text
stringlengths 640
1.02k
|
|---|
bellion is officially over with the surrender of irish nationalists to british authorities in dublin one nine four four dancing romeo the last our gang film premiers one nine four five world war ii the german army in italy unconditionally surrenders to the allies one nine four five world war ii start of operation manna one nine four five adolf hitler marries his long time partner eva braun in a berlin bunker and designates admiral karl d nitz as his successor one nine four five holocaust the dachau concentration camp is liberated by united states troops one nine four six former prime minister of japan hideki tojo and two eight former japanese leaders are indicted for war crimes one nine six seven after refusing induction into the united states army the day before citing religious reasons muhammad ali is stripped of his boxing title one nine six nine jazz musician duke ellington receives the presidential medal of freedom one nine seven zero vietnam war united states and south vietnamese forces invade cambodia
|
to hunt viet cong one nine seven four watergate scandal president richard nixon announces the release of edited transcripts of white house tape recordings related to the scandal one nine seven five vietnam war operation frequent wind the last u s citizens begin evacuation from saigon prior to an expected north vietnamese takeover united states involvement in the war comes to an end one nine nine two one nine nine two los angeles riots riots in los angeles california follow the acquittal of police officers charged with excessive force in the beating of rodney king over the next three days five four people are killed and hundreds of buildings are destroyed one nine nine seven the chemical weapons convention of one nine nine three enters into force outlaws the production stockpiling and use of chemical weapons among its signatories two zero zero two the united states is re elected to the united nations commission on human rights one year after losing the seat it had held for five zero years two zero zero four ri
|
chard cheney and george w bush testify before the nine one one commission in a closed unrecorded hearing in the oval office two zero zero four last oldsmobile produced two zero zero five apple computer releases mac os x v one zero four tiger to the public births one six six five james butler two nd duke of ormonde irish statesman and soldier d one seven four five one six six seven john arbuthnot english physician and satirist d one seven three five one six eight six peregrine bertie two nd duke of ancaster and kesteven english statesman d one seven four two one seven two seven jean georges noverre french dancer and ballet master d one eight one zero one seven six two jean baptiste jourdan french marshal d one eight three three one seven eight zero charles nodier french writer d one eight four four one eight three seven georges boulanger french general and politician d one eight nine one one eight five four henri poincar french mathematician and physicist d one nine one two one eight six three william randolph
|
hearst american publisher d one nine five one one eight seven six empress zauditu of ethiopia d one nine three zero one eight seven nine sir thomas beecham english conductor d one nine six one one eight eight two h n werkman dutch artist and printer d one nine four five one eight eight five egon erwin kisch czech journalist and author d one nine four eight one eight nine three harold urey american chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine eight one one eight nine five malcolm sargent english conductor d one nine six seven one eight nine nine duke ellington american jazz pianist and bandleader d one nine seven four one nine zero one hirohito emperor of japan d one nine eight nine one nine zero seven fred zinnemann austrian born american film director d one nine nine seven one nine zero nine tom ewell american actor d one nine nine four one nine one seven celeste holm american actress one nine one eight george allen american football player and coach d one nine nine zero one nine two zero harold shapero american
|
composer one nine two five ned austin american character actor one nine two nine walter kempowski german author one nine two nine peter sculthorpe australian composer one nine three zero jean rochefort french actor one nine three one frank auerbach german born british painter one nine three one lonnie donegan scottish musician d two zero zero two one nine three three mark eyskens prime minister of belgium one nine three three rod mckuen american poet and composer one nine three four luis aparicio venezuelan major league baseball player one nine three four otis rush american musician one nine three six zubin mehta indian born american conductor one nine three seven jill paton walsh english writer one nine three eight fred dibnah english television personality d two zero zero four one nine four two klaus voormann german illustrator and musician one nine four two galina kulakova soviet cross country skier one nine four four richard kline american actor and television director one nine four five tammi terrell am
|
erican singer d one nine seven zero one nine four six john waters american film director and writer one nine four seven olavo de carvalho brazilian philosopher one nine four seven tommy james american musician one nine four seven jim ryun american athlete and politician one nine five one dale earnhardt american race car driver d two zero zero one one nine five two nora dunn american actress one nine five two david icke british writer one nine five four jerry seinfeld american comedian one nine five five kate mulgrew american actress one nine five six ketil stokkan norwegian singer one nine five seven daniel day lewis irish actor one nine five eight michelle pfeiffer american actress one nine five eight eve plumb american actress one nine six zero robert j sawyer canadian writer one nine six zero phil king english bassist one nine six four federico castelluccio italian american actor one nine six six phil tufnell english cricketer one nine six seven curtis joseph canadian hockey player one nine six seven maste
|
r p american rapper composer actor athlete and sports agent one nine six eight carnie wilson american singer one nine seven zero andre agassi american tennis player one nine seven zero uma thurman american actress one nine seven four pascal cygan french footballer one nine seven five eric koston thai born skateboarder one nine seven seven claus jensen danish footballer one nine eight zero kian egan irish musician westlife one nine eight one george mccartney northern irish footballer deaths one three eight zero catherine of siena italian saint b one three four seven one five nine four thomas cooper english bishop lexicographer and writer one six three zero agrippa d aubign french poet b one five five two one six five eight john cleveland english poet b one six one three one six seven six michiel de ruyter dutch admiral b one six zero seven one six eight eight frederick william elector of brandenburg b one six two zero one six nine eight charles cornwallis three rd baron cornwallis first lord of the british adm
|
iralty b one six five five one seven zero seven george farquhar irish dramatist b one six seven eight one seven four three charles ir n e castel de saint pierre french writer b one six five eight one seven six eight georg brandt swedish chemist and minerologist b one six nine four one seven seven six edward wortley montagu english traveler and writer b one seven one three one seven nine three yechezkel landau polish rabbi and talmudist b one seven one three one seven nine three john michell english scientist b one seven two four one seven nine eight nikolaus poda von neuhaus german entomologist b one seven two three one eight five four henry paget one st marquess of anglesey english general b one seven six eight one nine three three constantine p cavafy greek poet b one eight six three one nine three seven william gillette american actor b one eight five three one nine four four bernardino machado president of portugal b one eight five one one nine five one ludwig wittgenstein austrian born philosopher b one
|
eight eight nine one nine six six william eccles english physicist and radio pioneer b one eight seven five one nine eight zero alfred hitchcock english film director b one eight nine nine one nine eight eight james mccracken american tenor b one nine two six one nine nine three mick ronson british musician b one nine four six one nine nine seven mike royko american columnist b one nine three two two zero zero five william j bell television writer and producer b one nine two seven holidays and observances roman catholic feast days saint catherine of siena saint robert wilfred the younger peter of verona hugh of cluny international dance day japan public holiday since one nine two seven traditionally the start of the golden week holiday period the emperor s birthday one nine two seven one nine eight eight holiday of emperor hirohito s birthday until his death in one nine eight nine greenery day one nine eight nine two zero zero six sh wa day two zero zero seven day of showa period which is reigned by empelor h
|
irohito roman empire second day of the floralia in honor of flora bah faith the ninth day of the festival of ridv n other april two nine th one nine nine two miami is the title of a song by sublime on their self titled album external links bbc on this day today in history april two nine april two eight april three zero march two nine may two nine listing of all days august one four is the two two six th day of the year in the gregorian calendar two two seven th in leap years with one three nine days remaining events one zero four zero king duncan i of scotland is killed in battle against his cousin and successor macbeth one one eight three taira no munemori and the taira clan take the young emperor antoku and the three sacred treasures and flee to western japan to escape pursuit by the minamoto clan traditional japanese date twenty fifth day of the seventh month of the second year of juei one three eight five one three eight three one three eight five crisis castilians are defeated by portuguese at the battle
|
of aljubarrota one five nine eight irish under hugh o neill earl of tyrone destroy english force at the battle of the yellow ford one eight four two indian wars second seminole war ends with the seminoles forced from florida to oklahoma one eight four six the cape girardeau meteorite a two three kg chondrite type meteorite strikes near the town of cape girardeau in cape girardeau county missouri one eight four eight oregon territory organized by act of u s congress one eight eight zero cologne cathedral the most famous landmark in cologne germany completed one eight eight five japan s first patent is issued to the inventor of a rust proof paint one eight nine three france introduces motor vehicle registration one nine zero zero a joint european japanese united states force occupies beijing in campaign to end the boxer rebellion in china one nine zero one the first claimed powered flight by gustave whitehead in his number two one one nine zero eight first beauty contest held in folkestone england one nine one
|
one united states senate leaders agree to rotate the office of presdent pro tempore of the senate among leading candidates to fill the vacancy left by william p frye s death one nine one two united states marines invade nicaragua to support the u s backed government installed there after jos santos zelaya resigned three years earlier one nine two one tannu tuva later tuvinian people s republic is established as a completely independent country which is supported by russia one nine three three loggers cause a forest fire in the coast range of oregon later known as the first forest fire of the tillamook burn it is extinguished on september five after destroying two four zero zero zero zero acres nine seven zero km one nine three six rainey bethea is hanged in owensboro kentucky in the last public execution in the united states one nine three five united states social security act passes creating a government pension system for the retired one nine four one world war ii winston churchill and franklin d roosevel
|
