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ney and natural genius to create a multi national corporation known as lexcorp that would ultimately come to dominate the city of metropolis one of lex s earliest projects was an experimental airplane and other similar technology themed enterprises would be the hallmark of lexcorp s output lex became the most powerful man in metropolis both financially and in the world of organized crime lex would create havoc on the streets by selling weapons to the gangs of metropolis and using his primarily female staff of underlings to keep blackmail files on all of the major organized crime groups in the city so that lex could use them to further any schemes he had planned however this all ended with the arrival of superman superman several months after superman first appeared on the scene terrorists attacked a society gala aboard lex luthor s yacht luthor observed superman in action and then tried to hire him as a bodyguard after superman defeated the terrorists but when luthor admitted that he d anticipated the attack |
but allowed it to occur in order to witness superman first hand mayor berkowitz deputized superman to arrest luthor for reckless endangerment luthor vowed to destroy superman for this humiliation and he has since devoted much time and energy to that goal luthor was a man driven to be the best having fought his way up from lowly beginnings by his own dubious efforts and was resentful of how superman was given his powers by random fate of birth superman survived subsequent attempts luthor made on his life but had never been able to prove luthor s role in the attacks cancer and cloning luthor soon acquired the only sample of kryptonite on earth from the kryptonite powered cyborg metallo whom lexcorp abducted just before metallo succeeded in killing superman fashioning a ring from the alien ore deadly to superman luthor began wearing it constantly to ward off his enemy unfortunately luthor suffered from a severe cancer in the one nine nine zero s caused by long term radiation exposure to his kryptonite ring befor |
e man of steel kryptonite exposure had not been thought to be harmful to non kryptonian life forms cover art to supergirl lex luthor special one by kerry gammill luthor s hand had to be amputated to prevent the cancer s spread but unfortunately by then it had already metastasized it was eventually determined that the disease was terminal luthor faked his own death shortly afterward by taking his personally designed jet the lexwing on a proposed trip around the world and crashing it in some mountains using this as cover for the transplant of his brain into a healthy clone of himself which he then passed off as his hitherto unknown illegitimate australian son and heir his deception helped by his new body having a full head of red hair and a beard luthor used his new identity as his own son to seduce supergirl and continue to torment superman from the shadows however everything quickly fell apart when luthor s new clone body began to deteriorate and age at a rapid rate his being one of many clones that were beco |
ming ill at the time this caused luthor to begin to slip as lois lane discovered proof that lex luthor had years earlier murdered a female lexcorp employee and framed an innocent man for the murder this led lois to find out the truth about lex faking his death and being his own son which caused luthor to systematically destroy lois life and have her fired from the daily planet lois fought back and with help from superman exposed the truth about lex luthor his faked death and his evil criminal activities to the public luthor right before his body became so old that he couldn t move or communicate activated a doomsday plan to destroy metropolis the city was burned to the ground and thousands killed as luthor became a permanent prisoner in his cloned body however aid would come in the form of the demon neron luthor promptly sold his soul in exchange for neron restoring his body to perfect health returning to a rebuilt metropolis luthor turned himself over to the police and was put on trial where he was acquitted |
of all crimes when luthor claimed to have been kidnapped by renegade scientists who replaced him with a clone who was responsible for all the crimes he was charged with philanthropist lex luthor had cultivated a popular image as a great philanthropist he had been instrumental in reverse engineering alien technology for use in general consumer goods upgrading metropolis into a true city of tomorrow when gotham city was destroyed by an earthquake and then abandoned by the american government in the late one nine nine zero s it was lexcorp that took up the massive task of rebuilding the city later luthor also played an instrumental role in assisting the justice league in recharging the sun during the final night storyline love and marriage despite his hatred for lois lane for temporarily bringing down his evil criminal empire lex luthor has an unspoken love for lois lane on several occasions luthor has commented that had superman not arrived in metropolis lex would have used his time and energy instead to roman |
tically pursue lois and marry her the post crisis lex luthor has been married eight times though the first seven marriages occurred off panel in luthor s past while his previous seven marriages were hinted to have based on love or as close to the concept of love as lex luthor understands it luthor s eighth marriage to contessa erica alexandra del portenza or the contessa as the characters call her was a marriage that was based on mutual manipulation and greed the contessa had bought controlling interest in lexcorp after luthor was exposed as evil forcing lex into a marriage with her in order to regain control over the company the marriage was doomed from the beginning as the two fought constantly and never loved each other the contessa quickly became pregnant with lex s child and began using the unborn child to dominate lex into doing her bidding luthor s response to contessa s actions was to use her desire to be unconscious during child birth to lock her in the basement of his corporate headquarters in a per |
manantly drugged unconscious state luthor took over as a single father to his daughter named lena after his childhood sweetheart and vowed never to marry again stating that he wanted to never have to share his daughter s love with anyone else it was later implied that lex killed the contessa months afterword though no body was ever found cover to lex two zero zero zero one featuring lex luthor as president of the united states art by glen orbik president of the united states lex became the four three rd president of the united states in two zero zero zero winning the election on a platform of promoting technological progress his first action as president was to take a proposed moratorium on fossil based fuels to u s congress in hopes of putting a flying car in every garage despite luthor s more villainous traits he was assisted by the extreme unpopularity of the previous administration due to its mishandling of the gotham city earthquake crisis ironically batman would ultimately learn that luthor was involved |
in the mishandling of the entire gotham city rebuilding process resulting in bruce to sever all military contract ties between the u s government and his company wayne enterprises in protest of lex luthor s election as president luthor responded in kind by ordering the murder of batman s lover vesper fairchild and framing bruce wayne for the murder an early triumph of his political career was the our worlds at war crisis in which he coordinated the u s army earth s superheroes and a number of untrustworthy alien forces to battle the story s villain imperiex however as it would later be revealed lex knew about the alien invasion in advance and did nothing to alert earth s heroes to it discovering superman s secret identity lex luthor finally figured out superman s secret identity in two zero zero two when a lowly scientist was able to get a meeting with lex and reveal top secret government documents showing the rocket containing baby superman crashing near the farm of martha and jonathan kent killing the scie |
ntist lex surprisingly decided to keep the knowledge a secret even as clark kent took the fall for lois publishing proof that lex luthor knew of the alien invasion of our worlds at war but had opted not to make any defensive plans to save the people of kansas from attack clark was fired from the daily planet as a result of the flap when another superman villain manchester black used his telepathic powers on an unknowing lex to allow him to pass an assortment of lie detector tests including wonder woman s lasso of truth to prove that lois and clark s story was a lie when manchester black tried to kill superman and his friends and family members luthor surprisingly came to superman s aid when black tried to kill lois in the end manchester black was defeated and as revenge for lex helping superman defeat him black erased all knowledge that clark kent was superman from lex s mind before taking his own life fall from power in two zero zero four luthor once again overplayed his hand as his success at framing bruce |
wayne for the murder of vesper fairchild caused him to get arrogant in an attempt to blame superman for a kryptonite meteor approaching the earth he instead raised questions about himself as superman and batman uncovered a plot of luthor s to further torment batman that involved tricking batman into thinking that the superman villain metallo was the man who killed batman s parents in desperation he used a variant combination of the super steroid venom a steroid mainly used by batman villain bane liquid synthetic green kryptonite and an apokaliptian battlesuit to battle superman directly unfortunately the madness that is a side effect of venom took hold and he revealed his true colors during the battle the final straw was the revelation that talia head the acting ceo of lexcorp had sold all the company assets to the wayne foundation he has since gone underground leaving the presidency to his vice president pete ross ross later abdicated however leaving the presidency to a man named jonathan horne retcons and r |
evisions the two zero zero four one two issue limited series superman birthright once again altered aspects of luthor s history such as luthor s youth in metropolis and his first encounter with superman in favor of introducing elements from the two zero zero one television series smallville among the elements of smallville introduced into the comics canon include lex s problematic relationship with his wealthy father lionel luthor birthright also reintroduced the notion of lex spending a portion of his youth in smallville as well as befriending clark kent these retcons were controversial especially with series writer mark waid according to waid the editorial staff at dc forced him to use the smallville version of luthor s origin waid a longtime and extremely vocal critic of the one nine eight six superman reboot had originally planned to use birthright to purge the byrne version of lex luthor s origin from canon dc aware of the controversy involving waid s outspoken criticism opted instead to dictate to waid |
that any changes made to lex s character should be done to make him more in line with the smallville version of lex luthor it has been alleged that waid initially refused to go along with such a compromise resulting in dc comics threatening to abort the entire project before waid gave in into dc s requests although the changes in lex s character and background were slow to appear in other titles writers geoff johns and mark verheiden have referred to lex s time in smallville reinforcing birthright s canonical status two zero zero five saw the release of the limited series lex luthor man of steel which showed the motivation behind luthor s distrust of superman events in this series that contradict current comics particularly lex luthor s position as a legitimate businessman make it difficult to place in context of recent continuity infinite crisis recently the situation involving lex luthor has taken a shocking twist lex luthor has recently gone into hiding preparing to try and activate mind control programmin |
