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live that long and even longer albatrosses reach sexual maturity slowly after about five years but even once they have reached maturity they will not begin to breed for another couple of years even up to one zero years for some species young non breeders will still attend a colony prior to beginning to breed spending many years practicing the elaborate breeding rituals and dances that the family is famous for birds arriving back at the colony for the first time already have the stereotyped behaviours that compose albatross language but can neither read that behaviour as exhibited by other birds nor respond appropriately after a period of trial and error learning the young birds learn the syntax and perfect the dances this language is mastered more rapidly if the younger birds are around older birds the repertoire of behaviour involves synchronised performances of various actions such as preening pointing calling bill clacking staring and combinations of such behaviours like the sky call as they progress the |
number of birds they interact with drops until they choose one partner they then continue to perfect an individual language that will eventually be unique to that one pair having established a pair bond that will last for life however most of that dance will never be used ever again the divorce of a pair is a rare occurrence usually only happening after several years of breeding failure black browed albatross flying over the drake passage the reason for the elaborate and painstaking rituals is to ensure that the correct partner has been chosen and to perfect recognition of their partner as egg laying and chick rearing is a huge investment and even species that can complete an egg laying cycle in under a year seldom lay eggs in consecutive years the great albatrosses like the wandering albatross take over a year to raise a chick from laying to fledging albatrosses lay a single egg if the egg is lost to predators or accidentally broken then no further breeding attempts are made that year all the southern albatr |
osses create large nests for their egg whereas the three species in the north pacific make more rudimentary nests the waved albatross on the other hand makes no nest and will even move its egg around the pair s territory as much as five zero m sometimes causing it to lose the egg in all albatrosses species both parents incubate the egg in stints that last between one day to three weeks incubation lasts around seven zero eight zero days longer for the larger albatrosses the longest incubation period of any bird it can be an energetically demanding process with the adult losing as much as eight three g of body weight a day after hatching the chick is brooded and guarded for three weeks until it is large enough to defend and thermoregulate itself during this period the chick is fed regularly with small meals by its parents when they relieve each other from duty after the brooding period is over the chick is fed in regular intervals by both parents the parents adopt alternative patterns of short and long foraging |
trips providing meals that weigh around one two of their body weight around six zero zero g the meals are composed of both fresh squid fish and krill as well as stomach oil an energy rich food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items this oil is created in a stomach organ known as a proventriculus from digested prey items by all tubenoses and gives them their distinctive musty smell albatross chicks take a long time to fledge in the case of the great albatrosses it can up to two eight zero days even for the smaller albatrosses it takes anywhere between one seven zero and one four zero days like many seabirds albatross chicks will actually gain enough weight to be heavier than their parents and prior to fledging they use these reserves to build up body condition particularly growing all their flight feathers usually fledging at the same weight as their parents albatross chicks fledge on their own and receive no further help from their parents who will actually return to the nest after fledging unaw |
are their chick has left studies of juveniles dispersing at sea have suggested an innate migration behaviour a genetically coded navigation route that helps young birds first at sea albatrosses and humans etymology the name albatross is derived from the arabic al c dous a pelican which travelled to english via the portuguese form alcatraz the oed notes that the word alcatraz was originally applied to the frigatebird the modification to albatross was perhaps influenced by latin alba meaning white in contrast to frigatebirds which are black they were once commonly known as goonie birds or gooney birds particularly those of the north pacific in the southern hemisphere the name mollymawk is still well established in some areas which is a corrupted form of malle mugge an old dutch name for the northern fulmar the name diomedea assigned to the albatrosses by linnaeus references the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of the greek warrior diomedes into birds albatrosses and culture albatrosses have been describ |
ed as the most legendary of all birds they feature prominently in poetry such as the samuel taylor coleridge poem the rime of the ancient mariner in part due to the poem there is a widespread myth that sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross in truth however sailors regularly killed and ate them but they were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors more recently they have become part of popular culture for example in a monty python sketch or the song echoes by pink floyd in the movie serenity the character river was refered to as an albatross by the operative in the context of coleridge s poem threats and conservation in spite of often being accorded legendary status by people albatrosses have not escaped both indirect and direct pressure from humanity early encounters with albatrosses by polynesians and aleut indians resulted in hunting and in some cases expiration from some islands such as easter island as europeans began sailing the world they too began to hunt albatross fishing for |
them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport this sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for australia and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from and regulations stopped the discharge of weapons for safety reasons in the one nine th century albatross colonies particularly those in the north pacific were harvested for the feather trade leading to the near extinction of the short tailed albatross according to the iucn red list one nine of the two one albatross species are considered to have a conservation status as vulnerable or worse partially due to the impact of commercial long line fishing as the albatrosses and other seabirds are attracted to the set bait become hooked on the lines and drown the scale of the problem is made worse by pirate fisheries and an estimated one zero zero zero zero zero albatross are killed a year in this fashion two species as recognised by the iucn are considered critically endangered the amsterdam albatross and the chatham albatross |
another threat to albatrosses is introduced species which can be predators like rats or feral cats directly attacking the albatross or its chicks and eggs or they can have indirect effects cattle overgrazed essential cover on amsterdam island on other islands introduced plants reduce potential nesting habitat black browed albatrosses are one of the many species threatened by long line fisheries ingestion of floating plastic flotsam is another problem one faced by many seabirds the amount of plastic in the seas has increased dramatically since the first record in the one nine six zero s coming from waste discarded by ships offshore dumping litter on beaches and waste washed to sea by rivers it is impossible to digest and takes up space in the stomach or gizzard that should be used for food or can cause an obstruction that starves the bird directly studies of birds in the north pacific have shown that ingestion of plastics results in declining body weight and body condition this plastic is sometimes regurgitat |
ed and fed to chicks a study of laysan albatross chicks on midway atoll showed large amounts of ingested plastic in naturally dead chicks compared to healthy chicks killed in accidents while not the direct cause of death this plastic caused physiological stress and caused the chick to feel full during feedings reducing its food intake and reducing the chances of survival scientists and conservationists most importantly birdlife international and their partners who have run a save the albatross campaign are working with governments and fishermen to find solutions to the threats albatrosses face techniques such as setting long line bait at night dying the bait blue setting the bait underwater increasing the amount of weight on lines and using bird scarers can all reduce the by catch in seabirds by fishing fleets for example a collaborative study between scientists and fishermen in new zealand successfully tested a underwater setting device for long liners which set the lines below the reach of vulnerable albatr |
oss species the use of some of these techniques in the patagonian toothfish fishery in the falkland islands is thought to have reduced the number of black browed albatross taken by the fleet in the last one zero years conservationists have also worked on the field of island restoration removing introduced species that threaten native wildlife which protects albatrosses from introduced predators one important step towards protecting albatrosses and other seabird is the two zero zero one treaty the agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels which came into force in two zero zero four and has been ratified by eight countries australia ecuador new zealand spain south africa france peru and the united kingdom this treaty requires specific actions to be taken by these countries to reduce by catch pollution and remove introduced species from nesting islands the treaty has also been signed but not ratified by another three countries argentina brazil and chile species current thinking divides the albatro |
sses into four genera the number of species is a matter of some debate the iucn and birdlife international among others recognise two one species other authorities retain the more traditional one four species great albatrosses diomedea wandering albatross d exulans antipodean albatross d exulans antipodensis amsterdam albatross d amsterdamensis tristan albatross d exulans dabbenena northern royal albatross d epomorpha sanfordi southern royal albatross d epomophora north pacific albatrosses phoebastria waved albatross p irrorata short tailed albatross p albatrus black footed albatross p nigripes laysan albatross p immutabilis mollymawks thalassarche black browed albatross t melanophris campbell albatross t melanophris impavida shy albatross t cauta chatham albatross t cauta eremita salvin s albatross t cauta salvini grey headed albatross t chrysostoma atlantic yellow nosed albatross t chlororhynchos indian yellow nosed albatross t chlororhynchos carteri buller s albatross t bulleri sooty albatrosses phoebetria |
dark mantled sooty albatross p fusca light mantled sooty albatross p palpebrata references external links albatross resources from bird online north america itis follows the aou classification roberts vii bird species list south africa hanzab complete species list handbook of australian new zealand and antarctic birds birdlife international save the albatross campaign the agreement for the conservation of albatrosses and petrels acap albatross don roberson s family page albatrosses heraldic birds seabirds arachnophobia is a specific phobia an abnormal fear of spiders it is among the most common phobias the reactions of arachnophobics often seem irrational to others and sometimes to sufferers themselves as well people with arachnophobia may stay away from any area they believe to be inhabited by numerous spiders or covered in spider webs if they see a spider they may not enter the general vicinity until they overcome the panic attack that is often associated with it like most phobias the fear can be overcome |