t sign the atlantic charter of war stating postwar aims one nine four five japan accepts the allied terms of surrender in world war ii and the emperor records the imperial rescript on surrender august one five in japan standard time one nine four seven pakistan gains independence from the united kingdom one nine six seven uk marine broadcasting offences act declares participation in offshore pirate radio illegal one nine six nine united kingdom troops deploy in northern ireland one nine seven one bahrain declares its independence from united kingdom one nine seven two an east german ilyushin il six two crashes during takeoff from east berlin killing one five six one nine seven six the senegalese political party pai r novation is legally recognized pai r novation thus becomes the third legal party in the country one nine eight zero lech wa sa leads strikes at gda sk poland shipyards one nine nine four ilich ram rez s nchez the terrorist known as carlos the jackal is captured two zero zero three widescale power
|
blackout in the northeast united states and canada two zero zero four sales tax holiday in massachusetts all sales taxes are suspended on purchases of two five zero zero or less two zero zero five helios airways flight five two two crashes north of athens killing the one two one on board births one two nine seven emperor hanazono emperor of japan d one three four eight one four seven three margaret pole eight th countess of salisbury daughter of george duke of clarence d one five four one one five seven five robert hayman english born poet d one six two nine one five eight six william hutchinson rhode island colonist d one six four two one five nine nine m ric casaubon english classical scholar d one six seven one one six two five fran ois de harlay de champvallon archbishop of paris d one six nine five one six four two cosimo iii de medici grand duke of tuscany d one seven two three one six five three christopher monck two nd duke of albemarle english statesman d one six eight eight one six eight eight fred
|
erick william i of prussia d one seven four zero one seven one four claude joseph vernet french painter d one seven eight nine one seven four zero pope pius vii d one eight two three one seven seven one sir walter scott scottish historical novelist and poet d one eight three two one seven seven seven king francis i of the two sicilies d one eight three zero one seven seven seven hans christian rsted danish physicist d one eight five one one eight four zero richard von krafft ebing german psychologist d one nine zero two one eight five one doc holliday american gambler and gunfighter d one eight eight seven one eight six one herbert putnam librarian of congress d one nine five five one eight six three ernest thayer american poet d one nine four zero one eight six five guido castelnuovo italian mathematician d one nine five two one eight six six charles jean de la vall e poussin belgian mathematician d one nine six two one eight six seven john galsworthy english writer nobel prize laureate d one nine three thre
|
e one eight seven six aleksandar obrenovi king of serbia one eight eight one francis ford actor american actor one eight eight two gisela richter english art historian d one nine seven two one nine one zero pierre schaeffer french composer d one nine five five one nine one one shri vethathiri maharishi indian yogi one nine one six wellington mara co owner of the new york football giants one nine two five russell baker american columnist one nine two six ren goscinny french comic strip author d one nine seven seven one nine two six lina wertm ller italian film director one nine three zero earl weaver baseball manager one nine three three richard r ernst swiss chemist nobel prize laureate one nine three five john brodie american football player one nine four zero dash crofts american musician seals and crofts one nine four one david crosby american guitarist and songwriter one nine four three jimmy johnson american football player and broadcaster one nine four five steve martin american comedian and actor one n
|
ine four five wim wenders german born film director one nine four six antonio fargas american actor one nine four six susan saint james american actress one nine four seven danielle steel american novelist one nine five zero bob backlund american professional wrestler one nine five zero gary larson american cartoonist one nine five two carl lumbly american actor one nine five two debbie meyer american swimmer one nine five three james horner american composer one nine five three cliff johnson computer game author one nine five four mark fidrych baseball player one nine five six rusty wallace american race car driver one nine five nine marcia gay harden american actress one nine five nine earvin magic johnson american basketball player one nine six zero sarah brightman english soprano one nine six one susan olsen american actress one nine six four brannon braga american scriptwriter and director one nine six five emmanuelle b art french actress one nine six six halle berry american actress one nine six eight d
|
arren clarke northern irish professional golfer one nine seven three jared borgetti mexican footballer one nine seven three jay jay okocha nigerian footballer one nine seven three kieren perkins australian swimmer one nine seven seven juan pierre baseball player one nine eight three elena baltacha ukrainian born tennis player one nine eight three mila kunis ukrainian born actress one nine eight six terin humphrey american gymnast deaths one one six seven rainald of dassel archbishop of cologne one two zero four minamoto no yoriie japanese shogun b one one eight two one three nine zero john fitzalan two nd baron arundel english soldier b one three six four one four three zero philip i duke of brabant b one four zero four one four three three king john i of portugal b one three five seven one four six four pope pius ii b one four zero five one five seven three saito tatsuoki japanese warlord b one five four eight one six nine one richard talbot one st earl of tyrconnel irish rebel b one six three zero one seven
|
zero four roland laporte french protestant leader b one six seven five one seven two seven william croft english composer b one six seven eight one seven seven four johann jakob reiske german scholar and physician b one seven one six one seven eight four nathaniel hone irish born painter b one seven one eight one eight five six constant pr vost french geologist b one seven eight seven one eight six zero andr marie constant dum ril french zoologist b one seven seven four one nine zero five simeon solomon british artist b one eight four zero one nine three eight hugh trumble australian test cricketer b one eight seven six one nine four one paul sabatier french chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight five four one nine four three joe kelley baseball player b one eight seven one one nine five one william randolph hearst american newspaper magnate b one eight six three one nine five five herbert putnam librarian of congress b one eight six one one nine five six bertolt brecht german writer b one eight nine eight
|
one nine five eight fr d ric joliot french physicist recipient of the nobel prize in chemistry b one nine zero zero one nine seven two oscar levant american actor composer and musician b one nine zero six one nine eight zero dorothy stratten canadian actress and model b one nine six zero one nine eight one karl b hm austrian conductor b one eight nine four one nine eight four j b priestley english novelist and playwright b one eight nine four one nine eight five gale sondergaard american actress b one eight nine nine one nine eight eight enzo ferrari italian car maker b one eight nine eight two zero zero zero alain fournier french born computer graphics researcher b one nine four three two zero zero two dave williams american singer drowning pool b one nine seven two two zero zero three helmut rahn german footballer b one nine two nine two zero zero four czes aw mi osz polish born writer nobel prize laureate b one nine one one two zero zero five coo coo marlin american race car driver b one nine three two ho
|
lidays and observances morocco allegiance of oued eddahab or r o de oro rc saints maximilian kolbe polish franciscan priest martyred by nazis in one nine four one pakistan independence day united states national code talkers day external links bbc on this day august one three august one five july one four september one four listing of all days absolute zero is a fundamental lower bound on the temperature of any macroscopic system it is a temperature of zero k two seven three one five c or four five nine six seven f it is unachievable in practice but it exists as a limit for real physical phenomena and it was inferred by extrapolation from kinetic theory and from other considerations in theoretical physics one would like to define it as the temperature at which all motion ceases but even at absolute zero some motion remains due to the requirements of quantum mechanics alternate definitions are that absolute zero is the temperature at which no further energy can be extracted from a physical body or the temperat
|
ure at which the entropies of perfect crystals vanish or the temperature at which the entropy change of an adiabatic process vanishes a state of absolute zero was first proposed by guillaume amontons in one seven zero two who was investigating the relationship between pressure and temperature in gases he lacked accurate and precise thermometers so his results were only semi quantitative but he established that the pressure of a gas increases by roughly one third between cold temperatures and the boiling point of water his work led him to speculate that a sufficient reduction in temperature would lead to the disappearance of pressure the problem is that all real gases liquefy during the approach to absolute zero in one eight four eight william thomson one st baron kelvin proposed an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale in which equal reduction in measured temperature gave rise to equal reduction in the heat of a body this freed the concept from the constraints of the gas laws and established absolute zero
|
as the temperature at which no further heat could be removed from a body absolute zero has never been reached and it appears it never will be it may be asymptotically approached like the speed of light but never attained kinetic theory and motion according to kinetic theory there should be no movement of individual molecules at absolute zero so any material at this temperature would be solid in a monatomic gas most of the energy is in the form of translational motion and the temperature can be measured in terms of the distribution of this motion with slower speeds corresponding to lower temperatures perhaps even down to absolute zero but this is contrary to experimental evidence and it is predicted that helium will never solidify no matter how much it is cooled or compressed because of quantum mechanical effects the speed at absolute zero is larger than zero and depends along with the energy on the volume within which a particle is confined at absolute zero the molecules and atoms in a system are all in their
|
ground state the state of lowest possible energy and a system has the least amount of kinetic energy allowed by the laws of physics but the lowest possible zero point energy for a confined particle in a box is not zero rather than being fixed and non moving the equation for the energy levels shows that no matter how low the temperature gets even when the quantum number takes its minimum value of one a particle still has some translational kinetic energy and motion this is a reflection of heisenberg s uncertainty principle which states that the position and the momentum of a particle cannot both be known precisely at any given time similarly using the harmonic approximation for the vibrations of a diatomic molecule the quantum harmonic oscillator yields a positive zero point energy even when the vibrational quantum number takes its minimum value of zero for polyatomic molecules and for bodies such as crystals whose normal mode motions can not be assigned to individual atoms or chemical bonds the lowest energy
|
state is that of the system as a whole classically the absolute temperature t of a system of molecules at thermodynamic equilibrium assigns an average of one two kt to each quadratic kinetic and or potential energy term in each mechanical degree of freedom where k is boltzmann s constant see equipartition of energy and the role of the boltzmann distribution in relating temperature to energy but quantum mechanics shows that this is obeyed only for temperatures such that kt h where h is planck s constant and is a characteristic frequency as t decreases the assumption that energy is continuously variable fails whenever h exceeds kt for vibrational modes in crystals this happens at room temperature which explains the deviation of the calculated specific heats of atomic crystals from the experimental dulong petit law value of three r mole a fact which puzzled late one nine th century physicists and physical chemists rushbrooke p three three cryogenics it can be shown from the laws of thermodynamics that absolute