g inside the brain of the current superboy conner kent created using lex s dna to help him gain revenge against earth s mightiest heroes he also was revealed to have orchestrated with help from the newly created robotic brainiac the murder of teen titan member donna troy who is destined to play a critical role in infinite crisis he s also been carefully surveilling the new supergirl and has plans for her involving his newly acquired black kryptonite with the real lex luthor acting in secret the return of the son of the earth three lex luthor alexander luthor jr has created havoc for the dc universe assuming the post crisis lex luthor s identity alexander has recently begun an elaborate scheme with help from the earth prime superboy alexander told kal l the earth two superman that he wishes to restore his original universe the world of dc comics golden age but his intentions seem much more sinister as he told superboy kal l would help them whether he likes it or not as one of the premier reformers of the secre |
t society of super villains alex luthor has recruited black adam doctor psycho calculator talia head and deathstroke as his inner circle with the new knowledge of doctor light s brainwashing the new society exploited the villain community s fear of similar mind wipes at the hands of the justice league to recruit a literal army of villains under the guise of creating their own mind wipe device designed to erase the memories of earth s heroes as payback however this is just another cover for his even darker scheme involving the kidnapping heroes each representing alternate earths to power the giant tower being used to perform a major act of alteration to reality it is not yet clear whether alex s goal is the restoration of the entire multiverse the transformation of the dc universe into a single universe resembling one of the pre crisis earths as he told the golden age superman or something else even more complex or dangerous entirely not one to sit back and watch his identity be usurped lex luthor took the ide |
ntity of mockingbird and formed a super villain version of the secret six whose purpose was to subvert the society he swore vengeance against the impostor for taking his place though after finding alex he was forced to flee after it was revealed that alex can subvert lex s mind when they are in close proximity earth three in much the same way that superman and other heroes have evil analogs on the parallel world of earth three luthor had a heroic counterpart there alexander luthor was the only superhero in that world s history and reluctantly decided to adopt a heroic identity to combat his world s analog of the justice league the evil crime syndicate of america this version who eventually married the lois lane of earth three died in crisis on infinite earths but was survived by their son alexander luthor jr in the late one nine nine zero s jla earth two graphic novel an updated version of earth three and its version of luthor were reintroduced to the post crisis dc universe the physical appearance of this le |
x resembles the pre crisis earth one version from one nine eight three s action comics down to the battlesuit he wears in this version of events the heroic luthor travelled from his earth located in an anti matter universe rather than an alternate positive one to the mainstream dc earth and asked the justice league to help him rebuild his world however since evil always wins in this alternate world the attempt failed and luthor resigned himself to being the only noble character on his earth until he formed the justice underground luthor in other media atom man vs superman luthor was revealed to be the master villain in the second superman serial one nine five zero s atom man vs superman luthor was played by lyle talbot superman superman ii and superman iv the quest for peace actor gene hackman played the role of lex luthor in the one nine seven eight movie superman and in two of its three sequels hackman s portrayal of luthor is more lighthearted and comical more of a conman hustler than a scientific genius h |
is depiction borrows significantly from another dc comics character funky flashman this is evident by the fact that this luthor had a dim witted sidekick named otis much like flashman s houseroy wears a hairpiece to cover his baldness promotes himself with hyperbole and is somewhat cowardly when he can t talk his way out of trouble superboy in the late one nine eight zero s and early one nine nine zero s syndicated television show superboy luthor began as merely a scheming super intelligent college student played by scott wells at the beginning of the second season luthor s personality took a dark turn as he killed a businessman and tried unsuccessfully to take his place via plastic surgery this version was played by sherman howard howard s portrayal of luthor harkened back to the mad scientist luthor of the comics it was later revealed that luthor murdered his abusive parents in order to protect his sister lena whom he loved more than anything in the world her apparent death caused him to go insane and plan |
the destruction of all life with only robot duplicates of himself and his sister remaining it turned out that she had faked her death because she was ashamed of luthor s notoriety as an evil criminal and wanted to be free of him this caused him to reject her although the robot duplicate of himself tried desperately to right everything in lena s eyes ruby spears animated series in the short lived one nine eight eight animated series produced by ruby spears enterprises luthor was shown as an evil businessman for the first time in other media he is voiced by michael bell lois and clark the new adventures of superman john shea as lex luthor in the one nine nine zero s series lois and clark the new adventures of superman in the one nine nine zero s television series lois and clark the new adventures of superman lex luthor is played by actor john shea clark kent superman spent a good deal of the first season trying to prove that luthor was corrupt while luthor tried to find superman s weakness at the end of season |
one just as lex was about to marry lois lane the truth about luthor s evil nature was revealed and luthor took his own life to avoid going to jail later in the series luthor was brought back from the dead by a devoted scientist played by denise crosby as a side effect of his resurrection luthor lost his hair thus bringing him in line with the other incarnations of the always bald lex luthor this time superman prevented lex from avoiding justice by taking his own life again and sent him to prison he later escaped through a complicated plot involving a clone of the president of the united states discovered superman s secret identity and was killed for good this time superman the animated series justice league and justice league unlimited luthor in the one nine nine zero s cartoon superman the animated series in the one nine nine zero s cartoon superman the animated series and the subsequent justice league animated series luthor was voiced by actor clancy brown of highlander and buckaroo banzai fame brown origin |
ally auditioned for the role of superman clark kent but that part went to tim daly instead luthor in this version was again a corrupt businessman and again his hatred of superman ultimately brought down his empire in justice league after he was revealed as a criminal and lost his business empire in the first season of justice league his characterization turned more toward the original conception of the character as a criminal genius obsessed with destroying superman later luthor s character turned in an opposite way of his comics counterpart he was pardoned after helping the justice league defeat their alternate evil counterparts the justice lords with a power disruptor and implied to the press that he was thinking of going into politics in justice league unlimited in the second season of justice league unlimited luthor announced he was running for president of the united states it was later revealed to be a ruse to enrage superman luthor was later revealed to be financially backing project cadmus a shadow go |
vernment organization devoted to stopping the league if they ever turned on the earth luthor later betrayed them attempting to hi jack the league s space based laser to take out cadmus while trying to place his mind in a duplicate of a m a z o he was thwarted by the league at this point it was revealed that brainiac had possessed luthor secretly controlling his actions after the two merged into a more complete being using alien nanotechnology luthor and brainiac attempted to destroy the world but were stopped by the league particularly by the flash luthor returned later to join the legion of doom but ironically not as the leader gorilla grodd was the leader luthor agreed to join in order to obtain the last remaining piece of brainiac which grodd has in his possession luthor is obsessed with rebuilding braniac as what is left of him is inhabiting luthor s mind giving him a sort of dissociative identity disorder later on lex luthor shot gorilla grodd and took over as leader and imprisons grodd after taking over |
as leader of the legion luthor went back to obsession of trying resurrect brainiac using the power of the legion headquarters luthor spent tireless hours trying to bring a fragment of brainiac back online after nearly destroying the power supply luthor had tala use her magic to garner any information from the fragment tala shows luthor a vision of brainiac s base seen in the episode twilight before its destruction and luthor reconfigures the legion base into a spaceship with hyperspace capability during the journey to the remnants of brainiac s base tala frees gorilla grodd and he mounts an insurrection against luthor with fellow legion members the battle caps off with luthor fighting grodd in hand to hand combat just as grodd moves to use is his telepathic power on luthor luthor uses his belt to take over grodd s mind afterwards luthor forces grood into an airlock and jettisons him into space the legion back under luthor s power returns to their task of resurrecting brainiac luthor hooks tala up to a machin |
e reminiscent of brainiac s machine used against superman to transmutate remnants of brainiac s base back into a working body of brainiac before luthor begins the process metron stops time and appears to him warning that he may be unleashing something that will affect the past present and future luthor still obsessed with becoming a god ignores him and the process begins however although the process is successful luthor ends up resurrecting darkseid who attempts to destroy the legion the remnants of the legion under luthor return to the watchtower and appeal to the justice league for aid with the aid of the new god metron luthor manages to acquire the anti life equation long sought by darkseid and uses it on the lord of apokolips sacrificing his own life in the process however as batman is skeptical of his death and luthor is not known for his altruism it is likely that he is still very much alive the life and times of juniper lee strangly a villain named lex luthor appeared on the life and times of juniper l |
ee also voiced by clancy brown ironicaly the show s creator judd winick is a dc comics writer smallville michael rosenbaum as lex luthor in the two zero zero zero s series smallville the two zero zero zero s television series smallville features a lex luthor played by michael rosenbaum whose history echoes many previous versions of the character though this version of lex has not yet as of december two zero zero five become a bona fide villain in this series the character s full name is alexander luthor in episodes having to do with lex s childhood it has been noticed that the women that raised lex called him alexander including his mother lillian luthor in the season three episode memoria and his nanny who appeared dying of cancer late in the first season as in the silver age lex is one of teenaged clark kent s closest friends this lex however is heir to his father s fortune once again invoking the corrupt businessman version of the character much about the father lionel luthor is clearly based on the action |
s and life of the comic book lex luthor as a young boy lex was caught up in the explosion of baby kal el s rocket ship as it landed on earth from krypton the explosion caused lex to lose his hair clark being indirectly responsible for lex s hair loss is similar to the silver age comic mythos when clark was a teenager and still learning how to deal with his emerging superpowers he rescued lex when lex s car crashed through a bridge rail and plunged into water below the two bonded and lex living in smallville as he ran his father s local business interests considered clark a little brother however lex also developed a particular interest in clark s mysterious background and began looking into it which has often caused rifts in his relationship with clark more recently the series has emphasized lex s dark side as he slowly descends to evil the depiction of the inevitable corruption of lex and the development of his future enmity with clark is a major plot arc of the series it has also been revealed that due to h |