by psychological treatments and through gradual exposure to the object another technique is flooding in which the phobic person is suddenly exposed to a high intensity stimulus arachnophobia is in many cases the result of a traumatizing encounter with spiders in one s early childhood though the experience may not be remembered then considering the extreme diversity of phobias always inexplicable and sometimes exceedingly strange fear of carrot as such and not as food fear of glitter powder and others one hypothesis states that while some phobias are the result of a traumatic event most are the result of a random brain wiring that causes inexplicable fear at the sight of a seemingly innocuous thing or animal the main phobias such as arachnophobia fear of spiders claustrophobia stand out by their prevalence because they would have given over thousands of years a survival edge to sufferers and their offspring spiders for instance being relatively small don t fit the usual criteria for a threat in the animal king |
dom where size is a key factor but most species are venomous and some are lethal arachnophobics will spare no effort to make sure that their wherabouts are spider free hence reducing sharply the risk of being bitten reference stiemerling d analysis of a spider and monster phobia z psychosom med psychoanal one nine seven three oct dec one nine four three two seven four five in german phobias spiders alabaster sometimes called satin spar is a name applied to varieties of two distinct minerals gypsum a hydrous sulfate of calcium and the calcite a carbonate of calcium the former is the alabaster of the present day the latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients the two kinds are readily distinguished from each other by their relative hardnesses the gypsum kind is so soft as to be readily scratched by a finger nail hardness one five to two while the calcite kind is too hard to be scratched in this way hardness three though it does yield readily to a knife moreover the calcite alabaster being a carbonate effe |
rvesces on being touched with hydrochloric acid whereas the gypsum alabaster when so treated remains practically unaffected types calcite alabaster this substance the alabaster of the bible is often termed oriental alabaster since the early examples came from the far east the greek name alabastrites is said to be derived from the town of alabastron in egypt where the stone was quarried but the locality probably owed its name to the mineral the origin of the mineral name is obscure and it has been suggested that it may have had an arabic origin this oriental alabaster was highly esteemed for making small perfume bottles or ointment vases called alabastra and this has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name alabaster was also employed in egypt for canopic jars and various other sacred and sepulchral objects a splendid sarcophagus sculptured in a single block of translucent calcite alabaster from alabastron is in the soane museum london this was discovered by giovanni belzoni in one eight one seven |
in the tomb of seti i near thebes it was purchased by sir john soane having previously been offered to the british museum when cut in thin sheets alabaster is translucent enough to be used for small windows and has been used so in medieval churches especially in italy large alabaster sheets are used extensively in the cathedral of our lady of the angels dedicated two zero zero two of the los angeles california archdiocese the cathedral incorporates special cooling to prevent the panes from overheating and turning opaque calcite alabaster is either a stalagmitic deposit from the floor and walls of limestone caverns or a kind of travertine similarly deposited in springs of calcareous water its deposition in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance that the marble often shows on cross section whence it is known as onyx marble or alabaster onyx or sometimes simply as onyx a term which should however be restricted to siliceous minerals egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked near suez and near |
assiut there are many ancient quarries in the hills overlooking the plain of tell el amarna the algerian onyx marble has been largely quarried in the province of oran in mexico there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at la pedrara in the district of tecali near puebla onyx marble occurs also in the district of tehuac n and at several localities in california arizona utah colorado and virginia gypsum alabaster in the present day when the term alabaster is used without any qualification it invariably means a fine grained variety of gypsum this mineral or alabaster proper occurs in england however thousands of gypsum alabaster artifacts dating to the late four th millennium bc have been found in tell brak present day nagar in syria and in mesopotamia a gypsum alabaster sculpture believed to represent the god abu dates to the first half of the three rd millennium bc mineral alabaster occurs in england in the keuper marls of the midlands especially at chellaston in derbyshire at fauld in staffordshir |
e and near newark in nottinghamshire at all these localities it has been extensively worked indeed in the one five th century its carving into icons and altarpieces was a valuable local industry in these areas as well as a major english export besides examples of these still in britain especially at the nottingham castle museum british museum and victoria and albert museum that trade in itself rather than just the antiques trade has scattered examples as far afield as the mus e de cluny and alabaster is also found though in subordinate quantity at watchet in somerset near penarth in glamorganshire and elsewhere in cumbria it occurs largely in the new red rocks but at a lower geological horizon the alabaster of nottinghamshire and derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or floors in spheroidal masses known as balls or bowls and in smaller lenticular masses termed cakes at chellaston where the alabaster is known as patrick it has been worked into ornaments under the name of derbyshire spar a term more properl |
y applied to fluorspar unlike the lamp this fine alabaster sculpture is untreated its translucency and satiny lustre are preserved its base is of marble the finer kinds of alabaster are largely employed as an ornamental stone especially for ecclesiastical decoration and for the rails of staircases and halls its softness enables it to be readily carved into elaborate forms but its solubility in water renders it inapplicable to outdoor work the purest alabaster is a snow white material of fine tiniforni grain but it is often associated with an oxide of iron which produces brown clouding and veining in the stone the coarser varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster of paris whence they are sometimes known as plaster stone on the continent of europe the centre of the alabaster trade is florence italy tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses embedded in limestone interstratified with marls of miocene and pliocene age the mineral is largely worked by means of underground galleries in the dis |
trict of volterra several varieties are recognized veined spotted clouded agatiform and others the finest kind obtained principally from castellina is sent to florence for figure sculpture while the common kinds are carved at a very cheap rate locally into vases clock cases and various ornamental objects in which a large trade is carried on especially in florence pisa and leghorn in order to diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble the statues are immersed in a bath of water and gradually heated nearly to the boiling point an operation requiring great care for if the temperature is not carefully regulated the stone acquires a dead white chalky appearance the effect of heating appears to be a partial dehydration of the gypsum if properly treated it very closely resembles true marble and is known as marmo di castellina it should be noted that sulphate of lime gypsum was used also by the ancients and was employed for instance in assyrian sculpture so that som |
e of the ancient alabaster is identical with the modern stone alabaster may be stained by digesting it after being heated in various pigmentary solutions in this way a good imitation of coral has been produced alabaster coral black alabaster is a rare form of the gypsum based mineral found in only three veins in the world one each in oklahoma usa italy and china alabaster caverns state park near freedom oklahoma is home to a natural gypsum cave in which much of the gypsum is in the form of alabaster there are several types of alabaster found at the site including pink white and the rare black alabaster see also list of minerals alabaster is also a city in alabama usa see alabaster alabama alabaster is also a township in michigan usa see alabaster township michigan minerals stone apostle or the apostles can refer to the twelve apostles followers of jesus apostle mormonism a position within the mormon church the apostle a one nine nine seven film directed by and starring robert duvall cambridge apostles a secre |
t society at cambridge university the apostles a punk rock group from the one nine eight zero s the apostles a one nine zero three choral work by edward elgar apostle a production company founded in one nine nine four by jim serpico and denis leary ahab or ach av brother of the father standard hebrew a av tiberian hebrew a a was king of the kingdom of israel and the province of samaria and the son and successor of omri one kings one six two nine three four william f albright has dated his reign to eight six nine bc eight five zero bc while e r thiele offers the dates eight seven four bc eight five three bc he married jezebel the daughter of king ithobaal i of tyre and the alliance was doubtless the means of procuring him great riches which brought pomp and luxury in their train we read of his building an ivory palace one kings two two three nine amos three one five and founding new cities the effect perhaps of a share in the flourishing commerce of phoenicia who supplied the ivory for his palace the material |
prosperity of his reign which is comparable with that of solomon a century before was overshadowed by the religious changes which his marriage involved although he worshipped yhwh as the names of his children prove one kings two two five ff his wife was firmly attached to the worship of the melkart the tyrian ba al and led by her he gave a great impulse to this cult by building a temple in honour of baal in samaria this roused the indignation of the jewish prophets and priests whose aim it was to purify the worship of god see elijah during ahab s reign moab which had been conquered by his father remained tributary judah with whose king jehoshaphat he was allied by marriage was probably his vassal only with damascus is he said to have had strained relations the one event mentioned by external sources is the battle of karkar perhaps at apamea where shalmaneser iii of assyria fought a great confederation of princes from cilicia northern syria israel ammon and the tribes of the syrian desert eight five three bc h |
ere ahab a ha ab bu matsir i la a a or ahab the israelite joined baasha son of ruhub rehob of ammon and nine others are allied with hadadezer bir idri ahab s contribution being reckoned at two zero zero zero chariots and one zero zero zero zero men the numbers are comparatively large and possibly include forces from tyre judah edom and moab the assyrian king claimed a victory but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in eight four nine bc and eight four six bc against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to show that he met with no lasting success according to the old testament however ahab with seven zero zero zero troops had previously overthrown ben hadad and his thirty two kings who had come to lay siege to samaria and in the following year obtained a remarkable victory over him at aphek probably in the plain of sharon one kings two zero a treaty was made whereby ben hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from ahab s father that is omri but see one five two zero two kings one t |
hree two five and trading facilities between damascus and samaria were granted a late popular story two zero three five four two akin in tone to one two three three one three three four condemned ahab for his leniency and foretold the destruction of the king and his land three years later war broke out on the east of the jordan river and ahab with jehoshaphat of judah went to recover ramoth gilead and was mortally wounded ch two two he was succeeded by his sons ahaziah and jehoram it is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order of these events the septuagint places one kings two one immediately after one nine how the hostile kings of israel and syria came to fight a common enemy and how to correlate the assyrian and biblical records are questions which have perplexed all recent writers the reality of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact that it has been suggested that the assyrian scribe wrote ahab for his son jehoram and that the very identification of the name with ahab of israel has b |