|
zero can never be achieved though it is possible to reach temperatures arbitrarily close to it through the use of cryocoolers this is the same principle that ensures no machine can be one zero zero efficient at very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero matter exhibits many unusual properties including superconductivity superfluidity and bose einstein condensation in order to study such phenomena scientists have worked to obtain ever lower temperatures as of september two zero zero three the lowest temperature bose einstein condensate achieved was four five zero pk or four five one zero one zero k this was performed by wolfgang ketterle and colleagues at the massachusetts institute of technology as of february two zero zero three the boomerang nebula with a temperature of one one five k is the coldest place known outside a laboratory the nebula is five zero zero zero light years from earth and is in the constellation centaurus as of november two zero zero two the coldest temperature produced was o
|
ne zero zero pk during an experiment on nuclear magnetic ordering in the helsinki university of technology s low temperature lab thermodynamics near absolute zero at zero k nearly all molecular motion ceases and s zero for any adiabatic process pure substances can ideally form perfect crystals as t zero planck s strong form of the third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero however if the lowest energy state is degenerate more than one microstate this cannot be true the original nernst heat theorem makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy change for any isothermal process approaches zero as t zero lim delta s zero which implies that the entropy of a perfect crystal simply approaches a constant value the nernst postulate identifies the isotherm t zero as coincident with the adiabat s zero although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct as no two adiabats intersect no other adiabat can intersect the t zero isotherm consequently no a
|
diabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature callen pp one eight nine one nine zero an even stronger assertion is that it is impossible by any procedure to reduce the temperature of a system to zero in a finite number of operations guggenheim p one five seven a perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions the perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three not usually orthogonal axes every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping for substances which have two or more stable crystalline forms such as diamond and graphite for carbon there is a kind of chemical degeneracy the question remains whether both can have zero entropy at t zero even though each is perfectly ordered perfect crystals never occur in practice imperfections and even entire amorphous materials simply get frozen in at low temperatures so transitions to more stable
|
states do not occur using the debye model the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to t three while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to t four guggenheim p one one one these quantities drop toward their t zero limiting values and approach with zero slopes for the specific heats at least the limiting value itself is definitely zero as borne out by experiments to below one zero k even the less detailed einstein model shows this curious drop in specific heats in fact all specific heats vanish as absolute zero not just those of crystals likewise for the coefficient of thermal expansion maxwell s relations show that various other quantities also vanish these phenomena were unanticipated since the relation between changes in the gibbs free energy the enthalpy and the entropy is delta g delta h t delta s it follows that as t decreases g and h approach each other so long as s is bounded experimentally it is found that most chemical reactions are exothermic and release heat
|
in the direction they are found to be going toward equilbirum that is even at room temperature t is low enough so that the fact that g t p the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one which evolves the greatest amount of heat i e an actual process is the most exothermic one callen pp one eight six one eight seven absolute temperature scales as mentioned absolute or thermodynamic temperature is conventionally measured in kelvins celsius size degrees and increasingly rarely in the rankine scale fahrenheit size degrees absolute temperature is uniquely determined up to a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the degree so the ratios of two absolute temperatures t two t one are the same in all scales the most transparent definition comes from the classical maxwell boltzmann distribution over energies or from the quantum analogs fermi dirac statistics particles of half integer spin and bose einstein statistics particles of integer spin all of which give the relative numbers of particles
|
as decreasing exponential functions of energy over kt on a macroscopic level a definition can be given in terms of the efficiencies of reversible heat engines operating between hotter and colder thermal reservoirs negative temperatures certain semi isolated systems can achieve negative temperatures however they are not actually colder than absolute zero references library of congress catalog card no six zero five five nine seven the clearest presentation of the logical foundations of the subject library of congress catalog card no six zero two zero zero zero three a remarkably astute and comprehensive treatise the classic compact introduction to the subject notes leanhardt a et al two zero zero three science three zero one one five one three physicsweb news report press report february two one two zero zero three the experimental methods and results are presented in detail in t a knuuttila s ph d thesis which can be downloaded here low temperature press release temperature thermodynamics this article covers
|
adiabatic processes in thermodynamics for adiabatic processes in quantum mechanics see adiabatic process quantum mechanics for atmospheric adiabatic processes see adiabatic lapse rate in thermodynamics an adiabatic process is a process in which no heat is transferred to or from working fluid the term adiabatic literally means an absence of heat transfer for example an adiabatic boundary is a boundary that is impermeable to heat transfer and the system is said to be adiabatically or thermally insulated an insulated wall approximates an adiabatic boundary another example is the adiabatic flame temperature which is the temperature that would be achieved by a flame in the absence of heat loss to the surroundings an adiabatic process which is also reversible is called an isentropic process the opposite extreme in which the maximum heat transfer with its surroundings occurs causing the temperature to remain constant is known as an isothermal process since temperature is thermodynamically conjugate to entropy the is
|
othermal process is conjugate to the adiabatic process for reversible transformations a transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered adiabatic when it is quick enough so that no significant heat transfer happens between the system and the outside at the opposite a transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered isothermal if it is slow enough so that the system s temperature can be maintained by heat exchange with the outside adiabatic heating and cooling adiabatic heating and cooling are processes that commonly occur due to a change in the pressure of a gas adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased an example of this is what goes on in a bicycle pump after using a bicycle pump to inflate a pneumatic tyre or soccer ball the barrel of the pump is found to have heated up as a result of adiabatic heating a common motorized air compressor operating at pressures up to one five zero psi can reach outlet temperatures of several hundred degrees fahrenheit adiabatic cool
|
ing occurs when the pressure of a gas is decreased such as when it expands into a larger volume an example of this is when the air is released from a pneumatic tire the outlet air will be noticably cooler than the tire and after all the air has escaped the valve stem will be cold to the touch diesel engines rely on adiabatic heating during their compression stroke to reach the high temperatures needed to ignite the fuel such temperature changes can be quantified using the ideal gas law adiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid one technique used to reach very low temperatures thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero is adiabatic demagnetisation where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling ideal gas for a simple substance during an adiabatic process in which the volume increases the internal energy of the working substance must necessarily decrease the mathematical equation for an ideal fluid undergoing an adiabatic process is p
|
v operatorname qquad where p is pressure v is volume and gamma over c frac c being the molar specific heat for constant pressure and c being the molar specific heat for constant volume alpha comes from the number of degrees of freedom three two for monatomic gas five two for diatomic gas three for complex molecules for a monatomic ideal gas gamma five three and for a diatomic gas such as nitrogen and oxygen the main components of air gamma seven five note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases and not bose einstein or fermi gases for adiabatic processes it is also true that vt alpha operatorname t is temperature in kelvins derivation of formula the definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero delta q zero then according to the first law of thermodynamics d u delta w delta q zero qquad qquad qquad one where du is the change in the internal energy of the system and w is work done by the system any work w done must be done at the expense of internal e
|
nergy u since no heat q is being supplied from the surroundings pressure volume work w done by the system is defined as delta w p dv qquad qquad qquad two however p does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with v it is desired to know how the values of d p and d v relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds c alpha r where r is the universal gas constant given d p and d v then delta w p d v and d e alpha n r d t alpha d p v alpha p d v v d p qquad three now substitute equations two and three into equation one to obtain p d v alpha p d v alpha v d p simplify alpha one p d v alpha v d p divide both sides by pv alpha one alpha from the differential calculus it is then known that alpha one d ln v alpha d ln p which can be expressed as for certain constants p zero and v zero of the initial state then ln left right ln left right exponentiate both sides left right left right eliminate the negative sign left right left right therefore left right left right one and p v
|
p zero v zero p v gamma operatorname graphing adiabats properties of adiabats on a p v diagram are every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the v axis and the p axis just like isotherms each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once an adiabat looks similar to an isotherm except that during an expansion an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm so it has a steeper inclination more vertical if isotherms are concave towards the north east direction four five then adiabats are concave towards the east north east three one if adiabats and isotherms are graphed severally at regular changes of entropy and temperature respectively like altitude on a contour map then as the eye moves outwards away from the axes towards the north east it sees the density of isotherms stay constant but it sees the density of adiabats drop the exception is very near absolute zero where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare see nernst s theorem the following diagram is a p v diagram with a superposition
|
of adiabats and isotherms image entropyandtemp png the isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves the adiabats are isentropic volume is the abscissa x axis and pressure is the ordinate y axis see also cyclic process first law of thermodynamics isobaric process isochoric process isothermal process thermodynamic entropy quasistatic equilibrium thermodynamics amide functional groupin chemistry an amide is either the organic functional group characterized by a carbonyl group linked to a nitrogen atom or a compound that contains this functional group or a particular inorganic anion in organic chemistry an amide is essentially an amine where one of the nitrogen substituents is a carbonyl group represented generally by the formula r one co nr two r three where either or both of r two and r three may be hydrogen specifically an amide can also be regarded as a derivative of a carboxylic acid in which the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an amine or ammonia compounds in which a hydrogen atom
