injury.
Patel DR. Musculoskeletal injuries in sports. Prim Care. Jun 2006; 33(2): 545-79.
Cassas KJ. Childhood and adolescent sports-related overuse injuries. Am Fam Physician. Mar 2006; 73(6): 1014-22.
Mercier LR. Osgood-Schlatter disease. Ferri’s Clinical Advisor: Instant Diagnosis and Treatment. 9th ed. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 2009:593. | <urn:uuid:c6ac7415-82cb-4dc9-877f-b6542823cce7> | {
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60 Minutes: 7th century shipwreck showcasedJune 14th, 2010 - 8:18 pm ICT by Aishwarya Bhatt
New York City, Jun 14 (THAINDIAN NEWS) CBS’s show ’60 Minutes’ has managed to create a trend of sorts with its investigative stories and the thrilling endings with ample twists and turns. Fans of the show were in for a huge surprise, when they showcased the 7th century shipwreck.
The 7th century shipwreck was located between the Aegean and the Mediterranean Sea. The person responsible for discovering it was none other than the person who discovered the Titanic – Robert Ballard. And giving him company was the CBS team. The CBS team comprised of their correspondent Lara Logan and her crew. The whole team along with Robert had gone to Turkey, where the amazing discovery was made.
Another thing that brought cheer to the team, was that the ship appears to be well preserved despite being old by several centuries. The whole team of archaeologists was very excited by the discovery, and they hope that the wreck would shed some light on the maritime history of the 7th century.
Robert Ballad is a living legend in the name of discovery shipwrecks. He is credited with the discovery of Titanic as well. Apart from that he has also discovered Bismarck as well as the famous PT 109, which used to be commanded by John F. Kennedy during the time of the World War II.
- Latest Episode Of CBS' "60 Minutes" Features 7th Century Shipwreck - Jun 14, 2010
- 60 Minutes To Show The Discovery Of A 7th Century Ancient Shipwreck - Jun 14, 2010
- Wreckage of 16th century ship discovered off Brazil - Mar 01, 2012
- Hilt of 18th-century pirate Blackbeard's sword may have been found - Jan 16, 2011
- 188-yr-old 'Two Brothers' ship linked to 'Moby-Dick' discovered - Feb 12, 2011
- Irish archaeologists say Spanish Armada wreck found - Aug 06, 2011
- Ancient shipwrecks unearthed in China - May 29, 2012
- Five Roman-era shipwrecks found underwater off Italy - Jul 27, 2009
- Elisabeth Hasselbeck confronts Bill Maher - Nov 16, 2011
- 400-year-old shipwreck discovered in Stockholm archipelago - Aug 07, 2009
- Archaeologists discover Old Testament-era tablet - Apr 09, 2010
- Titanic expedition captures new images of the wreck - Aug 30, 2010
- Oldest-known Mayan calendar found - May 11, 2012
- CBS correspondent Lara Logan 'sexually assaulted while covering Egypt protests - Feb 16, 2011
- Sexually assaulted CBS reporter Lara Logan could become target for copycat attacks: Ex boss - Feb 18, 2011
Tags: 60 minutes, aegean, archaeologists, ballad, bismarck, cbs team, cheer, correspondent, john f kennedy, lara logan, living legend, maritime history, mediterranean sea, pt 109, robert ballard, shipwreck, titanic robert ballard, twists, who discovered the titanic, world war ii | <urn:uuid:2992e551-c1e7-4b9b-8df5-cb3c13106e17> | {
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(edit – please take note of the addendum at the bottom)
From the Official Groundhog Day Website, Punxsutawney Phil:
(Adapted from “Groundhog Day: 1886 to 1992″ by Bill Anderson)
Groundhog Day, February 2nd, is a popular tradition in the United States. It is also a legend that traverses centuries, its origins clouded in the mists of time with ethnic cultures and animals awakening on specific dates. Myths such as this tie our present to the distant past when nature did, indeed, influence our lives. It is the day that the Groundhog comes out of his hole after a long winter sleep to look for his shadow.
If he sees it, he regards it as an omen of six more weeks of bad weather and returns to his hole.
If the day is cloudy and, hence, shadowless, he takes it as a sign of spring and stays above ground.
The groundhog tradition stems from similar beliefs associated with Candlemas Day and the days of early Christians in Europe, and for centuries the custom was to have the clergy bless candles and distribute them to the people. Even then, it marked a milestone in the winter and the weather that day was important.
According to an old English song:
If Candlemas be fair and bright,
Come, Winter, have another flight;
If Candlemas brings clouds and rain,
Go Winter, and come not again.
According to an old Scotch couplet:
If Candlemas Day is bright and clear,
There’ll be twa (two) winters in the year.
Another variation of the Scottish rhyme:
If Candlemas day be dry and fair,
The half o’ winter to come and mair,
If Candlemas day be wet and foul,
The half of winter’s gone at Yule.
The Roman legions, during the conquest of the northern country, supposedly brought this tradition to the Teutons, or Germans, who picked it up and concluded that if the sun made an appearance on Candlemas Day, an animal, the hedgehog, would cast a shadow, thus predicting six more weeks of bad weather, which they interpolated as the length of the “Second Winter.”
Pennsylvania’s earliest settlers were Germans and they found groundhogs to in profusion in many parts of the state. They determined that the groundhog, resembling the European hedgehog, was a most intelligent and sensible animal and therefore decided that if the sun did appear on February 2nd, so wise an animal as the groundhog would see its shadow and hurry back into its underground home for another six weeks of winter.
The Germans recited:
For as the sun shines on Candlemas Day,
So far will the snow swirl until the May.
This passage may be the one most closely represented by the first Punxsutawney Groundhog Day observances because there were references to the length of shadows in early Groundhog Day predictions.
Another February 2nd belief, used by American 19th century farmers, was:
Groundhog Day – Half your hay.
New England farmers knew that we were not close to the end of winter, no matter how cloudy February 2nd was. Indeed, February 2nd is often the heart of winter. If the farmer didn’t have half his hay remaining, there may have been lean times for the cows before spring and fresh grass arrived.
The ancient Candlemas legend and similar belief continue to be recognized annually on February 2nd due to the efforts of the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club.
From offering support of political events, to rooting for area sports teams, to becoming the star of a Hollywood movie, Punxsutawney Phil has increasingly been in the public eye.
Early observances of Phil’s predictions were conducted privately in the wooded areas that neighbor the town. Today’s celebration sees tens of thousands of visitors from all over the world as revelers await Phil’s appearance as most fans wait to see their favorite rock stars.
The Punxsutawney Spirit newspaper is credited with printing the news of the first observance in 1886 (one year before the first legendary trek to Gobbler’s Knob):
“Today is groundhog day, and up to the time of going to press the beast has not seen his shadow.”
Over the course of Phil’s appearances, Phil has had numerous noteworthy highlights:
During Prohibition Phil threatened to impose 60 weeks of winter on the community if he wasn’t allowed a drink.
In 1958 Phil announced that it was a “United States Chucknik,” rather than a Soviet Sputnik or Muttnik that became the first man-made satellite to orbit Earth.
In 1981 Phil wore a yellow ribbon in honor of the American hostages in Iran.
Phil traveled to Washington DC in 1986 to meet with President Reagan. He was joined by Groundhog Club President Jim Means, Al Anthony and Bill Null.
Phil met Pennsylvania Governor Dick Thornburg in 1987.
In 1993, Columbia Pictures released the movie Groundhog Day starring Bill Murray.
Phil appeared on the Oprah Winfrey show in 1995.
In the years following the release of the movie, record crowds numbering as high as 30,000 have visited Gobbler’s Knob in Punxsutawney!
In 2001, Phil’s prediction was shown live on the JumboTron at Times Square in New York City. Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell attended the ceremonies, making him the first sitting governor ever to do so.
The above website will have a live simulcast for the sunrise festivities. I have been to two of these events. They are quite interesting indeed. The amount of booze consumed overnight by the throng is terrific. It’s a great party and something everyone should see at least once.
The celebration of Groundhog Day began with the Germans, Pennsylvania’s earliest settlers. They brought with them the legend of Candlemas Day, which states “For as the sun shines on Candlemas day, so far will the snow swirl in May…”. The settlers found that groundhogs were plentiful and were the most intelligent and sensible animal to carry on the legend of Candlemas Day.
Addendum: Happy Birthday Andrew Breitbart! You were an inspiration! | <urn:uuid:0d127d32-1ebd-47b3-8b15-02c38794c84e> | {
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The Most Remote Places On Earth
Did you know that about 10 percent of the Earth is more than 48 hours away (by way of land travel) from the nearest city? Take that to “Jeopardy.” With roads, airplanes, satellites, and whatever else is out there taking pictures and measurements along the way, the true sense of remoteness is almost nonexistent. Recently, I even posted on an island only accessible by a 30-hour boat ride.
Even remoteness can be subjective, though. Is it inaccessibility, isolation, both? This article, from howstuffworks.com, lists a point in northern China (Eurasian Pole of Inaccessibility) as the farthest from any ocean, at 1,553 miles. And the farther from any land? Point Nemo, found in the South Pacific, is a full 1,553 miles from any mainland surface.
If visiting the most isolated people in the world interests you, head to Tristan da Cunha (the population is only 270 and it’s nearly 3,000 kilometers from South Africa, its closest mainland). It was once an important maritime stop to the Cape of Good Hope. Ships have virtually stopped heading that way because of the Suez Canal, and the only other visitors consist of the occasional fisherman and a pair of U.K. doctors that arrive once a year.
Posted on September 29, 2009 by Jon Wick | <urn:uuid:716fe5a2-1bbb-4f5e-a914-6d9ed8b4c20c> | {
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Vietnam War Summary
Written by Tim Nash
History of War - Vietnam War
In a Summary of Vietnam war between communist North Vietnam and capitalist South Vietnam which commenced in 1964 and concluded in 1975. It was fought in southern Vietnam and bordering areas of Cambodia, Laos and in the bombing of North Vietnam. The capitalist South Vietnam forces were assisted by troops from the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and South Korea. At the height of the war in 1969 this force comprised 800,000+ troops.
The communist North Vietnamese forces were assisted by the USSR in providing non combatant military aid and also the national liberation front a communist lead South Vietnamese gorilla’s. Although not as well equipped they were large in number.
This conflict is know as the second Indochina war and was part of a larger conflict involving the neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos, the Vietnamese know this conflict as the American war ” (Vietnamese Chiến Tranh Chống Mỹ Cứu Nước, which translates into English as "War Against the Americans and to Save the Nation")”
The first Indochina war was fought in the 1950’s between the French government and Ho Chi Minh communist army. This first war was the direct successor leading to the second Indochina war; the Vietnamese people felt that the colonial powers were trying to control their country which they had done for century’s. The French government relinquished their control of Vietnam Cambodia and Laos in 1954.
American, Australian and New Zealand military advisers were sent to the region in the late 50’s and early 60’s to assist the capitalist south Vietnamese government in their war against the communist north. But was realized by 1964 that the South Vietnamese government needed help in winning this battle, combat troops entered the region. The conflict reached its peak in 1969 where some 900,000 Us solders were involved in the conflict.
In a Summery of Vietnam war peace negotiations commenced In the early 1970’s between both sides in an attempt to end the conflict and bring stability to the region. In January 1973 suspension of military action by US and coalition troops was ordered by then US president Nixon. At this time US, Australia, New Zealand, and South Korean troops began withdrawing from the region. The Paris peace accord was signed that year officially ending US and allied involvement in the Vietnam conflict. By 1975 no American, Australian, New Zealand, and south Korean were in the region
Peace did not last long however in early 1975 the communist north Vietnamese invaded south Vietnam, without their allies they were overwhelmed, on July 2nd 1976 the socialist republic of Vietnam was born, people supporting the capitalist south Vietnamese were executed and many were in imprisoned. The South Vietnamese capital Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Min city in honor of Ho Chi Minh. The socialist republic of Vietnam is ruled by the communist part to this day, thus concluding our Summary of Vietnam war. Further Reading: Map of Vietnam War, Vietnam War Facts. | <urn:uuid:22c4cff0-7380-4674-8a77-f5e61bcfdc46> | {
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Over 8,000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a ThinkQuest Competition.
Compete | FAQ | Contact Us
Come To Your Senses
Our main objective in designing "Come To Your Senses" was to learn how to develop a Web site that would be useful and interesting for other students our age. We also wanted to learn everything that we could about the senses from a variety of materials so that we could then teach other students what we learned through the use of the Internet.
Another goal was to make learning about the senses more interesting and exciting through the use of technology. For example, we used several visual aids and created links to other interesting Web sites.
We hope to make the students' learning experiences more active and to allow them to have some hands-on activities. We feel that through the use of visual aids, "Sense-sational Activities" and "Sense-sational Facts" students can better understand the information.
19 & under
Health & Safety > Human Anatomy | <urn:uuid:b249d43e-feeb-4429-b87f-3d81e68d61bc> | {
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Over 8,000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a ThinkQuest Competition.
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A Day That Will Live in Infamy: The Bombing of Pearl Harbor
This site is an interactive, multimedia website created primarily for children and other people interested in learning about the attack on Pearl Harbor. It presents the events leading up to the attack, the losses, and the lessons learned from the tragedy. Also included are interviews with survivors, a virtual reality game, surveys, and examples of what we can do to create a more peaceful world.
19 & under
History & Government > War & Conflicts > World War II | <urn:uuid:80bf8c41-4b49-4f5e-b606-989829164a97> | {
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Over 8,000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a ThinkQuest Competition.
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Here you will learn about System Dynamics and how it impacts the world around us. This field is becoming increasingly important and can have vast influences on how our society works. By knowing and understanding systems, we will be able to make predictions using models of the systems. These models can be an accurate way to predict how the system will act over a long period of time.
2003 Gold Medal
2003 Interactive Learning
19 & under
Computers & the Internet > Programming | <urn:uuid:409b3873-189c-4829-9557-2afcc44a4295> | {
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Over 8,000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a ThinkQuest Competition.
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This Thinkquest site is an interdisciplinary unit based on a sixth grade math program whose focus is area and perimeter. To include the math curriculum and to highlight our geographical area (Cape Cod, Massachusetts), our team will research the region and identify the key elements of history, oceanography and horticulture. A park will be designed using area and perimeter as the mathematical basis. Activities will be designed to appeal to a variety of learning styles and abilities.
19 & under
Math > Geometry
History & Government > United States > States | <urn:uuid:06a791e5-5b78-48ee-8695-a801b4de343c> | {
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Animation of Annular Solar Eclipse, January 26, 2009
The following animation shows the annular solar eclipse for January 26, 2009. The icon of the sun can be seen moving across towards the left in the animation. A white, round icon that represents the moon is seen underneath the icon of the sun.
The red part at the center of the moving shadow shows the area where the annular solar eclipse is most visible. The darkest area around it depicts where the eclipse’s visibility is 90 percent or greater. The next surrounding shaded area is where the eclipse’s visibility is 50 percent or more. The outermost area with the lightest shading shows where the eclipse’s visibility is between zero and 50 percent.
Please click on the play button to view the animation. The pause button can also be used to temporarily suspend the animation.
- Moon Calculator – Find times for moonrise, moonset and more
- Moon Phase Calculator – Calculate moon phases for any year
- Sunrise Calculator – Find times for sunrise, sunset and more
- Day and Night World Map – See which parts of the Earth are currently illuminated by the Sun
- Annular Solar Eclipse on January 26, 2009
- General Information on Solar and Lunar Eclipses
- Tips for Eclipse Enthusiasts
- The History of the Solar Eclipse
- Calendar for 2013
- Calendar Generator – Create a calendar for any year
- Duration between two dates – Calculates number of days | <urn:uuid:12fb15c6-936b-4d12-bc20-fd84acef1473> | {
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HUMOROUS SPEECH CONTEST
Humorous Speech is 5 to 7 minutes in length. Humorous speaking, which must be substantially original. Any quoted material must be identified during the presentation. The speech must be a thematic in nature (opening, body, and close) and not be an act or a monologue. It should be "clean" humor; avoid objectionable language, anecdotes, and material. Vocal variety, gestures, and speech content all play a part in a successful humorous speech.
Typically, clubs begin holding their contest in July. Area contests are held in August with the Division Contest in September. The District 58 Contest will be held at the Fall Conference held in October.
JUDGING CRITERIA - HUMOROUS SPEECH CONTEST
- SPEECH DEVELOPMENT is the way the speaker puts ideas together so the audience can understand them. The speech is structured around a purpose, and this structure must include an opening, body, and conclusion. A good speech immediately engages the audience's attention and then moves forward toward a significant conclusion. This development of the speech structure is supported by relevant examples, illustrations, facts, and figures, delivered with such smoothness that they blend into the framework of the speech to present the audience with a unified whole.
- EFFECTIVENESS is measured in part by the audience's reception of the speech, but a large part is your subjective judgement of how the speech came across. You should ask yourself such questions as "Was I able to determine the speaker's purpose?" "Did the speech relate directly to that purpose?" "Was the audience's interest held by the speaker?" "Was this speech subject appropriate for this particular audience?"
- SPEECH VALUE justifies the act of speaking. The speaker has a responsibility to say something meaningful and original to the audience. The listeners should feel the speaker has made a contribution to their thinking. The ideas should be important ones, although this does not preclude a humorous presentation of them.
- AUDIENCE RESPONSE indicates the level to which the speaker has affected the emotions and response of the audience. An increasing level of interest may be indicated by reduced audience movement, greater eye contact and laughter at appropriate cues.
- PHYSICAL presentation of a speech carries part of the responsibility for effective communication. The speaker's appearance should reinforce the speech, whether profound, sad, humorous, or instructional. Body language should support points through gestures, expressions, and body positioning.
- VOICE is the sound that carries the message. It should be flexible, moving from one pitch level to another for emphasis, and should have a variety of rate and volume. A good voice can be clearly heard and the words easily understood.
- MANNER is the indirect revelation of the speaker's real self as the speech is delivered. The speaker should speak with enthusiasm and assurance, showing interest in the audience and confidence in their reactions.
- APPROPRIATENESS of language refers to the choice of words that relate to the speech purpose and to the particular audience hearing the speech. Language should promote clear understanding of thoughts and should fit the occasion precisely.
- CORRECTNESS of language ensures that attention will be directed toward what the speaker says, not how it is said. Proper use of grammar and correct pronunciation will show that the speaker is the master of the words being used. | <urn:uuid:c536d957-ae74-4e1f-bf4d-8948bc976bbc> | {
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Find the Right Spot and Dig
The ideal place to dig a snow cave is relatively flat and already has around 5 feet of snow. Forest area is best because tree growth ensures that the spot isn't an avalanche path. According to the Northwest Weather and Avalanche Center, two snow-shoers in the Cascades were killed in 2001 after setting up an emergency camp in an avalanche shoot. The accident could have easily been avoided if they had chosen a more suitable spot.
Forested areas are also a great choice because the trees will create snow drifts that are easier to dig into. Always start by digging a trench first. The trench allows you to get deep enough in the snow to begin tunneling into the wall. Shed layers as you warm up to avoid sweating, but always wear a waterproof layer between you and the snow. Even though the digging will cause you to warm up, the most important goal is to stay dry.
The mouth of the cave should be just small enough to fit through to avoid wind exposure. Tunnel at an upward angle so that the entrance is lowest spot of the cave--this will allow ventilation without sacrificing any warmth your body contributes. Also, be aware of how close you are to the surface. The thicker the walls and ceiling of the snow cave, the more insulation it will offer, and the less likely it will be to collapse in sudden temperature changes.
Dig a Cold Sink
The design of your snow cave will determine the lowest temperatures it will reach. By digging a hole deeper than the area you'll be sleeping in, or by building an elevated platform to sleep on, you allow the coldest air to drop below you. The hole, or cold sink, ideally will double as the entrance to the cave so that oxygen can circulate.
Round Out the Inside
Using your gloves, smooth out any rough edges, especially in the ceiling of the cave. The humidity of your breath and your general body heat will gradually cause melting on this inside of the cave and droplets will collect on any sharp points. As miserable as sleeping in snow sounds, it's even worse getting damp under a constant water drip.
Create a Ventilation Hole
One of the most important parts of building a snow cave is also the easiest to forget. Puncture a hole the size of a baseball in the ceiling all the way to the surface. Snow is incredibly good at insulating warmth, but it holds gasses just as well. Carbon dioxide just from breathing can reach dangerous levels without ventilation. Furthermore, if you light a candle or a portable stove, the carbon monoxide can build up quickly. In August 1999, four snowboarders suffocated in a snow cave in Koscuiszko National Park, Australia, because the mouth of the cave doubled as the ventilation hole and falling snow blocked it throughout the night. If you need to sleep in a snow cave, check periodically that the hole in the ceiling remains open. This is especially important if new snow continues to fall.
Mark the Cave on the Surface
The disadvantage of sleeping in a snow cave is that you are nearly impossible to spot by rescuers above. Trample down as much snow as you can in the surrounding area before hunkering down for the night, and leave skis and poles tied to bright pieces of clothing propped in the snow to flag down anyone searching for you. | <urn:uuid:8526e93e-9c43-4798-b5a7-92a6ba212f5b> | {
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Traveling to Lake Titicaca, and at an altitude of over 3,000 m, the train journey across the mountainous terrain of the Puna High Plateau is acknowledged as one of most beautiful railway journeys in Peru.
For 3,500 m, the yellowish-brown grassland of the Wetlands of Puna dominate the landscape of the truly breathtaking high plateau and after several hours, the spectacular journey reaches Lake Titicaca, legendary birthplace of Inca culture.
Located in the centre of the Andes and at an altitude of nearly 4,000 m, Lake Titicaca covers an area of 8,300 square kilometres and has a depth of almost 300 m.
The western area of the lake contains a fascinating artificial island world known as the ‘Floating islands of the ancient people of Uru’. The ‘islands’ are floating mats of dried-out Totora, a reed-like papyrus that grows in the dense areas of the lake’s marshy shallows.
It is no wonder that the Inca people believed that this watery region was a holy lake. In Inca mythology, the ‘Children Of The Sun’, Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, emerged from the depths of Lake Titicaca to create their glorious and mystical empire.
Global Treasures - History's Most Protected Monuments - Heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live today, and what we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritage are both irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration. Places as unique and diverse as the wilds of East Africa's Serengeti, the Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Baroque cathedrals of Latin America make up our world's heritage. Join us as we explore one of these protected monuments. | <urn:uuid:bc86ca15-5827-4fdf-b55f-2f8816ff9df4> | {
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For instance, the period between 1941 and 1945 was the last time the United States had been officially at war. Korea, Vietnam, Iraq (both times), and Afghanistan were merely prolonged cases of "military action" without actually declaring war on anyone.
for military action in Iraq (first gulf war) was Joint Resolution to authorize the use of United States Armed Forces pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 678 on January 14, 1991, "Operation Desert Storm."
for military action in Afghanistan was House Joint Resolution 64 and Senate Joint Resolution 23, Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists
, Public Law 107-40, voted in by the US Congress on September 14, 2001.
for military action in Iraq (second gulf war) was on October 16, 2002, Operation Iraqi Freedom.
The Constitution gives Congress the power to authorized war, but doesn't require specific language. The words "declaration of war," do not have to appear on the resolution. | <urn:uuid:45aedb9f-2d83-4388-b25f-bf622994b364> | {
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WHARTON, JOHN AUSTIN [1828-65]
WHARTON, JOHN AUSTIN (1828–1865). John Austin Wharton, Confederate major-general, the son of Sarah Ann (Groce) and William Harris Wharton, was born near Nashville, Tennessee, on July 3, 1828. Wharton was brought to Galveston as an infant and spent his early years on a Brazoria County plantation. At the age of eight he was sent to the home of his uncle, Leonard W. Groce, for instruction under a Mr. Deans from Boston, who later founded a school at Galveston which Wharton attended until he was fifteen. From 1846 to 1850 Wharton attended South Carolina College (now the University of South Carolina), where he served as a commander in the student cadet corps. In 1848 he married Eliza Penelope Johnson, daughter of David Johnson, the governor of South Carolina. Following college, Wharton returned to Texas and studied law with former United States Senator William Preston, Jack Harris, and Elisha M. Pease, all well-known and successful lawyers. After he was licensed to practice, Wharton established the firm of Wharton and Terry with Clint Terry at Brazoria. In 1860 Wharton served as a Breckinridge presidential elector and later represented Brazoria County at the state Secession Convention, voting for secession. In addition to his career in law and politics, Wharton was also a planter of considerable means. The 1860 tax roll for Brazoria County showed that he owned $167,004 of taxable property, including 135 slaves. When the war began Wharton was elected captain of Company B, Eighth Texas Cavalry, better known as Terry's Texas Rangers. He rose to command the regiment after the deaths of Col. Benjamin F. Terry and Lt. Col. Thomas S. Lubbock. Wharton led his troop with distinction at the battle of Shiloh, where he was wounded. His leadership in the course of Gen. Braxton Bragg's 1862 Kentucky invasion earned him a promotion to the rank of brigadier general on November 18, 1862. His actions at the battle of Chickamauga in the fall of 1863 earned him another promotion, to the rank of major general. In February 1864 the general was transferred to Richard Taylor's Trans-Mississippi Department in Louisiana. Upon his arrival he was assigned to lead the cavalry and took part in the closing scenes of the Red River campaign. On April 6, 1865, while visiting Gen. John B. Magruder's headquarters at the Fannin Hotel in Houston, Wharton was killed by fellow officer George W. Baylor in a personal quarrel that grew out of "an unpleasant misunderstanding over military matters." Even though Wharton was found to have been unarmed, Baylor was acquitted of murder charges in 1868. Wharton was originally buried at Hempstead but was later moved to the State Cemetery in Austin.
Clement Anselm Evans, ed., Confederate Military History (Atlanta: Confederate Publishing, 1899; extended ed., Wilmington, North Carolina: Broadfoot, 1987–89). Patricia L. Faust, ed., Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War (New York: Harper and Row, 1986). Leonidas B. Giles, Terry's Texas Rangers (Austin: Von Boeckmann-Jones, 1911). Ezra J. Warner, Generals in Gray (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959). Marcus J. Wright, comp., and Harold B. Simpson, ed., Texas in the War, 1861–1865 (Hillsboro, Texas: Hill Junior College Press, 1965).
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Robert Maberry, Jr., "WHARTON, JOHN AUSTIN [1828-65]," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fwh04), accessed May 24, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | <urn:uuid:4bef22fe-623d-4a38-a94e-6bf5814924dc> | {
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FORD CREEK. Ford Creek rises about 1½ miles northeast of Kanawha in northwestern Red River County (at 33°53' N, 95°14' W) and runs first north, then east, for a total of eight miles before reaching its mouth on the Red River (at 33°57' N, 95°10' W). The stream, which is intermittent in its upper reaches, initially traverses an area with loamy soils, changing to clayey near its mouth. The area to the east and south of the stream is generally wooded with pines and hardwoods. On the other side of its lower reaches, however, the land is primarily used to grow sorghum, grain, or cotton.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."FORD CREEK," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rbf96), accessed May 24, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | <urn:uuid:a3273b19-a63a-46cf-9891-bd889b70e833> | {
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262 Lyonetia prunifoliella
(Hübner, 1796)Wingspan 9-10 mm.
Formerly locally resident in parts of southern and central England, this moth seems to have died out as a British species, and has not been reliably encountered since around 1900.
Abroad it is quite common on mainland Europe and eastwards into Asia.
The larva mines the leaves of various roseaceous trees, such as blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) and apple (Malus), forming a gallery leading to a blotch. The pupal cocoon is suspended from silken 'guyropes' and closely resembles that of L. clerkella.
The adult moths fly in September, and overwinter, appearing again in the spring.
Leafmine (De bladmineerders van Nederland) | <urn:uuid:5afa78b7-f4c2-4117-9c01-1d15f94f33f3> | {
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447 Roeslerstammia erxlebella
(Fabricius, 1787)Wingspan c.13mm.
This distinctive metallic-golden micro has when fresh, a purplish-bronze tinge to the area around the base of the forewings. It also sports a noticeably yellow crown and has a white band close to the tip of the antennae.
Mainly distributed in the southern half of England, there are also scattered localities in Wales and in Scotland where the species occurs.
The larvae feed on the leaves of lime (Tilia) and birch (Betula), mining the leaves when young.
There are two generations, at least in the south of the range, with adults on the wing in May and June and again in August and September. | <urn:uuid:fd46eba0-da20-4c1e-9ba4-b4ee5d4c360d> | {
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Ulbrich : Glossary
Abrasion: A roughening or scratching of a surface due to abrasive wear. On aluminum parts, also known as a rub mark or traffic mark.
Abrasion-Resistant Steels (AR): A family of steel products developed for those applications involved in sliding and/or impact abrasion.
Abrasive Wear: The removal of material from a surface when hard particles slide or roll across the surface under pressure. The particles may be loose or may be part of another surface in contact with the surface being worn. Contrast with adhesive wear.
Accelerated Corrosion Test: A test conducted under controlled conditions that are considerably more severe than those natural conditions whose effects are presumably being investigated. The advantages of such a test is the relatively short time required. Results are useful for qualitative comparisons, but are not reliable for predicting anticipated life in actual service.
Accordion Reed Steel: Hardened, tempered, polished and blued or yellow flat steel with dressed edges. Carbon content about 1.00%. Material has to possess good flatness, uniform hardness and high elasticity.
Acid Steel: Steel melted in a furnace with an acid bottom and lining and under a slag containing an excess of an acid substance such as silica.
Acid-Brittleness: Brittleness resulting from pickling steel in acid; hydrogen, formed by the interaction between iron and acid, is partially absorbed by the metal, causing acid brittleness.
Age-Hardening: A process of aging that increases hardness and strength and usually decreases ductility. (see Precipitation Heat Treatment)
Air-Hardening Steel: A steel containing sufficient carbon and other alloying elements to harden fully during cooling in air or other gaseous mediums from a temperature above its transformation range. Such steels attain their martensitic structure without going through the quenching process. Additions of chromium, nickel, molybdenum and manganese are effective toward this end. The term should be restricted to steels that are capable of being hardened by cooling in air in fairly large sections, about 2 in. or more in diameter.
Aircraft Quality: Denotes material for important or highly stressed parts of aircraft for other similar purposes; such materials are extremely high quality requiring closely controlled, restrictive and special practices in their manufacture.
Aging: A process generally accelerated by temperature, wherein changes in mechanical properties occur in certain metals. These changes generally raise room temperature hardness, tensile and yield strength, while lowering ductility.
AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute. Published Steel Products Manual to Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels which provides information concerning tolerances, chemical analysis, definitions of technical terms and other related subjects which have been developed in the manufacture and use of stainless steels.
Alclad: Composite sheet produced by bonding either corrosion-resistant aluminum alloy or aluminum of high purity to base metal of structurally stronger aluminum alloy. The coatings are anodic to the core so they protect exposed areas of the core electrolytically during exposure to corrosive environment.
Alloy: A material that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more chemical elements of which at least one is a metal (i.e. steel is an alloy of carbon in iron; stainless steel is an alloy of carbon, chromium and sometimes nickel in iron.)
Alloying Elements: Those elements in alloys which are deliberately added during melting and refining to enhance the properties of that alloy.
Alloy Steel: An iron-based mixture is considered to be an alloy steel when manganese is greater than 1.65%, silicon over 0.5%, copper above 0.6%, or other minimum quantities of alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, or tungsten are present. An enormous variety of distinct properties can be created for the steel by substituting these elements in the recipe.
Alpha Brass: A copper-zinc alloy containing up to 38% of zinc. Used mainly for cold working.
Alpha Bronze: A copper-tin alloy consisting of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Commercial forms contain 4 or 5% of tin. This alloy is used in coinage, springs, turbine, blades, etc.
Alpha Iron: The polymorphic form of iron, stable below 1670°F, has a body centered cubic lattice, and is magnetic up to 1410°°F.
Aluminizing: Forming an aluminum or aluminum alloy coating on a metal by hot dipping, hot spraying, or diffusion.
Annealing: A process involving heating to a temperature at or above critical and cooling at a controlled rate, usually applied to induce softening. The process could alter mechanical properties, physical properties or micro structure.
Anodizing: (Aluminum Adic Oxide Coating) A process of coating aluminum by anodic treatment resulting in a thin film of aluminum oxide of extreme hardness. A wide variety of dye-colored coatings are possible by impregnation in process.
AOD (Argon Oxygen Decarburization): This term refers to both the process and the vessel that is used for the process in which hot metal from an electric furnace is refined to a chemical specification by blowing a mixture of gases (a combination of inert gas and oxygen) under the hot metal surface. The result removes carbon from ferroalloys to achieve a certain chemical specification. The economics of this process have indicated that this method is ideally suited for producing stainless, plus high and low-alloy steels.
ARC Furnace: An arc furnace is a melting device that gets its heat-generating capacity from the introduction of an electric arc to a charge of scrap materials and ferroalloys. This caused the melt-down to a liquid state known as "hot metal".
Arc Welding: A group of welding processes wherein the metal or metals being joined are coalesced by heating with an arc, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
ASTM: American Society for Testing Materials is a voluntary standards development system. It is a non-profit organization which provides a forum for producers, users, consumers, and those having a general interest to meet on common ground and write standards for materials, products, systems and services.
Austempering: Quenching a ferrous alloy from a temperature above the transformation range, in a medium having a rate of heat abstraction high enough to prevent the formation of high-temperature transformation products, and then holding the alloy, until transformation is complete, at a temperature below that of pearlite formation and above that of martensite formation.
Automatic Gauge Control: Using hydraulic roll force systems, steelmakers have the ability to control precisely their steel sheet's gauge (thickness)while it is traveling at more than 50 miles per hour through the cold mill. Using feedback or feed-forward systems, a computer's gap sensor adjusts the distance between the reduction rolls of the mill 50-60 times per second. These adjustments prevent the processing of any off-gauge steel sheet. | <urn:uuid:b0e5e007-1e3a-4733-9cae-b375addf603a> | {
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Cholesteatoma is a type of skin cyst located in the middle ear.
Cholesteatoma can be a birth defect (congenital), but it more commonly occurs as a complication of chronic ear infection.
Poor function in the eustachian tube leads to negative pressure in the middle ear. This pulls a part of the eardrum (tympanic membrane) into the middle ear, creating a pocket or cyst that fills with old skin cells and other waste material. The cyst can become infected. The cyst may get bigger and break down some of the middle ear bones or other structures of the ear, affecting hearing, balance, and possibly function of the facial muscles.
Chole RA, Sudhoff HH. Chronic otitis media, mastoiditis, and petrositis. In: Cummings CW, Flint PW, Haughey BH, et al, eds. Otolaryngology: Head & Neck Surgery. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2010:chap 139.
© 2011 University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC). All rights reserved.
UMMC is a member of the University of Maryland Medical System,
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Rheumatoid factor (RF) is a blood test that measures the amount of the RF antibody in the blood.
A blood sample is needed. For information on how this is done, see: Venipuncture
No special preparation is usually necessary.
When the needle is inserted to draw blood, some people feel moderate pain, while others feel only a prick or stinging sensation. Afterward, there may be some throbbing.
Goodyear CS, Tighe H, McInnes IB. Rheumatoid factors and other autoantibodies in rheumatoid arthritis. In: Firestein GS, Budd RC, Harris Jr. ED, McInnes IB, Ruddy S, eds. Kelley's Textbook of Rheumatology. 8th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: W.B. Saunders Company;2008:chap 51.
© 2011 University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC). All rights reserved.