een questioned whilst the above passages from one kings view ahab not unfavourably there are others which are less friendly the murder of naboth see jezebel an act of royal encroachment stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused the opposition of certain of the prophets the latter found their champion in elijah whose history reflects the prophetic teaching of more than one age his denunciation of the royal dynasty and his emphatic insistence on the worship of yahweh and him alone form the keynote to a period which culminated in the accession of jehu an event in which elijah s chosen disciple elisha was the leading figure the allusions to the statutes and works of omri and ahab in micah six one six may point to legislative measures of these kings and the reference to the incidents at the building of jericho one kings one six three four may be taken to show that foundation sacrifices familiar in nearly all parts of the world were not unknown in israel at this period which have in fact been confi |
rmed by excavation in palestine another ahab is known only as an impious prophet in the time of the babylonian exile jeremiah two nine two one another ahab is the monomanical captain of the whaling ship pequod in the novel moby dick references eight five three bc deaths eight five zero bc deaths kings of ancient israel the acronym asic depending on context may stand for application specific integrated circuit asic programming language australian securities and investments commission the dasyproctidae are a family of south american rodents comprising three genera classification family dasyproctidae genus dasyprocta azara s agouti dasyprocta azarae coiban agouti dasyprocta coibae crested agouti dasyprocta cristata black agouti dasyprocta fuliginosa orinoco agouti dasyprocta guamara kalinowski agouti dasyprocta kalinowskii brazilian agouti dasyprocta leporina mexican agouti dasyprocta mexicana black rumped agouti dasyprocta prymnolopha central american agouti dasyprocta punctata ruatan island agouti dasyprocta r |
uatanica genus myoprocta green acouchi myoprocta pratti red acouchi myoprocta acouchy genus agouti paca agouti paca mountain paca agouti taczanowskii the pacas agouti genus are sometimes placed in a separate family agoutidae or as the subfamily agoutinae note that the animals commonly known as agoutis are not the same as those with the scientific name agouti adding to the confusion the name agoutis is sometimes used to refer to the whole family dasyproctidae including or excluding the agouti genus to avoid misunderstandings some authors refer to the pacas as the genus cuniculus external links dasyproctidae at johns hopkins univ black agouti photo and natural history rodents hystricognath rodents algol per beta persei is a bright star in the constellation perseus it is one of the best known eclipsing binaries the first such star to be discovered and also one of the first variable stars in general to be discovered algol s magnitude changes regularly between two three and three five over a period of two days two |
zero hours and four nine minutes as an eclipsing binary it is actually two stars in close orbit around one another because the orbital plane coincidentally matches the earth s line of sight the dimmer star algol b passes in front of the brighter star algol a once per orbit and the amount of light reaching earth is temporarily decreased to be more precise however algol happens to be a triple star system the eclipsing binary pair is separated by only zero zero six two au while the third star algol c is at an average distance of two six nine au from the pair and the mutual orbital period is six eight one days one eight six years the total mass of the system is about five eight solar masses and the mass ratios of a b and c are about four five one two the variability of algol was first recorded in one six seven zero by geminiano montanari but it is probable that this property was noticed long before this time the name algol means demon star from arabic al gh l the ghoul which was probably given due to its peculia |
r behavior in the constellation perseus it represents the eye of the gorgon medusa studies of algol led to the algol paradox in the theory of stellar evolution although components of a binary star form at the same time and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive ones it was observed that the more massive component algol a is still in the main sequence while the less massive algol b is a subgiant star at a later evolutionary stage the paradox can be solved by mass transfer when the more massive star became a subgiant it filled its roche lobe and most of the mass was transferred to the other star which is still in the main sequence in some binaries similar to algol a gas flow can actually be seen algol is nine two eight light years from earth however about seven three million years ago it passed within nine eight light years and its apparent magnitude was approximately two five considerably brighter than sirius is today because the total mass of the system is five eight solar masses and despite t |
he fairly large distance at closest approach this may have been enough to slightly perturb the solar system s oort cloud and increase the number of comets entering the inner solar system however the actual increase in net cratering rate is believed to have been quite small astrologically algol is considered the most unfortunate star in the sky in the middle ages it was one of the one five behenian stars associated with the diamond and hellebore and marked with the kabbalistic sign image agrippa one five three one caputalgol png external links discusses the history of algol solstation article aricns entry mainstars data algol by jim kaler bayer objects eclipsing binaries blue white dwarfs orange subgiants perseus constellation variable stars arabic words amazing grace is one of the most well known christian hymns the words were written by john newton they form a part of the olney hymns that he worked on with william cowper and other hymnodists history john newton one seven two five one eight zero seven was the |
captain of a slave ship on one zero may one seven four eight returning home during a storm he experienced a great deliverance in his journal he wrote that the ship was in grave danger of sinking he exclaimed lord have mercy upon us he came to the light gradually and even continued to trade slaves after his conversion newton wrote the song how sweet the name of jesus sounds while waiting in an african harbor for a shipment of slaves later he renounced his profession became a minister and joined william wilberforce in the fight against slavery newton may have borrowed an old tune sung by the slaves themselves redeeming the song just as he had been redeemed the now familiar and traditional melody of the hymn was not composed by newton and the words were sung to a number of tunes before the now inseparable melody was chanced upon there are two different tunes to the words new britain first appears in a shape note hymnal from one eight three one called virginia harmony any original words sung to the tune are now |
lost the melody is believed to be scottish or irish in origin it is pentatonic and suggests a bagpipe tune the hymn is frequently performed on bagpipes and has become associated with that instrument the other tune is the so called old regular baptist tune it was sung by the congregation of the little zion church jeff kentucky on the album the ritchie family of kentucky on folkways one nine five eight newton s lyrics have become a favourite for christians of all denominations largely because the hymn vividly and briefly sums up the christian doctrine of divine grace the lyrics are loosely based around the text of ephesians two four eight it has also become known as a favorite with supporters of freedom and human rights both christian and non christian as it is believed by many to be a song against slavery as newton was once a slave trader he continued to be a slave trader for several years after his experience but with more compassion later he became a clergyman the song has been sung by many notable musical p |
erformers the hymn was quite popular among both sides in the american civil war while on the trail of tears the cherokee were not always able to give their dead a full burial instead the singing of amazing grace had to suffice since then amazing grace is often considered the cherokee national anthem for this reason many contemporary native american musicians have recorded this song the name amazing grace was used as the title of a musical written by mal pope about the one nine zero four welsh revival and the life of evan roberts bagpipes the association with bagpipes is a relatively modern phenomenon for over a century the tune was nearly forgotten in the british isles until the folk revival of the one nine six zero s began carrying traditional musicians both ways between the british isles and the united states where amazing grace had remained a very popular hymn it was little known outside of church congregations or folk festivals until arthur penn s film alice s restaurant one nine six nine lee hays of the |
weavers leads the worshipers in amazing grace lyrics amazing grace how sweet the sound that sav d a wretch like me i once was lost but now am found was blind but now i see twas grace that taught my heart to fear and grace my fears reliev d how precious did that grace appear the hour i first believ d thro many dangers toils and snares i have already come tis grace has brought me safe thus far and grace will lead me home the lord has promis d good to me his word my hope secures he will my shield and portion be as long as life endures yes when this flesh and heart shall fail and mortal life shall cease i shall possess within the veil a life of joy and peace the earth shall soon dissolve like snow the sun forbear to shine but god who call d me here below will be forever mine some versions of the hymn include an additional verse when we ve been there ten thousand years bright shining as the sun we ve no less days to sing god s praise than when we d first begun this verse is not by newton it was originally from a h |
ymn called jerusalem my happy home it was added to a version of amazing grace by harriet beecher stowe as it appears in her novel uncle tom s cabin uncle tom has pieced the lyrics of several hymns together those who learned the lyrics from the novel have assumed that it belongs some versions include still another verse shall i be wafted through the skies on flowery beds of ease where others strive to win the prize and sail through bloody seas this verse has been recorded by pete seeger and arlo guthrie the verse really belongs with the hymn am i a soldier of the cross by isaac watts recordings the hymn has been recorded by countless artists over the last century two versions have made the uk singles chart between one nine seven zero and one nine seven two a version by judy collins spent six seven weeks in the charts a record for a female artist and peaked at number five in one nine seven two an instrumental version by the pipes and drums and military band of the royal scots dragoon guards spent five weeks at |
number one also reaching the top spot in australia likewise another artist hayley westenra released this song on her album pure and this album did incredibly well selling one nine zero six eight copies in its first week of sales alone in addition to recording the hymn joan baez also opened the us portion of live aid the legendary one nine eight five concert for african famine relief with a performance of amazing grace folk singer arlo guthrie closes many of his concerts with a version of amazing grace that includes a spoken retelling of its origin the composer frank ticheli has written a version of amazing grace that is frequently performed by various wind ensembles throughout the united states celtic influenced punk band the dropkick murphys have made several recordings of amazing grace all of which feature the use of bagpipes christian metal band stryper recorded a heavy metal version of amazing grace titled one zero zero zero zero years which came out in their album two zero zero five album reborn chris sq |