|
on nitrogen from ammonia or an amine is replaced by a metal cation are also known as amides or azanides the inorganic amide anion is an extremely strong base due to the extreme weakness of ammonia as a br nsted acid amide synthesis amide bond formation amides are commonly formed from the reaction of a carboxylic acids with an amine this is the reaction that forms peptide bonds between amino acids these amides can participate in hydrogen bonding as hydrogen bond acceptors and donors but do not ionize in aqueous solution whereas their parent acids and amines are almost completely ionized in solution at neutral ph amide formation plays a role in the synthesis of some condensation polymers such as nylon and kevlar cyclic amides are synthesized in the beckmann rearrangement from oximes other amide forming reactions are the passerini reaction and the ugi reaction amide reactions amide breakdown is possible via amide hydrolysis in the vilsmeier haack reaction an amide is converted into an imine amide properties an
|
amide linkage is kinetically stable to hydrolysis however it can be hydrolysed in boiling alkali as well as in strong acidic conditions unlike the hydrolysis of esters the kinetics of amide hydrolysis is third order first order with respect to the amide and second order with respect to hydroxide amide linkages in a biochemical context are called peptide linkages amide linkages constitute a defining molecular feature of proteins the secondary structure of which is due in part to the hydrogen bonding abilities of amides derivatives sulfonamides are analogs of amides in which the atom double bonded to oxygen is sulfur rather than carbon naming convertions example ch three conh two is named acetamide or ethanamide other examples propan one amide n n dimethylpropanamide acrylamide for more detail see iupac nomenclature amines and amides external links iupac compendium of chemical terminology amides functional groups in religion the term animism is used in a number of ways animism from animus or anima mind or soul
|
originally means the doctrine of spiritual beings it is often extended to include the belief that personalized supernatural beings or souls endowed with reason intelligence and volition inhabit ordinary objects as well as animate beings and govern their existence pantheism or animatism more simply the belief is that everything is alive everything is conscious or everything has a soul it has been further extended to mean a belief that the world is a community of living persons only some of whom are human it also refers to the culture or philosophy which these types of animists live by that is to attempt to relate respectfully with the persons human rock plant animal bird ancestral etc who are also members of the wider community of life animism can refer to the religion or beliefs or philosophy of the above interpretations it can also refer to the culture and practices related to animism animism was the term used by anthropologist sir e b tylor as a proposed theory of religion in his one eight seven one book pr
|
imitive culture he used it to mean a belief in spirits i e mystical supernatural non empirical or imagined entities tylor s use of the term has since been widely criticized see details below today the term is used with more respect today animists live in significant numbers in countries such as zambia the democratic republic of the congo gabon the republic of guinea bissau indonesia laos myanmar papua new guinea the philippines russia sweden thailand and the united states of america modern neopagans especially eco pagans sometimes describe themselves as animists meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings with whom humans share the world cosmos some however use the term to refer to the idea that the mother goddess and horned god consist of everything that exists this pantheism in which god is equated with existence is different from animism because it imputes value to individual living beings and or objects because they might reveal a larger reality or divinity behind everything animists
|
respect beings for their own sake whether because they have or are souls as in the original definition of the word or because they are persons the new definition overview in some animistic worldviews found in hunter gatherer cultures the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with animals plants and natural forces therefore it is morally imperative to treat these agents with respect in this worldview humans are considered a denizen or part of nature rather than superior to or separate from it in such societies ritual is considered essential for survival as it wins the favor of the spirits of one s source of food shelter and fertility and wards off malevolent spirits in more elaborate animistic religions such as shinto there is a greater sense of a special character to humans that sets them apart from the general run of animals and objects while retaining the necessity of ritual to ensure good luck favorable harvests and so on most animistic belief systems hold that the spirit survives phy
|
sical death in some systems the spirit is believed to pass to an easier world of abundant game or ever ripe crops while in other systems e g the navajo religion the spirit remains on earth as a ghost often malignant still other systems combine these two beliefs holding that the soul must journey to the spirit world without becoming lost and thus wandering as a ghost funeral mourning rituals and ancestor worship performed by those surviving the deceased are often considered necessary for the successful completion of this journey rituals in animistic cultures are often performed by shamans or priests who are usually seen as possessing spiritual powers greater than or external to the normal human experience the practice of head shrinking as found among headhunters derives from an animistic belief that one s war enemies if the spirit is not trapped within the head can escape the body after the spirit transmigrates to another body they take the form of a predatory animal and exact revenge animism is the belief tha
|
t objects and ideas including animals tools and natural phenomena have or are expressions of living spirits origins early ideas on the subject of the soul and at the same time the origin of them can be illustrated by analysis of the terms applied to them readers of dante know the idea that the dead have no shadows this was no invention of the poet s but a piece of traditional lore among the basutus it is held that a man walking by the brink of a river may lose his life if his shadow falls on the water for a crocodile may seize it and draw him in in tasmania north and south america and classical europe is found the conception that the soul umbra is identical with the shadow of a person more familiar to europeans is the connection between the soul and the breath this identification is found both in indo european and semitic languages in latin we have spiritus in greek pneuma in hebrew ruach the idea is found extending other planes of culture in australia america and asia for some of the native americans and fir
|
st nations the roman custom of receiving the breath of a dying man was no mere pious duty but a means of ensuring that his soul was transferred to a new body other familiar conceptions identify the soul with the liver see omen or the heart with the reflected figure seen in the pupil of the eye and with the blood although the soul is often distinguished from the vital principle there are many cases in which a state of unconsciousness is explained as due to the absence of the soul in south australia wilyamarraba without soul is the word used for insensible so too the autohypnotic trance of the magician or shaman is regarded as due to their visit to distant regions or the netherworld of which they bring back an account telepathy or clairvoyance with or without trance may have operated to produce a conviction of the dual nature of man for it seems possible that facts unknown to the automatist are sometimes discovered by means of crystal gazing sickness is often explained as due to the absence of the soul and mean
|
s are sometimes taken to lure back the wandering soul in chinese tradition when a person is at the point of death and their soul believed to have left their body the patient s coat is held up on a long bamboo pole while a priest endeavours to bring the departed spirit back into the coat by means of incantations if the bamboo begins to turn round in the hands of the relative who is deputed to hold it it is regarded as a sign that the soul of the moribund has returned see automatism more important perhaps than all these phenomena because more regular and normal was the daily period of sleep with its frequent fitful and incoherent ideas and images the mere immobility of the body was sufficient to show that its state was not identical with that of waking when in addition the sleeper awoke to give an account of visits to distant lands from which as modern psychical investigations suggest they may even have brought back veridical details the conclusion must have been irresistible that in sleep something journeyed f
|
orth which was not the body see astral travel in a minor degree revival of memory during sleep and similar phenomena of the sub conscious life may have contributed to the same result dreams are sometimes explained in animist cultures as journeys performed by the sleeper sometimes as visits paid by other persons by animals or objects to the sleeper hallucinations possibly more frequent in the lower stages of culture must have contributed to fortify this interpretation and the animistic theory in general seeing the phantasmic figures of friends at the moment when they were whether at the point of death or in good health many miles distant must have led people irresistibly to the dualistic theory but hallucinatory figures both in dreams and waking life are not necessarily those of the living from the reappearance of dead friends or enemies primitive man was inevitably led to the belief that there existed an incorporeal part of man which survived the dissolution of the body the soul was conceived to be a facsimil
|
e of the body sometimes no less material sometimes more subtle but yet material sometimes altogether impalpable and intangible if the phenomena of dreams were as suggested above of great importance for the development of animism the belief which must originally have been a doctrine of human psychology cannot have failed to expand speedily into a general philosophy of nature not only human beings but animals and objects are seen in dreams and the conclusion would be that they too have souls the same conclusion may have been reached by another line of argument folk psychology posited a spirit in a person to account amongst other things for their actions a natural explanation of the changes in the external world would be that they are due to the operations and volitions of spirits but apart from considerations of this sort it is probable that animals must have been regarded as possessing souls early in the history of animistic beliefs we may assume that man attributed a soul to the beasts of the field almost as
|
soon as he claimed one for himself the animist may attribute to animals the same sorts of ideas the same soul the same mental processes as himself which may also be associated with greater power cunning or magical abilities dead animals are sometimes credited with a knowledge of how their remains are treated potentially with the power to take vengeance on the hunter if he is disrespectful it is not surprising to find that many peoples respect and even worship animals see totem or animal worship often regarding them as relatives it is clear that widespread respect was paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors and much of the cults to dangerous animals is traceable to this principle though we need not attribute an animistic origin to it with the rise of species deities and the cult of individual animals the path towards anthropomorphization and polytheism is opened and the respect paid to animals tended to be reduced or lost entirely especially in its strict animistic character plant souls just as human so
|