UMMC is a member of the University of Maryland Medical System,
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Antebellum and Civil War America, 1784-1865
1789: born Sept. 15 in Burlington, NJ
1790-1791: moves with family to Lake Otsego in New York
1800: Sister Hannah dies
1803: enrolls at Yale
1806-1807: sails on Stirling
1808-1809: serves in U.S. Navy
1809: father dies
1811: marries Susan De Lancey; settles in New Rochelle, NY; daughter Elizabeth born
1813: daughter Elizabeth dies; daughter Susan born
1815: daughter Caroline born
1817: daughter Anne born
1818: builds house in Scarsdale, NY; mother dies
1819: daughter Maria born
1820: publishes Precaution
1821: son Fenimore born; publishes The Spy
1822: moves to New York City; founds Bread and Cheese club
1823: publishes The Pioneers; son Fenimore dies; suffers “bilious attack”
1824: publishes The Pilot; son Paul born
1825: publishes Lionel Lincoln
1826: publishes The Last of the Mohicans; travels to Europe and settles in France; serves as U.S. Consul for Lyons, France
1827: publishes The Prairie and The Red Rover
1828: publishes Notions of the Americans
1829-1830: lives in Italy and France
1831: publishes The Bravo
1832: publishes The Heidenmauer and The Headsman
1833: returns to United States
1834: purchases Otsego Hall in Cooperstown
1835: publishes The Monikins
1836: publishes Sketches of Switzerland
1837: sues newspapers for libel
1838: publishes The American Democrat, Chronicles of Cooperstown, Homeward Bound, and Home As Found
1839: publishes History of the Navy of the United States of America
1840: publishes The Pathfinder
1841: publishes The Deerslayer
1842: publishes The Two Admirals and The Wing-and-Wing
1843: publishes The Battle of Lake Erie, Wyandotte, and Ned Myers, or a Life Before the Mast
1844: publishes Afloat and Ashore and Miles Wallingford
1845: publishes Satanstoe and The Chainbearer
1846: publishes The Redskins, The Lives of Distinguished Naval Officers, and Jack Tier
1846: publishes The Crater
1848: publishes The Oak Openings; or the Bee Hunter
1849: publishes The Sea Lions
1850: publishes The Ways of the Hour
1851: dies Sept. 14 in Cooperstown, NY
Home As Found features a biographical sketch and links to other Cooper sites.
“Abbildungen aus James Fenimore Coopers Pages and Pictures” features illustrations of Cooper, Otsego Hall, and more.
James Fenimore Cooper: The Leather-Stocking Tales, Volume I, edited by Blake Nevius, contains full texts of The Pioneers, The Last of the Mohicans, and The Prairie, along with a detailed chronology of Cooper’s life.
“Fenimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses,” a humorous treatment of Cooper’s writing by Mark Twain, criticizes the author’s dialogue, verisimilitude, and more.
James Fenimore Cooper, 1789-1851
By Mark Canada
One of the more controversial figures in American literature, James Fenimore Cooper occupies the strange position of being among the first and the last of America’s great novelists. He is first in time, preceding Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, and Mark Twain and, some would argue, influencing some or all of these writers in one way or another. He may be among the last in artistic achievement, however, as critics sometimes call attention to what they perceive as flaws in his characterization and other aspects of his novels. In any case, Cooper is an important figure in American literature, known particularly for his creation of the idealized hero Natty Bumppo and for his treatment of the American frontier in The Leather-Stocking Tales, a series of five novels that include The Pioneers (1823), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), and The Deerslayer (1841).
By the time Cooper was born—on Sept. 15, 1789, in Burlington, New Jersey—the frontier was disappearing from the northeastern United States. Indeed, his father, William Cooper, would become a major figure in the civilization of the wilderness. In 1790, the elder Cooper brought his family to Lake Otsego in upstate New York and established a settlement that would bear his name, Cooperstown. Some three decades later, his son would recapture some scenes from his childhood in Cooperstown in his novel The Pioneers, even modeling Marmaduke Temple’s home on his own father’s Otsego Hall. While he was still a boy, Cooper left the settlement for New Haven, Connecticut, where he enrolled at Yale in 1803 at the age of 13. Not exactly a model student, Cooper was expelled from Yale when he was a junior. According to tradition, he played a number of pranks involving, among other things, a donkey in a professor’s chair and gunpowder in a student’s door. In 1806, he went to sea as a sailor-before-the-mast on the Stirling, a merchant vessel that traveled to the Isle of Wight, London, and Spain. After a brief stint in the U.S. Navy, he married Susan Augusta De Lancey in 1811. As their family grew—Susan gave birth to five daughters over the next eight years, eventually giving birth to two sons, as well—the Coopers moved around New York, trying farming at various locations. By 1819, Cooper was in debt, despite the $50,000 inheritance he received after his father’s death in 1809.
In 1820, according to legend, Cooper became exasperated with a novel he was reading and threw it down, saying he could do better. His wife challenged him to live up to his word, and he wrote a novel of manners called Precaution (1820). His next novel, a Revolutionary War novel called The Spy (1821), was highly successful, and Cooper was on his way. Over the next three decades, he published some 30 novels, the most noteworthy being those of The Leather-Stocking Tales, a series of five novels featuring the frontier hero Natty Bumppo. Not merely winning over readers, Cooper did something few writers of literature managed to do in America at that time: he made a tidy income from his books. According to Blake Nevius, Cooper expected to make $20,000 in 1831 (1325). Nevertheless, Cooper also managed to anger many Americans in the later decades of his life, when he expressed some controversial political opinions, criticized American culture, and sued several newspapers for libel. In Fenimore Cooper: A Study of His Life and Imagination, Stephen Railton writes: “In his books, Cooper quarreled with his country; in life, with his neighbors and countrymen; and in reality, with himself” (8).
The latter part of Cooper’s life was marked by a combination of wanderings and a return to his roots. In 1826, he took his family to Europe, partly to benefit his health and the education of his children, and the family spent the next seven years traveling and living in such places as Paris, France; Berne, Switzerland; and Florence, Italy. After returning to the United States, Cooper bought Otsego Hall, the home where he had grown up in Cooperstown, and moved there. It was here that he died on September 14, 1851. He was buried, along with other members of his family, in Cooperstown.
In a preface he wrote for an 1850 edition of his most famous novels, Cooper wrote: “If anything from the pen of the writer of these romances is at all to outlive himself, it is, unquestionably, the series of ‘The Leather-Stocking Tales.’ To say this, is not to predict a very lasting reputation for the series itself, but simply to express the belief it will outlast any, or all, of the works from the same hand” (844). Today, a century and a half after Cooper wrote those words, titles such as The Bravo and Satanstoe would probably elicit only blank stares from many English professors, while The Last of the Mohicans and the name of Natty Bumppo are likely familiar even to people who have never read a novel. Indeed, in his creation of the frontier hero Natty Bumppo—known variously as the Leather-Stocking, Hawk-Eye, Pathfinder, and Deerslayer—and the novels recounting his adventures, Cooper made a lasting and important contribution to American literature.
As Donald A. Ringe has noted, Cooper may have based the character of Bumppo on an old hunter named David Shipman who came to his house in Cooperstown when Cooper was a boy (viii). It has also been suggested, however, that the legendary frontiersman Daniel Boone and General George Washington served as models for Cooper’s character. Boone had blazed the Wilderness Road into Kentucky back in 1775, and Washington had led the Continental Army in its defeat of the British in the American Revolution between 1775 and 1783. Like the legends that surround men such as these, Cooper’s portrayal of his hero is highly idealized. Natty Bumppo is a noble, wise figure who demonstrates extraordinary physical prowess—in short, the exemplar of a certain brand of man. In The Pioneers, for example, he staunchly stands by his principles of individual liberty, has intimate knowledge of the wilderness, and is a master of both the rifle and the fishing spear. What perhaps makes him most notable among all this is his intimacy with nature. Indeed, it is this intimacy that makes Bumppo so distinctively an American hero. From the early pioneering efforts by John Smith and the Puritans at least until the virtual disappearance of the frontier at the end of the nineteenth century, America was in part a mysterious, challenging, and promising wilderness—in the famous words of Pilgrim William Bradford, “a hideous and desolate wilderness, full of wild beasts and wild men” (29). Bumppo, like many literary creations who would follow him, not only occupied this wilderness, but also became a part of it.
Bumppo’s difficult relationship with the civilization that was encroaching upon this wilderness is one of Cooper’s most important and influential themes. In The Pioneers, for example, Bumppo deplores the settlers’ wasteful destruction of nature, their attempts to regulate interactions with it, even what he perceives as their unmanly habit of shooting pigeons with a cannon instead of a rifle (249). In The American Novel and Its Tradition, Richard Chase writes:
In different terms the contradiction between the values of a traditional society and those of the lone individual in the marginal hinterland is as much a part of Faulkner’s view of things as it was of Cooper’s. With some modification the same contradiction lies behind the works of Melville and Mark Twain, among others. It is clear that crotchety as Cooper’s thinking sometimes was, he exemplified a dilemma, and explored some of the aesthetic uses to which it might be put, that was not peculiar to him but was at the heart of American culture. (52)
Cooper may have done more than set a precedent for later American heroes and treatments of civilization and the wilderness, however. Several writers, including D.H. Lawrence and Richard Slotkin, have suggested that he helped create an American myth. In Studies in Classic American Literature, Lawrence discussed the portrayal of Bumppo in Cooper’s The Deerslayer in this way: “You have there the myth of the essential white America. All the other stuff, the love, the democracy, the floundering into lust, is a sort of by-play. The essential American soul is hard, isolate, stoic, and a killer” (quoted in Slotkin 466). Slotkin writes in Regeneration Through Violence that Cooper’s “vision of the mythic hero became a figure in the popular imagination, to which all subsequent versions of the hero had perforce to refer, whether in emulation or denigration” (468). Indeed, in “James Fenimore Cooper: Myth-Maker and Christian Romancer,” Charles A. Brady suggests that “Cooper’s genius was mythopoeic rather than comic; . . . dealing at its rare purest, in archetypes rather than types” (12).
Cooper’s achievement and influence, in short, was large. “The imaginative debt that such minor nineteenth century novelists as Simms and Stowe owed to Cooper is obvious,” Railton notes, “and in general popular fiction remained in the mode that Coper had shaped for it until after the Civil War. Yet it is equally true to say that Cooper first established many of the themes with which the major authors of the century would deal” (3). Railton further points out that contemporaries Sir Walter Scott and Honore de Balzac regarded Cooper as one of the finest novelists in the world (4). Neverthless, his reputation has suffered considerably so that scholars are inclined to place him beneath Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, and others who followed him. Railton suggests a number of reasons for this position, noting that Cooper did not produce a masterpiece on the level of The Scarlet Letter or Moby-Dick and that his work suffers from “contradictions” (4-6). As Mark Twain pointed out in “Fenimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses,” Cooper’s novels also tend to strain some readers’ expectations of realism in areas such as dialogue. In The Pioneers, for instance, a character threatened by a forest fire proclaims: “Let us endeavor to retire” (411). Indeed, Cooper’s Leather-Stocking Tales are best read as fancifiul romances and thus do not fit the strict definition of “novel” as a highly realistic form. As Chase argues in The American Novel and Its Tradition, however, many of America’s greatest “novels”—including The Scarlet Letter and Moby-Dick—are actually romances.
The chief problem in Cooper’s literature may be simply its lack of polish and originality. All other considerations aside, novels such as Moby-Dick and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn shine because of their lyrical, highly crafted prose. Despite notable digressions, these novels also have a quality of tightness about them. Melville used a lot of words, and Twain a lot of scenes, but one rarely has the sense that they have wasted them. Cooper, on the other hand, appears to have written without the deliberation that one might expect of a great novelist. His daughter, Susan Fenimore Cooper, who had worked for him, provides this glimpse into her father’s creative process: “On this occasion, as on all others when writing a book, he first adopted some general leading idea, sketched vaguely in his mind a few of the more prominent characters, and then immediately began his work in its final shape, leaving the details to suggest and develop themselves during the progress of the volume. Excepting when writing history, he is not known to have ever drawn up a written plan, and in one or two instances only were a few brief notes thrown on paper, regarding some particular chapter. In all the details he depended in a great measure on the thought and feeling of the moment” (qtd. in Railton 25-26; see “Pages and Pictures,” from Writings of James Fenimore Cooper, 29-30). Furthermore, Railton explains that “he regularly sent manuscript to the publisher without waiting until he had finished the tale” (23). Cooper also paid little attention to revision. In a letter quoted by Railton, Cooper admits: “I ought in justice to myself to say, that in opposition to a thousand good resolutions, the Pioneers, has been more hastily and carelessly written than any of my books—Not a line has been copied, and it has gone from my desk to the printers—I have not to this moment been able even to read it—“ (23). Finally, as Railton notes, Cooper was not one to provide readers with highly original conceptions. “No writer was more committed than Cooper to contemporary literary conventions,” Railton writes. “He was, for example, simply unable to conceive a tale without a love story, without a comic character, without a narrow escape . . . . In the nineteenth century literary conventions fulfilled the terms of an unwritten, tacit contract that a popular novelist had agreed upon with his audience: readers demanded novelty and suspense, but they also expected to be entertained in a familiar way, and the writer was pledged to satisfy those expectations (27).
Cooper may have fulfilled those expectations and thus enjoyed great popular success, but he may have done so at the expense of artistry. In an essay entitled “Fenimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses,” Mark Twain writes of Cooper’s novel The Deerslayer:
A work of art? It has no invention; it has no order, system, sequence, or result; it has no lifelikeness, no thrill, no stir, no seeming of reality; its characters are confusedly drawn, and by their acts and words they prove that they are not the sort of people the author claims that they are; its humor is pathetic; its pathos is funny; its conversations are—oh! indescribable; its love-scenes odious; its English a crime against the language.
Counting these out, what is left is Art. I think we must all admit that. (1250)
Art or no art, James Fenimore Cooper created an influential character in Natty Bumppo and helped launch a literary discussion of the relationship between humanity and nature in America. It is for these contributions he is perhaps best remembered.
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation. The American Tradition in Literature. Vol. 1. Ed. George Perkins, et al. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. 26-41.
Brady, Charles A. “James Fenimore Cooper: Myth-Maker and Christian Romancer.” American Classics Revisited. Ed. Howard C. Gardiner. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958.
Chase, Richard. The American Novel and Its Tradition. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1957.
Cooper, James Fenimore. The Pioneers. James Fenimore Cooper: The Leather-Stocking Tales, Volume I. New York: Library of America, 1985. 1-465.
---. “Preface to The Leather-Stocking Tales.” The American Tradition in Literature. Vol. 1. Ed. George Perkins, et al. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990.
Nevius, Blake. “Chronology.” James Fenimore Cooper: The Leather-Stocking Tales, Volume I. New York: Library of America, 1985. 1319-1331.
Railton, Stephen. Fenimore Cooper: A Study of His Life and Imagination. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.
Ringe, Donald. “Introduction.” The Pioneers. New York: Penguin, 1988. vii-xxii.
Slotkin, Richard. Regeneration Through Violence.
Twain, Mark. “Fenimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses.” The Unabridged Mark Twain. Philadelphia: Running Press, 1976. | <urn:uuid:b1b960bb-ff66-45b4-8399-feaceab1a64d> | {
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International POPs Elimination Network (IPEN)
- Date submitted: 1 Nov 2011
- Stakeholder type: Major Group
- Name: International POPs Elimination Network (IPEN)
- Submission Document: Download
Full SubmissionDRAFT IPEN Submission UN Conference on Sustainable Development Rio+20 June 2012 Thank you for the opportunity to provide input and comment to the UNCSD Secretariat?s preparation of the zero draft for the outcome document for adoption by governments at Rio+20. IPEN The International POPs Elimination Network (IPEN) was formed in response to the global recognition of the need to eliminate persistent organic pollutants. Since its inception in 1998, IPEN has grown to a global network of over 700 public interest non-governmental organisations (NGOs) from more than 100 countries united in support of the common goal of a ?toxics-free future.? IPEN facilitates the engagement of public interest NGOs in efforts to eliminate POPs and other persistent toxic substances (PTS), and works for a world where exposure to chemicals is no longer a significant source of harm to public health and the environment. IPEN has emerged as a broad-based international chemical safety network with a global reach. It has the ability to translate chemical policy into concrete action on the ground and provides developing country NGOs with a voice at international forums. This submission was prepared on behalf of IPEN (the International POPs Elimination Network) and its Participating Organizations by: Dr Mariann Lloyd-Smith PhD (Law) Senior Advisor, IPEN Senior Advisor, National Toxics Network Inc. [email protected] www.ipen.org www.ntn.org.au Skype - mariannls Introduction The chemical industry plays a significant role in the global economy with sales in 2007 of more than three trillion U.S. dollars. 1 A steadily increasing share of the world?s chemical production is shifting to developing and transition countries 2 and by 2020 developing countries are expected to lead in highvolume chemicals production. 3 The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has noted rapidly rising import and use of chemicals in developing countries and estimates that by 2020, they could account for one-third of global consumption. 4 Almost all developing countries are increasing their use of pesticides and industrial chemicals, including substances contained in consumer and commercial products such as plastics, paints, adhesives, dyes, metals, and so forth. 5 To achieve a sustainable future where individuals and societies can truly have green livelihoods, a sustainable chemical industry is essential. Many chemicals still on the market are simply unmanageable and industry can no longer be allowed to outsource its harmful impacts and expect communities to pay the ?costs?. Achieving a sustainable chemical industry is a significant challenge for Rio+20. This submission will address this challenge and identify expectations and desired outcomes of Rio+20. Expectations for the outcome of Rio+20 Expectation 1 - Taking Stock a Generation On A prime expectation of Rio+20 is a ?taking stock of progress? against the goals and objectives of the previous Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and the outcomes of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). It has been a generation since Rio and it is time to both assess progress and reinvigorate the Rio Principles of intergenerational equity, precaution, right to know, polluter pays and participation. In 1992, governments meeting at the Rio Earth Summit acknowledged that chemical contamination could be a source of ?grave damage to human health, genetic structures and reproductive outcomes, and the environment.? 6 The subsequent Chapter 19 of Agenda 21 focused on Environmentally Sound Management of Toxic Chemicals, and in particular, the needs of developing countries when faced with the chemical hazards of their rapidly industrialising economies. 1 International Council of Chemical Associations, ICCA Review 2007?2008, 2009, http://www.iccachem.org/ICCADocs/01_icca_review2007_2008.pdf 2 OECD, OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030, 2008. 3 OECD, OECD Environmental Outlook for the Chemical Industry, 2001. 4 Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme, Financing Options for Chemicals and Wastes (UNEP/GCSS.XI/INF8), December 18, 2009, http://www.unep.org/dec/pdf/chemicalfinancing/k0953863-%20gcss-xi-inf8.pdf 5 Joe Digangi, Civil Society Actions For A Toxics-Free Future, New Solutions, Vol. 21(3) 433-445, 2011 6 Agenda 21, Chapter 19, Environmentally Sound Management of Toxic Chemicals, Including Prevention of Illegal International Traffic in Toxic & Dangerous Products, Section 19.2 Available at http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/res_agenda21_19.shtml Yet, 20 years on, toxic chemicals contaminate all living things, including vulnerable populations such as children and indigenous peoples. Since1992, many more new synthetic chemicals have been manufactured and released into the environment, with estimates of over 1,500 new chemicals being introduced each year. Approximately 80,000 are currently in use. The vast majority of pesticides and industrial chemicals have still not been adequately tested for their long term health and environmental impacts, particularly in terms of emerging concerns such as endocrine disruption and the impacts of mixtures of chemicals, which is how they occur in the environment. The little information that does exist is often not available to workers and exposed communities, particularly in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The developing world still faces dirty industries setting up in countries with limited capacity and compliance, as well as the escalating threats of ever increasing waste streams and illegal dumping by developed countries. In particular, the quantity of hazardous electronic waste finding its way to developing countries is still growing exponentially. A generation on, our water, soil, air and food chain are contaminated with toxic persistent chemicals and ?toxic trespass? of our bodies and those of wildlife continues unabated! It is essential that Rio+20 reviews its past and takes stock of progress against Chapter 19 of Agenda 21. It should also assess the lack of progress in regards to the WSSD 2020 goal and incorporate activities that would address the systematic failings into its outcomes. To achieve a sustainable future, Rio+20 will need to develop a program to eliminate the toxic legacy faced by countries as a result of unsound chemicals management and provide concrete and measureable deadlines crucial to ensure focus, credibility and public trust. 4. Specific Elements: a. Objectives of the Conference: Reinvigorate Rio Principles and WSSD Objectives Pertaining to Chemicals and Waste Rio+20 provides an appropriate opportunity to reinvigorate the original Rio principles and WSSD objectives pertaining to chemicals and waste. Chapter 19- ?Environmentally Sound Management of Toxic Chemicals?- focused on the generation, harmonisation and dissemination of chemical data, and strengthening capacity for chemical management. It contained specific reference to the right of communities to chemical information and the obligations on industry and governments to generate and provide that information. It was acknowledged that it is in the public interest for the community to be informed, to exercise their right to understand, to make informed choices and to participate in informed decision-making. Informed consumers can help drive cleaner production and reduce the generation of hazardous waste. Right-to-know was also supported by the Arhus Convention and the Strategic Approach to International Chemical Management (SAICM), which aimed to ensure that information about chemicals throughout their life cycle, including chemicals in products, was available to all stakeholders. 7 There is a clear acknowledgement that right-to-know is essential to implement the WSSD 2020 goal; ?to achieve the sound management of chemicals throughout their life-cycle so that, by 2020, chemicals are used and produced in ways that lead to the minimization of significant adverse effects on human health and the environment.? 8 Despite this, two decades after the Rio Earth Summit, the rhetoric of community right-to-know and access to chemical information still outstrips the reality. In many countries, information on product ingredients is still withheld under commercial confidentiality regimes. While some countries have implemented right-to-know initiatives like the Pollution Release Transfer Registers, their effectiveness is restricted by the limited number of chemicals covered and their dependence on industry estimations. Environmentally sustainable chemical management requires reliable, comprehensive and accessible information, yet legal and regulatory frameworks still often do not allow for an open and equal exchange of information among stakeholders. The application of the Precautionary Principle is crucial to the assessment of chemicals and new technologies; nevertheless, new and emerging technologies including bio-engineering and nanotechnology have been introduced with little or no oversight or assessment. The principles of substitution and elimination of hazardous substances as envisaged by SAICM, established to implement the WSSD Plan of Action for chemical management, are integral to protection of vulnerable populations, like agricultural workers, indigenous peoples and children. Rio+20 must reinforce a global commitment to the Rio principles, their implementation by all governments and to the WSSD 2020 goal. These are essential to achieving a sustainable future and green livelihoods. Rio+20 must reaffirm the central role of sustainable development in the international agenda and revive public trust in sustainable development as a policy that can finally make a positive breakthrough. It is necessary to acknowledge that certain industries, which cannot fulfill these principles, cannot be part of a sustainable future. Clear criteria need to be developed to encourage sustainable investments into chemical industry that will help to phase out unsustainable chemical production. 7 SAICM Overarching Policy Strategy, para 15 (b) (i) 8 Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM), Overarching Policy Strategy, paragraph 13 Commitment to the chemical management objectives to ensure intergenerational equity Two decades after the Rio Earth Summit, babies are born pre-polluted with hundreds of manmade toxic chemicals present in their small bodies. The developing foetus is contaminated by chemicals bio-accumulated in the mother?s body and that readily cross over the placental barrier. Newborns take more in through breast milk or formula, and as they grow are exposed to hazardous chemicals through residues in their food, indoor and outdoor air pollution, and through household products and contaminated house dust. 9 Many of the synthetic chemicals they are exposed to are persistent and bio- accumulative, remaining in the human body long after exposure. There are still no regulatory approaches to assess the combined impacts of the chemical soup to which children are exposed. The unique vulnerability of children to hazardous chemicals was recognised by the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety, the Word Health Organisation (WHO), the United Nations Children?s Fund (UNICEF) and UNEP 10 when they identified a growing number of children?s health impacts from chemical exposure. These include asthma, birth defects, (eg, hypospadias), behavioural disorders, learning disabilities, autism, cancer, dysfunctional immune systems, neurological impairments, and reproductive disorders. 11 The WHO has estimated that three million children under the age of five die every year due to environmental hazards. 12 All children, both in the developing and developed world, are affected by exposure to hazardous chemicals. In 2004, the European Union?s Ministerial Conference on Children?s Environmental Health concluded that reducing exposure to hazardous chemicals could save the lives of many children. For Rio+20, to achieve real sustainability, the impacts of our chemical activities, products, and waste on future generations must be addressed in the Rio+20 outcomes. All governments and intergovernmental organisations will need to ensure a long term, sustainable, intergenerational commitment to chemical reform. 9 Lloyd-Smith, Mariann; Sheffield-Brotherton, Bro, 'Children's Environmental Health: Intergenerational Equity in Action?A Civil Society Perspective.' Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 1140, Number 1, October 2008, pp. 190-200(11) 10 IFCS Children and Chemical Safety Working Group. 2005. Chemical Safety and Children?s Health: Protecting the world?s children from harmful chemical exposures - a global guide to resources, October. 11 UNEP, UNICEF & WHO. 2002. Children in the New Millennium: Environmental Impact on Health. Available at www.unep.org, www.unicef.org and www.who.int. 12 World Health Organization / Children?s Environmental Health. Available at http://www.who.int/ceh/en/ Accessed 23/3/2009 Specific Elements: Sound Management of Chemicals to Achieve Sustainable Development In February 2006, Ministers of over 140 governments endorsed the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) High Level Declaration, which states: The sound management of chemicals is essential if we are to achieve sustainable development, including the eradication of poverty and disease, the improvement of human health and the environment and the elevation and maintenance of the standard of living in countries at all levels of development. 13 Many developing and transition countries continue to face bourgeoning industrial growth as industries, many of them hazardous, set up where there are few regulations and little capacity to control effluent, air pollution and waste. While there is a global consensus that sound management of chemicals is an integral part of the sustainable development agenda and that an inability to manage chemicals can negatively affect development and poverty reduction initiatives, sound chemicals management has not been successfully integrated into development assistance. Some of the problems stem from limited resources, the multitude of other obligations, and the urgent need to address other global environmental issues such as climate change. However, another obstacle includes the view that chemicals management is an environmental issue not a health and development concern. Hence there is not a strong demand by developing countries to include chemical safety in development assistance. While donor countries insist on country driven programs, there remains a disconnect between chemical safety and the development agenda. As sound chemical management is essential to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, Rio+20 outcomes must ensure that chemical safety and chemical policy reform occupies a place at the core of the economic and development policy agenda. Rio+20 must recommend that sound chemical management be taken into account while determining the direction of all international development assistance. In order to achieve this, IPEN offers the following model for Rio+20 activities: In 2007, IPEN collaborated with UNEP Chemical and the SAICM Secretariat to initiate and coordinate the Global NGO SAICM Outreach Campaign. 14 The purpose of the campaign was to raise awareness about SAICM and to secure commitments from NGOs in all regions to undertake efforts to elevate the threats posed by toxic chemicals. The campaign targeted not only environmental NGOs, but also organisations from other sectors including 13 United Nations Environment Programme, Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management: SAICM texts and resolutions of the International Conference on Chemicals Management, 2006, http://www.saicm.org/documents/saicm%20texts/SAICM_publication_ENG.pdf 14 See Global SAICM Outreach Campaign. Available at http://www.ipen.org/campaign health, agriculture and labour. As a result of the campaign, more than one thousand NGOs in over 100 15 countries endorsed a civil society statement supporting SAICM and its objectives, committing themselves to contribute to the SAICM implementation. The campaign spread the message for the need for chemical management to ensure the protection of human health and the environment but also human rights and national development. This model could be utilised as an activity from Rio+20 to assist in achieving greater awareness of the role of chemical management in sustainable development. Sound Management of Chemicals to Ensure the Protection of Human Rights The protection of the environment is a vital part of contemporary human rights doctrines. It affects the right to life and the right to health. The International Court of Justice has found that damage to the environment undermines all human rights spoken of in the Universal Declaration and other human rights instruments. 16 In 2001, the United Nations Human Rights Committee found that ?living in a pollution-free world is a basic human right? 17 and those who pollute violate these rights. It was noted that, ?human rights cannot be secured in a degraded or polluted environment? and that ?the fundamental right to life is threatened by exposures to toxic chemicals, hazardous wastes, and contaminated drinking water.? The rise of chronic diseases such as cancer, heart disease, diabetes, degenerative diseases and mental health have all shown to have links to pollution of air, water and/or food. WHO has assessed almost a quarter of all disease is caused by environmental exposure, which can be averted. 18 Their report, ?Preventing disease through healthy environments - towards an estimate of the environmental burden of disease,? shows that in one way or another, the environment significantly affects more than 80% of major diseases. The Convention on the Rights of the Child 19 recognises the dangers of environmental pollution 20 and places an onus on all parties to ensure the 15 See http://www.ipen.org/campaign/signed.html 16 Case Concerning the Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia), 1997 ICJ Rep 7; (25 September; sep op., Judge Weeramantry), 4. ; Also see Per C G Weeramantry J, in his separate opinion in the International Court of Justice?s decision in Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia) 1997 ICJ 97 at 110; 37 ILM 162 at 206 (1998). 17 Press Release, 27 Apr 2001 ?Living In A Pollution-free World A Basic Human Right? Available at http://www.grida.no/news/press/2150.aspx 18 WHO Media Release ?Almost a quarter of all disease caused by environmental exposure? 16 JUNE 2006 | GENEVA Available at http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr32/en/index.html 19 Convention on the Rights of the Child, opened for signature 20 November 1989, 1577 UNTS 3 (entered into force 2 September 1990). Australia ratified the CRC on 17 December 1990. 20 Article 24 2(c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, iner alia, the application of readily available Technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking-water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of environmental pollution; healthy development of the child, to the maximum extent possible. To achieve this, the epigenetic basis of health and disease must also be considered, for once there is a mutation in a gene, this intergenerational impact cannot easily be remedied. All children have a right to a healthy, toxic-free environment with clean air, clean water and food free from chemical residues, as well as safe and toxic-free toys. The human rights of indigenous people are also badly affected by chemical contamination. Under the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People 2007, 21 indigenous people have the right to practice and revitalise their cultural practices, customs and institutions; however, the ongoing contamination of the food chain seriously threatens indigenous peoples? right and need to consume traditional foods. In the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 2001 preamble, Arctic peoples are given special consideration which acknowledges that the Arctic ecosystems and indigenous communities are particularly at risk because of the biomagnification of POPs in their traditional foods. The blood and breast milk of Arctic peoples are contaminated with the full suite of POPs chemicals and their metabolites. The level of perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), a carcinogen and immunotoxin, is doubling in the Arctic environment every 5 years. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), a newly listed POPs chemical with no known breakdown, already contaminates every aspect of the Arctic environment and its inhabitants. Despite this, governments permit the continuation of this pollution by allowing a wide range of acceptable uses and exemptions for PFOS. Rio+20 outcomes must include active support for activities to reduce chemical contamination to protect basic human rights. They need to facilitate the phase-out of all ongoing uses and exemptions for POPs, which are transboundary, intergenerational poisons that cannot be managed. Rio+20 must provide a clear pathway for global phase-out of particularly hazardous chemicals, specifically PBTs (persistent bioaccumulative toxins), vPvBTs, (very persistent, very bioaccumulative toxins), genotoxics, carcinogens, chemicals affecting the immune and nervous system, and endocrine disruptors. The SAICM emerging policy issue on endocrine disruptors needs to be supported. Recommendations for Rio+20 Specific Chemical Safety Activities needed to achieve a sustainable future - Life Cycle Analysis and Polluter Pays - To achieve a sustainable future, Rio+20 outcomes must support a move away from the standard risk assessment paradigm to an assessment of the complete life cycle of a chemical, product or activity. Understanding the systems of production, distribution, use, and disposal reveals a more 21 See United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, GA Resolution 61/295, UN Doc A/61/L.67 (2007) at article 5, 9 and 11 complete view of chemical relationships and where a given chemical may create threats to human health or the environment. 22 Through a life cycle approach, the full cost of a product or activity can be properly assessed, ensuring extended producer responsibility for all aspects and impacts of the chemical?s life cycle. A polluter pays approach is essential, as countries can no longer afford to pay the bourgeoning costs of chemical contamination and hazardous waste management in terms of adverse environmental health impacts and the economic imposts on the public purse. Currently, much of the cost of chemical production, use and waste management has been externalized as costs to governments and society. These encompass legacy issues such as obsolete stockpiles, contaminated sites and children whose development has been impaired as a result of pre- natal and post-natal chemical exposure; others whose health has been injured as a result of chemical exposure, eg, workers; those providing health care services to such people; property owners or users whose property value decreases as a result of chemical contamination; fishers, hunters, small farmers, and others whose livelihoods are impaired by chemical contamination; indigenous peoples whose way of life has been undermined through contamination of their traditional foods; people whose water supply is contaminated; and others. Externalities of modern industrial agriculture include depletion of water, soil, and biodiversity; pollution by pesticides and fertilizers; loss of livelihoods and knowledge, and the resulting economic and social costs to communities. These externalities retard economic productivity, harm the environment, and impose additional burdens on a country?s health delivery and education systems. While the Polluter Pays Principle and its internalization of costs helps address these impacts, economic instruments that internalize costs of chemicals management have not been widely implemented. Rio+20 outcomes should provide support for cost internalization mechanisms as an effective method to provide the resources needed to establish infrastructure and foster investment in safer practices and in the substitution of less hazardous chemicals and materials. Rio+20 outcomes must support a cradle-to-cradle approach to product design, giving due consideration to the chemical components and an acceptance of what is not recyclable, should be degradable. - Substitution and elimination of hazardous substances in consumer products - In most countries, the consumption of products containing hazardous chemicals is increasing, resulting in a growth in emissions from the 22 Geiser, K., Redesigning Chemicals Policy: A Very Different Approach, NEW SOLUTIONS, Vol. 21(3) 329-344, 2011 manufacture and use of products as well as a massive growth in the waste generated. SAICM acknowledged fundamental changes are needed in the way products are manufactured, consumed and managed in their waste or recycling phase. Many low quality products are supplied to and also made in developing countries and economies in transition, including cosmetics, household goods, paints, toys and other goods for children that are contaminated with a range of heavy metals and chemicals. In most cases, no information on contents of hazardous chemicals in products is available to governments or civil society and there remains inadequate public awareness of health risks associated with many products. Lead content in paint is a pertinent example. Lead levels in paint sold in developing countries are significantly higher than those of developed countries. Lead is renowned for its toxic effects, particularly on children, and the removal of lead from paint is an iconic intergenerational and equity issue, which needs immediate global attention. While right-to-know about product ingredients will help drive cleaner production, the onus must remain with manufacturers and governments to ensure hazardous substances are eliminated from consumer products and substituted with safer ingredients. Rio+20 outcomes will need to ensure not only a reduction in product obsolescence but chemical management reforms based on green product design, substitution and the elimination of toxic substances. A primary outcome of Rio+20 outcomes must be a complete phase-out of toxic substances from all children?s products, including toys, by 2020. - Addressing the Toxic Ewaste Trade - Many developing countries already facing their own domestic waste pressures are experiencing import of hazardous waste, particularly electronic waste, from other countries, including developed countries. The export of old computers to ?bridge the digital divide? is still being used as an excuse for toxic waste dumping on some of the poorest communities and countries in the world. It is estimated that between 50% and 80% of ewaste collected for recycling in the developed countries each year is being exported. Developed countries have not invested in adequate ewaste recycling/treatment facilities and have not provided adequate legislation, monitoring and compliance to stop the toxic exports. The lack of adequate infrastructure in developing countries to manage ewaste safely results in the burning of ewaste in open air or dumping in sewers, rivers or on the ground, with global impacts. The phenomenal growth in ewaste requires that all countries develop sound capacity to prevent, minimise, re-use or recycle materials from ewaste. Active support must be given to green product design to design-out toxic components in electronics, as well as green procurement policies. To achieve sustainability, Rio+20 outcomes need to support countries and help build capacity for the prevention, management and recycling of ewaste. Rio+20 should encourage all Governments to ensure prompt ratification and entry into force of the Basel Ban Amendment by 2016 at the latest to assure developing countries are not dumping grounds for external toxic waste. - Hazardous Stockpiles and Destruction Technologies - Many developing and transition countries have large stockpiles of obsolete pesticides that pose a serious threat to human health and the environment in these countries themselves and in neighbouring countries as well. These legacy stockpiles need an international approach to ensure their destruction using environmentally sound techniques. In the last decade, the availability of non-incineration destruction facilities has been seriously impaired through a lack of institutional support. While these technologies are still available, the market approach has resulted in the preference for what appears to be cheaper incineration options. This is despite emitting air pollutants and producing toxic ash requiring permanent storage, as well as ongoing public opposition in all continents. Rio+20 outcomes need to provide support for non-incineration destruction technologies to urgently address the legacy wastes. Rio+20 outcomes must provide awareness-raising and capacity-building for developing countries and countries in transition to help them resist the attempts to push through old incineration technologies. - Ban Highly Hazardous Pesticides - The agricultural use of pesticides that are highly hazardous to human health and the environment is long overdue for replacement by sustainable alternatives. As part of its commitment to implementing the objectives of SAICM, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has called for the global phase-out of highly hazardous pesticides and has developed criteria to identify them. These include pesticides that are highly acutely toxic (WHO Classes 1a and 1b), carcinogenic, mutagenic, reproductive toxins, those listed under the Stockholm or Rotterdam Conventions, or pesticides with active ingredients and formulations that have shown a high incidence of severe or irreversible adverse effects on human health or the environment. 