is exposure to either kal el s ship or to the abundant kryptonite in the smallville area lex possesses a superhuman immune system smallville also established a new reason for lex s future hatred of superman which has been to some extent adopted into comics continuity in the series there is a native american legend that a man with superhuman powers named naman superman would protect the earth and that his arch nemesis sageeth would start out as his friend luthor in one episode lex gave his version of the story and explained that sageeth would have to be brave to confront someone like naman who if left unchecked could become a tyrant and enslave the world brian azzarello s comic limited series lex luthor man of steel subsequently incorporated a similar motivation for luthor some fans consider this motivation in which luthor sees his opposition to superman as heroic to be more logical and three dimensional than the explanations given in the original comics both pre and post crisis in season five lex luthor was i |
n the race to be a kansas state senator competing for the seat against jonathan kent after jonathan won the seat he died shortly thereafter in a confrontation with lex s father lionel the senate seat was offered to jonathan s wife martha kent who has taken the senate spot it has also been revealed through a dream lex has when in a coma and subtly built up throughtout all five seasons that lex is in love with clark s current love interest lana lang now that clark and lana have separated it is possible lex may pursue her and this could lead to another explanation of a future final rift between lex and clark superman returns kevin spacey as lex luthor in the upcoming two zero zero six film superman returns in the film superman returns due for release in two zero zero six luthor will be played by two time academy award winner kevin spacey the movie will be set after superman ii spacey s characterization will be a lex luthor looking for revenge on superman for putting him in jail spacey described his luthor as a v |
ery dark and bitter man full name luthor s full first name has over the years been variously spelled as alexis alexei and alexander currently his official first name but originally lex was not intended to be short for anything in latin the name lex translates roughly to law in smallville his full name is alexander after alexander the great the historical general whom lionel luthor most admires and encourages his son to pattern himself after cultural references in the sitcom seinfeld a luthor designates a person s rival or nemesis in one of the many references to the superman mythos in the series for instance jerry s neighbor newman was his luthor external links luthor wins announcement of lex luthor s victory in the two zero zero zero presidential election on the official dc comics site the captain s unofficial justice league homepage lex luthor supermanica lex luthor supermanica entry on the pre crisis lex luthor newsarama journey into comics in defense of luthor the remaking of lex luthor from the quarter b |
in secret files entry for lex luthor from the official dc comics website requires adobe acrobat evil geniuses fictional americans fictional businesspeople fictional millionaires fictional politicians justice league villains mad scientists secret society of super villains superman villains the lute is a plucked string instrument with a fretted neck and a deep round back it is an instrument with extremely complicated genalogy and it is generally believed to have evolved from an instrument originally developed in ancient persia called the barbat which was also the ancestor of the superficially similar oud the words lute and oud are both believed derived from arabic al ud the wood a derogatory term used by early muslims for musical instruments of different types because any instrumental music was proscribed for them the player of a lute is called a lutenist lutanist or lutist and a maker of lutes or any string instrument is called a luthier description of the instrument one zero course renaissance lute lutes are |
made almost entirely of wood the soundboard is a thin flat plate of resonant wood usually spruce teardrop shaped in all lutes the soundboard has a single sometimes triple decorated soundhole under the strings called the rose the soundhole is not open but rather covered with a grille in the form of a intertwining vine or a decorative knot carved directly out of the wood of the soundboard the back or the shell is assembled from thin strips of wood called ribs joined with glue edge to edge to form a deep rounded body for the instrument there are braces inside to give the instrument strength see the photo among the external links below the neck is made of light wood with a veneer of hardwood usually ebony to provide durability for the fretboard beneath the strings unlike most modern stringed instruments the fretboard is mounted flush with the top the pegbox for lutes before the baroque era was angled back from the neck at almost nine zero see image presumably to help hold the low tension strings firmly against th |
e nut the tuning pegs are simple pegs of hardwood somewhat tapered that are held in place by friction in holes drilled through the pegbox there are no gears or other aids for tuning the instrument the frets are made of loops of gut tied around the neck they fray with use and must be replaced from time to time a few additional partial frets of wood are usually glued to the body of the instrument to allow stopping the highest pitched courses up to a full octave higher than the open string see image strings were historically made of gut or extremely rarely of metal and are still made of gut or a synthetic substitute with metal windings on the lower pitched strings the lute s strings are arranged in courses usually of two strings each though the highest pitched course usually consists of only a single string called the chantarelle in later baroque lutes two upper courses are single the courses are numbered sequentially counting from the highest pitched so that the chantarelle is the first course the next pair of |
strings is the second course etc thus an eight course lute will usually have one five strings and a one three course lute will have two four the courses are tuned in unison for high or intermediate pitches but for lower pitches one of the two strings is tuned an octave higher the course at which this split starts changed over the history of the lute the two strings of a course are virtually always stopped and plucked together as if a single string but in extremely rare cases a piece calls for the two strings of a course to be stopped and or plucked separately the tuning of a lute is a somewhat complicated issue and is described in a separate section of its own below the result of this design is an instrument extremely light for its size history and evolution of the lute a woman tuning a lute painted by vermeer plucked chordophones were in use in greece at the time of alexander the great nevertheless the european lute may be derived from the barbat an ancient instrument of persian origin dating to eight zero z |
ero b c and popular during sassanian era in the sixth and seventh centuries the sassanian lute was called barbud or barbad after the tanbur it is the oldest string instrument in iran the word bat means chest in persian since the instrument has a pear shaped body hence a possible explanation of its name curt sachs suggest that the origin of the word barbat was in the sanskrit bharbhu strongly plucked it is possible that barbud has its origin either in sanskrit or in a related indo aryan language appearing in greece as barbiton about the turn of the century and in persia as barbud barbud may be an earlier form of barbiton this instrument was abolished in the safavid period for unknown reasons possibly because of the religious islamic fanaticism even until recent times the instrument was widespread across the mediterranian basin by the time of christ and there is some icononography surviving from both greek and roman eras the lute is next noted in europe in the dark ages by the chroniclers of byzantine bulgarian |
wars in the six th century the lute that we familiar with was born from many parents combining features of greek roman armenian bulgarian and turkic instruments in one five th century catalonia lutenists adopted the vihuela de mano a lute with a guitar shape a descendant of cithara which was later brought to italy as well where it was known as the viola da mano by the one four th century both lutes and violas were widespread throughout italy and had made significant inroads into the german speaking lands by the one five th written music for both instruments abounds medieval lutes were four or five course instuments plucked using a quill for a plectrum there were several sizes and by the end of the renaissance seven different sizes up to the great octave bass are documented song accompaniment was probably the lute s primary function in the middle ages while in succeeding periods the emphasis shifted to solo performance in the last few decades of the one five th century in order to play renaissance polyphony o |
n a single instrument lutenists gradually abandoned the quill in favor of plucking the instrument with the fingertips the number of courses grew to six and beyond the lute was the premier solo instrument of the one six th century but continued to be used to accompany singers as well by the end of the renaissance the number of courses had grown to ten and during the baroque era the number continued to grow until it reached one four and occasionally as much one nine these instruments with up to two six three five strings required innovations in the structure of the lute at the end of the lute s evolution the archlute theorbo and torban had long extentions attached to the main tuning head in order to provide a greater resonating length for the bass strings and since human fingers are not long enough to stop strings across a neck wide enough to hold one four courses the bass strings were praces outside the fretboard and were played open i e without fretting stopping them with the left hand over the course of the |
baroque era the lute was increasingly relegated to the continuo accompaniment and was eventually superseded in that role by keyboard instruments the lute fell out of use after one eight zero zero the lute in the modern world the lute enjoyed a revival with the awakening of interest in historical music around one nine zero zero and that revival was further boosted by the early music movement of the second half of the twentieth century lute performances are now not uncommon lutes built at present are usually replicas or near copies of those surviving historical instruments that are to be found in museums or private collections they are invariably custom built and never found in music stores lutes generally must be bought second hand in a very limited market or else ordered custom built from a luthier as a result lutes are generally more expensive than mass produced modern instruments such as the guitar there are many types of lutes encountered today renaissance lutes of six to one zero courses in many pitches f |
or solo performance of renaissance works the archlute for solo performance of early baroque works d minor tuned german baroque lutes for later high baroque and classical music theorbo for basso continuo parts in baroque ensembles in modern greece there are several lute related instruments laouto and outi the lute repertoire notable composers of lute music include francesco canova da milano b lint bakfark john dowland john johnson johann sebastian bach sylvius leopold weiss wolf jakob lauffensteiner philip rosseter thomas campion antonio vivaldi johannes hieronymus kapsberger robert de vis e alessandro piccinini joachim bernhard hagen adam falkenhagen karl kohaut vincenzo capirola many historical lute pieces were published but great many more are found only in manuscripts perhaps belonging to the composer or perhaps belonging to some amateur lutenist who would copy in unpublished pieces or have a renowned guest indite a new composition while visiting the modern repertoire is largely drawn from historical publi |
cations and manuscripts though quite a few modern compositions do exist the historical corpus is vast consisting of over four zero zero zero zero pieces and about half of it exists only in the original manuscripts and has never been published much material circulates among lutenists in facsimiles of the manuscripts or as photocopies of handwritten copies historical lute music is most commonly written in tablature though sometimes in ordinary musical notation instead several computer programs now exist designed specifically for the editing and printing of lute tabulature ottorino respighi s famous orchestral suites called ancient airs and dances are drawn from various books and articles on one six th and one seven th century lute music transcribed by the musicologist oscar chilesotti including eight pieces from a german manuscript da un codice lauten buch now in a private library in northern italy orazio gentileschi s young lutenist painted ca one six two six plays a one zero course lute typical of the time fr |