uls are assigned to animals so too are trees and plants often credited with souls both human and animal in form all over the world agricultural peoples practise elaborate ceremonies explicable as wilhelm mannhardt has shown on animistic principles in europe the corn spirit sometimes immanent in the crop sometimes a presiding deity whose life does not depend on that of the growing corn is conceived in some districts in the form of an ox hare or cock in others as an old man or woman in the east indies and americas the rice or maize mother is a corresponding figure in classical europe and the east we have in ceres and demeter adonis and dionysus and other deities vegetation gods whose origin we can readily trace back to the rustic corn spirit forest trees no less than cereals may have their indwelling spirits the fauns and satyrs of classical literature were goat footed in russia the tree spirit of the russian peasantry takes the form of a goat in bengal and the east indies woodcutters endeavour to propitiate th
|
e spirit of the tree which they cut down in many parts of the world trees are regarded as the abode of the spirits of the dead just as a process of syncretism has given rise to cults of animal gods tree spirits tend to become detached from the trees which are thenceforward only their abodes here again animism has begun to pass into polytheism object souls some cultures do not make a distinction between animate and inanimate objects natural phenomenon geographic features everyday objects and manufactured articles may also be attributed with souls in the north of europe in ancient greece in china the water or river spirit is horse or bull shaped the water monster in serpent shape is even more widely found but it is less strictly the spirit of the water the spirit of syncretism manifests itself in this department of animism too turning the immanent spirit into the presiding djinn or local god of later times animism and death in many parts of the world it is held that the human body is the seat of more than one s
|
oul on the island of nias four are distinguished the shadow and the intelligence which die with the body a tutelary spirit termed begoe and a second spirit which is carried on the head similar ideas are found among the euahlayi of southeast australia the dakotas and many other tribes just as in europe the ghost of a dead person is held to haunt the churchyard or the place of death so do other cultures assign different abodes to the multiple souls with which they credit man of the four souls of a dakota one is held to stay with the corpse another in the village a third goes into the air while the fourth goes to the land of souls where its lot may depend on its rank in this life its sex mode of death or sepulture on the due observance of funeral ritual or many other points from the belief in the survival of the dead arose the practice of offering food lighting fires etc at the grave at first maybe as an act of friendship or filial piety later as an act of ancestor worship the simple offering of food or shedding
|
of blood at the grave develops into an elaborate system of sacrifice even where ancestor worship is not found the desire to provide the dead with comforts in the future life may lead to the sacrifice of wives slaves animals and so on to the breaking or burning of objects at the grave or to the provision of the ferryman s toll a coin put in the mouth of the corpse to pay the traveling expenses of the soul but all is not finished with the passage of the soul to the land of the dead the soul may return to avenge its death by helping to discover the murderer or to wreak vengeance for itself there is a widespread belief that those who die a violent death become malignant spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the haunted spot the woman who dies in childbirth becomes a pontianak and threatens the life of human beings people resort to magical or religious means of repelling their spiritual dangers evil spirits side by side with the doctrine of separable souls with which we have so far been concerned
|
exists the belief in a great host of unattached spirits these are not immanent souls that have become detached from their abodes but have instead every appearance of independent spirits these spirits are at first mainly malevolent side by side with them we find the spirits of the dead as hostile beings at a higher stage the spirits of dead kinsmen are no longer unfriendly nor yet all non human spirits as fetishes naguals see totem familiar spirits gods or demi gods see also demonology they enter into relations with man on the other hand there still subsists a belief in innumerable evil spirits which manifest themselves in the phenomena of possession lycanthropy disease and so on the fear of evil spirits has given rise to ceremonies of expulsion of evils see exorcism designed to banish them from the community differences between animism and religion animism is commonly described as the most primitive form of religion but properly speaking it is not a religion at all animism is in the first instance an explanat
|
ion of phenomena rather than an attitude of mind toward the cause of them a philosophy rather than a religion the term may however be conveniently used to describe the early stage of religion in which people endeavour to set up relations between themselves and the unseen powers conceived as spirits but differing in many particulars from the gods of polytheism as an example of this stage in one of its aspects may be taken the european belief in the corn spirit which is however the object of magical rather than religious rites sir james g frazer in the golden bough has thus defined the character of the animistic pantheon they are restricted in their operations to definite departments of nature their names are general not proper their attributes are generic rather than individual in other words there is an indefinite number of spirits of each class and the individuals of a class are much alike they have no definitely marked individuality no accepted traditions are current as to their origin life and character th
|
is stage of religion is well illustrated by the native american custom of offering sacrifice to certain rocks or whirlpools or to the indwelling spirits connected with them the rite is only performed in the neighbourhood of the object it is an incident of a canoe or other voyage and is not intended to secure any benefits beyond a safe passage past the object in question the spirit to be propitiated has a purely local sphere of influence and powers of a very limited nature animistic in many of their features too are the temporary gods of fetishism naguals or familiars genii and even the dead who receive a cult with the rise of a belief in departmental gods comes the age of polytheism the belief in elemental spirits may still persist but they fall into the background and receive no cult animism and the origin of religion two animistic theories of the origin of religion have been put forward the one often termed the ghost theory mainly associated with the name of herbert spencer but also maintained by grant alle
|
n refers the beginning of religion to the cult of dead human beings the other put forward by dr e b tylor makes the foundation of all religion animistic but recognizes the non human character of polytheistic gods although ancestor worship or more broadly the cult of the dead has in many cases overshadowed other cults or even extinguished them we have no warrant even in these cases for asserting its priority but rather the reverse in the majority of cases the pantheon is made up by a multitude of spirits in human sometimes in animal form which bear no signs of ever having been incarnate sun gods and moon goddesses gods of fire wind and water gods of the sea and above all gods of the sky show no signs of having been ghost gods at any period in their history they may it is true be associated with ghost gods in australia it cannot even be asserted that the gods are spirits at all much less that they are the spirits of dead men they are simply magnified magicians super men who have never died we have no ground the
|
refore for regarding the cult of the dead as the origin of religion in this area this conclusion is the more probable as ancestor worship and the cult of the dead generally cannot be said to exist in australia the more general view that polytheistic and other gods are the elemental and other spirits of the later stages of animistic creeds is equally inapplicable to australia where the belief seems to be neither animistic nor even animatistic in character but we are hardly justified in arguing from the case of australia to a general conclusion as to the origin of religious ideas in all other parts of the world it is perhaps safest to say that the science of religions has no data on which to go in formulating conclusions as to the original form of the objects of religious emotion it must be remembered that not only is it very difficult to get precise information of the subject of the religious ideas of people of some other cultures perhaps for the simple reason that the ideas themselves are far from precise but
|
also that as has been pointed out above the conception of spiritual often approximates very closely to that of material where the soul is regarded as no more than a finer sort of matter it will obviously be far from easy to decide whether the gods are spiritual or material even therefore if we can say that at the present day the gods are entirely spiritual it is clearly possible to maintain that they have been spiritualized pari passu with the increasing importance of the animistic view of nature and of the greater prominence of eschatological beliefs the animistic origin of religion is therefore not proven animism and mythology little need be said on the relation of animism and mythology while a large part of mythology has an animistic basis it is possible to believe e g in a sky world peopled by corporeal beings as well as by spirits of the dead the latter may even be entirely absent the mythology of the australians relates largely to corporeal non spiritual beings stories of transformation deluge mytholog
|
y and doom myths or myths of the origin of death have not necessarily any animistic basis at the same time with the rise of ideas as to a future life and spiritual beings this field of mythology is immensely widened though it cannot be said that a rich mythology is necessarily genetically associated with or combined with belief in many spiritual beings animism in philosophy the term animism has been applied to many different philosophical systems it is used to describe aristotle s view of the relation of soul and body held also by the stoics and scholastics on the other hand monadology leibniz has also been termed animistic the name is most commonly applied to vitalism a view mainly associated with georg ernst stahl and revived by f bouillier one eight one three one eight nine nine which makes life or life and mind the directive principle in evolution and growth holding that all cannot be traced back to chemical and mechanical processes but that there is a directive force which guides energy without altering
|
its amount an entirely different class of ideas also termed animistic is the belief in the world soul held by plato schelling and others tylor tylor argued that non western societies relied on animism to explain why things happen he further argued that animism is the earliest form of religion and reveals that humans developed religions in order to explain things at the time that tylor wrote this theory was politically radical because it made the claim that non western peoples and in particular non christian heathens in fact do have religion however since the publication of primitive culture tylor s theories have come under criticism from three quarters first some have questioned whether the beliefs of diverse peoples living in different parts of the world and not communicating with one another can be lumped together as one kind of religion second some have questioned whether the basic function of religion really is to explain the universe critics like marrett and emil durkheim argued that religious beliefs ha
|
ve emotional and social rather than intellectual functions finally many now see tylor s theories as ethnocentric not only was he imposing a contemporary and western view of religion that it explains the inexplicable on non western cultures he was also telling the story of a progression from religion which provides poor explanations to science which provides good explanations see cultural evolution list of phenomena believed to lead to animism lists of phenomena from the contemplation of which the savage was led to believe in animism have been given by sir e b tylor herbert spencer andrew lang and others an animated controversy arose between the former as to the priority of their respective lists among these phenomena are trance unconsciousness sickness death clairvoyance dreams apparitions of the dead wraiths hallucinations echoes shadows reflections the new animism in an article entitled revisiting animism nurit bird david builds on the work of irving hallowell by discussing the animist worldview and lifeway