23 FAO has also called for the use of these pesticides to be replaced by an ecosystem approach to agriculture based on biological process and the use of 23 http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/pests/pm/code/hhp/en/ pesticides only as a last resort. 24 This approach echoes that of the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, who found that in order to combat hunger and malnutrition, states should implement policies to adopt agroecological practices, as agroecology raises productivity, reduces rural poverty, improves nutrition and contributes to adapting to climate change. 25 A World Bank report on community managed sustainable agriculture in India found that non-pesticide management of the agro-ecosystem significantly increases farmers? net income, improves household food security and reduces environmental damage. 26 The agroecological approach to agriculture in place of the use of highly hazardous pesticides is also supported by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD); 27 the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in its report on the Green Economy; 28 and the International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), a World Bank initiative in partnership with FAO, UNEP, UNDP, WHO, governments, civil society, the private sector and scientific institutions. 29 Despite this high level support for replacing hazardous pesticides with an agroecological approach to food production, little progress has been made. Many governments and others continue to believe, despite abundant evidence to the contrary, that chemical-based agriculture is the only way to feed the world. In ignorance, many farmers continue to use highly hazardous pesticides, poisoning themselves, their families, future generations and the environment, usually also diminishing their potential returns and food security. Rio+20 outcomes must provide a process for the global phase-out of highly hazardous pesticides and endorse and actively support an agroecological approach to agriculture. - Achieving Mercury Phase-Out through a Global Treaty - The impacts on human health from exposure to mercury are well documented, with children most at risk from its neurotoxicity. The current negotiations need to result in a convention text that covers the full life cycle of mercury in all media, including in products and waste streams. BAT/BEP (best 24 FAO. 2010. Report of the twenty-second session of the Committee on Agriculture, Rome, 29 November ? 3 December 2010. Rome. Also see FAO, 2011. Save and grow: A policymaker?s guide to the sustainable intensification of smallholder crop production. http://www.fao.org/ag/save-and-grow 25 Report to UN Human Rights Council, March 2011, by UN Special Rapporteur on Right to Food, Oliver De Schutter: Agro-ecology and the Right to Food) 26 Kumar TV, Raidu DV, Killi J, Pillai M, Shah P, Kalavadonda V, Lakhey S. 2009. Ecologically Sound, Economically Viable Community Managed Sustainable Agriculture in Andra Pradesh, India. The World Bank, Washington DC. 27 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Feb 2011: ?Assuring Food Security in Developing Countries under the Challenges of Climate Change: Key Trade and Development Issues of a Fundamental Transformation of Agriculture? http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/osgdp20111_en.pdf 28 UNEP Green Economy report: Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, 2011 http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/v2/GreenEconomyReport/tabid/29846/Default.aspx 29 IAASTD: The International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development, 2008. http://www.agassessment.org/ available techniques/best environmental practice) should be required for all new and existing release sources, as well as adequate financial and technical assistance for developing and transition countries to assist them in meeting BAT/BEP requirements and other aspects of treaty implementation. All Parties should be required to develop a national goal consistent with treaty goals for reducing and eliminating its mercury emissions, and implement education, training and awareness-raising with regard to the action plan. The treaty should address both large and small scale mining and refining operations, and in particular address artisanal small scale gold mining (ASGM). Mercury imports and other sources of mercury supply for ASGM should be banned and measures to prohibit, restrict, or discourage should include child labour. Importantly, all mercury waste must be covered by the treaty. Rio+20 outcomes should support the development of an effective and comprehensive mercury treaty. - Interaction of Climate Change and Chemicals - In 2011, UNEP acknowledged that chemical management reform needs to be undertaken in the context of the growing interaction of climate change on chemical releases, transport, degradation, exposure and toxicity. 30 The report by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) Expert Group, ?Climate Change and POPs: Predicting the Impacts,? concludes that higher temperatures increase primary emissions and releases of POPs. Temperature also changes rates of mobilisation from materials, products or stockpiles and alters use patterns, eg, increased demand for disease vector control/DDT. It was demonstrated that increased exposure to POPs also results from secondary re-volatilisation and re-mobilisation from sinks, eg, melting of ice, glaciers and permafrost, flooding of contaminated lands, waste sites and landfills, as well as increase partitioning of POPs from water to atmosphere. There is already evidence of increased remobilization of POPs and heavy metals from glacial and permafrost melt. While enhanced degradation of POPs due to temperature increases is possible, if microorganisms have a higher degradation capacity, this could also lead to increased formation of toxic transformation products. POPs exposure has direct impacts on individuals and populations, including endocrine effects on reproduction, immunosuppression and epigenetic effects (heritable changes) at cellular level. Temperature has been shown to affect POPs toxicity, and climate change impacts on salinity, ocean acidification, eutrophication and water oxygen levels could (either alone or in combination) enhance the toxic effects of POPs. 30 Climate change and POPs: Predicting the Impacts, Report of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)/Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) Expert Group, January 2011 Available http://chm.pops.int Rio+20 outcomes must ensure a coordinated and global response to counteract immediate, medium and long-term effects on human health and ecosystems of concurrent exposure to POPs and changing climates. Rio+20 outcomes should endorse the precautionary approach to guide development of policy actions to address combined negative impacts of climate change and POPs, including support for mitigation activities with co-benefits. - Support for Zero Waste and Recycling and the Removal of Single Use Plastics - To achieve sustainability, societies and governments must succeed in implementing Zero Waste policies, 31 which requires improvement of product design and content to better ensure the ease and safety of recycling. Industries and governments have argued that recycling costs are in some cases more than the production of new items, but this fails to assess the full costs of the life cycle impacts including the waste phase and the impact on finite resources. A pertinent example is the cost of plastic marine debris. The plastic ?gyres? of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans are growing as the result of low recycling rates for plastic. Either via direct dumping, river transport or unsecured landfill, waste plastics find their way to the ocean vortices. As plastics do not biodegrade easily in the environment, the amount of plastic in the vortices is increasing substantially. About 250 billion pounds of plastic raw material are produced annually worldwide with unintentional releases to the environment during manufacturing and transport. Plastic pellets are now widely distributed through the world?s ocean along with plastic wastes. 32 The plastic accumulates pollutants including nonylphenols, DDE and PCB, which can be up to one million times more concentrated on the surface of the pellets than in the ambient seawater. This high accumulation potential means that plastic resin pellets serve both as a global transport medium and a source of toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Mortality due to plastic ingestion is now common in seabirds, marine mammals and sea turtles. The extent to which the ingestion of hazardous chemical components attributes to wildlife deaths is not available. To achieve sustainability, Rio+20 outcomes will need, as a priority, to ensure single use plastics are phased-out and provide a clear path to a global reduction of plastic use and disposal. 31 Zero waste is a philosophy that encourages the redesign of resource life cycles so that all products are reused. SAICM agreement refers to ?zero waste resource management, waste prevention, substitution and toxics use reduction, to reduce the volume and toxicity of discarded materials? 32 Mato, Isobe, Takada, Kahnehiro, Ohtake, and Kaminuma. Plastic Resin Pellets as a Transport Medium for Toxic Chemicals in the Marine Environment Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35, 318-324 - Ensure Precautionary Principle and Adequate Assessment is applied to Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials - In recent years, a wide variety of nanomaterials (substances smaller than 100 nanometers in size) have been added to an increasing numbers of consumer products used in day-to-day life, eg., food packaging, sunscreens, clothing (odor-resistant textiles), pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agrochemicals, household appliances, and medical devices. This is despite the lack of adequate toxicity assessment, labeling, government regulation or environmental monitoring; and despite the SAICM requirement for publically available information about all stages of a chemical?s life-cycle, including in products. There is huge uncertainty regarding the health impacts and toxicity of nanoparticles. 33 Without mandatory labelling and registration of nano- products, no one, not even governments, knows which products contain nanoparticles. Surveys show that many companies do not conduct risk assessments. 34 Yet both in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that manufactured nanoparticles, now in widespread commercial use, pose new toxicity risks 35 including asbestos-like pathogenicity and the onset of mesothelioma in test mice, 36 and granulomas, lesions, cancer or blood clots. 37 There is evidence that some nanoparticles can cross the placenta, posing particular risks to developing embryos. 38 Nanoparticles have been shown to have a potential for biomagnification and bioaccumulation in the environment, 39 and a recent study provides clear evidence that nanoparticles 33 Nel A, Xia T, Li N (2006) Toxic potential of materials at the nanolevel. Science Vol 311:622-627; Oberdörster G, et al., (2005). ?Principles for characterising the potential human health effects from exposure to nanomaterials: elements of a screening strategy?. Particle and Fibre Toxicology 2:8. 34 Helland A et al., (2008) Risk Assessment of Engineered Nanomaterials: A Survey of Industrial Approaches. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42 : 640?646 ; Helland A. et al., (2008) Precaution in Practice: Perceptions, Procedures, and Performance in the Nanotech Industry. J Ind Ecol 12(3):449-458. 35 For example see Ashwood P, Thompson R, Powell J. 2007. Fine particles that adsorb lipopolysaccharide via bridging calcium cations may mimic bacterial pathogenicity towards cells. Exp Biol Med 232(1):107-117; Brunner T, et al., (2006) In Vitro Cytotoxicity of Oxide Nanoparticles: Comparison to Asbestos, Silica, and the Effect of Particle Solubility. Environ Sci Technol 40:4374-4381 ; Limbach L, Wick P, Manser P, Grass R, Bruinink A, Stark W. 2007. Exposure of engineered nanoparticles to human lung epithelial cells: Influence of chemical composition and catalytic activity on oxidative stress. Environ Sci Technol 41:4158-4163; Long T, Saleh N, Tilton R, Lowry G, Veronesi B. 2006. Titanium dioxide (P25) produces reactive oxygen species in immortalized brain microglia (BV2): Implications for nanoparticle neurotoxicity. Environ Sci Technol 40(14):4346-4352. 36 Poland C, Duffin R, Kinloch I, Maynard A, Wallace W, Seaton A, Stone V, Brown S, MacNee W, Donaldson K. 2008.Carbon nanotubes introduced into the abdominal cavity display asbestos-like pathogenic behaviour in a pilot study. Nat Nanotechnol, Published online: 20 May 2008 (doi:10.1038/nnano.2008.111); Takagi A, Hirose A, Nishimura T, Fukumori N, Ogata A, Ohashi N, Kitajima S, Kanno J. 2008. Induction of mesothelioma in p53+/- mouse by intraperitoneal application of multi-wall carbon nanotube. J Toxicol Sci 33: 105-116. 37 Ballestri M, Baraldi A, Gatti A, Furci L, Bagni A, Loria P, Rapana R, Carulli N, Albertazzi A. 2001. Liver and kidney foreign bodies granulomatosis in a patient with malocclusion, bruxism, and worn dental prostheses. Gastroenterol 121(5):1234?8; Gatti A. 2004. Biocompatibility of micro- and nano-particles in the colon. Part II. Biomaterials 25:385-392; Gatti A, Rivasi F. 2002. Biocompatibility of micro- and nanoparticles. Part I: in liver and kidney. Biomaterials 23:2381?2387. 38 Takeda K, Suzuki K, Ishihara A, Kubo-Irie M, Fujimoto R, Tabata M, Oshio S, Nihei Y, Ihara T, Sugamata M. 2009. Nanoparticles transferred from pregnant mice to their offspring can damage the genital and cranial nerve systems. J Health Sci 55(1):95-102.; Tsuchiya T, Oguri I, Yamakoshi Y and Miyata N. 1996. Novel harmful effects of fullerene on mouse embryos in vitro and in vivo. FEBS Lett 393 (1): 139-45. 39 SCENIHR (Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks). 2009. Risk assessment of products of nanotechnologies, 19 January 2009. can build up in a terrestrial food chain; 40 even in important staple crops like rice where transmission of nanoparticles from plant to seed to the next generation was demonstrated. 41 The potential impacts of these processes on both food safety and the environment are unknown. The United Kingdom?s Royal Society, the world?s oldest scientific institution, has recommended that given the emerging evidence of serious nanotoxicity risks, nanoparticles should be subject to new safety assessments prior to their inclusion in consumer products, and the release of nanoparticles into the environment should be avoided as far as possible. 42 Still, the overwhelming majority of nanoproducts are reaching the marketplace without specific safety assessments, and with the workers handling nanoparticles not informed of this fact. No nano-containing products are required to be labeled, and as uses continue to expand, the societal and environmental exposure to nanomaterials, both deliberate and unintentional, will inevitably increase. Current international efforts, such as the OECD nanomaterials sponsorship program, focus on only a fraction of the nanomaterials already in circulation or nearing commercialization, and are not expected to provide results that can assist risk assessment for some years. It is likely that nanotechnology will do little to redress the systemic causes of poverty, hunger or pollution, and developing countries may even disproportionately bear nano-risks, by hosting manufacturing that wealthy countries reject, or becoming dumping grounds for waste. Rio+20 outcomes must ensure the precautionary principle is applied throughout the life cycle of manufactured nanomaterials, and that global governance and assessment processes for nanomaterials are transparent, inclusive, equitable and driven by sustainability. Rio+20 outcomes must ensure consumers? and workers? right-to-know and right-to-choose in respect to nanotechnologies and nanomaterials be respected, as well as a country?s right to reject particular applications or uses of nanotechnologies and nanomaterials. In conclusion - In this time of increasing globalisation, there is a growing acceptance of the need for a social license and community consent for industrial activities, including new and emerging technologies, to go forward. This is critical for a sustainable future and for the protection of the environment, intergenerational equity and basic human rights. Taking into account Agenda 21 requirements, industries must function within these parameters and have no right to operate 40 Jonathan D. Judy, Jason M. Unrine, & Paul M. Bertsch, Evidence for Biomagnification of Gold Nanoparticles within a Terrestrial Food Chain, Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (2), pp 776?781 41 Sijie Lin, Jason Reppert, Qian Hu, JoAn S. Hudson, Michelle L. Reid, Tatsiana A. Ratnikova, Apparao M. Rao, Hong Luo & Pu Chun Ke, Uptake, Translocation, and Transmission of Carbon Nanomaterials in Rice Plants, Communciations Cellular uptake 2009, 5, No. 10, www.small-journal.com 42 Recommendations of the Royal Society and The Royal Academy of Engineering, UK (2004). Nanoscience and nanotechnologies. Available at http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/ unless they satisfy social needs and meet the requirements for a safe, toxic- free environment. With the added pressure on the planet posed by climate change and world population, the limits of sustainability in a ?business as usual? model have been reached. The urgency has never been greater for sound chemical management, environmental protection and social justice. If a sustainable future is to be possible, the protection of our global commons and, in particular, our shrinking resources of clean air, water and soil, is paramount. While communities and civil society view a social license in terms of a dynamic, ongoing relationship between companies, government, stakeholders and communities, many regulators still see a ?social license? in terms of a formal permission linked to the regulator granting the ?license.? This is simply not adequate. There are many worrying examples of the failure of this model, for example, in many parts of the world, mining activities and the search for unconventional gas (shale gas, coal seam gas) has resulted in companies undertaking activities that contaminate the global commons and the life support systems on which we all depend. Regulation has not stopped the intentional release of vast quantities of unassessed industrial chemicals into waterways, aquifers and airsheds. The time when an industrial activity can be undertaken purely for profit or economic growth has gone. Sustainable futures depend on access to clean water, soil, air, food and products as well as the right to be protected against toxic trespass. These are basic inalienable human rights for all peoples of the planet and to ensure and protect them is the real challenge for Rio+20. | <urn:uuid:0d2a00ff-0f25-4f5d-85a2-706fd2afc6a5> | {
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By Tamar Hahn
UNICEF’s flagship report, ‘The State of the World’s Children 2012: Children in an Urban World’, was launched on 28 February, focusing attention on children in urban areas. One billion children live in urban areas, a number that is growing rapidly. Yet disparities within cities reveal that many lack access to schools, health care and sanitation, despite living alongside these services. This story is part of a series highlighting the needs of these children.
|© UNICEF video|
|UNICEF reports on UNICEF's efforts to help children in the violence-plagued slums of Caracas, Venezuela. Produced by Thomas Nybo. Watch in RealPlayer|
CARACAS, Venezuela, 20 March 2012 – Every evening, as soon as the sun goes down, young Yeremi Reyes* and his family lock all the doors to their house, lower the blinds and hunker down for another night of random shootings and violent fights in the street. Yet Yeremi does not live in a war-torn country; he lives in a marginalized neighbourhood in the city of Caracas.
Violence is rampant here, the result of deep inequalities, and the effects on children have been devastating. Many have seen friends and relatives killed as a result of gang fights, robberies or stray bullets. They live in fear at home and in school, especially those living in the city’s shantytowns.
‘The violence is unbearable’
Petare is an enormous slum at the edge of Caracas. A massive expanse of ramshackle homes surrounded by luxury buildings, the area is a stark example of the inequality that characterizes much of the region.
For the residents of Caracas, Petare is emblematic of the violence that plagues their city. But for adolescents like Enrique Hernández*, Petare is simply home.
“Sometimes the neighbourhood is quiet, but sometimes the violence is unbearable and we have to stay locked in the house for hours,” said Enrique, whose house was hit by several bullets during a recent shooting in the street.
The violence deprives children and adolescents of their right to protection, their right to play and sometimes even their right to an education.
More than once, children at the 24 de Marzo School, in the heart of Petare, had to be evacuated when shots were heard outside its windows.
“Sometimes the children are on break, and we hear gunshots and have to rush them back into the classroom or evacuate them,” said Janet Maraima, a fifth-grade teacher at 24 de Marzo.
|© UNICEF video|
|A baseball programme teaches children how to play the game and also gives them the skills to prevent violence.|
Finding safe haven
Ms. Maraima and other teachers in this school have received training, provided by the communication group Cisneros Foundation, with support from UNICEF and a local NGO, on how to help children use art to talk about the violence that permeates their lives.
“It has been a very powerful experience to see the children reflect on their own realities through art,” Ms. Maraima said. “I am endlessly inspired by these children. I look at them and at all that they have to face on a daily basis, and I still see hope in each of their little faces.”
Others are also helping the children of urban communities reclaim their right to play.
Yeremi has found refuge in a small field close to his neighbourhood. The renowned baseball team Leones del Caracas, together with the municipality of Baruta and the community, cleaned up the field to start a baseball clinic for children in the area.
Leones de Caracas runs the clinic, providing a chance for participants to learn the game and enjoy a safe and fun environment for a few hours a week. But the clinics go beyond just teaching baseball – they are also designed to teach values and impart life skills to prevent violence.
“I love coming here,” said Yeremi. “I have fun and forget all my troubles.
“I have also learned to share, to help other boys and girls who are still learning the game, to stand up for the smaller kids if a bigger one is mean to them. And I don’t just do it here in the baseball field but also at school.”
These initiatives are supported by UNICEF in Venezuela as part of its work preventing violence against children and promoting adolescents’ healthy development.
*Names changed to protect childrens’ identities
State of the World's Children 2012
Download the full report
Life in Nairobi's informal settlements
In Nigeria, marginalized children face abuse
UNICEF launches flagship report in Mexico
A second chance at childhood in Benin
Watch all SOWC 2012 videos - Children in an urban world | <urn:uuid:6c8ade66-ba57-4297-a16c-cdafdf675ea8> | {
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Jason’s Revolt. 1About this time Antiochus sent his second expedition* into Egypt.a 2b It then happened that all over the city, for nearly forty days, there appeared horsemen, clothed in garments of a golden weave, charging in midair—companies fully armed with lances and drawn swords; 3squadrons of cavalry in battle array, charges and countercharges on this side and that, with brandished shields and bristling spears, flights of arrows and flashes of gold ornaments, together with armor of every sort. 4Therefore all prayed that this vision might be a good omen.
5But when a false rumor circulated that Antiochus was dead, Jason* gathered at least a thousand men and suddenly attacked the city. As the defenders on the walls were forced back and the city was finally being taken, Menelaus took refuge in the citadel. 6For his part, Jason continued the merciless slaughter of his fellow citizens, not realizing that triumph over one’s own kindred is the greatest calamity; he thought he was winning a victory over his enemies, not over his own people. 7Even so, he did not gain control of the government, but in the end received only disgrace for his treachery, and once again took refuge in the country of the Ammonites. 8At length he met a miserable end. Called to account before Aretas,* ruler of the Arabians, he fled from city to city, hunted by all, hated as an apostate from the laws, abhorred as the executioner of his country and his compatriots. Driven into Egypt, 9he set out by sea for the Lacedaemonians, among whom he hoped to find protection because of his relations with them. He who had exiled so many from their country perished in exile; 10and he who had cast out so many to lie unburied went unmourned and without a funeral of any kind, nor any place in the tomb of his ancestors.
Revenge by Antiochus. 11c When these happenings were reported to the king, he thought that Judea was in revolt. Raging like a wild animal, he set out from Egypt and took Jerusalem by storm. 12He ordered his soldiers to cut down without mercy those whom they met and to slay those who took refuge in their houses. 13There was a massacre of young and old, a killing of women and children, a slaughter of young women and infants. 14In the space of three days, eighty thousand were lost, forty thousand meeting a violent death, and the same number being sold into slavery.
15Not satisfied with this, the king dared to enter the holiest temple in the world; Menelaus, that traitor both to the laws and to his country, served as guide. 16He laid his impure hands on the sacred vessels and swept up with profane hands the votive offerings made by other kings for the advancement, the glory, and the honor of the place. 17Antiochus became puffed up in spirit, not realizing that it was because of the sins of the city’s inhabitants that the Sovereign Lord was angry for a little while: hence the disregard of the place.d 18If they had not become entangled in so many sins, this man, like that Heliodorus sent by King Seleucus to inspect the treasury, would have been flogged and turned back from his presumptuous act as soon as he approached. 19The Lord, however, had not chosen the nation for the sake of the place, but the place for the sake of the nation. 20Therefore, the place itself, having shared in the nation’s misfortunes, afterward participated in their good fortune; and what the Almighty had forsaken in wrath was restored in all its glory, once the great Sovereign Lord became reconciled.
21e Antiochus carried off eighteen hundred talents from the temple and hurried back to Antioch, thinking in his arrogance that he could make the land navigable and the sea passable on foot, so carried away was he with pride. 22He left governors to harass the nation: at Jerusalem, Philip, a Phrygian by birth,* and in character more barbarous than the man who appointed him;f 23at Mount Gerizim,* Andronicus; and besides these, Menelaus, who lorded it over his fellow citizens more than the others. Out of hatred for the Jewish citizens, 24g the king sent Apollonius,* commander of the Mysians, at the head of an army of twenty-two thousand, with orders to kill all the grown men and sell the women and children into slavery. 25When this man arrived in Jerusalem, he pretended to be peacefully disposed and waited until the holy day of the sabbath; then, finding the Jews refraining from work, he ordered his men to parade fully armed. 26All those who came out to watch, he massacred, and running through the city with armed men, he cut down a large number of people.
27But Judas Maccabeus and about nine others withdrew to the wilderness to avoid sharing in defilement; there he and his companions lived like the animals in the hills, eating what grew wild.h
* [5:1] Second expedition: the first invasion of Egypt by Antiochus IV in 169 B.C. (1 Mc 1:16–20) is not mentioned in 2 Maccabees, unless the coming of the Syrian army to Palestine (2 Mc 4:21–22) is regarded as the first invasion. The author of 2 Maccabees apparently combines the first pillage of Jerusalem in 169 B.C. after Antiochus’ first invasion of Egypt (1 Mc 1:20–28; cf. 2 Mc 5:5–7) with the second pillage of the city two years later (167 B.C.), following the king’s second invasion of Egypt in 168 B.C. (1 Mc 1:29–35; cf. 2 Mc 5:24–26).
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Wildlife you see in a national park or other reserved area don't know about the park boundary. Bobcat, martens, mink, and moose need different types of living space and habitat. Development outside the park affects their ability to inhabit the park.
Brief review of bat research in the San Francisco Bay area and southern California providing land managers with information on the occurrence and status of bat species with links to bat inventories for California and related material.
A literature synthesis and annotated bibliography focus on North America and on refereed journals. Additional references include a selection of citations on bat ecology, international research on bats and wind energy, and unpublished reports.
Population size, foaling, deaths, age structure, sex ratio, age-specific survival rates, and more over a 14 year time span. This information will help land and wildlife managers find the best maintenance and conservation strategies. | <urn:uuid:4448345c-0895-4322-b597-44994e0b8dfa> | {
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How did this happen? Nearly twice as many women die of lung cancer than breast cancer, and three times as many men die of lung cancer than prostate cancer. Yet, lung cancer receives little public notice and even less research funding. The lung cancer survival rate for both men and women has remained virtually unchanged for more than three decades and, today, lung cancer remains among the most virulent and deadly diseases.
Perhaps it is because the prevalent myth about lung cancer is that the only people who get it are smokers. Fact: Eighty percent of those who suffer and die from lung cancer have never smoked or quit smoking decades ago.
Years ago, the states sued the tobacco companies and won. Yet the resulting revenue from what is called the Master Settlement Agreement did not deliver a single cent to lung cancer research.
Now in California, Proposition 29 will be on the June 5 ballot and, if passed, will increase the cigarette tax by $1 per pack. Should it pass, 60 percent of its funding is earmarked for grants and loans to support research into the prevention, detection and treatment of cancers and other tobacco-related illnesses, plus smoking prevention among children. While not exclusively tagged for lung cancer, the bill is expected to deliver $700 million annually.
Not surprisingly, it is strongly opposed by the tobacco industry.
Nationally, the Lung Cancer Mortality Reduction Act (H.R. 1394 and S. 754) would encourage lawmakers to make lung cancer a national public health priority and calls for a comprehensive plan to address all aspects of the disease. The legislation authorizes multiple government agencies to develop a comprehensive plan of action to coordinate prevention, early detection and treatment research.
The National Lung Cancer screening trial that concluded in November 2010 shows that by using CT screening for early detection, the mortality rate can be reduced by 20 percent, which is greater than PSA screening for prostate cancer, mammography for breast cancer and colonoscopies for colon cancer. Other studies show that the mortality rate can be reduced as much as 90 percent using CT scans for early detection.
Just this month, news out of the national Lung Cancer Alliance also shows that treating early stages of lung cancer is much cheaper than treating late stages. This issue opens the door for insurance companies to cover early detection screening for those at high risk.
While both of California’s U.S. senators have signed on to S. 754, too many others – even those who have lost family members to lung cancers – continue not to join in on the theory, or excuse, that other agendas are “more important.” Yet the number of other states’ leaders of all parties backing this legislative “call to action” on lung cancer continues, fortunately, to gain in strength and numbers.
Still, there’s work to be done. Lung cancer is responsible for one out of three cancer deaths, and funding still trails the levels of other major cancers. (Lung cancer gets about $1,250 per death; breast cancer $26,500.) Survival rates, too, have all increased for other cancers yet remain unchanged for lung cancer. | <urn:uuid:22382a91-1a5a-4ecd-9911-6d28c3069953> | {
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Editors Note: This post is a modified version of an article that originally appeared in the Virginiana section of Virginia Memory.
The Watkins Family Papers (Accession 42063) include certificates, newspaper clippings, photographs, postcards, programs, and yearbooks documenting a prominent African American family in New Kent County, Virginia. While much of the collection consists of Jones and Watkins family photographs from Richmond and New Kent County, the collection is also significant for its connection to the struggle for school desegregation in Virginia.
Dr. George Washington Watkins (1898-1972) was born in Pickens County, South Carolina, the son of James and Lattie Watkins. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree (and later an Honorary Doctorate of Divinity) from Virginia Union University, and a Master of Arts degree from Hampton Institute.
Watkins is perhaps best known for his work in education, chiefly as principal of the New Kent Training School (renamed the George W. Watkins School in 1950). This school played an important role in the education of African Americans in the area and was at the center of one of the most significant school integration rulings to follow Brown v. Board of Education (1954). He was also a pastor, heading congregations at Second Liberty Baptist Church of Quinton, and Elam Baptist Church of Ruthville.
In 1930, there were 15 elementary schools in New Kent County, Virginia. Although … read more » | <urn:uuid:5f1959b4-cf56-41d4-a15a-9f7eff11f3bc> | {
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Why is Colditz so famous?
The current situation
Description of the Castle
Getting to Colditz
About this Website
British Declaration of War
Help to support this website
Return to main Index
Post-War history and the current situation at Colditz.
After the end of the Second World War, Colditz town and Castle found themselves located in the Eastern Zone of Germany; for those readers who are too young to remember the division of Germany, it was also known as the German Democratic Republic or DDR, or simply as East Germany. This part of the country was under the rule of what was called the 'Eastern Bloc', countries under Communist control and effectively overseen by the Soviet Union.
The world-view of the ruling powers at that time [read: the Soviets] was such that they wanted to demolish both Colditz Castle and the nearby Podelwitz Castle, because they were symbols of a more 'decadent' era or some similar Communist excuse (such excuse probably also including the cliche word 'bourgeoise'). However the two castles were saved from this fate, but only because Podelwitz Castle was being used to house orphans and other homeless children, and Colditz Castle was being used as a hospital. The Castle, although still being used as a hospital, was allowed to fall into a state of general disrepair, and up until recently was actually quite dilapidated. [This lack of maintenance was not unusual in Eastern Bloc countries and evidence of this kind of neglect is still visible in parts across the former East Germany to this day]. Furthermore, Allied prisoners of war [POWs] had supposedly introduced several forms of slow damage-inducing pests into the Castle timbers, such as dry rot and woodworm; these too would have to be treated in any refurbishment project.
Nowadays, the Castle is owned and maintained by the local government of the State of Saxony - sort of like a county council in the UK. Under their aegis, part of the former Kommandantur buildings have been converted into a modern Youth Hostel, stripping out all of the former rooms and completely renovating that part of the Castle. None of the original character of the rooms has been preserved, if indeed any of the original rooms in the Youth Hostel area have been preserved at all. However, parts of the Kommandantur are still as they were during the War, especially the buildings on the South side of the outer courtyard. The external building that housed the Married Quarters during the War [at the Eastern end of the dry moat] has been demolished; this was historically important as it was the scene of both successful and unsuccessful escape attempts. Other buildings, such as the former German kitchens and store rooms in the Kommandantur courtyard, and the lower buildings which were situated along the 'seam' at the south side of the inner [prisoners'] courtyard have been demolished. These were the buildings that constituted parts of the Canteen, the Evidenz Zimmer [interview room] and part of the prisoners' kitchen. Many of these buildings had to be taken down because they had become unsafe. Oddly, the Castle holds little interest for most of the local people; quite understandably, they would like to see the money spent on local facilities. This seems unfortunately to be a carry-over of attitude from that of the Eastern Bloc era, but surely the money brought in by an influx of tourists would rejuvenate Colditz's economy?
Colditz town itself is a beautiful, quiet town of great character. The locals are friendly and understanding about tourists tramping all over the place. I was surprised to note that only 15-20 percent or the people speak English; perhaps this is another legacy of the Eastern Bloc era. One of the nicest people of the local populace that I met was a council worker chap who was most helpful and spoke wonderful English, telling us that the Park was going to close at six o'clock and he didn't want us to get locked in. [Not that that event would keep the British in of course!] In any event, the town is clean and well looked-after; there is very little trouble and best of all there are no Chavs. At all. Anywhere. Not even at night. The buildings are mainly well-kept and painted nicely. However, there are a few derelict buildings too; these are houses vacated by the 2,000 or so people who have left the town over the last five years. The biggest problem is chronic unemployment, last quoted to me as being at the 40 percent level. We already have seen that the tourist industry could indeed revitalise the economy; Colditz is hardly a ghost town but it does need a bit of a boost in my opinion!
There has been, in recent years, an extensive programme of renovation in progress at the Castle, which at the time of writing is still in progress. The Castle has been re-roofed, many of the old chimneys have been removed, and the most obvious thing is that most of the buildings have been repainted in white with the corner stonework picked out in cream paint. Although the Castle no longer looks as grim as it did when it was that dirty brown colour in some of the older photos, I do appreciate that if you want a building to stay standing, you do need to repaint it every so often!
The big tragedy about the renovations, however, is the eradication of much that is of historical importance. Please allow me to explain. Most of the tourists that go to Colditz Castle are British or Commonwealth. They are there for the World War Two POW history stuff. It's almost as if, as has been said elsewhere, a part of Britain is 'marooned' in Saxony. It's almost as if the British feel that they 'own' it; it's such a part of our national heritage and of our history. Because of this, and in order to maintain greater interest for British visitors, the POW-era features need to be retained in the Castle as far as possible. However, the renovation program, if it goes ahead as planned, will eradicate much of the historically important material in the interests of good intentions. I can understand what the Saxony authorities want to do, but I [and many other of my Colditz-interested friends] would like to see the preservation of the historically important areas and the opening up of more areas to controlled public viewing. For more details on the situation, see Gavin Worrell's page about the Colditz Preservation Trust here.
Recently, the access to 'extra' [normally 'off-limits'] places to visit during the guided tours has been curtailed by the Saxony authorities. Interestingly, the Castle tour guides are in something of a difficult position; although they are employed by Saxony, they understand as well as we do the sheer passion and interest that the British visitors have. They know that we would like to see more of the Castle but they are hamstrung by restrictions placed on them by Saxony. I got the distinct impression that the tour guide staff are genuinely proud of their Castle and would like nothing better than to show all the areas that we want to see. Unfortunately, at the time of my visit, the privilege of visiting the Theatre, as an 'extra' to the usual tour, had been suspended, seemingly in 'reprisal' for some recent events involving British visitors, although the official line is to deny this. To me, that rings 65-year-old bells in my mind, since the Theatre was available for viewing, before that event, if you asked nicely ... Anyway, it appears that access to the glider loft has also ceased - and it is clear that it is not the fault of the Tour Guides at all. However, the guided tour is still a fascinating experience and is really excellent. We got to see the Chapel, the wine cellar where the Chapel Tunnel began, and the West Terrace too. Certain rooms are always open, such as a good part of the Saalhaus [theatre block], which is open for general wandering around up to the first floor level, the Dentist's rooms and 'Prominente' cells [now with museum-style displays], and the Park is sometimes open too. Access to the Guard House is also available as that's where the escape museum is now housed.