uire of yes also has recorded a bass solo version of amazing grace on the rhino s rerelease of going for the one album another version was used as the ending song for the japanese drama series shiroi kyoto two zero zero three two zero zero four version external links amazing grace the story of john newton who has recorded amazing grace easybyte free easy piano arrangement of amazing grace amazing grace myths at the urban legends reference pages art of the states amazing grace variations on the hymn by composer john harbison christian hymns british poems america online or aol for short is a u s based online service provider internet service provider and media company operated by time warner based in dulles virginia a community in loudoun county virginia with regional branches around the world it is by far the most successful proprietary online service with more than three two million subscribers at one point in the us canada germany france the united kingdom latin america declared bankrupt in two zero zero fou |
r japan and formerly russia in early two zero zero five aol hong kong stopped its service in the fall of two zero zero four aol reported total subscribers had dropped to two four million a drop of over a quarter of its subscribers in late one nine nine six aol suspended all dialup service within russia in the face of massive billing fraud forcing the company into a rare case of full market retreat for many americans through the mid to late one nine nine zero s aol was the internet but the rise of high speed internet access from cable and telephone companies as well as the increasing sophistication of the public in handling browsers and other internet utilities has cut into its user base in two zero zero zero aol and time warner announced plans to merge and the deal was approved by the federal trade commission on january one one two zero zero one this merger was primarily a product of the internet mania of the late one nine nine zero s known as the internet bubble the subsequent massive decline in value of sto |
cks such as aol resulted in much recrimination over the merger also the merger with aol allowed for time warner to vote off wcw world championship wrestling news reports in the fall of two zero zero five indicated a renewed interest in buying out aol suitors such as microsoft google yahoo and comcast have had discussions with time warner about a possible purchase and on december one six two zero zero five time warner and google announced that they were starting exclusive talks for google to purchase one billion in aol stock a five share although its dialup market is shrinking as more members switch to high speed services the success of its aol for broadband program has helped it to maintain members that would otherwise totally drop the aol service this combined with its growing advertising revenue through its relationship with google aol collected eight seven billion us dollars in revenue for two zero zero four history one five zero px aol began as a short lived venture called control video corporation or cvc |
founded by william von meister its sole product was an online service called gameline for the atari two six zero zero video game console after von meister s idea of buying music on demand was rejected by warner brothers klein two zero zero three subscribers bought a modem from the company for four nine nine five and paid a one time one five setup fee gameline permitted subscribers to temporarily download games and keep track of high scores at a cost of approximately one an hour in one nine eight three the company nearly went bankrupt and an investor in control video frank caufield had a friend of his jim kimsey brought in as a manufacturing consultant that same year steve case was hired as a part time consultant later on that year he joined the company as a full time marketing employee upon the joint recommendations of von meister and kimsey kimsey went on to become the chief executive officer ceo of the newly renamed quantum computer services in one nine eight five after von meister was quietly dropped from |
the company case himself rose quickly through the ranks kimsey promoted him to vice president of marketing not long after becoming ceo and later promoted him further to executive vice president in one nine eight seven kimsey soon began to groom case to ascend to the rank of ceo when he himself retired which case did in one nine nine one kimsey changed the company s strategy and in one nine eight five launched a sort of mega bbs for commodore six four and one two eight computers originally called quantum link q link for short in may one nine eight eight quantum and apple launched applelink personal edition for apple ii and macintosh computers after the two companies parted ways in october one nine eight nine quantum changed the service s name to america online in august one nine eight eight quantum launched pc link a service for ibm compatible pcs developed in a joint venture with the tandy corporation in february one nine nine one aol for dos was launched using a geoworks interface followed a year later by a |
ol for windows in october one nine nine one quantum changed its name to america online these changes coincided with growth in pay based bbs services like prodigy compuserve and genie aol discontinued q link and pc link in the fall of one nine nine four massive growth case drove aol as the online service for people unfamiliar with computers in particular contrast to compuserve which had long served the technical community aol was the first online service to require use of proprietary software rather than a standard terminal program as a result it was able to offer a graphical user interface gui instead of command lines and was well ahead of the competition in emphasizing communication among members as a feature in particular was the chat room borrowed from irc which allowed a large group of people with similar interests to convene and hold conversations in real time including private rooms created by any user hold up to two seven people conference rooms created with permission of aol hold up to four eight peop |
le and often moderated auditoriums created with permission of aol consisted of a stage and an unlimited number of rows what happened on the stage was viewable by everybody in the auditorium but what happened within individual rows of up to two seven people was viewable only by the people within those rows there were also text games played in the chat rooms known as aol chatroom game under case s guidance aol committed to including online games in its mix of products even when it was only a commodore six four service it hosted the first play by email game from any service quantum space one nine eight nine one nine nine one the first graphical online community club caribe from lucasarts and the first graphical mmorpg neverwinter nights from stormfront studios one nine nine one one nine nine seven and the first chatroom based text role playing game black bayou a horror role playing game from hecklers online and antagonist inc aol quickly surpassed genie and by the mid one nine nine zero s it passed prodigy which |
for several years allowed aol advertising and compuserve originally aol charged its users an hourly fee but in one nine nine six this changed and a flat rate of one nine nine nine a month was charged within three years aol s userbase would grow to one zero million people during this time aol connections would be flooded with users trying to get on and many canceled their accounts due to constant busy signals also games which used to be paid for with the hourly fee migrated in droves to the internet aol was relatively late in providing access to the open internet originally only some internet features were accessible through a proprietary interface but eventually it became possible to run other internet software while logged in through aol they were the first online service to seamlessly integrate a web browser into content aol introduced the concept of buddy lists leveraging their one on one instant messaging technology since its merger with time warner the value of aol has dropped from its two zero zero bil |
lion high and it has seen a similar losses among its subscription rate it has since attempted to reposition itself as a content provider similar to companies such as yahoo as opposed to an internet service provider which delivered content only to subscribers in what was termed a walled garden in two zero zero five aol broadcast the live eight concert live over the internet and thousands of users downloaded clips of the concert over the following months more recently aol has announced plans to offer subscribers classic television programs for free with commercials inserted programs available include wonder woman and eight is enough one of aol s recently added premium services is aol total talk a voip internet service cd rom distribution aol has tirelessly pushed itself through regularly mailing sign up diskettes and cd roms to over one zero zero million households helping forge dominant growth this campaign has been made particuarly effective by the way of these cds offer free trials in the early years of aol |
s practice of offering free trials with cds the trials were usually only a few hours the trial time has gradually increased and now the cds tend to offer a month s free trial however this long campaign has produced a backlash including a program called no more aol cds that seeks to gather one million unwanted aol cds and dump them at aol headquarters other organizations have objected under both environmental and privacy grounds environmentalists say that aol s cds are largely unwanted and result in massive non biodegradable plastic waste however aol s mailings have never violated the law and always interest some people aol has also always provided means for people to remove themselves from aol mailing lists though no more aol cds has documented claims that these removal attempts are sometimes ineffective others view aol disks as valuable collectible items due to the vast number of cd rom design variations aol users reputation people using aol often referred to as aolers have a reputation online for being exce |
ssively noobish ignorant of netiquette this is in part due to the fact that aol is aimed towards users who are new to the internet to a segment of the online population an e mail address ending in aol com is a sign of ignorance to be avoided at all costs some web game and chat servers even go as far as to ban the aol hostmask preventing aol users from logging on additionally the efnet irc chat network banned all aol users for a time however this reputation doesn t stop aol com addresses from being widely used even in serious business contexts it is still commonplace in advertisements in non computer related publications to see lines like see our website at www whatever com or e mail us at whatever aol com to the puzzlement of those who believe an address in the company s own domain would be more logical and professional aol further provoked disdain from other internet users in one nine nine four when aol began to provide access to the usenet bulletin board system for its users this led to a flood of relativel |
y net illiterate commercial young and immature users into what had previously been the almost exclusive domain of scientists academics and technical personnel associated with universities and computer companies the new aol contingent immediately gained a reputation as pests in usenet s numerous forums making near constant requests for pornography bootlegged software and hacking information see me too in early two zero zero five aol ceased providing newsgroup access instead referring customers to the google groups site stating google does a very good job of hosting newsgroups and the typical aol user probably doesn t use newsgroups that often aol e mail accounts used to be only accessed using a nonstandard proprietary protocol not supported by other vendors e mail programs compelling users in the past to use aol s own mail program and be subject to its quirks and limitations claris em iler was the only third party email software ever licenced to directly access aol email until the recent opening of aol to imap |
email access one consequence of the past practice is that when people receive e mails from aol users the address not the name of the user is displayed since the user s real name is not added in the manner that most other mail programs do it in instances where the aol user has chosen an alphanumeric alias eg jwds seven five aol com rather than john smith the identity of the user is less clear to the recipient also in the past users of the aol client software were unable to click on hyperlinks in the text many experienced internet users remain unaware that these inherent limitations of the aol software are not due to any possible lack of computer skills by aol users in a different vein aol users also have a reputation in some online communities for disruptive activities aol makes use of aggressive web caching proxy servers that effectively makes it impossible for a website such as a wiki to block an abusive user without excluding large segments of the entire aol community combined with the fact that their free |