|
of the nayaka of india hallowell had learnt from the ojibwa of southern central canada that the humans are only one kind of person among many there are also rock persons eagle persons and so on hallowell and bird david discuss the ways in which particular indigenous cultures know how to relate to particular persons individuals or groups there is no need to talk of metaphysics or impute non empirical beliefs in discussing animism what is required is an openness to consider that humans are neither separate from the world nor distinct from other kinds of being in most significant ways the new animism also makes considerably more sense of attempts to understand totemism as an understanding that humans are not only closely related to other humans but also to particular animals plants etc it also helps by providing a term for the communities among whom shamans work they are animists not shamanists shamans are employed among animist communities to engage or mediate with other than human persons in situations that w
|
ould be fraught or dangerous for un initiated untrained or non skillful people the ism of animism should not suggest an overly systematic approach but this is true of the lived reality of most religious people but it is preferable to the term shamanism which has led many commentators to construct an elaborate system out of the everyday practices of animists and those they employ to engage with other than human persons the new animism is most fully discussed in a recent book by graham harvey animism respecting the living world but it is also significant in the animist realist novels now being written among many indigenous communities worldwide the term animist realism was coined by harry garuba a nigerian scholar of literature in comparison with magical realism that describes works such as marquez s one hundred years of solitude see also hylozoism midewiwin monism panentheism panpsychism pantheism suggested reading the story of b by daniel quinn references bird david nurit one nine nine one animism revisited p
|
ersonhood environment and relational epistemology current anthropology four zero pp six seven nine one reprinted in graham harvey ed two zero zero two readings in indigenous religions london and new york continuum pp seven two one zero five hallowell a irving ojibwa ontology behavior and world view in stanley diamond ed one nine six zero culture in history new york columbia university press reprinted in graham harvey ed two zero zero two readings in indigenous religions london and new york continuum pp one seven four nine harvey graham two zero zero five animism respecting the living world london hurst and co new york columbia university press adelaide wakefield press thomas northcote whitbridge animism one nine one one encyclop dia britannica external links animism and totem spirit animals discovering animal totems dictionaries feathers ishmael org faq a database which includes many questions and answers regarding animism and which conflicts greatly with the definition of the old animism above while illustra
|
ting one version of the new animism quite well on the website of daniel quinn author of my ishmael choose animism from topic is a new website devoted to the discussion of the new animism it arises from the work of graham harvey whose book animism respecting the living world discusses the whole topic its benefits and problems in considerable detail a personal view of animism animism in zambia one nine one one britannica animism religious faiths traditions and movements for the two explorers who sailed into the atlantic in one two nine one see vandino and ugolino vivaldi unconfirmed portrait of antonio vivaldi antonio lucio vivaldi march four one six seven eight july two eight one seven four one nicknamed il prete rosso meaning the red priest was an italian priest and baroque music composer biography antonio lucio vivaldi was born on march four one six seven eight in venice italy he was baptized immediately at his home by the midwife due to danger of death it is not determined what that means but it probably re
|
fered to an earthquake that shook the city that day or the infant s poor health vivaldi s official church baptism didn t take place until two months later his father giovanni battista a barber before becoming a professional violinist taught him to play violin at first then toured venice playing violin with his father vivaldi had a medical problem which he called the tightening of the chest asthma his medical problem however did not prevent him from learning to play the violin compose and take part in any musical activities at the age of one five one six nine three he began studying to become a priest in one seven zero three one zero years later at the age of two five vivaldi was ordained as a priest soon nicknamed il prete rosso the red priest probably because of his red hair not long after in one seven zero four he was given a dispensation from celebrating the holy mass because of his ill health he apparently suffered from asthma a breathing disorder and in late one seven zero six he withdrew from the priest
|
hood and became maestro di violino at an orphanage for girls called the pio ospedale della piet in venice shortly after his appointment the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad too vivaldi wrote for them most of his concertos cantatas and sacred music in one seven zero five the first collection raccolta of his works was published many others would follow at the orphanage he covered several different duties with the only interruption for his many travels in one seven zero nine he was let go for economic reasons but in one seven one one he was offered the job again and in one seven one three became responsible for the musical activity of the institute vivaldi was promoted to maestro de concerti in one seven one six it was during these years that vivaldi wrote much of his music including many operas and concertos in one seven one eight vivaldi began to travel despite his frequent travels the piet paid him to write two concertos a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least four tim
|
es when in venice the piet s records show that he was paid for one four zero concertos between one seven two three and one seven two nine not so well known is the fact that most of his repertoire was re discovered only in the first half of the two zero th century in turin and genoa but was published in the second half vivaldi s music is innovative breaking a consolidated tradition in schemes he gave brightness to the formal and the rhythmic structure of the concerto repeatedly looking for harmonic contrasts and invented innovative melodies and themes moreover vivaldi was able to compose non academic music particularly meant to be appreciated by the wide public and not only by an intellectual minority the joyful appearance of his music reveals in this regard a transmissible joy of composing these are among the causes of the vast popularity of his music this popularity soon made him famous also in countries like france at the time very independent in its musical taste vivaldi is considered one of the composers
|
who brought baroque music with its typical contrast among heavy sonorities to evolve into a classical style johann sebastian bach was deeply influenced by vivaldi s concertos and arias recalled in his passions and cantatas bach transcribed a number of vivaldi s concertos for solo keyboard along with a number for orchestra including the famous concerto for four violins and violoncello strings and continuo rv five eight zero however not all musicians have shown the same enthusiasm igor stravinsky provocatively said that vivaldi had not written hundreds of concertos but one concerto hundreds of times despite his priestly status he is supposed to have had possible love affairs one of which was with the singer anna giraud with whom he was suspected of reusing materials from old venetian operas which he only slightly adapted to the vocal capabilities of his proteg e this business caused him some troubles with other musicians like benedetto marcello who wrote a pamphlet against him there is no concrete evidence howe
|
ver that links vivaldi romantically to anyone vivaldi s life like those of many composers of the time ended in poverty his compositions no longer held the high esteem they once did in venice changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded and vivaldi in response chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance a migration to vienna reasons for vivaldi s departure from venice are unclear but it seems likely that he wished to meet charles vi who adored his compositions vivaldi dedicated la cetra to charles in one seven two seven and take up the position of royal composer in his imperial court but shortly after vivaldi s arrival at vienna charles died this tragic stroke of bad luck left the composer without royal protection and a source of income vivaldi had to sell off more manuscripts to make ends meet and eventually died not long after in one seven four one he was given an unmarked pauper s grave the assumption that the young joseph haydn sang in the choir at vivaldi s buri
|
al was based on the mistranscription of a primary source and has been proven wrong equally unfortunate his music was to fall into obscurity until the two zero th century his burial spot is next to the karlskirche in vienna at the site of the technical institute the house he lived in while in vienna was torn down in its place now stands the hotel sacher memorial plaques have been placed at both locations as well as a vivaldi star in the viennese musikmeile and a monument at the rooseveltsplatz posthumous reputation vivaldi remained known for his published concerti and largely ignored even after the resurgence of interest in bach pioneered by mendelssohn the resurrection of vivaldi s unpublished works in the two zero th century is mostly thanks to the efforts of alfredo casella who in one nine three nine organised the now historic vivaldi week in which the rediscovered gloria in excelsis rv five eight nine was first heard again discoveries continue to be made a setting of nisi dominus rv eight zero three was di
|
scovered as recently as two zero zero three in a german library among manuscripts of galuppi it was recorded in two zero zero five following world war ii vivaldi s compositions have enjoyed almost universal success and the advent of historically informed performances has all but catapulted him to stardom once again in one nine four seven the venetian businessman antonio fanna founded the istituto italiano antonio vivaldi with the composer gian francesco malipiero as its artistic director with the purpose of promoting vivaldi s music and putting out new editions of his works three films about antonio vivaldi are in production as of two zero zero five one of them with the working title vivaldi will be directed by catherine hardwicke for emagine entertainment while the second could have ashley macisaac in the title role a third made by french italian producers with stefano dionisi as vivaldi and michel serrault in the main roles is scheduled to be completed in two zero zero five vivaldi s music together with moz
|
art s tchaikovsky s and corelli s has been included in the theories of alfred tomatis on the effects of music on human behaviour and used in music therapy the one one movement dixit dominus for choir and soloists uncovered in the german city of dresden in early two zero zero five will be played there in full in two zero zero six he was a prolific composer and is most well known for composing over five zero zero concertos two one zero of which were for violin or violoncello solo four six operas sinfonias seven three sonatas chamber music even if some sonatas for flute as il pastor fido have been erroneously attributed to him but were composed by ch deville and sacred music oratorio juditha triumphans written for piet two glorias the stabat mater the nisi dominus the beatus vir the magnificat the dixit dominus and others his most famous work is perhaps one seven two three s le quattro stagioni the four seasons in essence it resembled an early example of a tone poem where he attempted to capture all the moods of
|