However, the awful fact remains that we are in great danger of losing much of the irreplaceable heritage contained in Colditz Castle, which would be a colossal shame in anyone's book. This is one of the reasons I am doing this website - to raise awareness of the plight of Colditz Castle. I would suggest that if you yourself feel strongly about these issues, then please do take a look at the Colditz Preservation Society at Gavin Worrell's site. The former concentration camp at Auschwitz is, quite rightly, designated as a UN world heritage site with over 1 million visitors a year; the grounds and buildings have all been preserved for future generations. Even the remains of the gas chambers which the Nazis tried to destroy in early 1945 are still there; whereas Colditz is fighting for survival. Colditz was a symbol of the struggle against insurmountable odds agains the same evil that created Auschwitz; it is only right that this legacy too is preserved for the future.
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Virus-infested files are capable of causing many different problems for computer users, making it essential to verify that downloads are safe before allowing them to access the system. There are a multitude of different tools available for computer users to help keep valuable machines protected against these malicious threats. Use one of the following methods to make certain a virus is not allowed to attack your computer system.
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Instead of downloading a file that could potentially wreak havoc on the computer, some users turn to online scanners. These scanners do not require a download to the system itself, but simply ask for the URL of the file that is suspected of being infected. The server will download the file in question and peruse the content for any infections. This is an incredibly safe way of looking for viruses, and will not unnecessarily expose the machine to potential problems.
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Keeping a machine running without infections is a serious responsibility that is heaped on the shoulders of any computer owner. By understanding the different protection methods available, computer users can help to ensure they remain protected whenever using the Internet to download files. It is also important to use common sense when using files from the web, making certain content only comes from trusted sources and researching applications before installing them on the machine. | <urn:uuid:e3993bc0-9d1f-454c-a3b6-c15c5e1c5547> | {
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“A Report to an Academy” (“Ein Bericht für eine Akademie”) is a short story by Franz Kafka, written and published in 1917. In the story, an ape named Red Peter, who has learned to behave like a human, presents to an academy the story of how he effected his transformation. The story was first published by Martin Buber in a German monthly. This English version was translated from German by Philip Boehm.
Esteemed Gentlemen of the Academy!
I feel honored by your invitation to present the academy with a report on my former life as an ape.
I am afraid, however, that I will be unable to comply with your request. It is now some five years that I have been separated from apedom – a short time according to the calendar, perhaps, but an eternity when you have to gallop through it the way I did. And even though I was accompanied, at least for parts of the way, by fine human beings, good counsel, orchestral music and applause, my journey was in essence a solitary one, for the accompaniment-to stick with the metaphor-kept far away from the barricade. This achievement would have been impossible if I had desired to cling to my origins, to the memory of my youth. In fact the first rule I set for myself was the renunciation of any and all forms of obstinacy; I, a free ape, willingly accepted this yoke.
But because of that my memories withdrew more and more. And the gateway of return, had the humans willed it, which at first was as great as the heavens that vault the earth, became less and less lofty and more and more constricted as my development proceeded at its spurred-on pace. I felt increasingly at ease, increasingly included in the world of men. The storm that followed me from my past abated, and today it is nothing more than a breeze to cool my heels, and that distant aperture through which it blows, the same opening I once passed through myself, has grown so small that I would have to scrape the fur off my body to make it through-assuming I had the strength and willpower for the journey back. Frankly speaking, much as I enjoy finding images to describe all this, frankly speaking, esteemed sirs, your own apedom, insofar as something similar may lie in your own past – could not be further from you than mine is from me. But every creature that walks the earth has a ticklish heel: from the small chimpanzee to the great Achilles.
Nonetheless, I may be able to respond to your request after all, at least in the most limited sense, and I’m very happy to do so.
The first thing I learned was how to shake hands. A handshake is a sign of candor, and today, at the pinnacle of my career, I’d like to expand on that first handshake by adding a few candid words as well. And although what I have to say won’t teach the academy anything essentially new, and though it’s far less than what was requested of me-and what I cannot articulate despite my best will-I might nevertheless be able to offer a broad outline of how a former ape managed to penetrate the world of men and continue his existence in that world. Nor would I permit myself to say the little that follows unless I was absolutely certain of myself, having secured an unshakable position in the biggest variété shows of the civilized world:
I come from the Gold Coast. As to the method of my capture I have to rely on the accounts of strangers. A hunting party of the firm Hagenbeck-incidentally I have since downed many a bottle of good red wine with the leader of that expedition-had set up a blind in the bushes by our watering place along the riverbank, where I went in the evening together with my tribe. Shots were fired, I was the only one hit, I took two bullets.
One grazed my cheek, and although the wound was superficial, the bullet did shave out a large red scar that led to my being called Red Peter–a disgusting name, completely inappropriate, only a monkeybrain would come up with a name like that, as if the red mark on my cheek were all that distinguished me from the circus chimp Peter, recently deceased, who was well known in certain parts. All that just as an aside.
The second shot hit me just under the hip, and it was serious; to this day I limp a little as a result. I recently read an article penned by one of the thousands of gossiping gadflies that write about me in the papers, who claims that my apish nature is still not completely repressed, and cites as proof my predilection for removing my pants whenever I have guests to show the entry point of that bullet. The man who came up with that should have each finger shot off his writing hand, one by one. I may remove my pants in front of whomever I please, the most anyone would find there is an impeccably groomed fur and the scar from a shooting wound that was-and I use this word carefully so as not to mislead anyone – that was downright criminal. It’s all plain to see, there’s nothing to hide, for when it comes to truth, even the highest-minded individual is ready to let his manners drop. On the other hand, if the author of that article were to take off his pants when he had visitors, well, that would be another matter entirely, and I’ll give him the benefit of any doubt he doesn’t do this. But he should stop imposing his own delicate sense of propriety on me.
When I woke up after being shot – and this is where my own memory gradually begins – I found myself in a cage on a Hagenbeck company steamships, down in steerage. Instead of four walls of bars this cage had only three, and was fastened to a large crate, which comprised the fourth wall. The whole thing was too low to stand up in and too narrow for sitting down. So I just crouched inside, with my knees bent and constantly shaking, and my face turned toward the crate, as I didn’t want to see anyone and wished only to be left alone in the darkness, the bars cutting into my flesh from the back. This method of confining wild animals is supposed to be particularly advantageous during the first days of captivity, and judging from my own experience I cannot deny that this is indeed the case, from the human point of view.
But at that moment I wasn’t thinking about that. For the first time in my life I was trapped with no way out, at least nowhere I could go directly, since straight ahead of me was the crate, board securely fixed to board. And though I discovered a gap between the boards, which made me howl for joy in all my ignorance, it wasn’t even big enough to stick my tail through, and all my apish strength couldn’t make it any wider.
Later I was told I made unusually little noise, which led everyone to believe I would either soon die or else – assuming I survived the first, critical period -would prove to be very tamable. I survived. Dull sobbing, the painful search for fleas, apathetically licking a coconut, banging my head against the wall of the crate, and sticking my tongue out at anyone who came near me-this is how I first behaved in my new life. But my one prevailing feeling was that I had no way out. Of course today I have to rely on human words to describe what I felt then as an ape, so my portrayal is bound to be distorted, but even if I can no longer attain my old apish truth, at least my depiction is very much in that spirit, there’s no doubt about that.
I had always had so many ways out, and now there was none. I was trapped. My freedom of movement couldn’t have been more restricted if they had nailed me down. And why? You can scratch between your toes until you start to bleed and not discover the reason. Press yourself so close against the bar of the cage until it nearly slices you in two and you won’t find the answer. I had no way out, so I had to invent one: otherwise I was doomed. If I had stayed staring at the wall of that crate I would have inevitably died a miserable death. But that’s where Hagenbeck & Co think apes should be, and so I stopped being an ape. A beautifully clear train of thought I must have somehow hatched out with my belly, since apes think with their belly.
I’m afraid that you may not understand exactly what I mean by a way out, which I mean in the most ordinary and fullest sense of the phrase. I am deliberately avoiding the word freedom, because I don’t mean this grand feeling of freedom on all sides. As an ape I may have known it, and I’ve met humans who yearn for exactly that. But I myself have never asked for freedom, neither then nor now. As an aside: freedom is something people deceive themselves with far too frequently. And just as it counts as one of the most sublime feelings, so, too, can it lead to the sublime disappointment. Often, before going on stage as part of a revue, I’ve watched this or that pair of trapeze artists high in the air by the ceiling. They would swing and sway, floating into each other’s arms, one would carry the other by her hair in his teeth. “So that’s another example of human freedom,” I thought, “ego-maniacal and high-handed.” What a mockery of holy nature! There’s not a building on earth that could withstand the laughter of the apes at such a sight.
No, I didn’t want freedom. All I wanted was some way out – right, left, wherever it might lead. I kept my demand small, so that if it turned out to be a delusion, the disappointment would be no greater. Anything to get on, to get out! And not just stand there with upraised arms pressed against the wall of some crate.
Today I see clearly that I could never have escaped without the greatest inner tranquility. Indeed, I think I owe everything I have become to the calm that came over me after those first few days at sea. And I probably have the crew to thank for that.
They’re good people, despite everything. To this day I enjoy recalling the sound of their heavy steps that echoed through my half-sleep back then. They had the habit of taking everything extremely slowly. If one of them wanted to rub his eyes, he’d raise his hand as if it were a hanging weight. Their jokes were crude, but hearty. Their laughter was generally mixed with coughing that sounded dangerous but didn’t mean anything. They always had something in their mouths to spit out and couldn’t care less where it landed. They were constantly complaining about the fleas jumping from me to them, but they weren’t ever really angry at me; they realized that fleas thrive in my fur and that fleas are jumpers, so they learned to live with that. When they weren’t on duty they’d sometimes sit around me in a half circle, more cooing than speaking to one another. They would stretch out on the crates and smoke their pipes, slapping their knees whenever I made the slightest movement, and now and then one of them would take a stick and tickle me where it felt pleasant. I can’t say I’d accept an invitation to take another voyage on that ship, but nor could I claim that all the memories I have from that passage are ugly ones.
Above all, the tranquility I acquired among these people kept me from trying to escape. Looking back, I think I must have sensed that if I wanted to live, I needed to find some way out, and I must have understood that fleeing would not accomplish this. I no longer know whether such an escape was possible, but I believe it was – surely escape is always an option for an ape. Today my teeth are such that I have to be careful even with ordinary nutcracking, but back then it would have probably been just a matter of time before I chomped my way through the lock on the door. But I didn’t do that, for what would it have gained me? As soon as I stuck my head out they would have recaptured me and locked me up in an even worse cage, or else I might have crept off unnoticed, to the other animals–for instance to the giant boa that was caged across from me, and breathed my last breath in its embrace. I even might have managed to steal onto the upper deck and jump overboard, in which case I would have rocked a while on the water and then drowned. Desperate deeds every one. I didn’t calculate things in such a human fashion, but under the influence of my surroundings I acted as though I had.
I didn’t calculate, but I probably observed things in peace and quiet. I watched the people going back and forth, always the same faces, the same movements, I often had the impression there was only one of them. So this man, or these men, went about with no impediment. A lofty purpose began to dawn on me. No one promised me they would open the bars if I acted like them. After all, promises aren’t made for seemingly impossible tasks. But when such tasks are accomplished nevertheless, the promises are made after the fact, and exactly where you would have looked for them in vain before. Except there wasn’t much about these men that truly tempted me. Had I been a follower of the grand freedom I mentioned earlier, I’m sure I would have chosen the sea over the way out I saw in the gloomy faces of these people. But in any case I spent a long time observing before I ever had thoughts like that, and it was the only accumulated observations that first pushed me in a specific direction.
Imitating people was so easy. Within a few days I was able to spit. We would spit at each other in the face, with the only difference that I licked my face clean afterward, and they didn’t. Soon I was smoking a pipe like an old salt, and if I pressed my thumb into the bowl to boot, the whole steerage would cheer; except it took me a long time to understand the difference between an empty pipe and one that had been fully stuffed.
The whiskey bottle caused me the most difficulty. The smell was sheer torture, I forced myself with all my strength, but it took weeks to overcome my aversion. Strangely, the people took these internal struggles more seriously than anything else about me. While I don’t distinguish the people in my memory, there was one who kept coming back, alone or with his chums, day or night, at the oddest hours. He’d stand outside my cage with the bottle and instruct me. He didn’t understand me, but he wanted to solve the riddle of my being. He would slowly uncork the bottle and look at me, to check whether I had understood; I confess that I always watched him with wild-eyed attention-all too eager, in fact-no human teacher on earth would find such a student of people. After the bottle was uncorked, he would hold it to his mouth; I would follow with my eyes, from the bottle to his throat. He would nod, pleased with his pupil, and place the bottle to his lips. Delighted with my gradual discovery, I would shriek and scratch myself all over, wherever I felt the urge. He liked that – then he’d tilt the bottle back and take a swallow, and I was so impatient and desperate to emulate him that I wound up soiling myself in my cage, which would again cause him enormous satisfaction. Then, swinging the bottle away from his body and back to his lips, he would drink, exaggeratedly bending over for purposes of instruction, and down the entire bottle in a single gulp. Exhausted from so much effort, I could no longer follow him; I’d hang limply on the bar, while he ended his theoretical instruction by stroking his belly and grinning.
Then came the practical instruction. But hadn’t the theoretical part already worn me out? Indeed it had. Still, that’s part of my fate, so despite my exhaustion I reached as best I could for the bottle being held out to me, and, shaking all the while, uncork it. Success gradually brought renewed strength, and I managed to lift the bottle in a manner hardly distinguishable from the original. I raised it to my lips, then threw it away in disgust, disgust, even though it was empty, with nothing left but the smell. I was so revolted I tossed it on the ground, to the sadness of my teacher, and the greater sadness of myself, and the fact that I didn’t forget to stroke my belly and grin after throwing away the bottle didn’t make either one of us feel better.
All too often, that was how my lessons went. And to my teacher’s credit: he wasn’t angry with me, though he did on occasion hold his burning pipe against my body in some place I couldn’t reach, until my fur began to glow, but then he’d dampen it himself with his huge kind hand – he wasn’t angry with me, he realized we were both on the same side, both struggling against my apish nature, and he knew I had the more difficult struggle.
So what a victory it was for him as well as me, when one evening in front of many onlookers – it may have been a party, a gramophone was playing, an officer was carrying on among the crew-at a moment when no one was watching, I grabbed a bottle of whiskey that had been inadvertently left outside my cage, and did a perfect job of uncorking it-to the increasing attention of the group around me. Then I held the bottle to my lips and without the slightest hesitation or grimace, like a bona fide professional drinker, with round and rolling eyes and letting the liquid slosh into my throat, I really and truly drained the bottle, and threw it away, no longer out of desperation, but as an artist. Of course I forgot to stroke my belly, but for that, because I couldn’t help it, because I felt an irresistible urge, because all my senses were intoxicated – well, to make a long story short I called out “Hello!” in a human voice, and with this call I leaped into the community of humans, and their echo of “Listen to that – he’s talking!” felt like a kiss on my body that was thoroughly drenched with sweat.
I repeat: I never felt any desire to imitate people; I imitated them because I was looking for a way out; that was my only reason. And even this triumph was just a small step. I immediately lost my voice, which I took months to recover, and my aversion to the whiskey bottle came back worse than ever. But my course had been set once and for all.
When I arrived in Hamburg and was handed over to my first trainer, I soon realized that I had two choices: zoological park or variety show. I didn’t hesitate for a second. I told myself to focus all my strength on getting into the variety show, there lies your way out. The zoo is just a new cage, if you end up there, you’re lost.
And study I did, gentlemen. You learn when you have to, when you’re looking for a way out, you learn with no holds barred. You drive yourself with a whip, flogging yourself at the slightest opposition. My apish nature came tumbling out of me so fast that my first teacher nearly went ape himself, as the saying goes. He was soon forced to give up teaching and had to be taken to an institution. Fortunately he was released soon thereafter.
But I wore out many more teachers, even several at once. When I became surer of my own abilities, and the press began to follow my progress and my future began to shine, I hired my own tutors, had them set up in five adjacent rooms, and learned from all of them at once, constantly jumping from one room to the next.
What progress! How the rays of knowledge penetrated my waking brain from all sides! I will not deny it: it made me happy. But I must also confess that I did not overvalue my achievement, neither then nor especially today. Through an unprecedented exertion I managed to acquire the education of your average European, which might not mean a thing in itself, but at least it helped me out my cage, at least it provided me with this way out, this human way. I slipped off into the bush, so to speak-the human bush. I had no other choice, assuming that freedom was never an option.
Looking over my development and its purpose up to this point, I neither complain nor am I fully content. I half-sit, half-lie in my rocker, my hands in my pockets, a bottle of wine on the table, and look out the window. If I have company I show them the proper hospitality. My agent sits in the anteroom; if I ring then he steps in and listens to what I have to say. I perform nearly every evening, and my success could hardly be greater. If I come home late after a banquet, a scientific society, or a friendly evening at someone’s house, a small, half-trained chimpanzee is waiting for me and I have my pleasure with her in the manner of apes. I don’t wish to see her by day, as her eyes have the insanity of the befuddled half-tamed animal, which I alone can recognize, and which I cannot bear.
By and large I have accomplished what I set out to accomplish. It cannot be said it wasn’t worth the effort. Nor am I asking for any human judgment; all I wish to do is disseminate knowledge, I only report, and that is all I have done for you tonight, esteemed members of the Academy: I have reported, and nothing more. | <urn:uuid:72f9ddd6-3864-49f3-bb73-4f91346ea00a> | {
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This is one of our more unusual themes, because only two censuses have ever gathered
information on religion in England and Wales, and they were 150 years apart!
The 1851 Census of Religion was a separate census carried out at the same time as the main Census of Population. It assumed that everyone was Christian, and tried to find out what kind of Christians were most important in each district. It did this by counting how many people attended each church on the census Sunday. Our information has been considerably simplified from the original returns, which counted 35 different religious groups in England and Wales. One result is a large 'other' category.
In 2001, a question about religion was included among the questions in the main census for the first time ever. Except in Scotland, where there is separate information on the Church of Scotland, Catholics and 'Other Christian', the results lump all Christians together but also gathered information on Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, Muslims and Sikhs. People were allowed to write in other religions not included on the census form, but we have no data on the distribution of 'Jedi'.
Our detailed statistics are held in structures called nCubes, which you can think of as tables with one dimension, or with two ... or with twenty. Their dimensions are defined by the variables each nCube combines, and each variable is made up of categories. These nCubes are available at national level for this theme:
|Available nCubes||Period covered||Variables
(number of categories)
|1851 church 'attendances'||1851||
Major Christian denominations in 1851
Major religious faiths in 2001
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ENG 330 Studies in Special Topics: Literature of War |
Modern Literature of War
A character in Tim O’Brien’s Vietnam Novel, Going After Cacciato, comments that “things may be viewed from many angles. From down below, or from inside out, you often discover entirely new understandings.” This course will examine the age-old theme of conflict in general and war in particular (WWI and Vietnam) as viewed from various angles and presented in different literary and media forms (poetry, fiction, nonfiction, and film). We will also study the biographical, literary, historical and cultural contexts in which the various works are written. Through research, panels, readings, critical papers, films, slides, and discussion, our principal goal will be an in-depth assessment of the literary treatment of this major theme across time and genres. Writers and texts studied in this class will be Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness; Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet on the Western Front; Ernest Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms; Graham Greene, The Quiet American; World War One British Poets; Bao Ninh, The Sorrow of War; Tim O’Brien, Going After Cacciato; Pat Barker, Regeneration; and Larry Heinemann, Paco’s Story.
Prerequisite: One English Literature course, taken at Wabash. | <urn:uuid:e1b9a5a6-c3b3-414f-8aa4-ef84edec1caf> | {
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Aluminum Standards and Data provides definitions for welding and brazing:
Welding is the "joining of two or more pieces of aluminum by applying heat or pressure, or both, with or without filler metal to produce a localized union through fusion or recrystallization across the interface".
Brazing is the "joining of metals by fusion of nonferrous alloys that have melting points above 425 degrees C (800 degrees F) but lower than those of the metals being joined. This may be accomplished by means of a torch (torch brazing), in a furnace (furnace brazing), or by dipping a molten flux bath (dip or flux brazing)." According to the ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys: "Brazing, by definition, employs filler metal having a liquidus above 450 degrees C (840 degrees F) and below the solidus of the base metal. Brazing is distinguished from soldering by the melting point of the filler metal: solders melt below 450 degrees C (840 degrees F). Brazing differs from welding in that no substantial amount of the base metal is melted during brazing. Thus the temperatures for brazing aluminum are intermediate between those for welding and soldering. Also, brazed aluminum assemblies generally are between welded and soldered assemblies in strength and resistance to corrosion"
Since soldering is done below 450 degrees C (840 degrees F), aluminum filler alloys are not used in soldering aluminum. Instead, solders for aluminum alloys are often zinc, tin, cadmium and lead. | <urn:uuid:f049bcb0-e1fe-4191-b6bb-715b491d5a7b> | {
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Meet our supplements
Stay on the path of good health with Nature Made®
The Benefit of A Great Night's Sleep
Did you know over 60% of adults have trouble sleeping a few nights a week or more? Our busy days can be so intense and thought-provoking that they can lead to sleepless nights. But being productive during the day is dependent on a good night's rest. Besides feeling exhausted, there are other effects of not getting enough sleep:
Decreased Performance and Alertness - Sleep deprivation reduces your alertness and leads to
poor performance. Reducing your sleep by as little as 1˝ hours for a single night could result in a reduction of daytime alertness by as much as 32%.
Memory and Cognitive Impairment - Decreased alertness and excessive daytime sleepiness hinder your memory function along with your ability to think and process information.
On the other hand, getting a great night's rest has major benefits:
- Learning and Memory - Sleep encourages your brain to commit new information to memory.
- Metabolism and Weight - Irregular sleep may cause weight gain, by affecting the way our bodies handle carbohydrates and altering hormone levels related to appetite.
- Mood - Sleep loss has been known to result in more than just an inability to concentrate. It also leads to impatience and mood swings.
- Heart Health - Several serious sleep disorders are associated with hypertension, higher stress levels and irregular heartbeat.
- Immune Health - Lack of sleep weakens your body's immune function.
These products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease. | <urn:uuid:06f01b47-6043-4a30-bcd6-d74b73b9132a> | {
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The One World vision is the ultimate stage of a conceptual evolution that started decades ago. This evolution produced several paradigm shifts that combine how we comprehend our world, and, as a result, how we try to deal with it.
Through the 70s and 80s, a technical understanding of impacts like acidification, eutrophication or stratospheric ozone loss prompted command and control approaches at the local and multilateral level, in the form of substance bans and compliance controls.
In its 1987 report - Our Common Future- the World Commission on Environment and Developmentproclaimed the interdependency of human development and environmental progress, captured in the notion of sustainable development, and nurtured the elaboration of the 1992 Rio Summit’s Agenda 21. It encouraged a system and life-cycle understanding of waste, carbon dioxide and other emissions and of overconsumption of water, fuels and other non-renewable resources. Environmental progress could be achieved, despite society’s development and economic growth, through strategies of system redesign for eco-efficiency. Economic growth could decouple from its negative environmental impacts thanks to business foresight, voluntary initiatives and covenants. Innovation and new behaviors would spread through well-functioning and free markets with only light government interference.
This new worldview was summed up in the “three pillars: ecology-society-economy” scheme. Because of its complexity, it demands performance indicators that monitor behavior change and progress by businesses and other actors. Thus, Corporate Social Responsibility and public-private partnerships became the preferred modes of business action, shaped in dialogues with stakeholders and monitored through schemes like the Global Reporting Initiative, the Carbon Disclosure Project, the Dow Jones Sustainability and other governance and accountability indexes.
This ladder of expanding worldviews is embedded in the core of the One World vision. One World weaves together quality of life, equity and enhancement of our human and natural capitals. It relies on interdependent, purposeful, innovative individuals to achieve these ideals through the efficiency of markets. Sustainable development, instead of being an “end-of-pipe” or “add-on”, becomes an integral part of the core business strategy.
The One World vision is making its way into consumer values. A number of surveys show that concerns about social and environmental issues are on most people’s minds, in all countries. They express a willingness to take action and select products and suppliers based on their alignment with corporate responsibility principles. They also want products and services that perform and give good value while being rated as more sustainable. Nonetheless, only about 1 in 5 people go all the way to adjust lifestyle, behavior and purchasing decisions. Most feel they cannot evaluate the sustainability merits on their own or they lack the purchasing power to afford a premium for environmental quality. Support from governments to provide practical rules and education is essential to turn this willingness into trust in environmental claims and action.
While numerous think tanks and international summits have articulated the ideas around sustainability and green growth, our political systems have difficulty coping with such a holistic, high-level and constantly-evolving notion. They are set to maintain a harmonious society where every individual is able to satisfy its own needs and desires without harming the human rights of others. Rooted in the 19th century, this principle is based on an abundance of resources and confidence in education, science and technology to break through limits of scarcity. It relies on commerce and contracts to create and distribute wealth and thus ensure social peace.
Citizens delegate their power through the election of representatives who are expected to satisfy the interests of their electors through action, legislation and compliance. This vote is both a sanction of the performance of outgoing representatives and a support of the action plans of candidate representatives. This political system is naturally committed to rather personal, local and immediate interests and concerns. Endangered species and unborn generations do not vote. Even though inaction, now, may increase the probability of remote, irreversible future damage, it is practically impossible to allocate, today, the level of resources that would prevent an uncertain crisis, tomorrow. This requires a sufficient number of concerned citizens to elect representatives committed to such danger prevention and mitigation plans. The climate negotiations show, so far, that national delegates need to operate within the mandate of their domestic legislators and stick to local and near-present strategies rather than accept binding global, long-term emission ceilings based on predictive science.
Despite a rapid evolution of the concepts and ideal of sustainable development, progress on the ground, for real people and their environment, remains slow and difficult. | <urn:uuid:e6afaa1b-4b71-43a1-b0a9-c82a62fdeffa> | {
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- Achieving Sustainable Site Design through Low Impact Development Practices
- Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives
- Extensive Vegetative Roofs
- Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)
- Low Impact Development Technologies
- Mold and Moisture Dynamics
- Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Improve Sustainability and Energy Performance
- Sustainable Laboratory Design
- Sustainable O&M Practices
- Water Conservation
Extensive Vegetative Roofs
Last updated: 11-27-2012
Within This Page
The intent of this guide is to provide information regarding the state of the art of vegetative roof design and construction.
Vegetative roofs, also known as green roofs, are thin layers of living vegetation installed on top of conventional flat or sloping roofs. We have chosen to use the word "vegetative" rather than the word "green" in this guide because a non-vegetative roof could be considered to be environmentally "green" without being vegetative. For example, due to it being white and therefore mitigating heat gain within the building and reducing heat island contribution, a white non-vegetative roof might be considered as being "green" or environmentally friendly. In other words, "green" has too broad of a connotation to be clear for use in this guide, and we recommend that the industry adopt the nomenclature "vegetative," rather than the overly broad "green."
Vegetative roofs are divided into two categories: 1) extensive vegetative roofs, which are 6 inches or shallower and are frequently designed to satisfy specific engineering and performance goals, and 2) intensive vegetative roofs, which may become quite deep and merge into more familiar on-structure plaza landscapes with promenades, lawn, large perennial plants, and trees. With respect to the vegetative overburden, this guide addresses only the more shallow extensive vegetative roofs.
Figure 1. Four Seasons Hotel, Boston, MA. Designed by Roofscapes, installed in 2004. In 2009 APEX Green Roof began maintaining the roof. System Depth: 4 inches
The challenge in designing extensive vegetative roofs is to replicate many of the benefits of vegetative open space, while keeping them light and affordable. Thus, the new generation of vegetative roofs relies on a marriage of the sciences of horticulture, waterproofing, and engineering.
The most common 4 extensive vegetative roof cover in temperate climates is a single un-irrigated 3- to 4-inch layer of lightweight growth media vegetative with succulent plants and herbs. In most climates, a properly designed 3-inch deep vegetative roof cover will provide a durable, low maintenance system that can realize the many benefits that vegetative roofs have to offer. Some manufacturers consider a landscape up to 8 inches deep to be extensive systems.
All well-designed extensive vegetative roofs include subsystems responsible for:
Figure 2. Generic Extensive Green Roof on a Concrete Deck
Image courtesy of American Hydrotech
Figure 3. Generic Extensive Green Roof on a Steel Deck
Image courtesy of American Hydrotech
A wide range of methods can achieve these functions. For instance, drainage layers may consist of plastic sheets, fabric or synthetic mats, or granular mineral layers. Similarly, the physical properties and performance characteristics of growing media (engineered soils) and plant materials may vary with the climate, plant community, or engineering requirements. Figure 2 shows a generic cut-away of a common type of vegetative roof assembly that utilizes a lower granular drainage layer in combination with an upper growth medium or substrate.
The selection of a particular approach may depend on performance-related considerations, such as runoff control, drought-tolerance, biodiversity, appearance, or accessibility to the public. While many pre-engineered systems are currently available, it is frequently necessary to customize these systems to satisfy specific performance objectives.
There are many potential benefits associated with extensive vegetative roofs. These include:
- Controlling storm water runoff
- Improving water quality
- Mitigating urban heat-island effects
- Prolonging the service life of roofing materials
- Conserving energy
- Reducing sound reflection and transmission
- Improving the aesthetic environment in both work and home settings
- Mitigation of wildlife
As a result vegetative roofs may be appropriate as an addition to many types of buildings, including commercial, industrial, institutional, and residential settings. On the other hand, the additional cost, possible water usage to irrigate the plants, and required ongoing maintenance may make them less appropriate.
1. Controlling Storm Water Runoff
The rapid runoff of storm water from paved areas and roofs contributes to destructive flooding, erosion, pollution, and habitat destruction. The capacity of vegetative roofs to moderate this runoff through both retention (water holding) and detention (flow-slowing) properties has been well-documented in Europe and increasingly in the United States. Vegetative roofs share many engineering features with conventional storm water management basins, and compared to many at-grade storm water management practices, vegetative roof covers are unobtrusive and reliable. Vegetative roofs may offer the only practical "at-source" technique for controlling runoff in areas that do not have adequate space on the ground to readily accommodate other methods of water retention.
Vegetative roof covers are particularly effective at controlling runoff on the large roofs typical of commercial and institutional buildings because typically a greater portion of these roofs can be vegetative than on other building types. Reducing the volume and rate of runoff is important in urban areas because of flooding and water quality impacts (see Water Quality, below), and also in watersheds that drain to streams and other natural water bodies where uncontrolled urban runoff can lead to stream bank erosion and channel degradation, and decreased baseflow. Vegetative roofs provide a means to mitigate some of these impacts from building development projects, particularly when used as part of a suite of low-impact development (LID) practices. Many jurisdictions (i.e. Seattle, Portland, and Philadelphia, to name a few) advocate for a combination of LID practices including vegetative roofs, rainwater harvesting, permeable paving, and bio-retention "rain gardens" to mitigate site impacts on water resources while creating "vegetative storm water infrastructure".
The ultimate storm runoff benefit that can be achieved by a vegetative roof cover is determined primarily by the climate patterns at the site and the design of the system (thickness, media type, and drainage layer construction). They can be designed to achieve specified levels of storm water runoff control, including reductions in both total annual runoff volume and peak runoff rates for storms. Careful selection of material properties, such as the water holding capacity and permeability rates of the growing media, can enhance annual runoff volume reduction and peak flow reduction capacity of the vegetative roof.
Many Western U.S. states have water rights laws that restrict how rainwater landing on a property may be used, as it is considered to be a water-of-the-state. For vegetative roof systems, particularly systems where runoff may be harvested for re-use or irrigation purposes, designers are advised to check with local municipalities to verify the acceptance of vegetative roofs, and specific local agency requirements for such systems.
In contrast, some municipalities such as Chicago have taken the approach of mandating vegetative roofs on new building projects because of the host of benefits it brings to built-out urban areas. Other jurisdictions offer substantial tax benefits and subsidies to promulgate vegetative roofs (Portland, Oregon, and New York for instance).
Reliable techniques for predicting the rate and quantity of runoff from vegetative roof covers have been used successfully to design integrated storm water management measures in Germany, where large zero-discharge developments that rely heavily on vegetative roofs are already operating.
In the U.S., studies have been performed to monitor the performance of vegetative roofs with regard to storm water runoff. Magnusson Klemencic Associates, a Seattle based engineering consulting firm, evaluated and monitored the storm water control performance of five different vegetative roof systems from 2005 to 2007 in the Pacific Northwest climate. Even though this climatic region is characterized by a long rainy season where soils and media are frequently saturated, storm water control capacity was demonstrated for the large storms that can cause urban flooding and sewer overflows. For other climatic regions and smaller storms, vegetative roofs typically have greater capacity for runoff control.
Water retained by a vegetative roof cover is ultimately returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration processes. In climatic zones where substantial rainfall occurs during summer months, when evapotranspiration rates are highest, the vegetative roof is able to retain substantial amounts of rainfall and reduce annual runoff volumes. However, in climatic zones characterized by summer droughts and extended winter "wet seasons", such as the Pacific Northwest region, the capacity to reduce annual runoff may be limited by the lack of availability of rainfall during the peak evapotranspiration periods. Reducing runoff volume is a goal of some sustainability metrics, or may be required to restore the health of aquatic resources (e.g. fisheries/salmon runs). How can runoff volume be reduced? Through evapotranspiration, infiltration into the ground, or using harvested water.
That being said, if you can do at-grade landscaping — i.e. rain gardens, bio-swales, etc., it will almost always be more economical than a vegetative roof.
2. Improving Water Quality
By reducing both the volume and the rate of storm water runoff, vegetative roofs benefit cities with combined sewer overflow (CSO) impacts. In cities with combined storm and wastewater sewer systems, storm water dilutes the sanitary waste water, rendering treatment less efficient. During heavy rainfalls these systems also overflow, discharging raw sewage mixed with runoff into the receiving streams, harbors, or oceans, resulting in ecological damage and human health hazards. Therefore, important water quality benefits (reducing CSO) are achieved by controlling runoff in those situations.
In addition, in urban areas, up to 30% of total nitrogen and total phosphorus released into receiving waterways is derived from dust that accumulates on rooftops. Acting as natural bio-filtration devices, vegetative roofs reduce this water contamination. In the Potsdamer Platz district of Berlin, extensive vegetative roofs have been employed on a large scale in an effort to reduce pollution of the River Spree. This is only a factor when an entire community practices storm water reduction, however. This program has demonstrated that extensive vegetative roofs can achieve large reductions in nutrient releases from roofs; however, the research also shows that the correct choices of growing medium and plant types are essential for success.
In some states in the western United States, there are laws that prohibit harvesting of stormwater. However, it appears that some of these laws are being eased. Check with your local code authority.
3. Mitigating Urban Heat-Island Effects
Covering dark conventional roofs with vegetative roofs can significantly reduce the temperature above the roof. Vegetative roofs have been shown in several studies, including the referenced Columbia University study, to provide comparable benefits to white or reflective roof surfaces in reducing the ambient air temperature. Unlike white roofs, which tend to lose the ability to reduce temperature as they age, vegetative roofs continue to have the ability to mitigate the heat island effect.