service offers make it all too easy to join many internet trolls take advantage of this and choose aol as a preferred means of hiding their true identity in a manner that is almost as effective as using an anonymous proxy this has only served to further harm the reputation of aol users as a whole and is a large part of why some places implement a policy of banning all aol users controversies community leaders prior to the middle of two zero zero five aol used volunteers called community leaders or cls to monitor chatrooms message boards and libraries some community leaders were recruited for content design and maintenance using a proprietary language and interface called rainman although most content maintenance was performed by partner and internal employees in one nine nine nine kelly hallissey and brian williams former community leaders and founders of an anti aol website filed a class action lawsuit against aol citing violations of u s labor laws in its usage of cls the department of labor investigated b |
ut came to no conclusions closing their investigation in two zero zero one in light of these events aol drastically began reducing the responsibilities and privileges of its volunteers in two zero zero zero the program was eventually ended on june eight two zero zero five current community leaders at the time were offered one two months of credit on their accounts also for a time aol had a bot named catwatch which would pop into user created private rooms where tos violations may be occuring and everyone in the room would be disconnected from aol and get a tos strike against their account billing disputes aol has faced a number of lawsuits over claims that it has been slow to stop billing people after their accounts have been cancelled either by the company or the user in addition aol changed its method of calculating used minutes in response to a class action lawsuit previously aol would add fifteen seconds to the time a user was connected to the service and round up to the next whole minute thus a person wh |
o used the service for one one minutes and four six seconds would be charged for one three minutes aol claimed this was to account for sign on sign off time but because this practice was not made known to its customers the lawsuit won some also pointed out that signing on and off did not always take one five seconds especially when connecting via another isp aol disclosed its connection time calculation methods to all of its customers and credited them with extra free hours in addition the aol software would notify the user of exactly how long they were connected and how many minutes they were being charged for account cancellation in response to approximately three zero zero consumer complaints new york attorney general eliot spitzer s office began an inquiry of aol s customer service policies the investigation revealed that the company had an elaborate system for rewarding employees who purported to retain or save subscribers who had called to cancel their internet service in many instances such retention w |
as done against subscribers wishes or without their consent under the system consumer service personnel received bonuses worth tens of thousands of dollars if they could successfully dissuade or save half of the people who called to cancel service for several years aol had instituted minimum retention or save percentages which consumer representatives were expected to meet these bonuses and the minimum save rates accompanying them had the effect of employees not honoring cancellations or otherwise making cancellation unduly difficult for consumers many consumers complained that aol personnel ignored their demands to cancel service and stop billing on august two four two zero zero five america online agreed to pay one two five million to the state of new york and reformed its customer service procedures under the agreement aol will no longer require its customer service representatives to meet a minimum quota for customer retention in order to receive a bonus software in two zero zero zero aol was served with |
an eight billion lawsuit alleging that its now dated aol five zero software caused significant difficulties for users attempting to use third party internet service providers the lawsuit sought damages of up to one zero zero zero for each user that had downloaded the software cited at the time of the lawsuit aol later agreed to a settlement of one five million without admission of wrongdoing usenet newsgroups when aol gave clients access to usenet in one nine nine four they hid at least one newsgroup in standard list view alt aol sucks aol did list the newsgroup in the alternative description view but changed the description to flames and complaints about america online terms of service tos there have been many complaints over rules that govern aol s members conduct call the terms of service which apply applied to everyone who used aol regardless of age or where an aol member is on the internet claims are that these rules are too strict to follow do not allow swearing or a very flexible rule called room disru |
ption company purchases as it grew aol purchased many other software companies including booklink bought in december one nine nine four navisoft s naviserver later to become aolserver in one nine nine four imagination network i n n from at aol the relaunch fortune p eight four eight eight external links aol us aol brasil aol canada aol germany aol france aol m xico aol uk aol japan aol a history aol disk collection important dates no more aol cds campaign alt aol sucks anti aol usenet group via google cnn com disgruntled aol five zero users seek up to eight billion in damages aol fraud america online internet service providers online service providers time warner subsidiaries this article is about the branch of mathematics for other uses of the term see algebra disambiguation algebra arabic al jabr is a branch of mathematics which studies structure and quantity elementary algebra is often taught in high school and gives an introduction into the basic ideas of algebra studying what happens when one adds and mu |
ltiplies numbers and how one can make polynomials and find their roots algebra is much broader than arithmetic and can be generalized rather than working on numbers one can work over symbols or elements addition and multiplication are viewed as general operations and their precise definitions lead to structures called groups rings and fields together with geometry and analysis algebra is one of the three main branches of mathematics classification algebra may be roughly divided into the following categories elementary algebra in which the properties of operations on the real number system are recorded using symbols as place holders to denote constants and variables and the rules governing mathematical expressions and equations involving these symbols are studied note that this usually includes the subject matter of courses called intermediate algebra and college algebra abstract algebra sometimes also called modern algebra in which algebraic structures such as groups rings and fields are axiomatically defined |
and investigated linear algebra in which the specific properties of vector spaces are studied including matrices universal algebra in which properties common to all algebraic structures are studied in advanced studies axiomatic algebraic systems like groups rings fields and algebras over a field are investigated in the presence of a natural geometric structure a topology which is compatible with the algebraic structure the list includes normed linear spaces banach spaces hilbert spaces banach algebras normed algebras topological algebras topological groups elementary algebra elementary algebra is the most basic form of algebra taught to students who are presumed to have no knowledge of mathematics beyond the basic principles of arithmetic while in arithmetic only numbers and their arithmetical operations such as occur in algebra one also uses symbols such as a x y to denote numbers this is useful because it allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws such as a b b a for all a and b and thus is the fi |
rst step to a systematic exploration of the properties of the real number system it allows the reference to unknown numbers the formulation of equations and the study of how to solve these for instance find a number x such that three x one one zero it allows the formulation of functional relationships such as if you sell x tickets then your profit will be three x one zero dollars abstract algebra main article abstract algebra see also algebraic structures abstract algebra extends the familiar concepts found in elementary algebra and arithmetic of numbers to more general concepts sets rather than just considering the different types of numbers abstract algebra deals with the more general concept of sets a collection of objects called elements all the familiar types of numbers are sets other examples of sets include the set of all two by two matrices the set of all second degree polynomials ax two bx c the set of all two dimensional vectors in the plane and the various finite groups such as the cyclic groups wh |
ich are the group of integers modulo n set theory is a branch of logic and not technically a branch of algebra binary operations the notion of addition is abstracted to give a binary operation say for two elements a and b in a set s a b gives another element in the set technically this condition is called closure addition subtraction multiplication and division are all binary operations as in addition and multiplication of matrices vectors and polynomials identity elements zero and one are abstracted to give the notion of an identity element zero is the identity element for addition and one is the identity element for multiplication for a general binary operator the identity element e must satisfy a e a and e a a this holds for addition as a zero a and zero a a and multiplication a one a one a a however if we take the positive natural numbers and addition there is no identity element inverse elements the negative numbers gives rise to the concept of an inverse elements for addition the inverse of a is a and f |
or multiplication the inverse is one a a general inverse element a one must satisfy the property that a a one e and a one a e associativity the integers with addition have a property called associativity two three four two three four in general this becomes a b c a b c this property is shared by most binary operations but not subtraction or division commutativity the integers with addition also have a property called commutativity two three three two in general this becomes a b b a only some binary operations have this property it holds for the integers with addition and multiplication but it does not hold for matrix multiplication groups main article group see also group theory examples of groups combining the above concepts gives one of the most important structures in mathematics a group a group consists of a set s of elements a closed binary operation an identity element exists every element has an inverse the operation is associative if commutativity is included as well then we obtain an abelian group fo |
r example the set of integers under the operation of addition is a group in this group the identity element is zero and the inverse of any element a is its negation a the associativity requirement is met since for any integers a b and c a b c a b c the non zero rational numbers form a group under multiplication here the identity element is one since one cdot a a cdot one a for any any rational number a the inverse of a is frac since a cdot one the integers under the multiplication operation however do not form a group this is because in general the multiplicative inverse of an integer is not an integer for example four is an integer but its multiplicative inverse is one four which is not an integer the theory of groups is studied in group theory a major result in this theory is the classification of finite simple groups a vast body of work which classified all the is a vast body of work mostly published between around one nine five five and one nine eight three which is thought to classify all of the finite s |