om around one six zero zero ad through the one six three zero s music stands appear very rarely in paintings of the period the music is most commonly laid flat on a table as seen here tuning conventions lutes were made in a large variety of sizes with varying numbers of courses and with no permanent standard for tuning however the following seems to have been generally true of the renaissance lute a six course renaissance tenor lute would be tuned to the same intervals as a tenor viol with intervals of a perfect fourth between all the courses except the three rd and four th which differed only by a major third the tenor lute was usually tuned nominally in g there was no pitch standard before the two zero th century named after the pitch of the highest course yielding the pattern g g cc ff aa dd g from the lowest course to the highest lute music can be played on a guitar by tuning the guitar s third string down by a half tone and then putting a capo at the third fret for lutes with more than six courses the ex |
tra courses would be added on the low end due to the large number of strings lutes have very wide necks and it is difficult to stop strings beyond the sixth course so additional courses were usually tuned to pitches useful as bass notes rather than continuing the regular pattern of fourths and these lower courses are most often played without stopping thus an eight course tenor renaissance lute would be tuned to d d f f g g cc ff aa dd g and a one zero course to c c d d eb eb f f g g cc ff aa dd g however none of these patterns were de rigueur and a modern lutenist will occasionally be seen to retune one or more courses between performance pieces manuscripts bear instructions for the player e g seven e choeur en fa seventh course in fa f in the standard c scale the first part of the seventeenth century was a period of considerable diversity in the tuning of the lute particularly in france however by around one six seven zero the scheme known today as the baroque or d minor tuning became the norm at least in f |
rance and northern europe in this case the first six courses outline a d minor triad and an additional five to seven courses are tuned generally scalewise below them thus the one three course lute played by weiss would have been tuned a a b b c c d d e e f f g g a a dd ff aa d f or with sharps or flats on the lower seven courses appropriate to the key of the piece modern lutenists tune to a variety of pitch standards ranging from a three nine two to four seven zero hz depending on the type of instrument they are playing the repertory the pitch of other instruments in an ensemble and other performing expediencies no attempt at a universal pitch standard existed during the period of the lute s historical popularity the standards varied over time and from place to place quotations the art of playing the lute formed a major part of instrumental music making in the renaissance before keyboard instruments assumed central significance it was a refined soft and at the same time colorful art in sharp contrast to the a |
gitated times in which it was practiced karl schumann one this style knows nothing of the otherwise usual requirements and prohibitions of voice leading it can only be understood in relation to the fingering technique it frequently applies the sound of open strings and in no way avoids the otherwise so despised parallel five ths and octaves or unisons the dissonances and other conflicting sounds which appear so often strike me as exciting and revealing carl orff one one quotation taken from the liner notes to the wergo edition of orff s kleines konzert with english translations by john patrick thomas see also early music medieval music renaissance music baroque music greek music cretian music string instrument archlute cittern oud sitar theorbo vihuela tablature see also external links the lute laouto in modern greece and crete the lute society of america a not for profit organization founded to promote and share information about the lute among professional and amateur lutenists wayne cripps lute pages every |
thing about lutes including lots of pictures internal bracing of a lute the german lute society a not for profit organization founded to promote and share information about the lute among professional and amateur lutenists the lute lieder site a large library of songs and lieder with lute accompaniment the baroque lute site a large library of baroque lute music including the history of the instrument during its twilight the ukrainan lute page an extensive study of torban a ukrainian variety of lute hopkinson smith a link to the website of the famed lutenist hopkinson smith containing downloads schedule biography photographs etc robert barto a link to the website of the famed lutenist robert barto containing downloads biography photographs etc classical guitar magazine monthly magazine covering all aspects of the classical guitar and lute world ronn mcfarlane essays on the history and applications of the lute by a well known modern lutenist discography external links eugen dombois discography lutz kirchhof dis |
cography ronn mcfarlane discography paul o dette portrat piva lute music of italy spain john dowland complete works the royal lewters baroque lute music vol one lutehole com guitar soundhole cover cretan music with lute discography of hopkinson smith playing various lutes baroque lute master performs weiss sonatas string instruments composite chordophones arabic words necked bowl lutes a postwar little boy casing mockup little boy was the codename of the atomic bomb which was dropped on hiroshima on august six one nine four five by the one two man crew of the b two nine superfortress enola gay piloted by lieutenant colonel paul tibbets of the united states army air force it was the first atomic bomb used offensively in the world and came three days before the dropping of fat man in nagasaki the weapon was developed during the manhattan project during world war ii and derived its explosive power from enriched uranium the hiroshima bombing was the second nuclear explosion in history the first was the trinity te |
st little boy was three m long had a diameter of seven one cm and was four zero zero zero kg in mass it contained about six four kg of uranium u two three five only seven zero zero g of which underwent fission the hiroshima bombing the mushroom cloud over hiroshima after the dropping of little boy the bomb was armed in flight nine six zero zero m above the city then dropped at approximately eight one five a m jst the detonation happened at an altitude of five eight zero m with a power of one three to one six kilotons estimations vary it was less powerful than fat man which was dropped on nagasaki two one two three kt the official yield estimate of little boy was about one five kilotons of tnt equivalent in explosive force i e six three one zero one three joules six three tj terajoules however the damage and the number of victims were much higher as hiroshima was on a flat terrain while the hypocenter of nagasaki lay in a small valley approximately seven zero zero zero zero people were killed as a direct resul |
t of the blast and a similar number were injured a great number more would later die as a result of nuclear fallout and cancer pregnant mothers lost their children or they were born with deformities clothing was burned into the skin the success of the bombing was reported with great enthusiasm in the united states and there were many commentators who thought it would end the war before a drawn out and likely bloody invasion of the japanese home islands would have to take place technology the gun assembly method this is not necessarily exactly how the little boy weapon was designed which is still classified the mk i little boy was one zero feet three m in length two eight inches seven one cm wide and weighed eight nine zero zero lb four zero zero zero kg the design used the gun method to explosively force a sub critical mass of uranium two three five and three u two three five target rings together into a super critical mass initiating a nuclear chain reaction it contained six zero kg u two three five of which |
zero seven kg underwent nuclear fission at the time there had never been a test explosion with this type of weapon an insertion a bomb the only test explosion of a nuclear weapon was with the plutonium type on july one six one nine four five at the trinity test this was because tests of controlled nuclear reactions with u two three five as opposed to the uncontrolled reaction that occurs in a bomb had already been done and the principles involved were so simple that it was taken to be unnecessary to test the weapon in advance controlled tests were also limited due to a paucity of uranium two three five the military was also anxious to drop the bomb and testing the device would have delayed its use until more uranium was ready although used occasionally in later experimental devices the design was used only once as a weapon because of the extreme danger of a misfire a simple crash could drive the bullet into the target and release lethal radiation doses or even a full nuclear detonation the danger of misfire |
was even greater over water even if the force of a crash did not set the bomb off if water entered the fail safe system it would be shorted out possibly leading to a detonation of the bomb the british red beard nuclear weapon also suffered from this flaw none of the other five mark i bombs built on the model of little boy were used by the us army development of the uranium bomb the development of the first prototypes and the experimental work started during the spring of one nine four three at the time when the los alamos national laboratory became operational in the framework of the manhattan project the effort was not continuous because the engineers had focused on the more complex and powerful plutonium bomb experts thought that the assembly of an uranium bomb would be almost a formality once the plutonium model was completed image atombombe little boy jpg commander a birch numbers the bomb physicist norman ramsey this is one of the rare photos where the inside of the bomb can be seen from april to july on |
e nine four four scientists found very high amounts of neutron emissions being produced by plutonium synthesized in reactors the gun principle one mass of fissile material thrown against another was abandoned for the plutonium bomb and the team had a renewed interest in uranium this program led by a francis birch faced a new dilemma the bomb was simple to design but they lacked the quantity of uranium two three five necessary for its production the fissile material was not available before mid one nine four five despite these problems birch managed to convince others that this concept was the right one and that in case of a failure of the plutonium bomb it would still be possible to use the gun principle his team had heavy responsibilities and even if the technology was less complex than for the other project a lot of rigorous work was needed in february one nine four five the specifications were completed model one eight five zero the bomb except for the uranium payload was ready at the beginning of may one |
nine four five all the uranium for little boy was enriched in oak ridge tennessee the core of little boy contained six four kg of uranium of which five zero kg were enriched to eight nine and the remaining one four kg at five zero with enrichment averaging eight zero it could reach about two five critical masses fat man and trinity by way of comparison had five critical masses this explains the smaller yield of little boy during the explosion assembly the uranium two three five was divided into two parts following the gun principle the projectile and the target the projectile was a cylinder about one six cm long and one zero cm wide with four zero of the total mass two five six kg it was a pile of six uranium rings protected by a casing of steel and tungsten the whole thing was locked in a two mm thick steel box the target was a hollowed out cylinder with the same length and width and a mass of three eight four kg the most enriched uranium was probably placed in this cylinder to increase the yield of the expl |