4. Prolonging the Service Life of Roofing Materials
Forty years of apparently good experience with vegetative roofs in Germany suggests that they may have value in protecting waterproofing materials. The multiple layers of the vegetative roof protect the underlying roof materials from the elements in three ways: by protecting from mechanical damage (mostly from humans, but also from wind-blown dust and debris, and animals); by shielding from ultraviolet radiation; and by buffering temperature extremes, minimizing damage from the daily expansion and contraction of the roof materials.
Although modern vegetative roof systems have not yet been in place longer than 40 years, many researchers expect that these installations will last 50 years and longer before they require significant repair or replacement.
5. Conserving Energy
Vegetative roofs have been shown to save energy, but comprehensive studies have not been performed, including impacts of the energy for maintenance. (See the referenced Columbia University Study.)
The largest share of the energy savings in the summer or warm months is from transpiration or the evaporation of water from plant leaves. Transpiration cools the surrounding air, thus lowering the temperature of the surface of the soil, and decreasing the heat flow through the roof. The question is, where does the water come from? If it is rainfall and not from a city's potable water, then there is a benefit. In Arizona, where there is the most benefit of cooling, it is like stealing from one bucket to pay for another. In the winter months, there is an energy conserving benefit only if the soil remains dry. Wet soil conducts more heat.
There are studies that support the energy conservation aspects of vegetative roofs. See the Columbia University study and the study by Vidar Lerum of Arizona State University under "Studies" at the end of this section. Also, the MIT Design Advisor, http://designadvisor.mit.edu/design/, studies show extensive vegetative roofs to be better in every climate, in comparison to cool (low albedo) roofs. Their conclusion is that cool roofs are better for cooling, not surprisingly, but, even in warmer climates, this benefit is overshadowed by the better performance of vegetative roofs in the heating season. One must take into consideration, however, the added cost of vegetative roofs. The comparison to be made is whether adding more insulation would be a more cost-effective solution.
Vegetative roofs are potential energy savers, but the degree to which they do so is unclear at this time. The impact is highly dependent upon climate conditions and the insulation level of the underlying roof. For the most part, vegetative roofs have very little impact on building energy consumption for a new building built to modern energy codes (with high levels of roof insulation). Some retrofit applications, however, can result in non-trivial savings of both air-conditioning and heating.
Vegetative roofs may provide significant cooling savings in the summer and some heating savings in the winter. But the research to date is not clear on the subject of the quantification of savings in real-world applications.
The bottom line on energy might be summed up by this quote from Joe Lstiburek in footnote 3 to his Building Science Insight 052, "Seeing Red Over Green Roofs:" "The assumptions are pretty important. Green roofs save energy compared to uninsulated roofs or poorly insulated roofs or even better, black poorly insulated roofs. Once you have more than R-20 in a roof assembly, that is, you meet the code, things pretty much don't matter. In other words, go above R-20, and make green roof decisions for other reasons than energy. See 'Potential Energy Savings of Various Roof Technologies' by S. Ray and L. Glicksman presented at Buildings XI Conference, and check out Figure 9. Note that grass, even when it is green, has a greater solar absorptance than a white membrane. The real effect of the grass comes from the evaporation of water. But that takes water, and you might not always have some. If you want to do the water evaporation thing, you probably could do as good a job by sprinkling the top of a white reflective roof. When the grass goes brown, forget about any energy benefit; also, be very worried about fire. "
6. Reducing Sound Reflection and Transmission
Vegetative roofs have important acoustical benefits, especially for higher frequency sounds. The added weight of a vegetative roof results in an increased degree of sound insulation.
Vegetative roofs can absorb a portion of the sound that otherwise bounces off hard roofing surfaces. See the referenced Ghent University study for more information.
7. Improving the Aesthetic Environment
Figure 4. PECO Main office Building, Philadlephia. 43,000 square feet. 3 inches of lightweight green roof media, unirrigated. Established from pre-grown Sedum Mats. Installed over Sarnafil PVC membrane. Green Roof design by Roofmeadow. Roofing by Sika Sarnafil. Competed winter 2008.
Vegetative roofs offer interesting new opportunities for architectural design. A vegetative roof can allow a structure to merge with the surrounding landscape, provide a dramatic accent, or reinforce the defining aspects of the structure's geometry. In Germany — and increasingly in the United States — vegetative roofs are frequently integrated into the design of hospitals and care facilities in order to provide a more restful and restorative environment for patients. Similarly, multi-unit residences and hotels will find that vegetative roof-top views substantially enhance property values. In commercial settings, job satisfaction and effectiveness can be enhanced by providing window views of meadows or flower beds or relaxing garden areas for breaks or meetings.
In most cases, restricting public access to extensive vegetative roofs can help to keep the building costs down, and reduce safety risk mitigation measures. When public access is allowed to vegetative roofs or other roof areas, additional building requirements usually apply. Accessible roof areas must include additional "live loads" in the structural analysis of the building. These areas would also include safety features such as railings and access ways that meet building codes for public areas. In those areas where public access is desired, frequently owners and architects will employ an intensive vegetative roof because the more robust building structure that results from applying the more stringent live loads will support the weight of the deeper growing media, which in turn can accommodate a wider range of uses such as lawn areas, vegetable gardens, or park-like settings that take advantage of the expanded planting palettes that are achievable with increased growing media depth.
8. Mitigation of Wildlife
Vegetative roofs will attract wildlife. This is not desirable on an extensive vegetative roof, which is not designed to support these habitats. Insects, spiders, snails, birds, and rodents (rats, mice, squirrels) all promote damage to the soil, plants, and roof materials, as well as create potential safety issues to maintenance personnel. Consult with local experts on native pests and mitigation techniques, prior to pest control measures. Sustainable pest management practices shall be employed before consideration of pesticides.
Because of the relative isolation of vegetative roofs and their often exposed environments, these roofs should not be looked to as a replacement for lost native habitat. Rather, extensive vegetative roofs contribute to increasing the visual encounter of urban dwellers with nature.
(For Intensive Vegetative Roofs, wildlife may be desirable. However, this instruction does not address the specificity of this type of vegetated roof environment.)
At present only vegetative roofs that receive favored treatment and generous financial incentives will be able to show a positive return on investment. While it is true that cities with combined sewer outflow problems can (and do, in Germany) release large financial benefits from using vegetative roofs to manage urban runoff, these savings must be transferred to property owners in the form of incentives for a vegetative roof to 'pay its way.' There are several cities in the United States where incentive packages make vegetative roofs financially attractive for developers.
A. Design Factors
There are many interactive factors that vegetative roof designers must take into account, balancing many considerations for optimal performance in each setting, including:
- Climate, especially temperature and rainfall patterns.
- Strength of the supporting structure.
- Size, slope, height, and directional orientation of the roof.
- Type of underlying waterproofing.
- Drainage elements, such as drains, scuppers, buried conduits, and drain sheets. Flashing details. Details for penetrations.
- Work on existing buildings where there are occupancy and/or phasing issues.
- Prevention of pest intrusion.
- Accessibility and intended use.
- Visibility, compatibility with architecture, and owner's aesthetic preferences.
- Fit with other sustainable systems or renewable technologies, such as solar panels, or "cool" (reflective) roof systems.
- Cost of materials and labor.
- Local fire code restrictions.
- Wind uplift forces.
- Design life.
- LEED considerations.
- Substrate provided.
- Building movement.
- Construction sequencing.
- Odors generated.
- Snow loads and overburden loads.
- Orientation of the building as it relates to surrounding buildings and shading.
- Security and fall protection.
- Combined warranty/maintenance period, and follow on warranty
- Required maintenance.
During the design process, several professionals on the design team may need to participate. Besides the Architect and the structural engineer, participation by a landscape architect and a soils consultant may be required. The compatibility of the vegetative roof assembly, fertilizers, natural pest mitigation and chemical pesticides (not recommended) with the waterproofing or membrane roofing is a critical design consideration, and consultation with waterproofing or roofing system manufacturers is usually necessary.
Origination of the soil medium is very important, to understand the potential risks of transporting destructive or non-native pests to a vegetative roof environment (example: engineered soils may originate in the Southern U.S. Native fire ant eggs, larvae, or adults may be transported to other locations where they are not native, but always considered a safety risk and a nuisance.)
Standard landscaping work considers plant hardiness; tolerance for sun and shade; and preference for wet, dry, rich, poor, alkaline, or acid soils as the major concerns to influence plant selection. Vegetative roof assembly design must consider important additional factors such as the loads of saturated growing media and mature plants on building structure, the effect of wind and erosion on lightweight growing media elevated above normal grade, the temperature of the growing media around plant root systems, the depths of the growing media appropriate for plant root systems, and the risk of brush fire posed by seasonal or drought-condition dieback of some plant varieties if they are unattended. The last factor explains why succulents, which retain water in their leaves, are often used in vegetative roofs.
B. Integration with Green Design
Vegetative roofs can be designed in conjunction with solar panels, and also work very well in combination with other 'low-impact' development measures, such as infiltration beds, rain gardens, bio-retention systems, cisterns and rain barrels. It is commonplace in Germany to find large developments that have zero runoff discharge. In these developments, rainfall is captured on the vegetative roofs, returned to ground water through infiltration, and re-used for irrigation, toilet flushing, etc.
C. Examples of Extensive Green Roofs in North America
Forty years of German experience and research indicates that extensive vegetative roofs will succeed in most climates, if properly designed. With appropriate plant selection, sufficient drainage, and adequate structural support for the additional dead weight, vegetative roofs can survive winter ice build-up and potential summer droughts. In North America, examples of extensive vegetative roof projects are present in all climate zones.
Because the few North American roofs that have been built to date demonstrate such a wide variety of settings and approaches, it is impossible to highlight "representative" case studies here. However, many updated case studies of vegetative roof projects, including both extensive and intensive designs, are available at Green Roofs for Healthy Cities.
D. Waterproofing, Protection Course, Leak Detection, Root Barrier, and Insulation
1. Waterproofing Membrane
Many premium roofing and waterproofing materials have been used in combination with vegetative roof installations. These include, but are not limited to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), modified bituminous sheet roofing membranes with liquid membrane deck prep, hot fluid-applied polymer-modified rubberized-asphalt waterproofing membranes, and other proprietary roof membranes available that the design team may consider with proper investigation.
Other materials are likely to enter the industry as their suitability is proven in certification testing and prototype installations. However, in general, the membrane or the membrane combined with the root barrier used in all vegetative roof applications should exhibit the following properties:
- High puncture resistance.
- Resistance to chemicals (e.g. fertilizer).
- Low water absorption.
- Low vapor transmission.
- Be approved by the manufacturer for use with ponded water.
- Be certified as passing a rigorous test for root penetration and biological test (existing recognized procedures are FLL and the Swiss Insurance Agency) if the assembly does not include a root barrier. Most EPDM and asphaltic membrane manufacturers require a root barrier. It is recommended that a root barrier protect all membranes.
- Have a track record of use as waterproofing in buried applications.
- Have manufacturer-approved details suitable for the conditions on the project.
- One source warranty from waterproofing through vegetation.
Worldwide, modified bituminous membranes, PVCs and hot fluid-applied rubberized asphalts are the most common. Many of these installations have now been in place for over 30 years.
Interfacing of different systems is challenging and requires careful thought and attention to detail. Where possible, the designer should consider the use of a single manufacturer for the interfacing systems. When joining systems of differing manufacturers, issues arise related to compatibility of products, warranty extents, long-term durability, and detailing concerns that could be avoided with a single manufacturer.
Selection of membranes for waterproofing would prioritize systems compatible with a fully adhered waterproofing membrane, protection course, root barrier, drainage layer, moisture-resistant insulation, aeration layer, moisture-retention layer, reservoir layer, and filter fabric layer. Preferably, these components are installed above the membrane in a protected membrane roof assembly (PMR) often referred to as an inverted roof membrane assembly (IRMA) as follows:
If the deck is reinforced concrete, use reinforced, minimum 215 mil thick hot fluid-applied rubberized asphalt, applied directly to the deck, in a protected membrane roof assembly (PMR) often referred to as an inverted roof membrane assembly (IRMA). Many waterproofing experts recommend this membrane as the premiere waterproofing product, especially where there is an overburden (planting or paving) that is expensive to remove and where the spaces beneath are of importance. The use of an adhered membrane prevents leaks from migrating laterally from the course of entry. If the deck is a steel deck, appropriate roof substrate sheathing (i.e., gypsum based boards, plywood) may be secured to the metal deck and the fully reinforced rubberized asphalt membrane applied to the surface. In many cases, the joints between substrate boards will need to be pre-detailed with rubberized asphalt membrane and appropriate reinforcing prior to the full membrane application). Odor management during installation should be a consideration in the use of this system.
A second choice would be two layers of modified bituminous rubberized asphalt cold-applied self adhering (use low VOC cold adhesive or there could be adverse effect on plants) membrane, set in liquid rubberized asphalt with aromatic isocyanurate polyol liquid waterproofing membrane.
A third choice would be cold liquid-applied polyurethanes. These systems are fully bonded to the deck.
A fourth choice would be a composite thermoplastic waterproofing membrane with an active polymer core and sealed seams. Note that some asphalt-modified polyurethanes exhibit variable permeance due to thickness variations in installation: Too thin can lead to osmotic permeance and blistering. Too thick can lead to exotherming.
Conventional (non PMR) configurations are sometimes employed with the insulation below the membrane. In these instances where the designer prefers the conventional configuration, membrane preferences should be either 80 mil reinforced PVC or 90 mil reinforced EPDM with all seams sealed and taped. Unlike IRMA roofs these systems have the drawback that they do not position the roof membrane directly over a permanent or semi-permanent substrate and typically do not provide insulating assemblies that are highly resistant to water and physical damage. These roof designs cannot prohibit or highly discourage the entrapment of water within the roof assembly and the membrane and insulation design is not conducive to in-place reuse or recycle in future roof iterations. A conventional configuration may be somewhat more desirable in warmer climates, where the addition of a vapor retarder below the insulation would not be required. See the discussion below, under Insulation regarding vapor barriers. Note that as of this writing a conventional configuration is required by some insurance underwriters.
The first objective is to design to avoid leaks. Construction oversight must find constructed leaks. Existing roof substrates must be inspected for leaks. The easiest leaks to find are when a membrane is fully bonded to a concrete substrate, as it is nearly impossible for the leak to travel horizontally under the membrane.
Although some membrane manufacturers assert that their waterproofing membrane products perform simultaneously as root barriers, a root barrier should always be installed over a waterproofing membrane with vegetation above.
Matrix of Waterproofing Systems (in order of preference)
|Reinforced hot fluid-applied rubberized asphalt|
|Modified bitumen set in liquid rubberized asphalt|
|Composite thermoplastic membrane with an active polymer core|
|Conventional (non PMR) single-ply membrane|
Provide for proper waterproofing terminations and counterflashing at or (preferably) above grade, either lapped into through-wall flashing at the backup wall or (where this is not possible) tucked into flashed reglets at the face as required by the specific material supplier/manufacture. Refer to referenced NRCA manuals for guidance. Test substrates and adjacent materials for bond and compatibility. The dryness of concrete substrates can be tested with simple poly tests (ASTM D4263) for moisture content. Peel test initial applications for proper bond to the substrate. In certain conditions such as when vapor drive is to the interior or when a concrete deck has been given a smooth finish, the results of the ASTM D4263 test procedure may not result in condensation being visible on the underside of the plastic sheet even though the concrete slab may be relatively wet. In such cases, a drilled-in moisture probe will give the relative humidity in the concrete, but it is not known at this time what relative humidity is acceptable. The roofing industry is looking into this. There is also a concern in the roofing industry that structural lightweight concrete decks may retain a high relative humidity for an extended period of time and could thus adversely affect the installed waterproofing membrane.
Caution is urged regarding the use of single ply roof membranes manufactured in the United States in vegetative assemblies. US materials should not be justified based on European precedents. There are substantial differences between the actual products and installation and climate and very different performance results. Be sure that the membrane is the EXACT same in every way to the physical characteristics and manufacturing as in the European precedent. Also, the designer should verify that all of the conditions of the climate, adjacent materials, and substrates are the same. Finally, is the quality of construction the same?
As noted in the draft ASTM standard Standard Guide for Selection of Roofing/Waterproofing Membrane Systems for Vegetative (Green) Roof Systems, "exposed surfaces of the roofing/waterproofing membrane system (e.g. flashings and penetrations) may become the most important factor in determining the longevity of an installation. Consequently, consideration should be given to providing protection for all surfaces of the roofing/waterproofing system. For instance, membrane flashings should be protected with a durable and U-V resistant protection layer or counter-flashing."
Consider adding a drainage mat directly above the root barrier, to promote removal of water above the membrane. This mat should be of an interwoven type, rather than dimpled or high-hat, to limit the loss of R-value due to the presence of the mat. It should have a compressive strength suitable to carry the loads above (minimum 20,000 psf).
The use of electric leak detection (see below) is recommended for all systems. Electric leak detection can precisely locate the source of leaks below the planting system. The leak detection wiring can be left in place so that leaks can be located in the future, without requiring overburden removal, though the presence of a root barrier or vapor retarder within the roof assembly may limit its effective use. Some manufacturers require the detection system to be left in place in order to include overburden removal in their warranties. Where leak detection wiring remains, maintenance requirements shall include inspection and care of these systems.
Insulation should be multi-layered extruded polystyrene (XPS) foam for PMR systems. The compressive strength of XPS should be based on the expected loading requirements, such as the weight of saturated growth medium, plants and vehicles; however, a minimum of 40 psi compressive strength should be used. All seams in insulation layers should be staggered from the layers above and below by a minimum of 6 inches. It is recommended (and required by some insulation manufacturers) to include an aeration layer in direct contact with the insulation board in order to maintain long-term thermal retention.
For both the PMR configuration and the conventional roof configuration, providing at least a minimum code compliant slope to drain, typically 1/4 inch per foot (2%), is always recommended. The "ideal" balance between a swift release of excess water, which is beneficial, and the risk of damage/degradation of certain materials, which is undesirable, should be sought. Steeper slope (up to 4%) may help with drainage and may help reduce ponding, which could be desirable for wood or light steel framed systems susceptible to excessive deflection. In accordance with NRCA, verify that deflection allowable under the structural design does not result in ponding. Verify that local code, membrane manufacturer or owner's standards do not require steeper slope. Benefits of steeper slope are offset by excessively thick insulation (if tapered insulation is used), increased number of roof drains with increase in associated piping, and potentially higher perimeter walls or parapets.
As noted in the draft ASTM standard Standard Guide for Selection of Roofing/Waterproofing Membrane Systems for Vegetative (Green) Roof Systems, "vegetative roof systems can be adversely affected by either excessive or insufficient drainage capacity. The first concern of the designer when addressing drainage should be to insure that the system can efficiently percolate and discharge the underflow associated with mandated design storms. Unless specifically designed to generate surface runoff, vegetative roof systems should not experience ponding or surface flow when subjected to rainfall events that would be normal for a typical year. All drains and scuppers should be protected from clogging caused by accumulation of foliage or debris. Conventional 'beehive' or 'bonnet' strainers are not suitable for this purpose. Chambers with removable lids are recommended for use at all drains and scuppers. Surrounding all drains and scuppers and depressions where underflow concentrates, coarse stone aggregate should be placed to facilitate percolation and horizontal flow toward the drainage facilities. The second concern of the designer should be to avoid excessive drainage of the vegetative roof system which may lead to perennially stressed conditions for the plants and, in extreme conditions, plant mortality."
In all instances, materials, methods of installation and quality assurance/quality control procedures must be more stringent when vegetative roof installation is involved. Waterproofing materials cannot withstand decades of root and biological attack unaided. Provide a root barrier, as discussed elsewhere, to protect the membrane. For information and standards pertaining to waterproofing materials, consult the National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) or ASTM International (ASTM).
Matrix of Extensive Roof Waterproofing Systems
X See note 1
X See note 2
See note 2
Note 1: FM Global requires 8 inches of growth media with a PMR configuration (see section 184.108.40.206.2 of FM 1-35). Hence, they do not allow an extensive vegetative roof in this configuration, because an extensive vegetative roof is less than 6 inches thick, by definition. FM Global is approving vegetative roofs for fire resistance (mostly sedums), but not for wind uplift as of this writing.
Note 2: FM Global allows a vegetated roof over a steel deck with an appropriate FM fire test and suggests (par. 220.127.116.11 of FM Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-35) that vegetated roofs be evaluated for interior fire exposure (as regards a Class I or Class II rating) in the same manner as for conventional roofing systems on metal deck.
For more information on waterproofing systems, refer to the Below Grade Systems chapter of the Building Envelope Design Guide.
2. Protection Course
A protection course (PC) is typically only required for hot fluid applied systems. This is typically a modified bitumen (MB) base ply approximately 80 mils thick with a sanded surface. This MB ply gets embedded into the top layer of hot fluid applied membrane while the membrane is still hot and tacky. This PC becomes integral with the membrane forming a very robust monolithic system. Other materials, provided they are compatible with system components, may be used for a protection course such as: asphaltic boards, (1/8" or 1/4" thick, typically 4 by 8 foot sheets) and extruded polystyrene boards or PVC sheets, as applicable for the waterproofing membrane system (e.g. do not use asphaltic board with PVC membranes).
3. Leak Detection
Verify the integrity of the waterproofing membrane prior to installing the overburden. Leak detection should always be performed prior to the installation of protection boards and non-conductive root barriers to allow more precise location of leaks.
Inexpensive methods for locating damaged waterproofing are available. These include spray testing, standing water flood testing, flowing water testing and the electric leak detection procedure. The latter can sometimes even locate leaks underneath overburden that is not too deep.
A standing water test can be conducted by plugging the drains and creating dams to contain water to a depth of 2" minimum at the high point for 24–48 hours. See ASTM D 5957 for guidance. For existing roof substrates, verify roof detailing exists to accommodate this test method. Also, care must be taken so the weight of water retained does not exceed the load-carrying capacity of the structural deck.
A flowing water test is conducted by applying a continuous flow of water across the entire membrane without plugging drains for a period of 24‐48 hours.
Electric leak detection is the preferred method of leak detection where scope and funding allow. Low and high voltage leak detection methods are available. There is, and probably will continue to be, disagreement as to which method is better. Some of the pros and cons are given below. Electric leak detection provides the precise location of leaks, but is generally not acceptable for use with black EPDM membranes due to the high conductivity of carbon black in the membrane.
Low Voltage (LV) Testing: With LV testing the surface of the roof membrane is moistened (not flooded) to create an electrically conductive medium. A conductive wire loop is laid out on the membrane around a section of the area to be tested. The wire can be left in place, so that the roof can be retested for leaks after installation of overburden. LV testing can be done in the rain. However, elements such as roof drains may need to be inspected and tested separately because they must be isolated from the electric leak detection process. If a vapor retarder is part of the roof system, it may limit the effective use of low voltage testing. Also, concrete decks m ay not be able to be tested if a PMR/IRMA system is used or a conventional configuration that is not mechanically fastened is used, unless a stainless steel grid screen is installed on the deck, below the membrane, to create a conductive field.
High Voltage (HV) Testing: HV testing may take less time to perform compared to LV testing. Also, areas immediately adjacent to elements such as drains can be tested. The membrane must be dry. Laps may be more difficult to test than with LV testing. As a result, white EPDM may be difficult to test, as well as black EPDM. Care must be taken not to damage the membrane due to the high voltage. Tests must be run and baseline readings taken to calibrate the equipment to prevent damage.
For more information on leak detection systems, refer to the WBDG Resource Page on Membrane Integrity Testing.
4. Root Barrier
Typically, root barriers are in the form of HDPE (high density polyethylene) or reinforced PVC. Depending upon the selection of plants, this membrane is between 10 mils to 30 mils thick. If there are laps they should be thermally fused. In the case of certain highly aggressive plants, a minimum 60–mil thick HDPE with welded seams should be utilized. Bamboo should not be used on a vegetative roof, due to the rhizomes (tips) that can penetrate many root barriers.
In some cases, the manufacturer of the MB Protection Course will infuse this layer with a root-inhibiting chemical, such as copper hydroxide. However, there is some evidence that, over time, these chemicals will breakdown, which reduces effectiveness, and leach off the roofs into the receiving runoff. Copper hydroxide root barriers are banned in several European countries and Canada.
Insulation should be located above the membrane, at least in cold climates or with high-humidity occupancies. In cold climates and with high humidity occupancies the need for a vapor retarder below the insulation would thereby create two vapor retarders (the waterproofing and the vapor retarder below the insulation). It is recommended to avoid two vapor retarders because any water that might get between them would be trapped and not be able to dry outward or inward.
It is suggested that the designer either perform a dew point analysis or refer to the NRCA Roofing and Waterproofing Manual for design calculations to determine if a vapor retarder below the insulation is required. The safest route is to locate the insulation above the waterproofing membrane in a protected roof membrane (PRM) or "IRMA" configuration, thereby avoiding the issues related to double vapor barriers. When necessary, multi-level drains to capture water from both the surface of the vegetative roof or ballast or paving and from the surface of the waterproofing membrane.
Use only extruded polystyrene insulation because it does not absorb water, especially if (when) the insulation is located above the waterproofing membrane as is recommended above. Boards need to be specifically manufactured for this application. To account for the R-value reduction due to the minor water absorption that occurs in PMR roofs, it is recommended that the designer reduce the board's initial R-value by 10%.
E. Moisture Retention / Drainage Composites and Filter Fabric
1. Moisture Retention / Drainage Composites (Panels)
The primary function of these composites is to retain and store water for future evapo-transpiration for the plants. These composites consist of a high-strength dimpled water-retention polymeric core laminated with a top soil filter fabric and bottom protection fabric. They retain various amounts of water, based on their design and thickness ranging from 0.06 gal/ft² to 0.16 gal/ft².
2. Filter Fabric
A separate filter fabric is not needed when using a Moisture Retention / Drainage Composite that integrates a filter fabric. A separate filter fabric must be added for: 1) Moisture Retention / Drainage Composites that do not include a topside filter fabric, or 2) aggregate drainage layers, or 3) Moisture Retention / Drainage Composites that are designed to be in-filled with drainage aggregate. The primary function is to keep fines from the growing media out of the drainage layer below.
This fabric is typically a non-woven polypropylene or polyester geotextile that is non-biodegradable, tear resistant and has high water permeability. Fabric should also be used to protect flashing membranes from direct contact with media at perimeters and penetrations.
Non-woven filter fabrics should not be used where the growing media has a high clay content, as the non-woven material can get clogged, thus impeding water flow. Where the growing media has a clay content greater than 15%, a woven filter should be utilized, due to its superior capability to filter fine materials without clogging.
To quote Edmund and Lucie Snodgrass from their book, "Green Roof Plants," "their benefits notwithstanding, vegetative roofs present a number of challenges that must be understood and addressed if they are to succeed in North America as more than high-end amenities or environmental anomalies. First, the paradigm must shift away from thinking of vegetative roofs as 'regular' gardens, only elevated. They are not like regular gardens; unlike natural landscapes, vegetative roofs have no equivalent in nature. They are engineered, fabricated systems and thus present unknowns for most landscape designers, architects and installers."
2. Growing Media
The growing media should be a well-drained engineered mineral soil and must be carefully designed for grain-size distribution, void ratio, moisture retention, etc. Aged compost should have been covered to protect it from weed seeds. In cold climates the media should also be resistant to breakdown from freeze/thaw. The organic matter content should be based on the manufacturer's recommendations for the climate conditions, plantings and specific application. Variation can exist from project to project. No two manufacturers or installers will recommend exactly the same system for the same project. Due diligence is highly recommended.
In many areas of the United States it is possible to design vegetative roofs without irrigation. That being said, it is essential to provide hose bibs where an irrigation system has not been used in case irrigation should become necessary. Even in arid climates, the demand for irrigation water can be greatly reduced by introducing water at the bottom of the vegetative roof profile. However, during the 2-3 year establishment period, most plants will require water to be introduced at the top or near the top of the profile until the root system becomes more fully extended. Spray irrigation should be avoided, except as a temporary means of irrigation during establishment or during emergency drought conditions. The design of the vegetative roof profile should encourage plant roots to grow to the base of the profile. Filter fabrics should be 'root permeable.' The total thickness of the profile should not exceed the natural root depth of the plants selected for the plant community.
Also from Snodgrass, "Since extensive vegetative roofs are traditionally non-irrigated and consist mostly of lightweight, inorganic medium, a plant specification list for a vegetative roof is quite different from one for a ground-level garden. This point cannot be overstated; most herbaceous perennials, including natives, that otherwise might work well for the hardiness zone of a given roof still will not be suitable for a vegetative roof microclimate. In addition, the average inorganic vegetative roof medium will not support most large root systems or their nutritional requirements, further limiting plant choices to those with shallow root systems and an ability to store water."
All vegetative roof planting plans should include drought-tolerant ever ground-covering plants. Varieties should be selected that are adapted to the particular climate, keeping in mind that conditions on roofs are more severe than on the ground. In general, initial plant densities should be greater than recommended for similar ground plantings. In temperate climates, varieties of Sedum are particularly well adapted for this purpose. Different ground-covering plants that may appropriate in other climates include species of: Potentilla, Carex, Phlox, Delosperma, Crassula, Portulaca, and Aloe. In some instances it will make sense to establish a stable ground cover before introducing other plants. To provide a vigorous multi-seasonal ground cover and to minimize problems associated with disease, insects, or climatic stresses, it is best to avoid large drifts of a single species.
There are four methods for establishing plants: direct seeding, plug planting, pre-grown mats, and modular systems.
G. Ancillary Aspects
The minimum slope required by the International Building Code is 1/4 inch per foot. An ideal slope would be somewhere around one inch per foot. On a roof that is too flat, inadequate drainage can lead to damage to the membrane and plants. On the other hand, a steep slope will provide better drainage, but can lead to slippage of materials.
2. Steep Slope Roof Installations
Figure 5. AMCOL International Building, Hoffman Estates, IL
To install extensive vegetative roof covers on pitches steeper than 2.5:12 (12 degrees) supplemental measures will be required to prevent sliding instability. Varied building systems have been developed to support vegetative covers on steeply pitched roofs. Pitched roof systems sometimes merge into vertical facade vegetative techniques.
The systems used to stabilize pitched roof installations depend on the underlying structural capacity and design, and the steepness of the roof. These systems are typically placed above the waterproofing and are designed to accommodate movement of water through the vegetative roof components. The first level of intervention is to employ a geotechnical matting system (for example, "Enkamat®") that physically ties together the growing media and vegetation roots so the any localized slipping of material is held in check by the mass and friction of the overall assembly.
As roof pitch increases above 4:12, a higher level of intervention is required to transfer the weight of the vegetative roof system to the structural framing system for the building. A professional specializing in sloped roof designs should be consulted for vegetative roofs on pitches steeper than 2:12. These systems are typically "cellular"; a framing or geo-composite material creates void cells when placed, which are then filled with the growing media and planted, creating a "matrix" of reinforcing material and vegetative roof components. Cables or tendons (in tension) within the matrix transfer the pull of gravity on the system upward to the ridge of the roof, where it can be physically tied to the structural frame for the buildings. Several manufacturers also provide rigid cribbing style framing systems that transfer the load downward, and the weight of the vegetative roof "matrix" becomes a compressive load on the eave or parapet of the building. Other methods such as adhered or fastened edging, composite nailers, "stepped" EPS, etc. may also be employed. Consult a structural engineer familiar with this type of construction.
3. Wind Resistance Systems and Structural Loading
Comply with applicable code requirements for loading criteria, typically ASCE 7 and ANSI/SPRI RP-14 Wind Design Standard for Vegetative Roofing Systems. It is recommended to at least follow RP-14, even if not required by code, to establish a minimum level of performance.
Follow the project's structural engineer's advice regarding allowable loads. As noted in the draft ASTM standard Standard Guide for Selection of Roofing/Waterproofing Membrane Systems for Vegetative (Green) Roof Systems, "The introduction of a vegetative roof system to a new or existing structure has an effect on both the live and dead loads. The addition of materials over the roofing/waterproofing membrane system associated with vegetative roof systems usually increases the dead load in varying amounts, based on the number, composition, and thickness of the layers of the system. Because of the transient water retention capacity of vegetative roof systems, the live loads may increase as well. In accessible roofs, the live loads created by human occupants should be taken into account. Minimum live load allowances for access by pedestrians, as well as by maintenance personnel apply in most jurisdictions... Consideration of appropriate design loads is the responsibility of the project engineer and should be addressed before the vegetative roof system is designed."
If the project is insured under FM Global, then also comply with FM Data Sheet 1-28. Note that FM tends to assume the most conservative situation, such as requiring that the designer assume that the vegetative cover may have blown off due to lack of moisture content. Given the paucity of reliable data, some designers may wish to also make this assumption based on criticality of performance, expected maintenance and other criteria.
FM Global calls for a minimum of eight inches of vegetative roof media if it is to be used as ballast (FM Data Sheet 1-35, par. 18.104.22.168.2). In addition, the design should use a safety factor of 1.7 for wind uplift calculations based on Data Sheet 1-28. These requirements may be in excess of what would be required if the project is not FM insured.
Where a project requires compliance with FM Loss Prevention Data Sheets, those requirements govern where they are more stringent than those noted herein. Calculations are required to prove that the ballast is adequate in preventing uplift on a project-by-project basis. If the project does not require compliance with FM Loss Prevention Data Sheets, then going less than that noted in Data Sheet 1-35 should be backed up by calculations.
Once plant material is gone and bare media is exposed, perhaps due to drought or lack of maintenance, there is an immediate threat that the soil may begin to blow away and the entire roof can 'unravel.' It is prudent to include netting, or a wind blanket, at least until the plants have established themselves. The plants can grow through the netting, but will hold the soil together. The key to achieve a successful wind protection is devising a way to secure the netting without using staples, stakes, etc., that can pose a risk to the waterproofing. The materials should be resistant to UV (although they do tend to become rapidly concealed by soil and plants).
There is usually a vegetation-free zone (often stone ballast or pavers) at the perimeter of the roof, to prevent scouring, or soil loss and damage. Stone ballast or pavers are also used around roof access and rooftop equipment. ANSI/SPRI RP-14 (Wind Design Standard for Vegetative Roofing Systems) can be consulted for guidance with respect to the design of these zones.
Certain high-wind, hurricane, and typhoon locations should not use vegetative systems without serious consideration of these forces.
4. Wind and Fire Resistance
The wind and fire resistance standards are still under development by the vegetative roof industry and codes/standards organizations. Fire properties of protection boards and thermal barriers over a steel deck or underlayment over a steel deck with a PMR are of particular importance, given the presence of combustible material associated with typical vegetative roof assemblies. Specify that the membranes meet UL or FM Global requirements, and add the vegetative system. The available criteria should be conservatively assessed, and vegetative systems should be reviewed carefully by local building officials.
5. Modular Systems
Modular systems involve installing the vegetative roof system inside plastic trays. Use of these systems does not relieve the designer from responsibility for considering the integrity of the underlying waterproofing system, nor does it make location of damaged waterproofing easier, it does provide cleaner and simplified access and vegetative roof replacement in the case of potential leak repairs. However, these systems can be useful when designing small gardens on residential property or terraced commercial roofs. They also preserve flexibility to re-arrange landscape designs in the future. Owners who wish to engage in active gardening will find modules a convenient way to do this without damage to their homes' waterproofing.
6. Solar Reflectance
Review project requirements for solar reflectance from adjacent buildings, mechanical equipment, photovoltaic panels, etc., that may reflect sunlight onto the vegetative roof. Reflected sunlight may burn localized areas. (Example: Localize burning of plants has been documented as late as September in New England.)