imple groups colspan two integers mathbb colspan four rational numbers mathbb also real mathbb and complex mathbb numbers integers mod three operation including zero excluding zero excluding zero excluding zero excluding zero closed yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes identity zero one zero one zero na one na zero inverse na na one na one na one a na zero two one receptively associative yes yes yes yes yes no yes no yes commutative yes yes yes yes yes no yes no yes structure semigroup quasigroup abelian group monoid abelian group quasigroup abelian group quasigroup abelian group many other types of algebraic structures exist among the most common are rings fields and monoids these different structures can be used to model different types of mathematical objects different algebraic structures are often related for example a group is a specific kind of monoid and rings and fields are similar to groups but with more operations algebras the word algebra is also used for various algebraic structures algebra over a |
field algebra over a set boolean algebra sigma algebra f algebra and f coalgebra in category theory history hellenistic mathematician euclid details geometrical algebra in elements the origins of algebra can be traced to the ancient egyptians and babylonians who used an early type of algebra to solve linear quadratic and indeterminate equations more than three zero zero zero years ago by contrast most indian and greek mathematicians in the one st millennium bc usually solved such equations by geometric methods circa one zero zero bc algebraic equations are treated in the chinese mathematics book jiuzhang suanshu the nine chapters on the mathematical art circa one zero zero bc the bakhshali manuscript in ancient india contains algebraic solutions of linear equations with upto five unknowns the general algebraic formula for the quadratic equation quadratic indeterminate equations and simultaneous equations circa one five zero ad hellenized egyptian mathematician hero of alexandria treats algebraic equations in |
three volumes of mathematics circa two zero zero hellenized babylonian mathematician diophantus who lived in egypt and is often considered as the father of algebra writes his famous arithmetica a work featuring solutions of algebraic equations and on the theory of numbers four nine nine indian mathematician aryabhata obtains whole number solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern one six two eight indian mathematician brahmagupta invents the method of solving indeterminate equations of the second degree gives rules for solving linear and quadratic equations and discovers negative solutions for the quadratic equation indian mathematicians at the time recognized that quadratic equations have two roots and included negative as well as irrational roots eight two zero the word algebra is derived from operations described in the treatise first written by persian mathematician al khwarizmi titled al jabr wa al muqabilah meaning the book of summary concerning calculating by transposition and |
reduction the word al jabr means reunion al khwarizmi is often considered as the father of modern algebra much of whose works on reduction was included in the book and added to many methods we have in algebra now circa one zero zero zero abu bakr al karaji in his treatise al fakhri extends al khwarizmi s methodology to incorporate integral powers and integral roots of unknown quantities one one one four indian mathematician bhaskara ii who wrote the text bijaganita algebra recognizes that a positive number has two square roots and also solves quadratic indeterminate equations and quadratic equations with more than one unknown one two zero two algebra is introduced to europe largely through the work of leonardo fibonacci of pisa in his work liber abaci references ziauddin sardar jerry ravetz and borin van loon introducing mathematics totem books one nine nine nine donald r hill islamic science and engineering edinburgh university press one nine nine four george gheverghese joseph the crest of the peacock the n |
on european roots of mathematics princeton university press two zero zero zero see also fundamental theorem of algebra which is really a theorem of mathematical analysis not of algebra diophantus father of algebra mohammed al khwarizmi also known as father of modern algebra computer algebra system external links explanation of basic topics sparknotes review of algebra i and ii understanding algebra an online algebra text by james w brennan algebra the basic ideas first of six parts in a short course on basic algebra at the high school level highlights in the history of algebra exampleproblems com example problems and solutions from basic and abstract algebra algebra arabic words anno domini in the year of the lord abbreviated as ad or a d defines an epoch based on the traditionally reckoned year of the birth or actually incarnation of jesus of nazareth this is the designation used to number years in the christian era conventionally used with the julian and gregorian calendars before christ abbreviated as bc o |
r b c is now usually used to denote years before anno domini years in english language more extensive the years may be also designed by anno domini nostri iesu christi in english translation from latin in the year of our lord jesus christ this christian era is currently dominant all around the world in both commercial and scientific use presently it is the common international standard recognised by international institutions such as the united nations and the universal postal union this is due both to the tradition and to the fact that the solar gregorian calendar has long time been considered to be astronomically correct the english usage adheres to the traditional practice of placing the abbreviation before the year as in latin e g six four bc but ad two zero zero one dionysius exiguus invented anno domini years to date easter synonyms common era anno domini is sometimes referred to as the common era ce instead this term is often preferred by those who want to avoid the association with the christian era f |
or example cunningham and starr one nine nine eight write that b c e c e do not presuppose faith in christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional b c a d when the people s republic of china abolished the republic of china era in one nine four nine it adopted western years calling that era g ngyu n which literally means common era anno salutis anno salutis often translated from latin as in the year of salvation is a dating style used up until the eighteenth century which like anno domini dates years from the birth of christ it can be explained in the context of christian belief where the birth of jesus saved mankind from eternal damnation it is often used in a more elaborate form such as anno nostrae salutis in the year of our salvation anno salutis humanae in the year of human well being anno reparatae salutis in the year of accomplished salvation numbering of years historians do not use a year zero ad one is the first year or epoch of the anno domini era and one bc immedia |
tely precedes it as the first year before the epoch this is a problem with some calculations so in astronomical year numbering a zero is added and the ad and bc are dropped in keeping with standard decimal numbering a negative sign is added for earlier years so counting down from year two would give two one zero one two and so on this results in a one year shift between the two systems eg one equals two bc this article however is about the civil usage without a year zero earlier calendar epochs anno domini dating was not adopted in western europe until the eighth century like the other inhabitants of the roman empire early christians used one of several methods to indicate a specific year and it was not uncommon for more than one to be used in the same document this redundancy allows historians to construct parallel regnal lists for many kingdoms and polities by comparing chronicles from different regions which include the same rulers consular dating the earliest and most common practice was roman consular da |
ting this involved naming both consulares ordinares who had been appointed to this office on january one of the civil year sometimes one or both consuls might not be appointed until november or december of the previous year and news of the appointment may not have reached parts of the roman empire for several months into the current year thus we find the occasional inscription where the year is defined as after the consulate of a pair of consuls dating from the founding of rome another method of dating rarely used was to indicate the year ab urbe condita or from the foundation of the city abbreviated auc where the city meant rome several epochs were in use by roman historians modern historians usually adopt the epoch of varro which we place in seven five three bc about ad four zero zero the iberian historian orosius used the ab urbe condita era pope boniface iv about ad six zero zero may have been the first to use both the ab urbe condita era and the anno domini era he put ad six zero seven auc one three six |
zero regnal years of roman emperors another system that is less commonly found than thought was to use the regnal year of the roman emperor at first augustus would indicate the year of his rule by counting how many times he had held the office of consul and how many times the roman senate had granted him tribunican powers carefully observing the fiction that his powers came from these offices granted to him rather than from his own person or the many legions under his control his successors followed his practice until the memory of the roman republic faded late in the second century or early in the third century when they openly began to use their regnal year indiction cycles another common system was to use the indiction cycle one five indictions made up an agricultural tax cycle an indiction being a year in duration documents and events began to be dated by the year of the cycle e g fifth indiction tenth indiction in the fourth century and was used long after the tax was no longer collected this system was |
used in gaul in egypt until the islamic conquest and in the eastern roman empire until its conquest in one four five three other dating systems a great many local systems or eras were also important for example the year from the foundation of one particular city the regnal year of the neighboring persian emperor and eventually even the year of the reigning caliph the beginning of the numbered year also varied from place to place and was not largely standardized in europe except england as january one until the sixteenth century the most important of these include the seleucid era in use until the eighth century and the spanish era in use in official documents in aragon valencia and in castile into the fourteenth century in one four two two portugal became the last country of western europe to adopt the anno domini era history of anno domini early christians designated the year via a combination of consular dating imperial regnal year dating and creation dating use of consular dating ended when the emperor jus |
tinian i discontinued appointing consuls in the mid sixth century shortly after he required that the use of imperial regnal dating the last consul nominated was anicius faustus albinus basilius in five four one the papacy was in regular contact throughout the middle ages with envoys of the byzantine world and had a clear idea sudden deaths and deposals notwithstanding of who was the byzantine emperor at any one time the anno domini system was developed by a scythian monk named dionysius exiguus in rome in five two five as an outcome of his work on calculating the date of easter byzantine chroniclers like theophanes continued to date each year in their world chronicles on a different judaeo christian basis from the notional creation of the world as calculated by christian scholars in the first five centuries of the christian era these eras sometimes called anno mundi year of the world abbreviated am by modern scholars had their own disagreements no single anno mundi epoch was dominant one popular formulation w |
as that established by eusebius of caesarea a historian at the time of constantine i the latin translator jerome helped popularize eusebius s am count in the west another formulation dominant in the east during the early centuries of the byzantine empire was developed by the alexandrian monk anninus accuracy almost all biblical scholars believe that dionysius was incorrect in his calculation and that the date claimed for jesus birth was between eight bc and four bc the birth of christ is known to have preceded the death of herod the great which occurred in four bc according to kepler popularization the first historian or chronicler to use anno domini as his primary dating mechanism was victor of tonnenna an african chronicler of the seventh century a few generations later the anglo saxon historian bede who was familiar with the work of dionysius also used anno domini dating in his ecclesiastical history of the english people finished in seven three one in this same history he was the first to use the latin eq |