osion the two parts were protected by bore casings designed to absorb the neutrons when the projectile reached the target the bore protection was supposed to explode and be projected into a cavity placed in the bomb nose the system of reflectors designed to concentrate the neutrons was composed of steel and tungsten this part called the tamper weighted two three tonnes the target was to lodge itself in this part the gun fissile materials and explosives was surrounded by a thick layer of lead six zero cm in order to limit emitted radiation and avoid accidents its other role was to protect the various mechanical and electronic parts of the bomb from radiation the tube of the gun was one zero cm wide and one eight zero cm long and weighted four five zero kg to project the uranium ball at a speed of three zero zero m s cordite was used an artillery explosive based on nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine firing little boy before being loaded into the plane s cargo hold a part of the hatch can be seen on the top right |
handling little boy was extremely dangerous once cordite was placed in the right spot any firing of the explosive would at worst cause a nuclear chain reaction and at best a contamination of the explosion zone the simple contact of the two uranium masses could have caused an explosion with dire consequences from the simple fizzle explosion to the destruction of tinian island water was also a risk since it could serve as an moderator between the fissile materials and cause a violent dispersal of the nuclear material the uranium projectile could only be inserted with an apparatus using a force of three zero zero zero zero zero newtons for security reasons ltcol william parsons decided to set the cordite in place only after take off after the launch the bomb used an altimeter and pressure captors to trigger itself at high altitudes the air pressure was small but it increased with the fall a thin metallic membrane increasingly deformed with pressure and once the bomb reached the correct altitude closed a contact |
which caused the explosion of the cordite about one zero milliseconds later the chain reaction started and nothing could stop it from there on origin of the little boy uranium most of the uranium necessary for the production of the bomb came from the shinkolobwe mine and was made available thanks to the foresight of the ceo of the high katanga mining union edgar sengier who had had one zero zero zero tons of uranium ore transported to a new york warehouse in one nine three nine the uranium was enriched primarily through the means of electromagnetic separation and gaseous diffusion at the massive plants in oak ridge tennessee during the manhattan project though some also came from ernest o lawrence s radiation laboratory which developed the electromagnetic method several historians have conjectured that some of the source uranium used for the little boy or after conversion to plutonium the fat man bombs may have been produced in nazi germany uranium was reportedly secured by manhattan project scientific direc |
tor robert oppenheimer from the surrendering german submarine u two three four the german u boat had been on its way to deliver the uranium and other top secret german warfare technology to the then empire of japan however u two three four surrendered following the end of hostilities in the european war theatre and germany s unconditional surrender and was led on may one nine one nine four five to portsmouth new hampshire two japanese military officials on board the german vessel committed suicide and were buried at sea there are conflicting assessments of the importance of the german material to the manhattan project the german uranium was likely to have been unenriched uranium oxide which would have yielded a small fraction of the amount of fissionable material used in the little boy it is estimated that with technology available at the time it was possible to obtain four kg of enriched uranium out of five six zero kg of uranium oxide compare this to the six four kg of uranium used on little boy conversely |
if the uranium was fully enriched it seems unlikely that germany would be exporting enough material to make a number of nuclear weapons to japan recent literature has claimed that uranium oxide recovered from germany had been used for the soviet nuclear program furthermore japan had only five zero scientists working on its atomic bomb program and no known means of enriching uranium as the united states did at oak ridge see also operation crossroads fat man manhattan project trinity test the gadget atomic bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki references nuclear faq section eight zero the first nuclear weapons external links little boy description at carey sublette s nuclearweaponarchive org nuclear files org definition and explanation of little boy the nuclear weapon archive history of enola gay a little known episode of the manhattan project factitious tests of bombs and problems in aerodynamism development of little boy and fat man fr functioning de little boy et fat man fr little boy a macabre irony fr little |
boy three d model hiroshima remembered information about preparation and dropping the little boy bomb nuclear bombs manhattan project atomic bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki the term lebanon war is used to describe either of the following events lebanese civil war starting one nine seven five one nine eight two lebanon war also known as operation peace for galilee history of lebanon leslie conway bangs december one four one nine four eight april three zero one nine eight two was an american music journalist author and musician a very influential if not founding voice in rock music criticism bangs died in new york city overdosing through drug interaction after treating a cold with darvon and valium he was listening to human league s dare history bangs was born in escondido california his mother was a devout jehovah s witness his father died when bangs was young in one nine six nine bangs began writing freelance after reading an ad in rolling stone soliciting readers reviews his first piece was a negative rev |
iew of the mc five album kick out the jams he later worked for creem the village voice penthouse playboy new musical express and many others bangs claimed his influences were not so much predecessors in journalism as they were beat authors in particular william s burroughs his ranting style similar to hunter s thompson s gonzo journalism and his tendency to insult and confront his interviewees earned him distinction it also got him fired from rolling stone by jann wenner in one nine seven three for being disrespectful to musicians bangs loved lou reed producing several essays which depicted hilarious interviews with reed punk rock lester bangs is often credited with inventing the term punk in reference to music never mind that they came on like a bunch of sixteen year old punks on a meth power trip the mc five kick out the jams one nine seven zero then punk bands started cropping up who were writing their own songs but taking the yardbirds sound and reducing it to this kind of goony fuzztone clatter psychotic |
reactions and carburetor dung one nine seven one look at it this way there are many here among us for whom the life force is best represented by the livid twitching of one tortured nerve or even a full scale anxiety attack i do not subscribe to this point of view one zero zero but i understand it have lived it thus the shriek the caterwaul the chainsaw gnarlgnashing the yowl and the whizz that decapitates may be reheard by the adventurous or emotionally damaged as mellifluous bursts of unarguable affirmation a reasonable guide to horrible noise one nine eight zero legacy bangs is briefly mentioned in the one nine eight eight r e m hit it s the end of the world as we know it and i feel fine bangs is mentioned again in the dillinger four song our science is tight bangs is also briefly mentioned in the one nine eight one ramones track it s not my place in the nine to five world from the album pleasant dreams science fiction author bruce sterling s story dori bangs one nine eight nine was inspired by bangs along |
with the underground comic book artist dori seda sterling speculates on what bangs might have done had he lived longer bangs is depicted by philip seymour hoffman in cameron crowe s autobiographical film almost famous two zero zero zero in which a budding music journalist idolizes him bangs acts as a guide and often critciser of what rock and roll has become at the time of the film notorious for originating the term white nigger as a euphemism for a punk or more specifically a white social miscreant with questionable or objectionable outward idiosyncracies and radical beliefs deemed unacceptable by the status quo conversely the term now has a different connotation as white nigger or wigger is used to describe a white individual infatuated with the hip hop lifestyle he often refered to himself as the last of the white niggers and there exists a famous photograph of bangs wearing a t shirt bearing this title quotes i m really schizophrenic about that because on the one hand i would say yes there is there s som |
ething inherently even violent about it it s wild and raw and all this on the other hand the fact is that sugar sugar is great rock n roll and there s nothing rebellious about that at all i mean that s right from the belly and heart of capitalism lester bangs one nine eight zero on rebellious nature of rock n roll taken from a one nine eight zero interview selected works by lester bangs psychotic reactions and carburetor dung the work of a legendary critic collected writings greil marcus ed anchor press one nine eight eight isbn zero six seven nine seven two zero four five six main lines blood feasts and bad taste a lester bangs reader collected writings john morthland ed anchor press two zero zero three isbn zero three seven five seven one three six seven zero about lester bangs let it blurt the life and times of lester bangs america s greatest rock critic biography jim derogatis broadway books two zero zero zero isbn zero seven six seven nine zero five zero nine one external links french audiobook mp three |
iggy pop blowtorch in bondage translated in french mentor editor lester a personal appreciation by jeffrey morgan of creem a bangs tribute at perfect sound forever bangs own section at rockcritics com bangs reviews one of his two favorite albums of the one nine six zero s van morrison s astral weeks one three th of may one nine eight zero interview with lester bangs mp three extract of interview richard hell remembers lester bangs in the village voice august seven two zero zero three one nine four eight births one nine eight two deaths american journalists california writers music critics music journalists lydia kavina born september eight one nine six seven is a russian virtuoso of the theremin the niece of one of l on theremin s first degree cousins kavina was born in moscow and began studying the theremin under the direction of theremin when she was nine years old five years later she was ready to give her first theremin concert which marked the beginning of a musical career that has so far led to more tha |
n five zero zero theatre radio and television performances throughout the world in addition to giving concerts kavina is a composer of music for theremin and teaches the instrument in russia the united states and western europe together with the london philharmonic orchestra she played theremin for the sound track of the oscar winning film ed wood additionally kavina has recorded two compact discs and is the subject of an instructional video from theremin manufacturer big briar cds music from the ether mode records one nine nine nine concerto per theremin live in italy teleura two zero zero zero videos mastering the theremin big briar one nine nine five concerto per theremin live in italy teleura two zero zero one external links official website an interviewwith lydia kavina lydia kavina at mode records concerto per theremin the live cd from lydia kavina theremin players one nine six seven births living people tamil tigers emblem the liberation tigers of tamil eelam ltte also known as the tamil tigers is a mi |