7. Public Access
Public access is not recommended on extensive vegetated roofs, since this roof system is not designed for the live load or disturbance. Limit public access volume and accessible areas. In the accessible areas, provide guardrails to prevent falling and measures to protect the plants from damage.
H. Maintenance and Warranties
Specify a maintenance period long enough to ensure the initial establishment of healthy plants. A minimum two-year maintenance/warranty period should be included in the initial construction contract, to ensure plant establishment, training of maintenance personnel, and thorough remediation of local pest issues. Vegetative roof should thereafter be maintained by trained personnel at least twice a year. Many vegetative installers will only warranty roof with this type of maintenance policy. Take time to understand the installers' warranty.
Provide easily accessible inspection chambers in drainage outlets to ensure that the drainage system can be cleaned of roots, displaced growth media and ballast, dead foliage, and other debris, and otherwise be maintained.
In general, warranties insure the owner against defective products and/or inadequate installation by the contractor. They can cover all products of the vegetative roof installation including the waterproof membrane, root barriers, filter fabrics, growth medium, drainage layers, etc. as well as the workmanship of the installation subcontractors. There are several waterproofing manufacturers that will warrant the entire vegetative roof system, including removal and restoration of the overburden, if they provide all of the materials in the original construction.
Some items to consider regarding warranties on a project-by-project basis:
Relevant Codes and Standards
In the United States, vegetative roof designs are generally regulated using existing standards for ballasted roofs. The International Code Council (ICC) code, used for guidance by many municipal authorities and referenced by many state codes, recognizes roof gardens and landscaped roofs. It requires that the 'wet weight' of the vegetative roof be treated as an additional dead load. It also supplies live load requirements for maintenance-related foot traffic and for regulated pedestrian access. ICC also provides standards for parapet heights and requirements for railings.
Check with your local code official regarding the local code requirements for vegetative roofs. Also consider compliance with the standards listed at the end of this page.
Trade organizations such as National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) are developing guidelines for waterproofing with vegetative roof installations in mind. In addition, ASTM International (ASTM), through the Green Roof Task Group E06.71, is in the process of developing guidelines and testing procedures specifically for vegetative roof products. For more information, see the ASTM's work group web site.
At present, the most comprehensive guidelines for vegetative roof construction, especially for growth media, are those developed by Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftentwicklung Landschaftsbau. e.V. (FLL) in Germany Guideline for the Planning, Execution and Upkeep of Green-Roof Sites (Richlinien für die Planung, Ausführung and Plege von Dachbegrünung). These standards and guidelines include industry standard tests for growing medium weight, moisture, nutrient content, grain-size distribution, etc. for 90% of the climate zones in the United States. But they do not include plant recommendations. The 2008 edition of the guide is available in English. FLL also certifies laboratories to conduct critical tests such as the root penetration resistance of waterproofing membranes. Many vegetative roof products available in the United States have FLL certification. Although its principles apply to vegetative roofs in the United States, its specific recommendations apply to a central European climate.
- ANSI/SPRI RP-14 Wind Design Standard for Vegetative Roofing Systems (PDF 1.5 MB)
- ANSI/SPRI VF-1 External Fire Design Standard for Vegetative Roofs (PDF 125 KB)
- E2396 Standard Test Method for Saturated Water Permeability of Granular Drainage Media [Falling-Head Method] for Green Roof Systems.
- E2397 Standard Practice for Determination of Dead Loads and Live Loads associated with Green Roof Systems.
- E2398 Standard Test Method for Water Capture and Media Retention of Geocomposite Drain Layers for Green Roof Systems.
- E2399 Standard Test Method for Maximum Media Density for Dead Load Analysis of Green Roof Systems.
- E2432 Standard Guide for General Principles of Sustainability Relative to Buildings.
- Future ASTM E2777 draft by Work Group 25385 with a working title of, WK 25385—Standard Guide for Vegetative (Green) Roof Systems.
- Future ASTM standard by Work Group 29304 with a working title of, WK 29304—Standard Guide for Selection of Roofing/Waterproofing Membrane Systems for Vegetative (Green) Roof Systems. This is a draft standard and subject to change.
FM Global Standards
- Approval Standard #4477 for Vegetative Roof Systems (PDF 122 KB)
- Approval Standard #4470 for Single-Ply, Polymer-Modified Bitumen Sheet, Built-Up Roof (BUR) and Liquid-Applied Roof Assemblies for Use in Class 1 and Non-Combustible Roof Deck Construction (PDF 171 KB)
- Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-28 Wind Design
- Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-28R Roofing systems
- Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-29 Roof Deck Securement and Above Deck Roof Components
- Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-34 Hail Damage
- Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-35 Green Roof Systems (PDF 1.19 MB)
- Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-54 Roof Loads for New Construction (PDF 3.28 MB)
Products and Systems
Building Envelop Design Guide: Roofing Systems
Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:
- 07 10 00 (07100) Dampproofing & Waterproofing
- 07 33 63 (02930) Vegetated Roof Covering
- 07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing
- 07 55 63 (07530) Vegetated Protected Membrane Roofing
MasterSpec® Section 32 95 00 (02940) Vegetated Roof Assemblies
Note that the Evaluations sheets make for a good manual, except that it has a major flaw; it refers only to conventional roofing systems, not to waterproofing systems.
Non-commercial organizations that can provide current lists of vegetated roof service providers and are a useful source of up-to-date information, include:
|National Agencies and Nonprofit Organizations||Headquarters|
|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency||Washington, DC|
|U.S. Green Building Council||Washington, DC|
|Green Roofs for Healthy Cities Coalition||Toronto, ON, Canada|
In addition, some regional groups and agencies have distinguished themselves in the promotion of vegetated roofs. These include the Earthpledge Foundation in New York City, Northwest Eco-Builders Guild, Green Roof Advisory Group (GRAG) in Austin, TX, Green Roof info Think-Tank (GRiT) in Portland, Ore. and Cleveland Green Building Coalition.
Design and Analysis Tools
The following table provides links to key analysis, simulation, and research evaluating and predicting the performance of vegetated roofs.
|Storm Water Management||Analysis & Simulation||Roofscapes, Inc. & Optigrün Intl. AG||Charlie Miller|
|Storm Water Management||Research||Michigan State University||Bradley Rowe
|Research||North Carolina State Univ., Water Resource Institute||Greg Jennings
|Research||Pennsylvania State Univ., Center for Green Roof Research||Rob Berghage|
|Research||Portland Bureau of Environmental Services||Tom Liptan|
|Water Quality||Research||University of Applied Sciences Neubrandenburg||Manfred Köhler
|Research||Pennsylvania State Univ., Center for Green Roof Research||Rob Berghage|
|Research||Canadian National Research Council, Inst. for Research and Construction||Karen Liu|
|Research||British Columbia Institute of Technology||Maureen Connelly|
|Habitat Creation||Research||University of Applied Science Wädenswil||Stephan Brenneisen|
|Research||Optigrüen International AG||Gunter Mann|
German universities with significant on-going research in the science and engineering of vegetated roofs include (note that all websites are in German):
- Weihenstephan Fachhochschule
- Bayerische Landesanstalt für Weinbau und Gartenbau (LWG), Veithöchstheim
- Universität Hannover
- Techniche Universität Neubrandenburg
- Universität Essen
- Building Technologies Associated with Rooftop Greening for Better Environment—The Building Centre of Japan also has a comprehensive and explanatory publication. Portions of the site and document are only available in English, but a translator may be required for the other parts in Japanese.
- Dach + Grün—the most respected vegetated roof publication worldwide, a German language quarterly published by FBB (Fachvereinigung Bauwerksbegrünung e.V.). To subscribe contact Verlag Dieter A. Kuberski GmbH, Postfach 102744, 70023 Stuttgart, Germany (Fax 011-711-2388619)
- Green Roof Infrastructure Monitor—the most comprehensive English language periodical dedicated to vegetated roofs is published quarterly by Green Roofs for Healthy Cities (GRHC). A quarterly web-based publication, Green Roof Infrastructure Journal, is available to GRHC members.
- Introduction to the FLL-Guidelines (PDF 105 KB)—a brief overview of the FFL guidelines written by Peter M. Philippi of Green Roof Service, LLC.
- Green Roofs: Ecological Design and Construction by Earth Pledge, foreword by William McDonough. Schiffer Publishing, Ltd., Atglen, Pennsylvania, 2005.
- Green Roofs in Sustainable Landscape Design, Steven Cantor, 2008, W.W.Norton [ISBN: 978-0-393-73168-2]
- Green Roof Plants, Ed Snodgrass & Lucie Snodgrass, 2006, Timber Press [ISBN-13: 978-0-88192-787-0]
- Green Roof Systems, Susan Weiler & Katrin Scholz-Barth, 2009, John Wiley and Sons [ISBN: 978-0-471-67495-5]
- Planting Green Roofs and Living Walls, Nigel Dunnett & Noël Kingsbury, 2004, Timber Press [ISBN: 978-0881926408]
- The Green Roof Manual, Ed Snodgrass & Linda McIntyre, 2010, Timber Press [ISBN: 978-1-60469-049-1]
- Vegetative Roof Systems Manual, 2009, National Roofing Contractors Associations, National Roofing Contractors Association
- Vegetative Roof Systems Manual, National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA). The "bible" for waterproofing under vegetated roofs.
- Roofing Manual: Membrane Roof Systems, National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA)
- Roofing Manual: Architectural Metal Flashing, Condensation Control and Reroofing, National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA)
- Roofing Manual: Steep-slope Roof Systems, National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA)
- NRCA Waterproofing Manual
- The Green Roof Manual: A Professional Guide to Design, Installation, and Maintenance by Edmund C. Snodgrass and Linda McIntyre.
- Guideline for the Planning, Execution and Upkeep of Green-Roof Sites (Richtlinien für die Planung, Ausführung and Plege von Dachbegrünung). Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau e. V. (FLL).
- The Green Roofs for Healthy Cities website has an extensive database of papers, searchable by topic.
- Columbia University study, "A Temperature and Seasonal Energy Analysis of Green, White, and Black Roofs," (PDF 1.07 MB) S. R. Gaffin et. al.
- Ghent University study, "Green Roofs for Quietness," Dr. ir. Timothy Van Renterghem and Prof. Dr .ir. Dick Botteldooren.
- "The Stormwater Control Potential of Green Roofs in Seattle," Taylor, B.L., ASCE Conf. Proc. 333, 11 (2008), DOI:10.1061/41009(333)11. This paper summarizes findings from Pacific Northwest monitoring efforts and hydrologic modeling of vegetated roofs in the Pacific maritime climatic region.
- "Conference proceedings from Green Roofs for Healthy Cities—Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities," (annual conference and trade show 2004–2009), covering a wide range of research and case studies. Available from www.greenroofs.org
- "Green Roofs for Stormwater Runoff Control," (PDF 2.8 MB) US EPA February 2009, EPA/600/R-09/026
- "Structural Considerations for Green Roof Retrofits", technical memorandum prepared by Magnusson Klemencic Associates, Inc. for City of Seattle Public Utilities department, 2007.
- "Green Roof in the Desert—Tempe Transportation Center Roof Garden," (PDF 1.2 MB) Dr. Vidar Lerum, College of Design, Arizona State University Lab Report, April 7, 2006.
- On water retention: Liescke, 1998; Moran e. al., 2004; DeNardo et. al., 2005; VanWoert et. al., 2005.
- Carbon Sequestration Potential of Extensive Green Roofs, Getter et. al., 2009, Environment Science & Technology Vol. 43, No. 19.
- Green roofs are not created equal: the hydrologic and thermal performance of six different extensive green roofs and reflective and non-reflective roofs in a sub-tropical climate, Simmons et. al., 2008, Urban Ecosystems Vol. 11, No. 4 DOI: 10.1007/s11252-008-0069-4.
- American Hydrotech, Inc.—Garden Roof Assembly
- Columbia Green
- GreenGrid Green Roof Systems—Weston / ABC Supply
- Green Roofs for Healthy Cities
- GreenTech Systems
- International Green Roof Association
- Live Roof® Hybrid Green Roof System
- Oak Ridge National Laboratories DOE Cool Roof Calculator
- Plant Connection, Inc.—List of local ordinances
- Roofmeadow (formerly Roofscapes)
- Tremco (formerly BioTray)
Vegetated roof covers may now be purchased in conjunction with most conventional waterproofing systems, some of which have been tested by FLL for compatibility with vegetated roofs. There are no known North American tests. At least ten North American roofing companies offer vegetated roof assemblies as standard auxiliary products, and more companies are entering the field all the time.
- RoofNav—RoofNav is a free Web-based tool developed by FM Approvals™ that provides fast access to the most up-to-date FM Approved roofing products and assemblies. | <urn:uuid:916e34f9-6d1b-454c-b1f8-e251b9662b20> | {
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Search for coverage from 1971 onwards on a broad range of subjects including arts, business, children, education, general interest, health, humanities, international, law, military, multicultural, psychology, sciences, social sciences, and women's interests. Features a diversified mix of scholarly journals, trade publications, magazines, and newspapers. Nearly 4,000 titles, over 2,800 in full text. | <urn:uuid:10d8f906-4fb1-4f6b-bf68-23419ac719b5> | {
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We've heard a lot about the benefits of breastfeeding, and the idea that it reduces the risk of a child becoming overweight or obese has been around for decades.
But a new study in the Journal of the American Medical Association contradicts that idea. It suggests that though breastfeeding has many benefits, reducing the likelihood that a child becomes obese or overweight may not be one of them. The evidence to support this conclusion is strong as the study was based on a large randomized controlled trial.
This study was conducted in Belarus at maternity hospitals and the clinics affiliated with them.
Researchers initially looked at information about more than 17,000 pairs of mothers and infants who were breastfeeding. Of them, about 14,000 participated in the follow-up period between January 2008 and December 2010; the children by that time were around 11 years old.
Only healthy, singleton babies who were born weighing at least 2,500 grams (5.5 pounds) were included in the research. Their mothers had initiated breastfeeding and didn't have any conditions that could impact their ability to breastfeed.
This was a randomized controlled study, meaning it is unlikely that other factors besides the breastfeeding intervention influenced the outcomes, said Richard M. Martin, lead study author based at the University of Bristol's School of Social and Community Medicine.
Sixteen of the health facilities were randomly chosen to receive a breastfeeding intervention based on the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, which the World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund developed. This initiative helps mothers to start breastfeeding soon after birth and demonstrates breastfeeding to new mothers.
The other 15 clinics did not receive the intervention. Instead, they proceeded with their standard practices, which included early introduction of non-breast liquids and promoting scheduled breastfeeding rather than breastfeeding on demand. "The mothers weren't encouraged to breastfeed early on," Martin said. | <urn:uuid:68f884f2-b07f-4d87-b611-c3e8ee40af16> | {
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The Kyodo news agency reported that the cooling system has failed at three reactors of Fukushima No. 2 nuclear power plant. The coolant water's temperature had reached boiling temperature, the agency reported, citing the power plant's operator, Tokyo Electric Power.
The cooling system failure at the No. 2 power plant came after officials were already troubled by the failure of the emergency cooling system at the Fukushima No. 1 plant, which officials feared could cause a meltdown.
Photos: Scenes from the earthquake
Authorities have ordered the evacuation of all civilians in a two-mile radius around the No.1 plant, a total of about 3,000 people, and planned to vent slightly radioactive steam from the plant, located about 160 miles north of Tokyo.
A properly functioning cooling system is critical to keep radioactive material from escaping the nuclear reactor's containment zone.
Videos of the earthquake
For more: Post-quake events at Japan nuclear plant raise concerns | <urn:uuid:a502889a-2a34-4ccb-823e-932af3d5211f> | {
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Apotheosis of Peter's Military Glory
“Apotheosis of Peter's Military Glory” exalts Tsar Peter the Great (1672–1725) as a wise ruler and military leader. The print shows Peter standing on a pedestal depicting battle scenes, surrounded by portraits of the 33 tsars and grand dukes who ruled Russia from the ninth century to the beginning of Peter’s reign in 1682. Labels beneath the portraits provide brief information about each ruler. Behind Peter stretches a chain of maps of the fortresses that he seized in battle. The work was commissioned by the Russian state ... | <urn:uuid:44040ad3-4979-4db4-826d-6d125dc80dc0> | {
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What if everything you thought you knew about education was wrong?
What if students learn more quickly on their own, working in teams, than in a classroom with a teacher?
What if tests and discipline get in the way of the learning process rather than accelerate it?
Those are the questions Sugata Mitra has been asking since the late 1990s, and for which he was awarded the $1 million TED Prize on Tuesday, the first day of the TED2013 conference.
Mitra, professor of educational technology at Newcastle University, won the prize for his concept of "self organizing learning environments," an alternative to traditional schooling that relies on empowering students to work together on computers with broadband access to solve their own problems, with adults intervening to provide encouragement and admiration, rather than top-down instruction.
Mitra's work with students in India has gained wide attention and was the focus of a 2010 TED Talk on his "hole in the wall" experiment, showing the potential of computers to jump-start learning without any adult intervention.
Coming to education trained as a physicist, Mitra said he was encouraged by his boss to start teaching people how to write computer programs. When he bought his first personal computer, he was surprised to find that his 6-year-old son was able to tell him how to fix problems he had operating the machine. He thought his son was a genius, but then heard his friends saying the same thing about their children.
Thinking about children living in slums in New Delhi, he said, "It can't be possible that our sons are geniuses and they are not." Mitra set up a publicly accessible computer along the lines of a bank ATM, behind a glass barrier, and told children they could use it, with no further guidance.
They soon learned to browse the Web in English, even though they lacked facility in the language. To prove the experiment would work in an isolated environment, he set up another "hole in the wall" computer in a village 300 miles away. After a while, "one of the kids was saying we need a faster processor and a better mouse."
When the head of the World Bank came to see the experiment, Mitra said he encouraged him to go to the New Delhi slum and see for himself. After spending time with the children, bank President James Wolfensohn "came back and put his hand on my shoulder and said, 'How much?' " Mitra said he received $1.5 million, which allowed him to press on with experiments in India, Cambodia and Africa, finding self-organized learning worked to improve English-language pronunciation, reading comprehension and even the basics of DNA replication. | <urn:uuid:18b6f5d7-3b0a-4841-bd7c-2b51ea5859cf> | {
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Calories can be difficult to understand because you hear so many different things from different sources. But here is the basic idea: your body needs a certain amount of energy per day to function properly .i.e. to digest food, walk, talk, exercise, etc. The amount of energy your body needs depends on your weight, age, gender, and how active you are. We get calories from food, and through metabolism, these calories are converted into energy. So the amount of energy your body needs is directly proportionate to how many calories you need.
If you consume more calories than your body needs, your body stores the excess as fat. When you work out, you burn the excess calories; which means you are essentially burning off the fat. This is how you maintain your body fat ratio. This is why it’s important to understand that there's no magical way to lose weight. It comes down to two things: exercise and diet.
To lose weight, you have to burn more calories than you take in every day. Visit http://caloriecount.about.com/cc/calories-burned.php for a tool to help estimate how many calories you burn per day based on your age, weight, gender, and level of activity. Note: it’s just an estimate. The amount of time it’ll take you to lose weight just depends on how many calories you eat minus how many calories you burn daily. When this value - i.e. amount you take in minus amount you burn - gets to about 3,500 calories, you have effectively lost about 1 pound or 0.45 kilograms (since 3,500 calories equals about 1 pound of fat).
Different levels of physical activity burn different number of calories depending on intensity. Please visit http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/exercise/SM00109 for a summary of about how many calories are burned with different types of exercises.
If you have more questions, please leave a comment or start a discussion on the Eights and Weights Facebook page here . Also, if there are individual fitness topics you'd like to hear more about, please leave a note on the Facebook page.
My motto for the week: To truly live better, strive to understand what your body needs. | <urn:uuid:cb92f3b6-d65b-4e08-bb03-3f6cd6cbc1a0> | {
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Canadian hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, also called hemlock spruce and eastern hemlock is another of the East’s mighty evergreens. It is the state tree of Pennsylvania. Trees can live 500 years, grow from 100 to 170 feet tall and be five to six feet in diameter. Rickett’s Glen State Park in Pennsylvania has many of these behemoths of the forest.
They are shade tolerant and if the canopy is closed will bide their time until an opening occurs and then they will have a growth spurt. My fifty year hemlocks are only about 12 feet tall. In one section of Woodland Park there are some tall old hemlocks; magnificent specimens as well as a small grove up the hill from me. Hemlock does not make a good Christmas tree because it does not retain its needles. Oh that it would!
Hemlock bark contains a lot of tannin useful in converting the hides and pelts to leather. There were so many trees that many hemlocks were cut down, stripped of their bark and the logs left to rot. After all, the supply seemed inexhaustible.
Unlike pine, hemlock is easy to prune and can make a dense hedge. On one of my garden visits I saw such a hedge that was probably 12 feet high. A neighbor maintained such a hedge for years albeit only 5-6 feet tall. I had a hedge, but in such dense shade that the lower branches died and I finally removed all but two of them...
Early on I became interested in dwarf conifers, especially dwarf hemlocks and acquired a few nice specimens. They were doing great BF (Before the Fence) until the deer discovered and wiped them out one winter. Since I erected the fence I have added a few more. Dwarf only means slow growing and some can eventually overpower their allotted space. But as I remarked earlier they are easy to prune and therefore can be maintained at a comfortable size. My favorite dwarf is ‘Cole’s Prostrate’ which I was able to buy a few years ago. When I bought it, I had a special spot for it; at the corner of the wall leading off the patio. Here it can spread in all directions lying low and draping over the wall. Each year it will drape another inch or two adding more interest. One plant after 25 years was but 6 inches tall and 40 inches wide.
In contrast ‘Sargentii’ is a pendulous form which grows upright before draping. A few years ago I saw one such specimen at Longwood Gardens that must have been 10 feet in height and 30-40 feet wide. Not a hemlock for the average home garden. | <urn:uuid:a66ea64b-9a75-4982-9f1c-62db1f97f315> | {
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Fri December 21, 2012
Why Some Kids Have An Inflated Sense Of Their Science Skills
Originally published on Fri December 21, 2012 8:49 pm
If you're a student at the halfway point of the academic year, and you've just taken stock of your performance, perhaps you have reason to feel proud of yourself.
But a recent study suggests some of the pride you feel at having done well — especially in science — may be unfounded. Or at least your sense of your performance may not be a very accurate picture of how good you actually are.
A massive analysis of some 350,000 students at nearly 14,000 schools in 53 countries has uncovered a paradox: Students in many countries that are mediocre at science have an inflated sense of how good they are.
First the good news: The United States isn't among the worst offenders. Students in countries such as Thailand, Jordan, Mexico and Brazil seem to be worse than U.S. students when it comes to science knowledge, but they have even higher levels of self-esteem when it comes to their beliefs about how good they are at science.
But compared to countries such as New Zealand, Australia, Sweden, Japan, South Korea and Great Britain, American students appeared to have an inflated sense of their science abilities. Students in those other countries were better when it came to scientific knowledge than American students, but it was the Americans who had the higher opinion of themselves as students of science.
The study, published in the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, focused on the academic performance of 15 year-old students. It was conducted by Eva Van de gaer, Aletta Grisay, Wolfram Schulz and Eveline Gebhardt.
The paradox between performance and students' impression of their performance has been noted before. The paper proposes an explanation for it: The reference group effect.
The study argues that countries have very different standards when it comes to science education.
In countries with elite science education standards, you can be a very good science student but, since you measure yourself against an elite standard of performance, you think of yourself as mediocre. On the other hand, if you live in a country with average (or mediocre) science standards, you might be just a decent student, but compared to general expectations of how good students are supposed to be, you feel like a genius.
In an interview, Schulz offered me an analogy. He asked me to think about a person who was 5-foot-10 in China and a person who was the same height in the Netherlands. The Dutch, on average, are taller than the Chinese.
"The person would in China probably think of themselves as a tall person," Schulz said. "If you go to the Netherlands, such a person would rather say, 'ah, I'm a short person,' because you compare yourself to those who surround you."
The same thing happens with science education, he said. Students in countries with elite science standards are much more likely to think of themselves as mediocre, whereas students in countries with mediocre standards are much more likely to think of themselves as elite.
Schulz works at the Australian Council for Educational Research, which studies educational issues in science, mathematics and reading.
Schulz told me the reference group effect could potentially be a double-edged sword: In terms of preparing students for competition with one another, it makes good sense to get a realistic sense of how good you actually are compared to, say, your peers in South Korea. On the other hand, Schulz said, there was also something to be said for having an inflated sense of your own abilities.
"For motivating students to take up science studies, how you perceive yourself is actually more important than how much you know," he said. "If your general belief (is) you're not that good at science, that might have this powerful effect of saying, 'Ah, I'd better stay away from it in the future.' "
STEVEN INSKEEP, HOST:
Next, let's talk about the power of positive, or not-so-positive, thinking. Not long ago on this program, we heard some research suggesting that student performance in class may be affected by what their teachers think of them. If the teacher gives off signals that the student is not a great student, the student will do worse. If the teacher gives off signals that the student is good, the student may well do better.
NPR's Shankar Vedantam joins us regularly to talk about social science research. He's been looking into a related finding. Hi, Shankar.
SHANKAR VEDANTAM, BYLINE: Hi, Steve.
INSKEEP: You're also looking into what students think about themselves. What did you find?
VEDANTAM: Well, I'm looking at something that looks like a paradox. So if you went to any school and you generally asked students, what subjects are you good at? the students who say they're good at science are generally, going to be the students who actually are good at science. The students who say they're good at math are generally, going to be good at math.
VEDANTAM: Right? And educators have known for a long time that if you ask students what they're good at, it's a usually reliable predictor to what they're actually good at.
INSKEEP: Sure. They're getting grades, and they know what they're comfortable with, right.
VEDANTAM: Now, it turns out, however, that this relationship between beliefs and performance breaks down at an international level.
INSKEEP: What do you mean, it breaks down at an international level?
VEDANTAM: Well, researchers recently tracked about 350,000 students in about 14,000 schools, across 53 countries - massive, massive study. And it turned out that if you looked at individual countries and individual schools, this link between belief and performance held in each school, and in each country. However, when you compared students between countries, the relationship didn't hold.
So let me give you an example. Students in the United States, for example, performed less well in science than students in New Zealand or Australia or Sweden or Japan or Korea or Great Britain. But when you asked the students, how good do you think you are at science? students in the United States say they are better at science than students in those other countries.
INSKEEP: OK, so why would that be?
VEDANTAM: So I spoke with Wolfram Schulz; he's a researcher at the Australian Council for Educational Research. And he told me this is the result of a psychological illusion; which is, when you ask someone to judge themselves, the way they do it is they compare themselves with those who are immediately around them, right? The problem is, people have different reference groups in different countries.
VEDANTAM: So if you look at somebody who is 5 foot, 10 inches tall, in China; and somebody who is 5 foot, 10 inches tall, in the Netherlands; they're the same height. But if you ask them, are you tall or short? they're probably going to give you very different answers in those two countries.
WOLFRAM SCHULZ: The person would, in China, probably think of themselves as a tall person. So you go to the Netherlands; such a person would, rather, say ah, I'm actually a short person - because you compare yourself to those who surround you.
VEDANTAM: So it's, you know, the little pond, big pond effect. And when you apply that to educational systems, it looks like some countries have more elite standards when it comes, for example, to science education. If you're a very good student in one of those countries, you're surrounded by lots of students who are really, really good. So you feel average. On the other hand, if you're in a country with lower standards, you could be decent. But when you compare yourself to those around you, you feel like a genius.
INSKEEP: So does that mean we should change our expectations?
VEDANTAM: Well, you know, like many of the findings of the social scientists, Steve, this one's complicated. And it's complicated because if students want to compete in a global marketplace, then yes, you actually want to have a very clear picture of how good you actually are. But there's a Catch-22 here. It isn't always helpful to have a perfectly accurate picture of how well you can do. And this is especially true, Schulz told me, when it comes to the subject of motivation.
SCHULZ: How you perceive yourself is actually more important than how much you know. If your general belief - you're not that good at science - that might have this powerful effect of saying, I'll better stay away from it in the future. You know?
INSKEEP: So being more brutally realistic about how good we are at science, might actually make us worse at science.
VEDANTAM: Well, the Catch-22, Steve, is that believing you are better than you actually are, can lull you into a sense of overconfidence when it comes to actual performance. But at the same time, believing that you're actually very good can motivate you to try a difficult subject that you might not have tried otherwise. And so what I take away from the study is that false beliefs are neither always a good thing, or always a bad thing. They're a tool. And what educators and parents need to do is to use the tool depending on the context - because false beliefs might help you when it comes to preparation; they might not be helpful when it comes to performance.
INSKEEP: Shankar, thanks very much.
VEDANTAM: Thanks, Steve.
INSKEEP: NPR's Shankar Vedantam. He's on Twitter @hiddenbrain. You can also follow this program @NPRGreene, @NPRInskeep and @MorningEdition. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR. | <urn:uuid:e5485179-69f1-4cdb-9aa4-c36ac7f79111> | {
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With the “new” TV season just launching what an appropriate time for The American Academy of Pediatrics to release an article (to be published in November Pediatrics) which looks at kids and their exposure to “background TV”.
In the study researchers conducted a survey to track children’s exposure to background television. They found that children between 8 months and 8 years of age are exposed to an average of 4 hours of background TV in a 24-hour period. Children who were younger or those from poorer homes were exposed to up to 6 hours per day. Having the television on when no one was watching or having a TV in a child’s room were other factors that contributed to even more background TV time.
I have watched a few of the new shows and I am continually amazed at the language that is on during prime time major network television, and forget about the cable channels, I think they can use any language they please. It certainly grabs my attention and I am sure that hearing that language for hours every day does not help a young child’s vocabulary. At least with appropriate new words! Little kids are parrots, remember.
Just recently I was seeing a cute 2 year old for his check up and on the list of the parent’s questions was, “talk about child’s swearing”. Now this is a lovely young couple, their only child (Mom also told me that day that she is expecting again) and they really did not know what to do about a few of the words that their son had picked up. They did not think that he heard the words from them but were concerned about his day care or his older cousins. Maybe background TV??
If you are have the TV on all day, think about who is around and if you are even listening or watching. I would encourage parents to have less TV time and more talk time with their children. Too much TV and even background TV can harm a child’s learning as well as their social play.
And if you are thinking about letting your child have a TV in their rooms, I would discourage this for a number of reasons including the language on TV. Tell your children they can have a TV when they have their own dorm room in college! Something to look forward to. | <urn:uuid:7655f1e9-219d-441b-a563-d581aa60c307> | {
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By: Doris Hausleitner
Date: September 2005
Teetering, the downy juvenile owl hops onto the edge of the cavity, wobbles its head around in a dizzying circle and furiously flaps its wings. The mother, perched on a nearby branch, keeps a watchful eye on her chick’s progress.
This fledgling Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis) is her hope for the future and the only addition to the dwindling population of Canada’s Northern Spotted Owls in 2005. A precipitous population decline has sparked concern among biologists and environmentalists alike.
Habitat modeling and population analysis suggests the historical population of Northern Spotted Owls in BC was around 500 pairs. With only 6 pairs and 9 individual birds, the Northern Spotted Owl is the most endangered bird in Canada.
What the Northern Spotted Owl has in common with the Western Screech (Otus kennicottii macfarlanei) and Flammulated Owl (Otus flammeolus), listed as endangered and threatened, respectively, is a requirement for old-growth habitat. The Northern Spotted Owl is resident in coastal and interior Douglas-fir forests and requires a home-range size of approximately 3,400 ha.
Scientists believe the Northern Spotted Owl’s need for old-growth habitat is related to reproduction, thermoregulation, and availability of prey. Their nests are in hollow chimneys, large cavities, branches, or are made from sticks. Spotted owls prey primarily on flying squirrels, pack rats, and other small mammals which can be readily found and captured in an old-growth forest. Additionally these owls have a tendency to overheat. In old-growth they can move vertically along temperature gradients to regulate their body temperature.
Flammulated Owls tend to be found in drier Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine forests in BC’s interior. They nest in old-growth habitat with a selection of available cavities and little undergrowth. Their breeding home-range size is 16 ha. Flammulated Owls are strictly nocturnal and prey upon moths and other insects. Due to the nature of their diet, they are migratory. They nest in British Columbia and winter in the southern USA and Mexico.
Western-Screech Owl habitat is associated with riparian areas and mature deciduous trees. In interior British Columbia, these owls occur in riparian forests containing black cottonwood, trembling aspen or water birch. The coastal sub-species is found in mixed forests of broadleaf maple, red alder, Douglas-fir and western hemlock. They are cavity-nesting individuals and their diet varies from insects to small mammals.
BC Hydro’s Bridge-Coastal Fish and Wildlife Restoration program, BC Conservation Foundation, Ministry of Environment and the St’at’imc First Nations have contributed to a study conducted by Doris Hausleitner and Vicky Young. Their objective was to inventory these three threatened and endangered owls within the BC Hydro footprint––land affected by dams.
Their research emphasizes the decline in the Northern Spotted Owl population in Canada and expands knowledge of the distribution of Western Screech and Flammulated owls in British Columbia. To learn more about the ecology and conservation of threatened and endangered local owls you are welcome to attend free presentations in:
Squamish: Monday, Sept. 26, 8:00 pm, Brackendale Art Gallery. (Hosted by the Squamish Environmental Society.)
Whistler-: Tuesday, Sept. 27th, 7:30 pm, Myrtle Philip Community School. (Hosted by the Whistler Naturalists.)
Pemberton: Wednesday, Sept. 28th, 6:30 pm, Room 111, Pemberton Community Center. | <urn:uuid:7d4fc200-60b6-4296-8e38-67e5c5db4451> | {
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Nuclear waste disposal: The definitive report condensed
Last updated at 12:58, Friday, 24 August 2012
The experts call it a “geological disposal facility”. Opponents call it a “nuke dump”. They all agree it’ll contain “high level and intermediate nuclear waste”.
A history-making vote takes place on October 11 which represents one of Cumbria’s most important ever nuclear decisions.A trio of councils, involving hundreds of community leaders, decides on whether West Cumbria takes part in a search to site a massive underground bunker containing the UK’s most toxic nuclear waste. Business Editor Ellis Butcher looks at the definitive report facing them.
This is the skull and crossbones stuff. The worst from the nuclear process, the residue from the bowels of nuclear reactors which lasts for thousands and thousands of years.
Some argue a repository will create hundreds of jobs year-after-year and lever a multi-million Government pay day for west Cumbria to sweeten the pill. Others argue it will cost jobs, wreck tourism and daub one of England’s finest landscapes with a big dirty nuke brush.
Few issues polarise opinion like the nuclear legacy conundrum.
We all know nuclear waste is produced. Less well known is that it is currently stored above ground at 36 sites in the UK – the vast bulk at Sellafield.
It’s a historical arrangement that needs to be modernised. The current storage arrangements also unnerves ministers and unsettles Government spooks forever scanning the horizon for the next terror threat.
The pressing question facing the UK is: “Where can we find a place to store all the bad stuff in the future, putting it out of harm’s way?
Underground was the last and the current Government’s thinking. Storing it in an engineered facility with the idea that the radioactivity reduces “over time”.
In short, Cumbria County Council, Allerdale and Copeland councils volunteered to try to help find the answer to this most urgent 21st century industrial question.
WHO’S BEHIND THIS?
This issue has occupied the 17-member West Cumbria Managing Radioactive Waste Safely Partnership (WCMRWSP) for three years.