the four seasons without the use of percussion to dramatize the effects he sought to portray major works published works in his lifetime opus one one two sonatas for two violins and basso continuo one seven zero five opus two one two sonatas for violin and basso continuo one seven zero nine opus three l estro armonico harmonic inspiration one two concertos for various combinations best known concerti are no six in a minor for violin no eight in a minor for two violins and no one zero in b minor for four violins one seven one one opus four la stravaganza the extraordinary one two violin concertos c one seven one four opus five two nd part of opus two four sonatas for violin and two sonatas for two violins and basso continuo one seven one six opus six six violin concertos one seven one six two one opus seven two oboe concertos and one zero violin concertos one seven one six two one opus eight il cimento dell armonia e dell inventione the contest between harmony and invention one two violin concertos the first
|
four in e g minor f and f minor being known as the four seasons le quattro stagioni one seven two five opus nine la cetra the lyre one two violin concertos and one for two violins one seven two seven opus one zero six flute concertos c one seven two eight opus one one five violin concertos one oboe concerto the second in e minor rv two seven seven being known as il favorito one seven two nine opus one two five violin concertos and one without solo one seven two nine opus one three il pastor fido the faithful sheperd six sonatas for musette viela recorder flute oboe or violin and basso continuo one seven three seven spurious works by nicolas ch deville operas ottone in villa one seven one three orlando finto pazzo one seven one four l incoronazione di dario one seven one six il teuzzone one seven one nine tito manlio one seven one nine la verit in cimento one seven two zero ercole sul termodonte one seven two three il giustino one seven two four dorilla in tempe one seven two six farnace one seven two seven or
|
lando furioso one seven two seven rosilena ed oronta one seven two eight la fida ninfa one seven three two l olimpiade one seven three four bajazet tamerlano one seven three five griselda one seven three five catone in utica one seven three seven rosmira one seven three eight concertos vivaldi wrote hundreds of concerti for various instruments concertos not published in his lifetime include mandolin concerto in d major rv nine three concerto for mandoline in c major rv four two five concerto for two mandolins in g major rv five three two recorder concerto in d major rv nine five la pastorella concerto in c minor for treble recorder rv four four one concerto in f major for treble recorder rv four four two concerto in c major for sopranino recorder rv four four three concerto in c major for sopranino recorder rv four four four concerto in a minor for sopranino recorder rv four four five trumpet concerto for two trumpets in c major sacred works kyrie a eight rv five eight seven gloria rv five eight eight gloria
|
rv five eight eight rv five eight nine credo rv five nine one credo rv five nine two domine ad adiuvandum me rv five nine three beatus vir rv five nine seven credidi propter quod rv six zero five laetatus sum rv six zero seven magnificat rv six one zero stabat mater rv six two one introduzione al gloria rv six three nine oratorio juditha triumphans rv six four four nisi dominus rv eight zero three media selected historically informed performance ensembles specialising in vivaldi europa galante concerto italiano il giardino armonico references and further reading eleanor selfridge field one nine nine four venetian instrumental music from gabrieli to vivaldi new york dover publications isbn zero four eight six two eight one five one five manfred bukofzer one nine four seven music in the baroque era new york w w norton co isbn zero three nine three zero nine seven four five five external links two vivaldi biopics may duel at the box office new vivaldi work heard for first time in two five zero years vivaldi biog
|
raphy and sheet music gloria free sheet music magnificat free sheet music one six seven eight births one seven four one deaths baroque composers classical violinists italian composers natives of venice opera composers roman catholic priests adrian can refer to adrian ontario canada hurricane adrian a two zero zero five tropical cyclone adrian helmet french army steel helmet popes adrian i pope from seven seven two to seven nine five adrian ii pope from eight six seven to eight seven two adrian iii pope from eight eight four to eight eight five adrian iv pope from one one five four to one one five nine adrian v pope in one two seven six adrian vi pope from one five two two to one five two three other notable people adrian of nicomedia a saint martyred in the early three zero zero s adrian dantley born one nine five six retired basketball player adrian greenburg one nine zero three one nine five nine costume designer best known for the wizard of oz adrian griffin born one nine seven four professional basketball
|
player adrian lamo born one nine eight one journalist and convicted computer hacker places in the united states adrian georgia adrian illinois adrian michigan adrian minnesota adrian missouri adrian north dakota adrian new york adrian ohio adrian oregon adrian pennsylvania adrian south carolina adrian texas adrian virgin islands adrian washington adrian west virginia adrian wisconsin adrian township kansas adrian township michigan adrian township minnesota adrian township north dakota adrian township south dakota the aar german aare is the longest river that both rises and ends entirely within switzerland its total length from its source to its junction with the rhine comprises about two nine one km one eight one miles during which distance it descends one five six five m five one three five feet draining an area of one seven six two zero km six eight zero four square miles the aar rises in the great aar glaciers in the canton of bern and west of the grimsel pass it runs east to the grimsel hospice and then
|
northwestery through the hasli valley forming on the way the magnificent handegg waterfall four six m one five one feet past guttannen and piercing the limestone barrier of the kirchet by a major canyon before reaching meiringen situated in a plain a little past mieringen near brienz the river expands into lake brienz where it becomes navigable near the west end of the lake it receives its first important affluent the l tschine it then runs across the swampy plain of the b deli between interlaken and unterseen before expanding once again into lake thun aare in bern near the west end of lake thun the river receives the waters of the kander which has just been joined by the simme on flowing out of the lake it passes thun and then circles a lofty bluff on which stands the town of bern the river soon changes its northwesterly flow for a due westerly direction but after receiving the saane or sarine it turns north until it nears aarberg there in one of the major swiss engineering feats of the one nine th century t
|
he river which had previously rendered the countryside north of bern a swampland through frequent floodings was diverted by the hagneck canal into lake biel from the upper end of the lake the river issues through the nidau canal and then runs east to b ren the lake absorbs huge amounts of eroded gravels and snowmelt thet the river brings from the alps and the former swamps have become fruitful plains they are known as the vegetable garden of switzerland forest route near aare from here the aar flows northeast for a long distance past the ambassador town solothurn below which the grosse emme flows in on the right aarburg where it is joined by the wigger olten aarau near which is the junction with the suhr and wildegg where the hallwiler aa falls in on the right a short distance further below brugg it receives first the reuss and shortly afterwards the limmat it now turns due north and soon becomes itself an affluent of the rhine which it surpasses in volume when the two rivers unite at coblenz switzerland oppo
|
site waldshut germany list of tributaries limmat linth main tributary of lake z rich sihl reuss river kleine emme sarner aa engelberger aa sch chen furkareuss suhr wigger emme zihlkanal suze broye orbe saane sarine sense kander simme allenbach l tschine external links gorge of the aar rivers of switzerland canyons of switzerland abgar or agbar was the favored name among a dynasty of local rulers at edessa in northern mesopotamia the most famous of whom figured in the forged correspondence with jesus accepted as genuine in eusebius of caesarea s ecclesiastical history and extensively quoted the story of the conversion of abgar to christianity is traditionally linked to abgar v but walter bauer made a case for the abgarus who converted being abgar ix references walter bauer orthodoxy and heresy in earliest christianity one nine three four in english one nine seven one on line text robert eisenman james the brother of jesus the key to unlocking the secrets of early christianity and the dead sea scrolls one nine
|
nine seven viking penguin especially thje section thaddeus judas thomas and the conversion of the osrhoeans pp one eight nine ff christian legend and folklore abbotsford in one eight eight zero abbotsford is a historic house in the region of scottish borders in the south of scotland near melrose on south bank of the river tweed it was formerly the residence of novelist walter scott the nucleus of the estate was a small farm of one zero zero acres zero four km called cartleyhole nicknamed clarty i e muddy hole and bought by scott on the lapse of his lease one eight one one of the neighbouring house of ashestiel he at first built a small villa now the western end of the house and named it abbotsford creating the name from a ford near by where previously abbots of melrose abbey used to cross the river scott then built additions to the house and made it into a mansion building into the walls many sculptured stones from ruined castles and abbeys of scotland in it he gathered a large library and a collection of anc
|
ient furniture arms and armour and other relics and curiosities especially connected with scottish history the last and principal acquisition being that of toftfield afterwards named huntlyburn purchased in one eight one seven the new house was then begun and completed in one eight two four the general ground plan is a parallelogram with irregular outlines one side overlooking the tweed and the style is mainly the scottish baronial into various parts of the fabric were built relics and curiosities from historical structures such as the doorway of the old tolbooth in edinburgh scott had only enjoyed his residence one year when one eight two five he met with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in debt in one eight three zero the library and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors the property was wholly disencumbered in one eight four seven by robert cadell the publisher who cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family s share in the copyright of sir walter s works ab
|
botsford house north elevation scott s only son walter did not live to enjoy the property having died on his way from india in one eight four seven among subsequent possessors were scott s son in law j g lockhart j r hope scott q c and his daughter scott s great granddaughter the hon mrs maxwell scott abbotsford gave its name to the abbotsford club a successor of the bannatyne and maitland clubs founded by w b d d turnbull in one eight three four in scott s honour for printing and publishing historical works connected with his writings its publications extended from one eight three five to one eight six four the house continued to be occupied by scott s descendents for several generations and was opened to the public in recent times however in two zero zero five it was announced that following the death of dame jean maxwell scott the great great great grand daughter of the writer the previous year it was not possible for any family member to live at abbotsford historic scotland and the national trust for scot
|
land are attempting to secure the house s future however scottish borders council are considering an application by a property developer to build a housing estate on the opposite bank of the river tweed from abbotsford if the council give this development the go ahead it will forever ruin the views sir walter enjoyed from his study buildings and structures in the scottish borders scottish borders history historic houses in scotland abraham father leader of many circa one nine zero zero bce standard hebrew avraham tiberian hebrew arabic geez is regarded as a patriarch of israelite religion recognized by judaism and later christianity and a very important prophet in islam as well as in the baha i faith traditions regarding his life are given in the book of genesis and also in the qur an judaism christianity and islam are sometimes referred to as the abrahamic religions because of the role abraham plays in their holy books and beliefs in the hebrew bible and the qur an abraham is described as a patriarch blessed