litary organisation fighting to establish an independent tamil state to be called tamil eelam in the north east of sri lanka the organisation is headed by velupillai prabakharan it currently controls significant portions of northern and eastern sri lanka and run civil services in these areas civil administration in these areas include judicial police financial and cultural services and defence units including army navy and a recently created air wing the ltte claims to have significant support from sri lankan tamils it states that it is the only legitimate representative of the tamils in the sri lankan ethnic conflict despite never having participated in any democratic process and is generally seen as being the main body with whom the sri lankan government must negotiate however its tactics and particularly its treatment of non tamil civilians and tamil political opponents have drawn sharp criticism from the international community and led to it being proscribed as a terrorist organisation by several countrie |
s the military ltte the ltte as an organisation is very centred around the personality of prabhakaran who has dominated it almost continuously since it was formed recruits owe a strong personal loyalty and obedience to him as their leader which has helped instil a strong sense of discipline in the organisation and keep it operationally efficient recruits are instructed to be prepared to die for the cause and are issued with a cyanide capsule to be swallowed in the case of capture the ltte also has a special squad of suicide troops called the black tigers which it deploys for critical missions the ltte advocates equality for women and has a large number of female recruits the women s wing of the ltte is known as suthanthirap paravaikal or freedom birds the first woman combatant to die was two nd lt malathi on one zero october one nine eight seven in an encounter with the ipkf at kopai the beginnings of the ltte ltte sea tigers off mullaitivu in may two zero zero four the light fast attack fibreglass boats have |
proved highly effective against the sri lanka navy this boat has an all female crew until the one nine seven zero s the ethnic conflict in sri lanka had largely taken the form of a demand for autonomy for the tamil speaking regions under an overall federal framework the lack of results after twenty five years of negotiations and the rise of sinhala nationalism as represented by the one nine seven two constitution led to a significant section of young tamils particularly in jaffna adopting a more radical position which favoured the use of violent means a large number of militant organisations were set up one of which was the tamil new tigers tnt which was formed in one nine seven two by a small group of young tamils and university students led by velupillai prabhakaran many students joined ltte thereafter due to the fact that they were not given equality in the grading systems and admission to post graduate schools the tnt s first military operation was the assassination of alfred duraiappah the slfp mayor of |
jaffna in one nine seven five followed by a few successful bank robberies to fund their activities and the assassination of a number of minor police officials the success of these early acts gave them confidence and in one nine seven six they teamed up with the militants headed by s subramanian to form the liberation tigers of tamil eelam in one nine seven nine anton balasingham joined the ltte as their main ideologue balasingham added depth to the ltte s politics whereas they had earlier been committed to the single idea of tamil independence balasingham added a new layer of social policies inspired by marxism and anti casteism which profoundly shaped the ltte s worldview the ltte continued the tnt s campaign of low intensity violence against state agents particularly policemen and quickly became the most efficient of the many tamil militant groups in one nine seven eight they wiped out a police patrol which had discovered one of their training camps the first major military victory for a tamil group after |
martial law was imposed in jaffna in one nine seven nine the ltte began targeting the military they were responsible for the attack which provoked the bloody anti tamil riots of one nine eight three these riots and the government s crackdown on tamil separatism produced a steady stream of volunteers for the ltte which they shaped into a proper army in one nine eight four they began launching higher intensity attacks against the sri lankan troops they also formed a naval unit the sea tigers that year rise to dominance the ltte s discipline and efficiency coupled with prabhakaran s charismatic leadership and its strong nationalist ideological base made the group much more disciplined and effective than the other tamil militant groups as a result their attacks much more deadly and for the next three years the ltte was the main antagonist in what was in effect a civil war the ltte was militarily very successful and by one nine eight six it controlled large portions of jaffna the year after in one nine eight seven |
the black tigers was established an elite unit of ltte members responsible for conducting suicide attacks against political religious economic and military targets in one nine eight five the ltte established the tamils rehabilitation organisation a humanitarian organisation providing relief and aid for tamils struck by the internal fighting in sri lanka initially the ltte s operations were carried on in cooperation with other militant groups in april one nine eight four it had formally joined a common militant front the eelam national liberation front or enlf which had been formed by the telo the eros and the eprlf the group s co ordinated attacks against government positions had led to the near total disappearance of government authority in jaffna in one nine eight six however the ltte launched a military attack on the telo the largest of the other tamil militant groups in sri lanka over the next few months the entire telo leadership and several hundred volunteers were killed and the group ceased to be a po |
tent force a few months later they attacked training camps of the eprlf forcing it to withdraw entirely from the jaffna peninsula thus giving the ltte virtually unchallenged dominance the reasons for the ltte s internecine attacks on other tamil groups are much debated the reason they themselves gave at the time was the other groups connection with india all the tamil militant groups including the ltte had received varying degrees of support from india however while other groups such as the telo wholeheartedly embraced indian support the ltte remained much more suspicious and wary of india particularly after rajiv gandhi came to power fearing that india was seeking primarily to advance its own interests which were not the same as those of the sri lankan tamils and would therefore force the tamils to accept an unfavourable settlement they were particularly suspicious of the indian intelligence agency the raw which they said had completely infiltrated the telo and eprlf and was using them to eliminate the ltte |
some commentators have suggested that the ltte were also unhappy that the most of the funding from expatriates went to the telo rather than to them jeyaratnam wilson one nine nine nine it has also been suggested that they believed the struggle would only be effective if the other groups who were much more willing to compromise were not around narayan swamy two zero zero two the effect of the attacks was that the ltte consolidated the position their successful attacks had already established as the main military group fighting for the cause of tamil eelam with no credible rivals the ipkf period in one nine eight seven the sri lankan army launched a new assault to recapture jaffna in the indian press the attack was depicted as being brutal and leading to disproportionately large civilian casualties faced with growing anger amongst its own tamils india intervened directly in the conflict by air dropping food parcels on jaffna in what was interpreted as a show of strength after negotiations india and sri lanka en |
tered into an agreement whereby sri lanka agreed to a federal structure which would grant autonomy to the tamils india was to send a peacekeeping force the ipkf to sri lanka to enforce the agreement although most tamil militant groups accepted this agreement the ltte only did so very grudgingly and very soon rejected it on the grounds that the reforms were only illusory the result was that the ltte now found itself engaged in military conflict against the indian army the army fought a bitter campaign for one month to win control of the jaffna peninsula from the ltte this campaign and the army s subsequent anti ltte operations were ruthless and made it extremely unpopular amongst the tamils the ltte exploited this sentiment and by painting themselves as the only group opposing the ipkf s anti tamil aggression as they termed it they became increasingly popular in addition the implementation of the autonomy provisions under the agreement was perceived by the tamils as giving them little or nothing and the entire |
structure collapsed very quickly as the only group to have held itself aloof from this process this was portrayed by the ltte as a vindication of their stance the post ipkf ltte a token minted by the ltte marked one nine nine zero the ipkf s intervention was also unpopular amongst buddhists and it was forced to withdraw in one nine nine zero after the sri lankan government asked india to withdraw its troops the ltte quickly occupied most of the areas from which the ipkf had pulled out by one nine nine one it controlled nearly all the jaffna peninsula and the vanni during this period it either absorbed or forcibly eliminated the remnants of the other rival militant groups including the telo and eprlf which had tried to regroup with the help of the ipkf and raw in a series of military operations in one nine nine five and one nine nine six the army re captured the jaffna peninsula and the town of kilinochchi from the ltte the ltte proposed peace talks in one nine nine six which the government rejected starting |
from one nine nine seven the sri lankan army suffered a number of reverses and lost control of large portions of the vanni the town of kilinochchi and many smaller towns in two zero zero zero the ltte overran the strategically vital elephant pass the following year the government invited norway to mediate in the dispute norway brokered a ceasefire agreement which is presently in effect the ltte get their main funding from western countries in which tamils reside tamils living abroad are asked to contribute a percentage of their income for the maintenance of the ltte cadres the peacetime ltte the ltte gosl ceasefire as part of the norway brokered ceasefire in effect since late two zero zero one the ltte has indicated its willingness to give up its call for a separate state seeking political and economic autonomy for tamils within a one state solution norway and the other nordic countries jointly monitor the ceasefire through the sri lanka monitoring mission since the signing of the ceasefire agreement between |
the sri lankan government and the tamil tigers the tigers have carried out over three one zero zero violations compared to about one four zero by the government forces talks on an interim solution have currently stalled due to political uncertainty the president chandrika kumaratunga suspended the government of the then prime minister ranil wickremesinghe in two zero zero four accusing him of being too soft on the ltte mrs kumaratunga herself then took a more conciliatory line towards the ltte but the current president mahinda rajapaksa who took office in november two zero zero five campaigned on a plank of being tougher on the ltte his prime minister ratnasiri wickremanayake has also previously advocated taking a tougher line the ltte has recently stated that the gap between its position and the position of the new sri lankan government is vast and has threatened to intensify its campaign if the government does not soon propose a reasonable political framework the reason for the current president mahinda raj |
apaksa being in power is due the fact that few tamils voted in the election as the ltte declared a boycott from army to quasi governmental entity approximate extent of area under the control of the ltte as of december two zero zero five even though the ltte was formed as a military group it also carries out a number of civilian duties the ltte controls sections in the north and east of the island especially the regions lying outside the major cities it runs the government and provides public services in these areas including schools hospitals police stations courts and municipal administration most of the structures supporting these functions developed during the period immediately after the ipkf s withdrawal when the ltte controlled jaffna without significant opposition during this period it transformed itself from a purely military body to a quasi government complete with administrative organs between one nine nine one and one nine nine three it created the tamil eelam police force including traffic policem |