It has been chaired by councillor Elaine Woodburn, of Copeland Council. Round the table, the partnership consists of representatives and mouthpieces from a vast range of organisations – private and public, from nuclear experts to farming representatives and all of Cumbria’s councils.
THE FINAL REPORT
The partnership’s final report – a hefty 270-page plus document neither proposes a recommendation for councils to follow, nor suggests an intended site. That was never its brief.
Instead it has overseen the complex evidence-gathering process. It was shared with about 2,300 people and organisations.
The final was signed off and is now the reference point for the issue.
Recently, it was released into the custody of decision-makers at Cumbria County Council, Allerdale and Copeland.
Between now and October, staff at these authorities and elected-representatives will be pouring over every single line with highlighter pens to inform what they stand up and say in a few weeks.
The report is available to download from the West Cumbria Managing Radioactive Waste Safely website.
THE GREEN CORNER
Naturally, the most vocal critics of the plan, the partnership and the report are the green lobby.
When the proposals surfaced, so did the opposition.
Long-standing Cumbria-based anti-nuclear campaigner Marianne Birkby, a wildlife artist based in south Cumbria, has been a critical opponent.
Ironically, her father worked at Sellafield as a young man. Marianne established campaign group Radiation Free Lakeland. It has seen Welcome To The Nuke District headlines in national newspapers, gained support from some scientists and found influential allies across the patchwork of parish councils which make up west Cumbria and its district seats of Copeland and Allerdale.
Radiation Free Lakeland was invited to formally join the 17 member partnership but declined.
Instead, it has maintained a distance on the sidelines – protesting, demonstrating, and issuing counter-challenges through the media. So too has academic Dr Ruth Balogh, of Save Our Lake District Don’t Dump Cumbria!.
It developed an associated website and blog and contributed a critical challenge to the partnership. Its opposition is clear.
It understands something needs to be done about nuclear waste but believes the Government of today and in the past has acted too hastily, deciding “without full research and ignoring scientific uncertainties, that deep underground disposal is the answer”. Dr David Smythe, a professor in geology, is also a significant critic of the approach.
In the simplest terms, the issue facing councillors on October 11 is this: Does west Cumbria want to put out its thumb now and embark on a journey – the final destination of which is 17 years away at least and would see a fully operational underground nuclear waste bunker being built in an as yet unidentified part of west Cumbria around 2040?
A bunker that at its shallowest could be deeper than the Eiffel Tower, and at its deepest longer than Scafell Pike?
How the vote goes remains to be seen. But many county and district councillors also have seats in the parishes – that means local residents to answer too.
Many local parish councils have already taken preliminary votes on this issue – the overwhelming majority against it being built on their patch.
How much real influence these initial grassroots expressions will carry in the conclusive vote in October awaits, but is likely to lead to some explosive future parish council meetings.
West Cumbria’s long-standing position as a UK and world nuclear centre means the proposal cannot be easily politically disregarded. If not here, where? If not us, who?
The economic arguments in a depressed economy will weigh heavily towards a yes vote, while the tantalising prospect of more multi-million pound Government funding being funnelled directly into west Cumbria could prove hard to turn down.
GET OUT CLAUSES
Irrespective of a yes or no, the authorities can still walk away from the whole idea at any of the next three stages still to go. A yes doesn’t mean commitment to build.
Diggers will not be breaking ground the next day. It simply commits the area to the next stage.
Eventually, this stage will focus on more comprehensive testing of the “geological suitability” of west Cumbria to house such a facility and radioactive materials underground.
Essentially, testing the ground for compatibility.
Opponents say the proof already exists – the soil in these parts isn’t right. Counter evidence argues that is not the case. Even one nuclear insider, who refused to go on record, questioned the chronology of the whole process.
“Why didn’t they just check the soil first at the start and save three years of work?” The answer is cost. Tests of this nature are so expensive you’d have to be sure you weren’t wasting money before putting pipes in the ground.
Allerdale Borough Council, Barrow Borough Council, Carlisle City Council, Copeland Borough Council, Cumbria Chamber of Commerce, Churches Together in Cumbria, Cumbria Association of Local Councils (CALC), Cumbria County Council, Cumbria Tourism, Eden District Council, GMB union, Lake District National Park Authority, National Farmers Union, Nuclear Legacy Advisory Forum, Prospect union, South Lakeland District Council, Unite union
First published at 12:57, Friday, 24 August 2012
Published by http://www.whitehavennews.co.uk
Have your say
One of the big not-so-secret issues of nuclear waste containment industry is that nuclear waste can be disposed of instead of stored.According to nuclear physicists and engineers at PACE (Planetary Association for Clean Energy), there are at least 12 technologies which work in different situations to eliminate radioactive waste⦠And more are being discovered.You can watch a video of Mark Porringa, former Chief Engineer at Chalk River, worldâs largest nuclear research reactor, neutralize Americium 241, a Radioactive Waste in about 11 seconds. The entire video is under 4 minutes.
http://zapnuclearwaste.com/the-nuclear-disaster-choice/The nuclear waste industry thrives on our risks and our dollars. Itâs time to eliminate radioactive waste instead of storing it like a precious substance at great costs.Radioactivity does not like to stay contained and itâs an unnecessary target for terrorists. Take a look and decide for yourself.
Well D you shouldn't want it buried in your area either - humans and human technology is not perfect. History has a habit of reminding us that we are not as clever as we think we are (Space Shuttle Tragedies etc)- THAT is why we should write it off -so take it to the middle of Afghanistan or somewhere similar)
View all 22 comments on this article | <urn:uuid:b6b87814-eea0-4ad9-b83d-e400f5f5cb95> | {
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Hacked Wiimote Used As Water Level Sensor.
We've all been entertained by Wiimote hackery in the past, but I for one can never tire of the new inventions constantly being cooked up by clever sausages like this guy.
Using the Wiimote and an LED light, William Luxemburg from the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands knocked together a water-level sensor, measuring evaporation. As you can see from the picture, a tub of water with a Wiimote pointing at a plastic boat is a simple and cost-effective way to achieve the same—or even better—results that pressure sensors costing $500 or more can produce.
Of course, it wasn't merely a Wiimote trained at a boat in a tub of water, which solved Luxemburg's dilemma. He re-programmed the Wiimote's output, and as it can sense movement better than a lot of other devices out there (closer than 1mm accuracy, as Wired points out), when it was connected wirelessly to a laptop he was able to receive real-time information on what the water level was doing in the tub.
Luxemburg doesn't sound like he's going to stop there however. He's intrigued by what else a Wiimote could be used on, if programmed the right way.
"If you have a structure that collapses and you have Wiimotes on the building, you could see how fast it falls"
That sort of information is priceless to the right party, and considering Wiimotes cost just $40, don't be surprised if you hear of plenty more innovative uses for Nintendo's little remote.
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Search for native plants by scientific name, common name or family. If you are not sure what you are looking for, try the Combination Search or our Recommended Species lists.
Search native plant database:
San Antonio River Authority
Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.
Yellow sweetclover, White Sweet Clover
USDA Symbol: MEOF
USDA Native Status: Cultivated, or not in the U.S.
Small, somewhat pea-like flowers, fragrant when crushed, are in long, slender, cylindrical, spike-like clusters rising in the leaf axils on a bushy plant.
Unpublished. Non-native. This tall, introduced legume has the fragrance of new-mown hay when crushed. Both this plant and yellow Sweet Clover (M. indicus) are widely used as pasture crops for nitrogen enrichment of the soil. They are also highly valued as honey plants as suggested by the genus name from meli, a Greek word meaning honey.
Bloom InformationBloom Color: White , Yellow
Bloom Time: May , Jun , Jul , Aug , Sep , Oct
DC , IN , OR Canada: AB
, SK Native Habitat:
Roadsides and fields. USDA Native Status: L48(I), AK(I), HI(I), PR(I), CAN(I),
Growing ConditionsWater Use: Medium
Light Requirement: Sun , Part Shade , Shade
CaCO3 Tolerance: High
BenefitConspicuous Flowers: yes
Fragrant Flowers: yes
Fragrant Foliage: yes
Butterflies and Moths of North America (BAMONA)
is a larval host and/or nectar source for:
Herbarium Specimen(s)NPSOT 0455
Collected Jun 5, 1987 in Bexar County by Harry Cliffe
Recommended Species Lists
Find native plant species by state. Each list contains commercially available species suitable for gardens and planned landscapes. Once you have selected a collection, you can browse the collection or search within it using the combination search.
View Recommended Species page
Record Modified: 2012-08-01
Research By: TWC Staff | <urn:uuid:c669ade8-9df6-4c6f-8a16-399b666ac1d8> | {
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Wind Energy Guide for County Commissioners
One of the key stakeholders associated with economic development are local government officials, who are often required to evaluate and vote on commercial wind energy project permits, as well as to determine and articulate what wind energy benefits accrue to their counties. Often these local officials lack experience with large-scale wind energy and need to make important decisions concerning what may be a complicated and controversial issue. These decisions can be confounded with diverse perspectives from various stakeholders. This project is designed to provide county commissioners, planners, and other local county government officials with a practical overview of information required to successfully implement commercial wind energy projects in their county. The guidebook provides readers with information on the following 13 topics: Brief Wind Energy Overview; Environmental Benefits; Wind Energy Myths and Facts; Economic Development Benefits; Wind Economics; The Development Process; Public Outreach; Siting Issues; Property Tax Incentives; Power System Impacts; Permitting, Zoning, and Siting Processes; Case Studies; and Further Information. For each of the topics listed, the guidebook provides an introduction that identifies the topic, why local government should care, a topic snapshot, how the topic will arise, and a list of resources that define and assess the topic.
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Feline asthma has been called by many other names, including chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and allergic bronchitis. Regardless of the name, it is a common feline ailment. Inhaled allergens cause sudden contraction of the smooth muscles around airways, leading to typical clinical symptoms. It is usually impossible to determine which allergens cause asthma in individual cats, but common ones include grass and tree pollens, cigarette or fireplace smoke, various sprays (hair sprays, deodorants, flea sprays, deodorizers), and dust from cat litter.
Feline asthma is found in all areas of the world and in cats of all ages. The prevalence in the general adult cat population is about 1%. The most common symptoms in cats with asthma are wheezing and coughing. The coughing has been described as a dry, hacking cough that could be confused with gagging or retching. Many cats are misdiagnosed as having hairballs! Paroxysms of coughing occur frequently. In mildly affected cats, coughing and wheezing may occur only occasionally. A few cats with asthma are asymptomatic in between acute and severe bouts of airway constriction. The most severely affected cats have daily coughing and wheezing and many bouts of airway constriction, leading to open-mouth breathing and panting that can be life threatening.
The symptoms of asthma can mimic other diseases, such as heartworm, pneumonia and congestive heart failure. A diagnosis is reached by using chest x-rays, a complete blood count, a feline heartworm test, and a technique to sample cells from the lower airways (transtracheal wash, bronchial wash, or bronchoalveolar lavage). Chest x-rays may be normal in some cats with asthma, while others will have signs of bronchial inflammation, collapse of the right middle lung lobe, and over inflation of the lungs.
Unfortunately, feline asthma is a chronic progressive disease that cannot be fully cured. Medications can reduce the symptoms of asthma a great deal, but may not be able to eliminate coughing fully. In recent years, veterinarians have found that the most effective therapy for feline asthma may be to use inhalers such as human asthmatics use. A mask and spacer system, called AeroKat®, has been invented to enable cats to use inhalers or puffers. This system is similar to the mask and spacer system used to treat babies and small children. ........ [Read complete article]
Cat Health Blog
Back to Cat Health Topics | <urn:uuid:b1f2aca5-0725-4e0c-8a3e-46a05309be84> | {
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Learn something new every day More Info... by email
Information traveling across a computer network or another type of telecommunications network typically comes in packets. Packets are smaller, "bite-sized" pieces of a larger chunk of information. Although telecommunication technology is generally reliable and seamless from the end-user's point of view, that is only because the computer does the dirty work. It constantly sifts through the packets, looking for fraudulent and corrupt data, discarding it when found. A burst error is a string of corrupt data, measured as the length between — and including — the first and last error signals.
For example, imagine sending a packet containing all of the letters of the alphabet, A through Z. If the recipient's computer "opens" the packet and finds that the first letter in the sequence is "Q" and the last letter in the sequence is "R," that is a burst error. The "burst" of data in the packet is corrupt.
Although in the example the first and last letters are defined as corrupt, that does not mean that every letter within the packet is damaged. Imagine that every other letter is as it should be; only position one, "A," and position 26, "Z," have been damaged. The number of correct bits of information between the damaged ends is called the guard band. In this case, the guard band would be 24, because there are 24 correct letters separating the two damaged ones.
Measuring the length of a burst error is simple. It is defined as the number of individual bits separating the very first occurrence of the error from the last occurrence, including the initial and final incorrect bits. In the previous example, the length of the burst error would be 26.
The causes of a burst error can vary widely. It is not always possible to measure them accurately. Generally, this corruption can occur through any number of sources, including signal degradation, packet loss, other types of network failure, or sending failure on the part of the computer. In networking, as in the real world, sometimes things go wrong. Fortunately, most forms of networking provide built in error-checking mechanisms, allowing a receiving computer to compare the actual received data against an impression of the data that was sent, allowing it to recognize whether something has gone wrong along the way. | <urn:uuid:387c10d5-b18a-4363-880e-d1cc5b368edd> | {
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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
- n. A brownish-gray deer (Odocoileus hemionus) of western North America, having long mulelike ears, large branching antlers in the male, and a black-tipped tail. Also called black-tailed deer.
Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- n. The blacktail or black-tailed deer, Cariacus macrotis: so called from the large ears. It is decidedly larger and more stately than the Virginia or white-tailed deer, and is next in size to the wapiti and caribou among the North American Cervidœ. The tail is very short and slim, and mostly white, but with a black brush at the end. The antlers are characteristic, being doubly dichotomous — that is, the beam forks, and each tine forks again; whereas in
C. virginianusthe beam is curved and all the tines spring from it. The animal is the commonest deer in many wooded and mountainous parts of western North America, but is not found east of the great plains.
GNU Webster's 1913
- n. (Zoöl.) a large deer (Cervus macrotis syn. Cariacus macrotis) of the Western United States. The name refers to its long ears.
- n. long-eared deer of western North America with two-pronged antlers
“There were no cattle in sight, nothing larger than a mule deer disturbed into flight by Sharon’s approach.”
These user-created lists contain the word ‘mule deer’.
macaw shipment, macerate sewage s..., macerate sewage s..., machine code, machine cycle, machine language, machine making, machine manufacture, machine rate, machine time, macroeconomic goal, macroeconomic policy and 5152 more...
The collocations below consist of nouns only. Noun-noun collocations are extremely frequent in science (just think of the names of species, chemical compounds or "scientist+invention" type collocat...
Animals that are described or defined by other animals
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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
- Not: noncombatant.
- Prevocalic form of nona-
- Used in the sense of not, to negate the meaning of the word to which it is prefixed.
GNU Webster's 1913
- A prefix used in the sense of not; un-; in-; as in
nonattention, or non-attention, nonconformity, nonmetallic, nonsuit.
- From Latin nona ("nine"). (Wiktionary)
- Middle English, from Old French, from Latin nōn, not; see ne in Indo-European roots. (American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition)
“Small Change Breakfast Tips 1. Make oatmeal with milk non- or low-fat for more protein.”
“The role of non- nuclear means of deterrence to effectively prevent conflict and increase stability in troubled regions is a vital issue.”
“If a teacher can show, by presenting months of collected evidence, that a student has earned less than an "A," then a non-"A" grade should certainly happen.”
“Rape and sexual violence are used not just as weapons of war around the world but as forms of coercion and a way to instill fear and used as bribes for female students in classrooms, a way to severely marginalize and control women, even in non- conflict areas.”
“Something larger that truly is a "happening" at all, simply that, and no less remarkable for it — the mass effort to throw off the non-"happenings" that circumscribe all our lives to unambitious, repetitive cycles.”
“Here are a few "non-"categories with suggestions for each to get you started:”
“Still, Fitch classified the use of ASBE standards and non-"Big Four" auditors as "key weakness indicators" for several companies.”
“To hear more from Scaling Green's Communicating Energy lecture series at Solar Power International 2011 SPI, please listen what these solar energy leaders had to say on the National Solar Jobs Census 2011 and the Solyndra non-"scandal" at Scaling Green.”
“Late last week, news broke that 75 probationary non-"tenured" teachers who were improperly fired under then-DCPS Chancellor Michelle Rhee would be re-instated.”
“Repeatedly claiming his abject non- success to be their number one priority, the Party of Lincoln facilitated much executive stumbling by tripping the President at every step of every way since day one.”
‘non-’ hasn't been added to any lists yet.
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Halloween: Its Roots and Traditions Around the World
Halloween is a holiday celebrated on the night of October 31st. Traditional activities include trick-or-treating, bonfires, costume parties, visiting "haunted houses" and carving jack-o-lanterns.
Irish and Scottish immigrants carried versions of the tradition to North America in the nineteenth century. Other western countries embraced the holiday in the late 20th century including Ireland, the United States, Canada, Puerto Rico and the United Kingdom as well as Australia and New Zealand.
Halloween has its origins in the ancient Celtic festival known as Samhain (pronounced "sah-win").
The festival of Samhain is a celebration of the end of the harvest season in Gaelic culture. Samhain was a time used by the ancient pagans to take stock of supplies and prepare for winter. The ancient Gaels believed that on October 31st, the boundaries between the worlds of the living and the dead overlapped and the deceased would come back to life and cause havoc such as sickness or damaged crops.
The festival would frequently involve bonfires. It is believed that the fires attracted insects to the area, which attracted bats to the area. These are additional attributes of the history of Halloween.
Masks and costumes were worn in an attempt to mimic the evil spirits or appease them.
Trick-or-treating, is an activity for children on or around Halloween in which they proceed from house to house in costumes, asking for treats such as confectionery with the question, "Trick or treat?" The "trick" part of "trick or treat" is a threat to play a trick on the homeowner or his property if no treat is given.
Trick-or-treating is one of the main traditions of Halloween. It has become socially expected that if one lives in a neighborhood with children one should purchase treats in preparation for trick-or-treaters.
The history of Halloween has evolved. The activity is popular in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, and due to increased American cultural influence in recent years, imported through exposure to US television and other media, trick-or-treating has started to occur among children in many parts of Europe, and in the Saudi Aramco camps of Dhahran, Akaria compounds and Ras Tanura in Saudi Arabia.
The most significant growth, and resistance is in the United Kingdom, where the police have threatened to prosecute parents who allow their children to carry out the "trick" element.
In continental Europe, where the commerce-driven importation of Halloween is seen with more skepticism, numerous destructive or illegal "tricks" and police warnings have further raised suspicion about this game and Halloween in general.
In Ohio, Iowa, and Massachusetts, the night designated for Trick-or-treating is often referred to as Beggars Night.
Part of the history of Halloween is Halloween costumes. The practice of dressing up in costumes and begging door to door for treats on holidays goes back to the Middle Ages, and includes Christmas wassailing.
Trick-or-treating resembles the late medieval practice of "souling," when poor folk would go door to door on Hallowmas (November 1st), receiving food in return for prayers for the dead on All Souls Day (November 2nd). It originated in Ireland and Britain, although similar practices for the souls of the dead were found as far south as Italy. Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593), when Speed accuses his master of "puling [whimpering, whining], like a beggar at Hallowmas."
Yet there is no evidence that souling was ever practiced in America, and trick-or-treating may have developed in America independent of any Irish or British antecedent.
There is little primary Halloween history documentation of masking or costuming on Halloween, in Ireland, the UK, or America, before 1900. The earliest known reference to ritual begging on Halloween in English speaking North America occurs in 1911, when a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario, near the border of upstate New York, reported that it was normal for the smaller children to go "street guising" on Halloween between 6 and 7 p.m., visiting shops and neighbors to be rewarded with nuts and candies for their rhymes and songs.
Another isolated reference appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920. The thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the turn of the 20th century and the 1920s commonly show children, but do not depict trick-or-treating. Ruth Edna Kelley, in her 1919 history of the holiday, The Book of Hallowe'en, makes no mention of such a custom in the chapter "Hallowe'en in America." It does not seem to have become a widespread practice until the 1930s, with the earliest known uses in print of the term "trick or treat" appearing in 1934, and the first use in a national publication occurring in 1939.
Thus, although a quarter million Scots-Irish immigrated to America between 1717 and 1770, the Irish Potato Famine brought almost a million immigrants in 1845–1849. British and Irish immigration to America peaked in the 1880s; ritualized begging on Halloween was virtually unknown in America until generations later.
Trick-or-treating spread from the western United States eastward, stalled by sugar rationing that began in April 1942 during World War II and did not end until June 1947.
Early national attention to trick-or-treating was given in October 1947 issues of the children's magazines Jack and Jill and Children's Activities, and by Halloween episodes of the network radio programs The Baby Snooks Show in 1946 and The Jack Benny Show and The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet in 1948. The custom had become firmly established in popular culture by 1952, when Walt Disney portrayed it in the cartoon Trick or Treat; Ozzie and Harriet were besieged by trick-or-treaters on an episode of their television show, and UNICEF first conducted a national campaign for children to raise funds for the charity while trick-or-treating.
Although some popular histories of Halloween have characterized trick-or-treating as an adult invention to re-channel Halloween activities away from vandalism, nothing in the historical record supports this theory. To the contrary, adults, as reported in newspapers from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, typically saw it as a form of extortion, with reactions ranging from bemused indulgence to anger.
Likewise, as portrayed on radio shows, children would have to explain what trick-or-treating was to puzzled adults, and not the other way around. Sometimes even the children protested: for Halloween 1948, members of the Madison Square Boys Club in New York City carried a parade banner that read "American Boys Don't Beg."
A jack-o'-lantern (sometimes also spelled Jack O'Lantern) is typically a carved pumpkin. It is associated chiefly with Halloween. Typically, the top is cut off, and the inside flesh then scooped out; an image, usually a monstrous face, is carved onto the outside surface, and the lid replaced. During the night, a candle is placed inside to illuminate the effect. The term is not particularly common outside North America, although the practice of carving lanterns for Halloween is.
In folklore, an old Irish folk tale tells of Jack, a lazy yet shrewd farmer who uses a cross to trap the Devil. One story says that Jack tricked the Devil into climbing an apple tree, and once he was up there, Jack quickly placed crosses around the trunk or carved a cross into the bark, so that the Devil couldn't get down.
Another myth says that Jack put a key in the Devil's pocket while he was suspended upside-down.
Another version of the myth says that Jack was getting chased by some villagers from whom he had stolen from, when he met the Devil, who claimed it was time for him to die. However, the thief stalled his death by tempting the Devil with a chance to bedevil the church-going villagers chasing him. Jack told the Devil to turn into a coin with which he would pay for the stolen goods (the Devil could take on any shape he wanted); later, when the coin/Devil disappeared, the Christian villagers would fight over who had stolen it. The Devil agreed to this plan. He turned himself into a silver coin and jumped into Jack's wallet, only to find himself next to a cross Jack had also picked up in the village. Jack had closed the wallet tight, and the cross stripped the Devil of his powers; and so he was trapped. In both myths, Jack only lets the Devil go when he agrees never to take his soul. After some time, the thief died, as all living things do.
Of course, his life had been too sinful for Jack to go to heaven; however, the Devil had promised not to take his soul, and so he was barred from Hell as well. Jack now had nowhere to go. He asked how he would see where to go, as he had no light, and the Devil mockingly tossed him an ember that would never burn out from the flames of hell. Jack carved out one of his turnips (which was his favorite food), put the ember inside it, and began endlessly wandering the Earth for a resting place. He became known as "Jack of the Lantern", or Jack-o'-Lantern.
There are variations on the legend:
Some versions include a "wise and good man", or even God helping Jack to prevail over the Devil.
There are different versions of Jack's bargain with the Devil. Some variations say the deal was only temporary but the Devil, embarrassed and vengeful, refuses Jack's entry to hell after Jack dies.
Jack is considered a greedy man and is not allowed into either heaven or hell, without any mention of the Devil.
Despite the colorful legends, the term jack-o'-lantern originally meant a night watchman, or man with a lantern, with the earliest known use in the mid-17th century; and later, meaning an ignis fatuus or will-o'-the-wisp. In Labrador and Newfoundland, both names "Jacky Lantern" and "Jack the Lantern" refer to the will-o'-the-wisp concept rather than the pumpkin carving aspect.
Halloween costumes are outfits worn on or around Halloween. Costuming became popular for Halloween parties in America in the early 1900s, as often for adults as for children. The first mass-produced Halloween costumes appeared in stores in the 1930s when trick-or-treating was becoming popular in the United States.
What sets Halloween costumes apart from costumes for other celebrations or days of dressing up is that they are often designed to imitate supernatural and scary beings. Costumes are traditionally those of monsters such as vampires, ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils.
There are also costumes of pop culture figures like presidents, or film, television, and cartoon characters.
Another popular trend is for women (and in some cases, men) to use Halloween as an excuse to wear particularly revealing costumes, showing off more skin than would be socially acceptable otherwise.
Halloween Originated in Ireland
Ireland is said to be the birthplace of Halloween. Much like the United States, the Irish celebrate the holiday with costumes, trick-or-treating, and community gatherings.
At those gatherings, typically after trick-or-treating, games are played, including a game called ‘snap-apple’. The game begins with an apple being tied to a doorframe or tree and players then attempt to bite the hanging apple. The game is much like ‘bobbing for apples’ here in the United States.
Want to know more? CLICK HERE for more information on how the Irish celebrate Halloween!
A Halloween tradition in Austria involves bread, water and a lighted lamp. Some of the locals will leave bread, water and a lighted lamp on the table before retiring on Halloween night. Considered a magical night, Halloween to Austrians was a way to welcome the dead souls back to earth.
In Belgium, some believe it is unlucky if a black cat enters a home or travels on a ship. Also, much like in the United States, Belgium citizens believe that it is unlucky for a black cat to cross one's path. On Halloween night, a custom there is to light candles in memory of dead relatives.
With the arrival of Scottish and Irish immigrants in the 1800s, modern Halloween celebrations in Canada began. Festivities include parties, trick-or-treating and the decorating of homes with pumpkins and corn stalks, as well as the carving of Jack O' Lanterns.
In China, the Halloween festival is known as Teng Chieh. Food and water are placed in front of photographs of family members who have departed while bonfires and lanterns are lit in order to light the paths of the spirits as they travel the earth on Halloween night. Worshippers in Buddhist temples fashion "boats of the law" from paper, which are then burned in the evening hours. There are two purposes to this custom: as a remembrance of the dead and in order to free the spirits of the "pretas" in order that they might ascend to heaven. "Pretas" are the spirits of those who died as a result of an accident or drowning and whose bodies were consequently never buried.
Want to know more? CLICK HERE for more information on Chinese Halloween traditions.
On Halloween night in Czechoslovakia, chairs are placed by the fireside. One chair is placed to commemorate each living family member and one for each family member's spirit.
While the Irish and Scots preferred turnips, English children made "punkies" out of large beets, upon which they carved a design of their choice. Then, they would carry their "punkies" through the streets while singing the "Punkie Night Song" as they knocked on doors and asked for money. Halloween became Guy Fawkes Night and moved a few days later. Recently, it has been celebrated on October 31st, in addition to Guy Fawkes Night.
Want to know more? CLICK HERE for more information on how the men, women and children of England celebrate Halloween!
Britain - Guy Fawkes Day
On the evening of November 5th, bonfires are lit throughout England. Effigies are burned and fireworks are set off. Although the day is around the same time and has some similar traditions, this celebration has little to do with Halloween. As Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation began to spread, the celebration of Halloween ended. In 1517, on Halloween, Martin Luther attempted to begin reformation of the Catholic Church. The formation of the Protestant Church was the result instead. They didn't believe in saints; therefore, they had no reason to celebrate the eve of All Saints' Day. However, a new autumn ritual did materialize. Guy Fawkes Day festivities were designed to commemorate the execution of a notorious English traitor, Guy Fawkes.
Want to know more about Guy Fawkes? CLICK HERE to learn more about why Britain commemorates Guy Fawkes Day.
France - la fête d'Halloween
In France, Halloween is not celebrated to honor the dead. It is considered an ‘American Holiday’ and until 1996, it was virtually unknown in the country.
However, because of the love of parties, fêtes’ and costume events in France, a rapid rise of the holiday has been noticed in recent years.
Foreign residents brought details of Halloween to the country for years before remnants of the day began to stick in French culture. In 1982, the American Dream bar/restaurant in Paris began celebrating Halloween.
The village of Saint Germain-en-Laye held a Halloween party on October 24th, 1996, in the middle of the day, to give locals an idea of what the holiday was all about.
So, do you want to know more about how the French celebrate Halloween? CLICK HERE to learn more about the revolution of Halloween in France!
To not risk harm to, or from the returning spirits, in Germany, people put away their knives on Halloween night.
Hong Kong calls their Halloween festivities, "Yue Lan", which translates into the Festival of the Hungry Ghosts. It is believed that spirits roam the world for 24 hours. To bring comfort to the ghosts, some believe that burning pictures of fruit or money will reach the spirit world.
Halloween is known as "Alla Helgons Dag" in Sweden. It is celebrated from October 31st until November 6th. "Alla Helgons Dag" has an eve, which is either celebrated or becomes a shortened working day. The Friday prior to All Saint's Day is a short day for universities while school-age children are given a day of vacation.
Want to know more about how other countries around the world celebrate Halloween? CLICK HERE to learn more about the festivities in Japan, Korea, Mexico, Latin America, and Spain!
|Before your ghosts and goblins trick or treat this year, parents should keep in mind some safety tips.| | <urn:uuid:fc3769ea-f601-4373-a40e-d275736e2153> | {
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"I am not saying they are not well-intentioned," said Zak Smith, staff attorney with the Natural Resources Defense Council. "But I am not sure their choices make them the best environmental stewards they could be."
The debate over sonars and whales has gone on for years. It centers on balancing the need to defend the United States, while safeguarding its natural resources.
It has also played out in court. In 2008, for example, the U.S. Supreme Court lifted sanctions placed on the Navy over its underwater sonar testing.
Environmental interests, said Chief Justice John Roberts for the majority, "are plainly outweighed by the Navy's need to conduct realistic training exercises to ensure that it is able to neutralize the threat posed by enemy submarines."
Smith argued that the use of lookouts aboard Navy ships is not fully effective.
"Most marine mammals don't spend much time at the surface," he said. "When they do, you better have good weather conditions to see them."
Smith points to other consequences from the use of sonar and other acoustic sources off California and Hawaii.
Government estimates for 2014 to 2019 indicate there may be about 2 million cases of temporary hearing loss among marine animals, Smith told CNN. "Marine mammals use hearing the same way we use sight" to find food, he said.
"This kind of constant barrage and harassment is not a recipe for healthy populations," Smith added.
Van Name challenged Smith's assessment, saying the 2 million number includes all behavioral and "temporary" responses, such as an animal turning its head, stopping feeding or moving out of the area. | <urn:uuid:8855f92b-1294-4209-acdf-e8b325538dc0> | {
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Functional Behavioral Assessments:
What, Why, When, Where, and Who?
Stephen Starin, Ph.D.
The recent amendments to IDEA are final. School districts are now required to conduct functional behavioral analyses of problem behaviors, under certain circumstances.
IDEA does not provide specific guidelines regarding the conduct of a functional
behavioral assessment. Each school district is left to its own devices
when interpreting the guidelines and may opt for lower quality standards.
What is a "Functional Behavioral Assessment"?
The term "Functional Behavioral Assessment" comes from what is called a "Functional Assessment" or "Functional Analysis" in the field of applied behavior analysis. This is the process of determining the cause (or "function") of behavior before developing an intervention. The intervention must be based on the hypothesized cause (function) of behavior.
Why Do Functional Behavioral Assessments?
Failure to base the intervention on the specific cause (function) very often results in ineffective and unnecessarily restrictive procedures.
For example, consider the case of a young child who has learned that screaming is an effective way of avoiding or escaping unpleasant tasks. Using timeout in this situation would provide the child with exactly what he wants (avoiding the task) and is likely to make the problem worse, not better. Without an adequate functional behavioral assessment, we would not know the true function of the young childís screaming and therefore may select an inappropriate intervention.
How Do You Determine the Cause or Function of Behavior?
There are three ways of getting at the function (cause) of the behavior:
(a) interviews and rating scales,
Several different interviews and rating scales have been developed to try to get at the function (cause) of behavior. However, reliability is usually poor and these should be used only as a starting point for systematic and direct observation of the personís behavior. Relying exclusively on interviews and rating scales should neverbe considered a functional assessment. Besides having poor reliability, it would never hold up in court with an expert witness.
A more reliable method involves directly observing the person's behavior in his or her natural environment and analyzing the behaviorís antecedents (environmental events that immediately precede the problem behavior) and consequences (environmental events that immediately follow the problem behavior).
Types of Problem Behavior
Problem behavior typically falls into one or more of three general categories:
(a) behavior that produces attention and other desired events (e.g., access to toys, desired activities),
Systematic Manipulation of Environment
In some cases, however, direct observation does not give a clear picture of the behaviorís functions and systematically manipulating various environmental events becomes necessary. The most common way of systematically manipulating the environment is to put the person in several different situations and carefully observe how the behavior changes.
For example, to determine the function of screaming, we could arrange for attention to be given to the child each time she screams and measure how frequently screaming occurs. We could also make demands on the child, terminating them each time she screams and measure how frequently it occurs. In addition, we could leave the child alone and measure how often screaming occurs. If screaming is more frequent when attention is given, we hypothesize that it occurs to get attention. If screaming is more frequent when demands are made, we can assume that screaming has served to let the person escape or avoid demands. Finally, if screaming is more frequent when left alone, we can assume that it is occurring because of its sensory consequences. This third method should be reserved only for situations in which the functions of behavior are not clear through systematic and direct observation.
What About Qualifications and Training?
An important question is "Who should be involved in the functional behavioral assessment?" The interview is important in gathering preliminary information that will guide later direct observation. As such, it is important to talk to the people who know the child the best: parents, teachers and significant others.
Direct observation should be carried out only by a person who has been thoroughly trained on collecting and analyzing this type of information. Directly manipulating environment events should be conducted only by a well-trained behavior analyst or someone else with a high degree of training and experience conducting these manipulations for they can pose danger to the person if not done correctly.
As can be seen, a functional behavioral assessment is more than a group of people sitting around a table trying to determine the cause. Although it is important to gather information from significant people in the personís life, it is not enough.
Someone knowledgeable about behavior must be in the classroom and/or family home directly observing and measuring the behavior. Although this takes time, it is usually time well spent because the intervention is more likely to be effective than one developed without careful consideration of the behaviorís function(s).
Donít Waste Valuable Time!
Time is precious.
Time should not be wasted on interventions (behavioral or otherwise) when
there is no evidence that this particular intervention is likely to work,
for this particular child, in this particular situation.
You can contact Behavior Analysis and Therapy, Inc. at (888) 423-4284 or on the Internet at http://www.behavior-analysis.org/ | <urn:uuid:556c76d9-dd9c-4d33-8069-ff29e6371d36> | {
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Someone saying negative things about the Harry Potter series practically elicits the same reaction as cursing motherhood, apple pie, and baseball--how dare anyone question something, anything, that motivates children to read? Reading is a wholesome activity. Reading is good. Reading is fundamental. Reading is the foundation for a literate, democratic society. Reading is the cornerstone of learning.