uivalent of before christ and established the standard for historians of no year zero even though he used zero in his computus both dionysius and bede regarded anno domini as beginning at the incarnation or conception of jesus not his birth approximately nine months later annunciation style on the continent of europe anno domini was introduced as the era of choice of the carolingian renaissance by alcuin this endorsement by charlemagne and his successors popularizing the usage of the epoch and spreading it throughout the carolingian empire ultimately lies at the core of the system s prevalence until present times outside the carolingian empire spain continued to date by the era of the caesars or spanish era well into the middle ages which counted beginning with three eight bc the era of martyrs which numbered years from the accession of diocletian in two eight four who launched the last yet most severe persecution of christians prevailed in the east and is still used officially by the coptic and used to be us |
ed by the ethiopian church another system was to date from the crucifixion of jesus christ which as early as hippolytus and tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the gemini ad two nine which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript even though anno domini was in widespread use by the ninth century before christ or its equivalent did not become widespread until the late fifteenth century other eras in official use some other eras were in official use in modern times or are still in use in several countries alongside the current international anno domini era european attempts the french revolution seriously attempted to displace the anno domini system by instead dating from two two september one seven nine two one vend miaire an i an means year in french of the first french republic see french revolutionary calendar napol on finally abolished the calendar effective one january one eight zero six the day after one zero niv se an xiv the italian fascists used the standard system along |
with roman numerals to denote the number of years since the establishment of the fascist government in one nine two two therefore one nine three four for example was year xii this era was abolished with the fall of fascism in italy on july two five one nine four three both attempts ultimately failed to replace the standard calendar asian national eras the official japanese system numbers years from the accession of the current emperor regarding the calendar year during which the accession occurred as the first year it is still very common in taiwan to date events via the republic of china era whose first year is one nine one two north korea uses a system that starts in one nine one two juche one the year of the birth of their founder kim il sung the year two zero zero four was juche nine three juche means autarchy self reliance in thailand in one eight eight eight king chulalongkorn decreed a national thai era since founding of bangkok on one seven eight two april six in one nine one two the new year s day wa |
s shifted to april one in one nine four one the prime ministre phibunsongkhram decided to count the years since b c five four three this is the so called thai solar calendar or thailand buddhist era clearly relied on the western solar calendar this is one of the versions of the buddhist calendar religious eras in israel the traditional hebrew calendar using an era dating from creation is in official use in the islamic world traditional islamic dating according to the anno hegir in the year of the hijra era remains in use to a varying extent especially for religious purposes see also calendar calendar era chronology references despite beginning with two it is english dionysius exiguus and the introduction of the christian era sacris erudiri four one two zero zero two one six five two four six an annotated version of part of anno domini note one the mean year of the gregorian calendar is three six five two four two five days this approximated the mean tropical year more than five millennia ago the real mean tro |
pical year is now very close to three six five two four two one eight seven five days i e two seven s year shorter however relative to the vernal equinox year important for the determination of the date of christian easter the older lilius definition of the year is and will be a very good value the vernal equinox year and the mean tropical year have falsely been seen as identical even by many erudite persons of the two zero th century the approximation of the year in the old persian calendar attributed to omar khayy m is three six five two four two four days which is very close to the vernal equinox year but requires a three three year cycle the definition of milutin milankovi used in the revised julian calendar is three six five two four two two days which is very close to the mean tropical year but uses unequal long period cycles external links the catholic encyclopedia s v general chronology calendars christian history chronology latin religious phrases av may mean adult video see pornography altavista a s |
earch engine alterac valley a player versus player instance dungeon in the mmorpg world of warcraft alternative vote see instant runoff voting angela via a singer anguilla fips one zero four code and obsolete nato digram antelope valley a desert region of northern los angeles county california in the us anti virus see anti virus software artificial vagina a sex toy audio visual see video authorised version or king james version of the bible avatar virtual reality a representation of a user in virtual reality avenue see road ave is more frequent average avianca av is the iata code for this airline arcade volleyball an ms dos computer game approval voting av may mean av a month in the hebrew calendar av may mean attovolt an si unit of electromotive force av may mean avar language iso six three nine one code for this language in chemistry especially in organic chemistry and biochemistry an amino group is an ammonia like functional group composed of a nitrogen and two hydrogen atoms covalently linked two it is a |
basic functional group that can give the free electron pair of the nitrogen atom to the proton of an acid in this process it becomes positively charged a compound containing an amino group is called an amine see also amino acid amino communications amino software functional groups rabanus maurus left supported by alcuin middle presents his work to otgar of mainz flaccus albinus alcuinus or ealhwine c seven three five may one nine eight zero four was a monk from york england he was related to willibrord anglo saxon missionary to the frisians and the first bishop of utrecht whose biography he afterwards wrote alcuin of york had a long career as a teacher and scholar first at the school at york now known as st peters school york founded ad six two seven and lastly as charlemagne s leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs from seven nine six until his death he was abbot of the great monastery of st martin of tours he was educated at the cathedral school of york under the celebrated master ethelbe |
rt of york with whom he also went to rome seeking manuscripts when ethelbert was appointed archbishop of york in seven six six alcuin succeeded him in the headship of the episcopal school he again went to rome in seven eight zero to fetch the pallium for archbishop eanbald i of york and at parma met charlemagne charlemagne persuaded him to come to his court and gave him the possession of the great abbeys of ferrieres and saint loup at troyes from seven eight two to seven nine zero alcuin had as pupils the king of the franks his kinsmen the young men sent for their education to the court and the young clerics attached to the palace chapel he was the life and soul of the academy of the palace and we have still in the dialogue of pepin son of charlemagne and alcuin a sample of the intellectual exercises in which they indulged one surviving tool of the drive to reform education is charlemagne s circular letter de litteris colendis on the study of letters which alcuin wrote in seven nine zero alcuin went back to e |
ngland to which he had always been greatly attached and dwelt there for some time but charlemagne invited him back to help in the fight against the adoptionist heresy which was at that time making great progress in toledo spain the old capital town of the visigoths and still a major city for the christians under islamic rule in spain he is believed to have had contacts with beato de li bana from the kingdom of asturias who fighted against adoptionism at the council of frankfurt in seven nine four alcuin upheld the orthodox doctrine and obtained the condemnation of the heresiarch felix of urgel after this victory he again went back to england but on account of the disturbances which broke out there and which led to the death of king ethelred seven nine six he left it forever charlemagne had given him the great abbey of st martin at tours where he was to pass his last years he made the abbey school into a model of excellence and many students flocked to it he had many manuscripts copied the calligraphy of which |
is of outstanding beauty he wrote many letters to his friends in england to arno bishop of salzburg and above all to charlemagne these letters of which three one one are extant are filled mainly with pious meditations but they further form a mine of information as to the literary and social conditions of the time and are the most reliable authority for the history of humanism in the carolingian age he also trained the numerous monks of the abbey in piety and it was in the midst of these pursuits that he died alcuin is the most prominent figure of the carolingian renaissance in which three main periods have been distinguished in the first of these up to the arrival of alcuin at the court the italians occupy the central place in the second alcuin and the anglo saxons are dominant in the third which begins in eight zero four the influence of the visigoth theodulf is preponderant alcuin transmitted to the franks the knowledge of latin culture which had existed in england we still have a number of his works his l |
etters have already been mentioned his poetry is equally interesting besides some graceful epistles in the style of fortunatus he wrote some long poems and notably a whole history in verse of the church at york versus de patribus regibus et sanctis eboracensis ecclesiae we owe to him too some manuals used in his educational work a grammar and works on rhetoric and dialectics they are written in the form of dialogues and in the two last the interlocutors are charlemagne and alcuin he also wrote several theological treatises a de fide trinitatis commentaries on the bible etc alcuin college part of the university of york is named after him further reading alcuin and the rise of the christian schools by andrew fleming west isbn zero eight three seven one one six three five x external links eight zero four deaths middle ages english theologians anglo saxon people roman catholic monks angilbert died february one eight eight one four was a frank who served charlemagne as a diplomat abbot and semi son in law he was o |
f noble frankish parentage and educated at the palace school under alcuin when charlemagne sent his young son pepin to italy as king of the lombards angilbert went along as primicerius palatii a high administrator of the satellite court as the friend and adviser of pepin he assisted for a while in the government of italy angilbert delivered the document on iconoclasm from the frankish synod of frankfurt to pope adrian i and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope in seven nine two seven nine four and seven nine six in seven nine zero he was named abbot of saint riquier in northern france often called by its roman name centula where his brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint it was not uncommon for the merovingian carolingian or later kings to make laymen abbots of monasteries the layman would often use the income of the monastery as his own and leave the monks a bare minimum for the necessary expenses of the foundation angilbert in contrast spent a great deal rebuilding sain |
t riquier and when he completed it charlemagne spent easter of the year eight zero zero there angilbert s non sacramental relationship with bertha was evidently recognized by the court if she had not been the daughter of the king historians might refer to her as his concubine they had at least two sons one of whom nithard became a notable figure in the mid nine th century control of marriage and the meanings of legitimacy were hotly contested in the middle ages bertha and angilbert are an example of how resistance to the idea of a sacramental marriage could coincide with holding church offices his poems reveal the culture and tastes of a man of the world enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family he accompanied charlemagne to rome in eight zero zero and was one of the witnesses to his will in eight one four angilbert was the homer of the emperor s literary circle and was the probable author of an epic of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting b |