en the education development board of tamil eelam the tamil eelam military academy a broadcasting authority called the voice of tigers national television of tamil eelam ntt satellite tv station programs can be viewed in south asia middle east free and fair one due to voter intimidation and violence by both of the major parties the ltte s commitment to multi party democracy has also been questioned in an interview in one nine nine six velupillai prabhakaran the leader of the ltte said that tamil eelam would be a one party state rather than a multi party democracy because that would help it develop faster hellmann rajanayagam one nine nine four one eight three he has not repeated this proposal and the ltte s main ideologue anton balasingham publically repudiated this position in one nine nine two stating that it was irrelevant after the collapse of the soviet union however the ltte s critics state that it indicates their way of thinking and point out that it has not organised and shows no signs of organising l |
ocal elections in the areas it controls the ltte s supporters say that conditions there make elections impossible but that they will be held once tamil eelam is fully independent terrorists or freedom fighters despite their support amongst tamils the ltte is accused of terrorism it is proscribed as a terrorist organisation by several countries including usa britain india australia and malaysia and ltte delegations are barred from the european union sri lanka itself has lifted its ban on the ltte to facilitate peaceful negotiations part of the reason for the accusation is its targeting of political figures and non military officials and its use of suicide bombers between one nine nine one and one nine nine four it allegedly assassinated rajiv gandhi lalith athulathmudali ranasinghe premadasa and gamini dissanayake it has also assassinated moderate tamils and other tamils with whose views it disagrees the ltte is suspected of involvement in the assassinations of appapillai amirthalingam neelan tiruchelvam saroj |
ini yogeswaran pon sivapalan lakshman kadirgamar and others even though it officially denies involvement in several of these the ltte has also actively eliminated other tamil militant groups most notably the telo whose leadership and cadre were killed by the ltte in may one nine eight six in addition the ltte s bombing attacks have caused a large number civilian casualties and in instances such as the attack on the temple of the tooth in kandy dehiwala train or the central bank in colombo did not have any military target the ltte s supporters justify these attacks by saying that the people assassinated are either tamil traitors or persons closely associated with the sri lankan military action specifically in relation to the telo the ltte has said that it had to attack them because the telo was in effect functioning as a proxy for india they also draw comparisons between the casualties caused by the ltte s actions and the actions of european resistance forces against nazi occupation during the second world war |
most countries and international bodies do not accept that the situations are analogous foreign intervention many blame the british invasion and colonisation of the island as the primary cause of inter ethnic conflict and it is suffice to say that the british government has not been a primary actor in the peace effort foreign intervention has come in the form of constant norweigan efforts throughout the years for the peace effort which some consider to have been effective in the last decade the ltte and human rights the allegation of terrorism against the ltte is part of a broader allegation that the ltte does not have respect for human rights and does not adhere to the standards of conduct expected of a resistance movement in particular the ltte has been accused of knowingly recruiting using child soldiers as front line troops hrw two zero zero three amid international pressure ltte announced in july two zero zero three that it would stop conscripting child soldiers but both unicef and hrw have accused it o |
f reneging on its promises and of conscripting tamil children orphaned by the tsunami civilians have also complained that the ltte is continuing to abduct children including some in their early teens for use as soldiers the ltte however strongly denies any responsibility for recruitment of child soldiers its official position is that earlier some of its cadres erroneously recruited volunteers in their late teens it says that its official policy is now that it will not accept child soldiers it also says that some underage youths lie about their age and are therefore allowed to join but are sent back home to their parents as soon as they are discovered to be underaged the ltte has also been accused of forcibly removing or ethnically cleansing sinhalese and muslim inhabitants from areas under its control including through the use of violence against those who refuse to leave most notably the ltte forcibly expelled the entire muslim population of jaffna on four eight hours notice in one nine nine zero the ltte ar |
e also accused of organising massacres of sinhala villagers who settled in the northeast under the dry lands policy whilst the ltte s supporters do not deny these allegations they argue that it is misleading to look at the ltte s allegations in isolation they say that their actions are no worse than those of the sri lankan government and are therefore an entirely proportionate response to human rights violations by the sri lankan government and are the only way to make the government stop violating the rights of the tamils even if they are condemned in international law it has also been alleged that the ltte coerces tamil expatriates to give it money by threatening them as to the safety of their relatives or property in areas of sri lanka under its control this involves pressuring them to directly give it money or to indirectly fund its activities by patronising businesses connected with it la two zero zero four although intelligence services have raised concerns about such activities few formal complaints ha |
ve been made to the authorities notable attacks information derived from mipt terrorism knowledge base selected for inclusion based on lethality or notability july two three one nine eight three one three soldiers killed in ltte ambush in jaffna sparking anti tamil riots leading to the deaths of an estimated several hundred tamils conflict develops in north of island between army and ltte july five one nine eight seven an ltte operative named captain miller detonates a truck bomb at an army camp in nelliady killing four zero sri lankan soldiers it is the ltte s first suicide attack august one eight one nine eight nine suspected ltte militants invaded a hospital in colombo and from there subjected a nearby indian army post to grenade and small arms fire killing two four soldiers because of the location the indians were unable to return heavy fire may two one one nine nine one ltte affiliated suicide bomber thenmuli rajaratnam assassinated former indian prime minister rajiv gandhi while the latter was campaigni |
ng for a parliamentary candidate in tamil nadu also killing an additional one three bystanders following the assassination seven suspected ltte activists committed suicide after being surrounded by police may zero one one nine nine three ltte assassinated the president of sri lanka ranasinghe premadasa while he was attending the annual may day rally january three one one nine nine six an attack by the ltte on the colombo central bank killed nine zero and injured a further one four zero zero people damaging other buildings in the process it was the most deadly ltte attack in the history of the group s operations october one five one nine nine seven an ltte bomb exploded at the colombo world trade center killing one three and injuring hundreds january five one nine nine eight four likely members of the black tiger squad drove an explosives laden truck into the sri dalada maligawa or temple of the tooth a major buddhist shrine killing seven and injuring two five the attack took place just days before foreign dig |
nitaries were expected to attend celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of sri lankan independence at the temple march five one nine nine eight two ltte bombs exploded aboard a bus in maradana killing thirty two and injuring two five two passersby may one four one nine nine eight a member of the black tiger squad jumped in front of a vehicle carrying sri lankan brigadier larry wijeratne and detonated explosives killing the general and two guards wijeratne was the commander of sri lankan forces in the point pedro area of the jaffna peninsula in the tamil inhabited north of the country press reports described the assassination as a serious blow to the government s efforts in the area july two nine one nine nine nine an ltte suicide bomber killed sri lankan mp neelan thiruchelvam along with two others six bystanders were injured december one eight one nine nine nine a female ltte suicide bomber exploded herself at a rally in colombo in an apparent assassination attempt on sri lankan president kumaratunga who w |
as injured in the blast ten people were killed and three injured another blast elsewhere killed a united national party activist and a former army general january seven two zero zero zero a suspected ltte suicide bomber killed sri lankan industrial minister c v gooneratne during a holiday march in rawatne a further two zero were killed and six zero wounded may one eight two zero zero zero a suspected ltte bomber killed two three and injured seven zero at a buddhist temple in battilacoa during celebrations of the vesak holiday october three two zero zero zero an ltte bomb killed parliamentary candidate mohammed baithullah and more than twenty others in muttur at least four nine others were injured baithullah had previously served as an intelligence officer in the sri lankan police july two four two zero zero one an ltte suicide squad attacked bandaranaike international airport in three waves a highly trained and heavily armed one four man squad penetrated the eight zero zero acre high security complex and dest |
royed or damaged two six commercial and military aircraft the attack is among the biggest operations so far launched by the ltte and the most destructive attack in the history of aviation august one two two zero zero five lakshman kadirgamar the foreign minister of sri lanka was shot by an unidentified sniper in colombo as he was getting out of the swimming pool at his private residence january seven two zero zero six a suspected ltte fishing boat loaded with explosives detonates and destroys a sri lankan navy boat as it leaves the port of trincomalee killing one three sailors references balasingham adele two zero zero three the will to freedom an inside view of tamil resistance fairmax publishing ltd two nd ed isbn one nine zero three six seven nine zero three six balasingham anton two zero zero four war and peace armed struggle and peace efforts of liberation tigers fairmax publishing ltd isbn one nine zero three six seven nine zero five two de votta neil two zero zero four blowback linguistic nationalism i |
nstitutional decay and ethnic conflict in sri lanka stanford university press isbn zero eight zero four seven four nine two four eight gamage siri and i b watson editors one nine nine nine conflict and community in contemporary sri lanka pearl of the east or island of tears sage publications ltd isbn zero seven six one nine nine three nine three two hellmann rajanayagam d one nine nine four the goups and the rise of militant secessions in manogaram c and pfaffenberger b editors the sri lankan tamils oxford university press isbn zero eight one three three eight eight four five seven human rights watch two zero zero three child soldier use two zero zero three a briefing for the four th un security council open debate on children and armed conflict la j two zero zero four forced remittances in canada s tamil enclaves peace review one six three september two zero zero four pp three seven nine three eight five narayan swamy m r two zero zero two tigers of lanka from boys to guerrillas konark publishers three rd ed |
isbn eight one two two zero zero six three one zero pratap anita two zero zero one island of blood frontline reports from sri lanka afghanistan and other south asian flashpoints penguin books isbn zero one four two zero zero three six six two ranawaka champika two zero zero three koti vinivideema external links tamil eelam home page ltte peace secretariat voice of tigers in tamil sinhala and english gateway to tamileelam tamil net a extensive pro ltte website a tamil human rights and news portal a tamil human rights and news portal genocide of sri lankan tamils lankatruth ltte critical website society for peace unity and human rights in sri lanka us council on foreign relations page on ltte sri lanka politics international policy institute for counter terrorism lankatruth ltte critical website us council on foreign relations page on ltte liberation tigers of tamil eelam human rights watch sri lanka tamil net a extensive pro ltte website sri lanka army official webpage lankapage news site covering sri lanka s |