Reading is all that and more. The act of reading, as well as what we have access to read, is largely bound to cultural expectations and tastes. Intrinsic, dominant social values--generally class-based ideals--permeate the literature we consume as readers and as buyers. Moreover, these same values and ideals link to the place of the book and of literacy in a society. With the current dominance of television, film/video, and the Internet in our students’ lives, some suggest that the power of the mass media’s influence in North America bodes poorly for the printed word. Rather than lament the death of the book or the demise of young people’s reading skills in the Mass Media Age as many do, I want to argue here that educators need to examine our own and our students’ reading practices and preferences with the hope of discovering how literacy can straddle the real and the presumed divides between elite and mass cultural aesthetics that exist in society. In this context, then, Harry Potter’s real magic--both as a literary figure and as a media icon--is that the character bridges the loftier reaches of fiction and the lower realms of commercial enterprise. Because of his ability to span literature and consumerism, Harry is both delightful and disturbing in the messages he sends to youngsters. Consequently, the boy wizard becomes a pivotal element for showing students how contemporary reading and writing practices must include print and electronic forms.
A Tale of Two Harrys
To truly comprehend the complexity in media literacy, we have to take an interdisciplinary approach that embraces the fields of cognition, education, media theory, and literacy studies. This is because the act of reading makes certain demands upon the individual, especially in the Mass Media Age. As media theorist Joshua Meyrowitz writes in No Sense of Place, "A medium that is in short supply or that requires a very special encoding or decoding skill is more likely to be exploited by an elite class that has the time and the resources to gain access to it" (16). In this passage, Meyrowitz quintessentially describes the current state of reading. Given the heavy influence of electronic media in our society, book reading is a channel that is often given short shrift. Reading is a medium that depends upon finely developed encoding and decoding skills. As for reading being a codified skill made the most of by an elite class, the 1996 and 1998 NAEP reading and writing scores show an increasing gap between students in wealthier districts and those in poorer districts.
Likewise, Meyrowitz’s question of the access to reading material directly connects to the intersection of mass media and social class. Educators cannot overlook that book publishing is a multi-billion-dollar medium that generally depends upon short runs and big hits in the marketplace. This means book selections are resource driven, particularly in the young adult fiction market. If publishers can’t make a profit on a manuscript, then even the best ideas rarely go forward. While books are often elevated to a higher status than is television or movies, many teachers tend to forget that what we all read depends greatly upon publishing concerns. What teachers and students have access to in print is usually decided upon by large publishing houses that market books and by agents who frequently develop ancillary marketing deals for popular authors. All of this leads to the trouble with that popular boy magician, Harry Potter.
If teachers are astute, the trouble with Harry can be seen in any bookstore. The problem is not with the Harry Potter book series. Harry Potter the literary figure is a terrific motivator for children (and adults) to read, regardless of their socioeconomic class. The Potter story line mixes elements of high and low cultural tastes into an appealing blend that crosses class lines. Author J.K. Rowlings deftly blends the qualities of highbrow literary fiction--strong character development, emphasis on basic philosophical, psychological or social issues, and heroic figures--with the social stratification and action-drama sequences that reflect lower class entertainment. The collapsing of high and low cultural taste is not the trouble with Harry, though. The trouble is with Harry Potter the commercialized figure. This Harry Potter is an incredible temptation for children (and for well-intentioned adults) to purchase cheap plastic "Harry" eyeglasses, Halloween costumes, mouse pads, key chains, telephone calling cards, posters, and other sundry items placed around bookstore end caps and center aisle kiosks. Instructors should not forget the tons of Harryphernalia soon to follow once the upcoming movie is released. Harry Potter lunch boxes, thermos containers, and book bags loom on the horizon. A recent trip to the local drugstore showed me that even Reach toothpaste is game for Harry’s image. In short, more Harry, more Harryphernalia, more money. In these instances, Harry Potter the boy wizard of mass marketing becomes a much more ambiguous representative for the benefits of reading. Consequently, educators must ask the question, does the rise of this Harry Potter mean more children will be reading, more adolescents will be developing the love of language, and more students will be learning literacy skills?
The trouble with Harry, then, is there are actually two Harrys--one who promotes children's literacy skills and one who shills for any number of cheap consumer products. Frequently these two Harrys are conflated in the real world, and their conflicting purposes are sometimes overlooked by well-intentioned teachers. While many educators push to motivate their students to read and figure that if Harry motivates kids toward stronger literacy skills, then they are all for Harry. Yet, some forget that the hows and whys behind a person's reading sometimes are equally as important as the act of reading itself. How carefully and how critically a reader interprets the information presented to him or her in a given context is frequently as important as being able to read. Moreover, why someone chooses a particular selection to read or why someone finds a book appealing regularly reflects back to how a text is presented in the marketplace. These points are especially salient when acts of reading connect to media literacy. How and why we read information presented to us through the mass media can make the difference between naïve and critical decision-making.
Understanding Media Literacy in Educational Contexts
Teachers and administrators sometimes forget that reading is not necessarily a transferable act--the reading strategies used in language arts or English will not always cross disciplinary boundaries, for instance. Likewise, reading a book for pleasure is not quite the same process as reading for course work. Readers select information quite differently depending upon the situation in which they are reading. More importantly for this discussion, the act of reading print-based texts differs in varying degrees from reading other media texts. Literacy theorists Sherry Macaul, Jackie Giles, and Rita Rodenberg note the technological shift in literacy reflects a range of innovations "from the ways in which information is accessed and viewed to the processes and mediums by which messages are constructed and represented" (53). Therefore, in our media-affected culture, literacy is not a one-size for all situation; as we have directly seen with the rise of computer technology, literacy is protean. A child can be highly literate in one subject area, yet nearly illiterate in another. Clearly with respect to the degree of mass media influence and the volume of information bits streaming into their homes, most North American children and teenagers are woefully media illiterate. For all the viewing and message receiving these young adults do, a large number of them possess rudimentary levels of media literacy.
What Does it Mean to be Media Literate?
Being media literate means we have created knowledge structures--schema--to interpret or provide a perspective on the media messages that surround us. We cannot compare the cognitive processes involved in reading versus watching television or film, as they are not equivalent skills. More than the cognitive domain that dominates the traditional, academic "reading/writing" notions of literacy, though, media literacy spans emotional, aesthetic, and moral domains as well. Consequently, the schema media literate people generate function more like a multi-dimensional scale than the hierarchical scaffolding model generally associated with literacy studies. These media knowledge structures emerge when we actively engage in various media experiences and test those new media experiences against the skills and information we have gleaned elsewhere, such as from parents or family members, schools, religious institutions, or other authority figures. Prior media experiences can even provide the skills and information one needs to analyze current situations. So, regardless of how old we are, people continually generate new mental representations to accommodate changes in our media use. Therefore, our worldviews as well as children's and teenagers' worldviews are constructed and reconstructed through media use. That is why media literacy has become equally important as academic literacy in North American classrooms.
Great numbers of educators believe the myth that students are highly media literate because of their large amounts of media consumption. Media educators Ladislaus Semali and Ann Watts Pailliotet suggest otherwise; instead of children becoming increasingly more literate, these media-distorted boundaries "between school and home, fact and fiction, narrative and live reporting are confusing" (14). This is because youngsters, even the most media-savvy adolescents, are still building the multi-dimensional schema they need to develop the broad overall perspective people use to separate the superficial from the meaningful. Usually, children and teenagers operate with very limited knowledge structures about the media; they tend to focus on the recognition of surface information like song lyrics, television characters, actors' or characters' names, and so on. This surface information pattern closely models the basic sets of facts we find in reading textbooks or newspapers. That means children and others who can recite the entire Harry Potter ensemble or who can recall a book passage from memory may be strong readers or recallers of general information, and may be considered highly literate in the conventional sense. Yet their media literacy functions at a very low level, perhaps bordering on media aliteracy in that the surface knowledge is apparent but deeper levels of knowledge are missing. Educators must note that well-developed cognitive domains alone do not best serve a truly media literate person.
Many juveniles do not yet display an adequate degree of reflexivity about their role as interpreters of media information to demonstrate they understand the full range of emotional, visual, and moral value manipulation that occurs through the crafting and editing of messages (Potter 5-9). As such, it is conceivable that the Harry Potter many adolescent readers fell in love with in the literary series can, and most likely will, change dramatically as the young wizard's image moves to film and to a local fast-food restaurant near them in the future. However, inexpert student media users do not always see the changes one media representation has over another, particularly if the shifts involve a beloved character. They often miss the multiple layers of meaning that exist in media messages. This is because the youngsters' analytical, evaluative, synthesizing, abstracting, and inferencing abilities are not as finely honed as they need to be. Therefore, scores of young media consumers tend to be more susceptible in automatically accepting the prevailing ideas, morals, attitudes, and explanations presented by the media.
In all probability, the Harry Potter found in movies and commercials will correspond to recognized or desired personal characteristics familiar to children and teens, which in turn will establish an opening for advertisers and others to shape youngsters' attitudes about new film stars and products. This process, known as canalization, subtly influences people's attitudes by making them more receptive to a product through linking that product to our emotional needs (Potter 271). Hence it is highly plausible that through the media push caused by the film and its subsequent commercialization of all things Potter, the clever boy wizard will become a pitchman for any number of products directed at young consumers. Without more finely attuned media literacy practices, in all likelihood, scores of young adults will conflate the Harry Potter of literature with the Harry Potter of commercialism without developing the awareness needed to separate the types of media exposure the two Harrys offer them.
Harry Works His Magic Again: Transforming the Boy Wizard into a Study in Media Literacy
This leads us to how Harry Potter the literary character can teach educators ways to introduce media literacy to our students, regardless of their ages. Teachers know Harry Potter has the power to reach children and stimulate their conventional literacy skills. Students reading the Harry Potter book series engage in a wide range of sensory stimulation, as they layer their own images upon the sentences J.K. Rowlings produced. Writing and reading teachers clearly see how Rowlings's characters and stories can train young readers in the left-brain linguistic and analytical patterns they need to develop strong, sustained reading and writing abilities. Working through various scenes in the tomes, students develop creativity and analytic thinking as they interact with the storyline. Moreover, while reading these books, students who are active in the reading process internalize sequential speech or syntactic structures, all of which become important foundations for future learning. Then, too, through Rowlings's series young readers learn the conventions of the written texts, such as punctuation, capitalization, pagination, and paragraphing. These elements are not necessarily found in broadcast media, and items like punctuation and capitalization take on new forms in cybermedia.
From a cognitive perspective, one of the greatest concerns teachers should have with Harry Potter becoming a media icon connects to students developing stronger right-brain patterns, such as relying more upon holistic visual or verbal cues like color, motion, and sound effects instead of text-based cues to determine required information from a storyline (Healy 210-11). As a movie or commercial image, Harry Potter feeds upon the right hemisphere of the brain's need for novelty and for understanding the story's global context (Healy 124-25). Therefore, children and teenagers who become dependent solely upon the film or commercial versions of Harry Potter without the connection to Rowlings's books will most likely capture the narrative's gist, but they may miss the more interesting or important details connected to really understanding the tale. The danger in this is some students become untrained in the art of pursuing meaning and reflection in their reading and writing. In these instances, students will not grasp foreshadowing techniques like asking questions of what will happen next in the plot nor will they make mental connections to prior learned information. These are critical reading skills that do transfer to written communication, and educators need to discover ways to enhance these abilities in students whose primary leisure activity is television or film viewing.
Secondary areas to consider as Harry Potter moves toward film, video, advertising, and television are the types of effects the change from literary figure to media icon will elicit in young or adolescent viewers. Media influence is a two-stage process, displaying immediate and long-term effects. Immediate effects occur during exposure to a message or directly thereafter. Some of these outcomes temporarily tend to reinforce or extend an individual's schema. For instance, after seeing the Harry Potter movie, young viewers may adopt attitudes or behaviors that correspond to the hero or heroine. Alternatively, children may have heightened emotions connected to what happens to Harry or his friends for a short period during or slightly after the film. In these situations, youngsters may want to dress like or act like Harry or one of the characters for a period of time.
Other outcomes, though, depend upon long term exposure to messages that people internalize as cultural or personal beliefs. For the sake of argument, let us say the recently released Harry Potter movie becomes a pop classic in the same way E.T. or Star Wars did a generation ago. Children and teens see the film dozens of times, each time internalizing more of the messages sent through the movie. These messages are layered with more messages from TV news stories about the Harry Potter phenomenon, Harry Potter products, the stars of the movie, and so on.
Over time and repeated exposure, hypermnesia sets in. Hypermnesia occurs when individuals become more able to recollect data about a topic (Potter 281). Through shared hypermnesia, a group or a generation begins to bond through media socialization. Media socialization tends to happen when teens and others have repeated exposure to the same movies, cartoons, advertisements, news stories, talk shows, and so on. The recurring information crystallizes certain messages that are shared among the group. The trouble with Harry in this situation is young viewers begin to infer generalizations and beliefs about the world based on the strings of individual facts, events, and character portrayals narrowly transmitted through various media outlets. While these generalizations and beliefs may be mediated by many other outside sources, from parental attitudes and beliefs to cultural, religious, and regional influences, continued exposure to the same or similar media messages over an extended period of time does shape an individual's worldview. For youngsters, hypermnesia generated by the media can be strong enough to challenge these other mediating sources. Since most juveniles are still forming experiences to test their media knowledge, hypermnesia may have a greater effect on them compared to many adults.
Harry Potter the media image can also introduce students to a number of faulty reasoning traps, the greatest of which is the "halo effect." The halo effect is believing someone because we trust him or her or because we believe the person is an expert in a particular area. Because young readers of Harry Potter the literary figure have built a sense of trust in the character, this trust in the literary persona frequently transfers to the media image. Especially in advertising contexts, this ready-made trust between young reader and character can be exploited in ad copy to make suspect claims.
A second faulty reasoning method, the ecological fallacy, can also emerge. In this setting, a message would show a viewer that there is a causal relationship between two items merely because they occur simultaneously. For instance, the successful release of another Harry Potter book coincides with a blockbuster opening for the Harry Potter film. There may be a number of reasons for the book and the movie doing well that do not account for the simultaneous release, such as the time of year both are released or the amount of advertising dollars spent to create a pent-up desire for youngsters to purchase the new book or to see the movie. Sophisticated media users can detect the ecological fallacy; unsophisticated users generally do not. Many children and adolescents may not recognize all the underlying reasons as to why the book and film are huge successes and may want to see coincidences where there may not be any. Similarly, in these situations, inexperienced thinkers also may fall prey to post hoc fallacies. They may assume just because something preceded an event--such as the movie being released before the book--it is the cause of whatever transpired.
Certainly the "bandwagon" fallacy also can come to the fore in this context. If news reports, advertisements, and word-of-mouth reflects that everyone--or seemingly everyone--is watching, reading or buying Harry Potter, then inexperienced media consumers become easy targets for these powerful messages. Children and teens are particularly susceptible to bandwagon fallacies because their range of experiences with media messages and real life interactions are limited. The bandwagon effect is particularly successful with those who have a lack of self-esteem and want to be like others. To many young minds, if everyone is seeing the movie, purchasing the book, or buying Harryphernalia, the possibility of being left out of this consuming frenzy may play upon his or her self-worth. Without solid media literacy skills to dismantle bandwagon messaging techniques, adolescents remain especially susceptible to feeling like the odd one out if they do not purchase the latest item or see the hottest movie or buy the latest fashion.
Lastly, the distinct variations between the two Harrys may create intentional fallacies, which is the idea that what the message maker's intended meaning is what the viewers take it to be. Many times the media will construct intentional fallacies to shape our ideas about a product or a program. Usually, though, there is some degree of separation between the message's encoded meaning and how the audience decodes it. For instance, with the Harry Potter book series, the author intends the message to be a child's fantasy and the publisher intends for the book to be a huge seller. However, the readers may have a variety of different and unexpected uses for the book. For instance, readers may share or exchange copies of their books with others, thus reducing the numbers of copies sold. Or, adults might hold Harry Potter costume parties, where parents and their friends dress up like the characters of the book. Some parents might read the book aloud and tape their readings for younger children who cannot yet read. These uses subvert the original intentions of the book.
Children, too, can be shown how they might challenge media-generated intentional fallacies with their own multiple uses of the Harry Potter movie. With the film, the producers intend viewers to visit a theater, rent, or purchase the movie. They do not expect the audience to share or dub the VCR tapes or DVD discs for friends. Nor are the film's creators interested in how children and teenagers appropriate new meanings for the scenes, such as using the movie's language, characters or situations as a secret code to describe school, family or neighborhood relationships.
However, there is much more for us to consider with the two Harrys than the types of logical traps they can set for students. The shift from Harry Potter the literary character to Harry Potter the media icon should also have educators questioning how the change will further desensitize young readers' relationships with the printed word. J.K. Rowlings' books instill a sense of wonderment and surprise in young adults, as many teachers and parents can attest. Like the numerous media studies that repeatedly show watching even a single television program--especially if violence and aggression are featured--lowers children's sensitivity toward these actions, highly entertaining television shows, videos or movies filled with spectacular special effects also reduce viewers' impressions toward low impact programming. Reading and writing are very low impact programming forms. Both depend upon great skill in encoding and decoding messages in a particular context and the entertainment level is rooted much more deeply in one's special interests. Therefore, it is entirely plausible that for many youngsters a Harry Potter movie filled with incredible computer generated graphics or fantastic special effects will be far more entertaining and impressive than reading the series or writing about what they have read or seen. Rather than believe children and teenagers will turn to the movie version of Harry Potter because the story is easier to consume, though, educators need to realize that the amazing technological effects connected to the portrayal of a boy wizard will desensitize these viewers to the acts of reading and writing. This is a far more subtle use of the media desensitizing viewers than perhaps many are accustomed to, and one that directly affects how youngsters connect to the printed word.
More Than What the Hogwarts Academy Expected: Using the Magic of Harry Potter to Teach Media Literacy in Grades 6-12
The standard approach to instilling media literacy in children or teenage consumers is to inoculate them. Inoculation simply refers to the repeated exposure of audience's attitudes to various messages and claims with the purpose of making media claims less effective. However, inoculation is generally an unsophisticated approach to developing media literacy. Media outlets spend millions on psychographic and demographic information to subvert most inoculation techniques, and advertisers and programmers use inoculation to sway consumers and viewers toward specific products. So the activities educators would most likely line up to combat media messages more than likely pale in comparison to what skilled corporate manipulators do on a daily basis.
Instead of inoculating students to create media literacy, teachers might achieve more by using media commercialization as a significant learning experience for their classes. This is where the two Harry Potters emerge as central figures. Students can use their prior experience with the Harry Potter of literary fame to shape their current media knowledge structures. With the flood of Harryphernalia in bookstores and shopping malls, teachers can ask students to become critical thinkers about their own media consumption using the following writing exercise. Using excerpts of the film, commercials featuring the Harry Potter characters, or news stories related to the movie, have students analyze their potential for consumerism. The teacher writes ten ideas on the board related to media influence--for instance, opinion creation, opinion change, reinforcement, emotional reactions, imitation, nutrition, instant gratification, materialism, and blame. Students then determine what characteristics would need to be present in the film, commercial, or news story to influence them to see the movie, buy the product, or pay attention to the television story. This is akin to developing foreshadowing techniques in conventional literacy. To facilitate the next phase in the assignment, teachers fill the board with the class's responses.
Stepping back to examine what students generated is an important stage in encouraging students to develop reflexivity. Teachers should ask students to rank which attributes would influence them the most. Once this activity is finished, students write a short profile explaining how they might lower the probability of these attributes influencing children and teenagers to overconsume. To extend the reflection, teachers can have students probe their own reactions to Harry Potter that put them at risk for indiscriminate spending on Harryphernalia. In journals or in class discussion, students can question more deeply into those effects that play upon youngsters' self-esteem and how those influences shape a person's reasons for succumbing to media messages.
Beyond having students study their own habits as media consumers, teachers can motivate their classes to think about the indirect media effects on others using Harry Potter. In this instance, students generate examples where their friends formed an opinion based on media messages about Harry Potter without ever being exposed to the original event (book or film, for instance). Then after sharing these student-produced situations related to others, the instructor asks the class what their opinion is on Harry Potter found in the book, the movie, and the commercial. Using the chalkboard, the teacher puts forward all the student opinions. Once the class has finished airing its opinions, the teacher should ask whether the class's opinions are based on overheard media messages or from them being directly exposed to the book, the film, or the commercials. Students are then asked to write about what conditions changed their opinions about Harry Potter. Afterward, students should classify whether these conditions are connected to direct or indirect exposure to the media event. The point of this exercise is to show how discussing whether people are most affected by direct or indirect exposure to the media, which helps students discover the complexity of the media effects process.
Using media commercialization as a significant learning experience for reading, writing, and thinking suggests teachers need to show students how to adapt to new learning frameworks. Far too frequently, inexperienced users misinterpret media schemas as real world schemas, and the consequences generally run from the embarrassing to the dangerous. With children and teenagers, a lack of awareness connected to their misinterpreting media schema for real world schema can create anything from social faux pas to poor decision-making.
Again, most students' familiarity with the Harry Potter book series allows instructors to work with their classes to enhance the students' sensitivity to media schemas. As a class, teachers should have students select a chapter of one Harry Potter book to read as a group. Students take turns reading the passages, and while one student is reading, the others should take notes about the schemas. For character schemas, students would list the central figures and briefly describe them. To explain the narrative schema present in the chapter, students need to jot down the important events that occur. Likewise, to determine setting schema, students write two or three things that take place in the setting and two or three items that would never occur in the setting. Students identify thematic schema in the chapter by briefly summarizing what was the chapter's moral or intended moral. Finally, to discover the chapter's rhetorical schema, students list the author's purpose for writing this chapter. Was Rowling trying to entertain, to inform, to persuade, to fantasize, or to achieve a number of purposes?
Students repeat this schema identification activity again, this time while watching a ten to fifteen minute portion of the Harry Potter movie. Lastly, the teacher should show about ten to fifteen minutes of television advertisements for Harryphernalia, and students once more categorize the schema.
Upon completing the three exercises, the class discusses its findings. Students should be asked what, if any, schematic elements stayed the same across the examples. What schematic elements differed? Students need to consider whether a change in media generated a change in the schematic elements. Students also should talk about whether the media schemas and genres affect how people receive messages (adapted from Potter 89).
These activities illustrate how teachers can work with students to reduce their levels of mindless exposure to any media material, whether print or electronic. Students discover ways to hone their media reading skills, and they learn that their passive reading of the media leads to media effects clouding their thinking far more pervasively than usual. Instead of making claims in their argument--e.g., that parents or some other authority should control media messages directed toward children, a common byproduct of inoculation--youngsters who become active readers of the media determine how to negotiate the information presented to them. This is an especially important ability for those young people who form parasocial relationships with media characters based on the character's attractiveness or sociability. Passive media readers rarely consider how storylines and contexts shape a character's likability or personality; therefore, these viewers are regularly affected by hypermnesia. Active media readers, however, question storylines and contexts as well as external media messages sent by advertisers and news reports about these characters. Consequently, these children and teenagers develop the analytical skills that allow them to separate the entertainment qualities from whatever informational content exists. As they increase their analytical skills through repeated media literacy exercises, students expand their abilities to recognize how a change in medium can make a difference in how a message is constructed and received. In other words, students discover how to be "situationally sensitive" (Simons, Morreale, and Gronbeck 76) toward mass media messages.
Teachers who draw upon cross-media comparisons in their assignments do well in showing students how the same information is presented differently through various genres. Using the activities presented earlier in this paper, instructors help students understand the ways in which a message affects viewers. To extend this idea into students' writing, teachers can have the class keep a journal related to all the Harry Potter news stories, radio jingles, Internet ads, and television commercials they see for two weeks. Students write down what elements of the messages appeal to them--colors, sounds, melodies, graphics, and so on. At the end of the two week period, have students write Harry Potter messages for different media--a newspaper article, a radio or television ad, a billboard, a short scene from the next movie, or a news report for a local station on the Harry Potter phenomenon. The process teaches students that writing effective media messages is sometimes difficult. Since successful media messages depend upon a number of artistic qualities to appeal to viewers, students learn about the aesthetic dimension of the media (adapted from Potter 381). The class quickly discovers that those elements that work best in one medium often will not transfer. Consequently, students must learn how to work with various linguistic, aural, and visual aspects to create expert sounding media messages.
Developing media literacy frameworks for young adults requires educators to move beyond the usual inoculation or academic literacy approaches. Instructors must think of literacy with a much wider goal in mind, as reading and writing have become far more complex in the Information Age. Just as instructors present critical thinking skills in reading and writing, they must also now include critical viewing to the literacy mix. Since youngsters have constructed basic media literacy frameworks by the time they enter school, teachers need to help them move toward advanced abilities so children learn not to take media information at face value. This suggests that literacy is, indeed, rooted in both social and technological practices, as educational theorist B.C. Bruce notes (303). Students' early learning experiences are grounded in commingled forms and representations of sound, animation, moving images, and electronically generated meanings (Macaul et al. 55). These practices affect how students react to the printed word in academic settings. Therefore, teachers must come to terms with an expanded view of literacy that encompasses these influences upon reading and writing.
Mass media and media commercialization do not have to destroy traditional notions of literacy. Students who understand that informational flow patterns shift with a change in medium may better understand a society that is becoming increasingly media-saturated. Even though teachers are incorporating media literacy activities in their classes, academic literacy skills should not suffer, as students still are able to use reading and writing to test new ideas and propose new knowledge structures even though the characters or images they use for inquiry are different. The result of merging print and electronic literacy abilities may be that students move toward developing an integrated notion of reading and writing across multiple media genres as well as becoming more media savvy.
Pleasure and Literacy
Before concluding, let me suggest that Harry Potter stories do bring many people who are young and old a great sense of pleasure. But, as media scholars Lawrence Grossberg, Ellen Wartella, and D. Charles Whitney suggest, "[p]leasure is a deceptively simple notion [...] it is in fact a very complex phenomenon, and we actually know very little about the mechanisms of the production of pleasure" (253). So much of what defines pleasure is emotionally generated. Yet we should not forget that pleasure is also economically and culturally situated. Whether one reads to escape the mundane, to reinforce one's self through identification with a character, to live vicariously through another's experiences, to feel catharsis, or for any number of other reasons, all bear some connection to a media product--the book. If pleasure relates to traditional literacy, then why not have pleasure link up with media literacy to interrogate what we see on television, through an advertisement, or in a film?
Harry Potter can teach reading and writing instructors how to bring media literacy into their classrooms through the introduction of pleasure. Educators recognize the young magician's power to charm children and teenagers into developing a love of words. Schoolteachers and others, however, must also realize the boy wizard can cast many unwanted spells upon young audiences as a media pitchman. Ultimately, the trouble with Harry is that until teachers and students recognize that he sends a number of messages beyond his literary self--and we all must learn how to address these messages to function in various situations--in most writing classes literacy will remain segregated between a privileged print and a mass electronic form.
A parallel example of hypermnesia would be how late-twentysomethings bond around the values and images linked to The Brady Bunch. For a short period in the late 1980s - early 1990s, there was Brady material across all media. My college students during that time could not only recite the entire Brady Bunch theme song, but could reel off lengthy passages from episodes and arcane facts about the program. Similarly, I see my current group of college students display hypermnesia over The Simpsons television program. Based on these two phenonmena, a similar occurrence with Harry Potter should be expected.
The classroom exercises are designed for grades 6-12. All activities can be adjusted to meet the demands of class size, student demographics, and teacher or departmental expectations for grade level performance. My purpose is not to create a one-size-fits-all approach to introducing media literacy. Rather, I hope to generate a context in which teachers adapt the ideas here for their own classroom activities. Since there is little advertising done in advance of the Harry Potter movie, I suggest interested teachers look in local pharmacies, grocery stores, and bookstores to note the wide array of items carrying the Harry Potter image that are available for purchase. A recent issue of Vanity Fair magazine (http://www.epicurious.com) devoted its main story to the upcoming Harry Potter phenomenon.
These conditions can be explained as parental comments, friends' comments, newscasters' comments, or other attitudes displayed by institutions such as church, school, government, sports, and so on.
W. James Potter defines various media schema as character schema (stereotypical images that viewers instantly recognize), narrative schema (storytelling formulas that cue viewers to the genre), setting schema (places that influence viewer expectations), thematic schema (character behaviors that interact with the first three schemas to provide viewers with a moral to the story), and rhetorical schema (the primary contribution of the story--whether to inform, entertain, persuade, create a fantasy, and so on) (74).
Bruce, B.C. "Literacy Technologies: What Stance Should We Take?" Journal of Literacy Research (29) 1997: 289-309.
Healy, Jane M. Endangered Minds: Why Children Don't Think--and What We Can Do About It. New York: Touchstone, 1990.
Grossberg, Lawrence, Ellen Wartella, and D. Charles Whitney. Mediamaking: Mass Media in a Popular Culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998.
Macaul, Sherry L., Jackie K. Giles, and Rita K. Rodenberg. "Intermediality in the Classroom: Learners Constructing Meaning Through Deep Viewing." Intermediality: The Teacher's Handbook of Critical Media Literacy. Ed. Ladislaus Semali and Ann Watts Pailliotet. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999.
Meyrowitz, Joshua. No Sense of Place: The Impact of Electronic Media on Social Behavior. New York: Oxford UP, 1985.
Potter, W. James. Media Literacy. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001.
Semali, Ladislaus M, and Ann Watts Pailliotet. Intermediality: The Teacher's Handbook of Critical Media Literacy. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999.
Simons, Herbert, Joanne Morreale, and Bruce Gronbeck. Persuasion in Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001.
U.S. Department of Education. NAEP 1996: Trends in Writing. Office of Educational Research and Improvement. National Center for Educational Statistics. Washington, DC: 1999.
—. NAEP 1998: Trends in Writing. Washington, DC: 2000.
Citation Format: Penrod, Dane. "The Trouble with Harry: A Reason for Teaching Media Literacy to Young Adults." The Writing Instructor. 2001. http://www.writinginstructor.com/penrod.html (Date Accessed).
Review Process: Diane Penrod's essay was accepted for publication following blind, peer review. | <urn:uuid:1f70ece4-0de2-48d6-8bba-6069574ac50b> | {
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WebMD Medical News
Louise Chang, MD
Jan. 15, 2009 -- The largest study ever to track bipolar disorder and
schizophrenia within families offers evidence that the two psychiatric
disorders share a common genetic cause.
For more than a century the psychiatric community has debated whether
schizophrenia and bipolar disorder were two distinct disorders or were more
Over the course of their illnesses, many patients experience similarities in
certain symptoms characteristic of both, such as manic mood swings in bipolar
disorder and psychosis in schizophrenia.
Recent genetic studies suggest a common genetic cause for the two
conditions. But earlier studies in families have not supported this conclusion,
finding no increase in bipolar disorder in family members of schizophrenics and
In an effort to help settle the question, researchers in Sweden linked a
comprehensive national health registry to equally comprehensive hospital
Three decades of registry and hospital data (1973 to 2004) involving 9
million Swedes from 2 million families were analyzed to determine risk for
schizophrenia and bipolar disorder among biological and nonbiological relatives
of patients with one or both of the disorders.
Close to 36,000 people with schizophrenia and 40,500 people with a diagnosis
of bipolar disorder were identified.
The analysis revealed that:
Shared and non-shared environmental factors also contributed to risk, but
they were less important influences than genetics.
The findings appear in the Jan. 17 issue of the journal The
"It is time that we rethink the way we view these disorders," study
co-author Christina Hultman, PhD, tells WebMD. "And it is clear that we
need more genetic studies to help us better understand this shared
In an editorial accompanying the study, Cardiff University dean of medicine
Michael Owen, MD, PhD, suggested that the earlier family studies were far too
small to show the genetic link between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
In an interview with WebMD, Owen called the latest research very strong,
with major implications for how patients are managed.
"When someone receives a diagnosis of schizophrenia it is easy for
clinicians to overlook mood disorder and other symptoms that don't fit with
that diagnosis," he says. "The same is true for psychotic symptoms that
may occur in people labeled with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder."
He adds that it is important for clinicians to recognize that symptoms can,
and often do, change over time.
"Most patients don't fit neatly into categories, and the more questions
you ask the more likely you are to find a combination of psychotic and mood
symptoms," he says.
John H. Krystal, MD, of Yale University Medical Center and the VA
Connecticut Healthcare System, agrees.
He tells WebMD that psychiatry has long struggled with "a gray zone"
of patients who do not neatly fit into the categories of bipolar disorder and
He adds that the new research could have major implications for the
development of new treatments for the psychiatric disorders.
SOURCES:Lichtenstein, P. The Lancet, Jan. 17, 2009; vol 373: pp 234-239.Christina M. Hultman, PhD, associate professor, department of medical
epidemiology and biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.Michael J. Owen, MD, PhD, dean of medicine, Cardiff University, Wales.John H. Krystal, MD, professor of clinical pharmacology; deputy chairman for
research, department of psychiatry, Yale University Medical School, New Haven,
Here are the most recent story comments.View All | <urn:uuid:4449755f-5e86-4ed6-bfee-bc6fe306630f> | {
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The term sexually transmitted disease is used to cover the more than 25-30 infectious organisms that are spread through sexual activity. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are almost always spread from person to person by sexual activity. These infections are most easily spread by vaginal or anal intercourse, and sometimes by oral sex. Some STIs can also be spread through blood, particularly among intravenous (IV) drug users who may be sharing drug equipment (needles, syringes, or “works”). In addition, pregnant women with STIs may pass their infection to infants in the uterus (womb), during birth, or through breast-feeding.
Most people with STIs have no symptoms. Without treatment these diseases can lead to major health problems such as not being able to get pregnant (infertility), permanent brain damage, heart disease, cancer, and even death. If you think you have been exposed to a sexually transmitted disease, you and your sex partner(s) should visit a health clinic, hospital or doctor for testing and treatment.
Most STIs affect both men and women, but in many cases the health problems they cause can be more severe for women. If a pregnant woman has an STI, it can cause serious health problems for the baby.
If you have an STI caused by bacteria or parasites, your health care provider can treat it with antibiotics or other medicines. If you have an STI caused by a virus, there is no cure. Sometimes medicines can keep the disease under control. Correct usage of latex condoms greatly reduces, but does not completely eliminate, the risk of catching or spreading STIs.
Sexually Transmitted Infections:
Sexually Transmitted Disease Information
Prescott: (928) 583-1000 | <urn:uuid:e58623c3-2c6a-4bdd-a233-abc19952dfc4> | {
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Origin: ModL: so named (1789) by M. H. Klaproth (see tellurium), its discoverer, after Uranus, recently (1781) discovered planet + -ium
See uranium in American Heritage Dictionary 4
noun Symbol U
Origin: New Latin ūranium
Origin: , after Ūranus, Uranus; see Uranus. Word History: Some chemical elements, such as ytterbium and berkelium, derive their names from the places they were discovered, but the element uranium owes its name to an earlier scientific discovery, that of the planet Uranus. Sir William Herschel, who discovered Uranus in 1781, wanted to name the planet Georgium sidus, “the Georgian planet,” in honor of George III; others called it Herschel. Eventually convention prevailed and the planet came to be called Uranus, like Mercury and Pluto the name of a heavenly deity in classical mythology. This god, called Ouranos in Greek (Latinized as Uranus), was chosen because he was the father of Saturn (Greek Kronos), the deity of the planet next in line, who himself was the father of Jupiter (Greek Zeus), the deity of the next planet. The name of this new planet Uranus was then used in the name of a new chemical element discovered eight years later by M.H. Klaproth. Klaproth, a German scientist, gave it the Latin name uranium in honor of the discovery of Uranus. Uranium passed into English shortly thereafter, being first recorded in the third edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, published in 1797.
Learn more about uranium | <urn:uuid:9b785506-cfa9-4e88-afe2-9348439e2c51> | {
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