etween charlemagne and leo iii it is a mosaic from virgil ovid lucan and fortunatus composed in the manner of einhard s use of suetonius and exhibits a true poetic gift of the shorter poems besides the greeting to pippin on his return from the campaign against the avars seven nine six an epistle to david charlemagne incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor s palace the reference to bertha however is distant and respectful her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation angilbert s poems have been published by e dummler in the monumenta germaniae historica for criticisms of this edition see traube in roederer s schriften f r germanische philologie one eight eight eight see also a molinier les sources de l histoire de france frankish people eight one four deaths ammonia amines are organic compounds and a type of functional group that contain nitrogen as the key atom structurally a |
mines resemble ammonia wherein one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents such as alkyl and aryl groups an important exception to this rule is that compounds of the type rc o nr two where the c o refers to a carbonyl group are called amides rather than amines amides and amines have different structures and properties so the distinction is chemically important somewhat confusing is the fact that amines wherein an n h group has been replaced by an n m group m metal are also called amides thus ch three two nli is lithium dimethylamide see the for a list of types of amine and some real examples of this class of chemical introduction aliphatic amines as displayed in the images below primary amines arise when one of three hydrogen atoms in ammonia is replaced by an organic substituent secondary amines have two organic substituents bound to n together with one h in tertiary amines all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents note the subscripts on the r groups are simply used to |
differentiate the organic substituents however the number subscripts on the h atoms show how many h atoms there are in that group similarly an organic compound with multiple amino groups is called a diamine triamine tetraamine and so forth aromatic amines aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring as in anilines the aromatic ring strongly decreases the basicity of the amine depending on its substituents interestingly the presence of an amine group strongly increases the reactivity of the aromatic ring due to an electron donating affect one organic reaction involving aromatic amines is the goldberg reaction naming conventions the prefix n shows substitution on the nitrogen atom in the case of secondary tertiary and quaternary amines as prefix amino as suffix amine remember that chemical compounds are not proper nouns so lower case is indicated throughout systematic names for some common amines primary amines two aminoethanol or ethanolamine secondary amines dimethylamine tertiary ami |
nes trimethylamine physical properties general properties one hydrogen bonding significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines as well as the protonated derivatives of all amines thus the boiling point of amines is higher than those for the corresponding phosphines but generally lower than the corresponding alcohols alcohols or alkanols resemble amines but feature an oh group in place of nr two since oxygen is more electronegative than nitrogen ro h is typically more acidic than the related r two n h compound two methyl dimethyl trimethyl and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions most common alkyl amines are liquids high molecular weight amines are of course solids three gaseous amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell liquid amines have a distinctive fishy smell four most aliphatic amines display some solubility in water reflecting their ability to form hydrogen bonds solubility decreases with the increase in the number of carbon atoms especially when the carbon atom n |
umber is greater than six five aliphatic amines display significant solubility in organic solvents especially polar organic solvents primary amines react with ketones such as acetone and most amines are incompatible with chloroform and carbon tetrachloride six the aromatic amines have their lone pair electrons conjugated into the benzene ring thus their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is diminished otherwise they display the following properties their boiling points are usually still high due to their larger size diminished solubility in water although they retain their solubitity in suitable organic solvents only they are toxic and are easily absorbed through the skin thus hazardous amine inversion chirality tertiary amines of the type nhrr and nrr r are chiral the nitrogen atom bears four distinct substituents counting the lone pair the energy barrier for the inversion of the stereocenter is relatively low e g seven kcal mol for a trialkylamine the interconversion of the stereoisomers has been compar |
ed to the inversion of an open umbrella in to a strong wind because of this low barrier amines such as nhrr cannot be resolved optically and nrr r can only be resolved when the r r and r groups are constrained in cyclic structures properties as bases like ammonia amines act as bases and are reasonably strong see table for examples of conjugate acid ka values the basicity of amines depends on the availability of lone pair on n the electronic properties of the substituents alkyl groups enhance the basicity aryl groups diminish it the degree of solvation of the protonated amine the nitrogen atom features a lone electron pair that can bind h to form an ammonium ion r three nh the lone electron pair is represented in this article by a two dots above or next to the n the water solubility of simple amines is largely due to hydrogen bonding between protons on the water molecules and these lone electron pairs inductive effect of alkyl groups i effect of alkyl groups raises the energy of the lone pair of electrons thus |
elevating the basicity mesomeric effect of aromatic systems m effect of aromatic ring delocalise the lone pair electron into the ring resulting in decreased bascitiy the degree of protonation of protonated amines synthesis the following laboratory methods exist for the preparation of amines via the gabriel synthesis the gabriel synthesis via azides by the staudinger reduction allylic amines can be prepared from imines in the aza baylis hillman reaction via hoffmann degradation of amides this reaction is valid for preparation of primary amines only gives good yields of primary amines uncontaminated with other amines the hofmann rearrangment hoffmann elimination of quaternary ammonium salts r three n ch two ch two r oh r three n h two c chr h two o quaternary ammonium salts upon treatment with strong base undergo the so called hofmann elimination reduction of nitriles and amides nitriles nitriles are reduced to amines using hydrogen in the presence a nickel catalyst although acidic or alkaline conditions shoul |
d be avoided to avoid hydrolysis of cn group lialh four is more commonly employed for the reduction of nitriles on the laboratory scale image reduction of amide gif similarly lialh four reduces amides to amines nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes primary amines can also be synthesized by alkylaton of ammonia haloalkanes react with amines to give a corresponding alkyl substituted amine with the release of a halogen acid such reactions which are most useful for alkyl iodides and bromides are rarely employed because the degree of alkylation is difficult to control if the reacting amine is tertiary a quaternary ammonium cation results many quaternary ammonium salts can be prepared by this route with diverse r groups and many halide and pseudohalide anions amine alkylation amine alkylation reactions amines react in a variety of ways by nucleophilic acyl substitution acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides react with primary and secondary amines in cold to form amides tertiary amines cannot be acylated due to the a |
bsence of a replaceable hydrogen atom with the much less active benzoyl chloride acylation can still be performed by the use of excess aqeous alkali to facilitate the reaction amide formation because amines are basic they neutralize carboxylic acids to form the corresponding ammonium carboxylate salts upon heating to two zero zero c the primary and secondary amine salts dehydrate to form the corresponding amides amine reaction with carboxylic acids by ammonium salt formation amines r three n react with strong acids such as hydroiodic acid hydrobromic acid and hydrochloric acid in neutralization reactions forming ammonium salts r three nh by diazonium salt formation nitrous acid with formula hno two is unstable therefore usually a mixture of nano two and dilute hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid is used to produce nitrous acid indirectly primary aliphatic amines with nitrous acid give very unstable diazonium salts which spontaneously decompose by losing n two to form carbonium ion the carbonium ion goes on to |
produce a mixture of alkenes alkanols or alkyl halides with alkanols as the major product this reaction is of lttle synthetic importance because the diazonium salt formed is too unstable even at cold conditions nano two hcl hno two nacl nitrous acid reaction primary aromatic amines such as aniline phenylamine forms a more stable diazonium ion at zero five c above five c it will decompose to give phenol and n two diazonium salt can be isolated in the crystalline form but are usually used in solution and immediately after preparation due to rapid decomposition on standing even in cold solid salt explosive on shock or on mild warming aromatic diazonium salts by imine formation primary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form imines in the case of formaldehyde r h these products are typically cyclic trimers rnh two r two c o r two c nr h two o secondary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form enamines r two nh r r ch two c o r ch c nr two r h two o by oxidation to nitroso compounds for instance per |
oxymonosulfuric acid use of amines dyes primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the manufacture of azo dyes it reacts with nitric iii acid to form diazonium salt which can undergo coupling reaction to form azo compound as azo compounds are highly coloured they are widely used in dyeing industries such as methyl orange direct brown one three eight sunset yellow fcf ponceau drugs chlorpheniramine is an antihistamine the helps to relief allergic disorders due to cold hay fever itchy skin insect bites and stings chlorpromazine is a tranquilliser that sedates without inducing sleep it is used to relieve anxiety excitement restlessness or even mental disorder acetaminophen is also known as paracetamol or p acetaminophenol an analgesic that relieves pains such as headaches it is believed to be less corrosive to the stomach and is an alternative to aspirin see also iupac nomenclature for the official naming rules for amines amines april two nine is the one one nine th day of the year in the gregor |
ian calendar one two zero th in leap years there are two four six days remaining events one six seven two franco dutch war louis xiv of france invades the netherlands one seven seven zero james cook arrives at and names botany bay australia one eight five four the ashmun institute is officially chartered becoming the first college for african american students one eight six one american civil war maryland s house of delegates votes not to secede from the union one eight six two american civil war new orleans falls to union forces under admiral david farragut one eight nine five sir malcolm sargent two nine april one eight nine five three october one nine six seven was a british conductor organist and composer born in ashford kent united kingdom one nine zero three a three zero million cubic metre landslide kills seven zero in frank alberta canada one nine one zero andrew fisher becomes prime minister of australia for the second time one nine one six easter rebellion martial law in ireland is lifted and the re |
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