ri lankan muslims tamil week university teachers for human rights jaffna higly critical of the ltte tamiltigers net tamil eelamnews peace in sri lanka sri lanka media watch tamilpress sangam org palaly online news ltte loan return gold token tamil eelam liberation tigers of tamil eelam secessionist organizations irregular military suicide bombing one nine seven six establishments in mathematics the laplace transform is a powerful technique for analyzing linear time invariant systems such as electrical circuits harmonic oscillators optical devices and mechanical systems to name just a few given a simple mathematical or functional description of an input or output to a system the laplace transform provides an alternative functional description that often simplifies the process of analyzing the behavior of the system or in synthesizing a new system based on a set of specifications the laplace transform is an important concept from the branch of mathematics called functional analysis in actual physical systems th |
e laplace transform is often interpreted as a transformation from the time domain point of view in which inputs and outputs are understood as functions of time to the frequency domain point of view where the same inputs and outputs are seen as functions of complex angular frequency or radians per unit time this transformation not only provides a fundamentally different way to understand the behavior of the system but it also drastically reduces the complexity of the mathematical calculations required to analyze the system the laplace transform has many important applications in physics optics electrical engineering control engineering signal processing and probability theory the laplace transform is named in honor of mathematician and astronomer pierre simon laplace who used the transform in his work on probability theory the transform was discovered originally by leonhard euler the prolific eighteenth century swiss mathematician formal definition the laplace transform of a function f t defined for all real n |
umbers t zero is the function f s defined by f s mathcal left int infty e f t dt the lower limit of zero is short notation to mean lim epsilon and assures the inclusion of the entire dirac delta function delta t at zero if there is such an impulse in f t at zero the parameter s is in general complex s sigma i omega this integral transform has a number of properties that make it useful for analysing linear dynamical systems the most significant advantage is that differentiation and integration become multiplication and division respectively with s this is similar to the way that logarithms change an operation of multiplication of numbers to addition of their logarithms this changes integral equations and differential equations to polynomial equations which are much easier to solve region of convergence the laplace transform f s typically exists for all complex numbers such that re a where a is a real constant which depends on the growth behavior of f t whereas the two sided transform is defined in a range a f |
t mathcal left frac int e f s ds where gamma is a real number so that the contour path of integration is in the region of convergence of f s normally requiring gamma operatorname s p for every singularity s p of f s and imath sqrt if all singularities are in the left half plane that is operatorname s p for every s p then gamma can be set to zero and the above inverse integral formula above becomes identical to the inverse fourier transform bilateral laplace transform when one says the laplace transform without qualification the unilateral or one sided transform is normally intended the laplace transform can be alternatively defined as the bilateral laplace transform or two sided laplace transform by extending the limits of integration to be the entire real axis if that is done the common unilateral transform simply becomes a special case of the bilateral transform where the definition of the function being transformed is multiplied by the heaviside step function the bilateral laplace transform is defined as f |
ollows f s mathcal left int e f t dt laplace transform of a function s derivative it is often convenient to use the differentiation property of the laplace transform to find the transform of a function s derivative for the unilateral case this approach becomes mathcal left right s int e f t dt f zero s cdot mathcal f zero and in the bilateral case we have mathcal left right s int e f t dt s cdot mathcal applications the laplace transform is used frequently in engineering and physics the output of a linear dynamic system can be calculated by convolving its unit impulse response with the input signal performing this calculation in laplace space turns the convolution into a multiplication the latter being easier to solve because of its algebraic form for more information see control theory the laplace transform can also be used to solve differential equations and is used extensively in electrical engineering the following examples derived from applications in physics and engineering will use si units of measure |
si is based on meters for distance kilograms for mass seconds for time and amperes for electric current example one solving a differential equation the following example is based on concepts from nuclear physics consider the following first order linear differential equation frac lambda n this equation is the fundamental relationship describing radioactive decay where n n t represents the number of undecayed atoms remaining in a sample of a radioactive isotope at time t in seconds and lambda is the decay constant in radians per second we can use the laplace transform to solve this equation rearranging the equation to one side we have frac lambda n zero next we take the laplace transform of both sides of the equation left s tilde s n o right lambda tilde s zero where tilde s mathcal and n o n t solving we find tilde s finally we take the inverse laplace transform to find the general solution n t n o e which is indeed the correct form for radioactive decay example two deriving the complex impedance for a capaci |
tor this example is based on the principles of electrical circuit theory the constitutive relation governing the dynamic behavior of a capacitor is the following differential equation i c where c is the capacitance in farads of the capacitor i i t is the electrical current in amperes flowing through the capacitor as a function of time and v v t is the voltage in volts across the terminals of the capacitor also as a function of time taking the laplace transform of this equation we obtain i s c left s v s v o right where i s mathcal v s mathcal and v o v t solving for v s we have v s the definition of the complex impedance z in ohms is the ratio of the complex voltage v divided by the complex current i while holding the initial state v o at zero z s bigg using this definition and the previous equation we find z s which is the correct expression for the complex impedance of a capacitor example three finding the transfer function from the impulse response relationship between the time domain and the frequency dom |
ain this example is based on concepts from signal processing and describes the dynamic behavior of a damped harmonic oscillator see also rlc circuit consider a linear time invariant system with impulse response h t a e cos omega d t phi d such that omega d t phi d ge zero where t is the time in seconds and zero le phi d le two pi is the phase delay in radians suppose that we want to find the transfer function of the system we begin by noting that h t a e cos left omega d t t d right cdot u t t d where t d is the time delay of the system in seconds and u t is the heaviside step function the transfer function is simply the laplace transform of the impulse response h s mathcal a e a e a e where omega zero sqrt is the undamped natural frequency or resonance of the system in radians per second relationship to other transforms fourier transform the continuous fourier transform is equivalent to evaluating the bilateral laplace transform with complex argument s i omega f omega mathcal left mathcal left f s int e f t |
mathrmt note that this expression excludes the scaling factor frac which is often included in definitions of the fourier transform this relationship between the laplace and fourier transforms is often used to determine the frequency spectrum of a signal or dynamical system mellin transform the mellin transform and its inverse are related to the two sided laplace transform by a simple change of variables if in the mellin transform g s mathcal left int zero infty theta s g theta frac we set theta exp t we get a two sided laplace transform z transform the z transform is simply the laplace transform of an ideally sampled signal with the substitution of z equiv e where t one f s is the sampling period in units of time e g seconds and f s is the sampling rate in samples per second or hertz let q t equiv sum delta t n t be a sampling impulse train also called a dirac comb and x q t equiv x t q t x t sum delta t n t sum x n t delta t n t sum xn delta t n t be the continuous time representation of the sampled x t xn e |
quiv x nt are the discrete samples of x t the laplace transform of the sampled signal x q t is x q s int x q t e dt int sum xn delta t n t e dt sum xn int delta t n t e dt sum xn e this is precisely the definition of the z transform of the discrete function xn x z sum xn z with the substitution of z leftarrow e comparing the last two equations we find the relationship between the z transform and the laplace transform of the sampled signal x q s x z big borel transform the integral form of the borel transform is identical to the laplace transform indeed these are sometimes mistakenly assumed to be synonyms the generalized borel transform generalizes the laplace transform for functions not of exponential type fundamental relationships since an ordinary laplace transform can be written as a special case of a two sided transform and since the two sided transform can be written as the sum of two one sided transforms the theory of the laplace fourier mellin and z transforms are at bottom the same subject however a |
different point of view and different characteristic problems are associated with each of these four major integral transforms properties and theorems given the functions f t and g t and their respective laplace transforms f s and g s f t mathcal g t mathcal the following is a list of properties of the laplace transform linearity mathcal left a f s b g s differentiation mathcal s mathcal f zero mathcal s two mathcal s f zero f zero mathcal left right s n mathcal s f zero cdots f zero frequency division mathcal f s mathcal f t one f s frequency integration mathcal left right int s infty f sigma d sigma integration mathcal left mathcal left f s scaling mathcal left f left right initial value theorem f zero lim final value theorem f infty lim all poles in left hand plane the final value theorem is useful because it gives the long term behaviour without having to perform partial fraction decompositions or other difficult algebra if a functions poles are in the right hand plane e g e t or sin t the behaviour of th |
is formula is undefined frequency shifting mathcal left f t right f s a mathcal left e f t time shifting mathcal left e f s mathcal left f s right f t a u t a note u t is the heaviside step function nth power shifting mathcal one nd s nf s convolution mathcal f s cdot g s periodic function period t mathcal int zero t e f t dt table of selected laplace transforms the following table provides laplace transforms for many common functions of a single variable for definitions and explanations see the explanatory notes at the end of the table id functionname time domainx t mathcal left frequency domainx s mathcal left region of convergence for causal systems one one unit impulse delta t one mathrm s one two ideal delay delta t tau e two one unit step one cdot u t s zero two two delayed unit step one cdot u t tau over s s zero three exponential decay e cdot u t s alpha four exponential approach one e cdot u t frac s zero five sine sin omega t cdot u t s zero six cosine cos omega t cdot u t s zero seven hyperbolic si |
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