|
by god the jewish people called him father abraham and promised great things father of the people of israel through his son isaac the muslims regard ishmael as the father of the arabs in islam abraham is considered to be one of the most important of the many prophets sent by god in christian belief abraham is a model of faith and his intention to obey god by offering up isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of god s offering of his son jesus in islamic belief abraham obeyed god by offering up ishmael his original name was abram high exalted father leader standard hebrew avram tiberian hebrew a r m he was the foremost of the biblical patriarchs later in life he went by the name abraham there is no contemporary mention of his life and no source earlier than genesis mentions him according to calculations derived from the masoretic hebrew torah abraham was born one nine four eight years after creation and lived for one seven five years which would correspond to a life spanning from one eight one two bce to one six th
|
ree seven bce by jewish dating or from two one six six bce to one nine nine one bce by other calculations the figures in the book of jubilees have abraham born one eight seven six years after creation and five three four years before the exodus the ages provided in the samaritan version of genesis agree closely with those of jubilees before the deluge but after the deluge they add roughly one zero zero years to each of the ages of the patriarchs in the masoretic text resulting in the figure of two two four seven years after creation for abraham s birth the greek septuagint version adds around one zero zero years to nearly all of the patriarchs births producing the even higher figure of three three one two years after creation for abraham s birth abraham sacrificing isaac by laurent de lahire one six five zero abraham in judaism the account of his life is found in the book of genesis beginning in chapter one one at the close of a genealogy of the sons of shem which includes among its members eber the eponym of
|
the hebrews his father terah came from ur of the chaldees popularly identified only since one nine two seven thanks to sir charles woolley with the ancient city in southern mesopotamia which was under the rule of the chaldeans although josephus islamic tradition and jewish authorities like maimonides all concur that ur of the khaldis was in northern mesopotamia where is now kurdistan identified with urartu urfa and kutha respectively this is in keeping with the local tradition that abraham was born in urfa or with the nearby urkesh which others identify with ur of the chaldees they also say chaldees refers to a group of gods called khaldis abram migrated to harran apparently the classical carrhae on a branch of the habor thence after a short stay he his wife sarai lot the son of abram s brother haran and all their followers departed for canaan there are two cities possibly identifiable with the biblical ur neither far from haran ura and urfa a northern ur also being mentioned in tablets at ugarit nuzi and eb
|
la these possibly refer to ur ura and urau see bar january two zero zero zero page one six moreover the names of abram s forefathers peleg serug nahor and terah all appear as names of cities in the region of haran harper s bible dictionary page three seven three yahweh called abram to go to the land i will show you and promised to bless him and make him though hitherto childless a great nation trusting this promise abram journeyed down to shechem and at the sacred tree compare gen two five four joshua two four two six judges nine six received a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed descendant or descendants having built an altar to commemorate the theophany he removed to a spot between bethel and ai where he built another altar and called upon i e invoked the name of yahweh gen one two one nine here he dwelt for some time until strife arose between his herdsmen and those of lot abram thereupon proposed to lot that they should separate and allowed his nephew the first choice lot preferred the
|
fertile land lying east of the jordan river while abram after receiving another promise from yahweh moved down to the oaks of mamre in hebron and built an altar in the subsequent history of lot and the destruction of sodom and gomorrah abram appears prominently in a passage where he intercedes with yahweh on behalf of sodom and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein the city shall be preserved one eight one six three three driven by a famine to take refuge in egypt two six one one four one five seven four two one abram feared lest his wife s beauty should arouse the evil designs of the egyptians and thus endanger his own safety and alleged that sarai was his sister this did not save her from the pharaoh who took her into the royal harem and enriched abram with herds and servants but when yahweh plagued pharaoh and his house with great plagues abram and sarai left egypt there are two other parallel tales in genesis of a wife confused for a sister genesis two zero two one and two six describ
|
ing a similar event at gerar with the philistine king abimelech though the latter attributing it to isaac not abraham as sarai was infertile god s promise that abram s seed would inherit the land seemed incapable of fulfillment his sole heir was his servant who was over his household a certain eliezer of damascus one five two abraham is now promised as heir one of his own flesh the passage recording the ratification of the promise is remarkably solemn see genesis one five sarai in accordance with custom gave to abram her egyptian handmaid hagar who when she found she was with child presumed upon her position to the extent that sarai unable to endure the reproach of barrenness cf the story of hannah one samuel one six dealt harshly with her and forced her to flee one six one one four hagar is promised that her descendants will be too numerous to count and she returns her son ishmael thus was abram s firstborn and islamic doctrine holds that he was the rightful heir hagar and ishmael were eventually driven perm
|
anently away from abram by sarah chapter two one the name abraham was given to abram and the name sarah to sarai at the same time as the covenant of circumcision chapter one seven which is practiced in judaism and islam to this day at this time abraham was promised not only many descendants but descendants through sarah specifically as well as the land where he was living which was to belong to his descendants the covenant was to be fulfilled through isaac though god promised that ishmael would become a great nation as well the covenant of circumcision unlike the earlier promise was two sided and conditional if abraham and his descendants fulfilled their part of the covenant yahweh would be their god and give them the land the promise of a son to abraham made sarah laugh which became the name of the son of promise isaac sarah herself laughs at the idea when yahweh appears to abraham at mamre one eight one one five and when the child is born cries god hath made me laugh every one that heareth will laugh at me
|
two one six in genesis one eight abraham pleads with god not to destroy sodom and god agrees that he would not destroy the city if there were five zero righteous people in it or four five or three zero two zero even one zero righteous people abraham s nephew lot had been living in sodom some time after the birth of isaac abraham was commanded by god to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of moriah proceeding to obey he was prevented by an angel as he was about to sacrifice his son and slew a ram which he found on the spot as a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity two two then he returned to beersheba the near sacrifice of isaac is one of the most challenging and perhaps ethically troublesome parts of the bible according to josephus isaac is two five years old at the time of the sacrifice or akedah while the talmudic sages teach that isaac is three seven in either case isaac is a fully grown man old enough to prevent the elderly abraham who is
|
one two five or one three seven years old from tying him up had he wanted to resist the primary interest of the narrative now turns to isaac to his only son two two two one two abraham gave all he had and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands outside canaan they were thus regarded as less intimately related to isaac and his descendants two five one six see also midianites sheba sarah died at an old age and was buried in the cave of machpelah near hebron which abraham had purchased along with the adjoining field from ephron the hittite genesis two three here abraham himself was buried centuries later the tomb became a place of pilgrimage and muslims later built an islamic mosque inside the site abraham is considered the father of the jewish nation as their first patriarch and having a son isaac who in turn begat jacob and from there the twelve tribes to father the nation god tested abraham with ten tests the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice his son isaac god promised the land of israel t
|
o his children and that is the first claim of the jews to israel judaism ascribes a special trait to each patriarch abraham s had kindness because of this judaism considers kindness to be an inherent jewish trait jewish tradition teaches the origins of abraham s monotheism his father terah owned a store that sold idols abraham at the age of three started to question their authenticity this culminated in abraham destroying some idols abraham was then brought to the king and sentenced to death along with his brother haran unless they recanted their position abraham did not and was thrown into a fire when abraham exited unscathed haran also would not recant and was thrown into the fire haran who did not truly believe died in the fire this is hinted at in genesis one one two eight abraham then went to the city of haran with his father and brother his father died there god spoke to abraham for the first time and told him of great things he would give him if he would leave haran abraham did he was seventy five duri
|
ng this time abraham started a school for teaching his beliefs in god and some say he wrote the sefer yetzirah abraham in christianity abraham stands out prominently as the recipient of the promises gen one two two seven one three one four one seven one five one seven one eight one seven one nine two two one seven one eight two four seven in the new testament abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of faith see e g hebrews one one and the apostle paul uses him as an example of salvation by faith in e g galatians three abraham also plays significantly in the theology of paul as the progenator of the christ or messiah see galatians three one six authors of the new testament report that jesus cited abraham to support belief in the resurrection of the dead but concerning the dead that they rise have you not read in the book of moses in the burning bush passage how god spoke to him saying i am the god of abraham the god of isaac and the god of jacob he is not the god of the dead but the god of the living you are
|
therefore greatly mistaken mark one two two six two seven by faith abraham when he was tested offered up isaac and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son of whom it was said in isaac your seed shall be called concluding that god was able to raise him up even from the dead from which he also received him in a figurative sense hebrews one one one seven one nine the orthodox baptist and traditional protestant view in christianity is that the chief promise made to abraham in genesis one two is that through abraham s seed all the people of earth would be blessed this promise was fulfilled through abraham s seed jesus it is also a consequence of this promise that christianity is open to people of all races and not limited to the jews the roman catholic church calls abraham our father in faith in the eucharistic prayer called the roman canon recited during the mass see abraham in liturgy christian tradition sees abraham as a figure of god and abraham s attempt to offer up isaac is a fores
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.